List of mathematical jargon

en.wikipedia.org
Chapter 1

Abstract nonsense

In mathematics, abstract nonsense, general abstract nonsense, and general nonsense are terms used by mathematicians
to describe abstract methods related to category theory and homological algebra. More generally, abstract nonsense
may refer to a proof that relies on category-theoretic methods, or even to the study of category theory itself.

1.1 Background
Roughly speaking, category theory is the study of the general form, that is, categories of mathematical theories,
without regard to their content. As a result, mathematical proofs that rely on category-theoretic ideas often seem out
of context, somewhat akin to a non sequitur. Authors sometimes dub these proofs abstract nonsense as a light-
hearted way of alerting readers to their abstract nature. Labeling an argument abstract nonsense is usually not
intended to be derogatory,[1][2] and is instead used jokingly,[3] in a self-deprecating way,[4] aectionately,[5] or even
as a compliment to the generality of the argument.
Certain ideas and constructions in mathematics share a uniformity throughout many domains, unied by category
theory. Typical methods include the use of classifying spaces and universal properties, use of the Yoneda lemma,
natural transformations between functors, and diagram chasing.
When an audience can be assumed to be familiar with the general form of such arguments, mathematicians will use
the expression Such and such is true by abstract nonsense rather than provide an elaborate explanation of particulars.[2]
For example, one might say By abstract nonsense, products are unique up to isomorphism when they exist, instead of
arguing about how these isomorphisms can be derived from the universal property that denes the product. This
allows to skip proof details that can be considered trivial or not providing much insight, focusing instead on genuinely
innovative parts of a larger proof.

1.2 History
The term predates the foundation of category theory as a subject itself. Referring to a joint paper with Samuel
Eilenberg that introduced the notion of a "category" in 1942, Saunders Mac Lane wrote the subject was 'then called
general abstract nonsense"'.[3] The term is often used to describe the application of category theory and its techniques
to less abstract domains.[6][7]
The term is believed to have been coined by the mathematician Norman Steenrod,[8][4][5] himself one of the developers
of the categorical point of view.

1.3 Examples
Consider the example of showing that a 3-manifold M admits a map to the 2-sphere that is non-trivial (i.e. non-
homotopic to a constant map), when the 2nd Betti number of M is positive. This means the 2nd cohomology group
has positive rank (by the universal coecient theorem for cohomology), so it has a non-zero element. The properties of

2
1.4. NOTES AND REFERENCES 3

EilenbergMacLane spaces then give a corresponding non-trivial map f from M to the innite-dimensional complex
projective space CP , since it is a K(Z,2) EilenbergMacLane space. The space CP can be realized as a CW
complex with exactly one cell in each even dimension and no cells in odd dimension, while M can be realized with
no cells in dimensions above 3, so by the cellular approximation theorem there is a map homotopic to f that maps M
into the 3-skeleton of CP , which is the 2-sphere.
Though this proof establishes the truth of the statement in question, the proof technique has little to do with the
topology or geometry of the 2-sphere, let alone 3-manifolds, as it relies on more general categorical principles. Be-
cause of the reliance on these abstract principles, the result is independent of subtler geometric details, so oers little
geometric insight into the nature of such a map. On the other hand, the proof is surprisingly short and clean, and a
hands-on approach involving the physical construction of such a map would be potentially laborious.

1.4 Notes and references

[1] Michael Monastyrsky, Some Trends in Modern Mathematics and the Fields Medal. Can. Math. Soc. Notes, March and
April 2001, Volume 33, nos. 2 and 3. Online version available at http://www.fields.utoronto.ca/aboutus/FieldsMedal_
Monastyrsky.pdf.

"In algebra, the term abstract nonsense has a denite meaning without any pejorative connotation."

[2] Macura, Wiktor K. Abstract Nonsense. MathWorld.

[3] Saunders Mac Lane. "The PNAS way back then". Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA Vol. 94, pp. 59835985, June 1997.

"The rst of these papers is a more striking case; it introduced the very abstract idea of a categorya subject
then called general abstract nonsense"!"

[4] Joseph Rotman, "An Introduction to Homological Algebra, by Charles A. Weibel (book review), Bull. Amer. Math. Soc.,
33:4 (Oct. 1996) 473476.

"The self-deprecating phrase general abstract nonsense (due to Steenrod) was promulgated by Eilenberg and
Mac Lane, two of the major innovators of homological algebra, to highlight this aspect of the subject."

[5] Serge Lang, Algebra Second Edition, Addison Wesley, 1984, p 175

[6] An Application of Abstract Nonsense to Surface Area, Harriet Lord

[7] Abstract Nonsense for Functional Programmers, Edsko de Vries

[8] Colin McLarty, The Uses and Abuses of the History of Topos Theory, Brit. J. Phil. Sci, 41 (1990) p 355.

"Steenrod jokingly tagged category theory 'abstract nonsense' and made it central to his axiomatics for homology"

1.5 External links

Usage in mathematical exposition from Noam Elkies class notes
Chapter 2

Abstract structure

An abstract structure in mathematics is a formal object that is dened by a set of laws, properties, and relationships
in a way that is logically if not always historically independent of the structure of contingent experiences, for example,
those involving physical objects. Abstract structures are studied not only in logic and mathematics but in the elds
that apply them, as computer science, and in the studies that reect on them, such as philosophy and especially the
philosophy of mathematics. Indeed, modern mathematics has been dened in a very general sense as the study of
abstract structures (by the Bourbaki group: see discussion there, at algebraic structure and also structure).
An abstract structure may be represented (perhaps with some degree of approximation) by one or more physical
objects this is called an implementation or instantiation of the abstract structure. But the abstract structure itself
is dened in a way that is not dependent on the properties of any particular implementation.
An abstract structure has a richer structure than a concept or an idea. An abstract structure must include precise
rules of behaviour which can be used to determine whether a candidate implementation actually matches the abstract
structure in question. Thus we may debate how well a particular government ts the concept of democracy, but there
is no room for debate over whether a given sequence of moves is or is not a valid game of chess.

2.1 Examples
A sorting algorithm is an abstract structure, but a recipe is not, because it depends on the properties and quantities of
its ingredients.
A simple melody is an abstract structure, but an orchestration is not, because it depends on the properties of particular
instruments.
Euclidean geometry is an abstract structure, but the theory of continental drift is not, because it depends on the
geology of the Earth.
A formal language is an abstract structure, but a natural language is not, because its rules of grammar and syntax are
open to debate and interpretation.

2.2 See also

Abstraction in computer science
Abstraction in general
Abstraction in mathematics
Abstract object
Deductive apparatus
Formal sciences
Mathematical structure

4
Chapter 3

Abstraction (mathematics)

Abstraction in mathematics is the process of extracting the underlying essence of a mathematical concept, removing
any dependence on real world objects with which it might originally have been connected, and generalizing it so that
it has wider applications or matching among other abstract descriptions of equivalent phenomena.[1][2][3] Two of the
most highly abstract areas of modern mathematics are category theory and model theory.

3.1 Description

Many areas of mathematics began with the study of real world problems, before the underlying rules and concepts
were identied and dened as abstract structures. For example, geometry has its origins in the calculation of distances
and areas in the real world; algebra started with methods of solving problems in arithmetic.
Abstraction is an ongoing process in mathematics and the historical development of many mathematical topics exhibits
a progression from the concrete to the abstract. Take the historical development of geometry as an example; the rst
steps in the abstraction of geometry were made by the ancient Greeks, with Euclids Elements being the earliest extant
documentation of the axioms of plane geometrythough Proclus tells of an earlier axiomatisation by Hippocrates of
Chios.[4] In the 17th century Descartes introduced Cartesian co-ordinates which allowed the development of analytic
geometry. Further steps in abstraction were taken by Lobachevsky, Bolyai, Riemann, and Gauss who generalised the
concepts of geometry to develop non-Euclidean geometries. Later in the 19th century mathematicians generalised
geometry even further, developing such areas as geometry in n dimensions, projective geometry, ane geometry and
nite geometry. Finally Felix Klein's "Erlangen program" identied the underlying theme of all of these geometries,
dening each of them as the study of properties invariant under a given group of symmetries. This level of abstraction
revealed connections between geometry and abstract algebra.
The advantages of abstraction are :

It reveals deep connections between dierent areas of mathematics.

Known results in one area can suggest conjectures in a related area.

Techniques and methods from one area can be applied to prove results in a related area.

One disadvantage of abstraction is that highly abstract concepts can be dicult to learn.[5] A degree of mathematical
maturity and experience may be needed for conceptual assimilation of abstractions. One of the underlying principles
of the Montessori approach to mathematics education is encouraging children to move from concrete examples to
abstract thinking.[6]
Bertrand Russell, in The Scientic Outlook (1931), writes that Ordinary language is totally unsuited for expressing
what physics really asserts, since the words of everyday life are not suciently abstract. Only mathematics and
mathematical logic can say as little as the physicist means to say.

5
6 CHAPTER 3. ABSTRACTION (MATHEMATICS)

3.2 See also

Abstract detail

Generalization
Abstract thinking

Abstract logic

Abstract algebraic logic

Abstract model theory

Abstract nonsense

3.3 References
[1] Bertrand Russell, in The Principles of Mathematics Volume 1 (pg 219), refers to the principle of abstraction".

[2] Robert B. Ash. A Primer of Abstract Mathematics. Cambridge University Press, Jan 1, 1998

[3] The New American Encyclopedic Dictionary. Edited by Edward Thomas Roe, Le Roy Hooker, Thomas W. Handford. Pg
34

[4] Proclus Summary

[5] "... introducing pupils to abstract mathematics is not an easy task and requires a long-term eort that must take into account
the variety of the contexts in which mathematics is used, P.L. Ferrari, Abstraction in Mathematics, Phil. Trans. R. Soc.
Lond. B 29 July 2003 vol. 358 no. 1435 1225-1230

[6] Montessori Philosophy: Moving from Concrete to Abstract, North American Montessori Center

3.4 Further reading

Bajnok, Bla (2013). An Invitation to Abstract Mathematics. Springer. ISBN 978-1-4614-6635-2.
Chapter 4

Abuse of notation

In mathematics, abuse of notation occurs when an author uses a mathematical notation in a way that is not formally
correct but that seems likely to simplify the exposition or suggest the correct intuition (while being unlikely to intro-
duce errors or cause confusion). However, the concept of formal correctness depends on time and on the context.
Therefore, many notations in mathematics are qualied as abuse of notation in some context and are formally correct
in other contexts; as many notations were introduced a long time before any formalization of the theory in which they
are used, the qualication of abuse of notation is strongly time dependent. Moreover, many abuses of notation may
be made formally correct by improving the theory. Abuse of notation should be contrasted with misuse of notation,
which should be avoided.
A related concept is abuse of language or abuse of terminology, when not notation but a term is misused. Abuse of
language is an almost synonymous expression that is usually used for non-notational abuses. For example, while the
word representation properly designates a group homomorphism from a group G to GL(V), where V is a vector space,
it is common to call V a representation of G". A common abuse of language consists in identifying two mathematical
objects that are dierent but canonically isomorphic. Examples include identifying a constant function and its value
or identifying to R3 the Euclidean space of dimension three equipped with a Cartesian coordinate system.

4.1 Examples

4.1.1 Structured mathematical objects

Many mathematical objects consist of a set, often called the underlying set, equipped with some additional structure,
typically a mathematical operation or a topology. It is a common abuse of notation to use the same notation for the
underlying set and the structured object. For example, Z may denote the set of the integers, the group of integers
together with addition, or the ring of integers with addition and multiplication. In general, there is no problem with
this, and avoiding such an abuse of notation would make mathematical texts pedantic and dicult to read. When this
abuse of notation may be confusing, one may distinguish between these structures by denoting (Z, +) the group of
integers with addition, and (Z, +, ) the ring of integers.
Similarly, a topological space consists of a set X (the underlying set) and a topology T , which is characterized by a
set of subsets of X (the open sets). Most frequently, one considers only one topology on X, and there is no problem
to denote by X both the underlying set, and the pair consisting of X and its topology T , although they are dierent
mathematical objects. Nevertheless, it occurs sometimes that two dierent topologies are considered simultaneously
on the same set; for distinguishing the corresponding topological spaces, one must use notation such as (X, T ) and
(X, T ).

4.1.2 Functional notation

One encounters, in many textbooks, sentences such as Let f(x) be a function .... This is an abuse of notation, as the
name of the function is f, and f(x) denotes normally the value of the function f for the element x of its domain. The
correct phrase would be Let f be a function of the variable x ... or Let x f(x) be a function ... This abuse of
notation is widely used, as it simplies the formulation, and the systematic use of a correct notation becomes quickly

7
8 CHAPTER 4. ABUSE OF NOTATION

pedantic.
A similar abuse of notation occurs in sentences such as Let us consider the function x2 + x + 1... In fact x2 + x +
1 is not a function. The function is the operation that associates x2 + x + 1 to x, often denoted as x x2 + x + 1.
Nevertheless, this abuse of notation is widely used since it is generally not confusing.

4.1.3 Equality vs. isomorphism

Many mathematical structures are dened through a characterizing property (often a universal property). Once this
desired property is dened, there may be various ways to construct the structure, and the corresponding results are
formally dierent objects, but which have exactly the same properties they are isomorphic. As there is no way to
distinguish these isomorphic objects through their properties, it is standard to consider them as equal, even if this is
formally wrong.
One example of this the Cartesian product, which is often seen as associative:

(E F ) G = E (F G) = E F G

But this is not strictly true: if x E , y F and z G , the identity ((x, y), z) = (x, (y, z)) would imply that
(x, y) = x and z = (y, z) , and so ((x, y), z) = (x, y, z) would mean nothing.
This notion can be made rigorous in category theory, using the idea of a natural isomorphism.

4.1.4 Equivalence classes

Referring to an equivalence class of an equivalence relation by x instead of [x] is an abuse of notation. Formally,
if a set X is partitioned by an equivalence relation ~, then for each x X, the equivalence class {y X | y ~ x} is
denoted [x]. But in practice, if the remainder of the discussion is focused on equivalence classes rather than individual
elements of the underlying set, it is common to drop the square brackets in the discussion.
For example, in modular arithmetic, a nite group of order n can be formed by partitioning the integers via the
equivalence relation x ~ y if and only if x y (mod n). The elements of that group would then be [0], [1], , [n
1], but in practice they are usually just denoted 0, 1, , n 1.
Another example is the space of (classes of) measurable functions over a measure space, or classes of Lebesgue
integrable functions, where the equivalence relation is equality "almost everywhere".

4.2 Subjectivity
The terms abuse of language and abuse of notation depend on context. Writing "f: A B" for a partial function
from A to B is almost always an abuse of notation, but not in a category theoretic context, where f can be seen as a
morphism in the category of sets and partial functions.

4.3 See also

Mathematical notation

4.4 External links

Chapter 5

Active and passive transformation

For the concept of passive transformation in grammar, see active voice and passive voice.
In physics and engineering, an active transformation, or alibi transformation,[1] is a transformation which actually

In the active transformation (left), a point moves from position P to P' by rotating clockwise by an angle about the origin of the
coordinate system. In the passive transformation (right), point P does not move, while the coordinate system rotates counterclockwise
by an angle about its origin. The coordinates of P' in the active case (that is, relative to the original coordinate system) are the
same as the coordinates of P relative to the rotated coordinate system.

changes the physical position of a point, or rigid body, which can be dened even in the absence of a coordinate system;
whereas a passive transformation, or alias transformation,[2] is merely a change in the coordinate system in which
the object is described (change of coordinate map, or change of basis). By default, by transformation, mathematicians
usually refer to active transformations, while physicists and engineers could mean either.
Put dierently, a passive transformation refers to description of the same object in two dierent coordinate systems.[3]
On the other hand, an active transformation is a transformation of one or more objects with respect to the same
coordinate system. For instance, active transformations are useful to describe successive positions of a rigid body.
On the other hand, passive transformations may be useful in human motion analysis to observe the motion of the tibia
relative to the femur, that is, its motion relative to a (local) coordinate system which moves together with the femur,
rather than a (global) coordinate system which is xed to the oor.[3]

5.1 Example
As an example, in the vector space 2 , let {e1 ,e2 } be a basis, and consider the vector v = v1 e1 + v2 e2 . A rotation of
the vector through angle is given by the rotation matrix:

9
10 CHAPTER 5. ACTIVE AND PASSIVE TRANSFORMATION

Rotation considered as a passive (alias) or active (alibi) transformation

( )
cos sin
R= ,
sin cos
which can be viewed either as an active transformation or a passive transformation (where the above matrix will be
inverted), as described below.

5.1.1 Active transformation

As an active transformation, R rotates the initial vector v, and a new vector v' is obtained. For a counterclockwise
rotation of v with respect to the xed coordinate system:

( )( 1 )
cos sin v
v = Rv = .
sin cos v2
If one views {Re1 ,Re2 } as a new basis, then the coordinates of the new vector v in the new basis are the same as those
of v in the original basis. Note that active transformations make sense even as a linear transformation into a dierent
vector space. It makes sense to write the new vector in the unprimed basis (as above) only when the transformation
is from the space into itself.

5.1.2 Passive transformation

On the other hand, when one views R as a passive transformation, the initial vector v is left unchanged, while the
coordinate system and its basis vectors are rotated. In order for the vector to remain xed, the coordinates in terms
of the new basis must change. For a counterclockwise rotation of coordinate systems:

v = v a ea = v a Rea .
5.2. SEE ALSO 11

Translation and rotation as passive (alias) or active (alibi) transformations

From this equation one sees that the new coordinates (that is, coordinates with respect to the new basis) are given by

v a = (R1 )ab v b

so that

v = v a ea = v b (R1 )ab Rac ec = v b bc ec = v b eb .

Thus, in order for the vector to remain unchanged by the passive transformation, the coordinates of the vector must
transform according to the inverse of the active transformation operator.[4]

5.2 See also

Change of basis
Covariance and contravariance of vectors
12 CHAPTER 5. ACTIVE AND PASSIVE TRANSFORMATION

Rotation of axes

Translation of axes

5.3 References
[1] Weisstein, Eric W. Alibi Transformation. From MathWorld--A Wolfram Web Resource.

[2] Weisstein, Eric W. Alias Transformation. From MathWorld--A Wolfram Web Resource.

[3] Joseph K. Davidson, Kenneth Henderson Hunt (2004). "4.4.1 The active interpretation and the active transformation.
Robots and screw theory: applications of kinematics and statics to robotics. Oxford University Press. p. 74 . ISBN
0-19-856245-4.

[4] Amidror, Isaac (2007). Appendix D: Remark D.12. The theory of the Moir phenomenon: Aperiodic layers. Springer.
p. 346. ISBN 1-4020-5457-2.

Dirk Struik (1953) Lectures on Analytic and Projective Geometry, page 84, Addison-Wesley.

5.4 External links

UI ambiguity
Chapter 6

Adequality

Adequality is a technique developed by Pierre de Fermat in his treatise Methodus ad disquirendam maximam et
minimam[1] (a Latin treatise circulated in France c. 1636) to calculate maxima and minima of functions, tangents
to curves, area, center of mass, least action, and other problems in calculus. According to Andr Weil, Fermat
introduces the technical term adaequalitas, adaequare, etc., which he says he has borrowed from Diophantus. As
Diophantus V.11 shows, it means an approximate equality, and this is indeed how Fermat explains the word in one
of his later writings. (Weil 1973).[2] Diophantus coined the word (parisots) to refer to an approximate
equality.[3] Claude Gaspard Bachet de Mziriac translated Diophantuss Greek word into Latin as adaequalitas. Paul
Tannery's French translation of Fermats Latin treatises on maxima and minima used the words adquation and
adgaler.

6.1 Fermats method

Fermat used adequality rst to nd maxima of functions, and then adapted it to nd tangent lines to curves.
To nd the maximum of a term p(x) , Fermat equated (or more precisely adequated) p(x) and p(x + e) and after
doing algebra he could cancel out a factor of e, and then discard any remaining terms involving e. To illustrate the
method by Fermats own example, consider the problem of nding the maximum of p(x) = bx x2 (In Fermats
words, it is to divide a line AC at a point E , such that the product of the two parts AE EC be a maximum.[1] )
Fermat adequated bx x2 with b(x + e) (x + e)2 = bx x2 + be 2ex e2 . That is (using the notation to
denote adequality, introduced by Paul Tannery):

bx x2 bx x2 + be 2ex e2 .

Canceling terms and dividing by e Fermat arrived at

b 2x + e.

Removing the terms that contained e Fermat arrived at the desired result that the maximum occurred when x = b/2
.
Fermat also used his principle to give a mathematical derivation of Snells laws of refraction directly from the principle
that light takes the quickest path.[4]

6.2 Descartes criticism

Fermats method was highly criticized by his contemporaries, particularly Descartes. V. Katz suggests this is because
Descartes had independently discovered the same new mathematics, known as his method of normals, and Descartes
was quite proud of his discovery. Katz also notes that while Fermats methods were closer to the future developments
in calculus, Descartes methods had a more immediate impact on the development.[5]

13
14 CHAPTER 6. ADEQUALITY

6.3 Scholarly controversy

Both Newton and Leibniz referred to Fermats work as an antecedent of innitesimal calculus. Nevertheless, there
is disagreement amongst modern scholars about the exact meaning of Fermats adequality. Fermats adequality was
analyzed in a number of scholarly studies. In 1896, Paul Tannery published a French translation of Fermats Latin
treatises on maxima and minima (Fermat, uvres, Vol. III, pp. 121156). Tannery translated Fermats term as
adgaler and adopted Fermats adquation. Tannery also introduced the symbol for adequality in mathematical
formulas.
Heinrich Wieleitner (1929)[6] wrote:

Fermat replaces A with A+E. Then he sets the new expression roughly equal (angenhert gleich)
to the old one, cancels equal terms on both sides, and divides by the highest possible power of E. He
then cancels all terms which contain E and sets those that remain equal to each other. From that [the
required] A results. That E should be as small as possible is nowhere said and is at best expressed by the
word adaequalitas.

(Wieleitner uses the symbol .)

Max Miller (1934)[7] wrote:

Thereupon one should put the both terms, which express the maximum and the minimum, approx-
imately equal (nherungsweise gleich), as Diophantus says.

(Miller uses the symbol .)

Jean Itard (1948)[8] wrote:

One knows that the expression adgaler is adopted by Fermat from Diophantus, translated by
Xylander and by Bachet. It is about an approximate equality (galit approximative) ".

(Itard uses the symbol .)

Joseph Ehrenfried Hofmann (1963)[9] wrote:

Fermat chooses a quantity h, thought as suciently small, and puts f(x + h) roughly equal (ungefhr
gleich) to f(x). His technical term is adaequare.

(Hofmann uses the symbol .)

Peer Strmholm (1968)[10] wrote:

The basis of Fermats approach was the comparition of two expressions which, though they had the
same form, were not exactly equal. This part of the process he called "comparare par adaequalitatem"
or "comparer per adaequalitatem", and it implied that the otherwise strict identity between the two sides
of the equation was destroyed by the modication of the variable by a small amount:
f (A)f (A+E) .
This, I believe, was the real signicance of his use of Diophantos , stressing the smallness
of the variation. The ordinary translation of 'adaequalitas seems to be "approximate equality", but I
much prefer "pseudo-equality" to present Fermats thought at this point.

He further notes that there was never in M1 (Method 1) any question of the variation E being put equal to zero. The
words Fermat used to express the process of suppressing terms containing E was 'elido', 'deleo', and 'expungo', and
in French 'i'eace' and 'i'te'. We can hardly believe that a sane man wishing to express his meaning and searching
for words, would constantly hit upon such tortuous ways of imparting the simple fact that the terms vanished because
E was zero.
(p. 51)
Claus Jensen (1969)[11] wrote:
6.3. SCHOLARLY CONTROVERSY 15

Moreover, in applying the notion of adgalit which constitutes the basis of Fermats general
method of constructing tangents, and by which is meant a comparition of two magnitudes as if they
were equal, although they are in fact not (tamquam essent aequalia, licet revera aequalia non sint)
I will employ the nowadays more usual symbol .

The Latin quotation comes from Tannerys 1891 edition of Fermat, volume 1, page 140.
Michael Sean Mahoney (1971)[12] wrote:

Fermats Method of maxima and minima, which is clearly applicable to any polynomial 'P(x), origi-
nally rested on purely nitistic algebraic foundations. It assumed, counterfactually, the inequality of two
equal roots in order to determine, by Vietes theory of equations, a relation between those roots and one of
the coecients of the polynomial, a relation that was fully general. This relation then led to an extreme-
value solution when Fermat removed his counterfactual assumption and set the roots equal. Borrowing
a term from Diophantus, Fermat called this counterfactual equality 'adequality'.

(Mahoney uses the symbol .) On p. 164, end of footnote 46, Mahoney notes that one of the meanings of adequality
is approximate equality or equality in the limiting case.
Charles Henry Edwards, Jr. (1979)[13] wrote:

For example, in order to determine how to subdivide a segment of length b into two segments x and
bxwhose product x(bx)=bxx2 is maximal, that is to nd the rectangle with perimeter 2b that has the
maximal area, he [Fermat] proceeds as follows. First he substituted x+e

(he used A, E instead of x, e) for the unknown x, and then wrote down the following pseudo-equality to compare
the resulting expression with the original one:

b(x+e)(x+e)2 =bx+bex2 2xee2 bxx2 .

After canceling terms, he divided through by e to obtain b2 xe 0. Finally he discarded the remaining term con-
taining e, transforming the pseudo-equality into the true equality x= 2b that gives the value of x which makes bxx2
maximal. Unfortunately, Fermat never explained the logical basis for this method with sucient clarity or complete-
ness to prevent disagreements between historical scholars as to precisely what he meant or intended.
Kirsti Andersen (1980)[14] wrote:

The two expressions of the maximum or minimum are made adequal, which means something like
as nearly equal as possible.

(Andersen uses the symbol .)

Herbert Breger (1994)[15] wrote:

I want to put forward my hypothesis: Fermat used the word adaequare in the sense of to put
equal ... In a mathematical context, the only dierence between aequare and adaequare seems to
be that the latter gives more stress on the fact that the equality is achieved.

(Page 197f.)
John Stillwell (Stillwell 2006 p. 91) wrote:

Fermat introduced the idea of adequality in 1630s but he was ahead of his time. His successors were
unwilling to give up the convenience of ordinary equations, preferring to use equality loosely rather than
to use adequality accurately. The idea of adequality was revived only in the twentieth century, in the
so-called non-standard analysis.

Enrico Giusti (2009)[16] cites Fermats letter to Marin Mersenne where Fermat wrote:
16 CHAPTER 6. ADEQUALITY

Cette comparaison par adgalit produit deux termes ingaux qui enn produisent l'galit (selon
ma mthode) qui nous donne la solution de la question (This comparison by adequality produces two
unequal terms which nally produce the equality (following my method) which gives us the solution of
the problem)..

Giusti notes in a footnote that this letter seems to have escaped Bregers notice.
Klaus Barner (2011)[17] asserts that Fermat uses two dierent Latin words (aequabitur and adaequabitur) to replace
the nowadays usual equals sign, aequabitur when the equation concerns a valid identity between two constants, a
universally valid (proved) formula, or a conditional equation, adaequabitur, however, when the equation describes
a relation between two variables, which are not independent (and the equation is no valid formula). On page 36,
Barner writes: Why did Fermat continually repeat his inconsistent procedure for all his examples for the method of
tangents? Why did he never mention the secant, with which he in fact operated? I do not know.
Katz, Schaps, Shnider (2013)[18] argue that Fermats application of the technique to transcendental curves such as
the cycloid shows that Fermats technique of adequality goes beyond a purely algebraic algorithm, and that, contrary
to Bregers interpretation, the technical terms parisotes as used by Diophantus and adaequalitas as used by Fermat
both mean approximate equality. They develop a formalisation of Fermats technique of adequality in modern
mathematics as the standard part function which rounds o a nite hyperreal number to its nearest real number.

6.4 See also

Fermats principle

Transcendental law of homogeneity

6.5 References
[1] METHOD FOR THE STUDY OF MAXIMA AND MINIMA, English translation of Fermats treatise Methodus ad disquiren-
dam maximam et minimam.

[2] See also Weil, A. (1984), Number Theory: An Approach through History from Hammurapi to Legendre, Boston: Birkhuser,
p. 28, ISBN 0-8176-4565-9

[3] Katz, Mikhail G.; Schaps, D.; Shnider, S. (2013), Almost Equal: The Method of Adequality from Diophantus to Fermat
and Beyond, Perspectives on Science, 21 (3), arXiv:1210.7750

[4] Grabiner 1983.

[5] Katz 2008.

[6] Wieleitner, H.:Bemerkungen zu Fermats Methode der Aufsuchung von Extremwerten und der Berechnung von Kurven-
tangenten. Jahresbericht der Deutschen Mathematiker-Vereinigung 38 (1929)2435, p. 25

[7] Miller, M.: Pierre de Fermats Abhandlungen ber Maxima und Minima. Akademische Verlagsgesellschaft, Leipzig (1934),
p.1

[8] Itard, I: Fermat prcurseur du calcul direntiel. Arch Int. Hist. Sci. 27 (1948), 589610, p.597

[9] Hofmann, J.E.: ber ein Extremwertproblem des Apollonius und seine Behandlung bei Fermat. Nova Acta Leopoldina
(2) 27 (167) (1963), 105113, p.107

[10] Strmholm, P.: Fermats method of maxima and minima and of tangents. A reconstruction. Arch. Hist Exact Sci. 5
(1968), 4769, p.51

[11] Jensen, C.: Pierre Fermats method of determining tangents and its application to the conchoid and the quadratrix. Centaurus
14 (1969), 7285, p.73

[12] Mahoney, M.S.: Fermat, Pierre de. Dictionary of Scientic Biography, vol. IV, Charles Scribners Sons, New York (1971),
p.569.

[13] Edwards, C.H., Jr.:The historical Development of the Calculus. Springer, New York 1979, p.122f
6.6. BIBLIOGRAPHY 17

[14] Andersen, K.: Techniques of the calculus 16301660. In: Grattan-Guinness, I. (ed): From the Calculus to Set Theory. An
Introductory History. Duckworth, London 1980, 1048, p.23

[15] Breger, H.: The mysteries of adaequare: A vindication of Fermat. Arch. Hist. Exact Sci. 46 (1994), 193219

[16] Giusti, Enrico, Les mthodes des maxima et minima de Fermat. Ann. Fac. Sci. Toulouse Math. (6) 18 (2009), Fascicule
Spcial, 5985.

[17] Barner, K.: Fermats <<adaequare>> and no end in sight? (Fermats <<adaequare>> und kein Ende? ) Math. Semester-
ber. (2011) 58, pp. 1345

[18] Katz, Mikhail G.; Schaps, David; Shnider, Steve (2013), Almost Equal: The Method of Adequality from Diophantus to
Fermat and Beyond, Perspectives on Science, 21 (3), arXiv:1210.7750

6.6 Bibliography
Breger, H. (1994) The mysteries of adaequare: a vindication of Fermat, Archive for History of Exact Sciences
46(3):193219.
Edwards, C. H. Jr. (1994), The Historical Development of the Calculus, Springer

Giusti, E. (2009) Les mthodes des maxima et minima de Fermat, Ann. Fac. Sci. Toulouse Math. (6) 18,
Fascicule Special, 5985.

Grabiner, Judith V. (Sep 1983), The Changing Concept of Change: The Derivative from Fermat to Weier-
strass, Mathematics Magazine, 56 (4): 195206, doi:10.2307/2689807

Katz, V. (2008), A History of Mathematics: An Introduction, Addison Wesley

Stillwell, J.(2006) Yearning for the impossible. The surprising truths of mathematics, page 91, A K Peters, Ltd.,
Wellesley, MA.

Weil, A., Book Review: The mathematical career of Pierre de Fermat. Bull. Amer. Math. Soc. 79 (1973),
no. 6, 11381149.
Chapter 7

Adjoint

In mathematics, the term adjoint applies in several situations. Several of these share a similar formalism: if A is
adjoint to B, then there is typically some formula of the type

(Ax, y) = (x, By).

Specically, adjoint or adjunction may mean:

Adjoint endomorphism of a Lie algebra

Adjoint functors in category theory

Hermitian adjoint (adjoint of a linear operator) in functional analysis

For adjoint of a linear map, see transpose

Adjoint representation of a Lie group

Adjunction (category theory)

Adjunction (eld theory)

Adjunction formula (algebraic geometry)

Adjunction space in topology

Conjugate transpose of a matrix in linear algebra

Adjugate matrix, related to its inverse

Adjoint equation

The upper and lower adjoints of a Galois connection in order theory

For the adjoint of a dierential operator with general polynomial coecients see dierential operator

Kleisli adjunction
Monoidal adjunction

Quillen adjunction
Axiom of adjunction in set theory

18
Chapter 8

Almost

For other uses, see Almost (disambiguation).

In set theory, when dealing with sets of innite size, the term almost or nearly is used to mean all the elements except
for nitely many.
In other words, an innite set S that is a subset of another innite set L, is almost L if the subtracted set L\S is of
nite size.
Examples:

The set S = {n N|n k} is almost N for any k in N, because only nitely many natural numbers are less
than k.

The set of prime numbers is not almost N because there are innitely many natural numbers that are not prime
numbers.

This is conceptually similar to the almost everywhere concept of measure theory, but is not the same. For example,
the Cantor set is uncountably innite, but has Lebesgue measure zero. So a real number in (0, 1) is a member of the
complement of the Cantor set almost everywhere, but it is not true that the complement of the Cantor set is almost
the real numbers in (0, 1).

8.1 See also

Almost all
Almost surely

19
Chapter 9

Almost all

The derivative of the Cantor function on the unit interval is 0 for almost all numbers in the unit interval.

In mathematics, the phrase "almost all" has a number of specialised uses which extend its intuitive meaning.

20
9.1. CARDINALITY 21

9.1 Cardinality
Referring to a subset of an innite set, almost all is sometimes used synonymously with all but [except] nitely
many (that is, it is a conite subset). A simple example is that almost all prime numbers are odd, which is based on
the fact that all but one prime number are odd. (The exception is the number 2, which is prime but not odd.)
Referring to a subset of an uncountable set, almost all is sometimes used to mean all the elements except for a
countable set" (that is, it is a cocountable subset).

9.2 Measure theory

When speaking about the reals, sometimes it means all reals but a set of Lebesgue measure zero (formally, almost ev-
erywhere). In this sense almost all reals are not a member of the Cantor set even though the Cantor set is uncountable.
More generally, almost all is sometimes used in the sense of "almost everywhere" in measure theory, or in the
closely related sense of "almost surely" in probability theory.

9.3 Number theory

In number theory, if P(n) is a property of positive integers, and if p(N) denotes the number of positive integers n less
than N for which P(n) holds, and if

p(N)/N 1 as N

(see limit), then we say that "P(n) holds for almost all positive integers n" (formally, asymptotically almost surely).
For example, the prime number theorem states that the number of prime numbers less than or equal to N is asymptot-
ically equal to N/ln N. Therefore, the proportion of prime integers is roughly 1/ln N, which tends to 0. Thus, almost
all positive integers are composite (not prime), however there are still an innite number of primes.

9.4 See also

Generic property

Suciently large

9.5 References
Weisstein, Eric W. Almost All. MathWorld.
Chapter 10

Almost everywhere

A simple example measure assigns to a subregion of the rectangle the fraction of the geometrical area it occupies. Then, the rectangles
boundary has measure 0, while its interior has measure 1. Almost every point of the rectangle is an interior point, yet the interior
has a nonempty complement.

In measure theory (a branch of mathematical analysis), a property holds almost everywhere if, in a technical sense,
the set for which the property holds takes up nearly all possibilities. The notion of almost everywhere is a companion
notion to the concept of measure zero. In the subject of probability, which is largely based in measure theory, the
notion is referred to as almost surely.
More specically, a property holds almost everywhere if the set of elements for which the property does not hold is
a set of measure zero (Halmos 1974), or equivalently if the set of elements for which the property holds is conull. In
cases where the measure is not complete, it is sucient that the set is contained within a set of measure zero. When
discussing sets of real numbers, the Lebesgue measure is assumed unless otherwise stated.
The term almost everywhere is abbreviated a.e.; in older literature p.p. is used, to stand for the equivalent French
language phrase presque partout.
A set with full measure is one whose complement is of measure zero. In probability theory, the terms almost surely,
almost certain and almost always refer to events with probability 1, which are exactly the sets of full measure in a
probability space.
Occasionally, instead of saying that a property holds almost everywhere, it is said that the property holds for almost

22
10.1. DEFINITION 23

all elements (though the term almost all also has other meanings).

10.1 Denition
If (X, , ) is a measure space, a quality P is said to hold almost everywhere in X if ({xX: P(x)}) = 0. Another
common way of expressing the same thing is to say that almost every point satises P" or for almost every x, P(x)
holds.

10.2 Properties
If property P holds almost everywhere and implies property Q, then property Q holds almost everywhere. This
follows from the monotonicity of measures.

If (Pn ) is a nite or countable sequence of properties, each of which holds almost everywhere, then their
conjunction nPn holds almost everywhere. This follows from the countable subadditivity of measures.

By contrast, if (Px )xR is an uncountable family of properties, each of which holds almost everywhere, then
their conjunction xPx does not necessarily hold almost everywhere. For example, if is Lebesgue measure
on X = R and Px is the property of not being equal to x (i.e. Px (y) is true if and only if y = x ), then each
Px holds almost everywhere, but the conjunction xPx does not hold anywhere.

As a consequence of the rst two properties, it is often possible to reason about almost every point of a measure space
as though it were an ordinary point rather than an abstraction. This is often done implicitly in informal mathematical
arguments. However, one must be careful with this mode of reasoning because of the third bullet above: universal
quantication over uncountable families of statements is valid for ordinary points but not for almost every point.

10.3 Examples
If f : R R is a Lebesgue integrable function and f(x) 0 almost everywhere, then
b
a
f (x) dx 0 for all real numbers a < b with equality i f (x) = 0 almost everywhere.

If f : [a, b] R is a monotonic function, then f is dierentiable almost everywhere.

If f : R R is Lebesgue measurable and

b
a
|f (x)| dx < for all real numbers a < b, then there exists a set E (depending on f) such that, if x is in E,
the Lebesgue mean
1
x+
2 x f (t) dt converges to f(x) as decreases to zero. The set E is called the Lebesgue set of f. Its com-
plement can be proved to have measure zero. In other words, the Lebesgue mean of f converges to f almost
everywhere.

A bounded function f : [a, b] R is Riemann integrable if and only if it is continuous almost everywhere.

As a curiosity, the decimal expansion of almost every real number in the interval [0, 1] contains the complete
text of Shakespeares plays, encoded in ASCII; similarly for every other nite digit sequence, see Normal
number.

10.4 Denition using ultralters

Outside of the context of real analysis, the notion of a property true almost everywhere is sometimes dened in terms
of an ultralter. An ultralter on a set X is a maximal collection F of subsets of X such that:

1. If U F and U V then V F

2. The intersection of any two sets in F is in F

24 CHAPTER 10. ALMOST EVERYWHERE

3. The empty set is not in F

A property P of points in X holds almost everywhere, relative to an ultralter F, if the set of points for which P holds
is in F.
For example, one construction of the hyperreal number system denes a hyperreal number as an equivalence class of
sequences that are equal almost everywhere as dened by an ultralter.
The denition of almost everywhere in terms of ultralters is closely related to the denition in terms of measures,
because each ultralter denes a nitely-additive measure taking only the values 0 and 1, where a set has measure 1
if and only if it is included in the ultralter.

10.5 References
Billingsley, Patrick (1995). Probability and measure (3rd ed.). New York: John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 0-471-
00710-2.
Halmos, Paul R. (1974). Measure Theory. New York: Springer-Verlag. ISBN 0-387-90088-8.
Chapter 11

Almost surely

Probability 1 redirects here. For Rudolf Carnaps notion of probability1 ", see Probability interpretations.

In probability theory, one says that an event happens almost surely (sometimes abbreviated as a.s.) if it happens with
probability one. In other words, the set of possible exceptions may be non-empty, but it has probability zero. The
concept is precisely the same as the concept of "almost everywhere" in measure theory. In probability experiments on
a nite sample space there is no dierence between almost surely and surely, but the distinction becomes important
when the sample space is an innite set (because an innite set can have non-empty subsets of probability zero).
Some examples of the use of this concept include the strong and uniform versions of the law of large numbers, and
the continuity of the paths of Brownian motion.
The terms almost certainly (a.c.) and almost always (a.a.) are also used. Almost never describes the opposite of
almost surely: an event that happens with probability zero happens almost never.[1]

11.1 Formal denition

Let (, F, P ) be a probability space. An event E F happens almost surely if P [E] = 1 . Equivalently, E happens
almost surely if the probability of E not occurring is zero: P [E C ] = 0 . More generally, any event E (not necessarily
in F ) happens almost surely if E C is contained in a null set: a subset of some N F such that P [N ] = 0 .[2] The
notion of almost sureness depends on the probability measure P . If it is necessary to emphasize this dependence, it
is customary to say that the event E occurs P-almost surely, or almost surely [P].

11.2 Illustrative examples

In general, events can happen almost surely even if the probability space in question includes outcomes which do
not belong to the event, as is illustrated in the examples below.

11.2.1 Throwing a dart

Imagine throwing a dart at a unit square (i.e. a square with area 1) so that the dart always hits exactly one point of
the square, and so that each point in the square is equally likely to be hit.
Now, notice that since the square has area 1, the probability that the dart will hit any particular subregion of the
square equals the area of that subregion. For example, the probability that the dart will hit the right half of the square
is 0.5, since the right half has area 0.5.
Next, consider the event that the dart hits a diagonal of the unit square exactly. Since the areas of the diagonals of
the square are zero, the probability that the dart lands exactly on a diagonal is zero. So, the dart will almost never
land on a diagonal (i.e. it will almost surely not land on a diagonal). Nonetheless the set of points on the diagonals is
not empty and a point on a diagonal is no less possible than any other point: the diagonal does contain valid outcomes
of the experiment.

25
26 CHAPTER 11. ALMOST SURELY

11.2.2 Tossing a coin

Consider the case where a fair coin is tossed, corresponding to the probability space ({H, T }, 2{H,T } , P) , where
the event { = H} occurs if heads is ipped, and { = T } if tails. For this particular coin, assume the probability
of ipping heads is P[ = H] = p (0, 1) from which it follows that the complement event, ipping tails, has
P[ = T ] = 1 p .
Suppose we were to conduct an experiment where the coin is tossed repeatedly, and it is assumed each ips outcome
is independent of all the others. That is, they are i.i.d.. Dene the sequence of random variables on the coin toss
space, {Xi ()}iN where Xi () = i . i.e. each Xi records the outcome of the i 'th ip.
Any innite sequence of heads and tails is a possible outcome of the experiment. However, any particular innite
sequence of heads and tails has probability zero of being the exact outcome of the (innite) experiment. To see why,
note that the i.i.d. assumption implies that the probability of ipping all heads over n ips is simply P[Xi = H, i =
n
1, 2, . . . , n] = (P[X1 = H]) = pn . Letting n yields zero, since p (0, 1) by assumption. Note that the
result is the same no matter how much we bias the coin towards heads, so long as we constrain p to be greater than 0,
and less than 1.
In particular, the event the sequence contains at least one T " happens almost surely (i.e., with probability 1). How-
ever, if instead of an innite number of ips we stop ipping after some nite time, say a million ips, then the
all-heads sequence has non-zero probability. The all-heads sequence has probability p1,000,000 = 0 , while the
probability of getting at least one tails is 1 p1,000,000 and the event is no longer almost sure.

11.3 Asymptotically almost surely

In asymptotic analysis, one says that a property holds asymptotically almost surely (a.a.s.) if, over a sequence of
sets, the probability converges to 1. For instance, a large number is asymptotically almost surely composite, by the
prime number theorem; and in random graph theory, the statement "G(n,pn) is connected" (where G(n,p) denotes
ln n
the graphs on n vertices with edge probability p) is true a.a.s. when p > (1+)
n for any > 0.[3]
In number theory this is referred to as "almost all", as in almost all numbers are composite. Similarly, in graph
theory, this is sometimes referred to as almost surely.[4]

11.4 See also

Convergence of random variables, for almost sure convergence

Degenerate distribution, for almost surely constant

Almost everywhere, the corresponding concept in measure theory

Innite monkey theorem, a theorem using the aforementioned terms

11.5 Notes
[1] Grdel, Erich; Kolaitis, Phokion G.; Libkin, Leonid; Marx, Maarten; Spencer, Joel; Vardi, Moshe Y.; Venema, Yde;
Weinstein, Scott (2007). Finite Model Theory and Its Applications. Springer. p. 232. ISBN 978-3-540-00428-8.

[2] Jacod, Jean; Protter, (2004). Probability Essentials. Springer. p. 37. ISBN 978-3-540-438717.

[3] Friedgut, Ehud; Rdl, Vojtech; Rucinski, Andrzej; Tetali, Prasad (January 2006). A Sharp Threshold for Random Graphs
with a Monochromatic Triangle in Every Edge Coloring. Memoirs of the American Mathematical Society. AMS Bookstore.
179 (845): 34. ISSN 0065-9266.

[4] Spencer, Joel H. (2001). 0. Two Starting Examples. The Strange Logic of Random Graphs. Algorithms and Combina-
torics. 22. Springer. p. 4. ISBN 978-3540416548.
11.6. REFERENCES 27

11.6 References
Rogers, L. C. G.; Williams, David (2000). Diusions, Markov Processes, and Martingales. 1: Foundations.
Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0521775946.
Williams, David (1991). Probability with Martingales. Cambridge Mathematical Textbooks. Cambridge Uni-
versity Press. ISBN 978-0521406055.
Chapter 12

Amari distance

The Amari distance is a measure between two nonsingular matrices, useful for checking for convergence in independent
component analysis algorithms and for comparing solutions.[1][2]

12.1 References
[1] R Graphical Manual Compute the 'Amari' distance between two matrices.

[2] Friedman, J.; Tibshirani, R.; Hastie, T. Elements of Statistical Learning (PDF).

28
Chapter 13

Ansatz

In physics and mathematics, an ansatz (/nsts/; German: [anzats], meaning: initial placement of a tool at a work
piece, plural anstze /nsts/; German: [anzts] or ansatzes) is an educated guess[1] that is veried later by its
results.

13.1 Use
An ansatz is the establishment of the starting equation(s), the theorem(s), or the value(s) describing a mathematical
or physical problem or solution. It can take into consideration boundary conditions. After an ansatz has been estab-
lished (constituting nothing more than an assumption), the equations are solved for the general function of interest
(constituting a conrmation of the assumption).

13.2 Examples
Given a set of experimental data that looks to be clustered about a line, a linear ansatz could be made to nd the
parameters of the line by a least squares curve t. Variational approximation methods use anstze and then t the
parameters.
Another example could be the mass, energy, and entropy balance equations that, considered simultaneous for purposes
of the elementary operations of linear algebra, are the ansatz to most basic problems of thermodynamics.
Another example of an ansatz is to suppose the solutions of a homogeneous linear dierential equation and dierence
equation to have, respectively, exponential and power form. More generally, one can guess a particular solution of a
system of equations and test such an ansatz by direct substitution of the solution in the system of equations.

13.3 See also

Bethe ansatz

Coupled cluster, a technique for solving the many-body problem that is based on an exponential Ansatz

Demarcation problem

Guesstimate

Heuristic

Hypothesis

Trial and error

29
30 CHAPTER 13. ANSATZ

13.4 Notes
[1] In his book on The Nature of Mathematical Modelling, Neil Gershenfeld introduces ansatz, with interpretation a trial
answer, to be an important technique for solving dierential equations. Gershenfeld 1999, p.10.

13.5 References
1. Gershenfeld, Neil A. (1999), The Nature of Mathematical Modeling, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-
57095-6
2. Weis, Dr. Erich; Dr. Heinrich Mattutat (1968), The New Scher-Weis Compact German and English Dictio-
nary, Ernst Klett Verlag, Stuttgart, ISBN 0-245-59813-8
3. Karbach, M.; Mller, G. (September 10, 1998), Introduction to the Bethe ansatz I. Computers in Physics 11
(1997), 36-43. (PDF), retrieved 2008-10-25
4. Karbach, M.; Hu, K.; Mller, G. (September 10, 1998), Introduction to the Bethe ansatz II. Computers in Physics
12 (1998), 565-573. (PDF), retrieved 2008-10-25

5. Karbach, M.; Hu, K.; Mller, G. (August 1, 2000), Introduction to the Bethe ansatz III. (PDF), retrieved 2008-
10-25
Chapter 14

Apotome (mathematics)

This article is about the mathematical concept. For the musical interval, see Pythagorean apotome.

In the historical study of mathematics, an apotome is a line segment formed from a longer line segment by breaking
it into two parts, one of which is commensurable only in power to the whole; the other part is the apotome. In this
denition, two line segments are said to be commensurable only in power when the ratio of their lengths is an
irrational number but the ratio of their squared lengths is rational.[1]
Translated into modern algebraic language, an apotome can be interpreted as a quadratic irrational number formed
by subtracting one square root of a rational number from another. This concept of the apotome appears in Euclids
Elements beginning in book X, where Euclid denes two special kinds of apotomes. In an apotome of the rst kind,
the whole is rational, while in an apotome of the second kind, the part subtracted from it is rational; both kinds of
apotomes also satisfy an additional condition. Euclid Proposition XIII.6 states that, if a rational line segment is split
into two pieces in the golden ratio, then both pieces may be represented as apotomes.[2]

14.1 References
[1] Knorr, Wilbur (1983), ""La croix des mathmaticiens": the Euclidean theory of irrational lines, Bulletin of the American
Mathematical Society, New Series, 9 (1): 4169, MR 699316, doi:10.1090/S0273-0979-1983-15155-8.

[2] Euclid Proposition XIII.6.

31
Chapter 15

Arbitrarily large

In mathematics, the phrases arbitrarily large, arbitrarily small, and arbitrarily long are used in statements such
as:

"(x) is non-negative for arbitrarily large x.

which is shorthand for:

For every real number n, (x) is non-negative for some values of x greater than n.

Arbitrarily large is not equivalent to "suciently large". For instance, while it is true that prime numbers can
be arbitrarily large since there are an innite number of them, it is not true that all suciently large numbers are
prime. Arbitrarily large does not mean "innitely large" because although prime numbers can be arbitrarily large,
an innitely large prime does not exist since all prime numbers (as well as all other integers) are nite.[1]
In some cases, phrases such as P(x) is true for arbitrarily large x" are used primarily for emphasis, as in P(x) is true
for all x, no matter how large x is. In these cases, the phrase arbitrarily large does not have the meaning indicated
above but is in fact logically synonymous with all.
To say that there are arbitrarily long arithmetic progressions of prime numbers" does not mean that there exists any
innitely long arithmetic progression of prime numbers (there is not), nor that there exists any particular arithmetic
progression of prime numbers that is in some sense arbitrarily long, but rather that no matter how large a number
n is, there exists some arithmetic progression of prime numbers of length at least n.[2]
The statement "(x) is non-negative for arbitrarily large x. could be rewritten as:

n R, x R such that x > n f (x) 0

Using suciently large instead yields:

n R such that x R, x > n f (x) 0

15.1 References
[1] Innitely Large vs. Arbitratily Large. Accessed 21 February 2012.

[2] 4 Arbitrarily Large Data. Archived February 22, 2012, at the Wayback Machine. Accessed 21 February 2012

15.2 See also

Suciently large

32
15.2. SEE ALSO 33

Mathematical jargon
Chapter 16

Arithmetic and geometric Frobenius

In mathematics, the Frobenius endomorphism is dened in any commutative ring R that has characteristic p, where
p is a prime number. Namely, the mapping that takes r in R to rp is a ring endomorphism of R.
The image of is then Rp , the subring of R consisting of p-th powers. In some important cases, for example nite
elds, is surjective. Otherwise is an endomorphism but not a ring automorphism.
The terminology of geometric Frobenius arises by applying the spectrum of a ring construction to . This gives a
mapping

*: Spec(Rp ) Spec(R)

of ane schemes. Even in cases where Rp = R this is not the identity, unless R is the prime eld.
Mappings created by bre product with *, i.e. base changes, tend in scheme theory to be called geometric Frobenius.
The reason for a careful terminology is that the Frobenius automorphism in Galois groups, or dened by transport
of structure, is often the inverse mapping of the geometric Frobenius. As in the case of a cyclic group in which a
generator is also the inverse of a generator, there are in many situations two possible denitions of Frobenius, and
without a consistent convention some problem of a minus sign may appear.

16.1 References
Freitag, Eberhard; Kiehl, Reinhardt (1988), tale cohomology and the Weil conjecture, Ergebnisse der Math-
ematik und ihrer Grenzgebiete (3) [Results in Mathematics and Related Areas (3)], 13, Berlin, New York:
Springer-Verlag, ISBN 978-3-540-12175-6, MR 926276, p. 5

34
Chapter 17

Axiom

This article is about axioms as used in logic and in mathematics. For other uses, see Axiom (disambiguation).
Axiomatic redirects here. For other uses, see Axiomatic (disambiguation).
Postulation redirects here. For the term in algebraic geometry, see Postulation (algebraic geometry).

An axiom or postulate is a statement that is taken to be true, to serve as a premise or starting point for further
reasoning and arguments. The word comes from the Greek axma () 'that which is thought worthy or t' or
'that which commends itself as evident.'[1][2]
The term has subtle dierences in denition when used in the context of dierent elds of study. As dened in classic
philosophy, an axiom is a statement that is so evident or well-established, that it is accepted without controversy or
question.[3] As used in modern logic, an axiom is simply a premise or starting point for reasoning.[4]
As used in mathematics, the term axiom is used in two related but distinguishable senses: logical axioms and non-
logical axioms. Logical axioms are usually statements that are taken to be true within the system of logic they dene
(e.g., (A and B) implies A), often shown in symbolic form, while non-logical axioms (e.g., a + b = b + a) are actually
substantive assertions about the elements of the domain of a specic mathematical theory (such as arithmetic). When
used in the latter sense, axiom, postulate, and assumption may be used interchangeably. In general, a non-logical
axiom is not a self-evident truth, but rather a formal logical expression used in deduction to build a mathematical
theory. To axiomatize a system of knowledge is to show that its claims can be derived from a small, well-understood
set of sentences (the axioms). There are typically multiple ways to axiomatize a given mathematical domain.
In both senses, an axiom is any mathematical statement that serves as a starting point from which other statements are
logically derived. Whether it is meaningful (and, if so, what it means) for an axiom, or any mathematical statement,
to be true is an open question in the philosophy of mathematics.[5]

17.1 Etymology

The word axiom comes from the Greek word (axma), a verbal noun from the verb (axioein),
meaning to deem worthy, but also to require, which in turn comes from (xios), meaning being in balance,
and hence having (the same) value (as)", worthy, proper. Among the ancient Greek philosophers an axiom was
a claim which could be seen to be true without any need for proof.
The root meaning of the word postulate is to demand"; for instance, Euclid demands that one agree that some things
can be done, e.g. any two points can be joined by a straight line, etc.[6]
Ancient geometers maintained some distinction between axioms and postulates. While commenting on Euclids
books, Proclus remarks that, "Geminus held that this [4th] Postulate should not be classed as a postulate but as an
axiom, since it does not, like the rst three Postulates, assert the possibility of some construction but expresses an
essential property.[7] Boethius translated 'postulate' as petitio and called the axioms notiones communes but in later
manuscripts this usage was not always strictly kept.

35
36 CHAPTER 17. AXIOM

17.2 Historical development

17.2.1 Early Greeks

The logico-deductive method whereby conclusions (new knowledge) follow from premises (old knowledge) through
the application of sound arguments (syllogisms, rules of inference), was developed by the ancient Greeks, and has
become the core principle of modern mathematics. Tautologies excluded, nothing can be deduced if nothing is
assumed. Axioms and postulates are the basic assumptions underlying a given body of deductive knowledge. They
are accepted without demonstration. All other assertions (theorems, if we are talking about mathematics) must be
proven with the aid of these basic assumptions. However, the interpretation of mathematical knowledge has changed
from ancient times to the modern, and consequently the terms axiom and postulate hold a slightly dierent meaning
for the present day mathematician, than they did for Aristotle and Euclid.
The ancient Greeks considered geometry as just one of several sciences, and held the theorems of geometry on par
with scientic facts. As such, they developed and used the logico-deductive method as a means of avoiding error, and
for structuring and communicating knowledge. Aristotles posterior analytics is a denitive exposition of the classical
view.
An axiom, in classical terminology, referred to a self-evident assumption common to many branches of science. A
good example would be the assertion that

When an equal amount is taken from equals, an equal amount results.

At the foundation of the various sciences lay certain additional hypotheses which were accepted without proof. Such
a hypothesis was termed a postulate. While the axioms were common to many sciences, the postulates of each
particular science were dierent. Their validity had to be established by means of real-world experience. Indeed,
Aristotle warns that the content of a science cannot be successfully communicated, if the learner is in doubt about
the truth of the postulates.[8]
The classical approach is well-illustrated by Euclids Elements, where a list of postulates is given (common-sensical
geometric facts drawn from our experience), followed by a list of common notions (very basic, self-evident asser-
tions).

Postulates

1. It is possible to draw a straight line from any point to any other point.
2. It is possible to extend a line segment continuously in both directions.
3. It is possible to describe a circle with any center and any radius.
4. It is true that all right angles are equal to one another.
5. ("Parallel postulate") It is true that, if a straight line falling on two straight lines make the interior
angles on the same side less than two right angles, the two straight lines, if produced indenitely,
intersect on that side on which are the angles less than the two right angles.

Common notions

1. Things which are equal to the same thing are also equal to one another.
2. If equals are added to equals, the wholes are equal.
3. If equals are subtracted from equals, the remainders are equal.
4. Things which coincide with one another are equal to one another.
5. The whole is greater than the part.

17.2.2 Modern development

A lesson learned by mathematics in the last 150 years is that it is useful to strip the meaning away from the mathemat-
ical assertions (axioms, postulates, propositions, theorems) and denitions. One must concede the need for primitive
17.2. HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT 37

notions, or undened terms or concepts, in any study. Such abstraction or formalization makes mathematical knowl-
edge more general, capable of multiple dierent meanings, and therefore useful in multiple contexts. Alessandro
Padoa, Mario Pieri, and Giuseppe Peano were pioneers in this movement.
Structuralist mathematics goes further, and develops theories and axioms (e.g. eld theory, group theory, topology,
vector spaces) without any particular application in mind. The distinction between an axiom and a postulate
disappears. The postulates of Euclid are protably motivated by saying that they lead to a great wealth of geometric
facts. The truth of these complicated facts rests on the acceptance of the basic hypotheses. However, by throwing
out Euclids fth postulate we get theories that have meaning in wider contexts, hyperbolic geometry for example.
We must simply be prepared to use labels like line and parallel with greater exibility. The development of
hyperbolic geometry taught mathematicians that postulates should be regarded as purely formal statements, and not
as facts based on experience.
When mathematicians employ the eld axioms, the intentions are even more abstract. The propositions of eld theory
do not concern any one particular application; the mathematician now works in complete abstraction. There are many
examples of elds; eld theory gives correct knowledge about them all.
It is not correct to say that the axioms of eld theory are propositions that are regarded as true without proof. Rather,
the eld axioms are a set of constraints. If any given system of addition and multiplication satises these constraints,
then one is in a position to instantly know a great deal of extra information about this system.
Modern mathematics formalizes its foundations to such an extent that mathematical theories can be regarded as
mathematical objects, and mathematics itself can be regarded as a branch of logic. Frege, Russell, Poincar, Hilbert,
and Gdel are some of the key gures in this development.
In the modern understanding, a set of axioms is any collection of formally stated assertions from which other formally
stated assertions follow by the application of certain well-dened rules. In this view, logic becomes just another formal
system. A set of axioms should be consistent; it should be impossible to derive a contradiction from the axiom. A set
of axioms should also be non-redundant; an assertion that can be deduced from other axioms need not be regarded
as an axiom.
It was the early hope of modern logicians that various branches of mathematics, perhaps all of mathematics, could
be derived from a consistent collection of basic axioms. An early success of the formalist program was Hilberts
formalization of Euclidean geometry, and the related demonstration of the consistency of those axioms.
In a wider context, there was an attempt to base all of mathematics on Cantors set theory. Here the emergence of
Russells paradox, and similar antinomies of nave set theory raised the possibility that any such system could turn
out to be inconsistent.
The formalist project suered a decisive setback, when in 1931 Gdel showed that it is possible, for any suciently
large set of axioms (Peanos axioms, for example) to construct a statement whose truth is independent of that set of
axioms. As a corollary, Gdel proved that the consistency of a theory like Peano arithmetic is an unprovable assertion
within the scope of that theory.
It is reasonable to believe in the consistency of Peano arithmetic because it is satised by the system of natural num-
bers, an innite but intuitively accessible formal system. However, at present, there is no known way of demonstrating
the consistency of the modern ZermeloFraenkel axioms for set theory. Furthermore, using techniques of forcing
(Cohen) one can show that the continuum hypothesis (Cantor) is independent of the ZermeloFraenkel axioms. Thus,
even this very general set of axioms cannot be regarded as the denitive foundation for mathematics.

17.2.3 Other sciences

Axioms play a key role not only in mathematics, but also in other sciences, notably in theoretical physics. In particular,
the monumental work of Isaac Newton is essentially based on Euclid's axioms, augmented by a postulate on the non-
relation of spacetime and the physics taking place in it at any moment.
In 1905, Newtons axioms were replaced by those of Albert Einstein's special relativity, and later on by those of
general relativity.
Another paper of Albert Einstein and coworkers (see EPR paradox), almost immediately contradicted by Niels Bohr,
concerned the interpretation of quantum mechanics. This was in 1935. According to Bohr, this new theory should be
probabilistic, whereas according to Einstein it should be deterministic. Notably, the underlying quantum mechanical
theory, i.e. the set of theorems derived by it, seemed to be identical. Einstein even assumed that it would be
sucient to add to quantum mechanics hidden variables to enforce determinism. However, thirty years later, in
38 CHAPTER 17. AXIOM

1964, John Bell found a theorem, involving complicated optical correlations (see Bell inequalities), which yielded
measurably dierent results using Einsteins axioms compared to using Bohrs axioms. And it took roughly another
twenty years until an experiment of Alain Aspect got results in favour of Bohrs axioms, not Einsteins. (Bohrs axioms
are simply: The theory should be probabilistic in the sense of the Copenhagen interpretation.)
As a consequence, it is not necessary to explicitly cite Einsteins axioms, the more so since they concern subtle points
on the reality and locality of experiments.
Regardless, the role of axioms in mathematics and in the above-mentioned sciences is dierent. In mathematics one
neither proves nor disproves an axiom for a set of theorems; the point is simply that in the conceptual realm
identied by the axioms, the theorems logically follow. In contrast, in physics a comparison with experiments always
makes sense, since a falsied physical theory needs modication.

17.3 Mathematical logic

In the eld of mathematical logic, a clear distinction is made between two notions of axioms: logical and non-logical
(somewhat similar to the ancient distinction between axioms and postulates respectively).

17.3.1 Logical axioms

These are certain formulas in a formal language that are universally valid, that is, formulas that are satised by every
assignment of values. Usually one takes as logical axioms at least some minimal set of tautologies that is sucient
for proving all tautologies in the language; in the case of predicate logic more logical axioms than that are required,
in order to prove logical truths that are not tautologies in the strict sense.

Examples

Propositional logic In propositional logic it is common to take as logical axioms all formulae of the following forms,
where , , and can be any formulae of the language and where the included primitive connectives are only "
" for negation of the immediately following proposition and " " for implication from antecedent to consequent
propositions:

1. ( )
2. ( ( )) (( ) ( ))
3. ( ) ( ).

Each of these patterns is an axiom schema, a rule for generating an innite number of axioms. For example, if A , B
, and C are propositional variables, then A (B A) and (A B) (C (A B)) are both instances
of axiom schema 1, and hence are axioms. It can be shown that with only these three axiom schemata and modus
ponens, one can prove all tautologies of the propositional calculus. It can also be shown that no pair of these schemata
is sucient for proving all tautologies with modus ponens.
Other axiom schemas involving the same or dierent sets of primitive connectives can be alternatively constructed.[9]
These axiom schemata are also used in the predicate calculus, but additional logical axioms are needed to include a
quantier in the calculus.[10]

First-order logic Axiom of Equality. Let L be a rst-order language. For each variable x , the formula

x=x

is universally valid.
This means that, for any variable symbol x , the formula x = x can be regarded as an axiom. Also, in this example,
for this not to fall into vagueness and a never-ending series of primitive notions, either a precise notion of what we
mean by x = x (or, for that matter, to be equal) has to be well established rst, or a purely formal and syntactical
17.3. MATHEMATICAL LOGIC 39

usage of the symbol = has to be enforced, only regarding it as a string and only a string of symbols, and mathematical
logic does indeed do that.
Another, more interesting example axiom scheme, is that which provides us with what is known as Universal In-
stantiation:
Axiom scheme for Universal Instantiation. Given a formula in a rst-order language L , a variable x and a term
t that is substitutable for x in , the formula

x xt

is universally valid.
Where the symbol xt stands for the formula with the term t substituted for x . (See Substitution of variables.) In
informal terms, this example allows us to state that, if we know that a certain property P holds for every x and that
t stands for a particular object in our structure, then we should be able to claim P (t) . Again, we are claiming that
the formula x xt is valid, that is, we must be able to give a proof of this fact, or more properly speaking, a
metaproof. Actually, these examples are metatheorems of our theory of mathematical logic since we are dealing with
the very concept of proof itself. Aside from this, we can also have Existential Generalization:
Axiom scheme for Existential Generalization. Given a formula in a rst-order language L , a variable x and a
term t that is substitutable for x in , the formula

xt x

is universally valid.

17.3.2 Non-logical axioms

Non-logical axioms are formulas that play the role of theory-specic assumptions. Reasoning about two dierent
structures, for example the natural numbers and the integers, may involve the same logical axioms; the non-logical
axioms aim to capture what is special about a particular structure (or set of structures, such as groups). Thus non-
logical axioms, unlike logical axioms, are not tautologies. Another name for a non-logical axiom is postulate.[11]
Almost every modern mathematical theory starts from a given set of non-logical axioms, and it was thought that in
principle every theory could be axiomatized in this way and formalized down to the bare language of logical formulas.
Non-logical axioms are often simply referred to as axioms in mathematical discourse. This does not mean that it is
claimed that they are true in some absolute sense. For example, in some groups, the group operation is commutative,
and this can be asserted with the introduction of an additional axiom, but without this axiom we can do quite well
developing (the more general) group theory, and we can even take its negation as an axiom for the study of non-
commutative groups.
Thus, an axiom is an elementary basis for a formal logic system that together with the rules of inference dene a
deductive system.

Examples

This section gives examples of mathematical theories that are developed entirely from a set of non-logical axioms
(axioms, henceforth). A rigorous treatment of any of these topics begins with a specication of these axioms.
Basic theories, such as arithmetic, real analysis and complex analysis are often introduced non-axiomatically, but
implicitly or explicitly there is generally an assumption that the axioms being used are the axioms of Zermelo
Fraenkel set theory with choice, abbreviated ZFC, or some very similar system of axiomatic set theory like Von
NeumannBernaysGdel set theory, a conservative extension of ZFC. Sometimes slightly stronger theories such
as Morse-Kelley set theory or set theory with a strongly inaccessible cardinal allowing the use of a Grothendieck
universe are used, but in fact most mathematicians can actually prove all they need in systems weaker than ZFC, such
as second-order arithmetic.
The study of topology in mathematics extends all over through point set topology, algebraic topology, dierential
topology, and all the related paraphernalia, such as homology theory, homotopy theory. The development of abstract
algebra brought with itself group theory, rings, elds, and Galois theory.
40 CHAPTER 17. AXIOM

This list could be expanded to include most elds of mathematics, including measure theory, ergodic theory, probability,
representation theory, and dierential geometry.
Combinatorics is an example of a eld of mathematics which does not, in general, follow the axiomatic method.

Arithmetic The Peano axioms are the most widely used axiomatization of rst-order arithmetic. They are a set of
axioms strong enough to prove many important facts about number theory and they allowed Gdel to establish his
famous second incompleteness theorem.[12]
We have a language LN T = {0, S} where 0 is a constant symbol and S is a unary function and the following axioms:

1. x.(Sx = 0)
2. x.y.(Sx = Sy x = y)
3. ((0) x. ((x) (Sx))) x.(x) for any LN T formula with one free variable.

The standard structure is N = N, 0, S where N is the set of natural numbers, S is the successor function and 0 is
naturally interpreted as the number 0.

Euclidean geometry Probably the oldest, and most famous, list of axioms are the 4 + 1 Euclids postulates of
plane geometry. The axioms are referred to as 4 + 1 because for nearly two millennia the fth (parallel) postulate
(through a point outside a line there is exactly one parallel) was suspected of being derivable from the rst four.
Ultimately, the fth postulate was found to be independent of the rst four. Indeed, one can assume that exactly one
parallel through a point outside a line exists, or that innitely many exist. This choice gives us two alternative forms
of geometry in which the interior angles of a triangle add up to exactly 180 degrees or less, respectively, and are
known as Euclidean and hyperbolic geometries. If one also removes the second postulate (a line can be extended
indenitely) then elliptic geometry arises, where there is no parallel through a point outside a line, and in which the
interior angles of a triangle add up to more than 180 degrees.

Real analysis The objectives of study are within the domain of real numbers. The real numbers are uniquely picked
out (up to isomorphism) by the properties of a Dedekind complete ordered eld, meaning that any nonempty set of
real numbers with an upper bound has a least upper bound. However, expressing these properties as axioms requires
use of second-order logic. The Lwenheim-Skolem theorems tell us that if we restrict ourselves to rst-order logic,
any axiom system for the reals admits other models, including both models that are smaller than the reals and models
that are larger. Some of the latter are studied in non-standard analysis.

17.3.3 Role in mathematical logic

Deductive systems and completeness

A deductive system consists of a set of logical axioms, a set of non-logical axioms, and a set {(, )} of rules
of inference. A desirable property of a deductive system is that it be complete. A system is said to be complete if,
for all formulas ,

if |= then

that is, for any statement that is a logical consequence of there actually exists a deduction of the statement from .
This is sometimes expressed as everything that is true is provable, but it must be understood that true here means
made true by the set of axioms, and not, for example, true in the intended interpretation. Gdels completeness
theorem establishes the completeness of a certain commonly used type of deductive system.
Note that completeness has a dierent meaning here than it does in the context of Gdels rst incompleteness
theorem, which states that no recursive, consistent set of non-logical axioms of the Theory of Arithmetic is complete,
in the sense that there will always exist an arithmetic statement such that neither nor can be proved from the
given set of axioms.
There is thus, on the one hand, the notion of completeness of a deductive system and on the other hand that of
completeness of a set of non-logical axioms. The completeness theorem and the incompleteness theorem, despite
their names, do not contradict one another.
17.4. SEE ALSO 41

17.3.4 Further discussion

Early mathematicians regarded axiomatic geometry as a model of physical space, and obviously there could only be
one such model. The idea that alternative mathematical systems might exist was very troubling to mathematicians of
the 19th century and the developers of systems such as Boolean algebra made elaborate eorts to derive them from
traditional arithmetic. Galois showed just before his untimely death that these eorts were largely wasted. Ultimately,
the abstract parallels between algebraic systems were seen to be more important than the details and modern algebra
was born. In the modern view axioms may be any set of formulas, as long as they are not known to be inconsistent.

17.4 See also

Axiomatic system

Dogma

List of axioms

Model theory

Regul Juris

Theorem

Presupposition

17.5 References
[1] Cf. axiom, n., etymology. Oxford English Dictionary, accessed 2012-04-28.

[2] Oxford American College Dictionary: n. a statement or proposition that is regarded as being established, accepted, or
self-evidently true. ORIGIN: late 15th cent.: ultimately from Greek axima 'what is thought tting,' from axios 'worthy.'
http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1O997-axiom.html (subscription required)

[3] A proposition that commends itself to general acceptance; a well-established or universally conceded principle; a maxim,
rule, law axiom, n., denition 1a. Oxford English Dictionary Online, accessed 2012-04-28. Cf. Aristotle, Posterior
Analytics I.2.72a18-b4.

[4] A proposition (whether true or false)" axiom, n., denition 2. Oxford English Dictionary Online, accessed 2012-04-28.

[5] See for example Maddy, Penelope (Jun 1988). Believing the Axioms, I. Journal of Symbolic Logic. 53 (2): 481511.
doi:10.2307/2274520. for a realist view.

[6] Wol, P. Breakthroughs in Mathematics, 1963, New York: New American Library, pp 4748

[7] Heath, T. 1956. The Thirteen Books of Euclids Elements. New York: Dover. p 200

[8] Aristotle, Metaphysics Bk IV, Chapter 3, 1005b Physics also is a kind of Wisdom, but it is not the rst kind. And the
attempts of some of those who discuss the terms on which truth should be accepted, are due to want of training in logic;
for they should know these things already when they come to a special study, and not be inquiring into them while they are
listening to lectures on it. W.D. Ross translation, in The Basic Works of Aristotle, ed. Richard McKeon, (Random House,
New York, 1941)|date=June 2011

[9] Mendelson, 6. Other Axiomatizations of Ch. 1

[10] Mendelson, 3. First-Order Theories of Ch. 2

[11] Mendelson, 3. First-Order Theories: Proper Axioms of Ch. 2

[12] Mendelson, 5. The Fixed Point Theorem. Gdels Incompleteness Theorem of Ch. 2
42 CHAPTER 17. AXIOM

17.6 Further reading

Mendelson, Elliot (1987). Introduction to mathematical logic. Belmont, California: Wadsworth & Brooks.
ISBN 0-534-06624-0
Wilson, John Cook (1889). On an Evolutionist Theory of Axioms. Oxford: Clarendon Press.

17.7 External links

"Axiom". Encyclopdia Britannica. 3 (11th ed.). 1911. p. 68.

Axiom at PhilPapers
Axiom at PlanetMath.org.

Metamath axioms page

Chapter 18

List of mathematical jargon

The language of mathematics has a vast vocabulary of specialist and technical terms. It also has a certain amount of
jargon: commonly used phrases which are part of the culture of mathematics, rather than of the subject. Jargon often
appears in lectures, and sometimes in print, as informal shorthand for rigorous arguments or precise ideas. Much of
this is common English, but with a specic non-obvious meaning when used in a mathematical sense.
Some phrases, like in general, appear below in more than one section.

18.1 Philosophy of mathematics

abstract nonsense Also general abstract nonsense or generalized abstract nonsense, a tongue-in-cheek reference to
category theory, using which one can employ arguments that establish a (possibly concrete) result without
reference to any specics of the present problem.

[The paper of Eilenberg and Mac Lane (1942)] introduced the very abstract idea of a 'category'
a subject then called 'general abstract nonsense'!
Saunders Mac Lane (1997)

[Grothendieck] raised algebraic geometry to a new level of abstraction...if certain mathematicians

could console themselves for a time with the hope that all these complicated structures were 'abstract non-
sense'...the later papers of Grothendieck and others showed that classical problems...which had resisted
eorts of several generations of talented mathematicians, could be solved in terms of...complicated con-
cepts.
Michael Monastyrsky (2001)

canonical A reference to a standard or choice-free presentation of some mathematical object. The term canonical is
also used more informally, meaning roughly standard or classic. For example, one might say that Euclids
proof is the canonical proof of the innitude of primes.

There are two canonical proofs that are always used to show non-mathematicians what a mathemat-
ical proof is like:

The proof that there are innitely many prime numbers.

The proof of the irrationality of the square root of two.
Freek Wiedijk (2006, p.2)

deep A result is called deep if its proof requires concepts and methods that are advanced beyond the concepts
needed to formulate the result. The prime number theorem, proved with techniques from complex analysis,

43
44 CHAPTER 18. LIST OF MATHEMATICAL JARGON

was thought to be a deep result until elementary proofs were found. The fact that is irrational is a deep result
because it requires considerable development of real analysis to prove, even though it can be stated in terms of
simple number theory and geometry.

elegant Also beautiful; an aesthetic term referring to the ability of an idea to provide insight into mathematics,
whether by unifying disparate elds, introducing a new perspective on a single eld, or providing a technique
of proof which is either particularly simple, or captures the intuition or imagination as to why the result it proves
is true. Gian-Carlo Rota distinguished between elegance of presentation and beauty of concept, saying that for
example, some topics could be written about elegantly although the mathematical content is not beautiful, and
some theorems or proofs are beautiful but may be written about inelegantly.

The beauty of a mathematical theory is independent of the aesthetic qualities...of the theorys rig-
orous expositions. Some beautiful theories may never be given a presentation which matches their
beauty....Instances can also be found of mediocre theories of questionable beauty which are given bril-
liant, exciting expositions....[Category theory] is rich in beautiful and insightful denitions and poor in
elegant proofs....[The theorems] remain clumsy and dull....[Expositions of projective geometry] vied for
one another in elegance of presentation and in cleverness of proof....In retrospect, one wonders what all
the fuss was about.
Mathematicians may say that a theorem is beautiful when they really mean to say that it is enlightening.
We acknowledge a theorems beauty when we see how the theorem 'ts in its place....We say that a proof
is beautiful when such a proof nally gives away the secret of the theorem....
Gian-Carlo Rota (1977, pp.173174, pp.181182)

elementary A proof or result is called elementary if it requires only basic concepts and methods, in contrast to so-
called deep results. The concept of elementary proof is used specically in number theory, where it usually
refers to a proof that does not use methods from complex analysis.

folklore A result is called folklore if it is non-obvious, has not been published, and yet is generally known among
the specialists in a eld. Usually, it is unknown who rst obtained the result. If the result is important, it may
eventually nd its way into the textbooks, whereupon it ceases to be folklore.

Many of the results mentioned in this paper should be considered folklore in that they merely for-
mally state ideas that are well-known to researchers in the area, but may not be obvious to beginners and
to the best of my knowledge do not appear elsewhere in print.
Russell Impagliazzo (1995)

natural Similar to canonical but more specic, this term makes reference to a description (almost exclusively in
the context of transformations) which holds independently of any choices. Though long used informally, this
term has found a formal denition in category theory.

pathological An object behaves pathologically (or, somewhat more broadly used, in a degenerated way) if it fails
to conform to the generic behavior of such objects, fails to satisfy certain regularity properties (depending on
context), or simply disobeys mathematical intuition. These can be and often are contradictory requirements.
Sometimes the term is more pointed, referring to an object which is specically and articially exhibited as a
counterexample to these properties.

Since half a century we have seen arise a crowd of bizarre functions which seem to try to resemble
as little as possible the honest functions which serve some purpose....Nay more, from the logical point
of view, it is these strange functions which are the most general....to-day they are invented expressly to
put at fault the reasonings of our fathers....
Henri Poincar (1913)

[The Dirichlet function] took on an enormous importance...as giving an incentive for the creation of
new types of function whose properties departed completely from what intuitively seemed admissible. A
celebrated example of such a so-called 'pathological' function...is the one provided by Weierstrass....This
18.2. DESCRIPTIVE INFORMALITIES 45

function is continuous but not dierentiable.

J. Sousa Pinto (2004)

Note for that latter quote that as the dierentiable functions are meagre in the space of continuous functions, as
Banach found out in 1931, dierentiable functions are colloquially speaking a rare exception among the con-
tinuous ones. Thus it can hardly be defended any-more to call non-dierentiable continuous functions patho-
logical.

rigor (rigour) Mathematics strives to establish its results using indisputable logic rather than informal descriptive
argument. Rigor is the use of such logic in a proof.

well-behaved An object is well-behaved (in contrast with being pathological) if it does satisfy the prevailing regularity
properties, or sometimes if it conforms to intuition (but intuition often suggests the opposite behavior as well).
Similar to smooth (see below).

18.2 Descriptive informalities

Although ultimately every mathematical argument must meet a high standard of precision, mathematicians use de-
scriptive but informal statements to discuss recurring themes or concepts with unwieldy formal statements. Note that
many of the terms are completely rigorous in context.

almost all A shorthand term for all except for a set of measure zero", when there is a measure to speak of. For
example, almost all real numbers are transcendental" because the algebraic real numbers form a countable
subset of the real numbers with measure zero. One can also speak of almost all integers having a property
to mean all except nitely many, despite the integers not admitting a measure for which this agrees with the
previous usage. For example, almost all prime numbers are odd. There is a more complicated meaning for
integers as well, discussed in the main article. Finally, this term is sometimes used synonymously with generic,
below.

arbitrarily large Notions which arise mostly in the context of limits, referring to the recurrence of a phenomenon
as the limit is approached. A statement such as that predicate P is satised by arbitrarily large values, can be
expressed in more formal notation by x : y x : P(y). See also frequently. The statement that quantity f(x)
depending on x can be made arbitrarily large, corresponds to y : x : f(x) y.

arbitrary A shorthand for the universal quantier. An arbitrary choice is one which is made unrestrictedly, or
alternatively, a statement holds of an arbitrary element of a set if it holds of any element of that set. Also much
in general-language use among mathematicians: Of course, this problem can be arbitrarily complicated.

eventually In the context of limits, this is shorthand for suciently large arguments; the relevant argument(s) are
implicit in the context. As an example, one could say that The function log(log(x)) eventually becomes larger
than 100"; in this context, eventually means for suciently large x".

factor through A term in category theory referring to composition of morphisms. If we have three objects A, B,
and C and a map f : A C which is written as a composition f = h g with g : A B and h : B C ,
then f is said to factor through any (and all) of B , g , and h .

nite Next to the usual meaning of not innite, in another more restrictive meaning that one may encounter, a
value being said to be nite also excludes innitesimal values and the value 0. For example, if the variance
of a random variable is said to be nite, this implies it is a positive real number.

frequently In the context of limits, this is shorthand for arbitrarily large arguments and its relatives; as with eventually,
the intended variant is implicit. As an example, one could say that The function sin(x) is frequently zero,
where frequently means for arbitrarily large x".

generic This term has similar connotations as almost all but is used particularly for concepts outside the purview of
measure theory. A property holds generically on a set if the set satises some (context-dependent) notion
of density, or perhaps if its complement satises some (context-dependent) notion of smallness. For example,
a property which holds on a dense G (intersection of countably many open sets) is said to hold generically.
46 CHAPTER 18. LIST OF MATHEMATICAL JARGON

In algebraic geometry, one says that a property of points on an algebraic variety that holds on a dense Zariski
open set is true generically; however, it is usually not said that a property which holds merely on a dense set
(which is not Zariski open) is generic in this situation.

in general In a descriptive context, this phrase introduces a simple characterization of a broad class of objects, with
an eye towards identifying a unifying principle. This term introduces an elegant description which holds for
"arbitrary" objects. Exceptions to this description may be mentioned explicitly, as "pathological" cases.

Norbert ACampo of the University of Basel once asked Grothendieck about something related to
the Platonic solids. Grothendieck advised caution. The Platonic solids are so beautiful and so excep-
tional, he said, that one cannot assume such exceptional beauty will hold in more general situations.
Allyn Jackson (2004, p.1197)

left-hand side, right-hand side (LHS, RHS) Most often, these refer simply to the left-hand or the right-hand side
of an equation; for example, x = y + 1 has x on the LHS and y + 1 on the RHS. Occasionally, these are used
in the sense of lvalue and rvalue: an RHS is primitive, and an LHS is derivative.

nice A mathematical object is colloquially called nice or suciently nice if it satises hypotheses or properties,
sometimes unspecied or even unknown, that are especially desirable in a given context. It is an informal
antonym for pathological. For example, one might conjecture that a dierential operator ought to satisfy a
certain boundedness condition for nice test functions, or one might state that some interesting topological
invariant should be computable for nice spaces X.

onto A function (which in mathematics is generally dened as mapping the elements of one set A to elements of
another B) is called A onto B (instead of A to B) only if it is surjective; it may even be said that f is onto
(i. e. surjective). Not translatable (without circumlocutions) to languages other than English.

owl An informal name for the origin, or zero-element, particularly in the case of the 2-dimensional plane, where the
origin is written (0,0), which closely resembles the face of an owl.

proper If, for some notion of substructure, objects are substructures of themselves (that is, the relationship is re-
exive), then the qualication proper requires the objects to be dierent. For example, a proper subset of a set
S is a subset of S that is dierent from S, and a proper divisor of a number n is a divisor of n that is dierent
from n. This overloaded word is also non-jargon for a proper morphism.

regular A function is called regular if it satises satisfactory continuity and dierentiability properties, which are
often context-dependent. These properties might include possessing a specied number of derivatives, with
the function and its derivatives exhibiting some nice property, such as Hlder continuity. Informally, this term
is sometimes used synonymously with smooth, below. These imprecise uses of the word regular are not to be
confused with the notion of a regular topological space, which is rigorously dened.

resp. (Respectively) A convention to shorten parallel expositions. A (resp. B) [has some relationship to] X (resp.
Y)" means that A [has some relationship to] X and also that B [has (the same) relationship to] Y. For example,
squares (resp. triangles) have 4 sides (resp. 3 sides); or compact (resp. Lindelf) spaces are ones where every
open cover has a nite (resp. countable) open subcover.

sharp Often, a mathematical theorem will establish constraints on the behavior of some object; for example, a
function will be shown to have an upper or lower bound. The constraint is sharp (sometimes optimal) if it
cannot be made more restrictive without failing in some cases. For example, for arbitrary nonnegative real
numbers x, the exponential function ex , where e = 2.7182818..., gives an upper bound on the values of the
quadratic function x2 . This is not sharp; the gap between the functions is everywhere at least 1. Among the
exponential functions of the form x , setting = e2/e = 2.0870652... results in a sharp upper bound; the slightly
smaller choice = 2 fails to produce an upper bound, since then 3 = 8 < 32 . In applied elds the word tight
is often used with the same meaning.[1]

smooth Smoothness is a concept which mathematics has endowed with many meanings, from simple dierentiability
to innite dierentiability to analyticity, and still others which are more complicated. Each such usage attempts
to invoke the physically intuitive notion of smoothness.
18.3. PROOF TERMINOLOGY 47

strong, stronger A theorem is said to be strong if it deduces restrictive results from general hypotheses. One cel-
ebrated example is Donaldsons theorem, which puts tight restraints on what would otherwise appear to be a
large class of manifolds. This (informal) usage reects the opinion of the mathematical community: not only
should such a theorem be strong in the descriptive sense (below) but it should also be denitive in its area. A
theorem, result, or condition is further called stronger than another one if a proof of the second can be easily
obtained from the rst but not conversely. An example is the sequence of theorems: Fermats little theorem,
Eulers theorem, Lagranges theorem, each of which is stronger than the last; another is that a sharp upper
bound (see above) is a stronger result than a non-sharp one. Finally, the adjective strong or the adverb strongly
may be added to a mathematical notion to indicate a related stronger notion; for example, a strong antichain
is an antichain satisfying certain additional conditions, and likewise a strongly regular graph is a regular graph
meeting stronger conditions. When used in this way, the stronger notion (such as strong antichain) is a tech-
nical term with a precisely dened meaning; the nature of the extra conditions cannot be derived from the
denition of the weaker notion (such as antichain).
suciently large, suitably small, suciently close In the context of limits, these terms refer to some (unspecied,
even unknown) point at which a phenomenon prevails as the limit is approached. A statement such as that
predicate P holds for suciently large values, can be expressed in more formal notation by x : y x : P(y).
See also eventually.
upstairs, downstairs A descriptive term referring to notation in which two objects are written one above the other;
the upper one is upstairs and the lower, downstairs. For example, in a ber bundle, the total space is often
said to be upstairs, with the base space downstairs. In a fraction, the numerator is occasionally referred to as
upstairs and the denominator downstairs, as in bringing a term upstairs.
up to, modulo, mod out by An extension to mathematical discourse of the notions of modular arithmetic. A state-
ment is true up to a condition if the establishment of that condition is the only impediment to the truth of
the statement. Also used when working with members of equivalence classes, esp. in category theory, where
the equivalence relation is (categorical) isomorphism; for example, The tensor product in a weak monoidal
category is associative and unital up to a natural isomorphism.
vanish To assume the value 0. For example, The function sin(x) vanishes for those values of x that are integer
multiples of . This can also apply to limits: see Vanish at innity.
washing machine Informally, a matrix with a single non-zero
entry on thetop left corner. The name arises from
x 0 0
0 0 0

the convention of writing a matrix of the form M = . . .
. . ...
by noting only the non-zero entry and
.. ..
0 0 0
x
drawing a big zero inside the matrix, M = , which resembles the eponymous appliance.

weak, weaker The converse of strong.

well-dened Accurately and precisely described or specied. For example, sometimes a denition relies on a choice
of some object; the result of the denition must then be independent of this choice.

18.3 Proof terminology

The formal language of proof draws repeatedly from a small pool of ideas, many of which are invoked through various
lexical shorthands in practice.

aliter An obsolescent term which is used to announce to the reader an alternative method, or proof of a result. In a
proof, it therefore ags a piece of reasoning that is superuous from a logical point of view, but has some other
interest.
by way of contradiction (BWOC), or for, if not, ... The rhetorical prelude to a proof by contradiction, preced-
ing the negation of the statement to be proved. Also, starting a proof or a sub-proof with Assume... indicates
that a proof by contradiction will be employed.
48 CHAPTER 18. LIST OF MATHEMATICAL JARGON

if and only if (i) An abbreviation for logical equivalence of statements.

in general In the context of proofs, this phrase is often seen in induction arguments when passing from the base
case to the induction step, and similarly, in the denition of sequences whose rst few terms are exhibited as
examples of the formula giving every term of the sequence.

necessary and sucient A minor variant on if and only if"; A is necessary (sucient) for B means A if (only
if) B. For example, For a eld K to be algebraically closed it is necessary and sucient that it have no nite
eld extensions" means "K is algebraically closed if and only if it has no nite extensions. Often used in lists,
as in The following conditions are necessary and sucient for a eld to be algebraically closed....

need to show (NTS), required to prove (RTP), wish to show, want to show (WTS)
Proofs sometimes proceed by enumerating several conditions whose satisfaction will together imply the desired
theorem; thus, one needs to show just these statements.

one and only one A statement of the uniqueness of an object; the object exists, and furthermore, no other such
object exists.

Q.E.D. (Quod erat demonstrandum): A Latin abbreviation, meaning which was to be demonstrated, historically
placed at the end of proofs, but less common currently, having been supplanted by the Halmos end-of-proof
mark, a square sign .

suciently nice A condition on objects in the scope of the discussion, to be specied later, that will guarantee that
some stated property holds for them. When working out a theorem, the use of this expression in the statement
of the theorem indicates that the conditions involved may be not yet known to the speaker, and that the intent
is to collect the conditions that will be found to be needed in order for the proof of the theorem to go through.

the following are equivalent (TFAE) Often several equivalent conditions (especially for a denition, such as normal
subgroup) are equally useful in practice; one introduces a theorem stating an equivalence of more than two
statements with TFAE.

transport of structure It is often the case that two objects are shown to be equivalent in some way, and that one
of them is endowed with additional structure. Using the equivalence, we may dene such a structure on the
second object as well, via transport of structure. For example, any two vector spaces of the same dimension
are isomorphic; if one of them is given an inner product and if we x a particular isomorphism, then we may
dene an inner product on the other space by factoring through the isomorphism.

Let V be a nite-dimensional vector space over k....Let (ei) i n be a basis for V....There is an
isomorphism of the polynomial algebra k[Tij] i,j n onto the algebra Symk(V V * )....It extends
to an isomorphism of k[GLn] to the localized algebra Symk(V V * )D, where D = det(ei ej * )....We
write k[GL(V)] for this last algebra. By transport of structure, we obtain a linear algebraic group GL(V)
isomorphic to GLn.
Igor Shafarevich (1991, p.12)

without (any) loss of generality (WLOG, WOLOG, WALOG), we may assume (WMA)
Sometimes a proposition can be more easily proved with additional assumptions on the objects it concerns. If
the proposition as stated follows from this modied one with a simple and minimal explanation (for example, if
the remaining special cases are identical but for notation), then the modied assumptions are introduced with
this phrase and the altered proposition is proved.

18.4 Proof techniques

Mathematicians have several phrases to describe proofs or proof techniques. These are often used as hints for lling
in tedious details.

angle chasing Used to describe a geometrical proof that involves nding relationships between the various angles
in a diagram.[2]
18.5. NOTES 49

back-of-the-envelope calculation An informal computation omitting much rigor without sacricing correctness.
Often this computation is proof of concept and treats only an accessible special case.
brute force Not seeking a short or clever method of proof, but instead plowing through as many lines of computation
as is necessary.
by example A proof by example is an argument whereby a statement is not proved but instead illustrated by an
example. If done well, the specic example would easily generalize to a general proof.
by inspection A rhetorical shortcut made by authors who invite the reader to verify, at a glance, the correctness
of a proposed expression or deduction. If an expression can be evaluated by straightforward application of
simple techniques and without recourse to extended calculation or general theory, then it can be evaluated by
inspection. It is also applied to solving equations; for example to nd roots of a quadratic equation by inspection
is to 'notice' them, or mentally check them. 'By inspection' can play a kind of gestalt role: the answer or solution
simply clicks into place.
by intimidation Style of proof where claims believed by the author to be easily veriable are labelled as 'obvious
or 'trivial', which often results in the reader being confused.
clearly, can be easily shown A term which shortcuts around calculation the mathematician perceives to be tedious
or routine, accessible to any member of the audience with the necessary expertise in the eld; Laplace used
obvious (French: vident).
complete intuition commonly reserved for jokes (puns on complete induction).
diagram chasing [3] Given a commutative diagram of objects and morphisms between them, if one wishes to prove
some property of the morphisms (such as injectivity) which can be stated in terms of elements, then the proof
can proceed by tracing the path of elements of various objects around the diagram as successive morphisms
are applied to it. That is, one chases elements around the diagram, or does a diagram chase.
handwaving A non-technique of proof mostly employed in lectures, where formal argument is not strictly necessary.
It proceeds by omission of details or even signicant ingredients, and is merely a plausibility argument.
in general In a context not requiring rigor, this phrase often appears as a labor-saving device when the technical
details of a complete argument would outweigh the conceptual benets. The author gives a proof in a simple
enough case that the computations are reasonable, and then indicates that in general the proof is similar.
index battle for proofs involving object with plurious indices which can be solved by going to the bottom (if anyone
wishes to take up the eort). Similar to diagram chasing.
trivial Similar to clearly. A concept is trivial if it holds by denition, is immediate corollary to a known statement,
or is a simple special case of a more general concept.

18.5 Notes
[1] Boyd, Stephen (2004). Convex Optimization. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521833787.

[2] Roe, John (1993), Elementary Geometry, Oxford science publications, p. 119, ISBN 0-19-853456-6

[3] Numerous examples can be found in (Mac Lane 1998), for example on p. 100.

18.6 References
Eilenberg, Samuel; Mac Lane, Saunders (1942), Natural Isomorphisms in Group Theory, Proc. Natl. Acad.
Sci. USA, 28: 537543, doi:10.1073/pnas.28.12.537.
Impagliazzo, Russell (1995), A personal view of average-case complexity, Proc. Tenth Annual Structure in
Complexity Theory Conference (SCT'95), pp. 134147, doi:10.1109/SCT.1995.514853.
Jackson, Allyn (2004), Comme Appel du Nant As If Summoned from the Void: The Life of Alexandre
Grothendieck, AMS Notices, 51 (9,10) (Parts I and II).
50 CHAPTER 18. LIST OF MATHEMATICAL JARGON

Mac Lane, Saunders (1997), The PNAS way back then (PDF), Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 94 (12): 5983
5985, doi:10.1073/pnas.94.12.5983.
Mac Lane, Saunders (1998), Categories for the Working Mathematician, Springer.

Monastyrsky, Michael (2001), Some Trends in Modern Mathematics and the Fields Medal (PDF), Can.
Math. Soc. Notes, 33 (2 and 3).

Pinto, J. Sousa (2004), Hoskins, R.F., ed., Innitesimal methods for mathematical analysis, Horwood Publish-
ing, p. 246, ISBN 978-1-898563-99-0.

Poincare, Henri (1913), Halsted, Bruce, ed., The Foundations of Science, The Science Press, p. 435.
Rota, Gian-Carlo (1977), The phenomenology of mathematical beauty, Synthese, 111 (2): 171182, ISSN
0039-7857, doi:10.1023/A:1004930722234.
Shafarevich, Igor (1991), Kandall, G.A., ed., Algebraic Geometry, IV, Springer.

Wiedijk, Freek, ed. (2006), The Seventeen Provers of the World, Birkhuser, ISBN 3-540-30704-4.
Chapter 19

Canonical form

Algorithmic anagram test using multisets as canonical forms: The strings madam curie and radium came are given as C arrays.
Each one is converted into a canonical form by sorting. Since both sorted strings literally agree, the original strings were anagrams
of each other.

In mathematics and computer science, a canonical, normal, or standard form of a mathematical object is a standard
way of presenting that object as a mathematical expression. The distinction between canonical and normal forms
varies by subeld. In most elds, a canonical form species a unique representation for every object, while a normal
form simply species its form, without the requirement of uniqueness.
The canonical form of a positive integer in decimal representation is a nite sequence of digits that does not begin
with zero.
More generally, for a class of objects on which an equivalence relation is dened, a canonical form consists in the
choice of a specic object in each class. For example, Jordan normal form is a canonical form for matrix similarity,
and the row echelon form is a canonical form, when one considers as equivalent a matrix and its left product by an
invertible matrix.
In computer science, and more specically in computer algebra, when representing mathematical objects in a com-
puter, there are usually many dierent ways to represent the same object. In this context, a canonical form is a
representation such that every object has a unique representation. Thus, the equality of two objects can easily be
tested by testing the equality of their canonical forms. However canonical forms frequently depend on arbitrary
choices (like ordering the variables), and this introduces diculties for testing the equality of two objects resulting
on independent computations. Therefore, in computer algebra, normal form is a weaker notion: A normal form is
a representation such that zero is uniquely represented. This allows testing for equality by putting the dierence of
two objects in normal form.
Canonical form can also mean a dierential form that is dened in a natural (canonical) way.

51
52 CHAPTER 19. CANONICAL FORM

In computer science, data that has more than one possible representation can often be canonicalized into a completely
unique representation called its canonical form. Putting something into canonical form is canonicalization.[1]

19.1 Denition
Suppose we have some set S of objects, with an equivalence relation R. A canonical form is given by designating
some objects of S to be in canonical form, such that every object under consideration is equivalent to exactly one
object in canonical form. In other words, the canonical forms in S represent the equivalence classes, once and only
once. To test whether two objects are equivalent, it then suces to test their canonical forms for equality. A canonical
form thus provides a classication theorem and more, in that it not just classies every class, but gives a distinguished
(canonical) representative.
Formally, a canonicalization with respect to an equivalence relation R on a set S is a mapping c:SS such that for all
s, s1 , s2 S:

1. c(s) = c(c(s)) (idempotence),

2. s1 R s2 if and only if c(s1 ) = c(s2 ) (decisiveness), and

3. s R c(s) (representativeness).

Property 3 is redundant, it follows by applying 2 to 1.

In practical terms, one wants to be able to recognize the canonical forms. There is also a practical, algorithmic
question to consider: how to pass from a given object s in S to its canonical form s*? Canonical forms are generally
used to make operating with equivalence classes more eective. For example, in modular arithmetic, the canonical
form for a residue class is usually taken as the least non-negative integer in it. Operations on classes are carried
out by combining these representatives and then reducing the result to its least non-negative residue. The uniqueness
requirement is sometimes relaxed, allowing the forms to be unique up to some ner equivalence relation, like allowing
reordering of terms (if there is no natural ordering on terms).
A canonical form may simply be a convention, or a deep theorem.
For example, polynomials are conventionally written with the terms in descending powers: it is more usual to write
x2 + x + 30 than x + 30 + x2 , although the two forms dene the same polynomial. By contrast, the existence of Jordan
canonical form for a matrix is a deep theorem.

19.2 Examples
Note: in this section, "up to" some equivalence relation E means that the canonical form is not unique in general, but
that if one object has two dierent canonical forms, they are E-equivalent.

19.2.1 Linear algebra

19.2.2 Classical logic

Main article: Canonical form (Boolean algebra)

Negation normal form

Conjunctive normal form

Disjunctive normal form

Algebraic normal form

Prenex normal form

19.2. EXAMPLES 53

Skolem normal form

Blake canonical form, also known as the complete sum of prime implicants, the complete sum, or the disjunctive
prime form

19.2.3 Functional analysis

19.2.4 Number theory

canonical representation of a positive integer

canonical form of a continued fraction

19.2.5 Algebra

19.2.6 Geometry
The equation of a line: Ax + By = C, with A2 + B2 = 1 and C 0

The equation of a circle: (x h)2 + (y k)2 = r2

By contrast, there are alternative forms for writing equations. For example, the equation of a line may be written as
a linear equation in point-slope and slope-intercept form.

19.2.7 Mathematical notation

Standard form is used by many mathematicians and scientists to write extremely large numbers in a more concise and
understandable way.

19.2.8 Set theory

Cantor normal form of an ordinal number

19.2.9 Game theory

Normal form game

19.2.10 Proof theory

Normal form (natural deduction)

19.2.11 Rewriting systems

Main article: Normal form (abstract rewriting)

In an abstract rewriting system a normal form is an irreducible object.

19.2.12 Lambda calculus

A lambda term is in beta normal form if no beta reduction is possible; lambda calculus is a particular case of
an abstract rewriting system. In the untyped lambda calculus, e.g., the term (x.(xx) x.(xx)) doesn't have
a normal form. In the typed lambda calculus, every well-formed term can be rewritten to its normal form.
54 CHAPTER 19. CANONICAL FORM

19.2.13 Dynamical systems

Normal form (dynamical systems)

19.2.14 Graph theory

Main article: Graph canonization

In graph theory, a branch of mathematics, graph canonization is the problem nding a canonical form of a given
graph G. A canonical form is a labeled graph Canon(G) that is isomorphic to G, such that every graph that is iso-
morphic to G has the same canonical form as G. Thus, from a solution to the graph canonization problem, one could
also solve the problem of graph isomorphism: to test whether two graphs G and H are isomorphic, compute their
canonical forms Canon(G) and Canon(H), and test whether these two canonical forms are identical.

19.2.15 Dierential forms

Canonical dierential forms include the canonical one-form and canonical symplectic form, important in the study
of Hamiltonian mechanics and symplectic manifolds.

19.2.16 Computing
In computing, the reduction of data to any kind of canonical form is commonly called data normalization.
For instance, database normalization is the process of organizing the elds and tables of a relational database to min-
imize redundancy and dependency. In the eld of software security, a common vulnerability is unchecked malicious
input. The mitigation for this problem is proper input validation. Before input validation may be performed, the
input must be normalized, i.e., eliminating encoding (for instance HTML encoding) and reducing the input data to a
single common character set.
Other forms of data, typically associated with signal processing (including audio and imaging) or machine learning,
can be normalized in order to provide a limited range of values.

19.3 See also

Canonicalization
Canonical basis
Canonical class
Normalization (disambiguation)
Standardization

19.4 Notes
[1] The term 'canonization' is sometimes incorrectly used for this.

19.5 References
Shilov, Georgi E. (1977), Silverman, Richard A., ed., Linear Algebra, Dover, ISBN 0-486-63518-X.
Hansen, Vagn Lundsgaard (2006), Functional Analysis: Entering Hilbert Space, World Scientic Publishing,
ISBN 981-256-563-9.
Chapter 20

Canonical map

See also Natural transformation, a related concept in category theory.

For the canonical map of an algebraic variety into projective space, see Canonical bundle#Canonical maps.

In mathematics, a canonical map, also called a natural map, is a map or morphism between objects that arises
naturally from the denition or the construction of the objects.
A closely related notion is a structure map or structure morphism; the map that comes with the given structure on
the object. They are also sometimes called canonical maps.

20.1 Examples
If N is a normal subgroup of a group G, then there is a canonical map from G to the quotient group G/N that
sends an element g to the coset that g belongs to.

If V is a vector space, then there is a canonical map from V to the second dual space of V that sends a vector
v to the linear functional fv dened by fv() = (v).

If f is a ring homomorphism from a commutative ring R to commutative ring S, then S can be viewed as an
algebra over R. The ring homomorphism f is then called the structure map (for the algebra structure). The
corresponding map on the prime spectra: Spec(S) Spec(R) is also called the structure map.
If E is a vector bundle over a topological space X, then the projection map from E to X is the structure map.

In topology, a canonical map is a function f mapping a set X X (X modulo R), where R is an equivalence
relation in X.[1]

20.2 References
[1] Vialar, Thierry (2016-12-07). Handbook of Mathematics. BoD - Books on Demand. p. 274. ISBN 9782955199008.

55
Chapter 21

Characterization (mathematics)

In mathematics, the statement that Property P characterizes object X" means that not only does X have property P,
but that X is the only thing that has property P. It is also common to nd statements such as Property Q characterises
Y up to isomorphism". The rst type of statement says in dierent words that the extension of P is a singleton set. The
second says that the extension of Q is a single equivalence class (for isomorphism, in the given example depending
on how up to is being used, some other equivalence relation might be involved).

21.1 Examples
A parallelogram is a quadrilateral with opposite sides parallel. One of its characterizations is that the diagonals
bisect each other. This means that the diagonals in all parallelograms bisect each other, and conversely, that
any quadrilateral where the diagonals bisect each other must be a parallelogram. The latter statement is only
true if inclusive denitions of quadrilaterals are used (so that, for example, rectangles count as parallelograms),
which is the dominant way of dening objects in mathematics nowadays.

Among probability distributions on the interval from 0 to on the real line, memorylessness characterizes the
exponential distributions. This statement means that the exponential distributions are the only such probability
distributions that are memoryless. (See also Characterization of probability distributions.)
According to BohrMollerup theorem, among all functions f such that f(1) = 1 and x f(x) = f(x + 1) for x
> 0, log-convexity characterizes the gamma function. This means that among all such functions, the gamma
function is the only one that is log-convex. (A function f is log-convex i log(f) is a convex function. The base
of the logarithm does not matter as long as it is more than 1, but conventionally mathematicians take log with
no subscript to mean the natural logarithm, whose base is e.)
The circle is characterized as a manifold by being one-dimensional, compact and connected; here the charac-
terization, as a smooth manifold, is up to dieomorphism.

21.2 See also

Characterization of probability distributions

56
Chapter 22

Coecient

For other uses, see Coecient (disambiguation).

In mathematics, a coecient is a multiplicative factor in some term of a polynomial, a series or any expression; it is
usually a number, but may be any expression. In the latter case, the variables appearing in the coecients are often
called parameters, and must be clearly distinguished from the other variables.
For example, in

7x2 3xy + 1.5 + y,

the rst two terms respectively have the coecients 7 and 3. The third term 1.5 is a constant. The nal term does not
have any explicitly written coecient, but is considered to have coecient 1, since multiplying by that factor would
not change the term.
Often coecients are numbers as in this example, although they could be parameters of the problem or any expression
in these parameters. In such a case one must clearly distinguish between symbols representing variables and symbols
representing parameters. Following Descartes, the variables are often denoted by x, y, ..., and the parameters by a,
b, c, ..., but it is not always the case. For example, if y is considered as a parameter in the above expression, the
coecient of x is 3y, and the constant coecient is 1.5 + y.
When one writes

ax2 + bx + c

it is generally supposed that x is the only variable and that a, b and c are parameters; thus the constant coecient is c
in this case.
Similarly, any polynomial in one variable x can be written as

ak xk + + a1 x1 + a0

for some positive integer k , where ak , . . . , a1 , a0 are coecients; to allow this kind of expression in all cases one
must allow introducing terms with 0 as coecient. For the largest i with ai = 0 (if any), ai is called the leading
coecient of the polynomial. So for example the leading coecient of the polynomial

4x5 + x3 + 2x2

is 4.
Some specic coecients that occur frequently in mathematics have received a name. This is the case of the binomial
coecients, the coecients which occur in the expanded form of (x + y)n , and are tabulated in Pascals triangle.

57
58 CHAPTER 22. COEFFICIENT

22.1 Linear algebra

In linear algebra, the leading coecient (also leading entry) of a row in a matrix is the rst nonzero entry in that
row. So, for example, given

1 2 0 6
0 2 9 4
M =
0

0 0 4
0 0 0 0

The leading coecient of the rst row is 1; 2 is the leading coecient of the second row; 4 is the leading coecient
of the third row, and the last row does not have a leading coecient.
Though coecients are frequently viewed as constants in elementary algebra, they can be variables more generally.
For example, the coordinates (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) of a vector v in a vector space with basis {e1 , e2 , . . . , en } , are the
coecients of the basis vectors in the expression

v = x1 e1 + x2 e2 + + xn en .

22.2 See also

Degree of a polynomial
Monic polynomial

22.3 References
Sabah Al-hadad and C.H. Scott (1979) College Algebra with Applications, page 42, Winthrop Publishers, Cam-
bridge Massachusetts ISBN 0-87626-140-3 .
Gordon Fuller, Walter L Wilson, Henry C Miller, (1982) College Algebra, 5th edition, page 24, Brooks/Cole
Publishing, Monterey California ISBN 0-534-01138-1 .
Steven Schwartzman (1994) The Words of Mathematics: an etymological dictionary of mathematical terms used
in English, page 48, Mathematics Association of America, ISBN 0-88385-511-9.
Chapter 23

Commutative diagram

The commutative diagram used in the proof of the ve lemma.

In mathematics, and especially in category theory, a commutative diagram is a diagram of objects (also known as
vertices) and morphisms (also known as arrows or edges) such that all directed paths in the diagram with the same
start and endpoints lead to the same result by composition. Commutative diagrams play the role in category theory
that equations play in algebra (see BarrWells, Section 1.7).
Note that a diagram may not be commutative, i.e., the composition of dierent paths in the diagram may not give the
same result. For clarication, phrases like this commutative diagram or the diagram commutes may be used.

23.1 Examples
In the bottom-left diagram, which expresses the rst isomorphism theorem, commutativity means that f = f
while in the bottom-right diagram, commutativity of the square means h f = k g :
For the diagram below to commute, we must have the three equalities: (1) r h g = H G l, (2) m g = G l,
and (3) r h = H m . Since the rst equality follows from the last two, for the diagram to commute it suces to
show (2) and (3). However, since equality (3) does not generally follow from the other two equalities, for this diagram
to commute it is generally not enough to only have equalities (1) and (2).

23.1.1 Symbols
In algebra texts, the type of morphism can be denoted with dierent arrow usages: monomorphisms with a , ,

epimorphisms with a , and isomorphisms with a . The dashed arrow typically represents the claim that the
indicated morphism exists whenever the rest of the diagram holds; the arrow may optionally be labeled . If the
dashed arrow is labeled ! or ! , the morphism is furthermore unique. These conventions are common enough that
texts often do not explain the meanings of the dierent types of arrow.

59
60 CHAPTER 23. COMMUTATIVE DIAGRAM

23.2 Verifying commutativity

Commutativity makes sense for a polygon of any nite number of sides (including just 1 or 2), and a diagram is
commutative if every polygonal subdiagram is commutative.

23.3 Diagram chasing

Diagram chasing (also called diagrammatic search) is a method of mathematical proof used especially in homological
algebra. Given a commutative diagram, a proof by diagram chasing involves the formal use of the properties of the
diagram, such as injective or surjective maps, or exact sequences. A syllogism is constructed, for which the graphical
display of the diagram is just a visual aid. It follows that one ends up chasing elements around the diagram, until
the desired element or result is constructed or veried.
Examples of proofs by diagram chasing include those typically given for the ve lemma, the snake lemma, the zig-zag
lemma, and the nine lemma.

23.4 2-categorical diagrams

In 2-category theory, one considers not only objects and arrows, but arrows between the arrows. For example, if
you treat the category of small categories Cat as a 1-category, there is a canonical 2-categorical enrichment given
by natural transformations of functors. So now the commutative diagrams consist not only of arrows, but arrows
between arrows. Composition is given by pasting diagrams. For example, consider http://presheaf.com/cache/
d2k2s5424522145l0204b4k3i2z6s32.png

23.5 Diagrams as functors

Main article: Diagram (category theory)

A commutative diagram in a category C can be interpreted as a functor from an index category J to C; one calls the
functor a diagram.
More formally, a commutative diagram is a visualization of a diagram indexed by a poset category:

one draws a node for every object in the index category,

an arrow for a generating set of morphisms,
omitting identity maps and morphisms that can be expressed as compositions,
and the commutativity of the diagram (the equality of dierent compositions of maps between two objects)
corresponds to the uniqueness of a map between two objects in a poset category.

Conversely, given a commutative diagram, it denes a poset category:

the objects are the nodes,

there is a morphism between any two objects if and only if there is a (directed) path between the nodes,
with the relation that this morphism is unique (any composition of maps is dened by its domain and target:
this is the commutativity axiom).

However, not every diagram commutes (the notion of diagram strictly generalizes commutative diagram): most
simply, the diagram of a single object with an endomorphism ( f : X X ), or with two parallel arrows ( ,
that is, f, g : X Y , sometimes called the free quiver), as used in the denition of equalizer need not commute.
Further, diagrams may be messy or impossible to draw when the number of objects or morphisms is large (or even
innite).
23.6. SEE ALSO 61

23.6 See also

Mathematical diagram

23.7 References
Admek, Ji; Horst Herrlich; George E. Strecker (1990). Abstract and Concrete Categories (PDF). John Wiley
& Sons. ISBN 0-471-60922-6. Now available as free on-line edition (4.2MB PDF).
Barr, Michael; Wells, Charles (2002). Toposes, Triples and Theories (PDF). ISBN 0-387-96115-1. Revised
and corrected free online version of Grundlehren der mathematischen Wissenschaften (278) Springer-Verlag,
1983).

23.8 External links

Diagram Chasing at MathWorld
WildCats is a category theory package for Mathematica. Manipulation and visualization of objects, morphisms,
categories, functors, natural transformations.
Chapter 24

Complete set of invariants

In mathematics, a complete set of invariants for a classication problem is a collection of maps

fi : X Yi
(where X is the collection of objects being classied, up to some equivalence relation, and the Yi are some sets), such
that x x if and only if fi (x) = fi (x ) for all i. In words, such that two objects are equivalent if and only if all
invariants are equal.[1]
Symbolically, a complete set of invariants is a collection of maps such that

fi : (X/ ) Yi
is injective.
As invariants are, by denition, equal on equivalent objects, equality of invariants is a necessary condition for equiv-
alence; a complete set of invariants is a set such that equality of these is sucient for equivalence. In the context
of a group action, this may be stated as: invariants are functions of coinvariants (equivalence classes, orbits), and a
complete set of invariants characterizes the coinvariants (is a set of dening equations for the coinvariants).

24.1 Examples
In the classication of two-dimensional closed manifolds, Euler characteristic (or genus) and orientability are
a complete set of invariants.
Jordan normal form of a matrix is a complete invariant for matrices up to conjugation, but eigenvalues (with
multiplicities) are not.

24.2 Realizability of invariants

A complete set of invariants does not immediately yield a classication theorem: not all combinations of invariants
may be realized. Symbolically, one must also determine the image of

fi : X Yi .

24.3 References
[1] Faticoni, Theodore G. (2006), Modules and point set topological spaces, Abelian groups, rings, modules, and homological
algebra, Lect. Notes Pure Appl. Math., 249, Chapman & Hall/CRC, Boca Raton, FL, pp. 87105, MR 2229105,
doi:10.1201/9781420010763.ch10. See in particular p. 97.

62
Chapter 25

Connectedness

This article is about mathematics. For other uses, see Connectedness (disambiguation).

In mathematics, connectedness[1] is used to refer to various properties meaning, in some sense, all one piece. When
a mathematical object has such a property, we say it is connected; otherwise it is disconnected. When a disconnected
object can be split naturally into connected pieces, each piece is usually called a component (or connected component).

25.1 Connectedness in topology

Main article: Connected space

A topological space is said to be connected if it is not the union of two disjoint nonempty open sets[2] . A set is open if
it contains no point lying on its boundary; thus, in an informal, intuitive sense, the fact that a space can be partitioned
into disjoint open sets suggests that the boundary between the two sets is not part of the space, and thus splits it into
two separate pieces.

25.2 Other notions of connectedness

Fields of mathematics are typically concerned with special kinds of objects. Often such an object is said to be
connected if, when it is considered as a topological space, it is a connected space. Thus, manifolds, Lie groups, and
graphs are all called connected if they are connected as topological spaces, and their components are the topological
components. Sometimes it is convenient to restate the denition of connectedness in such elds. For example, a
graph is said to be connected if each pair of vertices in the graph is joined by a path. This denition is equivalent to
the topological one, as applied to graphs, but it is easier to deal with in the context of graph theory. Graph theory
also oers a context-free measure of connectedness, called the clustering coecient.
Other elds of mathematics are concerned with objects that are rarely considered as topological spaces. Nonetheless,
denitions of connectedness often reect the topological meaning in some way. For example, in category theory, a
category is said to be connected if each pair of objects in it is joined by a sequence of morphisms. Thus, a category
is connected if it is, intuitively, all one piece.
There may be dierent notions of connectedness that are intuitively similar, but dierent as formally dened con-
cepts. We might wish to call a topological space connected if each pair of points in it is joined by a path. However
this condition turns out to be stronger than standard topological connectedness; in particular, there are connected
topological spaces for which this property does not hold. Because of this, dierent terminology is used; spaces with
this property are said to be path connected. While not all connected spaces are path connected, all path connected
spaces are connected.
Terms involving connected are also used for properties that are related to, but clearly dierent from, connectedness.
For example, a path-connected topological space is simply connected if each loop (path from a point to itself) in it is
contractible; that is, intuitively, if there is essentially only one way to get from any point to any other point. Thus, a

63
64 CHAPTER 25. CONNECTEDNESS

sphere and a disk are each simply connected, while a torus is not. As another example, a directed graph is strongly
connected if each ordered pair of vertices is joined by a directed path (that is, one that follows the arrows).
Other concepts express the way in which an object is not connected. For example, a topological space is totally
disconnected if each of its components is a single point.

25.3 Connectivity

Main article: Connectivity (graph theory)

Properties and parameters based on the idea of connectedness often involve the word connectivity. For example,
in graph theory, a connected graph is one from which we must remove at least one vertex to create a disconnected
graph[3] . In recognition of this, such graphs are also said to be 1-connected. Similarly, a graph is 2-connected if we
must remove at least two vertices from it, to create a disconnected graph. A 3-connected graph requires the removal
of at least three vertices, and so on. The connectivity of a graph is the minimum number of vertices that must be
removed, to disconnect it. Equivalently, the connectivity of a graph is the greatest integer k for which the graph is
k-connected.
While terminology varies, noun forms of connectedness-related properties often include the term connectivity. Thus,
when discussing simply connected topological spaces, it is far more common to speak of simple connectivity than
simple connectedness. On the other hand, in elds without a formally dened notion of connectivity, the word may be
used as a synonym for connectedness.
Another example of connectivity can be found in regular tilings. Here, the connectivity describes the number of
neighbors accessible from a single tile:

3-connectivity in a triangular tiling,

4-connectivity in a square tiling,

6-connectivity in a hexagonal tiling,

25.4. SEE ALSO 65

8-connectivity in a square tiling (note that distance equity is not kept)

25.4 See also

connected space

connected category
connected component (graph theory)

connected sum
cross-link

network
Scale-free network

simply connected
small-world network

strongly connected component

totally disconnected

Interconnectedness

25.5 References
[1] the denition of connectedness. Dictionary.com. Retrieved 2016-06-15.

[2] Munkres, James (2000). Topology. Pearson. p. 148. ISBN 978-0131816299.

[3] Bondy, J.A.; Murty, U.S.R. (1976). Graph Theory and Applications. New York, NY: Elsevier Science Publishing Co. p.
42. ISBN 0444194517.
Chapter 26

Continuous or discrete variable

In mathematics, a variable may be continuous or discrete. If it can take on two particular real values such that it can
also take on all real values between them (even values that are arbitrarily close together), the variable is continuous in
that interval. If it can take on a value such that there is a non-innitesimal gap on each side of it containing no values
that the variable can take on, then it is discrete around that value.[1] In some contexts a variable can be discrete in
some ranges of the number line and continuous in others.

26.1 Continuous variable

A continuous variable is one which can take on innitely many, uncountable values.
For example, a variable over a non-empty range of the real numbers is continuous, if it can take on any value in that
range. The reason is that any range of real numbers between a and b with a, b R; a = b is innite and uncountable.
Methods of calculus are often used in problems in which the variables are continuous, for example in continuous
optimization problems.
In statistical theory, the probability distributions of continuous variables can be expressed in terms of probability
density functions.
In continuous-time dynamics, the variable time is treated as continuous, and the equation describing the evolution of
some variable over time is a dierential equation. The instantaneous rate of change is a well-dened concept.

26.2 Discrete variable

In contrast, a discrete variable over a particular range of real values is one for which, for any value in the range
that the variable is permitted to take on, there is a positive minimum distance to the nearest other permissible value.
The number of permitted values is either nite or countably innite. Common examples are variables that must be
integers, non-negative integers, positive integers, or only the integers 0 and 1.
Methods of calculus do not readily lend themselves to problems involving discrete variables. Examples of problems
involving discrete variables include integer programming.
In statistics, the probability distributions of discrete variables can be expressed in terms of probability mass functions.
In discrete time dynamics, the variable time is treated as discrete, and the equation of evolution of some variable over
time is called a dierence equation.
In econometrics and more generally in regression analysis, sometimes some of the variables being empirically related
to each other are 0-1 variables, being permitted to take on only those two values. A variable of this type is called
a dummy variable. If the dependent variable is a dummy variable, then logistic regression or probit regression is
commonly employed.

66
26.3. SEE ALSO 67

26.3 See also

Continuous function

Discrete mathematics
Continuous spectrum

Discrete spectrum

Discrete time and continuous time

Continuous-time stochastic process

Discrete-time stochastic process

Continuous modelling

Discrete modelling
Continuous geometry

Discrete geometry
Continuous series representation

Discrete series representation

Discretization

Discrete measure

26.4 References
[1] K.D. Joshi, Foundations of Discrete Mathematics, 1989, New Age International Limited, , page 7.
Chapter 27

Control variable (programming)

Not to be confused with Control variable.

A control variable in computer programming is a program variable that is used to regulate the ow of control of the
program .[1]

27.1 Usage
A loop control variable is used to regulate the number of times the body of a program loop is executed; it is incre-
mented (or decremented when counting down) each time the loop body is executed. A single control variable can
identify the present state of a computer program.

27.2 References
[1] Bubnicki, Zdzislaw (2005). Modern Control Theory. Berlin: Springer Verlag.

68
Chapter 28

Corollary

A corollary (/krlri/ KORR-l-er-ee or UK: /krlri/ ko-ROL-r-ee) is a statement that follows readily from a
previous statement.

28.1 Overview
In mathematics a corollary typically follows a theorem. The use of the term corollary, rather than proposition or
theorem, is intrinsically subjective. Proposition B is a corollary of proposition A if B can be readily deduced from A
or is self-evident from its proof. The importance of the corollary is often considered secondary to that of the initial
theorem; B is unlikely to be termed a corollary if its mathematical consequences are as signicant as those of A.
Sometimes a corollary has a proof that explains the derivation; sometimes the derivation is considered self-evident.

28.2 Peirces theory of deductive reasoning

Charles Sanders Peirce held that the most important division of kinds of deductive reasoning is that between corollarial
and theorematic. He argued that, while nally all deduction depends in one way or another on mental experimentation
on schemata or diagrams,[1] still in corollarial deduction it is only necessary to imagine any case in which the premises
are true in order to perceive immediately that the conclusion holds in that case, whereas theorematic deduction is
deduction in which it is necessary to experiment in the imagination upon the image of the premise in order from the
result of such experiment to make corollarial deductions to the truth of the conclusion.[2] He held that corollarial
deduction matches Aristotles conception of direct demonstration, which Aristotle regarded as the only thoroughly
satisfactory demonstration, while theorematic deduction (A) is the kind more prized by mathematicians, (B) is peculiar
to mathematics,[1] and (C) involves in its course the introduction of a lemma or at least a denition uncontemplated
in the thesis (the proposition that is to be proved); in remarkable cases that denition is of an abstraction that ought
to be supported by a proper postulate.[3]

28.3 See also

Lemma (mathematics)
Lodge Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine
Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine

28.4 Notes
[1] Peirce, C. S., from section dated 1902 by editors in the Minute Logic manuscript, Collected Papers v. 4, paragraph 233,
quoted in part in "Corollarial Reasoning" in the Commons Dictionary of Peirces Terms, 2003present, Mats Bergman and
Sami Paavola, editors, University of Helsinki.

69
70 CHAPTER 28. COROLLARY

[2] Peirce, C. S., the 1902 Carnegie Application, published in The New Elements of Mathematics, Carolyn Eisele, editor, also
transcribed by Joseph M. Ransdell, see From Draft A MS L75.3539 in Memoir 19 (once there, scroll down).

[3] Peirce, C. S., 1901 manuscript On the Logic of Drawing History from Ancient Documents, Especially from Testimonies,
The Essential Peirce v. 2, see p. 96. See quote in "Corollarial Reasoning" in the Commens Dictionary of Peirces Terms.

28.5 References
Weisstein, Eric W. Corollary. MathWorld.

corollary at dictionary.com
Chamberss Encyclopaedia. Volume 3, Appleton 1864, p. 260 (online copy, p. 260, at Google Books)
Chapter 29

Correlation coecient

A correlation coecient is a number that quanties a type of correlation and dependence, meaning statistical rela-
tionships between two or more values in fundamental statistics.[1]
Types of correlation coecients include:

Pearson product-moment correlation coecient, also known as r, R, or Pearsons r, a measure of the strength
and direction of the linear relationship between two variables that is dened as the (sample) covariance of the
variables divided by the product of their (sample) standard deviations.
Intraclass correlation, a descriptive statistic that can be used when quantitative measurements are made on units
that are organized into groups; describes how strongly units in the same group resemble each other.
Rank correlation, the study of relationships between rankings of dierent variables or dierent rankings of the
same variable
Spearmans rank correlation coecient, a measure of how well the relationship between two variables
can be described by a monotonic function
Kendall tau rank correlation coecient, a measure of the portion of ranks that match between two data
sets.
Goodman and Kruskals gamma, a measure of the strength of association of the cross tabulated data when
both variables are measured at the ordinal level.

29.1 See also

Distance correlation
Goodness of t, any of several measures that measure how well a statistical model ts observations by sum-
marizing the discrepancy between observed values and the values expected under the model in the correlation
coecient has to be between 1.0 and 1.0

Coecient of determination

29.2 References
[1] correlation coecient. NCME.org. National Council on Measurement in Education. Retrieved April 17, 2014. correla-
tion coecient: A statistic used to show how the scores from one measure relate to scores on a second measure for the same
group of individuals. A high value (approaching +1.00) is a strong direct relationship, a low negative value (approaching
1.00) is a strong inverse relationship, and values near 0.00 indicate little, if any, relationship.

71
Chapter 30

Correspondence (mathematics)

In mathematics and mathematical economics, correspondence is a term with several related but distinct meanings.

In general mathematics, a correspondence is an ordered triple (X,Y,R), where R is a relation from X to Y, i.e.
any subset of the Cartesian product XY.[1]
One-to-one correspondence is an alternate name for a bijection. For instance, in projective geometry the
mappings are correspondences[2] between projective ranges.

In algebraic geometry, a correspondence between algebraic varieties V and W is in the same fashion a subset
R of VW, which is in addition required to be closed in the Zariski topology. It therefore means any relation
that is dened by algebraic equations. There are some important examples, even when V and W are algebraic
curves: for example the Hecke operators of modular form theory may be considered as correspondences of
modular curves.

However, the denition of a correspondence in algebraic geometry is not completely standard. For
instance, Fulton, in his book on Intersection theory,[3] uses the denition above. In literature, however,
a correspondence from a variety X to a variety Y is often taken to be a subset Z of XY such that Z
is nite and surjective over each component of X. Note the asymmetry in this latter denition; which
talks about a correspondence from X to Y rather than a correspondence between X and Y. The typical
example of the latter kind of correspondence is the graph of a function f:XY. Correspondences also
play an important role in the construction of motives.[4]

In category theory, a correspondence from C to D is a functor C op D Set . It is the opposite of a

profunctor.
In von Neumann algebra theory, a correspondence is a synonym for a von Neumann algebra bimodule.
In economics, a correspondence between two sets A and B is a map f : A 7 P (B) from the elements
of the set A to the power set of B .[5] This is similar to a correspondence as dened in general mathematics
(i.e., a relation,) except that the range is over sets instead of elements. However, there is usually the additional
property that for all a in A, f(a) is not empty. In other words, each element in A maps to a non-empty subset
of B; or in terms of a relation R as subset of AB, R projects to A surjectively. A correspondence with this
additional property is thought of as the generalization of a function, rather than as a special case of a relation,
and is referred to in other contexts as a multivalued function.

An example of a correspondence in this sense is the best response correspondence in game theory, which
gives the optimal action for a player as a function of the strategies of all other players. If there is always a
unique best action given what the other players are doing, then this is a function. If for some opponents
strategy, there is a set of best responses that are equally good, then this is a correspondence.

30.1 See also

Binary relation

72
30.2. REFERENCES 73

Bijection

30.2 References
[1] Encyclopedic dictionary of Mathematics. MIT. 2000. pp. 13301331. ISBN 0-262-59020-4.

[2] H. S. M. Coxeter (1959) The Real Projective Plane, page 18

[3] Fulton, William (1998), Intersection theory, Ergebnisse der Mathematik und ihrer Grenzgebiete. 3. Folge. A Series of
Modern Surveys in Mathematics [Results in Mathematics and Related Areas. 3rd Series. A Series of Modern Surveys in
Mathematics], 2, Berlin, New York: Springer-Verlag, ISBN 978-0-387-98549-7, MR 1644323

[4] Mazza, Carlo; Voevodsky, Vladimir; Weibel, Charles (2006), Lecture notes on motivic cohomology, Clay Mathematics
Monographs, 2, Providence, R.I.: American Mathematical Society, ISBN 978-0-8218-3847-1, MR 2242284

[5] Mas-Colell, Andreu; Whinston, Michael D.; Green, Jerry R. (1995). Microeconomic Analysis. New York: Oxford Univer-
sity Press. pp. 949951. ISBN 0-19-507340-1.
Chapter 31

Counterexample

In logic, and especially in its applications to mathematics and philosophy, a counterexample is an exception to a
proposed general rule or law. For example, consider the proposition all students are lazy. Because this statement
makes the claim that a certain property (laziness) holds for all students, even a single example of a diligent student
will prove it false. Thus, any hard-working student is a counterexample to all students are lazy. More precisely, a
counterexample is a specic instance of the falsity of a universal quantication (a for all statement).
In mathematics, this term is (by a slight abuse) also sometimes used for examples illustrating the necessity of the full
hypothesis of a theorem, by considering a case where a part of the hypothesis is not veried, and where one can show
that the conclusion does not hold.

31.1 In mathematics
In mathematics, counterexamples are often used to prove the boundaries of possible theorems. By using counterex-
amples to show that certain conjectures are false, mathematical researchers avoid going down blind alleys and learn
how to modify conjectures to produce provable theorems.

31.1.1 Rectangle example

Suppose that a mathematician is studying geometry and shapes, and she wishes to prove certain theorems about them.
She conjectures that All rectangles are squares". She can either attempt to prove the truth of this statement using
deductive reasoning, or if she suspects that her conjecture is false, she might attempt to nd a counterexample. In
this case, a counterexample would be a rectangle that is not a square, like a rectangle with two sides of length 5 and
two sides of length 7. However, despite having found rectangles that were not squares, all the rectangles she did nd
had four sides. She then makes the new conjecture All rectangles have four sides. This is weaker than her original
conjecture, since every square has four sides, even though not every four-sided shape is a square.
The previous paragraph explained how a mathematician might weaken her conjecture in the face of counterexamples,
but counterexamples can also be used to show that the assumptions and hypothesis are needed. Suppose that after a
while the mathematician in question settled on the new conjecture All shapes that are rectangles and have four sides
of equal length are squares. This conjecture has two parts to the hypothesis: the shape must be 'a rectangle' and
'have four sides of equal length' and the mathematician would like to know if she can remove either assumption and
still maintain the truth of her conjecture. So she needs to check the truth of the statements: (1) All shapes that are
rectangles are squares and (2) All shapes that have four sides of equal length are squares. A counterexample to
(1) was already given, and a counterexample to (2) is a non-square rhombus. Thus the mathematician sees that both
assumptions were necessary.

31.1.2 Other mathematical examples

See also: Counterexamples in topology and Minimal counterexample

74
31.2. IN PHILOSOPHY 75

A counterexample to the statement all prime numbers are odd numbers" is the number 2, as it is a prime number but
is not an odd number. Neither of the numbers 7 or 10 is a counterexample, as neither contradicts the statement. In
this example, 2 is the only possible counterexample to the statement, but only a single example is needed to contradict
"All prime numbers are odd numbers. Similarly the statement All natural numbers are either prime or composite"
has the number 1 as a counterexample as 1 is neither prime nor composite.
Eulers sum of powers conjecture was disproved by counterexample. It asserted that at least n nth powers were
necessary to sum to another nth power. The conjecture was disproven in 1966[1] with a counterexample involving n
= 5; other n = 5 counterexamples are now known, as are some n = 4 counterexamples.
Witsenhausens counterexample shows that it is not always true for control problems that a quadratic loss function
and a linear equation of evolution of the state variable imply optimal control laws that are linear.
Other examples include the disproofs of the Seifert conjecture, the Plya conjecture, the conjecture of Hilberts
fourteenth problem, Taits conjecture, and the Ganea conjecture.

31.2 In philosophy
In philosophy, counterexamples are usually used to argue that a certain philosophical position is wrong by showing
that it does not apply in certain cases. Unlike mathematicians, philosophers cannot prove their claims beyond any
doubt, so other philosophers are free to disagree and try to nd counterexamples in response. Of course, now the rst
philosopher can argue that the alleged counterexample does not really apply.
Alternatively, the rst philosopher can modify their claim so that the counterexample no longer applies; this is anal-
ogous to when a mathematician modies a conjecture because of a counterexample.
For example, in Plato's Gorgias, Callicles, trying to dene what it means to say that some people are better than
others, claims that those who are stronger are better.
But Socrates replies that, because of their strength of numbers, the class of common rabble is stronger than the
propertied class of nobles, even though the masses are prima facie of worse character. Thus Socrates has proposed
a counterexample to Callicles claim, by looking in an area that Callicles perhaps did not expect groups of people
rather than individual persons.
Callicles might challenge Socrates counterexample, arguing perhaps that the common rabble really are better than
the nobles, or that even in their large numbers, they still are not stronger. But if Callicles accepts the counterexample,
then he must either withdraw his claim or modify it so that the counterexample no longer applies. For example,
he might modify his claim to refer only to individual persons, requiring him to think of the common people as a
collection of individuals rather than as a mob.
As it happens, he modies his claim to say wiser instead of stronger, arguing that no amount of numerical supe-
riority can make people wiser.

31.3 See also

Exception that proves the rule

Contradiction

31.4 References
[1] http://www.ams.org/journals/bull/1966-72-06/S0002-9904-1966-11654-3/S0002-9904-1966-11654-3.pdf

31.5 Further reading

Lynn Arthur Steen and J. Arthur Seebach, Jr.: Counterexamples in Topology, Springer, New York 1978, ISBN
0-486-68735-X.
76 CHAPTER 31. COUNTEREXAMPLE

Joseph P. Romano and Andrew F. Siegel: Counterexamples in Probability and Statistics, Chapman & Hall, New
York, London 1986, ISBN 0-412-98901-8.
Gary L. Wise and Eric B. Hall: Counterexamples in Probability and Real Analysis. Oxford University Press,
New York 1993. ISBN 0-19-507068-2.
Bernard R. Gelbaum, John M. H. Olmsted: Counterexamples in Analysis. Corrected reprint of the second
(1965) edition, Dover Publications, Mineola, NY 2003, ISBN 0-486-42875-3.
Jordan M. Stoyanov: Counterexamples in Probability. Second edition, Wiley, Chichester 1997, ISBN 0-471-
96538-3.
Michael Copobianco & John Mulluzzo (1978) Examples and Counterexamples in Graph Theory, Elsevier
North-Holland ISBN 0-444-00255-3.
Chapter 32

Cryptomorphism

In mathematics, two objects, especially systems of axioms or semantics for them, are called cryptomorphic if they
are equivalent but not obviously equivalent. This word is a play on the many morphisms in mathematics, but cryp-
tomorphism is only very distantly related to "isomorphism", "homomorphism", or morphisms. The equivalence
may possibly be in some informal sense, or may be formalized in terms of a bijection or equivalence of categories
between the mathematical objects dened by the two cryptomorphic axiom systems.

32.1 Etymology
The word was coined by Garrett Birkho before 1967, for use in the third edition of his book Lattice Theory. Birkho
did not give it a formal denition, though others working in the eld have made some attempts since.

32.2 Use in matroid theory

Its informal sense was popularized (and greatly expanded in scope) by Gian-Carlo Rota in the context of matroid
theory: there are dozens of equivalent axiomatic approaches to matroids, but two dierent systems of axioms often
look very dierent.
In his 1997 book Indiscrete Thoughts, Rota describes the situation as follows:
Though there are many cryptomorphic concepts in mathematics outside of matroid theory and universal algebra, the
word has not caught on among mathematicians generally. It is, however, in fairly wide use among researchers in
matroid theory.

32.3 See also

Combinatorial class, an equivalence among combinatorial enumeration problems hinting at the existence of a
cryptomorphism

32.4 References
Birkho, G.: Lattice Theory, 3rd edition. American Mathematical Society Colloquium Publications, Vol.
XXV. 1967.

Crapo, H. and Rota, G-C.: On the foundations of combinatorial theory: Combinatorial geometries. M.I.T.
Press, Cambridge, Mass. 1970.

Elkins, James: Chapter Cryptomorphs in Why Are Our Pictures Puzzles?: On the Modern Origins of Pictorial
Complexity, 1999

77
78 CHAPTER 32. CRYPTOMORPHISM

Rota, G-C.: Indiscrete Thoughts, Birkhuser Boston, Inc., Boston, MA. 1997.

White, N., editor: Theory of Matroids, Encyclopedia of Mathematics and its Applications, 26. Cambridge
University Press, Cambridge. 1986.
Chapter 33

Denition

To get the denition of another word, try using Wiktionary

For other uses of the word denition itself, see Denition (disambiguation).
A denition is a statement of the meaning of a term (a word, phrase, or other set of symbols).[1] Denitions can be

A denition states the meaning of a word using other words. This is sometimes challenging. Common dictionaries contain lexical
descriptive denitions but there are various types of denition - all with dierent purposes and focuses.

classied into two large categories, intensional denitions (which try to give the essence of a term) and extensional
denitions (which proceed by listing the objects that a term describes).[2] Another important category of denitions
is the class of ostensive denitions, which convey the meaning of a term by pointing out examples. A term may have
many dierent senses and multiple meanings, and thus require multiple denitions.[3][lower-alpha 1]
In mathematics, a denition is used to give a precise meaning to a new term, instead of describing a pre-existing term.
Denitions and axioms are the basis on which all of mathematics is constructed.[4]

79
80 CHAPTER 33. DEFINITION

33.1 Basic terminology

In modern usage, a denition is something, typically expressed in words, that attaches a meaning to a word or group
of words. The word or group of words that is to be dened is called the deniendum, and the word, group of words,
or action that denes it is called the deniens. In the denition An elephant is a large gray animal native to Asia and
Africa, the word elephant is the deniendum, and everything after the word is is the deniens.[5]
Note that the deniens is not the meaning of the word dened, but is instead something that conveys the same meaning
as that word.[5]
There are many sub-types of denitions, often specic to a given eld of knowledge or study. These include, among
many others, lexical denitions, or the common dictionary denitions of words already in a language; demonstrative
denitions, which dene something by pointing to an example of it (This, [said while pointing to a large grey
animal], is an Asian elephant.); and precising denitions, which reduce the vagueness of a word, typically in some
special sense ("'Large', among female Asian elephants, is any individual weighing over 5,500 pounds.).[5]

33.2 Intensional denitions vs extensional denitions

Main articles: Intension and Extension (semantics)

An intensional denition, also called a connotative denition, species the necessary and sucient conditions for a
thing being a member of a specic set.[2] Any denition that attempts to set out the essence of something, such as
that by genus and dierentia, is an intensional denition.
An extensional denition, also called a denotative denition, of a concept or term species its extension. It is a list
naming every object that is a member of a specic set.[2]
Thus, the "seven deadly sins" can be dened intensionally as those singled out by Pope Gregory I as particularly de-
structive of the life of grace and charity within a person, thus creating the threat of eternal damnation. An extensional
denition would be the list of wrath, greed, sloth, pride, lust, envy, and gluttony. In contrast, while an intensional
denition of "Prime Minister" might be the most senior minister of a cabinet in the executive branch of government
in a parliamentary system, an extensional denition is not possible since it is not known who future prime ministers
will be.

33.2.1 Classes of intensional denitions

Main article: Genusdierentia denition

A genusdierentia denition is a type of intensional denition that takes a large category (the genus) and narrows
it down to a smaller category by a distinguishing characteristic (i.e. the dierentia).[6]
More formally, a genus-dierentia denition consists of:

1. a genus (or family): An existing denition that serves as a portion of the new denition; all denitions with
the same genus are considered members of that genus.
2. the dierentia: The portion of the new denition that is not provided by the genus.

For example, consider the following genus-dierentia denitions:

a triangle: A plane gure that has three straight bounding sides.

a quadrilateral: A plane gure that has four straight bounding sides.

Those denitions can be expressed as a genus (a plane gure) and two dierentiae (that has three straight bounding
sides and that has four straight bounding sides, respectively).
It is possible to have two dierent genus-dierentia denitions that describe the same term, especially when the term
describes the overlap of two large categories. For instance, both of these genus-dierentia denitions of square are
equally acceptable:
33.2. INTENSIONAL DEFINITIONS VS EXTENSIONAL DEFINITIONS 81

a square: a rectangle that is a rhombus.

a square: a rhombus that is a rectangle.

Thus, a square is a member of both the genus rectangle and the genus rhombus.

33.2.2 Classes of extensional denitions

One important form of the extensional denition is ostensive denition. This gives the meaning of a term by pointing,
in the case of an individual, to the thing itself, or in the case of a class, to examples of the right kind. So one can
explain who Alice (an individual) is by pointing her out to another; or what a rabbit (a class) is by pointing at several
and expecting another to understand. The process of ostensive denition itself was critically appraised by Ludwig
Wittgenstein.[7]
An enumerative denition of a concept or term is an extensional denition that gives an explicit and exhaustive listing
of all the objects that fall under the concept or term in question. Enumerative denitions are only possible for nite
sets and only practical for relatively small sets.

33.2.3 Divisio and partitio

Divisio and partitio are classical terms for denitions. A partitio is simply an intensional denition. A divisio is not an
extensional denition, but an exhaustive list of subsets of a set, in the sense that every member of the divided set
is a member of one of the subsets. An extreme form of divisio lists all sets whose only member is a member of the
divided set. The dierence between this and an extensional denition is that extensional denitions list members,
and not subsets.[8]

33.2.4 Nominal denitions vs real denitions

Main article: Essence

In classical thought, a denition was taken to be a statement of the essence of a thing. Aristotle had it that an
objects essential attributes form its essential nature, and that a denition of the object must include these essential
attributes.[9]
The idea that a denition should state the essence of a thing led to the distinction between nominal and real essence,
originating with Aristotle. In a passage from the Posterior Analytics,[10] he says that the meaning of a made-up name
can be known (he gives the example goat stag), without knowing what he calls the essential nature of the thing
that the name would denote, if there were such a thing. This led medieval logicians to distinguish between what they
called the quid nominis or whatness of the name, and the underlying nature common to all the things it names, which
they called the quid rei or whatness of the thing. (Early modern philosophers like Locke used the corresponding
English terms nominal essence and real essence). The name "hobbit", for example, is perfectly meaningful. It
has a quid nominis. But one could not know the real nature of hobbits, even if there were such things, and so the real
nature or quid rei of hobbits cannot be known. By contrast, the name man denotes real things (men) that have a
certain quid rei. The meaning of a name is distinct from the nature that thing must have in order that the name apply
to it.
This leads to a corresponding distinction between nominal and real denitions. A nominal denition is the denition
explaining what a word means, i.e. which says what the nominal essence is, and is denition in the classical sense
as given above. A real denition, by contrast, is one expressing the real nature or quid rei of the thing.
This preoccupation with essence dissipated in much of modern philosophy. Analytic philosophy in particular is critical
of attempts to elucidate the essence of a thing. Russell described it as a hopelessly muddle-headed notion.[11]
More recently Kripkes formalisation of possible world semantics in modal logic led to a new approach to essentialism.
Insofar as the essential properties of a thing are necessary to it, they are those things it possesses in all possible worlds.
Kripke refers to names used in this way as rigid designators.
82 CHAPTER 33. DEFINITION

33.3 Terms with multiple denitions

33.3.1 Homonyms

Main article: Homonym

A homonym is, in the strict sense, one of a group of words that share the same spelling and pronunciation but
have dierent meanings.[12] Thus homonyms are simultaneously homographs (words that share the same spelling,
regardless of their pronunciation) and homophones (words that share the same pronunciation, regardless of their
spelling). The state of being a homonym is called homonymy. Examples of homonyms are the pair stalk (part of a
plant) and stalk (follow/harass a person) and the pair left (past tense of leave) and left (opposite of right). A distinction
is sometimes made between true homonyms, which are unrelated in origin, such as skate (glide on ice) and skate
(the sh), and polysemous homonyms, or polysemes, which have a shared origin, such as mouth (of a river) and mouth
(of an animal).[13][14]

33.3.2 Polysemes

Main article: Polysemy

Polysemy is the capacity for a sign (such as a word, phrase, or symbol) to have multiple meanings (that is, multiple
semes or sememes and thus multiple senses), usually related by contiguity of meaning within a semantic eld. It is
thus usually regarded as distinct from homonymy, in which the multiple meanings of a word may be unconnected or
unrelated.

33.4 In logic and mathematics

In mathematics, denitions are generally not used to describe existing terms, but to give meaning to a new term.[15]
The meaning of a mathematical statement changes if denitions change. The precise meaning of a term given by a
mathematical denition is often dierent than the English denition of the word used,[16] which can lead to confusion
for students who do not pay close attention to the denitions given.

33.4.1 Classication of mathematical denitions

Authors have used dierent terms to classify denitions used in formal languages like mathematics. Norman Swartz
classies a denition as stipulative if it is intended to guide a specic discussion. A stipulative denition might
be considered a temporary, working denition, and can only be disproved by showing a logical contradiction.[17] In
contrast, a descriptive denition can be shown to be right or wrong with reference to general usage.
Swartz denes a precising denition as one that extends the descriptive dictionary denition (lexical denition) for
a specic purpose by including additional criteria. A precising denition narrows the set of things that meet the
denition.
C.L. Stevenson has identied persuasive denition as a form of stipulative denition which purports to state the true
or commonly accepted meaning of a term, while in reality stipulating an altered use (perhaps as an argument for
some specic belief). Stevenson has also noted that some denitions are legal or coercive their object is to
create or alter rights, duties, or crimes.[18]

33.4.2 Recursive denitions

A recursive denition, sometimes also called an inductive denition, is one that denes a word in terms of itself, so
to speak, albeit in a useful way. Normally this consists of three steps:

1. At least one thing is stated to be a member of the set being dened; this is sometimes called a base set.
33.5. IN MEDICINE 83

2. All things bearing a certain relation to other members of the set are also to count as members of the set. It is
this step that makes the denition recursive.

3. All other things are excluded from the set

For instance, we could dene a natural number as follows (after Peano):

1. 0 is a natural number.

2. Each natural number has a unique successor, such that:

the successor of a natural number is also a natural number;

distinct natural numbers have distinct successors;
no natural number is succeeded by 0.

3. Nothing else is a natural number.

So 0 will have exactly one successor, which for convenience can be called 1. In turn, 1 will have exactly one
successor, which could be called 2, and so on. Notice that the second condition in the denition itself refers to
natural numbers, and hence involves self-reference. Although this sort of denition involves a form of circularity, it
is not vicious, and the denition has been quite successful.
In the same way, we can dene ancestor as follows:

1. A parent is an ancestor.

2. A parent of an ancestor is an ancestor.

3. Nothing else is an ancestor.

Or simply: an ancestor is a parent or a parent of an ancestor.

33.5 In medicine
In medical dictionaries, denitions should to the greatest extent possible be:

simple and easy to understand,[19] preferably even by the general public;[20]

useful clinically[20] or in related areas where the denition will be used;[19]

specic,[19] that is, by reading the denition only, it should ideally not be possible to refer to any other entity
than the deniendum;

measurable;[19]

reecting current scientic knowledge.[19][20]

33.6 Issues with denitions

33.6.1 Fallacies of denition

Main article: Fallacies of denition

Certain rules have traditionally been given for denitions (in particular, genus-dierentia denitions).[21][22][23][24]

1. A denition must set out the essential attributes of the thing dened.
84 CHAPTER 33. DEFINITION

2. Denitions should avoid circularity. To dene a horse as a member of the species equus" would convey no
information whatsoever. For this reason, Locking adds that a denition of a term must not consist of terms
which are synonymous with it. This would be a circular denition, a circulus in deniendo. Note, however, that
it is acceptable to dene two relative terms in respect of each other. Clearly, we cannot dene antecedent
without using the term consequent, nor conversely.

3. The denition must not be too wide or too narrow. It must be applicable to everything to which the dened
term applies (i.e. not miss anything out), and to nothing else (i.e. not include any things to which the dened
term would not truly apply).

4. The denition must not be obscure. The purpose of a denition is to explain the meaning of a term which may
be obscure or dicult, by the use of terms that are commonly understood and whose meaning is clear. The
violation of this rule is known by the Latin term obscurum per obscurius. However, sometimes scientic and
philosophical terms are dicult to dene without obscurity.

5. A denition should not be negative where it can be positive. We should not dene wisdom as the absence
of folly, or a healthy thing as whatever is not sick. Sometimes this is unavoidable, however. For example, it
appears dicult to dene blindness in positive terms rather than as the absence of sight in a creature that is
normally sighted.

33.6.2 Limitations of denition

Given that a natural language such as English contains, at any given time, a nite number of words, any comprehensive
list of denitions must either be circular or rely upon primitive notions. If every term of every deniens must itself
be dened, where at last should we stop?"[25][26] A dictionary, for instance, insofar as it is a comprehensive list of
lexical denitions, must resort to circularity.[27][28][29]
Many philosophers have chosen instead to leave some terms undened. The scholastic philosophers claimed that
the highest genera (the so-called ten generalissima) cannot be dened, since a higher genus cannot be assigned un-
der which they may fall. Thus being, unity and similar concepts cannot be dened.[22] Locke supposes in An Essay
Concerning Human Understanding[30] that the names of simple concepts do not admit of any denition. More re-
cently Bertrand Russell sought to develop a formal language based on logical atoms. Other philosophers, notably
Wittgenstein, rejected the need for any undened simples. Wittgenstein pointed out in his Philosophical Investiga-
tions that what counts as a simple in one circumstance might not do so in another.[31] He rejected the very idea
that every explanation of the meaning of a term needed itself to be explained: As though an explanation hung in
the air unless supported by another one,[32] claiming instead that explanation of a term is only needed to avoid
misunderstanding.
Locke and Mill also argued that individuals cannot be dened. Names are learned by connecting an idea with a sound,
so that speaker and hearer have the same idea when the same word is used.[33] This is not possible when no one else
is acquainted with the particular thing that has fallen under our notice.[34] Russell oered his theory of descriptions
in part as a way of dening a proper name, the denition being given by a denite description that picks out exactly
one individual. Saul Kripke pointed to diculties with this approach, especially in relation to modality, in his book
Naming and Necessity.
There is a presumption in the classic example of a denition that the deniens can be stated. Wittgenstein argued
that for some terms this is not the case.[35] The examples he used include game, number and family. In such cases,
he argued, there is no xed boundary that can be used to provide a denition. Rather, the items are grouped together
because of a family resemblance. For terms such as these it is not possible and indeed not necessary to state a
denition; rather, one simply comes to understand the use of the term.[lower-alpha 2]

33.7 See also

Analytic proposition

Circular denition

Denable set

Denitionism
33.8. NOTES 85

Extensional denition

Fallacies of denition

Indeterminacy

Intensional denition

Lexical denition

Operational denition

Ostensive denition

RamseyLewis method

Semantics

Synthetic proposition

Theoretical denition

33.8 Notes
[1] Terms with the same pronunciation and spelling but unrelated meanings are called homonyms, while terms with the same
spelling and pronunciation and related meanings are called polysemes.

[2] Note that one learns inductively, from ostensive denition, in the same way, as in the RamseyLewis method.

33.9 References
[1] Bickenbach, Jerome E., and Jacqueline M. Davies. Good reasons for better arguments: An introduction to the skills and
values of critical thinking. Broadview Press, 1996. p. 49

[2] Lyons, John. Semantics, vol. I. Cambridge: Cambridge (1977). p.158 and on.

[3] Dooly, Melinda. Semantics and Pragmatics of English: Teaching English as a Foreign Language. Univ. Autnoma de
Barcelona, 2006. p.48 and on

[4] Richard J. Rossi (2011) Theorems, Corollaries, Lemmas, and Methods of Proof. John Wiley & Sons p.4

[5] Hurley, Patrick J. (2006). Language: Meaning and Denition. A Concise Introduction to Logic (9 ed.). Wadsworth. pp.
8691.

[6] Bussler, Christoph, and Dieter Fensel, eds. Articial Intelligence: Methodology, Systems and Applications: 11th Interna-
tional Conference, AIMSA 2004: Proceedings. Springer-Verlag, 2004. p.6

[7] Philosophical investigations, Part 1 2734

[8] Katerina Ierodiakonou, The Stoic Division of Philosophy, in Phronesis: A Journal for Ancient Philosophy, Volume 38,
Number 1, 1993, pp. 5774.

[9] Posterior Analytics, Bk 1 c. 4

[10] Posterior Analytics Bk 2 c. 7

[11] A history of Western Philosophy, p. 210

[12] homonym, Random House Unabridged Dictionary at dictionary.com

[13] Linguistics 201: Study Sheet for Semantics. Pandora.cii.wwu.edu. Retrieved 2013-04-23.

[14] Semantics: a coursebook, p. 123, James R. Hurford and Brendan Heasley, Cambridge University Press, 1983

[15] David Hunter (2010) Essentials of Discrete Mathematics. Jones & Bartlett Publishers, Section 14.1
86 CHAPTER 33. DEFINITION

[16] Kevin Houston (2009) How to Think Like a Mathematician: A Companion to Undergraduate Mathematics. Cambridge
University Press, p. 104

[17] Norman Swartz - Biography. sfu.ca.

[18] Stevenson, C.L., Ethics and Language, Connecticut 1944

[19] McPherson, M.; Arango, P.; Fox, H.; Lauver, C.; McManus, M.; Newacheck, P. W.; Perrin, J. M.; Shonko, J. P.;
Strickland, B. (1998). A new denition of children with special health care needs. Pediatrics. 102 (1 Pt 1): 137140.
PMID 9714637. doi:10.1542/peds.102.1.137.

[20] Morse, R. M.; Flavin, D. K. (1992). The Denition of Alcoholism. JAMA. 268 (8): 10121014. PMID 1501306.
doi:10.1001/jama.1992.03490080086030.

[21] Copi 1982 pp 165169

[22] Joyce, Ch. X

[23] Joseph, Ch. V

[24] Macagno & Walton 2014, Ch. III

[25] Locke, Essay, Bk. III, Ch. iv, 5

[26] This problem parallels the diallelus, but leads to scepticism about meaning rather than knowledge.

[27] Generally lexicographers seek to avoid circularity wherever possible, but the denitions of words such as the and a use
those words and are therefore circular. Lexicographer Sidney I. Landau's essay "Sexual Intercourse in American College
Dictionaries" provides other examples of circularity in dictionary denitions. (McKean, p. 7377)

[28] An exercise suggested by J. L. Austin involved taking up a dictionary and nding a selection of terms relating to the key
concept, then looking up each of the words in the explanation of their meaning. Then, iterating this process until the list
of words begins to repeat, closing in a family circle of words relating to the key concept.
(A plea for excuses in Philosophical Papers. Ed. J. O. Urmson and G. J. Warnock. Oxford: Oxford UP, 1961. 1979.)

[29] In the game of Vish, players compete to nd circularity in a dictionary.

[30] Locke, Essay, Bk. III, Ch. iv

[31] See especially Philosophical Investigations Part 1 48

[32] He continues: Whereas an explanation may indeed rest on another one that has been given, but none stands in need of
another unless we require it to prevent a misunderstanding. One might say: an explanation serves to remove or to avert
a misunderstanding one, that is, that would occur but for the explanation; not every one I can imagine. Philosophical
Investigations, Part 1 87, italics in original

[33] This theory of meaning is one of the targets of the private language argument

[34] Locke, Essay, Bk. III, Ch. iii, 3

[35] Philosophical Investigations

Copi, Irving (1982). Introduction to Logic. New York: Macmillan. ISBN 0-02-977520-5.

Joseph, Horace William Brindley (1916). An Introduction to Logic, 2nd edition. Clarendon Press repr. Paper
Tiger. ISBN 1-889439-17-7. (full text of 1st ed. (1906))

Joyce, George Hayward (1926). Principles of logic, 3d ed., new impression. London, New York: Longmans,
Green and co. (worldcat) (full text of 2nd ed. (1916))

Locke, John (1690). An Essay Concerning Human Understanding. ISBN 0-14-043482-8. (full text: vol 1, vol
2)

McKean, Erin (2001). Verbatim: From the bawdy to the sublime, the best writing on language for word lovers,
grammar mavens, and armchair linguists. Harvest Books. ISBN 0-15-601209-X.

Macagno, Fabrizio; Walton, Douglas (2014). Emotive Language in Argumentation. New York: Cambridge
University Press.
33.10. EXTERNAL LINKS 87

Robinson, Richard (1954). Denition. Oxford: At The Clarendon Press. ISBN 978-0-19-824160-7.

Simpson, John; Edmund Weiner (1989). Oxford English Dictionary, second edition (20 volumes). Oxford
University Press. ISBN 0-19-861186-2.

Wittgenstein, Ludwig (1953). Philosophical Investigations. Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 0-631-23127-7.

33.10 External links

Denitions, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy Gupta, Anil (2008)
Denitions, Dictionaries, and Meanings, Norman Swartz 1997

Guy Longworth (ca. 2008) Denitions: Uses and Varieties of. = in: K. Brown (ed.): Elsevier Encyclopedia
of Language and Linguistics, Elsevier.

Denition and Meaning, a very short introduction by Garth Kemerling (2001).

Chapter 34

Dependent and independent variables

For dependent and independent random variables, see Independence (probability theory).

In mathematical modeling, statistical modeling and experimental sciences, the values of dependent variables depend
on the values of independent variables. The dependent variables represent the output or outcome whose variation
is being studied. The independent variables represent inputs or causes, i.e., potential reasons for variation or, in the
experimental setting, the variable controlled by the experimenter. Models and experiments test or determine the
eects that the independent variables have on the dependent variables. Sometimes, independent variables may be
included for other reasons, such as for their potential confounding eect, without a wish to test their eect directly.

34.1 Mathematics

In mathematics, a function is a rule for taking an input (in the simplest case, a number or set of numbers)[2] and
providing an output (which may also be a number).[2] A symbol that stands for an arbitrary input is called an inde-
pendent variable, while a symbol that stands for an arbitrary output is called a dependent variable.[3] The most
common symbol for the input is x, and the most common symbol for the output is y; the function itself is commonly
written y = f (x) .[3][4]
It is possible to have multiple independent variables and/or multiple dependent variables. For instance, in multivariable
calculus, one often encounters functions of the form z = f (x, y) , where z is a dependent variable and x and y are
independent variables.[5] Functions with multiple outputs are often referred to as vector-valued functions.
In set theory, a function between a set X and a set Y is a subset of the Cartesian product X Y such that every
element of X appears in an ordered pair with exactly one element of Y. In this situation, a symbol representing an
element of X may be called an independent variable and a symbol representing an element of Y may be called a
dependent variable, such as when X is a manifold and the symbol x represents an arbitrary point in the manifold.[6]
However, many advanced textbooks do not distinguish between dependent and independent variables.[7]

34.2 In social sciences

Through the modeling eort performed in social sciences research using the data percolation methodology, four
types of variables are used and suce to express all combinations pertaining to the phenomena under investigation.
The bonds between the independent and the dependent variables can be descriptive (structural or functional), of
inuence, longitudinal, or causal. Each bond is polarized, whether positive or negative. A positive bond occurs
when the augmentation of the value of the independent variable is met with an augmentation of the value of the
dependent variable. Variables of inuence can be direct or indirect, and indirect variables can be moderators or
mediators. Longitudinal (or temporal) variables can be retroactive when a loop is necessary, for example in dynamic
systems[8] ,[9] .

88
34.2. IN SOCIAL SCIENCES 89

y
3

1
x
3 2 1 0 1 2 3
1
y = x2x2
2

In single variable calculus, a function is typically graphed with the horizontal axis representing the independent variable and the
vertical axis representing the dependent variable.[1] In this function, y is the dependent variable and x is the independent variable.

34.2.1 Statistics

In an experiment, a variable, manipulated by an experimenter, is called an independent variable.[10] The dependent

variable is the event expected to change when the independent variable is manipulated.[11]
In data mining tools (for multivariate statistics and machine learning), the depending variable is assigned a role as
target variable (or in some tools as label attribute), while a dependent variable may be assigned a role as regular
variable.[12] Known values for the target variable are provided for the training data set and test data set, but should
be predicted for other data. The target variable is used in supervised learning algorithms but not in non-supervised
learning.

34.2.2 Modeling

In mathematical modeling, the dependent variable is studied to see if and how much it varies as the independent
variables vary. In the simple stochastic linear model yi = a + bxi + ei the term yi is the i th value of the dependent
variable and xi is the i th value of the independent variable. The term ei is known as the error and contains the
variability of the dependent variable not explained by the independent variable.
90 CHAPTER 34. DEPENDENT AND INDEPENDENT VARIABLES

With multiple independent variables, the model is yi = a + bx1,i + bx2,i + ... + bxn,i + ei , where n is the number
of independent variables.

34.2.3 Simulation

In simulation, the dependent variable is changed in response to changes in the independent variables.

34.3 Statistics synonyms

Depending on the context, an independent variable is sometimes called a predictor variable, regressor, controlled
variable, manipulated variable, explanatory variable, "exposure variable" (see reliability theory), "risk factor"
(see medical statistics), "feature" (in machine learning and pattern recognition) or input variable.[13][14]
Depending on the context, a dependent variable is sometimes called a response variable, regressand, predicted
variable, measured variable, explained variable, experimental variable, responding variable, outcome vari-
able, output variable or label.[14]
Explanatory variable is preferred by some authors over independent variable when the quantities treated as in-
dependent variables may not be statistically independent or independently manipulable by the researcher.[15][16] If
the independent variable is referred to as an explanatory variable then the term response variable is preferred by
some authors for the dependent variable.[14][15][16]
Explained variable is preferred by some authors over dependent variable when the quantities treated as dependent
variables may not be statistically dependent.[17] If the dependent variable is referred to as an explained variable
then the term predictor variable is preferred by some authors for the independent variable.[17]
Variables may also be referred to by their form: continuous, binary/dichotomous, nominal categorical, and ordinal
categorical, among others.

34.4 Other variables

A variable may be thought to alter the dependent or independent variables, but may not actually be the focus of the
experiment. So that variable will be kept constant or monitored to try to minimise its eect on the experiment. Such
variables may be designated as either a controlled variable, "control variable", or extraneous variable.
Extraneous variables, if included in a regression as independent variables, may aid a researcher with accurate response
parameter estimation, prediction, and goodness of t, but are not of substantive interest to the hypothesis under
examination. For example, in a study examining the eect of post-secondary education on lifetime earnings, some
extraneous variables might be gender, ethnicity, social class, genetics, intelligence, age, and so forth. A variable is
extraneous only when it can be assumed (or shown) to inuence the dependent variable. If included in a regression,
it can improve the t of the model. If it is excluded from the regression and if it has a non-zero covariance with one
or more of the independent variables of interest, its omission will bias the regressions result for the eect of that
independent variable of interest. This eect is called confounding or omitted variable bias; in these situations, design
changes and/or statistical control is necessary.
Extraneous variables are often classied into three types:

1. Subject variables, which are the characteristics of the individuals being studied that might aect their actions.
These variables include age, gender, health status, mood, background, etc.

2. Blocking variables or experimental variables are characteristics of the persons conducting the experiment which
might inuence how a person behaves. Gender, the presence of racial discrimination, language, or other factors
may qualify as such variables.

3. Situational variables are features of the environment in which the study or research was conducted, which have
a bearing on the outcome of the experiment in a negative way. Included are the air temperature, level of
activity, lighting, and the time of day.
34.5. EXAMPLES 91

In modelling, variability that is not covered by the independent variable is designated by ei and is known as the
residual, side eect, error, unexplained share, residual variable, or tolerance.

34.5 Examples
Eect of fertilizer on plant growth

In a study measuring the inuence of dierent quantities of fertilizer on plant growth, the independent
variable would be the amount of fertilizer used. The dependent variable would be the growth in height or
mass of the plant. The controlled variables would be the type of plant, the type of fertilizer, the amount
of sunlight the plant gets, the size of the pots, etc.

Eect of drug dosage on symptom severity

In a study of how dierent doses of a drug aect the severity of symptoms, a researcher could compare
the frequency and intensity of symptoms when dierent doses are administered. Here the independent
variable is the dose and the dependent variable is the frequency/intensity of symptoms.

Eect of temperature on pigmentation

In measuring the amount of color removed from beetroot samples at dierent temperatures, temperature
is the independent variable and amount of pigment removed is the dependent variable.

34.6 See also

Abscissa

Ordinate

Blocking (statistics)

34.7 References
[1] Hastings, Nancy Baxter. Workshop calculus: guided exploration with review. Vol. 2. Springer Science & Business Media,
1998. p. 31

[2] Carlson, Robert. A concrete introduction to real analysis. CRC Press, 2006. p.183

[3] Stewart, James. Calculus. Cengage Learning, 2011. Section 1.1

[4] Anton, Howard, Irl C. Bivens, and Stephen Davis. Calculus Single Variable. John Wiley & Sons, 2012. Section 0.1

[5] Larson, Ron, and Bruce Edwards. Calculus. Cengage Learning, 2009. Section 13.1

[6] Hrbacek, Karel, and Thomas Jech. Introduction to Set Theory, Revised and Expanded. Vol. 220. Crc Press, 1999. p. 26

[7] For instance, a Google Books search for independent variable on Mar 18, 2015 brought up 0 hits in the following advanced
textbooks:

Munkres, James R. Topology: a rst course. Vol. 23. Englewood Clis, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1975.
Hungerford, Thomas. Abstract algebra: an introduction. Cengage Learning, 2012.
Abbott, Stephen. Understanding analysis. Springer Science & Business Media, 2010.

[8] Creating Models in Psychological Research. United States. Springer Psychology, pages 126. ISBN 978-3-319-15752-8.

[9] Mesly, Olivier (2011) Une faon dirente de faire de la recherche en vente et marketing. Presses de l'Universit du
Qubec. Qubec : Presses de l'Universit du Qubec : 202 pages.
92 CHAPTER 34. DEPENDENT AND INDEPENDENT VARIABLES

[10] http://onlinestatbook.com/2/introduction/variables.html

[11] Random House Websters Unabridged Dictionary. Random House, Inc. 2001. Page 534, 971. ISBN 0-375-42566-7.

[12] English Manual version 1.0 for RapidMiner 5.0, October 2013.

[13] Dodge, Y. (2003) The Oxford Dictionary of Statistical Terms, OUP. ISBN 0-19-920613-9 (entry for independent variable)

[14] Dodge, Y. (2003) The Oxford Dictionary of Statistical Terms, OUP. ISBN 0-19-920613-9 (entry for regression)

[15] Everitt, B.S. (2002) Cambridge Dictionary of Statistics, CUP. ISBN 0-521-81099-X

[16] Dodge, Y. (2003) The Oxford Dictionary of Statistical Terms, OUP. ISBN 0-19-920613-9

[17] Ash Narayan Sah (2009) Data Analysis Using Microsoft Excel, New Delhi. ISBN 978-81-7446-716-4
Chapter 35

Dierential (mathematics)

In mathematics, dierential refers to innitesimal dierences or to the derivatives of functions.[1] This article links
to dierentials in various branches of mathematics such as calculus, dierential geometry, algebraic geometry and
algebraic topology.

35.1 Basic notions

In calculus, the dierential represents a change in the linearization of a function.

The total dierential is its generalization for functions of multiple variables.

In traditional approaches to calculus, the dierentials (e.g. dx, dy, dt, etc.) are interpreted as innitesimals.
There are several methods of dening innitesimals rigorously, but it is sucient to say that an innitesimal
number is smaller in absolute value than any positive real number, just as an innitely large number is larger
than any real number.

The dierential is another name for the Jacobian matrix of partial derivatives of a function from Rn to Rm
(especially when this matrix is viewed as a linear map).

More generally, the dierential or pushforward refers to the derivative of a map between smooth manifolds
and the pushforward operations it denes. The dierential is also used to dene the dual concept of pullback.

Stochastic calculus provides a notion of stochastic dierential and an associated calculus for stochastic pro-
cesses.

The integrator in a Stieltjes integral is represented as the dierential of a function. Formally, the dieren-
tial appearing under the integral behaves exactly as a dierential: thus, the integration by substitution and
integration by parts formulae for Stieltjes integral correspond, respectively, to the chain rule and product rule
for the dierential.

35.2 Dierential geometry

The notion of a dierential motivates several concepts in dierential geometry (and dierential topology).

The dierential (Pushforward) of a map between manifolds.

Dierential forms provide a framework which accommodates multiplication and dierentiation of dierentials.

The exterior derivative is a notion of dierentiation of dierential forms which generalizes the dierential of a
function (which is a dierential 1-form).

Pullback is, in particular, a geometric name for the chain rule for composing a map between manifolds with a
dierential form on the target manifold.

93
94 CHAPTER 35. DIFFERENTIAL (MATHEMATICS)

Covariant derivatives or dierentials provide a general notion for dierentiating of vector elds and tensor elds
on a manifold, or, more generally, sections of a vector bundle: see Connection (vector bundle). This ultimately
leads to the general concept of a connection.

35.3 Algebraic geometry

Dierentials are also important in algebraic geometry, and there are several important notions.

Abelian dierentials usually refer to dierential one-forms on an algebraic curve or Riemann surface.
Quadratic dierentials (which behave like squares of abelian dierentials) are also important in the theory
of Riemann surfaces.
Khler dierentials provide a general notion of dierential in algebraic geometry

35.4 Other meanings

The term dierential has also been adopted in homological algebra and algebraic topology, because of the role the
exterior derivative plays in de Rham cohomology: in a cochain complex (C , d ) , the maps (or coboundary op-
erators) di are often called dierentials. Dually, the boundary operators in a chain complex are sometimes called
codierentials.
The properties of the dierential also motivate the algebraic notions of a derivation and a dierential algebra.

35.5 References
[1] http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/us/definition/american_english/differential

35.6 External links

Weisstein, Eric W. Dierentials. MathWorld.
Chapter 36

Equidimensionality

In mathematics, especially in topology, equidimensionality is a property of a space that the local dimension is the
same everywhere.[1]

36.1 Denition
A topological space X is said to be equidimensional if for all points p in X the dimension at p that is, dim p(X) is
constant. The Euclidean space is an example of an equidimensional space. The disjoint union of two spaces X and Y
(as topological spaces) of dierent dimension cedes an example of a non-equidimensional space.

36.2 CohenMacaulay ring

An algebraic variety whose coordinate ring is a CohenMacaulay ring is equidimensional.[2]

36.3 References
[1] Wirthmller, Klaus. A Topology Primer: Lecture Notes 2001/2002 (PDF). p. 90.

[2] Anand P. Sawant. Hartshornes Connectedness Theorem (PDF). p. 3.

95
Chapter 37

Essentially unique

In mathematics, the term essentially unique is used to indicate that while some object is not the only one that
satises certain properties, all such objects are the same in some sense appropriate to the circumstances. This
notion of sameness is often formalized using an equivalence relation.
A related notion is a universal property, where an object is not only essentially unique, but unique up to a unique
isomorphism (meaning that it has trivial automorphism group). In general given two isomorphic examples of an
essentially unique object, there is no natural (unique) isomorphism between them.

37.1 Examples

37.1.1 Set theory

Most basically, there is an essentially unique set of any given cardinality, whether one labels the elements {1, 2, 3}
or {a, b, c} . In this case the non-uniqueness of the isomorphism (does one match 1 to a or to c?) is reected in the
symmetric group.
On the other hand, there is an essentially unique ordered set of any given nite cardinality: if one writes {1 < 2 < 3}
and {a < b < c} , then the only order-preserving isomorphism maps 1 to a, 2 to b, and 3 to c.

37.1.2 Group theory

Suppose that we seek to classify all possible groups. We would nd that there is an essentially unique group containing
exactly 3 elements, the cyclic group of order three. No matter how we choose to write those three elements and denote
the group operation, all such groups are isomorphic, hence, the same.
On the other hand, there is not an essentially unique group with exactly 4 elements, as there are two non-isomorphic
examples: the cyclic group of order 4 and the Klein four group.

37.1.3 Measure theory

Suppose that we seek a translation-invariant, strictly positive, locally nite measure on the real line. The solution to
this problem is essentially unique: any such measure must be a constant multiple of Lebesgue measure. Specifying
that the measure of the unit interval should be 1 then determines the solution uniquely.

37.1.4 Topology

Suppose that we seek to classify all two-dimensional, compact, simply connected manifolds. We would nd an
essentially unique solution to this problem: the 2-sphere. In this case, the solution is unique up to homeomorphism.

96
37.2. SEE ALSO 97

37.1.5 Lie theory

A maximal compact subgroup of a semisimple Lie group may not be unique, but is unique up to conjugation.

37.2 See also

Classication theorem

Universal property
Chapter 38

Eventually (mathematics)

In the mathematical areas of number theory and analysis, an innite sequence (an) is said eventually to have a certain
property if all terms beyond some (nite) point in the sequence have that property. This can be extended to the class
of properties P that apply to elements of any ordered set (sequences and subsets of R are ordered, for example).

38.1 Motivation and denition

Often, when looking at innite sequences, it does not matter too much what behaviour the sequence exhibits early
on. What matters is what the sequence does in the long term. The idea of having a property eventually rigorizes
this viewpoint.
For example, the denition of a sequence of real numbers (an) converging to some limit a is: for all > 0 there exists
N > 0 such that, for all n > N, |an a| < . The phrase eventually is used as shorthand for the fact that "there exists
N > 0 such that, for all n > N..." So the convergence denition can be restated as: for all > 0, eventually |an a| <
. In this setting it is also synonymous with the expression for all but a nite number of terms not to be confused
with for almost all terms which generally allows for innitely many exceptions.
A sequence can be thought of as a function with domain the natural numbers. But the notion of eventually applies
to functions on more general sets, specically those that have an ordering and no greatest element. In general if S is
such a set and there is an element s in S such that the function f is dened for all elements greater than s, then f is
said to have some property eventually if there is an element x0 such that f has the property for all x > x0 . This notion
is used, for example, in the study of Hardy elds, which are elds made up of real functions that all have certain
properties eventually.
When a sequence or function has a property eventually, it can have useful implications when trying to prove something
with relation to that sequence. For example, in studying the asymptotic behavior of certain functions, it can be useful
to know if it eventually behaves dierently than would or could be observed computationally, since otherwise this
could not be noticed. It is also incorporated into many mathematical denitions, like in some types of limits (an
arbitrary bound eventually applies) and Big O notation for describing asymptotic behavior.

38.2 Notation
The phrase eventually (or suciently large) is used in such contexts as:

P is eventually true for x / : P is true for suciently large x

which is actually shorthand for:

a R such that P is true x a

or, somewhat more formally:

98
38.3. OTHER USES IN MATHEMATICS 99

a R : x R : x a P (x)

This does not necessarily mean that any particular value for a is known, but only that such an a exists. The phrase
suciently large should not be confused with the phrases "arbitrarily large" or "innitely large.

38.3 Other uses in mathematics

A 3-manifold is called suciently large if it contains a properly embedded 2-sided incompressible surface.
This property is the main requirement for a 3-manifold to be called a Haken manifold.

38.4 Examples
All primes above 2 are odd can be written as Eventually, all primes are odd
In the long run, all primes are congruent to 1 mod 6
The square of a prime is congruent to 1 mod 24, given that the prime is above 3
This can be generalized as pn 1 (mod x) A conjecture can then be made for the closed form function f (n) = x
as well as the minimum p.

38.5 See also

Mathematical jargon

Number theory
Big O notation

38.6 References
Weisstein, Eric W. Suciently Large. MathWorld. Margherita Barile. Eventually. MathWorld.
Chapter 39

Exceptional object

The Platonic solids, seen here in an illustration from Johannes Kepler's Mysterium Cosmographicum (1596), are an early example
of exceptional objects. The symmetries of three-dimensional space can be classied into two innite familiesthe cyclic and dihedral
symmetries of n-sided polygonsand ve exceptional types of symmetry, namely the symmetry groups of the Platonic solids.

Many branches of mathematics study objects of a given type and prove a classication theorem. A common theme
is that the classication results in a number of series of objects and a nite number of exceptions that do not t
into any series. These are known as exceptional objects. Frequently these exceptional objects play a further and

100
39.1. REGULAR POLYTOPES 101

important role in the subject. Furthermore, the exceptional objects in one branch of mathematics are often related to
the exceptional objects in others.[1][2][3]
A related phenomenon is exceptional isomorphism, when two series are in general dierent, but agree for some small
values.

39.1 Regular polytopes

Main article: Regular polytope

The prototypical examples of exceptional objects arise in the classication of regular polytopes. In two dimensions
there is a series of regular n-gons for n 3. In every dimension above 2 we nd analogues of the cube, tetrahedron
and octahedron. In three dimensions we nd two more regular polyhedra the dodecahedron (12-hedron) and the
icosahedron (20-hedron) making ve Platonic solids. In four dimensions we have a total of six regular polytopes
including the 120-cell, the 600-cell and the 24-cell. There are no other regular polytopes; in higher dimensions the
only regular polytopes are of the hypercube, simplex, orthoplex series. In all dimensions combined, there are therefore
three series and ve exceptional polytopes.[4]
The pattern is similar if non-convex polytopes are included. In two dimensions there is a regular star polygon for
every rational number p/q > 2. In three dimensions there are four KeplerPoinsot polyhedra, and in four dimensions
ten SchliHess polychora; in higher dimensions there are no non-convex regular gures.
These can be generalized to tessellations of other spaces, especially uniform tessellations, notably tilings of Euclidean
space (honeycombs), which have exceptional objects, and tilings of hyperbolic space. There are various exceptional
objects in dimension below 6, but in dimension 6 and above the only regular polyhedra/tilings/hyperbolic tilings are
the simplex, hypercube, cross-polytope, and hypercube lattice.

39.1.1 Schwarz triangles

Further information: Schwarz triangle

Related to tilings and the regular polyhedra, there are exceptional Schwarz triangles (triangles that tile the sphere, or
more generally Euclidean plane or hyperbolic plane via their triangle group of reections in their edges), particularly
the Mbius triangles. In the sphere there are 3 Mbius triangles (and 1 1-parameter family), corresponding to the 3
exceptional Platonic solid groups, while in the Euclidean plane there are 3 Mbius triangles, corresponding to the 3
special triangles: 60-60-60 (equilateral), 45-45-90 (isosceles right), and 30-60-90. There are additional exceptional
Schwarz triangles in the sphere and Euclidean plane. By contrast, in the hyperbolic plane there is a 3-parameter
family of Mbius triangles, and none exceptional.

39.2 Finite simple groups

Main article: Sporadic group
The nite simple groups have been classied into a number of series as well as 26 sporadic groups. Of these, 20 are
subgroups or subquotients of the monster group, referred to as the Happy Family, while 6 are not, and are referred
to as "pariahs".
Several of the sporadic groups are related to the Leech lattice, most notably the Conway group Co1 , which is the
automorphism group of the Leech lattice, quotiented out by its center.

39.3 Division algebras

There are only three nite-dimensional associative division algebras over the reals the real numbers, the complex
numbers and the quaternions. The only non-associative division algebra is the algebra of octonions. The octonions
are connected to a wide variety of exceptional objects. For example, the exceptional formally real Jordan algebra is
the Albert algebra of 3 by 3 self-adjoint matrices over the octonions.
102 CHAPTER 39. EXCEPTIONAL OBJECT

The relations between the sporadic groups, most being related to the monster.

39.4 Simple Lie groups

The simple Lie groups form a number of series (classical Lie groups) labelled A, B, C and D. In addition there are
the exceptional groups G2 (the automorphism group of the octonions), F4 , E6 , E7 , E8 . These last four groups can
be viewed as the symmetry groups of projective planes over O, CO, HO and OO respectively, where O is the
octonions and the tensor products are over the reals.
The classication of Lie groups corresponds to the classication of root systems and thus the exceptional Lie groups
correspond to exceptional root systems and exceptional Dynkin diagrams.

39.5 Supersymmetric algebras

There are a few exceptional objects with supersymmetry. The classication of superalgebras by Kac and Tierry-Mieg
indicates that the Lie superalgebras G(3) in 31 dimensions and F(4) in 40 dimensions, and the Jordan superalgebras
K3 and K10 , are examples of exceptional objects.[5][6]

39.6 Unimodular lattices

Up to isometry there is only one even unimodular lattice in 15 dimensions or less the E8 lattice. Up to dimension
24 there is only one even unimodular lattice without roots, the Leech lattice. Three of the sporadic simple groups
were discovered by Conway while investigating the automorphism group of the Leech lattice. For example, Co1 is
the automorphism group itself modulo 1. The groups Co2 and Co3 , as well as a number of other sporadic groups,
arise as stabilisers of various subsets of the Leech lattice.
39.7. CODES 103

39.7 Codes
Some codes also stand out as exceptional objects, in particular the perfect binary Golay code which is closely related
to the Leech lattice. The Mathieu group M24 , one of the sporadic simple groups, is the group of automorphisms
of the extended binary Golay code, and four more of the sporadic simple groups arise as various types of stabilizer
subgroup of M24 .

39.8 Block designs

An exceptional block design is the Steiner system S(5,8,24) whose automorphism group is the sporadic simple Mathieu
group M24 .
The codewords of the extended binary Golay code have a length of 24 bits and have weights 0, 8, 12, 16, or 24. This
code can correct up to three errors. So every 24-bit word with weight 5 can be corrected to a codeword with weight
8. The bits of a 24-bit word can be thought of as specifying the possible subsets of a 24 element set. So the extended
binary Golay code gives a unique 8 element subset for each 5 element subset. In fact, it denes S(5,8,24).

39.9 Outer automorphisms

Certain families of groups generically have a certain outer automorphism group, but in particular cases they have
other, exceptional outer automorphisms.
Among families of nite simple groups, the only example is in the automorphisms of the symmetric and alternating
groups: for n 3, n = 6 the alternating group An has one outer automorphism (corresponding to conjugation by
an odd element of Sn ) and the symmetric group Sn has no outer automorphisms. However, for n = 6, there is an
exceptional outer automorphism of S6 (of order 2), and correspondingly, the outer automorphism group of A6 is not
C2 (the group of order 2) but rather C2 C2 , the Klein four-group.[7][8][9]
If one instead considers A6 as the (isomorphic) projective special linear group PSL(2,9), then the outer automorphism
is not exceptional; thus the exceptionalness can be seen as due to the exceptional isomorphism A6 = PSL(2, 9). This
exceptional outer automorphism is realized inside of the Mathieu group M12 and similarly, M12 acts on a set of 12
elements in 2 dierent ways.
Among Lie groups, the spin group Spin(8) has an exceptionally large outer automorphism group (namely S3 ), which
corresponds to the exceptional symmetries of the Dynkin diagram D4 . This phenomenon is referred to as triality.
The exceptional symmetry of the D4 diagram also gives rise to the Steinberg groups.

39.10 Algebraic topology

Main article: Kervaire invariant

The Kervaire invariant is an invariant of a (4k+2)-dimensional manifold that measures whether the manifold could
be surgically converted into a sphere. This invariant evaluates to 0 if the manifold can be converted to a sphere, and 1
otherwise. More specically, the Kervaire invariant applies to a framed manifold, that is, to a manifold equipped with
an embedding into Euclidean space and a trivialization of the normal bundle. The Kervaire invariant problem is the
problem of determining in which dimensions the Kervaire invariant can be nonzero. For dierentiable manifolds, this
can happen in dimensions 2, 6, 14, 30, 62, and possibly 126, and in no other dimensions. The nal case of dimension
126 remains open.[10][11] These ve or six framed cobordism classes of manifolds having Kervaire invariant 1 are
exceptional objects related to exotic spheres. The rst three cases are related to the complex numbers, quaternions
and octonions respectively: a manifold of Kervaire invariant 1 can be constructed as the product of two spheres, with
its exotic framing determined by the normed division algebra.[12]
Due to similarities of dimensions, it is conjectured that the remaining cases (dimensions 30, 62 and 126) are related
to the Rosenfeld projective planes, which are dened over algebras constructed from the octonions. Specically, it has
been conjectured that there is a construction that takes these projective planes and produces a manifold with nonzero
Kervaire invariant in two dimensions lower, but this remains unconrmed.
104 CHAPTER 39. EXCEPTIONAL OBJECT

39.11 Symmetric quantum measurements

In quantum information theory, there exist structures known as SIC-POVMs or SICs, which correspond to maximal
sets of complex equiangular lines. Some of the known SICsthose in vector spaces of 2 and 3 dimensions, as well as
certain solutions in 8 dimensionsare considered exceptional objects and called sporadic SICs. They dier from
the other known SICs in ways that involve their symmetry groups, the Galois theory of the numerical values of their
vector components, and so forth.[13] The sporadic SICs in dimension 8 are related to the integral octonions.[14]

39.12 Connections
Numerous connections have been observed between some, though not all, of these exceptional objects. Most common
are objects related to 8 and 24 dimensions, noting that 24 = 8 3. By contrast, the pariah groups stand apart, as the
name suggests.

39.12.1 8 and 24 dimensions

Exceptional objects related to the number 8 include the following.

The octonions are 8-dimensional.

The E8 lattice can be realized as the integral octonions (up to a scale factor).

The exceptional Lie groups can be seen as symmetries of the octonions and structures derived from the
octonions;[15] further, the E8 algebra is related to the E8 lattice, as the notation implies (the lattice is gen-
erated by the root system of the algebra).

Triality occurs for Spin(8), which also connects to 8 3 = 24.

Likewise, exceptional objects related to the number 24 include the following.

The Leech lattice is 24-dimensional.

Most sporadic simple groups can be related to the Leech lattice, or more broadly the Monster.

The exceptional Jordan algebra has a representation in terms of 2424 real matrices together with the Jordan
product rule.

These objects are connected to various other phenomena in math which may be considered surprising but not them-
selves exceptional. For example, in algebraic topology, 8-fold real Bott periodicity can be seen as coming from
the octonions. In the theory of modular forms, the 24-dimensional nature of the Leech lattice underlies the presence
of 24 in the formulas for the Dedekind eta function and the modular discriminant, which connection is deepened by
Monstrous moonshine, a development that related modular functions to the Monster group.[16]

39.12.2 Physics
In string theory and superstring theory we often nd that particular dimensions are singled out as a result of exceptional
algebraic phenomena. For example, bosonic string theory requires a spacetime of dimension 26 which is directly
related to the presence of 24 in the Dedekind eta function. Similarly, the possible dimensions of supergravity are
related to the dimensions of the division algebras.[17]

39.12.3 Monstrous moonshine

Many of the exceptional objects in mathematics and physics have been found to be connected to each other. De-
velopments such as the Monstrous moonshine conjectures show how, for example, the Monster group is connected
to string theory. The theory of modular forms shows how the algebra E8 is connected to the Monster group. (In
39.12. CONNECTIONS 105

fact, well before the proof of the Monstrous moonshine conjecture, the elliptic j-function was discovered to encode
the representations of E8 .[2][18][19] ) Other interesting connections include how the Leech lattice is connected via the
Golay code to the adjacency matrix of the dodecahedron (another exceptional object). Below is a mind map showing
how some of the exceptional objects in mathematics and mathematical physics are related.

The connections can partly be explained by thinking of the algebras as a tower of lattice vertex operator algebras. It
just so happens that the vertex algebras at the bottom are so simple that they are isomorphic to familiar non-vertex
106 CHAPTER 39. EXCEPTIONAL OBJECT

algebras. Thus the connections can be seen simply as the consequence of some lattices being sub-lattices of others.

39.12.4 Supersymmetries
The Jordan superalgebras are a parallel set of exceptional objects with supersymmetry. These are the Lie superalgebras
which are related to Lorentzian lattices. This subject is less explored, and the connections between the objects are less
well established. There are new conjectures parallel to the Monstrous moonshine conjectures for these super-objects,
involving dierent sporadic groups.

39.13 Unexceptional objects

39.13.1 Pathologies
See also: Pathological (mathematics)

Exceptional object is reserved for objects that are unusual, meaning rare, the exception, not for unexpected or non-
standard objects. These unexpected-but-typical (or common) phenomena are generally referred to as pathological,
such as nowhere dierentiable functions, or exotic, as in exotic spheres there are exotic spheres in arbitrarily
high dimension (not only a nite set of exceptions), and in many dimensions most (dierential structures on) spheres
are exotic.

39.13.2 Extremal objects

Exceptional objects must be distinguished from extremal objects: those that fall in a family and are the most extreme
example by some measure are of interest, but not unusual in the way exceptional objects are. For example, the
golden ratio has the simplest continued fraction approximation, and accordingly is most dicult to approximate by
rationals; however, it is but one of innitely many such quadratic numbers (continued fractions).
39.14. SEE ALSO 107

Similarly, the (2,3,7) Schwarz triangle is the smallest hyperbolic Schwarz triangle, and the associated (2,3,7) triangle
group is of particular interest, being the universal Hurwitz group, and thus being associated with the Hurwitz curves,
the maximally symmetric algebraic curves. However, it falls in a family of such triangles ((2,4,7), (2,3,8), (3,3,7),
etc.), and while the smallest, is not exceptional or unlike the others.

39.14 See also

Exceptional isomorphism
Exception that proves the rule

39.15 References
[1] Stillwell, John (1998). Exceptional Objects. The American Mathematical Monthly. 105 (9): 850858. doi:10.2307/2589218.

[2] He, Yang-Hui; McKay, John (25 May 2015). Sporadic and Exceptional. arXiv:1505.06742 .

[3] Joyce, Helen (1 January 2005). Ubiquitous octonions. Plus Magazine. Retrieved 2017-08-06.

[4] Baez, John C. (12 November 2006). Platonic Solids in All Dimensions. math.ucr.edu. Retrieved 2017-08-07.

[5] Kac, V. G. (1977-01-01). Classication of simple z-graded lie superalgebras and simple jordan superalgebras. Commu-
nications in Algebra. 5 (13): 13751400. ISSN 0092-7872. doi:10.1080/00927877708822224.

[6] Thierry-Mieg, Jean (1984). Group Theoretical Methods in Physics. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. pp. 9498. doi:10.1007/bfb0016126.

[7] Baez, John C. (17 August 2015). A Wrinkle in the Mathematical Universe. The n-Category Caf. Retrieved 2017-08-06.

[8] ATLAS: Alternating group A6, Linear group L2(9), Symplectic group S4(2)', Mathieu group M10'". Atlas of Finite Group
Representations. Retrieved 2017-08-06.

[9] Wilson, Robert (2009-12-14). The Finite Simple Groups. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 19. ISBN 9781848009875.

[10] Klarreich, Erica (20 July 2009). Mathematicians Solve 45-Year-Old Kervaire Invariant Puzzle. Simons Foundation.
Retrieved 2017-08-06.

[11] Miller, Haynes (5 June 2012). Kervaire Invariant One [after M. A. Hill, M. J. Hopkins, and D. C. Ravenel]". arXiv:1104.4523
.

[12] Ranicki, Andrew (2011). Commentary on On the parallelizability of the spheres by R. Bott and J. Milnor and On the
nonexistence of elements of Hopf invariant one by J. F. Adams. Bulletin of the American Mathematical Society. 48 (4):
509511. ISSN 0273-0979. doi:10.1090/s0273-0979-2011-01345-3.

[13] Appleby, Marcus; Flammia, Steven; McConnell, Gary; Yard, Jon (2017-08-01). SICs and Algebraic Number Theory.
Foundations of Physics. 47 (8): 10421059. ISSN 0015-9018. arXiv:1701.05200 . doi:10.1007/s10701-017-0090-7.

[14] Stacey, Blake C. (2017-08-01). Sporadic SICs and the Normed Division Algebras. Foundations of Physics. 47 (8):
10601064. ISSN 0015-9018. arXiv:1605.01426 . doi:10.1007/s10701-017-0087-2.

[15] Baez, John C. (23 July 1997). This Weeks Finds in Mathematical Physics: Week106. math.ucr.edu. Retrieved 2017-
08-07.

[16] Borcherds, Richard E. (1998). What is Moonshine?". Documenta Mathematica. ICM 1: 607615. arXiv:math/9809110
.

[17] Baez, John C.; Huerta, John (October 2011). Division algebras and supersymmetry II. Advances in Theoretical and
Mathematical Physics. 15 (5): 13731410. ISSN 1095-0761. arXiv:1003.3436 . doi:10.4310/atmp.2011.v15.n5.a4.

[18] Kac, V.G. An elucidation of Innite-Dimensional Algebras and the very strange formula. E(1)8 and the cube root
of the modular invariant j. Advances in Mathematics. 35 (3): 264273. doi:10.1016/0001-8708(80)90052-3.

[19] Kac, V.G. Innite-dimensional algebras, Dedekinds -function, classical mbius function and the very strange formula.
Advances in Mathematics. 30 (2): 85136. doi:10.1016/0001-8708(78)90033-6.
Chapter 40

Field, power, and root-power quantities

A power quantity is a power or a quantity directly proportional to power, e.g., energy density, acoustic intensity, and
luminous intensity.[1]
A eld quantity is a quantity such as voltage, current, sound pressure, electric eld strength, speed, or charge density,
the square of which, in linear systems, is proportional to power.[2] The term root-power quantity was introduced in
the ISO 80000-1 Annex C, dened as the square root of a power quantity; it replaces and deprecates the term eld
quantity.
It is essential to know which category a measurement belongs to when using decibels (dB) for comparing such quan-
tities. One bel is a 10 change in power, so when comparing power quantities x and y, the dierence is described as
10log10 (y/x). With eld quantities, however the dierence is 20log10 (y/x).[2] This apparent inconsistency actually
results in consistent meaning within the intended eld of application. An amplier can be described as having 3 dB
of gain without needing to specify whether volts or watts are being compared; for a given load (e.g. an 8 speaker),
it makes no dierence, and will produce a 3 dB increase in the resultant sound volume.

40.1 See also

Level (logarithmic quantity)
Fresnel reection eld and power equations

Sound level, dened in dierent ways for the pressure or power of sound

40.2 References
[1] Ainslie, Michael A. (Winter 2015). A Century of Sonar: Planetary Oceanography, Underwater Noise Monitoring, and
the Terminology of Underwater Sound (PDF). Acoustics Today. 11 (1): 1219.

[2] Brian C.J. Moore (1995). Hearing. Academic Press. p. 11. ISBN 978-0-08-053386-5.

108
Chapter 41

Formulario mathematico

Formulario Mathematico (Latino sine exione:[1] Formulation of mathematics) is a book[2] by Giuseppe Peano which
expresses fundamental theorems of mathematics in a symbolic language developed by Peano. The author was assisted
by Giovanni Vailati, Mario Pieri, Alessandro Padoa, Giovanni Vacca, Vincenzo Vivanti, Gino Fano and Cesare
Burali-Forti.
The Formulario was rst published in 1895. The fth and last edition was published in 1908.
Kennedy[3] wrote the development and use of mathematical logic is the guiding motif of the project. He also
explains the variety of Peanos publication under the title:

the ve editions of the Formulario [are not] editions in the usual sense of the word. Each is essentially
a new elaboration, although much material is repeated. Moreover, the title and language varied: the
rst three, titled Formulaire de Mathmatiques, and the fourth, titled, Formulaire Mathmatique, were
written in French, while Latino sine exione, Peanos own invention, was used for the fth edition, titled
Formulario Mathematico. ... Ugo Cassina lists no less than twenty separately published items as being
parts of the 'complete' Formulario![3]:45

Peano believed that students needed only precise statement of their lessons. He wrote:

Each professor will be able to adopt this Formulario as a textbook, for it ought to contain all theorems
and all methods. His teaching will be reduced to showing how to read the formulas, and to indicating to
the students the theorems that he wishes to explain in his course.[3]:66

Such a dismissal of the oral tradition in lectures at universities was the undoing of Peanos own teaching career.[3]:chapter 14

41.1 Notes
[1] While Latino sine Flexione was sometimes called Interlingua, it should not be confused with modern Interlingua, developed
between 1924 and 1951 by the International Auxiliary Language Association.

[2] There are many editions. Here are two:

(French) Published 1901 by Gauthier-Villars, Paris. 230p. OpenLibrary OL15255022W, PDF.

(Italian) Published 1960 by Edizione cremonese, Roma. 463p. OpenLibrary OL16587658M.

[3] H.C. Kennedy (1980) Peano, Life and Works of Giuseppe Peano, Chapter 6: The Formulario Project, pages 4450, Chapter
17: Completion of the Formulario, page 11824, D. Reidel ISBN 90-277-1067-8

41.2 References
Ivor Grattan-Guinness (2000) The Search for Mathematical Roots 1870-1940. Princeton University Press.

109
Chapter 42

Generalized inverse

Pseudoinverse redirects here. For the MoorePenrose inverse, sometimes referred to as the pseudoinverse, see
MoorePenrose pseudoinverse.

In mathematics, and in particular, algebra, a generalized inverse of an element x is an element y that has some prop-
erties of an inverse element but not necessarily all of them. Generalized inverses can be dened in any mathematical
structure that involves associative multiplication, that is, in a semigroup. This article describes generalized inverses
of a matrix A .
Formally, given a matrix A Rnm and a matrix Ag Rmn , Ag is a generalized inverse of A if it satises the
condition AAg A = A .[1][2][3]
The purpose of constructing a generalized inverse of a matrix is to obtain a matrix that can serve as an inverse in
some sense for a wider class of matrices than invertible matrices. A generalized inverse exists for an arbitrary matrix,
and when a matrix has a regular inverse, this inverse is its unique generalized inverse.[4]

42.1 Motivation
Consider the linear system

Ax = y

where A is an n m matrix and y R(A) , the column space of A . If A is nonsingular, then x = A1 y will be
the solution of the system. In this case, C. R. Rao and S. K. Mitra call A1 a regular inverse of A .[5] Note that, if
A is nonsingular, then

AA1 A = A.

Suppose A is singular, or n = m . Then we need a right candidate G of order m n such that for all y R(A) ,

AGy = y. [6]

That is, Gy is a solution of the linear system Ax = y . Equivalently, we need a matrix G of order m n such that

AGA = A.

Hence we can dene the generalized inverse or g-inverse as follows: Given an n m matrix A , an m n matrix
G is said to be a generalized inverse of A if AGA = A. [7][8][9]

110
42.2. TYPES 111

42.2 Types
The Penrose conditions dene dierent generalized inverses for A Rnm and Ag Rmn :

1. AAg A = A

2. Ag AAg = Ag

3. (AAg )T = AAg

4. (Ag A)T = Ag A.

If Ag satises the rst condition, then it is a generalized inverse of A . If it satises the rst two conditions, then
it is a reexive generalized inverse of A . If it satises all four conditions, then it is a pseudoinverse of A . A
pseudoinverse is sometimes called the MoorePenrose inverse, after the pioneering works by E. H. Moore and
Roger Penrose.[10][11][12][13]
There are other kinds of generalized inverse:

One-sided inverse (right inverse or left inverse)

Right inverse: If the matrix A has dimensions n m and R(A) = n , then there exists an m n matrix
A1 1
R called the right inverse of A such that AAR = In .
Left inverse: If the matrix A has dimensions n m and R(A) = m , then there exists an m n matrix
A1 1
L called the left inverse of A such that AL A = Im .
[14]

BottDun inverse

Drazin inverse

42.3 Construction
The following characterizations are easy to verify:

1. If A = BC is a rank factorization, then G = Cr Bl is a g-inverse of A , where Cr is a right

inverse of C and Bl is left inverse of B .
[ ] [ ]
I 0 I U 1
2. If A = P r Q for any non-singular matrices P and Q , then G = Q1 r P is a
0 0 W V
generalized inverse of A for arbitrary U, V and W .
3. Let A be of rank r . Without loss of generality, let

[ ]
B C
A= ,
D E

where Brr is the non-singular submatrix of A . Then,

[ 1 ]
B 0
G= is a g-inverse of A .
0 0

42.4 Uses
Any generalized inverse can be used to determine whether a system of linear equations has any solutions, and if so
to give all of them.[15] If any solutions exist for the n m linear system
112 CHAPTER 42. GENERALIZED INVERSE

Ax = b

with vector x of unknowns and vector b of constants, all solutions are given by

x = Ag b + [I Ag A]w

parametric on the arbitrary vector w , where Ag is any generalized inverse of A . Solutions exist if and only if Ag b
is a solution, that is, if and only if AAg b = b .

42.5 Notes
[1] Ben-Israel & Greville (2003, pp. 2,7)

[2] Nakamura (1991, pp. 4142)

[3] Rao & Mitra (1971, pp. vii,20)

[4] Ben-Israel & Greville (2003, pp. 2,7)

[5] Rao & Mitra (1971, pp. 1920)

[6] Rao & Mitra (1971, p. 24)

[7] Ben-Israel & Greville (2003, pp. 2,7)

[8] Nakamura (1991, pp. 4142)

[9] Rao & Mitra (1971, pp. vii,20)

[10] Ben-Israel & Greville (2003, p. 7)

[11] Campbell & Meyer (1991, p. 9)

[12] Nakamura (1991, pp. 4142)

[13] Rao & Mitra (1971, pp. 20,28,51)

[14] Rao & Mitra (1971, p. 19)

[15] James, M. (June 1978). The generalised inverse. Mathematical Gazette. 62: 109114. doi:10.2307/3617665.

42.6 References
Ben-Israel, Adi; Greville, Thomas N.E. (2003). Generalized inverses: Theory and applications (2nd ed.). New
York, NY: Springer. ISBN 0-387-00293-6.

Campbell, S. L.; Meyer, Jr., C. D. (1991). Generalized Inverses of Linear Transformations. Dover. ISBN
978-0-486-66693-8.

Nakamura, Yoshihiko (1991). Advanced Robotics: Redundancy and Optimization. Addison-Wesley. ISBN
0201151987.
Rao, C. Radhakrishna; Mitra, Sujit Kumar (1971). Generalized Inverse of Matrices and its Applications. New
York: John Wiley & Sons. p. 240. ISBN 0-471-70821-6.
Zheng, B; Bapat, R. B. (2004). Generalized inverse A(2)T,S and a rank equation. Applied Mathematics and
Computation. 155: 407415. doi:10.1016/S0096-3003(03)00786-0.
Chapter 43

Hand-waving

This article is about the idiomatic term. For the everyday human gesture, see Wave (gesture).

Hand-waving (with various spellings) is a pejorative label for attempting to be seen as eective in word, reasoning,
or deed while actually doing nothing eective or substantial.[1] It is most often applied to debate techniques that
involve fallacies, misdirection and the glossing over of details.[2] It is also used academically to indicate unproven
claims and skipped steps in proofs (sometimes intentionally, especially in instructional materials), with some specic
meanings in particular elds, including literary criticism and speculative ction, mathematics and logic, and science
and engineering. The term can additionally be used in work situations, when attempts are made to display productivity
or assure accountability without actually resulting in them. The term can also be used as a self-admission of, and
suggestion to defer discussion about, an allegedly unimportant weakness in ones own arguments evidence, to forestall
an opponent dwelling on it. In debate competition, certain cases of this form of hand-waving may be explicitly
permitted.
Hand-waving is an idiomatic metaphor, derived in part from the use of excessive gesticulation, perceived as unpro-
ductive, distracting or nervous, in communication or other eort. The term also evokes the sleight-of-hand distraction
techniques of stage magic,[2] and suggests that the speaker or writer seems to believe that if they, guratively speak-
ing, simply wave their hands, no one will notice or speak up about the holes in the reasoning.[2] This implication of
misleading intent has been reinforced by the pop-culture inuence of the Star Wars franchise, in which mystically
powerful hand-waving is ctionally used for mind control, and some uses of the term in public discourse are explicit
Star Wars references.[3]
Actual hand-waving motions may be used either by a speaker to indicate a desire to avoid going into details,[1] or by
critics to indicate that they believe the proponent of an argument is engaging in a verbal hand-wave inappropriately.[2]

43.1 Spelling and history

The spelling of the compound varies (both with regard to this idiom and the everyday human communication gesture
of waving). While hand-waving is the most common spelling of the unitary present participle and gerund in this
usage, and hand-wave of the simple present verb, hand wave dominates as the noun-phrase form. Handwaving and
handwave may be preferred in some circles, and are well attested.[4] Hand waving is mostly used otherwise, e.g.
she had one hand waving, the other on the rail, but is found in some dictionaries in this form.[1] A more arch, mock-
antiquarian construction is waving of [the] hands. Superlative constructions such as vigorous hand-waving, waved
their hand[s] furiously, lots of waving of hands, etc., are used to imply that the hand-waver lacks condence in the
information being conveyed, cannot convincingly express or defend the core of the argument being advanced. The
descriptive epithet hand-waver has been applied to those engaging in hand-waving, but is not common. The opposite
of hand-waving is sometimes called nose-following in mathematics (see below).
However it is spelled, the expression is also used the original literal meaning of gesturing in a greeting, departing,
excited, or attention-seeking manner by waving the hands, as in friendly were the hand-waving crowds ... ( Sinclair
Lewis),[1] which dates to the mid-17th century as a hyphenated verb[5] and the early 19th century United States as a
fully compounded verb.[6] It is unclear when the gurative usage arose. The Oxford Dictionary of English lists it as
extended use,[5] and it appears primarily in modern American dictionaries, some of which label it informal.[1]

113
114 CHAPTER 43. HAND-WAVING

43.2 In debate, generally

Handwaving is frequently used in low-quality debate, including political campaigning and commentary, issue-based
advocacy, advertising and public relations, tabloid journalism, opinion pieces, Internet memes, and informal discus-
sion and writing. If the opponent in a debate or commentator on an argument alleges hand-waving, it suggests the
proponent of the argument, position or message has engaged in one or more fallacies of logic,[2] usually informal,
and/or glossed over non-trivial details,[2] and is attempting to wave away challenges and deect questions, as if swat-
ting at ies. The distraction inherent in the sense of the term has become a key part of the meaning.[2] The fallacies
in question vary, but often include one of the many variants of argument to emotion, and in political discourse fre-
quently involve unjustied assignment or transference of blame. Hand-waving is not itself a fallacy; the proponents
argument may incidentally be correct despite their failure to properly support it.[2] A tertiary meaning refers to use
of poorly-reasoned arguments specically to impress[7] or persuade.[1][7]
The New Hackers Dictionary (a.k.a. The Jargon File) observes:

If someone starts a sentence with Clearly... or Obviously... or It is self-evident that..., it is a

good bet he is about to handwave (alternatively, use of these constructions in a sarcastic tone before a
paraphrase of someone elses argument suggests that it is a handwave). The theory behind this term is
that if you wave your hands at the right moment, the listener may be suciently distracted to not notice
that what you have said is bogus [i.e., incorrect]. Failing that, if a listener does object, you might try to
dismiss the objection with a wave of your hand.[2]

The implication that hand-waving is done with the specic intent to mislead has long been attached to the term, due
to the use of literal waving of a hand either natural-looking or showy, but never desperate by illusionists to distract
audiences and misdirect their attention from the mechanisms of the sleight-of-hand, gimmicked props or other trick
being used in the performance. This meaning has become reinforced in recent decades by the inuence of Star Wars
(1977) and its sequels, in which the ctional Jedi mind trick involves a subtle hand wave with mystical powers that
only work on the weak-minded to disguise reality and compel compliance. Consequently, there is an implication
in current usage that a hand-waver may be craftily intending to deceive, and has a low opinion of the intelligence of
the opponent or (especially) an audience or the general public. The labels Jedi hand wave and Jedi mind trick
themselves are sometimes applied, in a tongue-in-cheek way, to this manipulation technique in public discourse;[3]
US Congressman Luke Messer (RepublicanIndiana) use of it in reference to President Barack Obama's 2016 State
of the Union address generated headlines.[8][9]
In an unplanned debate or presentation, an o-the-cu essay, or an informal discussion, the proponent may have little
or no time for preparation. Participants in such exchanges may use the term in reference to their own arguments,
in the same sense as an author admitting a minor plot aw (see below). When the proponents use the term, they
are conceding that they know an ancillary point of or intermediate step in their arguments is poorly supported; they
are suggesting that such details aren't important and do not aect their key arguments or conclusions, and that the
hand-waved details should be excluded from current consideration. Examples include when they believe a statement
is true but cannot prove it at that time, and when the sources upon which they are relying conict in minor ways: I'm
hand-waving over the exact statistics here, but they all show at least a 20% increase, so lets move on.
In formal debate competition, certain forms of hand-waving may sometimes be explicitly permitted. In policy debate,
the concept of at allows a team to pursue a line a reasoning based on a scenario that is not presently true, if a judge
is satised that the case has been that it could become true.

43.3 In literary criticism

By extension, handwaving is used in literary, lm and other media criticism of speculative ction to refer to a plot
device (e.g., a scientic discovery, a political development, or rules governing the behavior of a ctional creature)
that is left unexplained or sloppily explained because it is convenient to the story, with the implication that the writer
is aware of the logical weakness but hopes the audience will not notice or will suspend disbelief regarding such a
macgun, deus ex machina, continuity error or plot hole.
The ctional material "handwavium" (a.k.a. unobtainium, among other humorous names) is sometimes referred
to in situations where the plot requires access to a substance of great value and properties that cannot be explained
by real-world science, but is convenient to solving, or central to creating, a problem for the characters in the story.
43.4. IN MATHEMATICS (AND THUS SOME FORMAL LOGIC, PHILOSOPHY, AND THEORETICAL SCIENCE)115

Perhaps the best known example is the spice melange, a ctional drug with supernatural properties, in Frank Herbert's
far-future science-fantasy epic, Dune.
Hand-waving has come to be used in role-playing games to describe actions and conversations that are quickly glossed
over, rather than acted out in full according to the rules. This may be done to keep from bogging down the play of
the game with time-consuming but minor details.

43.4 In mathematics (and thus some formal logic, philosophy, and theo-
retical science)

In mathematics, and theory-dominated disciplines in which mathematics plays a major role, hand-waving refers to the
following behavior, which is expected from students (and can be used to advance instruction), but which is considered
intolerable and inexcusable among professionals.[10] In this context, hand-waving is not merely a pedagogical paradigm
or rhetorical device. Rather, it represents a formal logical fallacy, wherein a conclusion (which may be uncontested)
is ascribed to follow from a demonstrably unreliable source of argumentation. The important distinction from the
benign and informal interpretation of proof by hand-waving in science and engineering (see below), is that the
validity or falsehood of any proposals or hypotheses, though asserted and claimed to be true, are never called into
question; instead, a diagnosis of mathematical hand-waving is eectively a professional attack, intended to undermine
the legitimacy of a speaker who has attempted to assert a proposition, without necessarily having the power to prove
it, at least not without appealing to authority or consulting notes or references.
In general, working mathematicians are implicitly more receptive to legitimate contributors than to any source of
equivocation, and consequently consider themselves to be more rewarded by a constructive denunciation than by any
competent and correct but illegitimate or indefensible instruction. Especially when expositing a newly discovered
theorem, mathematicians must be able to validate any proposition that is explicitly attested in the course of their
argumentation. In the practical event that any of their assertions are challenged (in good faith) by a member of their
audience, the theorists professional qualications entail that they be fully prepared to achieve such validity up to any
degree of absolute certainty, including rigorous demonstration by formal mathematical proof.[11] This is important
because, should a speaker apparently or demonstrably fail to achieve this standard, anyone in the audience having a
suciently superior expertise to provide the needed demonstration can often be expected to mercilessly upstage this
person on the spot; and such an attack is likely to be deemed warranted in the eyes of an audience which, generally
speaking, does not like to be hand-waved at. Moreover, the objector in such a case could receive some measure credit
for the theorem the hand-waver presented.
The opposite of hand-waving in mathematics and related elds is sometimes called nose-following,[12] a behavior
which, although usually counter-productive, is characteristic of logical veracity. The reason why behaviors such as
hand-waving and nose-following, and the particular ways that these are identied and responded to, tend to be more
profound in mathematics than in other disciplines, seems to be suggested by the following quote of G. H. Hardy. "[A
mathematicians] subject is the most curious of allthere is none in which truth plays such odd pranks. It has the
most elaborate and the most fascinating technique, and gives unrivalled openings for the display of sheer professional
skill.[13]

43.5 In applied science and engineering

Hand-waving arguments in engineering and other applied sciences often include order-of-magnitude estimates and
dimensional analysis, especially in the use of Fermi problems in physics and engineering education. However, com-
petent, well-intentioned researchers and professors also rely on explicitly declared hand-waving when, given a limited
time, a large result must be shown and minor technical details cannot be given much attentione.g., it can be shown
that z is an even number, as an intermediary step in reaching a conclusion.
Back-of-the-envelope calculations are approximate ways to get an answer by over-simplication, and are comparable
to hand-waving in this sense.
116 CHAPTER 43. HAND-WAVING

43.6 In business
Hand-waving has been used to describe work-related situations where productivity is seemingly displayed but de-
liverables are not produced, especially intentional engagement in busy work or pretend-work, vague claims of over-
work or complications, impenetrably buzzword-laden rationalizations for delays or otherwise poor performance, and
plausible-sounding but weak excuse-making and attention-deecting tactics. In employment situations, as in political
discourse, a hand-waving eort may seek to shift blame to other parties.
Another use is in reference to scal problems, such as an inability to adequately explain accounting discrepancies or
an avoidance of accountability for missing funds.

43.7 See also

List of logical fallacies

43.8 References
[1] hand wave. Dictionary.com. 2016. Cites the Random House Dictionary and The Dictionary of American Slang 4th ed.

[2] Raymond, Eric S.; Steele, Guy L., eds. (1996). handwave. The New Hackers Dictionary (3rd ed.). MIT Press. ISBN
0-262-68092-0. Online edition: The Jargon File. 4.4.7. Homepage mentions a ver. 4.4.8, but the text of the work says
4.4.7.

[3] Examples in the political press of Jedi hand wave": http://townhall.com/columnists/kurtschlichter/2015/11/23/more-lame-virtue-signaling-fro

page/full ;
and in the sports press of Jedi mind trick": http://www.cbssports.com/nfl/eye-on-football/25449738/one-bronco-thinks-roethlisbergers-injury
.

[4] Usage patterns are easily observable with Google and other search engines, which also reveal the diculty of excluding
false positives from various particular search terms.

[5] hand-wave. Oxford Dictionaries Online (British and World English ed.). Oxford University Press. 2015. Retrieved
January 26, 2015. This is an online edition of Oxford Dictionary of English with additional material.

[6] handwave. Oxford Dictionaries Online. American English. Oxford University Press. 2015. Retrieved January 26, 2015.
This is an online edition of the New Oxford American Dictionary.

[7] hand-waving. Oxford Dictionaries Online. American English. 2015. Retrieved January 26, 2015.

[8] http://www.bbc.com/news/world-us-canada-35256156

[9] http://fox59.com/2016/01/17/in-focus-rep-messer-calls-presidents-speech-jedi-mind-trick/

[10] Gus Wisemans answer to What do mathematicians mean by hand-waving and why is it important?".

[11] Hugh O'Byrnes answer to What do mathematicians mean by hand-waving and why is it important?".

[12] Polycategories via pseudo-distributive laws.

[13] G. H. Hardy (1940). A Mathematicians Apology.

43.9 External links

Proof by Handwaving, article at Everything2
And then a miracle occurs, cartoon by Sidney Harris, published in American Scientist magazine

Proving almost anything, humor essay by James Lavin, IEEE Potentials February/March 1996, pp. 67.
Chapter 44

Harmonic (mathematics)

This article is about several concepts in mathematics that are called harmonic. For other uses of the word, see
Harmonic (disambiguation).

In mathematics, a number of concepts employ the word harmonic. The similarity of this terminology to that of
music is not accidental: the equations of motion of vibrating strings, drums and columns of air are given by formulas
involving Laplacians; the solutions to which are given by eigenvalues corresponding to their modes of vibration. Thus,
the term harmonic is applied when one is considering functions with sinusoidal variations, or solutions of Laplaces
equation and related concepts.

44.1 See also

Harmonic analysis
Harmonic conjugate

Projective harmonic conjugate

Cross-ratio
Harmonic function

Harmonic number
Harmonic series

Alternating harmonic series

Harmonic form

Harmonic mean
Harmonic mode

Harmonic tremor

117
Chapter 45

If and only if

I redirects here. For other uses, see IFF (disambiguation).

"" redirects here. It is not to be confused with Bidirectional trac.

Logical symbols representing i

In logic and related elds such as mathematics and philosophy, if and only if (shortened i) is a biconditional logical
connective between statements.
In that it is biconditional, the connective can be likened to the standard material conditional (only if, equal to if
... then) combined with its reverse (if); hence the name. The result is that the truth of either one of the connected
statements requires the truth of the other (i.e. either both statements are true, or both are false). It is controversial
whether the connective thus dened is properly rendered by the English if and only if, with its pre-existing meaning.
There is nothing to stop one from stipulating that we may read this connective as only if and if, although this may
lead to confusion.
In writing, phrases commonly used, with debatable propriety, as alternatives to P if and only if Q include Q is
necessary and sucient for P, P is equivalent (or materially equivalent) to Q (compare material implication), P precisely
if Q, P precisely (or exactly) when Q, P exactly in case Q, and P just in case Q.[1] Many authors regard i as unsuitable
in formal writing;[2] others use it freely.[3]
In logic formulae, logical symbols are used instead of these phrases; see the discussion of notation.

45.1 Denition

The truth table of P Q is as follows:[4][5]

Note that it is equivalent to that produced by the XNOR gate, and opposite to that produced by the XOR gate.

45.2 Usage

45.2.1 Notation

The corresponding logical symbols are "", " ", and "", and sometimes i. These are usually treated as equiv-
alent. However, some texts of mathematical logic (particularly those on rst-order logic, rather than propositional
logic) make a distinction between these, in which the rst, , is used as a symbol in logic formulas, while is used
in reasoning about those logic formulas (e.g., in metalogic). In ukasiewicz's notation, it is the prex symbol 'E'.
Another term for this logical connective is exclusive nor.

118
45.3. DISTINCTION FROM IF AND ONLY IF 119

45.2.2 Proofs

In most logical systems, one proves a statement of the form P i Q by proving if P, then Q and if Q, then P.
Proving this pair of statements sometimes leads to a more natural proof since there are not obvious conditions in
which one would infer a biconditional directly. An alternative is to prove the disjunction "(P and Q) or (not-P and
not-Q)", which itself can be inferred directly from either of its disjunctsthat is, because i is truth-functional, P
i Q follows if P and Q have both been shown true, or both false.

45.2.3 Origin of i and pronunciation

Usage of the abbreviation i rst appeared in print in John L. Kelley's 1955 book General Topology.[6] Its invention
is often credited to Paul Halmos, who wrote I invented 'i,' for 'if and only if'but I could never believe I was really
its rst inventor.[7]
It is somewhat unclear how i was meant to be pronounced. In current practice, the single 'word' i is almost
always read as the four words if and only if. However, in the preface of General Topology, Kelley suggests that it
should be read dierently: In some cases where mathematical content requires 'if and only if' and euphony demands
something less I use Halmos 'i'". The authors of one discrete mathematics textbook suggest:[8] Should you need
to pronounce i, really hang on to the '' so that people hear the dierence from 'if'", implying that i could be
pronounced as /f/.

45.3 Distinction from if and only if

1. Madison will eat the fruit if it is an apple. (equivalent to Only if Madison will eat the fruit, it is an
apple;" or Madison will eat the fruit fruit is an apple)

This states simply that Madison will eat fruits that are apples. It does not, however, exclude the
possibility that Madison might also eat bananas or other types of fruit. All that is known for certain
is that she will eat any and all apples that she happens upon. That the fruit is an apple is a sucient
condition for Madison to eat the fruit.

2. Madison will eat the fruit only if it is an apple. (equivalent to If Madison will eat the fruit, then it is
an apple or Madison will eat the fruit fruit is an apple)

This states that the only fruit Madison will eat is an apple. It does not, however, exclude the possi-
bility that Madison will refuse an apple if it is made available, in contrast with (1), which requires
Madison to eat any available apple. In this case, that a given fruit is an apple is a necessary condition
for Madison to be eating it. It is not a sucient condition since Madison might not eat all the apples
she is given.

3. Madison will eat the fruit if and only if it is an apple (equivalent to Madison will eat the fruit fruit
is an apple)

This statement makes it clear that Madison will eat all and only those fruits that are apples. She
will not leave any apple uneaten, and she will not eat any other type of fruit. That a given fruit is an
apple is both a necessary and a sucient condition for Madison to eat the fruit.

Suciency is the converse of necessity. That is to say, given PQ (i.e. if P then Q), P would be a sucient condition
for Q, and Q would be a necessary condition for P. Also, given PQ, it is true that QP (where is the negation
operator, i.e. not). This means that the relationship between P and Q, established by PQ, can be expressed in the
following, all equivalent, ways:

P is sucient for Q
Q is necessary for P
Q is sucient for P
P is necessary for Q
120 CHAPTER 45. IF AND ONLY IF

As an example, take (1), above, which states PQ, where P is the fruit in question is an apple and Q is Madison
will eat the fruit in question. The following are four equivalent ways of expressing this very relationship:

If the fruit in question is an apple, then Madison will eat it.

Only if Madison will eat the fruit in question, is it an apple.
If Madison will not eat the fruit in question, then it is not an apple.
Only if the fruit in question is not an apple, will Madison not eat it.

So we see that (2), above, can be restated in the form of if...then as If Madison will eat the fruit in question, then it
is an apple"; taking this in conjunction with (1), we nd that (3) can be stated as If the fruit in question is an apple,
then Madison will eat it; and if Madison will eat the fruit, then it is an apple.

45.4 In terms of Euler diagrams

A

1 11

4 8
B
A is a proper subset of B. A number is in A only if it is in B; a number is in B
if it is in A.

1 11

4 8
B
C is a subset but not a proper subset of B. A number is in B if and only if it is in
C, and a number is in C if and only if it is in B.

Euler diagrams show logical relationships among events, properties, and so forth. P only if Q, if P then Q, and
PQ all mean that P is a subset, either proper or improper, of Q. P if Q, if Q then P, and QP all mean that
Q is a proper or improper subset of P. P if and only if Q and Q if and only if P both mean that the sets P and Q
are identical to each other.

45.5 More general usage

I is used outside the eld of logic, wherever logic is applied, especially in mathematical discussions. It has the same
meaning as above: it is an abbreviation for if and only if, indicating that one statement is both necessary and sucient
for the other. This is an example of mathematical jargon. (However, as noted above, if, rather than i, is more often
used in statements of denition.)
The elements of X are all and only the elements of Y is used to mean: for any z in the domain of discourse, z is in
X if and only if z is in Y.

45.6 See also

Covariance
45.7. FOOTNOTES 121

Logical biconditional

Logical equality
Necessary and sucient condition

Polysyllogism

45.7 Footnotes
[1] Weisstein, Eric W. I. From MathWorld--A Wolfram Web Resource. http://mathworld.wolfram.com/Iff.html

[2] E.g. Daepp, Ulrich; Gorkin, Pamela (2011), Reading, Writing, and Proving: A Closer Look at Mathematics, Undergraduate
Texts in Mathematics, Springer, p. 52, ISBN 9781441994790, While it can be a real time-saver, we don't recommend it
in formal writing.

[3] Rothwell, Edward J.; Cloud, Michael J. (2014), Engineering Writing by Design: Creating Formal Documents of Lasting
Value, CRC Press, p. 98, ISBN 9781482234312, It is common in mathematical writing.

[4] p <=> q. Wolfram|Alpha

[5] If and only if, UHM Department of Mathematics, Theorems which have the form P if and only Q are much prized in
mathematics. They give what are called necessary and sucient conditions, and give completely equivalent and hopefully
interesting new ways to say exactly the same thing..

[6] General Topology, reissue ISBN 978-0-387-90125-1

[7] Nicholas J. Higham (1998). Handbook of writing for the mathematical sciences (2nd ed.). SIAM. p. 24. ISBN 978-0-
89871-420-3.

[8] Maurer, Stephen B.; Ralston, Anthony (2005). Discrete Algorithmic Mathematics (3rd ed.). Boca Raton, Fla.: CRC Press.
p. 60. ISBN 1568811667.

45.8 External links

Language Log: Just in Case

Southern California Philosophy for philosophy graduate students: Just in Case

Chapter 46

Invariant (mathematics)

In mathematics, an invariant is a property, held by a class of mathematical objects, which remains unchanged when
transformations of a certain type are applied to the objects. The particular class of objects and type of transformations
are usually indicated by the context in which the term is used. For example, the area of a triangle is an invariant with
respect to isometries of the Euclidean plane. The phrases invariant under and invariant to a transformation are
both used. More generally, an invariant with respect to an equivalence relation is a property that is constant on each
equivalence class.
Invariants are used in diverse areas of mathematics such as geometry, topology and algebra. Some important classes
of transformations are dened by an invariant they leave unchanged, for example conformal maps are dened as
transformations of the plane that preserve angles. The discovery of invariants is an important step in the process of
classifying mathematical objects.

46.1 Simple examples

A simple example of invariance is expressed in our ability to count. For a nite set of objects of any kind, there is a
number to which we always arrive, regardless of the order in which we count the objects in the set. The quantitya
cardinal numberis associated with the set, and is invariant under the process of counting.
An identity is an equation that remains true for all values of its variables. There are also inequalities that remain true
when the values of their variables change.
The distance between two points on a number line is not changed by adding the same quantity to both numbers.
On the other hand, multiplication does not have this same property as addition, so distance is not invariant under
multiplication.
Angles and ratios of distances are invariant under scalings, rotations, translations and reections. These transforma-
tions produce similar shapes, which is the basis of trigonometry. For example, no matter how a triangle is transformed,
the sum of its interior angles is always 180. As another example, all circles are similar: they can be transformed
into each other and the ratio of the circumference to the diameter is invariant (denoted by the Greek letter pi).

46.2 More advanced examples

Some more complicated examples:

The real part and the absolute value of a complex number are invariant under complex conjugation.
The degree of a polynomial is invariant under linear change of variables.
The dimension and homology groups of a topological object are invariant under homeomorphism.[1]
The number of xed points of a dynamical system is invariant under many mathematical operations.
Euclidean distance is invariant under orthogonal transformations.

122
46.3. INVARIANT SET 123

Euclidean area is invariant under a linear map with determinant 1 (see Equi-areal maps).

Some invariants of projective transformations: collinearity of three or more points, concurrency of three or
more lines, conic sections, the cross-ratio.[2]

The determinant, trace, and eigenvectors and eigenvalues of a square matrix are invariant under changes of
basis. In a word, the spectrum of a matrix is invariant to the change of basis.

Invariants of tensors.

The singular values of a matrix are invariant under orthogonal transformations.

Lebesgue measure is invariant under translations.

The variance of a probability distribution is invariant under translations of the real line; hence the variance of
a random variable is unchanged by the addition of a constant to it.

The xed points of a transformation are the elements in the domain invariant under the transformation. They
may, depending on the application, be called symmetric with respect to that transformation. For example,
objects with translational symmetry are invariant under certain translations.

The integral M K d of the Gaussian curvature K of a 2-dimensional Riemannian manifold (M,g) is invariant
under changes of the Riemannian metric g. This is the Gauss-Bonnet Theorem.

Dierential invariants for dierential equations[3]

46.3 Invariant set

A subset S of the domain U of a mapping T: U U is an invariant set under the mapping when x S T (x) S.
Note that the elements of S are not xed, but rather the set S is xed in the power set of U. (Some authors use the
terminology setwise invariant [4] vs. pointwise invariant [5] to distinguish between these cases.) For example, a circle
is an invariant subset of the plane under a rotation about the circles center. Further, a conical surface is invariant as
a set under a homothety of space.
An invariant set of an operation T is also said to be stable under T. For example, the normal subgroups that are
so important in group theory are those subgroups that are stable under the inner automorphisms of the ambient
group.[6][7][8] Other examples occur in linear algebra. Suppose a linear transformation T has an eigenvector v. Then
the line through 0 and v is an invariant set under T. The eigenvectors span an invariant subspace which is stable under
T.
When T is a screw displacement, the screw axis is an invariant line, though if the pitch is non-zero, T has no xed
points.

46.4 Formal statement

The notion of invariance is formalized in three dierent ways in mathematics: via group actions, presentations, and
deformation.

46.4.1 Unchanged under group action

Firstly, if one has a group G acting on a mathematical object (or set of objects) X, then one may ask which points x
are unchanged, invariant under the group action, or under an element g of the group.
Very frequently one will have a group acting on a set X and ask which objects in an associated set F(X) are invariant.
For example, rotation in the plane about a point leaves the point about which it rotates invariant, while translation in
the plane does not leave any points invariant, but does leave all lines parallel to the direction of translation invariant
as lines. Formally, dene the set of lines in the plane P as L(P); then a rigid motion of the plane takes lines to lines
the group of rigid motions acts on the set of lines and one may ask which lines are unchanged by an action.
124 CHAPTER 46. INVARIANT (MATHEMATICS)

More importantly, one may dene a function on a set, such as radius of a circle in the plane and then ask if this
function is invariant under a group action, such as rigid motions.
Dual to the notion of invariants are coinvariants, also known as orbits, which formalizes the notion of congruence:
objects which can be taken to each other by a group action. For example, under the group of rigid motions of the
plane, the perimeter of a triangle is an invariant, while the set of triangles congruent to a given triangle is a coinvariant.
These are connected as follows: invariants are constant on coinvariants (for example, congruent triangles have the
same perimeter), while two objects which agree in the value of one invariant may or may not be congruent (two
triangles with the same perimeter need not be congruent). In classication problems, one seeks to nd a complete set
of invariants, such that if two objects have the same values for this set of invariants, they are congruent. For example,
triangles such that all three sides are equal are congruent, via SSS congruence, and thus the lengths of all three sides
form a complete set of invariants for triangles.

46.4.2 Independent of presentation

Secondly, a function may be dened in terms of some presentation or decomposition of a mathematical object; for
instance, the Euler characteristic of a cell complex is dened as the alternating sum of the number of cells in each
dimension. One may forget the cell complex structure and look only at the underlying topological space (the manifold)
as dierent cell complexes give the same underlying manifold, one may ask if the function is independent of choice
of presentation, in which case it is an intrinsically dened invariant. This is the case for the Euler characteristic, and
a general method for dening and computing invariants is to dene them for a given presentation and then show that
they are independent of the choice of presentation. Note that there is no notion of a group action in this sense.
The most common examples are:

The presentation of a manifold in terms of coordinate charts invariants must be unchanged under change of
coordinates.

Various manifold decompositions, as discussed for Euler characteristic.

Invariants of a presentation of a group.

46.4.3 Unchanged under perturbation

Thirdly, if one is studying an object which varies in a family, as is common in algebraic geometry and dierential
geometry, one may ask if the property is unchanged under perturbation if an object is constant on families or
invariant under change of metric, for instance.

46.5 See also

Erlangen program

Invariant (physics)

Invariant estimator in statistics

Invariant theory

Symmetry in mathematics

Topological invariant

Invariant dierential operator

Invariant measure

Mathematical constant

Mathematical constants and functions

46.6. NOTES 125

46.6 Notes
[1] Fraleigh (1976, pp. 166167)

[2] Kay (1969, pp. 219)

[3] Dierential Invariants for Dierential Equations by Andr Platzer

[4] Barry Simon. Representations of Finite and Compact Groups. American Mathematical Soc. p. 16. ISBN 978-0-8218-
7196-6.

[5] Judith Cederberg (1989). A Course in Modern Geometries. Springer. p. 174. ISBN 978-1-4757-3831-5.

[6] Fraleigh (1976, p. 103)

[7] Herstein (1964, p. 42)

[8] McCoy (1968, p. 183)

46.7 References
Fraleigh, John B. (1976), A First Course In Abstract Algebra (2nd ed.), Reading: Addison-Wesley, ISBN 0-
201-01984-1

Herstein, I. N. (1964), Topics In Algebra, Waltham: Blaisdell Publishing Company, ISBN 978-1114541016
Kay, David C. (1969), College Geometry, New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, LCCN 69-12075

McCoy, Neal H. (1968), Introduction To Modern Algebra, Revised Edition, Boston: Allyn and Bacon, LCCN
68-15225

Weisstein, Eric W. Invariant. MathWorld.

Popov, V.L. (2001) [1994], Invariant, in Hazewinkel, Michiel, Encyclopedia of Mathematics, Springer Sci-
ence+Business Media B.V. / Kluwer Academic Publishers, ISBN 978-1-55608-010-4
Chapter 47

Inverse (mathematics)

Inverse in mathematics may refer to:

Inverse element, the denition of which varies depending on the algebraic structure involved
Additive inverse of x is -x
Multiplicative inverse of x is 1/x or x1
Inverse function, a function that reverses another function
Inversion in a point, or point reection, a type of isometry of Euclidean space
Inversive geometry, the study of those properties of gures that are preserved by inversion
Circle inversion
Inversion in a sphere
Inverse (logic), a type of conditional sentence which is an immediate inference made from another conditional
sentence
Inverse matrix of an Invertible matrix
Generalized inverse, a matrix that has some properties of the inverse matrix but not necessarily all of
them
Inversely proportional, where x and y are inversely proportional if the product xy is constant
Inverse semigroup, in group theory
Inverse relation of a binary relation is the relation that occurs when the order of the elements is switched in the
relation
Inverse Fourier transform
Inversion transformation in mathematical physics

47.1 See also

Inverse (disambiguation)
Inversion (disambiguation)
Complement (set theory)
Inverse chain rule method in integration and dierentiation
Inverse limit in abstract algebra

126
47.1. SEE ALSO 127

Inverse system, a functor

Inverse transform sampling, a method for pseudo-random number sampling

Inverse-square law in physics

Reverse perspective or Inverse perspective, a form of perspective drawing

Inverse problem, the process of calculating from a set of observations the causal factors that produced them
Chapter 48

Irreducibility (mathematics)

In mathematics, the concept of irreducibility is used in several ways.

In abstract algebra, irreducible can be an abbreviation for irreducible element of an integral domain; for
example an irreducible polynomial.
In representation theory, an irreducible representation is a nontrivial representation with no nontrivial proper
subrepresentations. Similarly, an irreducible module is another name for a simple module.
Absolutely irreducible is a term applied to mean irreducible, even after any nite extension of the eld of
coecients. It applies in various situations, for example to irreducibility of a linear representation, or of an
algebraic variety; where it means just the same as irreducible over an algebraic closure.

In commutative algebra, a commutative ring R is irreducible if its prime spectrum, that is, the topological space
Spec R, is an irreducible topological space.

A matrix is irreducible if it is not similar via a permutation to a block upper triangular matrix (that has more
than one block of positive size). (Replacing non-zero entries in the matrix by one, and viewing the matrix as
the adjacency matrix of a directed graph, the matrix is irreducible if and only if such directed graph is strongly
connected.)

Also, a Markov chain is irreducible if there is a non-zero probability of transitioning (even if in more than one
step) from any state to any other state.

In the theory of manifolds, an n-manifold is irreducible if any embedded (n 1)-sphere bounds an embedded n-
ball. Implicit in this denition is the use of a suitable category, such as the category of dierentiable manifolds
or the category of piecewise-linear manifolds. The notions of irreducibility in algebra and manifold theory are
related. An n-manifold is called prime, if it cannot be written as a connected sum of two n-manifolds (neither
of which is an n-sphere). An irreducible manifold is thus prime, although the converse does not hold. From an
algebraists perspective, prime manifolds should be called irreducible"; however, the topologist (in particular
the 3-manifold topologist) nds the denition above more useful. The only compact, connected 3-manifolds
that are prime but not irreducible are the trivial 2-sphere bundle over S 1 and the twisted 2-sphere bundle over
S 1 . See, for example, Prime decomposition (3-manifold).

A topological space is irreducible if it is not the union of two proper closed subsets. This notion is used in
algebraic geometry, where spaces are equipped with the Zariski topology; it is not of much signicance for
Hausdor spaces. See also irreducible component, algebraic variety.
In universal algebra, irreducible can refer to the inability to represent an algebraic structure as a composition
of simpler structures using a product construction; for example subdirectly irreducible.
A 3-manifold is P-irreducible if it is irreducible and contains no 2-sided RP 2 (real projective plane).

An irreducible fraction (or fraction in lowest terms) is a vulgar fraction in which the numerator and denominator
are smaller than those in any other equivalent fraction.

128
Chapter 49

Left and right (algebra)

For other uses, see Left and right (disambiguation).

In algebra, the terms left and right denote the order of a binary operation (usually, but not always called "multiplication")
in non-commutative algebraic structures. A binary operation is usually written in the inx form:

st

The argument s is placed on the left side, and the argument t is on the right side. Even if the symbol of the operation
is omitted, the order of s and t does matter unless is commutative.
A two-sided property is fullled on both sides. A one-sided property is related to one (unspecied) of two sides.
Although terms are similar, leftright distinction in algebraic parlance is not related either to left and right limits in
calculus, or to left and right in geometry.

49.1 Binary operation as an operator

A binary operation may be considered as a family of unary operators through currying

Rt(s) = s t,

depending on t as a parameter. It is the family of right operations. Similarly,

Ls(t) = s t

denes the family of left operations parametrized with s.

If for some e, the left operation Le is identical, then e is called a left identity. Similarly, if Re = id, then e is a right
identity.
In ring theory, a subring which is invariant under any left multiplication in a ring, is called a left ideal. Similarly, a
right multiplications-invariant subring is a right ideal.

49.2 Left and right modules

Over non-commutative rings, the leftright distinction is applied to modules, namely to specify the side where a scalar
(module element) appear in the scalar multiplication.
The distinction is not purely syntactical because implies two dierent associativity rules (the lowest row in the table)
which link multiplication in a module with multiplication in a ring.
A bimodule is simultaneously a left and right module, with two dierent scalar multiplication operations, obeying an
obvious associativity condition on them.

129
130 CHAPTER 49. LEFT AND RIGHT (ALGEBRA)

49.3 Other examples

left eigenvectors

left and right group actions

49.4 In category theory

In category theory the usage of left is right has some algebraic resemblance, but refers to left and right sides of
morphisms. See adjoint functors.

49.5 See also

Operator associativity

49.6 External links

Barile, Margherita. right ideal. MathWorld.

Barile, Margherita. left ideal. MathWorld.

Weisstein, Eric W. left eigenvector. MathWorld.

Chapter 50

Lemma (mathematics)

In mathematics, a helping theorem or lemma (plural lemmas or lemmata) is a proved proposition which is used as
a stepping stone to a larger result rather than as a statement of interest by itself.[1] The word derives from the Ancient
Greek (anything which is received, such as a gift, prot, or a bribe).

50.1 Comparison with theorem

There is no formal distinction between a lemma and a theorem, only one of intention see Theorem terminology.
However, a lemma can be considered a minor result whose sole purpose is to help prove a theorem a step in the
direction of proof.[2]

50.2 Well-known lemmas

A good stepping stone can lead to many others. Some powerful results in mathematics are known as lemmas, such
as Bzouts lemma, Dehns lemma, Euclids lemma, Farkas lemma, Fatous lemma, Gausss lemma, Greendlingers
lemma, It's lemma, Jordans lemma, Nakayamas lemma, Poincar's lemma, Rieszs lemma, Schurs lemma, Schwarzs
lemma, Urysohns lemma, Yonedas lemma and Zorns lemma. While these results originally seemed too simple or
too technical to warrant independent interest, they have turned out to be central to the theories in which they occur.

50.3 See also

Corollary

Fundamental lemma

List of lemmas

Theorem terminology

50.4 References

[1] Higham, Nicholas J. (1998). Handbook of Writing for the Mathematical Sciences. Society for Industrial and Applied
Mathematics. p. 16. ISBN 0-89871-420-6.

[2] What is the dierence between a theorem, a lemma, and a corollary?"

131
132 CHAPTER 50. LEMMA (MATHEMATICS)

50.5 External links

Doron Zeilberger, Opinion 82: A Good Lemma is Worth a Thousand Theorems

This article incorporates material from Lemma on PlanetMath, which is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution/Share-
Alike License.
Chapter 51

Lemniscate

This article is about gure-eight shaped curves in algebraic geometry. For other uses, see Lemniscate (disambigua-
tion).
In algebraic geometry, a lemniscate is any of several gure-eight or -shaped curves.[1][2] The word comes from

The lemniscate of Bernoulli and its two foci

the Latin lmnisctus meaning decorated with ribbons, from the Greek meaning ribbons, [2] or alter-
natively may refer to the wool from which the ribbons were made.[1]

51.1 History and examples

51.1.1 Lemniscate of Booth

The consideration of curves with a gure-eight shape can be traced back to Proclus, a Greek Neoplatonist philosopher
and mathematician who lived in the 5th century AD. Proclus considered the cross-sections of a torus by a plane parallel
to the axis of the torus. As he observed, for most such sections the cross section consists of either one or two ovals;
however, when the plane is tangent to the inner surface of the torus, the cross-section takes on a gure-eight shape,
which Proclus called a horse fetter (a device for holding two feet of a horse together), or hippopede in Greek. The
name lemniscate dates to the late 17th century; it was studied by the 19th-century mathematician James Booth.[1]
The lemniscate may be dened algebraically as the zero set of the quartic polynomial (x2 + y 2 )2 cx2 dy 2 when
the parameter d is negative. For positive values of d one instead obtains the oval of Booth.

133
134 CHAPTER 51. LEMNISCATE

Lemniscate of Booth

Lemniscate of Bernoulli

51.1.2 Lemniscate of Bernoulli

In 1680, Cassini studied a family of curves, now called the Cassini oval, dened as follows: the locus of all points, the
product of whose distances from two xed points, the curves foci, is a constant. Under very particular circumstances
(when the half-distance between the points is equal to the square root of the constant) this gives rise to a lemniscate.
In 1694, Johann Bernoulli studied the lemniscate case of the Cassini oval, now known as the lemniscate of Bernoulli
(shown above), in connection with a problem of "isochrones" that had been posed earlier by Leibniz. It is analytically
described as the zero set of the polynomial (x2 + y 2 )2 2a2 (x2 y 2 ) . Bernoullis brother Jacob Bernoulli also
studied the same curve in the same year, and gave it its name, the lemniscate.[3] It may also be dened geometrically
as the locus of points whose product of distances from two foci equals the square of half the interfocal distance.[4] It
is a special case of the hippopede (lemniscate of Booth), with d = c , and may be formed as a cross-section of a
torus whose inner hole and circular cross-sections have the same diameter as each other.[1] The lemniscatic elliptic
functions are analogues of trigonometric functions for the lemniscate of Bernoulli, and the lemniscate constants arise
in evaluating the arc length of this lemniscate.
51.2. SEE ALSO 135

51.1.3 Lemniscate of Gerono

Lemniscate of Gerono: solution set of x4 x2 +y2 =0[5]

Another lemniscate, the lemniscate of Gerono or lemniscate of Huygens, is the zero set of the quartic polynomial
y 2 x2 (a2 x2 ) .[6][7] Vivianis curve, a three-dimensional curve formed by intersecting a sphere with a cylinder,
also has a gure eight shape, and has the lemniscate of Gerono as its planar projection.[8]

51.1.4 Others

Other gure-eight shaped algebraic curves include

The Devils curve, a curve dened by the quartic equation y 2 (y 2 a2 ) = x2 (x2 b2 ) in which one connected
component has a gure-eight shape,[9]

Watts curve, a gure-eight shaped curve formed by a mechanical linkage. Watts curve is the zero set of the
degree-six polynomial equation (x2 + y 2 )(x2 + y 2 d2 )2 + 4a2 y 2 (x2 + y 2 b2 ) = 0 and has the lemniscate
of Bernoulli as a special case.

51.2 See also

Analemma, the gure-eight shaped curve traced by the noontime positions of the sun in the sky over the course
of a year

Lorenz attractor, a three-dimensional dynamic system exhibiting a lemniscate shape

Polynomial lemniscate, a level set of the absolute value of a complex polynomial

Lemniscates as Generalized conics

136 CHAPTER 51. LEMNISCATE

51.3 References
[1] Schappacher, Norbert (1997), Some milestones of lemniscatomy, Algebraic Geometry (Ankara, 1995), Lecture Notes in
Pure and Applied Mathematics, 193, New York: Dekker, pp. 257290, MR 1483331.

[2] Erickson, Martin J. (2011), 1.1 Lemniscate, Beautiful Mathematics, MAA Spectrum, Mathematical Association of Amer-
ica, pp. 13, ISBN 9780883855768.

[3] Bos, H. J. M. (1974), The lemniscate of Bernoulli, For Dirk Struik, Boston Stud. Philos. Sci., XV, Dordrecht: Reidel,
pp. 314, ISBN 9789027703934, MR 774250.

[4] Langer, Joel C.; Singer, David A. (2010), Reections on the lemniscate of Bernoulli: the forty-eight faces of a mathemat-
ical gem, Milan Journal of Mathematics, 78 (2): 643682, MR 2781856, doi:10.1007/s00032-010-0124-5.

[5] Achtkurve.

[6] Basset, Alfred Barnard (1901), The Lemniscate of Gerono, An elementary treatise on cubic and quartic curves, Deighton,
Bell, pp. 171172.

[7] Chandrasekhar, S (2003), Newtons Principia for the common reader, Oxford University Press, p. 133, ISBN 9780198526759.

[8] Costa, Luisa Rossi; Marchetti, Elena (2005), Mathematical and Historical Investigation on Domes and Vaults, in We-
ber, Ralf; Amann, Matthias Albrecht, Aesthetics and architectural composition : proceedings of the Dresden International
Symposium of Architecture 2004, Mammendorf: Pro Literatur, pp. 7380.

[9] Darling, David (2004), devils curve, The Universal Book of Mathematics: From Abracadabra to Zenos Paradoxes, John
Wiley & Sons, pp. 9192, ISBN 9780471667001.

51.4 External links

Hazewinkel, Michiel, ed. (2001) [1994], Lemniscates, Encyclopedia of Mathematics, Springer Science+Business
Media B.V. / Kluwer Academic Publishers, ISBN 978-1-55608-010-4
Chapter 52

Level (logarithmic quantity)

Level quantity redirects here. For other uses, see Level measurement.

In the International System of Quantities, the level of a quantity is the logarithm of the ratio of the value of that
quantity to a reference value of the same quantity.[1][2] Examples are the various types of sound level: sound power
level (literally, the level of the sound power, abbreviated SWL), sound exposure level (SEL), sound pressure level
(SPL) and particle velocity level (SVL).[3]

52.1 Mathematical denitions

The level and its units are dened in ISO 80000-3.

52.1.1 Level
Level of a quantity Q, denoted LQ, is dened by

( )
Q
LQ = logr ,
Q0
where

r is the base of the logarithm;

Q is the root-power quantity;
Q0 is the reference value of Q.

52.1.2 Level of a eld quantity

Level of a eld quantity, denoted LF, is dened by

( )
F
LF = ln ,
F0
where

F is the eld quantity;

F 0 is the reference value of F.

For the level of a eld quantity, the base of the logarithm is r = e.

137
138 CHAPTER 52. LEVEL (LOGARITHMIC QUANTITY)

52.1.3 Level of a root-power quantity

A root-power quantity is a eld quantity. The Level of a root-power quantity, denoted LF, is therefore

( )
F
LF = ln ,
F0
where

F is the root-power quantity;

F 0 is the reference value of F.

For the level of a root-power quantity, the base of the logarithm is r = e.

52.1.4 Level of a power quantity

Level of a power quantity, denoted LP, is dened by

( ) ( )
P 1 P
LP = loge2 = ln ,
P0 2 P0
where

P is the power quantity;

P 0 is the reference value of P.

For the level of a power quantity, the base of the logarithm is r = e2 .[4]

52.2 Units of level

52.2.1 Power level

See also: Decibel Conversions, and Neper Units

The neper, bel, and decibel (one tenth of a bel) are units of level that are often applied to such quantities as power,
intensity, or gain.[5] The neper, bel, and decibel are dened by

Np = 1;
B = 1/2 ln 10 Np;
dB = 0.1 B = 1/20 ln 10 Np.

If F is a root-power quantity:

( ) ( ) ( )
F F F
LF = ln Np = 2 log10 B = 20 log10 dB.
F0 F0 F0
If P is a power quantity:

( ) ( ) ( )
1 P P P
LP = ln Np = log10 B = 10 log10 dB.
2 P0 P0 P0
If the power quantity P is equal to F 2 , and if the reference value of the power quantity, P 0 , is equal to F 0 2 , the levels
LF and LP are equal.
52.3. SEE ALSO 139

52.2.2 Frequency level

The octave is a unit of level (specically frequency level, for r = 2) though that concept is seldom seen outside of
the standard.[6] A semitone is one twelfth of an octave.

52.3 See also

Decibel Denition
Field, power, and root-power quantities

Logarithmic scale
Sound level (disambiguation)

52.4 References
[1] ISO 80000-3:2006, Quantities and units, Part 2: Space and Time

[2] W. M. Carey, Sound Sources and Levels in the Ocean, IEEE J Oceanic Eng 31:61-75(2006)

[3] ISO 80000-8:2007, Quantities and units, Part 8: Acoustics

[4] Ainslie, M. A. A Century of Sonar: Planetary Oceanography, Underwater Noise Monitoring, and the Terminology of
Underwater Sound. Acoustics Today, 23 February 2015

[5] Barry Taylor (1995). Guide for the Use of the International System of Units (SI): The Metric System. Diane Publishing Co.
p. 28.

[6] ANSI/ASA S1.1-2013, Acoustical Terminology

Chapter 53

List of mathematical jargon

The language of mathematics has a vast vocabulary of specialist and technical terms. It also has a certain amount of
jargon: commonly used phrases which are part of the culture of mathematics, rather than of the subject. Jargon often
appears in lectures, and sometimes in print, as informal shorthand for rigorous arguments or precise ideas. Much of
this is common English, but with a specic non-obvious meaning when used in a mathematical sense.
Some phrases, like in general, appear below in more than one section.

53.1 Philosophy of mathematics

abstract nonsense Also general abstract nonsense or generalized abstract nonsense, a tongue-in-cheek reference to
category theory, using which one can employ arguments that establish a (possibly concrete) result without
reference to any specics of the present problem.

[The paper of Eilenberg and Mac Lane (1942)] introduced the very abstract idea of a 'category'
a subject then called 'general abstract nonsense'!
Saunders Mac Lane (1997)

[Grothendieck] raised algebraic geometry to a new level of abstraction...if certain mathematicians

could console themselves for a time with the hope that all these complicated structures were 'abstract non-
sense'...the later papers of Grothendieck and others showed that classical problems...which had resisted
eorts of several generations of talented mathematicians, could be solved in terms of...complicated con-
cepts.
Michael Monastyrsky (2001)

canonical A reference to a standard or choice-free presentation of some mathematical object. The term canonical is
also used more informally, meaning roughly standard or classic. For example, one might say that Euclids
proof is the canonical proof of the innitude of primes.

There are two canonical proofs that are always used to show non-mathematicians what a mathemat-
ical proof is like:

The proof that there are innitely many prime numbers.

The proof of the irrationality of the square root of two.
Freek Wiedijk (2006, p.2)

deep A result is called deep if its proof requires concepts and methods that are advanced beyond the concepts
needed to formulate the result. The prime number theorem, proved with techniques from complex analysis,

140
53.1. PHILOSOPHY OF MATHEMATICS 141

was thought to be a deep result until elementary proofs were found. The fact that is irrational is a deep result
because it requires considerable development of real analysis to prove, even though it can be stated in terms of
simple number theory and geometry.

elegant Also beautiful; an aesthetic term referring to the ability of an idea to provide insight into mathematics,
whether by unifying disparate elds, introducing a new perspective on a single eld, or providing a technique
of proof which is either particularly simple, or captures the intuition or imagination as to why the result it proves
is true. Gian-Carlo Rota distinguished between elegance of presentation and beauty of concept, saying that for
example, some topics could be written about elegantly although the mathematical content is not beautiful, and
some theorems or proofs are beautiful but may be written about inelegantly.

The beauty of a mathematical theory is independent of the aesthetic qualities...of the theorys rig-
orous expositions. Some beautiful theories may never be given a presentation which matches their
beauty....Instances can also be found of mediocre theories of questionable beauty which are given bril-
liant, exciting expositions....[Category theory] is rich in beautiful and insightful denitions and poor in
elegant proofs....[The theorems] remain clumsy and dull....[Expositions of projective geometry] vied for
one another in elegance of presentation and in cleverness of proof....In retrospect, one wonders what all
the fuss was about.
Mathematicians may say that a theorem is beautiful when they really mean to say that it is enlightening.
We acknowledge a theorems beauty when we see how the theorem 'ts in its place....We say that a proof
is beautiful when such a proof nally gives away the secret of the theorem....
Gian-Carlo Rota (1977, pp.173174, pp.181182)

elementary A proof or result is called elementary if it requires only basic concepts and methods, in contrast to so-
called deep results. The concept of elementary proof is used specically in number theory, where it usually
refers to a proof that does not use methods from complex analysis.

folklore A result is called folklore if it is non-obvious, has not been published, and yet is generally known among
the specialists in a eld. Usually, it is unknown who rst obtained the result. If the result is important, it may
eventually nd its way into the textbooks, whereupon it ceases to be folklore.

Many of the results mentioned in this paper should be considered folklore in that they merely for-
mally state ideas that are well-known to researchers in the area, but may not be obvious to beginners and
to the best of my knowledge do not appear elsewhere in print.
Russell Impagliazzo (1995)

natural Similar to canonical but more specic, this term makes reference to a description (almost exclusively in
the context of transformations) which holds independently of any choices. Though long used informally, this
term has found a formal denition in category theory.

pathological An object behaves pathologically (or, somewhat more broadly used, in a degenerated way) if it fails
to conform to the generic behavior of such objects, fails to satisfy certain regularity properties (depending on
context), or simply disobeys mathematical intuition. These can be and often are contradictory requirements.
Sometimes the term is more pointed, referring to an object which is specically and articially exhibited as a
counterexample to these properties.

Since half a century we have seen arise a crowd of bizarre functions which seem to try to resemble
as little as possible the honest functions which serve some purpose....Nay more, from the logical point
of view, it is these strange functions which are the most general....to-day they are invented expressly to
put at fault the reasonings of our fathers....
Henri Poincar (1913)

[The Dirichlet function] took on an enormous importance...as giving an incentive for the creation of
new types of function whose properties departed completely from what intuitively seemed admissible. A
celebrated example of such a so-called 'pathological' function...is the one provided by Weierstrass....This
142 CHAPTER 53. LIST OF MATHEMATICAL JARGON

function is continuous but not dierentiable.

J. Sousa Pinto (2004)

Note for that latter quote that as the dierentiable functions are meagre in the space of continuous functions, as
Banach found out in 1931, dierentiable functions are colloquially speaking a rare exception among the con-
tinuous ones. Thus it can hardly be defended any-more to call non-dierentiable continuous functions patho-
logical.

rigor (rigour) Mathematics strives to establish its results using indisputable logic rather than informal descriptive
argument. Rigor is the use of such logic in a proof.

well-behaved An object is well-behaved (in contrast with being pathological) if it does satisfy the prevailing regularity
properties, or sometimes if it conforms to intuition (but intuition often suggests the opposite behavior as well).
Similar to smooth (see below).

53.2 Descriptive informalities

Although ultimately every mathematical argument must meet a high standard of precision, mathematicians use de-
scriptive but informal statements to discuss recurring themes or concepts with unwieldy formal statements. Note that
many of the terms are completely rigorous in context.

almost all A shorthand term for all except for a set of measure zero", when there is a measure to speak of. For
example, almost all real numbers are transcendental" because the algebraic real numbers form a countable
subset of the real numbers with measure zero. One can also speak of almost all integers having a property
to mean all except nitely many, despite the integers not admitting a measure for which this agrees with the
previous usage. For example, almost all prime numbers are odd. There is a more complicated meaning for
integers as well, discussed in the main article. Finally, this term is sometimes used synonymously with generic,
below.

arbitrarily large Notions which arise mostly in the context of limits, referring to the recurrence of a phenomenon
as the limit is approached. A statement such as that predicate P is satised by arbitrarily large values, can be
expressed in more formal notation by x : y x : P(y). See also frequently. The statement that quantity f(x)
depending on x can be made arbitrarily large, corresponds to y : x : f(x) y.

arbitrary A shorthand for the universal quantier. An arbitrary choice is one which is made unrestrictedly, or
alternatively, a statement holds of an arbitrary element of a set if it holds of any element of that set. Also much
in general-language use among mathematicians: Of course, this problem can be arbitrarily complicated.

eventually In the context of limits, this is shorthand for suciently large arguments; the relevant argument(s) are
implicit in the context. As an example, one could say that The function log(log(x)) eventually becomes larger
than 100"; in this context, eventually means for suciently large x".

factor through A term in category theory referring to composition of morphisms. If we have three objects A, B,
and C and a map f : A C which is written as a composition f = h g with g : A B and h : B C ,
then f is said to factor through any (and all) of B , g , and h .

nite Next to the usual meaning of not innite, in another more restrictive meaning that one may encounter, a
value being said to be nite also excludes innitesimal values and the value 0. For example, if the variance
of a random variable is said to be nite, this implies it is a positive real number.

frequently In the context of limits, this is shorthand for arbitrarily large arguments and its relatives; as with eventually,
the intended variant is implicit. As an example, one could say that The function sin(x) is frequently zero,
where frequently means for arbitrarily large x".

generic This term has similar connotations as almost all but is used particularly for concepts outside the purview of
measure theory. A property holds generically on a set if the set satises some (context-dependent) notion
of density, or perhaps if its complement satises some (context-dependent) notion of smallness. For example,
a property which holds on a dense G (intersection of countably many open sets) is said to hold generically.
53.2. DESCRIPTIVE INFORMALITIES 143

In algebraic geometry, one says that a property of points on an algebraic variety that holds on a dense Zariski
open set is true generically; however, it is usually not said that a property which holds merely on a dense set
(which is not Zariski open) is generic in this situation.

in general In a descriptive context, this phrase introduces a simple characterization of a broad class of objects, with
an eye towards identifying a unifying principle. This term introduces an elegant description which holds for
"arbitrary" objects. Exceptions to this description may be mentioned explicitly, as "pathological" cases.

Norbert ACampo of the University of Basel once asked Grothendieck about something related to
the Platonic solids. Grothendieck advised caution. The Platonic solids are so beautiful and so excep-
tional, he said, that one cannot assume such exceptional beauty will hold in more general situations.
Allyn Jackson (2004, p.1197)

left-hand side, right-hand side (LHS, RHS) Most often, these refer simply to the left-hand or the right-hand side
of an equation; for example, x = y + 1 has x on the LHS and y + 1 on the RHS. Occasionally, these are used
in the sense of lvalue and rvalue: an RHS is primitive, and an LHS is derivative.

nice A mathematical object is colloquially called nice or suciently nice if it satises hypotheses or properties,
sometimes unspecied or even unknown, that are especially desirable in a given context. It is an informal
antonym for pathological. For example, one might conjecture that a dierential operator ought to satisfy a
certain boundedness condition for nice test functions, or one might state that some interesting topological
invariant should be computable for nice spaces X.

onto A function (which in mathematics is generally dened as mapping the elements of one set A to elements of
another B) is called A onto B (instead of A to B) only if it is surjective; it may even be said that f is onto
(i. e. surjective). Not translatable (without circumlocutions) to languages other than English.

owl An informal name for the origin, or zero-element, particularly in the case of the 2-dimensional plane, where the
origin is written (0,0), which closely resembles the face of an owl.

proper If, for some notion of substructure, objects are substructures of themselves (that is, the relationship is re-
exive), then the qualication proper requires the objects to be dierent. For example, a proper subset of a set
S is a subset of S that is dierent from S, and a proper divisor of a number n is a divisor of n that is dierent
from n. This overloaded word is also non-jargon for a proper morphism.

regular A function is called regular if it satises satisfactory continuity and dierentiability properties, which are
often context-dependent. These properties might include possessing a specied number of derivatives, with
the function and its derivatives exhibiting some nice property, such as Hlder continuity. Informally, this term
is sometimes used synonymously with smooth, below. These imprecise uses of the word regular are not to be
confused with the notion of a regular topological space, which is rigorously dened.

resp. (Respectively) A convention to shorten parallel expositions. A (resp. B) [has some relationship to] X (resp.
Y)" means that A [has some relationship to] X and also that B [has (the same) relationship to] Y. For example,
squares (resp. triangles) have 4 sides (resp. 3 sides); or compact (resp. Lindelf) spaces are ones where every
open cover has a nite (resp. countable) open subcover.

sharp Often, a mathematical theorem will establish constraints on the behavior of some object; for example, a
function will be shown to have an upper or lower bound. The constraint is sharp (sometimes optimal) if it
cannot be made more restrictive without failing in some cases. For example, for arbitrary nonnegative real
numbers x, the exponential function ex , where e = 2.7182818..., gives an upper bound on the values of the
quadratic function x2 . This is not sharp; the gap between the functions is everywhere at least 1. Among the
exponential functions of the form x , setting = e2/e = 2.0870652... results in a sharp upper bound; the slightly
smaller choice = 2 fails to produce an upper bound, since then 3 = 8 < 32 . In applied elds the word tight
is often used with the same meaning.[1]

smooth Smoothness is a concept which mathematics has endowed with many meanings, from simple dierentiability
to innite dierentiability to analyticity, and still others which are more complicated. Each such usage attempts
to invoke the physically intuitive notion of smoothness.
144 CHAPTER 53. LIST OF MATHEMATICAL JARGON

strong, stronger A theorem is said to be strong if it deduces restrictive results from general hypotheses. One cel-
ebrated example is Donaldsons theorem, which puts tight restraints on what would otherwise appear to be a
large class of manifolds. This (informal) usage reects the opinion of the mathematical community: not only
should such a theorem be strong in the descriptive sense (below) but it should also be denitive in its area. A
theorem, result, or condition is further called stronger than another one if a proof of the second can be easily
obtained from the rst but not conversely. An example is the sequence of theorems: Fermats little theorem,
Eulers theorem, Lagranges theorem, each of which is stronger than the last; another is that a sharp upper
bound (see above) is a stronger result than a non-sharp one. Finally, the adjective strong or the adverb strongly
may be added to a mathematical notion to indicate a related stronger notion; for example, a strong antichain
is an antichain satisfying certain additional conditions, and likewise a strongly regular graph is a regular graph
meeting stronger conditions. When used in this way, the stronger notion (such as strong antichain) is a tech-
nical term with a precisely dened meaning; the nature of the extra conditions cannot be derived from the
denition of the weaker notion (such as antichain).
suciently large, suitably small, suciently close In the context of limits, these terms refer to some (unspecied,
even unknown) point at which a phenomenon prevails as the limit is approached. A statement such as that
predicate P holds for suciently large values, can be expressed in more formal notation by x : y x : P(y).
See also eventually.
upstairs, downstairs A descriptive term referring to notation in which two objects are written one above the other;
the upper one is upstairs and the lower, downstairs. For example, in a ber bundle, the total space is often
said to be upstairs, with the base space downstairs. In a fraction, the numerator is occasionally referred to as
upstairs and the denominator downstairs, as in bringing a term upstairs.
up to, modulo, mod out by An extension to mathematical discourse of the notions of modular arithmetic. A state-
ment is true up to a condition if the establishment of that condition is the only impediment to the truth of
the statement. Also used when working with members of equivalence classes, esp. in category theory, where
the equivalence relation is (categorical) isomorphism; for example, The tensor product in a weak monoidal
category is associative and unital up to a natural isomorphism.
vanish To assume the value 0. For example, The function sin(x) vanishes for those values of x that are integer
multiples of . This can also apply to limits: see Vanish at innity.
washing machine Informally, a matrix with a single non-zero
entry on thetop left corner. The name arises from
x 0 0
0 0 0

the convention of writing a matrix of the form M = . . .
. . ...
by noting only the non-zero entry and
.. ..
0 0 0
x
drawing a big zero inside the matrix, M = , which resembles the eponymous appliance.

weak, weaker The converse of strong.

well-dened Accurately and precisely described or specied. For example, sometimes a denition relies on a choice
of some object; the result of the denition must then be independent of this choice.

53.3 Proof terminology

The formal language of proof draws repeatedly from a small pool of ideas, many of which are invoked through various
lexical shorthands in practice.

aliter An obsolescent term which is used to announce to the reader an alternative method, or proof of a result. In a
proof, it therefore ags a piece of reasoning that is superuous from a logical point of view, but has some other
interest.
by way of contradiction (BWOC), or for, if not, ... The rhetorical prelude to a proof by contradiction, preced-
ing the negation of the statement to be proved. Also, starting a proof or a sub-proof with Assume... indicates
that a proof by contradiction will be employed.
53.4. PROOF TECHNIQUES 145

if and only if (i) An abbreviation for logical equivalence of statements.

in general In the context of proofs, this phrase is often seen in induction arguments when passing from the base
case to the induction step, and similarly, in the denition of sequences whose rst few terms are exhibited as
examples of the formula giving every term of the sequence.

necessary and sucient A minor variant on if and only if"; A is necessary (sucient) for B means A if (only
if) B. For example, For a eld K to be algebraically closed it is necessary and sucient that it have no nite
eld extensions" means "K is algebraically closed if and only if it has no nite extensions. Often used in lists,
as in The following conditions are necessary and sucient for a eld to be algebraically closed....

need to show (NTS), required to prove (RTP), wish to show, want to show (WTS)
Proofs sometimes proceed by enumerating several conditions whose satisfaction will together imply the desired
theorem; thus, one needs to show just these statements.

one and only one A statement of the uniqueness of an object; the object exists, and furthermore, no other such
object exists.

Q.E.D. (Quod erat demonstrandum): A Latin abbreviation, meaning which was to be demonstrated, historically
placed at the end of proofs, but less common currently, having been supplanted by the Halmos end-of-proof
mark, a square sign .

suciently nice A condition on objects in the scope of the discussion, to be specied later, that will guarantee that
some stated property holds for them. When working out a theorem, the use of this expression in the statement
of the theorem indicates that the conditions involved may be not yet known to the speaker, and that the intent
is to collect the conditions that will be found to be needed in order for the proof of the theorem to go through.

the following are equivalent (TFAE) Often several equivalent conditions (especially for a denition, such as normal
subgroup) are equally useful in practice; one introduces a theorem stating an equivalence of more than two
statements with TFAE.

transport of structure It is often the case that two objects are shown to be equivalent in some way, and that one
of them is endowed with additional structure. Using the equivalence, we may dene such a structure on the
second object as well, via transport of structure. For example, any two vector spaces of the same dimension
are isomorphic; if one of them is given an inner product and if we x a particular isomorphism, then we may
dene an inner product on the other space by factoring through the isomorphism.

Let V be a nite-dimensional vector space over k....Let (ei) i n be a basis for V....There is an
isomorphism of the polynomial algebra k[Tij] i,j n onto the algebra Symk(V V * )....It extends
to an isomorphism of k[GLn] to the localized algebra Symk(V V * )D, where D = det(ei ej * )....We
write k[GL(V)] for this last algebra. By transport of structure, we obtain a linear algebraic group GL(V)
isomorphic to GLn.
Igor Shafarevich (1991, p.12)

without (any) loss of generality (WLOG, WOLOG, WALOG), we may assume (WMA)
Sometimes a proposition can be more easily proved with additional assumptions on the objects it concerns. If
the proposition as stated follows from this modied one with a simple and minimal explanation (for example, if
the remaining special cases are identical but for notation), then the modied assumptions are introduced with
this phrase and the altered proposition is proved.

53.4 Proof techniques

Mathematicians have several phrases to describe proofs or proof techniques. These are often used as hints for lling
in tedious details.

angle chasing Used to describe a geometrical proof that involves nding relationships between the various angles
in a diagram.[2]
146 CHAPTER 53. LIST OF MATHEMATICAL JARGON

back-of-the-envelope calculation An informal computation omitting much rigor without sacricing correctness.
Often this computation is proof of concept and treats only an accessible special case.
brute force Not seeking a short or clever method of proof, but instead plowing through as many lines of computation
as is necessary.
by example A proof by example is an argument whereby a statement is not proved but instead illustrated by an
example. If done well, the specic example would easily generalize to a general proof.
by inspection A rhetorical shortcut made by authors who invite the reader to verify, at a glance, the correctness
of a proposed expression or deduction. If an expression can be evaluated by straightforward application of
simple techniques and without recourse to extended calculation or general theory, then it can be evaluated by
inspection. It is also applied to solving equations; for example to nd roots of a quadratic equation by inspection
is to 'notice' them, or mentally check them. 'By inspection' can play a kind of gestalt role: the answer or solution
simply clicks into place.
by intimidation Style of proof where claims believed by the author to be easily veriable are labelled as 'obvious
or 'trivial', which often results in the reader being confused.
clearly, can be easily shown A term which shortcuts around calculation the mathematician perceives to be tedious
or routine, accessible to any member of the audience with the necessary expertise in the eld; Laplace used
obvious (French: vident).
complete intuition commonly reserved for jokes (puns on complete induction).
diagram chasing [3] Given a commutative diagram of objects and morphisms between them, if one wishes to prove
some property of the morphisms (such as injectivity) which can be stated in terms of elements, then the proof
can proceed by tracing the path of elements of various objects around the diagram as successive morphisms
are applied to it. That is, one chases elements around the diagram, or does a diagram chase.
handwaving A non-technique of proof mostly employed in lectures, where formal argument is not strictly necessary.
It proceeds by omission of details or even signicant ingredients, and is merely a plausibility argument.
in general In a context not requiring rigor, this phrase often appears as a labor-saving device when the technical
details of a complete argument would outweigh the conceptual benets. The author gives a proof in a simple
enough case that the computations are reasonable, and then indicates that in general the proof is similar.
index battle for proofs involving object with plurious indices which can be solved by going to the bottom (if anyone
wishes to take up the eort). Similar to diagram chasing.
trivial Similar to clearly. A concept is trivial if it holds by denition, is immediate corollary to a known statement,
or is a simple special case of a more general concept.

53.5 Notes
[1] Boyd, Stephen (2004). Convex Optimization. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521833787.

[2] Roe, John (1993), Elementary Geometry, Oxford science publications, p. 119, ISBN 0-19-853456-6

[3] Numerous examples can be found in (Mac Lane 1998), for example on p. 100.

53.6 References
Eilenberg, Samuel; Mac Lane, Saunders (1942), Natural Isomorphisms in Group Theory, Proc. Natl. Acad.
Sci. USA, 28: 537543, doi:10.1073/pnas.28.12.537.
Impagliazzo, Russell (1995), A personal view of average-case complexity, Proc. Tenth Annual Structure in
Complexity Theory Conference (SCT'95), pp. 134147, doi:10.1109/SCT.1995.514853.
Jackson, Allyn (2004), Comme Appel du Nant As If Summoned from the Void: The Life of Alexandre
Grothendieck, AMS Notices, 51 (9,10) (Parts I and II).
53.6. REFERENCES 147

Mac Lane, Saunders (1997), The PNAS way back then (PDF), Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 94 (12): 5983
5985, doi:10.1073/pnas.94.12.5983.
Mac Lane, Saunders (1998), Categories for the Working Mathematician, Springer.

Monastyrsky, Michael (2001), Some Trends in Modern Mathematics and the Fields Medal (PDF), Can.
Math. Soc. Notes, 33 (2 and 3).

Pinto, J. Sousa (2004), Hoskins, R.F., ed., Innitesimal methods for mathematical analysis, Horwood Publish-
ing, p. 246, ISBN 978-1-898563-99-0.

Poincare, Henri (1913), Halsted, Bruce, ed., The Foundations of Science, The Science Press, p. 435.
Rota, Gian-Carlo (1977), The phenomenology of mathematical beauty, Synthese, 111 (2): 171182, ISSN
0039-7857, doi:10.1023/A:1004930722234.
Shafarevich, Igor (1991), Kandall, G.A., ed., Algebraic Geometry, IV, Springer.

Wiedijk, Freek, ed. (2006), The Seventeen Provers of the World, Birkhuser, ISBN 3-540-30704-4.
Chapter 54

Mathematical beauty

Mathematical beauty describes the notion that some mathematicians may derive aesthetic pleasure from their work,
and from mathematics in general. They express this pleasure by describing mathematics (or, at least, some aspect
of mathematics) as beautiful. Mathematicians describe mathematics as an art form or, at a minimum, as a creative
activity. Comparisons are often made with music and poetry.
Bertrand Russell expressed his sense of mathematical beauty in these words:

Mathematics, rightly viewed, possesses not only truth, but supreme beauty a beauty cold and
austere, like that of sculpture, without appeal to any part of our weaker nature, without the gorgeous
trappings of painting or music, yet sublimely pure, and capable of a stern perfection such as only the
greatest art can show. The true spirit of delight, the exaltation, the sense of being more than Man, which
is the touchstone of the highest excellence, is to be found in mathematics as surely as poetry.[1]

Paul Erds expressed his views on the ineability of mathematics when he said, Why are numbers beautiful? Its like
asking why is Beethovens Ninth Symphony beautiful. If you don't see why, someone can't tell you. I know numbers
are beautiful. If they aren't beautiful, nothing is.[2]

54.1 Beauty in method

Mathematicians describe an especially pleasing method of proof as elegant. Depending on context, this may mean:

A proof that uses a minimum of additional assumptions or previous results.

A proof that is unusually succinct.

A proof that derives a result in a surprising way (e.g., from an apparently unrelated theorem or collection of
theorems.)

A proof that is based on new and original insights.

A method of proof that can be easily generalized to solve a family of similar problems.

In the search for an elegant proof, mathematicians often look for dierent independent ways to prove a resultthe
rst proof that is found may not be the best. The theorem for which the greatest number of dierent proofs have been
discovered is possibly the Pythagorean theorem, with hundreds of proofs having been published.[3] Another theorem
that has been proved in many dierent ways is the theorem of quadratic reciprocityCarl Friedrich Gauss alone
published eight dierent proofs of this theorem.
Conversely, results that are logically correct but involve laborious calculations, over-elaborate methods, very conven-
tional approaches, or that rely on a large number of particularly powerful axioms or previous results are not usually
considered to be elegant, and may be called ugly or clumsy.

148
54.2. BEAUTY IN RESULTS 149

D C

A
E

c
a b
D A
C
E

An example of beauty in methoda simple and elegant proof of the Pythagorean theorem.

54.2 Beauty in results

Some mathematicians[4] see beauty in mathematical results that establish connections between two areas of mathe-
matics that at rst sight appear to be unrelated. These results are often described as deep.
While it is dicult to nd universal agreement on whether a result is deep, some examples are often cited. One is
Eulers identity:[5]

ei + 1 = 0 .
This is a special case of Eulers formula, which the physicist Richard Feynman called our jewel and the most
remarkable formula in mathematics.[6] Modern examples include the modularity theorem, which establishes an im-
portant connection between elliptic curves and modular forms (work on which led to the awarding of the Wolf Prize
to Andrew Wiles and Robert Langlands), and "monstrous moonshine", which connects the Monster group to modular
functions via string theory for which Richard Borcherds was awarded the Fields Medal.
150 CHAPTER 54. MATHEMATICAL BEAUTY

Starting at e0 = 1, travelling at the velocity i relative to ones position for the length of time , and adding 1, one arrives at 0. (The
diagram is an Argand diagram)

Other examples of deep results include unexpected insights into mathematical structures. For example, Gausss
Theorema Egregium is a deep theorem which relates a local phenomenon (curvature) to a global phenomenon (area)
in a surprising way. In particular, the area of a triangle on a curved surface is proportional to the excess of the triangle
and the proportionality is curvature. Another example is the fundamental theorem of calculus (and its vector versions
including Greens theorem and Stokes theorem).
The opposite of deep is trivial. A trivial theorem may be a result that can be derived in an obvious and straightforward
way from other known results, or which applies only to a specic set of particular objects such as the empty set.
Sometimes, however, a statement of a theorem can be original enough to be considered deep, even though its proof
is fairly obvious.
In his A Mathematicians Apology, Hardy suggests that a beautiful proof or result possesses inevitability, unexpect-
edness, and economy.[7]
Rota, however, disagrees with unexpectedness as a sucient condition for beauty and proposes a counterexample:

A great many theorems of mathematics, when rst published, appear to be surprising; thus for ex-
ample some twenty years ago [from 1977] the proof of the existence of non-equivalent dierentiable
structures on spheres of high dimension was thought to be surprising, but it did not occur to anyone to
call such a fact beautiful, then or now.[8]
54.3. BEAUTY IN EXPERIENCE 151

Perhaps ironically, Monastyrsky writes:

It is very dicult to nd an analogous invention in the past to Milnor's beautiful construction of the
dierent dierential structures on the seven-dimensional sphere... The original proof of Milnor was not
very constructive, but later E. Briscorn showed that these dierential structures can be described in an
extremely explicit and beautiful form.[9]

This disagreement illustrates both the subjective nature of mathematical beauty and its connection with mathematical
results: in this case, not only the existence of exotic spheres, but also a particular realization of them.

54.3 Beauty in experience

There is a certain cold and austere beauty in this compound of ve cubes

Interest in pure mathematics separate from empirical study has been part of the experience of various civilizations,
including that of the Ancient Greeks, who did mathematics for the beauty of it.[10] Mathematical beauty can also
be experienced outside the connes of pure mathematics. For example, the aesthetic pleasure that mathematical
physicists tend to experience in Einsteins theory of general relativity has been attributed (by Paul Dirac, among
others) to its great mathematical beauty.[11]
Some degree of delight in the manipulation of numbers and symbols is probably required to engage in any mathe-
matics. Given the utility of mathematics in science and engineering, it is likely that any technological society will
152 CHAPTER 54. MATHEMATICAL BEAUTY

actively cultivate these aesthetics, certainly in its philosophy of science if nowhere else.
The beauty of mathematics is experienced when the physical reality objects are formulated using totally abstract
mathematical models. Mathematicians develop an entire eld of mathematics with no application in mind and
years later, physicists discovered that these abstract mathematical branches make sense of their observations. For
example,[12] the group theory, developed in the early 1800s for the sole purpose of solving polynomial equations,
turned out to be the most fruitful way of categorizing elementary particlesthe building blocks of matter. Similarly,
the study of knots, which mathematicians analyzed purely as an esoteric arm of mathematics, provides important
insights into string theory and loop quantum gravity.
The most intense experience of mathematical beauty for most mathematicians comes from actively engaging in math-
ematics. It is very dicult to enjoy or appreciate mathematics in a purely passive wayin mathematics there is no
real analogy of the role of the spectator, audience, or viewer.[13] Bertrand Russell referred to the austere beauty of
mathematics.

54.4 Beauty and philosophy

Some mathematicians are of the opinion that the doing of mathematics is closer to discovery than invention, for
example:

There is no scientic discoverer, no poet, no painter, no musician, who will not tell you that he found
ready made his discovery or poem or picture that it came to him from outside, and that he did not con-
sciously create it from within.
William Kingdon Cliord, from a lecture to the Royal Institution titled Some of the conditions of
mental development

These mathematicians believe that the detailed and precise results of mathematics may be reasonably taken to be
true without any dependence on the universe in which we live. For example, they would argue that the theory of the
natural numbers is fundamentally valid, in a way that does not require any specic context. Some mathematicians
have extrapolated this viewpoint that mathematical beauty is truth further, in some cases becoming mysticism.
Pythagorean mathematicians believed in the literal reality of numbers. The discovery of the existence of irrational
numbers was a shock to them, since they considered the existence of numbers not expressible as the ratio of two natural
numbers to be a aw in nature (the Pythagorean world view did not contemplate the limits of innite sequences of
ratios of natural numbersthe modern notion of a real number). From a modern perspective, their mystical approach
to numbers may be viewed as numerology.
In Plato's philosophy there were two worlds, the physical one in which we live and another abstract world which
contained unchanging truth, including mathematics. He believed that the physical world was a mere reection of the
more perfect abstract world.
Hungarian mathematician Paul Erds[14] spoke of an imaginary book, in which God has written down all the most
beautiful mathematical proofs. When Erds wanted to express particular appreciation of a proof, he would exclaim
This ones from The Book!"
Twentieth-century French philosopher Alain Badiou claims that ontology is mathematics. Badiou also believes in
deep connections between mathematics, poetry and philosophy.
In some cases, natural philosophers and other scientists who have made extensive use of mathematics have made
leaps of inference between beauty and physical truth in ways that turned out to be erroneous. For example, at one
stage in his life, Johannes Kepler believed that the proportions of the orbits of the then-known planets in the Solar
System have been arranged by God to correspond to a concentric arrangement of the ve Platonic solids, each orbit
lying on the circumsphere of one polyhedron and the insphere of another. As there are exactly ve Platonic solids,
Keplers hypothesis could only accommodate six planetary orbits and was disproved by the subsequent discovery of
Uranus.
54.5. BEAUTY AND MATHEMATICAL INFORMATION THEORY 153

54.5 Beauty and mathematical information theory

In the 1970s, Abraham Moles and Frieder Nake analyzed links between beauty, information processing, and information
theory.[15][16] In the 1990s, Jrgen Schmidhuber formulated a mathematical theory of observer-dependent subjec-
tive beauty based on algorithmic information theory: the most beautiful objects among subjectively comparable
objects have short algorithmic descriptions (i.e., Kolmogorov complexity) relative to what the observer already
knows.[17][18][19] Schmidhuber explicitly distinguishes between beautiful and interesting. The latter corresponds to
the rst derivative of subjectively perceived beauty: the observer continually tries to improve the predictability and
compressibility of the observations by discovering regularities such as repetitions and symmetries and fractal self-
similarity. Whenever the observers learning process (possibly a predictive articial neural network) leads to improved
data compression such that the observation sequence can be described by fewer bits than before, the temporary inter-
estingness of the data corresponds to the compression progress, and is proportional to the observers internal curiosity
reward.[20][21]

54.6 Mathematics and the arts

Main articles: Mathematics and art, Mathematics and music, and Mathematics and architecture

54.6.1 Music
Examples of the use of mathematics in music include the stochastic music of Iannis Xenakis, Fibonacci in Tool's
Lateralus, counterpoint of Johann Sebastian Bach, polyrhythmic structures (as in Igor Stravinsky's The Rite of Spring),
the Metric modulation of Elliott Carter, permutation theory in serialism beginning with Arnold Schoenberg, and
application of Shepard tones in Karlheinz Stockhausen's Hymnen.

54.6.2 Visual arts

Examples of the use of mathematics in the visual arts include applications of chaos theory and fractal geometry
to computer-generated art, symmetry studies of Leonardo da Vinci, projective geometries in development of the
perspective theory of Renaissance art, grids in Op art, optical geometry in the camera obscura of Giambattista della
Porta, and multiple perspective in analytic cubism and futurism.
The Dutch graphic designer M. C. Escher created mathematically inspired woodcuts, lithographs, and mezzotints.
These feature impossible constructions, explorations of innity, architecture, visual paradoxes and tessellations.
British constructionist artist John Ernest created reliefs and paintings inspired by group theory.[22] A number of
other British artists of the constructionist and systems schools also draw on mathematics models and structures as
a source of inspiration, including Anthony Hill and Peter Lowe. Computer-generated art is based on mathematical
algorithms.

54.7 See also

Argument from beauty
Cellular automaton
Descriptive science
Fluency heuristic
Golden ratio
Mathematics and architecture
Normative science
Philosophy of mathematics
154 CHAPTER 54. MATHEMATICAL BEAUTY

Diagram from Leon Battista Alberti's 1435 Della Pittura, with pillars in perspective on a grid

Processing uency theory of aesthetic pleasure

Pythagoreanism

Theory of everything

54.8 Notes
[1] Russell, Bertrand (1919). The Study of Mathematics. Mysticism and Logic: And Other Essays. Longman. p. 60.
Retrieved 2008-08-22.

[2] Devlin, Keith (2000). Do Mathematicians Have Dierent Brains?". The Math Gene: How Mathematical Thinking Evolved
And Why Numbers Are Like Gossip. Basic Books. p. 140. ISBN 978-0-465-01619-8. Retrieved 2008-08-22.

[3] Elisha Scott Loomis published over 360 proofs in his book Pythagorean Proposition (ISBN 0-873-53036-5).

[4] Rota (1997), The phenomenology of mathematical beauty, p. 173

[5] Gallagher, James (13 February 2014). Mathematics: Why the brain sees maths as beauty. BBC News online. Retrieved
13 February 2014.

[6] Feynman, Richard P. (1977). The Feynman Lectures on Physics. I. Addison-Wesley. p. 22-10. ISBN 0-201-02010-6.

[7] Hardy, G.H. 18. Missing or empty |title= (help)

[8] Rota, The phenomenology of mathematical beautyyear = 1997, p. 172

54.9. REFERENCES 155

[9] Monastyrsky (2001), Some Trends in Modern Mathematics and the Fields Medal

[10] Lang, p. 3

[11] Chandrasekhar, p. 148

[12] Mario Livio (August 2011). Why math works?". Scientic American: 8083.

[13] Phillips, George (2005). Preface. Mathematics Is Not a Spectator Sport. Springer Science+Business Media. ISBN 0-
387-25528-1. Retrieved 2008-08-22. "...there is nothing in the world of mathematics that corresponds to an audience in a
concert hall, where the passive listen to the active. Happily, mathematicians are all doers, not spectators.

[14] Schechter, Bruce (2000). My brain is open: The mathematical journeys of Paul Erds. New York: Simon & Schuster. pp.
7071. ISBN 0-684-85980-7.

[15] A. Moles: Thorie de l'information et perception esthtique, Paris, Denol, 1973 (Information Theory and aesthetical per-
ception)

[16] F Nake (1974). sthetik als Informationsverarbeitung. (Aesthetics as information processing). Grundlagen und An-
wendungen der Informatik im Bereich sthetischer Produktion und Kritik. Springer, 1974, ISBN 3-211-81216-4, ISBN
978-3-211-81216-7

[17] J. Schmidhuber. Low-complexity art. Leonardo, Journal of the International Society for the Arts, Sciences, and Technol-
ogy, 30(2):97103, 1997. https://www.jstor.org/pss/1576418

[18] J. Schmidhuber. Papers on the theory of beauty and low-complexity art since 1994: http://www.idsia.ch/~{}juergen/
beauty.html

[19] J. Schmidhuber. Simple Algorithmic Principles of Discovery, Subjective Beauty, Selective Attention, Curiosity & Cre-
ativity. Proc. 10th Intl. Conf. on Discovery Science (DS 2007) p. 26-38, LNAI 4755, Springer, 2007. Also in Proc. 18th
Intl. Conf. on Algorithmic Learning Theory (ALT 2007) p. 32, LNAI 4754, Springer, 2007. Joint invited lecture for DS
2007 and ALT 2007, Sendai, Japan, 2007. http://arxiv.org/abs/0709.0674

[20] .J. Schmidhuber. Curious model-building control systems. International Joint Conference on Neural Networks, Singapore,
vol 2, 14581463. IEEE press, 1991

[21] Schmidhubers theory of beauty and curiosity in a German TV show: http://www.br-online.de/bayerisches-fernsehen/

faszination-wissen/schoenheit--aesthetik-wahrnehmung-ID1212005092828.xml Archived June 3, 2008, at the Wayback
Machine.

[22] John Ernests use of mathematics and especially group theory in his art works is analysed in John Ernest, A Mathematical
Artist by Paul Ernest in Philosophy of Mathematics Education Journal, No. 24 Dec. 2009 (Special Issue on Mathematics
and Art): http://people.exeter.ac.uk/PErnest/pome24/index.htm

54.9 References
Aigner, Martin, and Ziegler, Gunter M. (2003), Proofs from THE BOOK, 3rd edition, Springer-Verlag.
Chandrasekhar, Subrahmanyan (1987), Truth and Beauty: Aesthetics and Motivations in Science, University of
Chicago Press, Chicago, IL.
Hadamard, Jacques (1949), The Psychology of Invention in the Mathematical Field, 1st edition, Princeton
University Press, Princeton, NJ. 2nd edition, 1949. Reprinted, Dover Publications, New York, NY, 1954.
Hardy, G.H. (1940), A Mathematicians Apology, 1st published, 1940. Reprinted, C. P. Snow (foreword),
1967. Reprinted, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, 1992.
Homan, Paul (1992), The Man Who Loved Only Numbers, Hyperion.
Huntley, H.E. (1970), The Divine Proportion: A Study in Mathematical Beauty, Dover Publications, New York,
NY.
Loomis, Elisha Scott (1968), The Pythagorean Proposition, The National Council of Teachers of Mathematics.
Contains 365 proofs of the Pythagorean Theorem.
Lang, Serge (1985). The Beauty of Doing Mathematics: Three Public Dialogues. New York: Springer-Verlag.
ISBN 0-387-96149-6.
156 CHAPTER 54. MATHEMATICAL BEAUTY

Peitgen, H.-O., and Richter, P.H. (1986), The Beauty of Fractals, Springer-Verlag.

Reber, R., Brun, M., & Mitterndorfer, K. (2008). The use of heuristics in intuitive mathematical judgment.
Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 15, 1174-1178.

Strohmeier, John, and Westbrook, Peter (1999), Divine Harmony, The Life and Teachings of Pythagoras,
Berkeley Hills Books, Berkeley, CA.

Rota, Gian-Carlo (1997). The phenomenology of mathematical beauty. Synthese. 111 (2): 171182.
doi:10.1023/A:1004930722234.

Monastyrsky, Michael (2001). Some Trends in Modern Mathematics and the Fields Medal (PDF). Can.
Math. Soc. Notes. 33 (2 and 3).

54.10 Further reading

Zeki, S.; Romaya1, J. P.; Benincasa, D. M. T.; Atiyah, M. F. (2014), The experience of mathematical beauty
and its neural correlates, Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 8, doi:10.3389/fnhum.2014.00068.

54.11 External links

Mathematics, Poetry and Beauty

Is Mathematics Beautiful?
The Beauty of Mathematics

Justin Mullins
Edna St. Vincent Millay (poet): Euclid alone has looked on beauty bare

Terence Tao, What is good mathematics? (PDF)

Mathbeauty Blog

The Aesthetic Appeal collection at the Internet Archive

A Mathematical Romance Jim Holt December 5, 2013 issue of The New York Review of Books review of Love
and Math: The Heart of Hidden Reality by Edward Frenkel

BBC Polling on Most Beautiful Equation (choice of 12)

Chapter 55

Mathematical coincidence

This article is about numerical curiosities. For the technical mathematical concept of coincidence, see Coincidence
point.

A mathematical coincidence is said to occur when two expressions show a near-equality which has no theoretical
explanation.
For example, there is a near-equality close to the round number 1000 between powers of 2 and powers of 10:

210 = 1024 1000 = 103

Some mathematical coincidences are used in engineering when one expression is taken as an approximation of an-
other.

55.1 Introduction
A mathematical coincidence often involves an integer, and the surprising (or coincidental) feature is the fact that
a real number arising in some context is considered by some standard as a close approximation to a small integer
or to a multiple or power of ten, or more generally, to a rational number with a small denominator. Other kinds
of mathematical coincidences, such as integers simultaneously satisfying multiple seemingly unrelated criteria or
coincidences regarding units of measurement, may also be considered. In the class of those coincidences that are of
a purely mathematical sort, some simply result from sometimes very deep mathematical facts, while others appear to
come 'out of the blue'.
Given the countably innite number of ways of forming mathematical expressions using a nite number of symbols,
the number of symbols used and the precision of approximate equality might be the most obvious way to assess
mathematical coincidences; but there is no standard, and the strong law of small numbers is the sort of thing one has
to appeal to with no formal opposing mathematical guidance. Beyond this, some sense of mathematical aesthetics
could be invoked to adjudicate the value of a mathematical coincidence, and there are in fact exceptional cases of true
mathematical signicance (see Ramanujans constant below, which made it into print some years ago as a scientic
April Fools joke[1] ). All in all, though, they are generally to be considered for their curiosity value or, perhaps, to
encourage new mathematical learners at an elementary level.

55.2 Some examples

55.2.1 Rational approximants

Sometimes simple rational approximations are exceptionally close to interesting irrational values. These are explain-
able in terms of large terms in the continued fraction representation of the irrational value, but further insight into
why such improbably large terms occur is often not available.

157
158 CHAPTER 55. MATHEMATICAL COINCIDENCE

Rational approximants (convergents of continued fractions) to ratios of logs of dierent numbers are often invoked
as well, making coincidences between the powers of those numbers.[2]
Many other coincidences are combinations of numbers that put them into the form that such rational approximants
provide close relationships.

Concerning

The rst convergent of , [3; 7] = 22/7 = 3.1428..., was known to Archimedes,[3] and is correct to about 0.04%.
The third convergent of , [3; 7, 15, 1] = 355/113 = 3.1415929..., found by Zu Chongzhi,[4] is correct to six
decimal places;[3] this high accuracy comes about because has an unusually large next term in its continued
fraction representation: = [3; 7, 15, 1, 292, ...].[5]

A coincidence involving and the golden ratio is given by 4/ = 3.1446 . . . . This is related to
Kepler triangles. Some believe one or the other of these coincidences is to be found in the Great Pyramid of
Giza, but it is highly improbable that this was intentional.[6]
There is a sequence of six nines in pi that begins at the 762nd decimal place of the decimal representation of pi.
For a randomly chosen normal number, the probability of any chosen number sequence of six digits (including
6 of a number, 658 020, or the like) occurring this early in the decimal representation is only 0.08%. Pi is
conjectured, but not known, to be a normal number.
5
6 2 ; correct to within 0.002%.

Concerning e

The number 1828 repeats twice in a row early in the decimal expansion of e = 2.7 1828 1828....
There is a sequence of 99 999 999 within the rst 500,000 digits of e.[7]

Concerning base 2

The coincidence 210 = 1024 1000 = 103 , correct to 2.4%, relates to the rational approximation loglog 2
10

3.3219 10 3 , or 2 10
3/10
to within 0.3%. This relationship is used in engineering, for example to
approximate a factor of two in power as 3 dB (actual is 3.0103 dB see Half-power point), or to relate a
kibibyte to a kilobyte; see binary prex.[8][9]
This coincidence can also be expressed as 128 = 27 53 = 125 (eliminating common factor of 23 , so also
correct to 2.4%), which corresponds to the rational approximation log
log 2 2.3219 3 , or 2 5
5 7 3/7
(also to
within 0.3%). This is invoked for instance in shutter speed settings on cameras, as approximations to powers
of two (128, 256, 512) in the sequence of speeds 125, 250, 500, etc.[2]

Concerning musical intervals

The coincidence 219 312 , from loglog 2 1.5849 12 leads to the observation commonly used in music
3 19

to relate the tuning of 7 semitones of equal temperament to a perfect fth of just intonation: 27/12 3/2;
, correct to about 0.1%. The just fth is the basis of Pythagorean tuning and most known systems of music.
12
From the consequent approximation (3/2) 27 , it follows that the circle of fths terminates seven octaves
higher than the origin.[2]

The coincidence 12 2 7 5 = 1.33333319 . . . 43 leads to the rational version of 12-TET, as noted by Johann
Kirnberger.

The coincidence 8 5 3 35 = 4.00000559 . . . 4 leads to the rational version of quarter-comma meantone
temperament.

The coincidence 9 0.6 28 4.9 = 0.99999999754 . . . 1 leads to the very tiny interval of 29 328 537 718
(about a millicent wide), which is the rst 7-limit interval tempered out in 103169-TET.
The coincidence of powers of 2, above, leads to the approximation that three major thirds concatenate to an
3
octave, (5/4) 2/1 . This and similar approximations in music are called dieses.
55.2. SOME EXAMPLES 159

55.2.2 Numerical expressions

Concerning powers of

355
113 = 3.1415929... .
2 10; correct to about 1.3%.[10] This can be understood in terms of the formula for the zeta function
(2) = 2 /6. [11]This coincidence was used in the design of slide rules, where the folded scales are folded
on rather than 10, because it is a more useful number and has the eect of folding the scales in about the
same place.
2 227/23, correct to 0.0004%.[10]
3 31, correct to 0.02%.

5 3 + 1 2, correct to 0.004%.
( 2
)1/4
92 + 19 22 , or 22 4 2143; [12] accurate to 8 decimal places (due to Ramanujan: Quarterly
Journal of Mathematics, XLV, 1914, pp. 350372). Ramanujan states that this curious approximation to
was obtained empirically and has no connection with the theory developed in the remainder of the paper.

4 2143
= 3.1415926525 . . .
22

5
306 = 3.14155 . . .

6 17305
= 3.1415924 . . .
18

7 21142
= 3.14159 . . .
7
Some plausible relations hold to a high degree of accuracy, but are nevertheless coincidental. One example is

(x)
cos(2x) cos dx .
0 n=1
n 8

The two sides of this expression only dier after the 42nd decimal place.[13]

Containing both and e

4 + 5 e6 , within 0.000 005%[12]

33 e is very close to 5, within 0.008%.
4

+e
3 4 is also very close to 5, approximately 0.000 538% error (Joseph Clarke, 2015)
e 19.99909998 is very close to 20 (Conway, Sloane, Ploue, 1988); this is equivalent to ( + 20)i =
0.9999999992 . . . i 0.000039 . . . 1 [12]
2 3
3 /e2 = 9.9998 . . . 10 [12]

e 9 + e4 9 + e9 9 + e16 9 + e25 9 + e36 9 + e49 9 + e64 9 = 1.00000000000105... 1

Containing or e and 163

163 ( e) 69 , within 0.0005%[12]

163
ln 163 25 , within 0.000004%[12]

Ramanujans constant: e 163 (26 10005)3 + 744 , within 2.9 1028 % , discovered in 1859 by Charles
Hermite.[14] This very close approximation is not a typical sort of accidental mathematical coincidence, where
no mathematical explanation is known or expected to exist (as is the case for most others here). It is a conse-
quence of the fact that 163 is a Heegner number.
160 CHAPTER 55. MATHEMATICAL COINCIDENCE

Concerning logarithms
( 2 ) 25
ln 2 5 (correct to 0.00024%).

55.2.3 Other numerical curiosities

10! = 6! 7! = 1! 3! 5! 7! .[15]

23 = 8 and 32 = 9 are the only non-trivial (i.e. at least square) consecutive powers of positive integers
(Catalans conjecture).

42 = 24 is the only positive integer solution of ab = ba , assuming that a = b [16] (see Lamberts W function
for a formal solution method)

The Fibonacci number F 296182 is (probably) a semiprime, since F 296182 = F 148091 L148091 where F 148091
(30949 digits) and the Lucas number L148091 (30950 digits) are simultaneously probable primes.[17]

31 , 331 , 3331 , 33331 , 333331 , 3333331 , and 33333331 are all primes, but next such number is not prime:
333333331 = 17 19607843 .
( )
In a discussion of the birthday problem, the number = 365
1 23 253
2 = 365 occurs, which is amusingly equal
[18]
to ln(2) to 4 digits.

55.2.4 Decimal coincidences

25 92 = 2592 . This makes 2592 a nice Friedman number.[19]

33 + 44 + 33 + 55 = 3435 .

(8 + 1)2 = 81 , 81 is the only such number other than 0 and 1.

1! + 4! + 5! = 145 . The only such factorions (in base 10) are 1, 2, 145, 40585.[20]

(25 + 9) + (25 9) = 259 .

16
64 = 6614 = 14 , 26 6
2 2 19 9
1 1 49
65 = 65 = 5 , 95 = 95 = 5 , 98 =
9
4
98 = 4
8 (anomalous cancellation[21] ). Also, the product
of these four fractions reduces to exactly 1/100.

(4 + 9 + 1 + 3)3 = 4,913 ; (5 + 8 + 3 + 2)3 = 5,832 ; and (1 + 9 + 6 + 8 + 3)3 = 19,683 .[22]

27 1 = 127 . This can also be written 127 = 1 + 27 , making 127 the smallest nice Friedman number.[19]

13 + 53 + 33 = 153 ; 33 + 73 + 03 = 370 ; 33 + 73 + 13 = 371 ; 43 + 03 + 73 = 407 all narcissistic

numbers[23]

(3 + 4)3 = 343 [24]

5882 +23532 = 5882353 and also 1/17 = 0.0588235294117647 . . . when rounded to 8 digits is 0.05882353.
Mentioned by Gilbert Labelle in ~1980. 5882353 also happens to be prime.

123456789 8 = 987654312 .

2646798 = 21 + 62 + 43 + 64 + 75 + 96 + 87 . The largest such number is 12157692622039623539.[25]

sin(666 ) = cos(6 6 6 ) = /2 , where is the golden ratio[26] (an amusing equality with an angle
expressed in degrees) (see Number of the Beast)

(666) = 6 6 6 , where is Eulers totient function[26]

55.2. SOME EXAMPLES 161

55.2.5 Numerical coincidences in numbers from the physical world

Length of six weeks

The number of seconds in six weeks, or 42 days, is exactly 10! (ten factorial) seconds (as 24 = 4! and 42 = 6 7
and 602 = 5 8 9 10 ). Many have recognized this coincidence in particular because of the importance of 42 in
Douglas Adams The Hitchhikers Guide to the Galaxy.

Speed of light

The speed of light is (by denition) exactly 299,792,458 m/s, very close to 300,000,000 m/s. This is a pure coin-
cidence, as the meter was originally dened as 1/10,000,000 of the distance between the Earths pole and equator
along the surface at sea level, and the Earths circumference just happens to be about 2/15 of a light-second.[27] It is
also roughly equal to one foot per nanosecond (the actual number is 0.9836 ft/ns).

Earths diameter

The polar diameter of the Earth is equal to half a billion inches, to within 0.1%.[28]

Gravitational acceleration

See also: Seconds pendulum

While not constant but varying depending on latitude and altitude, the numerical value of the acceleration caused by
Earths gravity on the surface lies between 9.74 and 9.87, which is quite close to 10. This means that as a result of
Newtons second law, the weight of a kilogram of mass on Earths surface corresponds roughly to 10 newtons of force
exerted on an object.[29]
This is actually related to the aforementioned coincidence that the square of pi is close to 10. One of the early
denitions of the meter was the length of a pendulum whose half swing had a period equal to one second. Since the
period of the full swing of a pendulum is approximated by the equation below, algebra shows that if this denition
was maintained, gravitational acceleration measured in meters per second per second would be exactly equal to the
square of pi.[30]

L
T 2
g

When it was discovered that the circumference of the earth was very close to 40,000,000 times this value, the meter
was redened to reect this, as it was a more objective standard (because the gravitational acceleration varies over
the surface of the Earth). This had the eect of increasing the length of the meter by less than 1%, which was within
the experimental error of the time.
Another coincidence related to the gravitational acceleration g is that its value of approximately 9.8 m/s2 is equal to
1.03 light-year/year2 , which numerical value is close to 1. This is related to the fact that g is close to 10 in SI units
(m/s2 ), as mentioned above, combined with the fact that the number of seconds per year happens to be close to the
numerical value of c/10, with c the speed of light in m/s.

Rydberg constant

2
The Rydberg constant, when multiplied by the speed of light and expressed as a frequency, is close to 3 1015 Hz
:[27]

3.289841960364(17) 1015 Hz = R c [31]

2
3.289868133696 . . . =
3
162 CHAPTER 55. MATHEMATICAL COINCIDENCE

Cubic miles and kilometers

A cubic mile is close to 43 cubic kilometers (within 0.5%). This means that a sphere with radius n kilometers has
almost exactly the same volume as a cube with sides length n miles.[32]

55.2.6 Fine-structure constant

1 1
The ne-structure constant is close to 137 and was once conjectured to be precisely 137 .

1
=
137.035999074 . . .
Although this coincidence is not as strong as some of the others in this section, it is notable that is a dimensionless
constant, so this coincidence is not an artifact of the system of units being used.

55.3 See also

Almost integer
Anthropic principle
Birthday problem
Exceptional isomorphism
Narcissistic number
Experimental mathematics
Kepler triangle#A mathematical coincidence
Koide formula

55.4 References
[1] Reprinted as Gardner, Martin (2001). Six Sensational Discoveries. The Colossal Book of Mathematics. New York: W.
W. Norton & Company. pp. 674694. ISBN 0-393-02023-1.

[2] Manfred Robert Schroeder (2008). Number theory in science and communication (2nd ed.). Springer. pp. 2628. ISBN
978-3-540-85297-1.

[3] Petr Beckmann (1971). A History of Pi. Macmillan. pp. 101, 170. ISBN 978-0-312-38185-1.

[4] Yoshio Mikami (1913). Development of Mathematics in China and Japan. B. G. Teubner. p. 135.

[5] Eric W. Weisstein (2003). CRC concise encyclopedia of mathematics. CRC Press. p. 2232. ISBN 978-1-58488-347-0.

[6] Roger Herz-Fischler (2000). The Shape of the Great Pyramid. Wilfrid Laurier University Press. p. 67. ISBN 978-0-889-
20324-2.

[7] The Number e to 1 Million Digits. NASA. Retrieved 14 February 2017.

[8] Ottmar Beucher (2008). Matlab und Simulink. Pearson Education. p. 195. ISBN 978-3-8273-7340-3.

[9] K. Ayob (2008). Digital Filters in Hardware: A Practical Guide for Firmware Engineers. Traord Publishing. p. 278.
ISBN 978-1-4251-4246-9.

[10] Frank Rubin, The Contest Center Pi.

[11] Why is 2 so close to 10?, Noam Elkies

[12] Weisstein, Eric W. Almost Integer. MathWorld.

55.5. EXTERNAL LINKS 163

[13] http://crd.lbl.gov/~{}dhbailey/dhbpapers/math-future.pdf

[14] Barrow, John D (2002). The Constants of Nature. London: Jonathan Cape. ISBN 0-224-06135-6.

[15] Harvey Heinz, Narcissistic Numbers.

[16] Ask Dr. Math, Solving the Equation x^y = y^x.

[17] David Broadhurst, Prime Curios!: 10660...49391 (61899-digits)".

[18] Arratia, Richard; Goldstein, Larry; Gordon, Louis (1990). Poisson approximation and the Chen-Stein method. Statistical
Science. 5 (4): 403434. JSTOR 2245366. MR 1092983. doi:10.1214/ss/1177012015.

[19] Erich Friedman, Problem of the Month (August 2000).

[20] (sequence A014080 in the OEIS)

[21] Weisstein, Eric W. Anomalous Cancellation. MathWorld.

[22] (sequence A061209 in the OEIS)

[23] (sequence A005188 in the OEIS)

[24] Prime Curios!: 343.

[25] (sequence A032799 in the OEIS)

[26] Weisstein, Eric W. Beast Number. MathWorld.

[27] Michon, Grard P. Numerical Coincidences in Man-Made Numbers. Mathematical Miracles. Retrieved 29 April 2011.

[28] Smythe, Charles (2004). Our Inheritance in the Great Pyramid. Kessinger Publishing. p. 39. ISBN 1-4179-7429-X.

[29] Cracking the AP Physics B & C Exam, 20042005 Edition. Princeton Review Publishing. 2003. p. 25. ISBN 0-375-
76387-2.

[30] What Does Pi Have To Do With Gravity?". Wired. March 8, 2013. Retrieved October 15, 2015.

[31] Rydberg constant times c in Hz. Fundamental physical constants. NIST. Retrieved 25 July 2011.

[32] Randall Munroe (2014). What If?. p. 49. ISBN 9781848549562.

55.5 External links

(in Russian) . . . , 1970, 256 .
Hardy, G. H. A Mathematicians Apology. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1993, (ISBN 0-521-
42706-1)
Weisstein, Eric W. Almost Integer. MathWorld.

Various mathematical coincidences in the Science & Math section of futilitycloset.com

Press, W. H., Seemingly Remarkable Mathematical Coincidences Are Easy to Generate

Chapter 56

Mathematical model

Not to be confused with the same term used in model theory, a branch of mathematical logic..

A mathematical model is a description of a system using mathematical concepts and language. The process of
developing a mathematical model is termed mathematical modeling. Mathematical models are used in the natural
sciences (such as physics, biology, Earth science, meteorology) and engineering disciplines (such as computer sci-
ence, articial intelligence), as well as in the social sciences (such as economics, psychology, sociology, political
science). Physicists, engineers, statisticians, operations research analysts, and economists use mathematical models
most extensively . A model may help to explain a system and to study the eects of dierent components, and to
make predictions about behaviour.

56.1 Elements of a mathematical model

Mathematical models can take many forms, including dynamical systems, statistical models, dierential equations, or
game theoretic models. These and other types of models can overlap, with a given model involving a variety of abstract
structures. In general, mathematical models may include logical models. In many cases, the quality of a scientic
eld depends on how well the mathematical models developed on the theoretical side agree with results of repeatable
experiments. Lack of agreement between theoretical mathematical models and experimental measurements often
leads to important advances as better theories are developed.
In the physical sciences, the traditional mathematical model contains four major elements. These are

1. Governing equations

2. Dening equations

3. Constitutive equations

4. Constraints

56.2 Classications
Mathematical models are usually composed of relationships and variables. Relationships can be described by operators,
such as algebraic operators, functions, dierential operators, etc. Variables are abstractions of system parameters of
interest, that can be quantied. Several classication criteria can be used for mathematical models according to their
structure:

Linear vs. nonlinear: If all the operators in a mathematical model exhibit linearity, the resulting mathematical
model is dened as linear. A model is considered to be nonlinear otherwise. The denition of linearity and
nonlinearity is dependent on context, and linear models may have nonlinear expressions in them. For example,
in a statistical linear model, it is assumed that a relationship is linear in the parameters, but it may be nonlinear

164
56.3. SIGNIFICANCE IN THE NATURAL SCIENCES 165

in the predictor variables. Similarly, a dierential equation is said to be linear if it can be written with linear
dierential operators, but it can still have nonlinear expressions in it. In a mathematical programming model, if
the objective functions and constraints are represented entirely by linear equations, then the model is regarded
as a linear model. If one or more of the objective functions or constraints are represented with a nonlinear
equation, then the model is known as a nonlinear model.
Nonlinearity, even in fairly simple systems, is often associated with phenomena such as chaos and irreversibility.
Although there are exceptions, nonlinear systems and models tend to be more dicult to study than linear ones.
A common approach to nonlinear problems is linearization, but this can be problematic if one is trying to study
aspects such as irreversibility, which are strongly tied to nonlinearity.

Static vs. dynamic: A dynamic model accounts for time-dependent changes in the state of the system, while a
static (or steady-state) model calculates the system in equilibrium, and thus is time-invariant. Dynamic models
typically are represented by dierential equations or dierence equations.

Explicit vs. implicit: If all of the input parameters of the overall model are known, and the output parameters
can be calculated by a nite series of computations, the model is said to be explicit. But sometimes it is the
output parameters which are known, and the corresponding inputs must be solved for by an iterative procedure,
such as Newtons method (if the model is linear) or Broydens method (if non-linear). In such a case the model is
said to be implicit. For example, a jet engine's physical properties such as turbine and nozzle throat areas can be
explicitly calculated given a design thermodynamic cycle (air and fuel ow rates, pressures, and temperatures)
at a specic ight condition and power setting, but the engines operating cycles at other ight conditions and
power settings cannot be explicitly calculated from the constant physical properties.

Discrete vs. continuous: A discrete model treats objects as discrete, such as the particles in a molecular model
or the states in a statistical model; while a continuous model represents the objects in a continuous manner,
such as the velocity eld of uid in pipe ows, temperatures and stresses in a solid, and electric eld that applies
continuously over the entire model due to a point charge.

Deterministic vs. probabilistic (stochastic): A deterministic model is one in which every set of variable
states is uniquely determined by parameters in the model and by sets of previous states of these variables;
therefore, a deterministic model always performs the same way for a given set of initial conditions. Conversely,
in a stochastic modelusually called a "statistical model"randomness is present, and variable states are not
described by unique values, but rather by probability distributions.

Deductive, inductive, or oating: A deductive model is a logical structure based on a theory. An inductive
model arises from empirical ndings and generalization from them. The oating model rests on neither theory
nor observation, but is merely the invocation of expected structure. Application of mathematics in social
sciences outside of economics has been criticized for unfounded models.[1] Application of catastrophe theory
in science has been characterized as a oating model.[2]

56.3 Signicance in the natural sciences

Mathematical models are of great importance in the natural sciences, particularly in physics. Physical theories are
almost invariably expressed using mathematical models.
Throughout history, more and more accurate mathematical models have been developed. Newtons laws accurately
describe many everyday phenomena, but at certain limits relativity theory and quantum mechanics must be used; even
these do not apply to all situations and need further renement. It is possible to obtain the less accurate models in
appropriate limits, for example relativistic mechanics reduces to Newtonian mechanics at speeds much less than the
speed of light. Quantum mechanics reduces to classical physics when the quantum numbers are high. For example,
the de Broglie wavelength of a tennis ball is insignicantly small, so classical physics is a good approximation to use
in this case.
It is common to use idealized models in physics to simplify things. Massless ropes, point particles, ideal gases and
the particle in a box are among the many simplied models used in physics. The laws of physics are represented
with simple equations such as Newtons laws, Maxwells equations and the Schrdinger equation. These laws are
such as a basis for making mathematical models of real situations. Many real situations are very complex and thus
modeled approximate on a computer, a model that is computationally feasible to compute is made from the basic
laws or from approximate models made from the basic laws. For example, molecules can be modeled by molecular
166 CHAPTER 56. MATHEMATICAL MODEL

orbital models that are approximate solutions to the Schrdinger equation. In engineering, physics models are often
made by mathematical methods such as nite element analysis.
Dierent mathematical models use dierent geometries that are not necessarily accurate descriptions of the geometry
of the universe. Euclidean geometry is much used in classical physics, while special relativity and general relativity
are examples of theories that use geometries which are not Euclidean.

56.4 Some applications

Since prehistorical times simple models such as maps and diagrams have been used.
Often when engineers analyze a system to be controlled or optimized, they use a mathematical model. In analysis,
engineers can build a descriptive model of the system as a hypothesis of how the system could work, or try to estimate
how an unforeseeable event could aect the system. Similarly, in control of a system, engineers can try out dierent
control approaches in simulations.
A mathematical model usually describes a system by a set of variables and a set of equations that establish relationships
between the variables. Variables may be of many types; real or integer numbers, boolean values or strings, for
example. The variables represent some properties of the system, for example, measured system outputs often in the
form of signals, timing data, counters, and event occurrence (yes/no). The actual model is the set of functions that
describe the relations between the dierent variables.

56.5 Building blocks

In business and engineering, mathematical models may be used to maximize a certain output. The system under
consideration will require certain inputs. The system relating inputs to outputs depends on other variables too: decision
variables, state variables, exogenous variables, and random variables.
Decision variables are sometimes known as independent variables. Exogenous variables are sometimes known as
parameters or constants. The variables are not independent of each other as the state variables are dependent on the
decision, input, random, and exogenous variables. Furthermore, the output variables are dependent on the state of
the system (represented by the state variables).
Objectives and constraints of the system and its users can be represented as functions of the output variables or state
variables. The objective functions will depend on the perspective of the models user. Depending on the context, an
objective function is also known as an index of performance, as it is some measure of interest to the user. Although
there is no limit to the number of objective functions and constraints a model can have, using or optimizing the model
becomes more involved (computationally) as the number increases.
For example, economists often apply linear algebra when using input-output models. Complicated mathematical
models that have many variables may be consolidated by use of vectors where one symbol represents several variables.

56.6 A priori information

Mathematical modeling problems are often classied into black box or white box models, according to how much a
priori information on the system is available. A black-box model is a system of which there is no a priori information
available. A white-box model (also called glass box or clear box) is a system where all necessary information is
available. Practically all systems are somewhere between the black-box and white-box models, so this concept is
useful only as an intuitive guide for deciding which approach to take.
Usually it is preferable to use as much a priori information as possible to make the model more accurate. Therefore,
the white-box models are usually considered easier, because if you have used the information correctly, then the
model will behave correctly. Often the a priori information comes in forms of knowing the type of functions relating
dierent variables. For example, if we make a model of how a medicine works in a human system, we know that
usually the amount of medicine in the blood is an exponentially decaying function. But we are still left with several
unknown parameters; how rapidly does the medicine amount decay, and what is the initial amount of medicine in
blood? This example is therefore not a completely white-box model. These parameters have to be estimated through
some means before one can use the model.
56.7. COMPLEXITY 167

To analyse something with a typical black box approach, only the behavior of the stimulus/response will be accounted for, to infer
the (unknown) box. The usual representation of this black box system is a data ow diagram centered in the box.

In black-box models one tries to estimate both the functional form of relations between variables and the numerical
parameters in those functions. Using a priori information we could end up, for example, with a set of functions that
probably could describe the system adequately. If there is no a priori information we would try to use functions as
general as possible to cover all dierent models. An often used approach for black-box models are neural networks
which usually do not make assumptions about incoming data. Alternatively the NARMAX (Nonlinear AutoRegres-
sive Moving Average model with eXogenous inputs) algorithms which were developed as part of nonlinear system
identication [3] can be used to select the model terms, determine the model structure, and estimate the unknown
parameters in the presence of correlated and nonlinear noise. The advantage of NARMAX models compared to
neural networks is that NARMAX produces models that can be written down and related to the underlying process,
whereas neural networks produce an approximation that is opaque.

56.6.1 Subjective information

Sometimes it is useful to incorporate subjective information into a mathematical model. This can be done based on
intuition, experience, or expert opinion, or based on convenience of mathematical form. Bayesian statistics provides
a theoretical framework for incorporating such subjectivity into a rigorous analysis: we specify a prior probability
distribution (which can be subjective), and then update this distribution based on empirical data.
An example of when such approach would be necessary is a situation in which an experimenter bends a coin slightly
and tosses it once, recording whether it comes up heads, and is then given the task of predicting the probability that
the next ip comes up heads. After bending the coin, the true probability that the coin will come up heads is unknown;
so the experimenter would need to make a decision (perhaps by looking at the shape of the coin) about what prior
distribution to use. Incorporation of such subjective information might be important to get an accurate estimate of
the probability.

56.7 Complexity
In general, model complexity involves a trade-o between simplicity and accuracy of the model. Occams razor is a
principle particularly relevant to modeling, its essential idea being that among models with roughly equal predictive
power, the simplest one is the most desirable. While added complexity usually improves the realism of a model, it can
make the model dicult to understand and analyze, and can also pose computational problems, including numerical
instability. Thomas Kuhn argues that as science progresses, explanations tend to become more complex before a
paradigm shift oers radical simplication .
For example, when modeling the ight of an aircraft, we could embed each mechanical part of the aircraft into
our model and would thus acquire an almost white-box model of the system. However, the computational cost of
adding such a huge amount of detail would eectively inhibit the usage of such a model. Additionally, the uncertainty
would increase due to an overly complex system, because each separate part induces some amount of variance into
the model. It is therefore usually appropriate to make some approximations to reduce the model to a sensible size.
Engineers often can accept some approximations in order to get a more robust and simple model. For example,
Newtons classical mechanics is an approximated model of the real world. Still, Newtons model is quite sucient
for most ordinary-life situations, that is, as long as particle speeds are well below the speed of light, and we study
168 CHAPTER 56. MATHEMATICAL MODEL

macro-particles only.

56.8 Training and tuning

Any model which is not pure white-box contains some parameters that can be used to t the model to the system
it is intended to describe. If the modeling is done by a neural network or other machine learning, the optimization
of parameters is called training, while the optimization of model hyperparameters is called tuning and often uses
cross-validation. In more conventional modeling through explicitly given mathematical functions, parameters are
often determined by curve tting.

56.9 Model evaluation

A crucial part of the modeling process is the evaluation of whether or not a given mathematical model describes a
system accurately. This question can be dicult to answer as it involves several dierent types of evaluation.

56.9.1 Fit to empirical data

Usually the easiest part of model evaluation is checking whether a model ts experimental measurements or other
empirical data. In models with parameters, a common approach to test this t is to split the data into two disjoint
subsets: training data and verication data. The training data are used to estimate the model parameters. An accurate
model will closely match the verication data even though these data were not used to set the models parameters.
This practice is referred to as cross-validation in statistics.
Dening a metric to measure distances between observed and predicted data is a useful tool of assessing model t.
In statistics, decision theory, and some economic models, a loss function plays a similar role.
While it is rather straightforward to test the appropriateness of parameters, it can be more dicult to test the validity
of the general mathematical form of a model. In general, more mathematical tools have been developed to test the t
of statistical models than models involving dierential equations. Tools from non-parametric statistics can sometimes
be used to evaluate how well the data t a known distribution or to come up with a general model that makes only
minimal assumptions about the models mathematical form.

56.9.2 Scope of the model

Assessing the scope of a model, that is, determining what situations the model is applicable to, can be less straight-
forward. If the model was constructed based on a set of data, one must determine for which systems or situations the
known data is a typical set of data.
The question of whether the model describes well the properties of the system between data points is called interpolation,
and the same question for events or data points outside the observed data is called extrapolation.
As an example of the typical limitations of the scope of a model, in evaluating Newtonian classical mechanics, we
can note that Newton made his measurements without advanced equipment, so he could not measure properties of
particles travelling at speeds close to the speed of light. Likewise, he did not measure the movements of molecules
and other small particles, but macro particles only. It is then not surprising that his model does not extrapolate well
into these domains, even though his model is quite sucient for ordinary life physics.

56.9.3 Philosophical considerations

Many types of modeling implicitly involve claims about causality. This is usually (but not always) true of models
involving dierential equations. As the purpose of modeling is to increase our understanding of the world, the validity
of a model rests not only on its t to empirical observations, but also on its ability to extrapolate to situations or data
beyond those originally described in the model. One can think of this as the dierentiation between qualitative and
quantitative predictions. One can also argue that a model is worthless unless it provides some insight which goes
beyond what is already known from direct investigation of the phenomenon being studied.
56.10. EXAMPLES 169

An example of such criticism is the argument that the mathematical models of optimal foraging theory do not oer
insight that goes beyond the common-sense conclusions of evolution and other basic principles of ecology.[4]

56.10 Examples
One of the popular examples in computer science is the mathematical models of various machines, an example
is the deterministic nite automaton (DFA) which is dened as an abstract mathematical concept, but due to
the deterministic nature of a DFA, it is implementable in hardware and software for solving various specic
problems. For example, the following is a DFA M with a binary alphabet, which requires that the input contains
an even number of 0s.

The state diagram for M

M = (Q, , , q0 , F) where

Q = {S 1 , S 2 },

= {0, 1},

q0 = S 1 ,

F = {S 1 }, and

is dened by the following state transition table:

The state S 1 represents that there has been an even number of 0s in the input so far, while S 2 signies an odd number.
A 1 in the input does not change the state of the automaton. When the input ends, the state will show whether the
input contained an even number of 0s or not. If the input did contain an even number of 0s, M will nish in state S 1 ,
an accepting state, so the input string will be accepted.
The language recognized by M is the regular language given by the regular expression 1*( 0 (1*) 0 (1*) )*, where
"*" is the Kleene star, e.g., 1* denotes any non-negative number (possibly zero) of symbols 1.
170 CHAPTER 56. MATHEMATICAL MODEL

Many everyday activities carried out without a thought are uses of mathematical models. A geographical map
projection of a region of the earth onto a small, plane surface is a model[5] which can be used for many purposes
such as planning travel.

Another simple activity is predicting the position of a vehicle from its initial position, direction and speed
of travel, using the equation that distance traveled is the product of time and speed. This is known as dead
reckoning when used more formally. Mathematical modeling in this way does not necessarily require formal
mathematics; animals have been shown to use dead reckoning.[6][7]

Population Growth. A simple (though approximate) model of population growth is the Malthusian growth
model. A slightly more realistic and largely used population growth model is the logistic function, and its
extensions.

Model of a particle in a potential-eld. In this model we consider a particle as being a point of mass which
describes a trajectory in space which is modeled by a function giving its coordinates in space as a function of
time. The potential eld is given by a function V : R3 R and the trajectory, that is a function r : R R3 ,
is the solution of the dierential equation:

d2 r(t) V [r(t)] V [r(t)] V [r(t)]

m= ^
x+ ^
y+ ^
z,
dt2 x y z

that can be written also as:

d2 r(t)
m = V [r(t)].
dt2

Note this model assumes the particle is a point mass, which is certainly known to be false in many cases
in which we use this model; for example, as a model of planetary motion.

Model of rational behavior for a consumer. In this model we assume a consumer faces a choice of n com-
modities labeled 1,2,...,n each with a market price p1 , p2 ,..., pn. The consumer is assumed to have an ordinal
utility function U (ordinal in the sense that only the sign of the dierences between two utilities, and not the
level of each utility, is meaningful), depending on the amounts of commodities x1 , x2 ,..., xn consumed. The
model further assumes that the consumer has a budget M which is used to purchase a vector x1 , x2 ,..., xn in
such a way as to maximize U(x1 , x2 ,..., xn). The problem of rational behavior in this model then becomes an
optimization problem, that is:

max U (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn )
subject to:
n
i=1 pi xi M.
xi 0 i {1, 2, . . . , n}
This model has been used in a wide variety of economic contexts, such as in general equilibrium theory
to show existence and Pareto eciency of economic equilibria.

Neighbour-sensing model explains the mushroom formation from the initially chaotic fungal network.

Computer science: models in Computer Networks, data models, surface model,...

Mechanics: movement of rocket model,...

56.11 See also

Agent-based model
56.12. REFERENCES 171

Cliodynamics

Computer simulation

Conceptual model

Decision engineering

Grey box model

Mathematical biology

Mathematical diagram

Mathematical psychology

Mathematical sociology

Model inversion

Microscale and macroscale models

Statistical Model

System identication

TK Solver - Rule Based Modeling

56.12 References
[1] Andreski, Stanislav (1972). Social Sciences as Sorcery. St. Martins Press. ISBN 0-14-021816-5.

[2] Truesdell, Cliord (1984). An Idiots Fugitive Essays on Science. Springer. pp. 1217. ISBN 3-540-90703-3.

[3] Billings S.A. (2013), Nonlinear System Identication: NARMAX Methods in the Time, Frequency, and Spatio-Temporal
Domains, Wiley.

[4] Pyke, G. H. (1984). Optimal Foraging Theory: A Critical Review. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics. 15:
523575. doi:10.1146/annurev.es.15.110184.002515.

[5] landinfo.com, denition of map projection

[6] Gallistel (1990). The Organization of Learning. Cambridge: The MIT Press. ISBN 0-262-07113-4.

[7] Whishaw, I. Q.; Hines, D. J.; Wallace, D. G. (2001). Dead reckoning (path integration) requires the hippocampal for-
mation: Evidence from spontaneous exploration and spatial learning tasks in light (allothetic) and dark (idiothetic) tests.
Behavioural Brain Research. 127 (12): 4969. PMID 11718884. doi:10.1016/S0166-4328(01)00359-X.

56.13 Further reading

56.13.1 Books
Aris, Rutherford [ 1978 ] ( 1994 ). Mathematical Modelling Techniques, New York: Dover. ISBN 0-486-
68131-9

Bender, E.A. [ 1978 ] ( 2000 ). An Introduction to Mathematical Modeling, New York: Dover. ISBN 0-486-
41180-X

Gershenfeld, N. (1998) The Nature of Mathematical Modeling, Cambridge University Press ISBN 0-521-
57095-6 .

Lin, C.C. & Segel, L.A. ( 1988 ). Mathematics Applied to Deterministic Problems in the Natural Sciences,
Philadelphia: SIAM. ISBN 0-89871-229-7
172 CHAPTER 56. MATHEMATICAL MODEL

56.13.2 Specic applications

Korotayev A., Malkov A., Khaltourina D. (2006). Introduction to Social Macrodynamics: Compact Macromod-
els of the World System Growth. Moscow: Editorial URSS ISBN 5-484-00414-4 .

Peierls, R. (1980). Model-making in physics. Contemporary Physics. 21: 317. Bibcode:1980ConPh..21....3P.

doi:10.1080/00107518008210938.

An Introduction to Infectious Disease Modelling by Emilia Vynnycky and Richard G White.

56.14 External links

General reference

Patrone, F. Introduction to modeling via dierential equations, with critical remarks.

Plus teacher and student package: Mathematical Modelling. Brings together all articles on mathematical mod-
eling from Plus Magazine, the online mathematics magazine produced by the Millennium Mathematics Project
at the University of Cambridge.

Philosophical

Frigg, R. and S. Hartmann, Models in Science, in: The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, (Spring 2006
Edition)

Griths, E. C. (2010) What is a model?

Chapter 57

Mathematical proof

P. Oxy. 29, one of the oldest surviving fragments of Euclids Elements, a textbook used for millennia to teach proof-writing tech-
niques. The diagram accompanies Book II, Proposition 5.[1]

In mathematics, a proof is an inferential argument for a mathematical statement. In the argument, other previously
established statements, such as theorems, can be used. In principle, a proof can be traced back to self-evident or
assumed statements, known as axioms,[2][3][4] along with accepted rules of inference. Axioms may be treated as
conditions that must be met before the statement applies. Proofs are examples of exhaustive deductive reasoning
or inductive reasoning and are distinguished from empirical arguments or non-exhaustive inductive reasoning (or
reasonable expectation). A proof must demonstrate that a statement is always true (occasionally by listing all
possible cases and showing that it holds in each), rather than enumerate many conrmatory cases. An unproved
proposition that is believed to be true is known as a conjecture.
Proofs employ logic but usually include some amount of natural language which usually admits some ambiguity.
In fact, the vast majority of proofs in written mathematics can be considered as applications of rigorous informal
logic. Purely formal proofs, written in symbolic language instead of natural language, are considered in proof the-
ory. The distinction between formal and informal proofs has led to much examination of current and historical
mathematical practice, quasi-empiricism in mathematics, and so-called folk mathematics (in both senses of that
term). The philosophy of mathematics is concerned with the role of language and logic in proofs, and mathematics
as a language.

173
174 CHAPTER 57. MATHEMATICAL PROOF

57.1 History and etymology

See also: History of logic

The word proof comes from the Latin probare meaning to test. Related modern words are the English probe,
probation, and probability, the Spanish probar (to smell or taste, or (lesser use) touch or test),[5] Italian provare
(to try), and the German probieren (to try). The early use of probity was in the presentation of legal evidence. A
person of authority, such as a nobleman, was said to have probity, whereby the evidence was by his relative authority,
which outweighed empirical testimony.[6]
Plausibility arguments using heuristic devices such as pictures and analogies preceded strict mathematical proof.[7] It
is likely that the idea of demonstrating a conclusion rst arose in connection with geometry, which originally meant
the same as land measurement.[8] The development of mathematical proof is primarily the product of ancient
Greek mathematics, and one of the greatest achievements thereof. Thales (624546 BCE) and Hippocrates of Chios
(c470-410 BCE) proved some theorems in geometry. Eudoxus (408355 BCE) and Theaetetus (417369 BCE)
formulated theorems but did not prove them. Aristotle (384322 BCE) said denitions should describe the concept
being dened in terms of other concepts already known. Mathematical proofs were revolutionized by Euclid (300
BCE), who introduced the axiomatic method still in use today, starting with undened terms and axioms (propositions
regarding the undened terms assumed to be self-evidently true from the Greek axios meaning something worthy),
and used these to prove theorems using deductive logic. His book, the Elements, was read by anyone who was
considered educated in the West until the middle of the 20th century.[9] In addition to theorems of geometry, such
as the Pythagorean theorem, the Elements also covers number theory, including a proof that the square root of two is
irrational and that there are innitely many prime numbers.
Further advances took place in medieval Islamic mathematics. While earlier Greek proofs were largely geometric
demonstrations, the development of arithmetic and algebra by Islamic mathematicians allowed more general proofs
that no longer depended on geometry. In the 10th century CE, the Iraqi mathematician Al-Hashimi provided general
proofs for numbers (rather than geometric demonstrations) as he considered multiplication, division, etc. for lines.
He used this method to provide a proof of the existence of irrational numbers.[10] An inductive proof for arithmetic
sequences was introduced in the Al-Fakhri (1000) by Al-Karaji, who used it to prove the binomial theorem and
properties of Pascals triangle. Alhazen also developed the method of proof by contradiction, as the rst attempt at
proving the Euclidean parallel postulate.[11]
Modern proof theory treats proofs as inductively dened data structures. There is no longer an assumption that axioms
are true in any sense; this allows for parallel mathematical theories built on alternate sets of axioms (see Axiomatic
set theory and Non-Euclidean geometry for examples).

57.2 Nature and purpose

As practiced, a proof is expressed in natural language and is a rigorous argument intended to convince the audience
of the truth of a statement. The standard of rigor is not absolute and has varied throughout history. A proof can be
presented dierently depending on the intended audience. In order to gain acceptance, a proof has to meet communal
statements of rigor; an argument considered vague or incomplete may be rejected.
The concept of a proof is formalized in the eld of mathematical logic.[12] A formal proof is written in a formal
language instead of a natural language. A formal proof is dened as sequence of formulas in a formal language, in
which each formula is a logical consequence of preceding formulas. Having a denition of formal proof makes the
concept of proof amenable to study. Indeed, the eld of proof theory studies formal proofs and their properties, for
example, the property that a statement has a formal proof. An application of proof theory is to show that certain
undecidable statements are not provable.
The denition of a formal proof is intended to capture the concept of proofs as written in the practice of mathematics.
The soundness of this denition amounts to the belief that a published proof can, in principle, be converted into
a formal proof. However, outside the eld of automated proof assistants, this is rarely done in practice. A classic
question in philosophy asks whether mathematical proofs are analytic or synthetic. Kant, who introduced the analytic-
synthetic distinction, believed mathematical proofs are synthetic.
Proofs may be viewed as aesthetic objects, admired for their mathematical beauty. The mathematician Paul Erds
was known for describing proofs he found particularly elegant as coming from The Book, a hypothetical tome
57.3. METHODS 175

containing the most beautiful method(s) of proving each theorem. The book Proofs from THE BOOK, published in
2003, is devoted to presenting 32 proofs its editors nd particularly pleasing.

57.3 Methods

57.3.1 Direct proof

Main article: Direct proof

In direct proof, the conclusion is established by logically combining the axioms, denitions, and earlier theorems.[13]
For example, direct proof can be used to establish that the sum of two even integers is always even:

Consider two even integers x and y. Since they are even, they can be written as x = 2a and y = 2b,
respectively, for integers a and b. Then the sum x + y = 2a + 2b = 2(a+b). Therefore x+y has 2 as a
factor and, by denition, is even. Hence the sum of any two even integers is even.

This proof uses the denition of even integers, the integer properties of closure under addition and multiplication,
and distributivity.

57.3.2 Proof by mathematical induction

Main article: Mathematical induction

Despite its name, mathematical induction is a method of deduction, not a form of inductive reasoning. In proof by
mathematical induction, a single base case is proved, and an induction rule is proved that establishes that any
arbitrary case implies the next case. Since in principle the induction rule can be applied repeatedly starting from the
proved base case, we see that all (usually innitely many) cases are provable.[14] This avoids having to prove each
case individually. A variant of mathematical induction is proof by innite descent, which can be used, for example,
to prove the irrationality of the square root of two.
A common application of proof by mathematical induction is to prove that a property known to hold for one number
holds for all natural numbers:[15] Let N = {1,2,3,4,...} be the set of natural numbers, and P(n) be a mathematical
statement involving the natural number n belonging to N such that

(i) P(1) is true, i.e., P(n) is true for n = 1.

(ii) P(n+1) is true whenever P(n) is true, i.e., P(n) is true implies that P(n+1) is true.

Then P(n) is true for all natural numbers n.

For example, we can prove by induction that all positive integers of the form 2n 1 are odd. Let P(n) represent 2n
1 is odd":

(i) For n = 1, 2n 1 = 2(1) 1 = 1, and 1 is odd, since it leaves a remainder of 1 when divided by 2.
Thus P(1) is true.
(ii) For any n, if 2n 1 is odd (P(n)), then (2n 1) + 2 must also be odd, because adding 2 to an odd
number results in an odd number. But (2n 1) + 2 = 2n + 1 = 2(n+1) 1, so 2(n+1) 1 is odd (P(n+1)).
So P(n) implies P(n+1).
Thus 2n 1 is odd, for all positive integers n.

The shorter phrase proof by induction is often used instead of proof by mathematical induction.[16]
176 CHAPTER 57. MATHEMATICAL PROOF

57.3.3 Proof by contraposition

Main article: Contraposition

Proof by contraposition infers the conclusion if p then q" from the premise if not q then not p". The statement if
not q then not p" is called the contrapositive of the statement if p then q". For example, contraposition can be used
to establish that, given an integer x , if x2 is even, then x is even:

Suppose x is not even. Then x is odd. The product of two odd numbers is odd, hence x2 = x x is odd.
Thus x is not even. Thus, if x2 is even, the supposition must be false, so x has to be even.

57.3.4 Proof by contradiction

Main article: Proof by contradiction

In proof by contradiction (also known as reductio ad absurdum, Latin for by reduction to the absurd), it is shown
that if some statement were true, a logical
contradiction occurs, hence the statement must be false. A famous example
of proof by contradiction shows that 2 is an irrational number:

Suppose that 2 were a rational number, so by denition 2 = ab where a and b are non-zero integers
with no common factor. (If there is a common factor, divide both numerator and denominator by that
factor to remove it, and repeat until
no common factor remains. By the method of innite descent, this
process must terminate.) Thus, b 2 = a . Squaring both sides yields 2b2 = a2 . Since 2 divides the
left hand side, 2 must also divide the right hand side (otherwise an even number would equal an odd
number). So a2 is even, which implies that a must also be even. So we can write a = 2c, where c is also
an integer. Substitution into the original equation yields 2b2 = (2c)2 = 4c2 . Dividing both sides by 2
yields b2 = 2c2 . But then, by the same argument as before, 2 divides b2 , so b must be even. However, if
a and b are both even, they havea common factor, namely 2. This contradicts our initial supposition, so
we are forced to conclude that 2 is an irrational number.

57.3.5 Proof by construction

Main article: Proof by construction

Proof by construction, or proof by example, is the construction of a concrete example with a property to show that
something having that property exists. Joseph Liouville, for instance, proved the existence of transcendental numbers
by constructing an explicit example. It can also be used to construct a counterexample to disprove a proposition that
all elements have a certain property.

57.3.6 Proof by exhaustion

Main article: Proof by exhaustion

In proof by exhaustion, the conclusion is established by dividing it into a nite number of cases and proving each one
separately. The number of cases sometimes can become very large. For example, the rst proof of the four color
theorem was a proof by exhaustion with 1,936 cases. This proof was controversial because the majority of the cases
were checked by a computer program, not by hand. The shortest known proof of the four color theorem as of 2011
still has over 600 cases.

57.3.7 Probabilistic proof

Main article: Probabilistic method
57.3. METHODS 177

A probabilistic proof is one in which an example is shown to exist, with certainty, by using methods of probability
theory. Probabilistic proof, like proof by construction, is one of many ways to show existence theorems.
This is not to be confused with an argument that a theorem is 'probably' true, a 'plausibility argument'. The work on
the Collatz conjecture shows how far plausibility is from genuine proof.[17]

57.3.8 Combinatorial proof

Main article: Combinatorial proof

A combinatorial proof establishes the equivalence of dierent expressions by showing that they count the same object
in dierent ways. Often a bijection between two sets is used to show that the expressions for their two sizes are equal.
Alternatively, a double counting argument provides two dierent expressions for the size of a single set, again showing
that the two expressions are equal.

57.3.9 Nonconstructive proof

Main article: Nonconstructive proof

A nonconstructive proof establishes that a mathematical object with a certain property exists without explaining how
such an object can be found. Often, this takes the form of a proof by contradiction in which the nonexistence of
the object is proved to be impossible. In contrast, a constructive proof establishes that a particular object exists by
providing a method of nding it. A famous example of a nonconstructive proof shows that there exist two irrational
numbers a and b such that ab is a rational number:

2 2
Either is a rational number and we are done (take a =
2 b = 2 ), or 2 is irrational so we can
( )2
2 2 2
write a = 2 and b = 2 . This then gives 2 = 2 = 2 , which is thus a rational of
the form ab .

57.3.10 Statistical proofs in pure mathematics

Main article: Statistical proof

The expression statistical proof may be used technically or colloquially in areas of pure mathematics, such as
involving cryptography, chaotic series, and probabilistic or analytic number theory.[18][19][20] It is less commonly used
to refer to a mathematical proof in the branch of mathematics known as mathematical statistics. See also "Statistical
proof using data" section below.

57.3.11 Computer-assisted proofs

Main article: Computer-assisted proof

Until the twentieth century it was assumed that any proof could, in principle, be checked by a competent mathemati-
cian to conrm its validity.[7] However, computers are now used both to prove theorems and to carry out calculations
that are too long for any human or team of humans to check; the rst proof of the four color theorem is an example
of a computer-assisted proof. Some mathematicians are concerned that the possibility of an error in a computer
program or a run-time error in its calculations calls the validity of such computer-assisted proofs into question. In
practice, the chances of an error invalidating a computer-assisted proof can be reduced by incorporating redundancy
and self-checks into calculations, and by developing multiple independent approaches and programs. Errors can never
be completely ruled out in case of verication of a proof by humans either, especially if the proof contains natural
language and requires deep mathematical insight.
178 CHAPTER 57. MATHEMATICAL PROOF

57.4 Undecidable statements

A statement that is neither provable nor disprovable from a set of axioms is called undecidable (from those axioms).
One example is the parallel postulate, which is neither provable nor refutable from the remaining axioms of Euclidean
geometry.
Mathematicians have shown there are many statements that are neither provable nor disprovable in Zermelo-Fraenkel
set theory with the axiom of choice (ZFC), the standard system of set theory in mathematics (assuming that ZFC is
consistent); see list of statements undecidable in ZFC.
Gdels (rst) incompleteness theorem shows that many axiom systems of mathematical interest will have undecidable
statements.

57.5 Heuristic mathematics and experimental mathematics

Main article: Experimental mathematics

While early mathematicians such as Eudoxus of Cnidus did not use proofs, from Euclid to the foundational math-
ematics developments of the late 19th and 20th centuries, proofs were an essential part of mathematics.[21] With
the increase in computing power in the 1960s, signicant work began to be done investigating mathematical objects
outside of the proof-theorem framework,[22] in experimental mathematics. Early pioneers of these methods intended
the work ultimately to be embedded in a classical proof-theorem framework, e.g. the early development of fractal
geometry,[23] which was ultimately so embedded.

57.6 Related concepts

57.6.1 Visual proof

Although not a formal proof, a visual demonstration of a mathematical theorem is sometimes called a "proof without
words". The left-hand picture below is an example of a historic visual proof of the Pythagorean theorem in the case
of the (3,4,5) triangle.

Visual proof for the (3, 4, 5) triangle as in the Zhoubi Suanjing 500200 BC.

Animated visual proof for the Pythagorean theorem by rearrangement.

A second animated proof of the Pythagorean theorem.

57.6. RELATED CONCEPTS 179

Some illusory visual proofs, such as the missing square puzzle, can be constructed in a way which appear to prove a
supposed mathematical fact but only do so under the presence of tiny errors (for example, supposedly straight lines
which actually bend slightly) which are unnoticeable until the entire picture is closely examined, with lengths and
angles precisely measured or calculated.

57.6.2 Elementary proof

Main article: Elementary proof

An elementary proof is a proof which only uses basic techniques. More specically, the term is used in number theory
to refer to proofs that make no use of complex analysis. For some time it was thought that certain theorems, like the
prime number theorem, could only be proved using higher mathematics. However, over time, many of these results
have been reproved using only elementary techniques.

57.6.3 Two-column proof

A two-column proof published in 1913

A particular way of organising a proof using two parallel columns is often used in elementary geometry classes in the
United States.[24] The proof is written as a series of lines in two columns. In each line, the left-hand column contains
a proposition, while the right-hand column contains a brief explanation of how the corresponding proposition in
180 CHAPTER 57. MATHEMATICAL PROOF

the left-hand column is either an axiom, a hypothesis, or can be logically derived from previous propositions. The
left-hand column is typically headed Statements and the right-hand column is typically headed Reasons.[25]

57.6.4 Colloquial use of mathematical proof

The expression mathematical proof is used by lay people to refer to using mathematical methods or arguing with
mathematical objects, such as numbers, to demonstrate something about everyday life, or when data used in an
argument is numerical. It is sometimes also used to mean a statistical proof (below), especially when used to argue
from data.

57.6.5 Statistical proof using data

Main article: Statistical proof

Statistical proof from data refers to the application of statistics, data analysis, or Bayesian analysis to infer propo-
sitions regarding the probability of data. While using mathematical proof to establish theorems in statistics, it is
usually not a mathematical proof in that the assumptions from which probability statements are derived require em-
pirical evidence from outside mathematics to verify. In physics, in addition to statistical methods, statistical proof
can refer to the specialized mathematical methods of physics applied to analyze data in a particle physics experiment
or observational study in physical cosmology. Statistical proof may also refer to raw data or a convincing diagram
involving data, such as scatter plots, when the data or diagram is adequately convincing without further analysis.

57.6.6 Inductive logic proofs and Bayesian analysis

Main articles: Inductive logic and Bayesian analysis

Proofs using inductive logic, while considered mathematical in nature, seek to establish propositions with a degree of
certainty, which acts in a similar manner to probability, and may be less than full certainty. Inductive logic should
not be confused with mathematical induction.
Bayesian analysis uses Bayes theorem to update a persons assessment of likelihoods of hypotheses when new evidence
or information is acquired.

57.6.7 Proofs as mental objects

Main articles: Psychologism and Language of thought

Psychologism views mathematical proofs as psychological or mental objects. Mathematician philosophers, such as
Leibniz, Frege, and Carnap have variously criticized this view and attempted to develop a semantics for what they
considered to be the language of thought, whereby standards of mathematical proof might be applied to empirical
science.

57.6.8 Inuence of mathematical proof methods outside mathematics

Philosopher-mathematicians such as Spinoza have attempted to formulate philosophical arguments in an axiomatic

manner, whereby mathematical proof standards could be applied to argumentation in general philosophy. Other
mathematician-philosophers have tried to use standards of mathematical proof and reason, without empiricism, to
arrive at statements outside of mathematics, but having the certainty of propositions deduced in a mathematical proof,
such as Descartes' cogito argument.
57.7. ENDING A PROOF 181

57.7 Ending a proof

Main article: Q.E.D.

Sometimes, the abbreviation Q.E.D. is written to indicate the end of a proof. This abbreviation stands for Quod
Erat Demonstrandum, which is Latin for that which was to be demonstrated. A more common alternative is to use
a square or a rectangle, such as or , known as a "tombstone" or halmos after its eponym Paul Halmos. Often,
which was to be shown is verbally stated when writing QED, "", or "" during an oral presentation.

57.8 See also

Automated theorem proving
Invalid proof
List of incomplete proofs
List of long proofs
List of mathematical proofs
Nonconstructive proof
Proof by intimidation
Termination analysis
What the Tortoise Said to Achilles

57.9 References
[1] Bill Casselman. One of the Oldest Extant Diagrams from Euclid. University of British Columbia. Retrieved 2008-09-26.

[2] Clapham, C. & Nicholson, JN. The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Mathematics, Fourth edition. A statement whose truth
is either to be taken as self-evident or to be assumed. Certain areas of mathematics involve choosing a set of axioms and
discovering what results can be derived from them, providing proofs for the theorems that are obtained.

[3] Cupillari, Antonella. The Nuts and Bolts of Proofs. Academic Press, 2001. Page 3.

[4] Gossett, Eric. Discrete Mathematics with Proof. John Wiley and Sons, 2009. Denition 3.1 page 86. ISBN 0-470-45793-7

[5] New Shorter Oxford English Dictionary, 1993, OUP, Oxford.

[6] The Emergence of Probability, Ian Hacking

[7] The History and Concept of Mathematical Proof, Steven G. Krantz. 1. February 5, 2007

[8] Kneale, p. 2

[9] Howard Eves, An Introduction to the History of Mathematics, Saunders, 1990, ISBN 0-03-029558-0 p. 141: No work,
except The Bible, has been more widely used....

[10] Matvievskaya, Galina (1987), The Theory of Quadratic Irrationals in Medieval Oriental Mathematics, Annals of the New
York Academy of Sciences, 500: 253277 [260], doi:10.1111/j.1749-6632.1987.tb37206.x

[11] Eder, Michelle (2000), Views of Euclids Parallel Postulate in Ancient Greece and in Medieval Islam, Rutgers University,
retrieved 2008-01-23

[12] Buss, Samuel R. (1998), An introduction to proof theory, in Buss, Samuel R., Handbook of Proof Theory, Studies in
Logic and the Foundations of Mathematics, 137, Elsevier, pp. 178, ISBN 9780080533186. See in particular p. 3:
The study of Proof Theory is traditionally motivated by the problem of formalizing mathematical proofs; the original
formulation of rst-order logic by Frege [1879] was the rst successful step in this direction.

[13] Cupillari, page 20.

182 CHAPTER 57. MATHEMATICAL PROOF

[14] Cupillari, page 46.

[15] Examples of simple proofs by mathematical induction for all natural numbers

[16] Proof by induction, University of Warwick Glossary of Mathematical Terminology

[17] While most mathematicians do not think that probabilistic evidence ever counts as a genuine mathematical proof, a few
mathematicians and philosophers have argued that at least some types of probabilistic evidence (such as Rabins probabilistic
algorithm for testing primality) are as good as genuine mathematical proofs. See, for example, Davis, Philip J. (1972),
Fidelity in Mathematical Discourse: Is One and One Really Two?" American Mathematical Monthly 79:252-63. Fallis,
Don (1997), The Epistemic Status of Probabilistic Proof. Journal of Philosophy 94:165-86.

[18] in number theory and commutative algebra... in particular the statistical proof of the lemma.

[19] Whether constant (i.e., pi) is normal is a confusing problem without any strict theoretical demonstration except for some
statistical proof"" (Derogatory use.)

[20] these observations suggest a statistical proof of Goldbachs conjecture with very quickly vanishing probability of failure
for large E

[21] "What to do with the pictures? Two thoughts surfaced: the rst was that they were unpublishable in the standard way,
there were no theorems only very suggestive pictures. They furnished convincing evidence for many conjectures and lures to
further exploration, but theorems were coins of the realm ant the conventions of that day dictated that journals only published
theorems", David Mumford, Caroline Series and David Wright, Indras Pearls, 2002

[22] "Mandelbrot, working at the IBM Research Laboratory, did some computer simulations for these sets on the reasonable
assumption that, if you wanted to prove something, it might be helpful to know the answer ahead of time."A Note on the
History of Fractals Archived 2009-02-15 at the Wayback Machine.,

[23] "... brought home again to Benoit [Mandelbrot] that there was a 'mathematics of the eye', that visualization of a problem
was as valid a method as any for nding a solution. Amazingly, he found himself alone with this conjecture. The teaching of
mathematics in France was dominated by a handful of dogmatic mathematicians hiding behind the pseudonym 'Bourbaki'...
", Introducing Fractal Geometry, Nigel Lesmoir-Gordon

[24] Patricio G. Herbst, Establishing a Custom of Proving in American School Geometry: Evolution of the Two-Column Proof
in the Early Twentieth Century, Educational Studies in Mathematics, Vol. 49, No. 3 (2002), pp. 283-312,

[25] Introduction to the Two-Column Proof, Carol Fisher

57.10 Sources
Plya, G. (1954), Mathematics and Plausible Reasoning, Princeton University Press.

Fallis, Don (2002), What Do Mathematicians Want? Probabilistic Proofs and the Epistemic Goals of Math-
ematicians, Logique et Analyse, 45: 373388.

Franklin, J.; Daoud, A. (2011), Proof in Mathematics: An Introduction, Kew Books, ISBN 0-646-54509-4.
Solow, D. (2004), How to Read and Do Proofs: An Introduction to Mathematical Thought Processes, Wiley,
ISBN 0-471-68058-3.
Velleman, D. (2006), How to Prove It: A Structured Approach, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-
67599-5.

57.11 External links

Proofs in Mathematics: Simple, Charming and Fallacious
A lesson about proofs, in a course from Wikiversity
Chapter 58

Mathematical theory

For other uses, see Mathematical theory (disambiguation).

The term mathematical theory is used to refer to a mathematical subeld. A theory can be a body of knowledge,
and so in this sense a mathematical theory refers to an area of mathematical research.[1][2] This is distinct from the
idea of mathematical models. Branches of mathematics like group theory and number theory are examples of this.

58.1 See also

List of mathematical theories

Unifying theories in mathematics

Theorem, a statement with a mathematical proof

58.2 References
[1] Nelson, Sam. Theorems and Theories. www.esotericka.org.

[2] Chu-Carroll, Mark C. (March 13, 2007). Theorems, Lemmas, and Corollaries. Good Math, Bad Math blog.

58.3 External links

Langlands, Robert P. (January 2010). Is there beauty in mathematical theories?" (PDF).

Boero, Paolo. Approaching Mathematical Theories in Junior High School. Dipartimento di Matematica,
Universit di Genova.

Corry, Leo. Reexive Thinking in Mathematics: Formal and Non-formal Aspects (PDF). Tel Aviv.

183
Chapter 59

Mathematics

This article is about the study of topics such as quantity and structure. For other uses, see Mathematics (disambigua-
tion). Math redirects here. For other uses, see Math (disambiguation).

Euclid (holding calipers), Greek mathematician, 3rd century BC, as imagined by Raphael in this detail from The School of
Athens.[lower-alpha 1]

Mathematics (from Greek mthma, knowledge, study, learning"; often shortened to maths or math) is
the study of topics such as quantity (numbers),[1] structure,[2] space,[1] and change.[3][4][5] There is a range of views
among mathematicians and philosophers as to the exact scope and denition of mathematics.[6][7]
Mathematicians seek out patterns[8][9] and use them to formulate new conjectures. Mathematicians resolve the truth

184
59.1. HISTORY 185

or falsity of conjectures by mathematical proof. When mathematical structures are good models of real phenomena,
then mathematical reasoning can provide insight or predictions about nature. Through the use of abstraction and
logic, mathematics developed from counting, calculation, measurement, and the systematic study of the shapes and
motions of physical objects. Practical mathematics has been a human activity from as far back as written records
exist. The research required to solve mathematical problems can take years or even centuries of sustained inquiry.
Rigorous arguments rst appeared in Greek mathematics, most notably in Euclid's Elements. Since the pioneering
work of Giuseppe Peano (18581932), David Hilbert (18621943), and others on axiomatic systems in the late 19th
century, it has become customary to view mathematical research as establishing truth by rigorous deduction from
appropriately chosen axioms and denitions. Mathematics developed at a relatively slow pace until the Renaissance,
when mathematical innovations interacting with new scientic discoveries led to a rapid increase in the rate of math-
ematical discovery that has continued to the present day.[10]
Galileo Galilei (15641642) said, The universe cannot be read until we have learned the language and become
familiar with the characters in which it is written. It is written in mathematical language, and the letters are trian-
gles, circles and other geometrical gures, without which means it is humanly impossible to comprehend a single
word. Without these, one is wandering about in a dark labyrinth.[11] Carl Friedrich Gauss (17771855) referred to
mathematics as the Queen of the Sciences.[12] Benjamin Peirce (18091880) called mathematics the science that
draws necessary conclusions.[13] David Hilbert said of mathematics: We are not speaking here of arbitrariness in
any sense. Mathematics is not like a game whose tasks are determined by arbitrarily stipulated rules. Rather, it is a
conceptual system possessing internal necessity that can only be so and by no means otherwise.[14] Albert Einstein
(18791955) stated that as far as the laws of mathematics refer to reality, they are not certain; and as far as they are
certain, they do not refer to reality.[15]
Mathematics is essential in many elds, including natural science, engineering, medicine, nance and the social
sciences. Applied mathematics has led to entirely new mathematical disciplines, such as statistics and game theory.
Mathematicians also engage in pure mathematics, or mathematics for its own sake, without having any application in
mind. There is no clear line separating pure and applied mathematics, and practical applications for what began as
pure mathematics are often discovered.[16]

59.1 History

Main article: History of mathematics

The history of mathematics can be seen as an ever-increasing series of abstractions. The rst abstraction, which
is shared by many animals,[17] was probably that of numbers: the realization that a collection of two apples and a
collection of two oranges (for example) have something in common, namely quantity of their members.
As evidenced by tallies found on bone, in addition to recognizing how to count physical objects, prehistoric peoples
may have also recognized how to count abstract quantities, like time days, seasons, years.[18]
Evidence for more complex mathematics does not appear until around 3000 BC, when the Babylonians and Egyp-
tians began using arithmetic, algebra and geometry for taxation and other nancial calculations, for building and
construction, and for astronomy.[19] The earliest uses of mathematics were in trading, land measurement, painting
and weaving patterns and the recording of time.
In Babylonian mathematics elementary arithmetic (addition, subtraction, multiplication and division) rst appears in
the archaeological record. Numeracy pre-dated writing and numeral systems have been many and diverse, with the
rst known written numerals created by Egyptians in Middle Kingdom texts such as the Rhind Mathematical Papyrus.
Between 600 and 300 BC the Ancient Greeks began a systematic study of mathematics in its own right with Greek
mathematics.[20]
During the Golden Age of Islam, especially during the 9th and 10th centuries, mathematics saw many important
innovations building on Greek mathematics: most of them include the contributions from Persian mathematicians
such as Al-Khwarismi, Omar Khayyam and Sharaf al-Dn al-s.
Mathematics has since been greatly extended, and there has been a fruitful interaction between mathematics and
science, to the benet of both. Mathematical discoveries continue to be made today. According to Mikhail B.
Sevryuk, in the January 2006 issue of the Bulletin of the American Mathematical Society, The number of papers and
books included in the Mathematical Reviews database since 1940 (the rst year of operation of MR) is now more
186 CHAPTER 59. MATHEMATICS

Greek mathematician Pythagoras (c. 570 BC c. 495 BC), commonly credited with discovering the Pythagorean theorem

than 1.9 million, and more than 75 thousand items are added to the database each year. The overwhelming majority
of works in this ocean contain new mathematical theorems and their proofs.[21]
59.1. HISTORY 187

0 1 2 3 4

5 6 7 8 9

10 11 12 13 14

15 16 17 18 19

Mayan numerals

59.1.1 Etymology

The word mathematics comes from the Greek (mthma), which, in the ancient Greek language, means that
which is learnt,[22] what one gets to know, hence also study and science, and in modern Greek just lesson. The
word mthma is derived from (manthano), while the modern Greek equivalent is (mathaino),
both of which mean to learn. In Greece, the word for mathematics came to have the narrower and more technical
meaning mathematical study even in Classical times.[23] Its adjective is (mathmatiks), meaning
related to learning or studious, which likewise further came to mean mathematical. In particular,
(mathmatik tkhn), Latin: ars mathematica, meant the mathematical art.
Similarly, one of the two main schools of thought in Pythagoreanism was known as the mathmatikoi ()
which at the time meant teachers rather than mathematicians in the modern sense.
In Latin, and in English until around 1700, the term mathematics more commonly meant astrology (or sometimes
188 CHAPTER 59. MATHEMATICS

Persian mathematician Al-Khwarizmi (c. 780 c. 850), the inventor of Algebra.

astronomy) rather than mathematics"; the meaning gradually changed to its present one from about 1500 to 1800.
This has resulted in several mistranslations: a particularly notorious one is Saint Augustine's warning that Chris-
tians should beware of mathematici meaning astrologers, which is sometimes mistranslated as a condemnation of
mathematicians.[24]
The apparent plural form in English, like the French plural form les mathmatiques (and the less commonly used
singular derivative la mathmatique), goes back to the Latin neuter plural mathematica (Cicero), based on the Greek
plural (ta mathmatik), used by Aristotle (384322 BC), and meaning roughly all things math-
ematical"; although it is plausible that English borrowed only the adjective mathematic(al) and formed the noun
59.2. DEFINITIONS OF MATHEMATICS 189

mathematics anew, after the pattern of physics and metaphysics, which were inherited from the Greek.[25] In English,
the noun mathematics takes singular verb forms. It is often shortened to maths or, in English-speaking North America,
math.[26]

59.2 Denitions of mathematics

Main article: Denitions of mathematics
Aristotle dened mathematics as the science of quantity, and this denition prevailed until the 18th century.[27]
Starting in the 19th century, when the study of mathematics increased in rigor and began to address abstract topics
such as group theory and projective geometry, which have no clear-cut relation to quantity and measurement, mathe-
maticians and philosophers began to propose a variety of new denitions.[28] Some of these denitions emphasize the
deductive character of much of mathematics, some emphasize its abstractness, some emphasize certain topics within
mathematics. Today, no consensus on the denition of mathematics prevails, even among professionals.[6] There
is not even consensus on whether mathematics is an art or a science.[7] A great many professional mathematicians
take no interest in a denition of mathematics, or consider it undenable.[6] Some just say, Mathematics is what
mathematicians do.[6]
Three leading types of denition of mathematics are called logicist, intuitionist, and formalist, each reecting a
dierent philosophical school of thought.[29] All have severe problems, none has widespread acceptance, and no
reconciliation seems possible.[29]
An early denition of mathematics in terms of logic was Benjamin Peirce's the science that draws necessary conclu-
sions (1870).[30] In the Principia Mathematica, Bertrand Russell and Alfred North Whitehead advanced the philo-
sophical program known as logicism, and attempted to prove that all mathematical concepts, statements, and princi-
ples can be dened and proved entirely in terms of symbolic logic. A logicist denition of mathematics is Russells
All Mathematics is Symbolic Logic (1903).[31]
Intuitionist denitions, developing from the philosophy of mathematician L.E.J. Brouwer, identify mathematics with
certain mental phenomena. An example of an intuitionist denition is Mathematics is the mental activity which
consists in carrying out constructs one after the other.[29] A peculiarity of intuitionism is that it rejects some mathe-
matical ideas considered valid according to other denitions. In particular, while other philosophies of mathematics
allow objects that can be proved to exist even though they cannot be constructed, intuitionism allows only mathemat-
ical objects that one can actually construct.
Formalist denitions identify mathematics with its symbols and the rules for operating on them. Haskell Curry dened
mathematics simply as the science of formal systems.[32] A formal system is a set of symbols, or tokens, and some
rules telling how the tokens may be combined into formulas. In formal systems, the word axiom has a special meaning,
dierent from the ordinary meaning of a self-evident truth. In formal systems, an axiom is a combination of tokens
that is included in a given formal system without needing to be derived using the rules of the system.

59.2.1 Mathematics as science

Gauss referred to mathematics as the Queen of the Sciences.[12] In the original Latin Regina Scientiarum, as well
as in German Knigin der Wissenschaften, the word corresponding to science means a eld of knowledge, and
this was the original meaning of science in English, also; mathematics is in this sense a eld of knowledge. The
specialization restricting the meaning of science to natural science follows the rise of Baconian science, which
contrasted natural science to scholasticism, the Aristotelean method of inquiring from rst principles. The role
of empirical experimentation and observation is negligible in mathematics, compared to natural sciences such as
biology, chemistry, or physics. Albert Einstein stated that as far as the laws of mathematics refer to reality, they are
not certain; and as far as they are certain, they do not refer to reality.[15] More recently, Marcus du Sautoy has called
mathematics the Queen of Science ... the main driving force behind scientic discovery.[33]
Many philosophers believe that mathematics is not experimentally falsiable, and thus not a science according to the
denition of Karl Popper.[34] However, in the 1930s Gdels incompleteness theorems convinced many mathemati-
cians that mathematics cannot be reduced to logic alone, and Karl Popper concluded that most mathematical theories
are, like those of physics and biology, hypothetico-deductive: pure mathematics therefore turns out to be much closer
to the natural sciences whose hypotheses are conjectures, than it seemed even recently.[35] Other thinkers, notably
Imre Lakatos, have applied a version of falsicationism to mathematics itself.
190 CHAPTER 59. MATHEMATICS

Leonardo Fibonacci, the Italian mathematician who introduced the HinduArabic numeral system invented between the 1st and 4th
centuries by Indian mathematicians, to the Western World

An alternative view is that certain scientic elds (such as theoretical physics) are mathematics with axioms that are
intended to correspond to reality. The theoretical physicist J.M. Ziman proposed that science is public knowledge,
and thus includes mathematics.[36] Mathematics shares much in common with many elds in the physical sciences,
notably the exploration of the logical consequences of assumptions. Intuition and experimentation also play a role in
the formulation of conjectures in both mathematics and the (other) sciences. Experimental mathematics continues to
59.2. DEFINITIONS OF MATHEMATICS 191

Carl Friedrich Gauss, known as the prince of mathematicians

grow in importance within mathematics, and computation and simulation are playing an increasing role in both the
sciences and mathematics.
The opinions of mathematicians on this matter are varied. Many mathematicians feel that to call their area a science
is to downplay the importance of its aesthetic side, and its history in the traditional seven liberal arts; others feel that
to ignore its connection to the sciences is to turn a blind eye to the fact that the interface between mathematics and
its applications in science and engineering has driven much development in mathematics. One way this dierence of
viewpoint plays out is in the philosophical debate as to whether mathematics is created (as in art) or discovered (as
in science). It is common to see universities divided into sections that include a division of Science and Mathematics,
192 CHAPTER 59. MATHEMATICS

indicating that the elds are seen as being allied but that they do not coincide. In practice, mathematicians are typically
grouped with scientists at the gross level but separated at ner levels. This is one of many issues considered in the
philosophy of mathematics.

59.3 Inspiration, pure and applied mathematics, and aesthetics

Main article: Mathematical beauty

Isaac Newton (left) and Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (right),

developers of innitesimal calculus

Mathematics arises from many dierent kinds of problems. At rst these were found in commerce, land measurement,
architecture and later astronomy; today, all sciences suggest problems studied by mathematicians, and many problems
arise within mathematics itself. For example, the physicist Richard Feynman invented the path integral formulation
of quantum mechanics using a combination of mathematical reasoning and physical insight, and todays string theory,
a still-developing scientic theory which attempts to unify the four fundamental forces of nature, continues to inspire
new mathematics.[37]
Some mathematics is relevant only in the area that inspired it, and is applied to solve further problems in that area.
But often mathematics inspired by one area proves useful in many areas, and joins the general stock of mathematical
concepts. A distinction is often made between pure mathematics and applied mathematics. However pure mathemat-
ics topics often turn out to have applications, e.g. number theory in cryptography. This remarkable fact, that even the
purest mathematics often turns out to have practical applications, is what Eugene Wigner has called "the unreason-
able eectiveness of mathematics".[38] As in most areas of study, the explosion of knowledge in the scientic age has
led to specialization: there are now hundreds of specialized areas in mathematics and the latest Mathematics Subject
Classication runs to 46 pages.[39] Several areas of applied mathematics have merged with related traditions outside
of mathematics and become disciplines in their own right, including statistics, operations research, and computer
science.
For those who are mathematically inclined, there is often a denite aesthetic aspect to much of mathematics. Many
mathematicians talk about the elegance of mathematics, its intrinsic aesthetics and inner beauty. Simplicity and
generality are valued. There is beauty in a simple and elegant proof, such as Euclid's proof that there are innitely
many prime numbers, and in an elegant numerical method that speeds calculation, such as the fast Fourier transform.
G.H. Hardy in A Mathematicians Apology expressed the belief that these aesthetic considerations are, in themselves,
sucient to justify the study of pure mathematics. He identied criteria such as signicance, unexpectedness, in-
evitability, and economy as factors that contribute to a mathematical aesthetic.[40] Mathematicians often strive to nd
proofs that are particularly elegant, proofs from The Book of God according to Paul Erds.[41][42] The popularity
of recreational mathematics is another sign of the pleasure many nd in solving mathematical questions.

59.4 Notation, language, and rigor

Main article: Mathematical notation
Most of the mathematical notation in use today was not invented until the 16th century.[43] Before that, mathematics
was written out in words, limiting mathematical discovery.[44] Euler (17071783) was responsible for many of the
notations in use today. Modern notation makes mathematics much easier for the professional, but beginners often
59.4. NOTATION, LANGUAGE, AND RIGOR 193

Leonhard Euler, who created and popularized much of the mathematical notation used today

nd it daunting. It is compressed: a few symbols contain a great deal of information. Like musical notation, modern
mathematical notation has a strict syntax and encodes information that would be dicult to write in any other way.
Mathematical language can be dicult to understand for beginners. Common words such as or and only have more
precise meanings than in everyday speech. Moreover, words such as open and eld have specialized mathematical
meanings. Technical terms such as homeomorphism and integrable have precise meanings in mathematics. Addition-
ally, shorthand phrases such as i for "if and only if" belong to mathematical jargon. There is a reason for special
notation and technical vocabulary: mathematics requires more precision than everyday speech. Mathematicians refer
to this precision of language and logic as rigor.
194 CHAPTER 59. MATHEMATICS

Mathematical proof is fundamentally a matter of rigor. Mathematicians want their theorems to follow from axioms
by means of systematic reasoning. This is to avoid mistaken "theorems", based on fallible intuitions, of which many
instances have occurred in the history of the subject.[45] The level of rigor expected in mathematics has varied over
time: the Greeks expected detailed arguments, but at the time of Isaac Newton the methods employed were less
rigorous. Problems inherent in the denitions used by Newton would lead to a resurgence of careful analysis and
formal proof in the 19th century. Misunderstanding the rigor is a cause for some of the common misconceptions
of mathematics. Today, mathematicians continue to argue among themselves about computer-assisted proofs. Since
large computations are hard to verify, such proofs may not be suciently rigorous.[46]
Axioms in traditional thought were self-evident truths, but that conception is problematic.[47] At a formal level,
an axiom is just a string of symbols, which has an intrinsic meaning only in the context of all derivable formulas
of an axiomatic system. It was the goal of Hilberts program to put all of mathematics on a rm axiomatic basis,
but according to Gdels incompleteness theorem every (suciently powerful) axiomatic system has undecidable
formulas; and so a nal axiomatization of mathematics is impossible. Nonetheless mathematics is often imagined to
be (as far as its formal content) nothing but set theory in some axiomatization, in the sense that every mathematical
statement or proof could be cast into formulas within set theory.[48]

59.5 Fields of mathematics

See also: Areas of mathematics and Glossary of areas of mathematics
Mathematics can, broadly speaking, be subdivided into the study of quantity, structure, space, and change (i.e.

An abacus, a simple calculating tool used since ancient times

arithmetic, algebra, geometry, and analysis). In addition to these main concerns, there are also subdivisions dedicated
to exploring links from the heart of mathematics to other elds: to logic, to set theory (foundations), to the empirical
mathematics of the various sciences (applied mathematics), and more recently to the rigorous study of uncertainty.
While some areas might seem unrelated, the Langlands program has found connections between areas previously
thought unconnected, such as Galois groups, Riemann surfaces and number theory.

59.5.1 Foundations and philosophy

In order to clarify the foundations of mathematics, the elds of mathematical logic and set theory were developed.
Mathematical logic includes the mathematical study of logic and the applications of formal logic to other areas of
mathematics; set theory is the branch of mathematics that studies sets or collections of objects. Category theory,
59.5. FIELDS OF MATHEMATICS 195

which deals in an abstract way with mathematical structures and relationships between them, is still in development.
The phrase crisis of foundations describes the search for a rigorous foundation for mathematics that took place from
approximately 1900 to 1930.[49] Some disagreement about the foundations of mathematics continues to the present
day. The crisis of foundations was stimulated by a number of controversies at the time, including the controversy
over Cantors set theory and the BrouwerHilbert controversy.
Mathematical logic is concerned with setting mathematics within a rigorous axiomatic framework, and studying the
implications of such a framework. As such, it is home to Gdels incompleteness theorems which (informally) imply
that any eective formal system that contains basic arithmetic, if sound (meaning that all theorems that can be proved
are true), is necessarily incomplete (meaning that there are true theorems which cannot be proved in that system).
Whatever nite collection of number-theoretical axioms is taken as a foundation, Gdel showed how to construct a
formal statement that is a true number-theoretical fact, but which does not follow from those axioms. Therefore, no
formal system is a complete axiomatization of full number theory. Modern logic is divided into recursion theory,
model theory, and proof theory, and is closely linked to theoretical computer science, as well as to category theory.
In the context of recursion theory, the impossibility of a full axiomatization of number theory can also be formally
demonstrated as a consequence of the MRDP theorem.
Theoretical computer science includes computability theory, computational complexity theory, and information the-
ory. Computability theory examines the limitations of various theoretical models of the computer, including the most
well-known model the Turing machine. Complexity theory is the study of tractability by computer; some problems,
although theoretically solvable by computer, are so expensive in terms of time or space that solving them is likely to
remain practically unfeasible, even with the rapid advancement of computer hardware. A famous problem is the "P =
NP?" problem, one of the Millennium Prize Problems.[50] Finally, information theory is concerned with the amount
of data that can be stored on a given medium, and hence deals with concepts such as compression and entropy.

59.5.2 Pure mathematics

Quantity

Main article: Arithmetic

The study of quantity starts with numbers, rst the familiar natural numbers and integers (whole numbers) and
arithmetical operations on them, which are characterized in arithmetic. The deeper properties of integers are studied
in number theory, from which come such popular results as Fermats Last Theorem. The twin prime conjecture and
Goldbachs conjecture are two unsolved problems in number theory.
As the number system is further developed, the integers are recognized as a subset of the rational numbers ("fractions").
These, in turn, are contained within the real numbers, which are used to represent continuous quantities. Real num-
bers are generalized to complex numbers. These are the rst steps of a hierarchy of numbers that goes on to include
quaternions and octonions. Consideration of the natural numbers also leads to the transnite numbers, which for-
malize the concept of "innity". According to the fundamental theorem of algebra all solutions of equations in one
unknown with complex coecients are complex numbers, regardless of degree. Another area of study is the size
of sets, which is described with the cardinal numbers. These include the aleph numbers, which allow meaningful
comparison of the size of innitely large sets.

Structure

Main article: Algebra

Many mathematical objects, such as sets of numbers and functions, exhibit internal structure as a consequence of
operations or relations that are dened on the set. Mathematics then studies properties of those sets that can be
expressed in terms of that structure; for instance number theory studies properties of the set of integers that can be
expressed in terms of arithmetic operations. Moreover, it frequently happens that dierent such structured sets (or
196 CHAPTER 59. MATHEMATICS

structures) exhibit similar properties, which makes it possible, by a further step of abstraction, to state axioms for a
class of structures, and then study at once the whole class of structures satisfying these axioms. Thus one can study
groups, rings, elds and other abstract systems; together such studies (for structures dened by algebraic operations)
constitute the domain of abstract algebra.
By its great generality, abstract algebra can often be applied to seemingly unrelated problems; for instance a num-
ber of ancient problems concerning compass and straightedge constructions were nally solved using Galois theory,
which involves eld theory and group theory. Another example of an algebraic theory is linear algebra, which is
the general study of vector spaces, whose elements called vectors have both quantity and direction, and can be used
to model (relations between) points in space. This is one example of the phenomenon that the originally unrelated
areas of geometry and algebra have very strong interactions in modern mathematics. Combinatorics studies ways of
enumerating the number of objects that t a given structure.

Space

Main article: Geometry

The study of space originates with geometry in particular, Euclidean geometry, which combines space and numbers,
and encompasses the well-known Pythagorean theorem. Trigonometry is the branch of mathematics that deals with
relationships between the sides and the angles of triangles and with the trigonometric functions. The modern study
of space generalizes these ideas to include higher-dimensional geometry, non-Euclidean geometries (which play a
central role in general relativity) and topology. Quantity and space both play a role in analytic geometry, dierential
geometry, and algebraic geometry. Convex and discrete geometry were developed to solve problems in number theory
and functional analysis but now are pursued with an eye on applications in optimization and computer science. Within
dierential geometry are the concepts of ber bundles and calculus on manifolds, in particular, vector and tensor
calculus. Within algebraic geometry is the description of geometric objects as solution sets of polynomial equations,
combining the concepts of quantity and space, and also the study of topological groups, which combine structure and
space. Lie groups are used to study space, structure, and change. Topology in all its many ramications may have been
the greatest growth area in 20th-century mathematics; it includes point-set topology, set-theoretic topology, algebraic
topology and dierential topology. In particular, instances of modern-day topology are metrizability theory, axiomatic
set theory, homotopy theory, and Morse theory. Topology also includes the now solved Poincar conjecture, and the
still unsolved areas of the Hodge conjecture. Other results in geometry and topology, including the four color theorem
and Kepler conjecture, have been proved only with the help of computers.

Change

Main article: Calculus

Understanding and describing change is a common theme in the natural sciences, and calculus was developed as a
powerful tool to investigate it. Functions arise here, as a central concept describing a changing quantity. The rigorous
study of real numbers and functions of a real variable is known as real analysis, with complex analysis the equivalent
eld for the complex numbers. Functional analysis focuses attention on (typically innite-dimensional) spaces of
functions. One of many applications of functional analysis is quantum mechanics. Many problems lead naturally
to relationships between a quantity and its rate of change, and these are studied as dierential equations. Many
phenomena in nature can be described by dynamical systems; chaos theory makes precise the ways in which many of
these systems exhibit unpredictable yet still deterministic behavior.

59.5.3 Applied mathematics

Main article: Applied mathematics

59.6. MATHEMATICAL AWARDS 197

Applied mathematics concerns itself with mathematical methods that are typically used in science, engineering, busi-
ness, and industry. Thus, applied mathematics is a mathematical science with specialized knowledge. The term
applied mathematics also describes the professional specialty in which mathematicians work on practical problems;
as a profession focused on practical problems, applied mathematics focuses on the formulation, study, and use of
mathematical models in science, engineering, and other areas of mathematical practice.
In the past, practical applications have motivated the development of mathematical theories, which then became the
subject of study in pure mathematics, where mathematics is developed primarily for its own sake. Thus, the activity
of applied mathematics is vitally connected with research in pure mathematics.

Statistics and other decision sciences

Main article: Statistics

Applied mathematics has signicant overlap with the discipline of statistics, whose theory is formulated mathemati-
cally, especially with probability theory. Statisticians (working as part of a research project) create data that makes
sense with random sampling and with randomized experiments;[51] the design of a statistical sample or experiment
species the analysis of the data (before the data be available). When reconsidering data from experiments and
samples or when analyzing data from observational studies, statisticians make sense of the data using the art of
modelling and the theory of inference with model selection and estimation; the estimated models and consequential
predictions should be tested on new data.[lower-alpha 2]
Statistical theory studies decision problems such as minimizing the risk (expected loss) of a statistical action, such as
using a procedure in, for example, parameter estimation, hypothesis testing, and selecting the best. In these traditional
areas of mathematical statistics, a statistical-decision problem is formulated by minimizing an objective function, like
expected loss or cost, under specic constraints: For example, designing a survey often involves minimizing the
cost of estimating a population mean with a given level of condence.[52] Because of its use of optimization, the
mathematical theory of statistics shares concerns with other decision sciences, such as operations research, control
theory, and mathematical economics.[53]

Computational mathematics

Computational mathematics proposes and studies methods for solving mathematical problems that are typically too
large for human numerical capacity. Numerical analysis studies methods for problems in analysis using functional
analysis and approximation theory; numerical analysis includes the study of approximation and discretization broadly
with special concern for rounding errors. Numerical analysis and, more broadly, scientic computing also study non-
analytic topics of mathematical science, especially algorithmic matrix and graph theory. Other areas of computational
mathematics include computer algebra and symbolic computation.

59.6 Mathematical awards

Arguably the most prestigious award in mathematics is the Fields Medal,[54][55] established in 1936 and awarded
every four years (except around World War II) to as many as four individuals. The Fields Medal is often considered
a mathematical equivalent to the Nobel Prize.
The Wolf Prize in Mathematics, instituted in 1978, recognizes lifetime achievement, and another major international
award, the Abel Prize, was instituted in 2003. The Chern Medal was introduced in 2010 to recognize lifetime
achievement. These accolades are awarded in recognition of a particular body of work, which may be innovational,
or provide a solution to an outstanding problem in an established eld.
A famous list of 23 open problems, called "Hilberts problems", was compiled in 1900 by German mathematician
David Hilbert. This list achieved great celebrity among mathematicians, and at least nine of the problems have now
been solved. A new list of seven important problems, titled the "Millennium Prize Problems", was published in 2000.
A solution to each of these problems carries a $1 million reward, and only one (the Riemann hypothesis) is duplicated
in Hilberts problems.
198 CHAPTER 59. MATHEMATICS

59.7 See also

Philosophy of mathematics
Lists of mathematics topics
Mathematics and art
Mathematics education
National Museum of Mathematics
Relationship between mathematics and physics
Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics

59.8 Notes
[1] No likeness or description of Euclids physical appearance made during his lifetime survived antiquity. Therefore, Euclids
depiction in works of art depends on the artists imagination (see Euclid).

[2] Like other mathematical sciences such as physics and computer science, statistics is an autonomous discipline rather than
a branch of applied mathematics. Like research physicists and computer scientists, research statisticians are mathematical
scientists. Many statisticians have a degree in mathematics, and some statisticians are also mathematicians.

59.9 Footnotes
[1] mathematics, n.". Oxford English Dictionary. Oxford University Press. 2012. Retrieved June 16, 2012. The science
of space, number, quantity, and arrangement, whose methods involve logical reasoning and usually the use of symbolic
notation, and which includes geometry, arithmetic, algebra, and analysis.

[2] Kneebone, G.T. (1963). Mathematical Logic and the Foundations of Mathematics: An Introductory Survey. Dover. pp. 4.
ISBN 0-486-41712-3. Mathematics ... is simply the study of abstract structures, or formal patterns of connectedness.

[3] LaTorre, Donald R.; Kenelly, John W.; Biggers, Sherry S.; Carpenter, Laurel R.; Reed, Iris B.; Harris, Cynthia R. (2011).
Calculus Concepts: An Informal Approach to the Mathematics of Change. Cengage Learning. p. 2. ISBN 1-4390-4957-2.
Calculus is the study of changehow things change, and how quickly they change.

[4] Ramana (2007). Applied Mathematics. Tata McGrawHill Education. p. 2.10. ISBN 0-07-066753-5. The mathematical
study of change, motion, growth or decay is calculus.

[5] Ziegler, Gnter M. (2011). What Is Mathematics?". An Invitation to Mathematics: From Competitions to Research.
Springer. p. 7. ISBN 3-642-19532-6.

[6] Mura, Roberta (Dec 1993). Images of Mathematics Held by University Teachers of Mathematical Sciences. Educational
Studies in Mathematics. 25 (4): 37585.

[7] Tobies, Renate & Helmut Neunzert (2012). Iris Runge: A Life at the Crossroads of Mathematics, Science, and Industry.
Springer. p. 9. ISBN 3-0348-0229-3. It is rst necessary to ask what is meant by mathematics in general. Illustrious
scholars have debated this matter until they were blue in the face, and yet no consensus has been reached about whether
mathematics is a natural science, a branch of the humanities, or an art form.

[8] Steen, L.A. (April 29, 1988). The Science of Patterns Science, 240: 61116. And summarized at Association for Super-
vision and Curriculum Development, www.ascd.org.

[9] Devlin, Keith, Mathematics: The Science of Patterns: The Search for Order in Life, Mind and the Universe (Scientic
American Paperback Library) 1996, ISBN 978-0-7167-5047-5

[10] Eves

[11] Marcus du Sautoy, A Brief History of Mathematics: 1. Newton and Leibniz, BBC Radio 4, September 27, 2010.

[12] Waltershausen

[13] Peirce, p. 97.

59.9. FOOTNOTES 199

[14] Hilbert, D. (191920), Natur und Mathematisches Erkennen: Vorlesungen, gehalten 19191920 in Gttingen. Nach der
Ausarbeitung von Paul Bernays (Edited and with an English introduction by David E. Rowe), Basel, Birkhuser (1992).

[15] Einstein, p. 28. The quote is Einsteins answer to the question: how can it be that mathematics, being after all a product
of human thought which is independent of experience, is so admirably appropriate to the objects of reality?" He, too, is
concerned with The Unreasonable Eectiveness of Mathematics in the Natural Sciences.

[16] Peterson

[17] Dehaene, Stanislas; Dehaene-Lambertz, Ghislaine; Cohen, Laurent (Aug 1998). Abstract representations of numbers in
the animal and human brain. Trends in Neuroscience. 21 (8): 35561. PMID 9720604. doi:10.1016/S0166-2236(98)01263-
6.

[18] See, for example, Raymond L. Wilder, Evolution of Mathematical Concepts; an Elementary Study, passim

[19] Kline 1990, Chapter 1.

[20] "A History of Greek Mathematics: From Thales to Euclid". Thomas Little Heath (1981). ISBN 0-486-24073-8

[21] Sevryuk 2006, pp. 10109.

[22] mathematic. Online Etymology Dictionary.

[23] Both senses can be found in Plato. . Liddell, Henry George; Scott, Robert; A GreekEnglish Lexicon at the
Perseus Project

[24] Cipra, Barry A. (1982). St. Augustine v. The Mathematicians. osu.edu. Ohio State University Mathematics department.
Archived from the original on July 16, 2014. Retrieved July 14, 2014.

[25] The Oxford Dictionary of English Etymology, Oxford English Dictionary, sub mathematics, mathematic, mathematics

[26] maths, n." and math, n.3". Oxford English Dictionary, on-line version (2012).

[27] James Franklin, Aristotelian Realism in Philosophy of Mathematics, ed. A.D. Irvine, p. 104. Elsevier (2009).

[28] Cajori, Florian (1893). A History of Mathematics. American Mathematical Society (1991 reprint). pp. 28586. ISBN
0-8218-2102-4.

[29] Snapper, Ernst (September 1979). The Three Crises in Mathematics: Logicism, Intuitionism, and Formalism. Mathe-
matics Magazine. 52 (4): 20716. JSTOR 2689412. doi:10.2307/2689412.

[30] Peirce, Benjamin (1882). Linear Associative Algebra. p. 1.

[31] Bertrand Russell, The Principles of Mathematics, p. 5. University Press, Cambridge (1903)

[32] Curry, Haskell (1951). Outlines of a Formalist Philosophy of Mathematics. Elsevier. p. 56. ISBN 0-444-53368-0.

[33] Marcus du Sautoy, A Brief History of Mathematics: 10. Nicolas Bourbaki, BBC Radio 4, October 1, 2010.

[34] Shasha, Dennis Elliot; Lazere, Cathy A. (1998). Out of Their Minds: The Lives and Discoveries of 15 Great Computer
Scientists. Springer. p. 228.

[35] Popper 1995, p. 56

[36] Ziman

[37] Johnson, Gerald W.; Lapidus, Michel L. (2002). The Feynman Integral and Feynmans Operational Calculus. Oxford
University Press. ISBN 0-8218-2413-9.

[38] Wigner, Eugene (1960). The Unreasonable Eectiveness of Mathematics in the Natural Sciences. Communications on
Pure and Applied Mathematics. 13 (1): 114. doi:10.1002/cpa.3160130102.

[39] Mathematics Subject Classication 2010 (PDF). Retrieved November 9, 2010.

[40] Hardy, G.H. (1940). A Mathematicians Apology. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-42706-1.

[41] Gold, Bonnie; Simons, Rogers A. (2008). Proof and Other Dilemmas: Mathematics and Philosophy. MAA.

[42] Aigner, Martin; Ziegler, Gnter M. (2001). Proofs from The Book. Springer. ISBN 3-540-40460-0.

[43] Earliest Uses of Various Mathematical Symbols. Retrieved September 14, 2014.
200 CHAPTER 59. MATHEMATICS

[44] Kline, p. 140, on Diophantus; p. 261, on Vieta.

[45] See false proof for simple examples of what can go wrong in a formal proof.

[46] Ivars Peterson, The Mathematical Tourist, Freeman, 1988, ISBN 0-7167-1953-3. p. 4 A few complain that the computer
program can't be veried properly, (in reference to the HakenApple proof of the Four Color Theorem).

[47] The method of 'postulating' what we want has many advantages; they are the same as the advantages of theft over honest
toil. Bertrand Russell (1919), Introduction to Mathematical Philosophy, New York and London, p. 71.

[48] Patrick Suppes, Axiomatic Set Theory, Dover, 1972, ISBN 0-486-61630-4. p. 1, Among the many branches of modern
mathematics set theory occupies a unique place: with a few rare exceptions the entities which are studied and analyzed in
mathematics may be regarded as certain particular sets or classes of objects.

[49] Luke Howard Hodgkin & Luke Hodgkin, A History of Mathematics, Oxford University Press, 2005.

[50] Clay Mathematics Institute, P=NP, claymath.org

[51] Rao, C.R. (1997) Statistics and Truth: Putting Chance to Work, World Scientic. ISBN 981-02-3111-3

[52] Rao, C.R. (1981). Foreword. In Arthanari, T.S.; Dodge, Yadolah. Mathematical programming in statistics. Wiley Series
in Probability and Mathematical Statistics. New York: Wiley. pp. viiviii. ISBN 0-471-08073-X. MR 607328.

[53] Whittle (1994, pp. 1011 and 1418): Whittle, Peter (1994). Almost home. In Kelly, F.P. Probability, statistics and
optimisation: A Tribute to Peter Whittle (previously A realised path: The Cambridge Statistical Laboratory upto 1993
(revised 2002)" ed.). Chichester: John Wiley. pp. 128. ISBN 0-471-94829-2.

[54] Monastyrsky 2001: "The Fields Medal is now indisputably the best known and most inuential award in mathematics."

[55] Riehm 2002, pp. 77882.

59.10 References
Courant, Richard and H. Robbins, What Is Mathematics? : An Elementary Approach to Ideas and Methods,
Oxford University Press, USA; 2 edition (July 18, 1996). ISBN 0-19-510519-2.

Einstein, Albert (1923). Sidelights on Relativity: I. Ether and relativity. II. Geometry and experience (translated
by G.B. Jeery, D.Sc., and W. Perrett, Ph.D). E.P. Dutton & Co., New York.

du Sautoy, Marcus, A Brief History of Mathematics, BBC Radio 4 (2010).

Eves, Howard, An Introduction to the History of Mathematics, Sixth Edition, Saunders, 1990, ISBN 0-03-
029558-0.

Kline, Morris, Mathematical Thought from Ancient to Modern Times, Oxford University Press, USA; Paperback
edition (March 1, 1990). ISBN 0-19-506135-7.

Monastyrsky, Michael (2001). Some Trends in Modern Mathematics and the Fields Medal (PDF). Canadian
Mathematical Society. Retrieved July 28, 2006.

Oxford English Dictionary, second edition, ed. John Simpson and Edmund Weiner, Clarendon Press, 1989,
ISBN 0-19-861186-2.

The Oxford Dictionary of English Etymology, 1983 reprint. ISBN 0-19-861112-9.

Pappas, Theoni, The Joy Of Mathematics, Wide World Publishing; Revised edition (June 1989). ISBN 0-
933174-65-9.

Peirce, Benjamin (1881). Peirce, Charles Sanders, ed. Linear associative algebra. American Journal of
Mathematics (Corrected, expanded, and annotated revision with an 1875 paper by B. Peirce and annotations
by his son, C.S. Peirce, of the 1872 lithograph ed.). Johns Hopkins University. 4 (14): 97229. JSTOR
2369153. doi:10.2307/2369153. Corrected, expanded, and annotated revision with an 1875 paper by B.
Peirce and annotations by his son, C. S. Peirce, of the 1872 lithograph ed. Google Eprint and as an extract, D.
Van Nostrand, 1882, Google Eprint..
59.11. FURTHER READING 201

Peterson, Ivars, Mathematical Tourist, New and Updated Snapshots of Modern Mathematics, Owl Books, 2001,
ISBN 0-8050-7159-8.
Popper, Karl R. (1995). On knowledge. In Search of a Better World: Lectures and Essays from Thirty Years.
Routledge. ISBN 0-415-13548-6.
Riehm, Carl (August 2002). The Early History of the Fields Medal (PDF). Notices of the AMS. AMS. 49
(7): 77872.
Sevryuk, Mikhail B. (January 2006). Book Reviews (PDF). Bulletin of the American Mathematical Society.
43 (1): 10109. doi:10.1090/S0273-0979-05-01069-4. Retrieved June 24, 2006.
Waltershausen, Wolfgang Sartorius von (1965) [rst published 1856]. Gauss zum Gedchtniss. Sndig Reprint
Verlag H. R. Wohlwend. ASIN B0000BN5SQ. ISBN 3-253-01702-8. ASIN 3253017028.

59.11 Further reading

Benson, Donald C., The Moment of Proof: Mathematical Epiphanies, Oxford University Press, USA; New Ed
edition (December 14, 2000). ISBN 0-19-513919-4.
Boyer, Carl B., A History of Mathematics, Wiley; 2nd edition, revised by Uta C. Merzbach, (March 6, 1991).
ISBN 0-471-54397-7. A concise history of mathematics from the Concept of Number to contemporary
Mathematics.
Davis, Philip J. and Hersh, Reuben, The Mathematical Experience. Mariner Books; Reprint edition (January
14, 1999). ISBN 0-395-92968-7.
Gullberg, Jan, Mathematics From the Birth of Numbers. W. W. Norton & Company; 1st edition (October
1997). ISBN 0-393-04002-X.
Hazewinkel, Michiel (ed.), Encyclopaedia of Mathematics. Kluwer Academic Publishers 2000. A translated
and expanded version of a Soviet mathematics encyclopedia, in ten (expensive) volumes, the most complete
and authoritative work available. Also in paperback and on CD-ROM, and online.
Jourdain, Philip E. B., The Nature of Mathematics, in The World of Mathematics, James R. Newman, editor,
Dover Publications, 2003, ISBN 0-486-43268-8.
Maier, Annaliese, At the Threshold of Exact Science: Selected Writings of Annaliese Maier on Late Medieval
Natural Philosophy, edited by Steven Sargent, Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1982.

59.12 External links

Mathematics at Encyclopdia Britannica
Mathematics on In Our Time at the BBC.
Free Mathematics books Free Mathematics books collection.
Encyclopaedia of Mathematics online encyclopaedia from Springer, Graduate-level reference work with over
8,000 entries, illuminating nearly 50,000 notions in mathematics.
HyperMath site at Georgia State University
FreeScience Library The mathematics section of FreeScience library
Rusin, Dave: The Mathematical Atlas. A guided tour through the various branches of modern mathematics.
(Can also be found at NIU.edu.)
Cain, George: Online Mathematics Textbooks available free online.
Tricki, Wiki-style site that is intended to develop into a large store of useful mathematical problem-solving
techniques.
202 CHAPTER 59. MATHEMATICS

Mathematical Structures, list information about classes of mathematical structures.

Mathematician Biographies. The MacTutor History of Mathematics archive Extensive history and quotes from
all famous mathematicians.

Metamath. A site and a language, that formalize mathematics from its foundations.
Nrich, a prize-winning site for students from age ve from Cambridge University

Open Problem Garden, a wiki of open problems in mathematics

Planet Math. An online mathematics encyclopedia under construction, focusing on modern mathematics. Uses
the Attribution-ShareAlike license, allowing article exchange with Wikipedia. Uses TeX markup.
Some mathematics applets, at MIT

Weisstein, Eric et al.: Wolfram MathWorld: World of Mathematics. An online encyclopedia of mathematics.

Patrick Jones Video Tutorials on Mathematics

Citizendium: Theory (mathematics).

du Sautoy, Marcus, A Brief History of Mathematics, BBC Radio 4 (2010).

Maths.SE A Q&A site for mathematics

MathOverow A Q&A site for research-level mathematics

Chapter 60

Metatheorem

This article is about logical statements. For theories about theories, see Metatheory.

In logic, a metatheorem is a statement about a formal system proven in a metalanguage. Unlike theorems proved
within a given formal system, a metatheorem is proved within a metatheory, and may reference concepts that are
present in the metatheory but not the object theory.
A formal system is determined by a formal language and a deductive system (axioms and rules of inference). The
formal system can be used to prove particular sentences of the formal language with that system. Metatheorems,
however, are proved externally to the system in question, in its metatheory. Common metatheories used in logic are
set theory (especially in model theory) and primitive recursive arithmetic (especially in proof theory). Rather than
demonstrating particular sentences to be provable, metatheorems may show that each of a broad class of sentences
can be proved, or show that certain sentences cannot be proved.

60.1 Examples
Examples of metatheorems include:

The deduction theorem for rst-order logic says that a sentence of the form is provable from a set of
axioms A if and only if the sentence is provable from the system whose axioms consist of and all the
axioms of A.
Consistency proofs of systems such as Peano arithmetic.

60.2 See also

Metamathematics
Usemention distinction

60.3 References
Georey Hunter (1969), Metalogic.
Alasdair Urquhart (2002), Metatheory, A companion to philosophical logic, Dale Jacquette (ed.), p. 307

60.4 External links

Meta-theorem at Encyclopaedia of Mathematics

203
204 CHAPTER 60. METATHEOREM

Barile, Margherita. Metatheorem. MathWorld.

Chapter 61

Modulo (jargon)

The word modulo (Latin, with respect to a modulus of ___) is the Latin ablative of modulus which itself means a
small measure. It was introduced into mathematics in the book Disquisitiones Arithmeticae by Carl Friedrich Gauss
in 1801. Ever since, however, modulo has gained many meanings, some exact and some imprecise. Generally, to
say:

A is the same as B modulo C

means

A and B are the same except for dierences accounted for or explained by C.

61.1 Usage
(This usage is from Gausss book.) Given the integers a, b and n, the expression a b (mod n) (pronounced "a
is congruent to b modulo n") means that a b is an integer multiple of n, or equivalently, a and b both leave
the same remainder when divided by n. For more details, see modular arithmetic.

In computing, given two numbers (either integer or real), a and n, a modulo n is the remainder after numerical
division of a by n, under certain constraints. See modulo operation.

Two members a and b of a group are congruent modulo a normal subgroup if and only if ab1 is a member of
the normal subgroup. See quotient group and isomorphism theorem.

Two members of a ring or an algebra are congruent modulo an ideal if the dierence between them is in the
ideal.

Used as a verb, the act of factoring out a normal subgroup (or an ideal) from a group (or ring) is often
called "modding out the... or we now mod out the....

Two subsets of an innite set are equal modulo nite sets precisely if their symmetric dierence is nite, that
is, you can remove a nite piece from the rst subset, then add a nite piece to it, and get as result the second
subset.

A short exact sequence of maps leads to the denition of a quotient space as being one space modulo another;
thus, for example, that a cohomology is the space of closed forms modulo exact forms.

The most general precise denition is simply in terms of an equivalence relation R. We say that a is equivalent
or congruent to b modulo R if aRb.

Generally, modding out is a somewhat informal term that means declaring things equivalent that otherwise
would be considered distinct. For example, suppose the sequence 1 4 2 8 5 7 is to be regarded as the same as
the sequence 7 1 4 2 8 5 because each is a cyclicly shifted version of the other:

205
206 CHAPTER 61. MODULO (JARGON)

1 4 2 8 5 7

7 1 4 2 8 5

In that case one is modding out by cyclic shifts."

Operating modulo is special jargon in Category theory as applied to functional programming, in the sense of
mapping a functor to a category by highlighting or dening remainders.[1]

61.2 Example
Using Gausss denition

13 is congruent to 63 modulo 10

to mean

13 and 63 dier by a multiple of 10

However, the word modulo has acquired several related denitions with time, many of which have become integrated
into popular mathematical jargon.

61.3 See also

Up to

61.4 External links

Modulo in the Jargon File

61.5 References
[1] p. 22, Category Theory for Computing Science, Barr and Wells
Chapter 62

''N''-topological space

In mathematics, an N-topological space is a set equipped with N arbitrary topologies. If 1 , 2 , ..., N are N
topologies dened on a nonempty set X, then the N-topological space is denoted by (X,1 ,2 ,...,N). For N = 1, the
structure is simply a topological space. For N = 2, the structure becomes a bitopological space introduced by J. C.
Kelly.[1]

62.1 Example
Let X = {x1 , x2 , ...., xn} be any nite set. Suppose Ar = {x1 , x2 , ..., xr}. Then the collection 1 = {, A1 , A2 , ...,
An = X} will be a topology on X. If 1 , 2 , ..., m be m such topologies (chain topologies) dened on X, then the
structure (X, 1 , 2 , ..., m) is an m-topological space.

62.2 References
[1] Kelly, J. C. (1963). Bitopological spaces. Proc. London Math. Soc. 13 (3): 7189. doi:10.1112/plms/s3-13.1.71.

207
Chapter 63

Necessity and suciency

This article is about the formal terminology in logic. For causal meanings of the terms, see Causality. For the con-
cepts in statistics, see Sucient statistic.

In logic, necessity and suciency are implicational relationships between statements.

The assertion that one statement is a necessary and sucient condition of another means that the former statement is
true if and only if the latter is true. That is, the two statements must be either simultaneously true or simultaneously
false.[1][2][3]
In ordinary English, necessary and sucient indicate relations between conditions or states of aairs, not state-
ments. Being a male sibling is a necessary and sucient condition for being a brother.

63.1 Denitions
In the conditional statement, if S, then N", the expression represented by S is called the antecedent and the expression
represented by N is called the consequent. This conditional statement may be written in many equivalent ways, for
instance, "N if S", "S implies N", "S only if N", "N is implied by S", S N, or "N whenever S".[4]
In the above situation, we also say that N is a necessary condition for S. In common language this is saying that if
the conditional statement is a true statement, then the consequent N must be true if S may at all be true (see "truth
table" immediately below). Phrased dierently, the antecedent S can not be true without N being true. For example,
in order for someone to be called Socrates, it is necessary for that someone to be Named.
We also say that S is a sucient condition for N. Consider the truth table again. If the conditional statement is true,
then if S is true, N must be true. In common terms, "S" guarantees N". Continuing the example, knowing that
someone is called Socrates is sucient to know that that someone has a Name.
A necessary and sucient condition requires that both of the implications S N and N S (which can also be
written as S N) hold. From the rst of these we see that S is a sucient condition for N, and from the second that
S is a necessary condition for N. This is expressed as "S is necessary and sucient for N ", "S if and only if N ", or S
N.

63.2 Necessity
The assertion that Q is necessary for P is colloquially equivalent to "P cannot be true unless Q is true or if Q is
false, then P is false. By contraposition, this is the same thing as whenever P is true, so is Q". The logical relation
between them is expressed as if P, then Q" and denoted "P Q" (P implies Q). It may also be expressed as any
of "P only if Q", "Q, if P", "Q whenever P", and "Q when P". One often nds, in mathematical prose for instance,
several necessary conditions that, taken together, constitute a sucient condition, as shown in Example 5.

Example 1 For it to be true that John is a bachelor, it is necessary that it be also true that he is

208
63.2. NECESSITY 209

The sun being above the horizon is a necessary condition for direct sunlight; but it is not a sucient condition, as something else may
be casting a shadow, e.g., the moon in the case of an eclipse.

1. unmarried,
2. male,
3. adult,
since to state John is a bachelor implies John has each of those three additional predicates.

Example 2 For the whole numbers greater than two, being odd is necessary to being prime, since two is the only
whole number that is both even and prime.

Example 3 Consider thunder, the sound caused by lightning. We say that thunder is necessary for lightning, since
lightning never occurs without thunder. Whenever theres lightning, theres thunder. The thunder does not
cause the lightning (since lightning causes thunder), but because lightning always comes with thunder, we say
that thunder is necessary for lightning. (That is, in its formal sense, necessity doesn't imply causality.)

Example 4 Being at least 30 years old is necessary for serving in the U.S. Senate. If you are under 30 years old, then
it is impossible for you to be a senator. That is, if you are a senator, it follows that you are at least 30 years old.

Example 5 In algebra, for some set S together with an operation to form a group, it is necessary that be associative.
It is also necessary that S include a special element e such that for every x in S it is the case that e x and x e
210 CHAPTER 63. NECESSITY AND SUFFICIENCY

both equal x. It is also necessary that for every x in S there exist a corresponding element x such that both x
x " and x" x equal the special element e. None of these three necessary conditions by itself is sucient, but
the conjunction of the three is.

63.3 Suciency

That a train runs on schedule can be a sucient condition for arriving on time (if one boards the train and it departs on time, then
one will arrive on time); but it is not always a necessary condition, since there are other ways to travel (if the train does not run to
time, one could still arrive on time through other means of transport).

If P is sucient for Q, then knowing P to be true is adequate grounds to conclude that Q is true; however, knowing
P to be false does not meet a minimal need to conclude that Q is false.
The logical relation is expressed as if P, then Q" or "P Q". This can also be expressed as "P only if Q" or "P
implies Q". Several sucient conditions may, taken together, constitute a single necessary condition, as illustrated in
example 5.

Example 1 John is a king implies that John is male. So knowing that it is true that John is a king is sucient to
know that he is a male.

Example 2 A numbers being divisible by 4 is sucient (but not necessary) for its being even, but being divisible by
2 is both sucient and necessary.

Example 3 An occurrence of thunder is a sucient condition for the occurrence of lightning in the sense that hearing
thunder, and unambiguously recognizing it as such, justies concluding that there has been a lightning bolt.

Example 4 If the U.S. Congress passes a bill, the presidents signature of the bill is sucient to make it law. Note
that the case whereby the president did not sign the bill, e.g. through exercising a presidential veto, does not
mean that the bill has not become law (it could still have become law through a congressional override).

Example 5 That the center of a playing card should be marked with a single large spade () is sucient for the card
to be an ace. Three other sucient conditions are that the center of the card be marked with a diamond (),
63.4. RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN NECESSITY AND SUFFICIENCY 211

heart (), or club (), respectively. None of these conditions is necessary to the cards being an ace, but their
disjunction is, since no card can be an ace without fullling at least (in fact, exactly) one of the conditions.

63.4 Relationship between necessity and suciency

A AB B

Being in the purple region is sucient for being in A, but not necessary. Being in A is necessary for being in the purple region, but
not sucient. Being in A and being in B is necessary and sucient for being in the purple region.

A condition can be either necessary or sucient without being the other. For instance, being a mammal (N) is
necessary but not sucient to being human (S), and that a number x is rational (S) is sucient but not necessary to
x being a real number (N) (since there are real numbers that are not rational).
A condition can be both necessary and sucient. For example, at present, today is the Fourth of July" is a necessary
and sucient condition for today is Independence Day in the United States". Similarly, a necessary and sucient
condition for invertibility of a matrix M is that M has a nonzero determinant.
Mathematically speaking, necessity and suciency are dual to one another. For any statements S and N, the assertion
that "N is necessary for S" is equivalent to the assertion that "S is sucient for N". Another facet of this duality is that,
as illustrated above, conjunctions (using and) of necessary conditions may achieve suciency, while disjunctions
(using or) of sucient conditions may achieve necessity. For a third facet, identify every mathematical predicate
N with the set T(N) of objects, events, or statements for which N holds true; then asserting the necessity of N for
S is equivalent to claiming that T(N) is a superset of T(S), while asserting the suciency of S for N is equivalent to
claiming that T(S) is a subset of T(N).

63.5 Simultaneous necessity and suciency

See also: Material equivalence

To say that P is necessary and sucient for Q is to say two things:

1. that P is necessary for Q, P Q , and that P is sucient for Q, P Q .

212 CHAPTER 63. NECESSITY AND SUFFICIENCY

2. equivalently, it may be understood to say that P and Q is necessary for the other, P Q Q P , which
can also be stated as
each is sucient for or implies the other.

One may summarize any, and thus all, of these cases by the statement "P if and only if Q", which is denoted by
P Q , whereas cases tell us that P Q is identical to P Q Q P .
For example, in graph theory a graph G is called bipartite if it is possible to assign to each of its vertices the color
black or white in such a way that every edge of G has one endpoint of each color. And for any graph to be bipartite, it
is a necessary and sucient condition that it contain no odd-length cycles. Thus, discovering whether a graph has any
odd cycles tells one whether it is bipartite and conversely. A philosopher[5] might characterize this state of aairs thus:
Although the concepts of bipartiteness and absence of odd cycles dier in intension, they have identical extension.[6]
In mathematics, theorems are often stated in the form "P is true if and only if Q is true. Their proofs normally rst
prove suciency, e.g. P Q . Secondly, the opposite is proven, Q P

1. either directly, assuming Q is true and demonstrating that the Q circle is located within P, or
2. contrapositively, that is demonstrating that stepping outside circle of P, we fall out the Q: assuming not P, not
Q results.

This proves that the circles for Q and P match on the Venn diagrams above.
Because, as explained in previous section, necessity of one for the other is equivalent to suciency of the other for
the rst one, e.g. P Q is equivalent to Q P , if P is necessary and sucient for Q, then Q is necessary and
sucient for P. We can write P Q Q P and say that the statements "P is true if and only if Q, is true and
"Q is true if and only if P is true are equivalent.

63.6 See also

Causality
Material implication (disambiguation)
Wason selection task
Closed concept

63.6.1 Argument forms involving necessary and sucient conditions

Valid forms of argument

Modus ponens
Modus tollens

Invalid forms of argument (i.e., fallacies)

Arming the consequent

Denying the antecedent

63.7 References
[1] Betz, Frederick (2011). Managing Science: Methodology and Organization of Research. New York: Springer. p. 247.
ISBN 978-1-4419-7487-7.

[2] Manktelow, K.I. (1999). Reasoning and Thinking. East Sussex, UK: Psychology Press. ISBN 0-86377-708-2.
63.8. EXTERNAL LINKS 213

[3] Asnina, Erika; Osis, Janis & Jansone, Asnate (2013). Formal Specication of Topological Relations. Databases and
Information Systems VII: 175. doi:10.3233/978-1-61499-161-8-175.

[4] Devlin, Keith (2004), Sets, Functions and Logic / An Introduction to Abstract Mathematics (3rd ed.), Chapman & Hall, pp.
2223, ISBN 978-1-58488-449-1

[5] Stanford University primer, 2006.

[6] Meanings, in this sense, are often called intensions, and things designated, extensions. Contexts in which extension is all
that matters are, naturally, called extensional, while contexts in which extension is not enough are intensional. Mathematics
is typically extensional throughout. Stanford University primer, 2006.

63.8 External links

Critical thinking web tutorial: Necessary and Sucient Conditions

Simon Fraser University: Concepts with examples

Chapter 64

Null (mathematics)

For other uses, see Null (disambiguation).

In mathematics, the word null (from German: null meaning zero, which is from Latin: nullus meaning none)[1]
means of or related to having zero members in a set or a value of zero. Sometimes the symbol is used to distinguish
null from 0. 0 is sometimes called Aleph null.
In a normed vector space the null vector is the zero vector; in a seminormed vector space such as Minkowski space,
null vectors are, in general, non-zero. In set theory, the null set is the set with zero elements; and in measure theory,
a null set is a set with zero measure.
A null space of a mapping is the part of the domain that is mapped into the null element of the image (the inverse
image of the null element).
In statistics, a null hypothesis is a proposition presumed true unless statistical evidence indicates otherwise.

64.1 References
[1] ""null"". The Oxford English Dictionary, Draft Revision March 2004. 2004. Retrieved 2007-04-05.

214
Chapter 65

Order (mathematics)

For order in other disciplines, see Order (disambiguation).

Order in mathematics may refer to:

65.1 Algebra
Order (group theory), the cardinality of a group or period of an element

Order of a polynomial (disambiguation)

Order of a square matrix, its dimension

Order (ring theory), an algebraic structure

Ordered group

Ordered eld

65.2 Analysis
Order (dierential equation) or order of highest derivative, of a dierential equation

Leading-order terms

NURBS order, a number one greater than the degree of the polynomial representation of a non-uniform rational
B-spline

Order of convergence, a measurement of convergence

Order of derivation

Order of an entire function

Order of a power series, the lowest degree of its terms

Ordered list, a sequence or tuple

Orders of approximation in Big O notation

Z-order (curve), a space-lling curve

215
216 CHAPTER 65. ORDER (MATHEMATICS)

65.3 Arithmetic
Multiplicative order in modular arithmetic
Order of operations
Orders of magnitude, a class of scale or magnitude of any amount

65.4 Combinatorics
Order in the Josephus permutation
Ordered selections and partitions of the twelvefold way in combinatorics
Ordered set, a bijection, cyclic order, or permutation
Unordered subset or combination
Weak order of permutations

65.5 Fractals
Complexor, or complex order in fractals
Order of extension in Lakes of Wada
Order of fractal dimension (Rnyi dimensions)
Orders of construction in the Pythagoras tree

65.6 Geometry
Long-range aperiodic order, in pinwheel tiling, for instance

65.7 Graphs
Graph order, the number of nodes in a graph
First order and second order logic of graphs
Topological ordering of directed acyclic graphs
Degeneracy ordering of undirected graphs
Elimination ordering of chordal graphs
Order, the complexity of a structure within a graph: see haven (graph theory) and bramble (graph theory)

65.8 Logic
In logic, model theory and type theory:

Zeroth-order logic
First-order logic
Second-order logic
Higher-order logic
65.9. ORDER THEORY 217

65.9 Order theory

Order (journal), an academic journal on order theory

Dense order, a total order wherein between any unequal pair of elements there is always an intervening element
in the order

Glossary of order theory

Lexicographical order, an ordering method on sequences analogous to alphabetical order on words

List of order topics, list of order theory topics

Order theory, study of various binary relations known as orders

Order topology, a topology of total order for totally ordered sets

Ordinal numbers, numbers assigned to sets based on their set-theoretic order

Partial order, often called just order in order theory texts, a transitive antisymmetric relation

Total order, a partial order that is also total, in that either the relation or its inverse holds between any unequal
elements

65.10 Set theory

In set theory:

Ordered set

Order in Ramsey theory, uniform structures in consequence to critical set cardinality

65.11 Statistics
First-order statistics, e.g., arithmetic mean, median, quantiles
Second-order statistics, e.g., correlation, power spectrum, variance

Higher-order statistics, e.g., bispectrum, kurtosis, skewness

Chapter 66

Orthomorphism

In abstract algebra, an orthomorphism is a certain kind of mapping from a group into itself. Let G be a group, and
let be a permutation of G. Then is an orthomorphism of G if the mapping f dened by f(x) = x1 (x) is also a
permutation of G. A permutation of G is a complete mapping if the mapping g dened by g(x) = x(x) is also a
permutation of G.[1] Orthomorphisms and complete mappings are closely related. [2]

66.1 References
[1] Orthomorphism Mathworld

[2] Denes, J.; Keedwell, A.D. (1974), Latin Squares and their Applications, Academic Press, p. 232, ISBN 0-12-209350-X

218
Chapter 67

Parameter

For other uses, see Parameter (disambiguation).

A parameter (from the Ancient Greek , para: beside, subsidiary"; and , metron: measure), gen-
erally, is any characteristic that can help in dening or classifying a particular system (meaning an event, project,
object, situation, etc.). That is, a parameter is an element of a system that is useful, or critical, when identifying the
system, or when evaluating its performance, status, condition, etc.
Parameter has more specic meanings within various disciplines, including mathematics, computing and computer
programming, engineering, statistics, logic and linguistics. Within and across these elds, careful distinction must be
maintained of the dierent usages of the term parameter and of other terms often associated with it, such as argument,
property, axiom, variable, function, attribute, etc.[1]

67.1 Mathematical functions

Mathematical functions have one or more arguments that are designated in the denition by variables. A function
denition can also contain parameters, but unlike variables, parameters are not listed among the arguments that the
function takes. When parameters are present, the denition actually denes a whole family of functions, one for every
valid set of values of the parameters. For instance, one could dene a general quadratic function by declaring

f (x) = ax2 + bx + c

here, the variable x designates the functions argument, but a, b, and c are parameters that determine which particular
quadratic function is being considered. A parameter could be incorporated into the function name to indicate its
dependence on the parameter. For instance, one may dene the base-b logarithm by the formula

log(x)
logb (x) =
log(b)
where b is a parameter that indicates which logarithmic function is being used. It is not an argument of the function,
and will, for instance, be a constant when considering the derivative logb (x) .
In some informal situations it is a matter of convention (or historical accident) whether some or all of the symbols in
a function denition are called parameters. However, changing the status of symbols between parameter and variable
changes the function as a mathematical object. For instance, the notation for the falling factorial power

nk = n(n 1)(n 2) (n k + 1)

denes a polynomial function of n (when k is considered a parameter), but is not a polynomial function of k (when
n is considered a parameter). Indeed, in the latter case, it is only dened for non-negative integer arguments. More

219
220 CHAPTER 67. PARAMETER

formal presentations of such situations typically start out with a function of several variables (including all those that
might sometimes be called parameters) such as

(n, k) 7 nk

as the most fundamental object being considered, then dening functions with fewer variables from the main one by
means of currying.
Sometimes it is useful to consider all functions with certain parameters as parametric family, i.e. as an indexed family
of functions. Examples from probability theory are given further below.

67.1.1 Examples
In a section on frequently misused words in his book The Writers Art, James J. Kilpatrick quoted a letter from
a correspondent, giving examples to illustrate the correct use of the word parameter:

W.M. Woods ... a mathematician ... writes ... "... a variable is one of the many things a parameter is
not. ... The dependent variable, the speed of the car, depends on the independent variable, the position
of the gas pedal.

[Kilpatrick quoting Woods] Now ... the engineers ... change the lever arms of the linkage ... the
speed of the car ... will still depend on the pedal position ... but in a ... dierent manner. You have
changed a parameter

A parametric equaliser is an audio lter that allows the frequency of maximum cut or boost to be set by
one control, and the size of the cut or boost by another. These settings, the frequency level of the peak or
trough, are two of the parameters of a frequency response curve, and in a two-control equaliser they completely
describe the curve. More elaborate parametric equalisers may allow other parameters to be varied, such as
skew. These parameters each describe some aspect of the response curve seen as a whole, over all frequencies.
A graphic equaliser provides individual level controls for various frequency bands, each of which acts only on
that particular frequency band.

If asked to imagine the graph of the relationship y = ax2 , one typically visualizes a range of values of x, but
only one value of a. Of course a dierent value of a can be used, generating a dierent relation between x and
y. Thus a is a parameter: it is less variable than the variable x or y, but it is not an explicit constant like the
exponent 2. More precisely, changing the parameter a gives a dierent (though related) problem, whereas the
variations of the variables x and y (and their interrelation) are part of the problem itself.

In calculating income based on wage and hours worked (income equals wage multiplied by hours worked), it is
typically assumed that the number of hours worked is easily changed, but the wage is more static. This makes
wage a parameter, hours worked an independent variable, and income a dependent variable.

67.1.2 Mathematical models

In the context of a mathematical model, such as a probability distribution, the distinction between variables and
parameters was described by Bard as follows:

We refer to the relations which supposedly describe a certain physical situation, as a model. Typically,
a model consists of one or more equations. The quantities appearing in the equations we classify into
variables and parameters. The distinction between these is not always clear cut, and it frequently depends
on the context in which the variables appear. Usually a model is designed to explain the relationships that
exist among quantities which can be measured independently in an experiment; these are the variables
of the model. To formulate these relationships, however, one frequently introduces constants which
stand for inherent properties of nature (or of the materials and equipment used in a given experiment).
These are the parameters.[2]
67.1. MATHEMATICAL FUNCTIONS 221

67.1.3 Analytic geometry

See also: parametric equation

In analytic geometry, curves are often given as the image of some function. The argument of the function is invariably
called the parameter. A circle of radius 1 centered at the origin can be specied in more than one form:

implicit form

x2 + y 2 = 1

parametric form

(x, y) = (cos t, sin t)

where t is the parameter.

Hence these equations, which might be called functions elsewhere are in analytic geometry characterized as parametric
equations and the independent variables are considered as parameters.

67.1.4 Mathematical analysis

In mathematical analysis, integrals dependent on a parameter are often considered. These are of the form

x1 (t)
F (t) = f (x; t) dx.
x0 (t)

In this formula, t is the argument of the function F, and on the right-hand side the parameter on which the integral
depends. When evaluating the integral, t is held constant, and so it is considered to be a parameter. If we are interested
in the value of F for dierent values of t, we then consider t to be a variable. The quantity x is a dummy variable or
variable of integration (confusingly, also sometimes called a parameter of integration).

67.1.5 Statistics and econometrics

In statistics and econometrics, the probability framework above still holds, but attention shifts to estimating the param-
eters of a distribution based on observed data, or testing hypotheses about them. In frequentist estimation parameters
are considered xed but unknown, whereas in Bayesian estimation they are treated as random variables, and their
uncertainty is described as a distribution.
In estimation theory of statistics, statistic or estimator refers to samples, whereas parameter or estimand refers to
populations, where the samples are taken from. A statistic is a numerical characteristic of a sample that can be used
as an estimate of the corresponding parameter, the numerical characteristic of the population from which the sample
was drawn.
For example, the sample mean (estimator), denoted X , can be used as an estimate of the mean parameter (estimand),
denoted , of the population from which the sample was drawn. Similarly, the sample variance (estimator), denoted
S 2 , can be used to estimate the variance parameter (estimand), denoted 2 , of the population from which the sample
was drawn. (Note that the sample standard deviation (S) is not an unbiased estimate of the population standard
deviation (): see Unbiased estimation of standard deviation.)
It is possible to make statistical inferences without assuming a particular parametric family of probability distributions.
In that case, one speaks of non-parametric statistics as opposed to the parametric statistics just described. For example,
a test based on Spearmans rank correlation coecient would be called non-parametric since the statistic is computed
from the rank-order of the data disregarding their actual values (and thus regardless of the distribution they were
sampled from), whereas those based on the Pearson product-moment correlation coecient are parametric tests since
it is computed directly from the data values and thus estimates the parameter known as the population correlation.
222 CHAPTER 67. PARAMETER

These traces all represent Poisson distributions, but with dierent values for the parameter

67.1.6 Probability theory

In probability theory, one may describe the distribution of a random variable as belonging to a family of probability
distributions, distinguished from each other by the values of a nite number of parameters. For example, one talks
about a Poisson distribution with mean value ". The function dening the distribution (the probability mass func-
tion) is:

e k
f (k; ) = .
k!
This example nicely illustrates the distinction between constants, parameters, and variables. e is Eulers number, a
fundamental mathematical constant. The parameter is the mean number of observations of some phenomenon in
question, a property characteristic of the system. k is a variable, in this case the number of occurrences of the phe-
nomenon actually observed from a particular sample. If we want to know the probability of observing k1 occurrences,
we plug it into the function to get f (k1 ; ) . Without altering the system, we can take multiple samples, which will
have a range of values of k, but the system is always characterized by the same .
For instance, suppose we have a radioactive sample that emits, on average, ve particles every ten minutes. We take
measurements of how many particles the sample emits over ten-minute periods. The measurements exhibit dierent
values of k, and if the sample behaves according to Poisson statistics, then each value of k will come up in a proportion
given by the probability mass function above. From measurement to measurement, however, remains constant at
5. If we do not alter the system, then the parameter is unchanged from measurement to measurement; if, on the
other hand, we modulate the system by replacing the sample with a more radioactive one, then the parameter would
increase.
Another common distribution is the normal distribution, which has as parameters the mean and the variance .
In these above examples, the distributions of the random variables are completely specied by the type of distribution,
67.2. COMPUTING 223

i.e. Poisson or normal, and the parameter values, i.e. mean and variance. In such a case, we have a parameterized
distribution.
It is possible to use the sequence of moments (mean, mean square, ...) or cumulants (mean, variance, ...) as parameters
for a probability distribution: see Statistical parameter.

67.2 Computing
In computing, a parameter is dened as a reference or value that is passed to a function, procedure, subroutine,
command, or program.[1] For example, the name of a le, (a parameter), is passed to a computer program, which
then performs a specic function; that is, a program may be passed the name of a le on which it will perform the
specic function.

67.3 Computer programming

Main article: Parameter (computer programming)

In computer programming, two notions of parameter are commonly used, and are referred to as parameters and
argumentsor more formally as a formal parameter and an actual parameter.
For example, in the denition of a function such as

y = f(x) = x + 2,

x is the formal parameter (the parameter) of the dened function.

When the function is evaluated for a given value, as in

f(3): or, y = f(3) = 3 + 2 = 5,

3 is the actual parameter (the argument) for evaluation by the dened function; it is a given value (actual value) that
is substituted for the formal parameter of the dened function. (In casual usage the terms parameter and argument
might inadvertently be interchanged, and thereby used incorrectly.)
These concepts are discussed in a more precise way in functional programming and its foundational disciplines,
lambda calculus and combinatory logic. Terminology varies between languages; some computer languages such as C
dene parameter and argument as given here, while Eiel uses an alternative convention.

67.4 Engineering
In engineering (especially involving data acquisition) the term parameter sometimes loosely refers to an individual
measured item. This usage isn't consistent, as sometimes the term channel refers to an individual measured item,
with parameter referring to the setup information about that channel.
Speaking generally, properties are those physical quantities which directly describe the physical attributes of the
system; parameters are those combinations of the properties which suce to determine the response of the system.
Properties can have all sorts of dimensions, depending upon the system being considered; parameters are dimension-
less, or have the dimension of time or its reciprocal.[3]
The term can also be used in engineering contexts, however, as it is typically used in the physical sciences.

67.5 Environmental science

In environmental science and particularly in chemistry and microbiology, a parameter is used to describe a discrete
chemical or microbiological entity that can be assigned a value: commonly a concentration, but may also be a logical
entity (present or absent), a statistical result such as a 95%ile value or in some cases a subjective value.
224 CHAPTER 67. PARAMETER

67.6 Linguistics
Within linguistics, the word parameter is almost exclusively used to denote a binary switch in a Universal Grammar
within a Principles and Parameters framework.

67.7 Logic
In logic, the parameters passed to (or operated on by) an open predicate are called parameters by some authors
(e.g., Prawitz, Natural Deduction"; Paulson, Designing a theorem prover). Parameters locally dened within the
predicate are called variables. This extra distinction pays o when dening substitution (without this distinction
special provision must be made to avoid variable capture). Others (maybe most) just call parameters passed to (or
operated on by) an open predicate variables, and when dening substitution have to distinguish between free variables
and bound variables.

67.8 Music
Main article: Musical parameter

In music theory, a parameter denotes an element which may be manipulated (composed), separately from the other
elements. The term is used particularly for pitch, loudness, duration, and timbre, though theorists or composers have
sometimes considered other musical aspects as parameters. The term is particularly used in serial music, where each
parameter may follow some specied series. Paul Lansky and George Perle criticized the extension of the word
parameter to this sense, since it is not closely related to its mathematical sense,[4] but it remains common. The term
is also common in music production, as the functions of audio processing units (such as the attack, release, ratio,
threshold, and other variables on a compressor) are dened by parameters specic to the type of unit (compressor,
equalizer, delay, etc.).

67.9 See also

Occams razor (with regards to the trade-o of many or few parameters in data tting)

Parametrization (i.e. coordinate system)

Statistical parameter

67.10 References
[1] Parameter in TheFreeDictionary.com.

[2] Bard, Yonathan (1974). Nonlinear Parameter Estimation. New York: Academic Press. p. 11. ISBN 0-12-078250-2.

[3] Trimmer, John D. (1950). Response of Physical Systems. New York: Wiley. p. 13.

[4] Paul Lansky & George Perle. Parameter. In L. Root, Deane. Grove Music Online. Oxford Music Online. Oxford
University Press. (subscription required)
Chapter 68

Parameter space

In science, a parameter space is the set of all possible combinations of values for all the dierent parameters con-
tained in a particular mathematical model. The ranges of values of the parameters may form the axes of a plot, and
particular outcomes of the model may be plotted against these axes to illustrate how dierent regions of the parameter
space produce dierent types of behaviour in the model.
Often the parameters are inputs of a function, in which case the technical term for the parameter space is domain of
a function.
Parameter spaces are particularly useful for describing families of probability distributions that depend on parameters.
More generally in science, the term parameter space is used to describe experimental variables. For example, the
concept has been used in the science of soccer in the article Parameter space for successful soccer kicks. In the
study, Success rates are determined through the use of four-dimensional parameter space volumes.[1]
In the context of statistics, parameter spaces form the background for parameter estimation. As Ross describes in his
book:[2]

Parameter space is a subset of p-dimensional space consisting of the set of values of which are allow-
able in a particular model. The values may sometimes be constrained, say to the positive quadrant or
the unit square, or in case of symmetry, to the triangular region where, say 1 2 .

The idea of intentionally truncating the parameter space has also been advanced elsewhere.[3]

68.1 Examples
A simple model of health deterioration after developing lung cancer could include the two parameters gender[4]
and smoker/non-smoker, in which case the parameter space is the following set of four possibilities: {(Male,
Smoker), (Male, Non-smoker), (Female, Smoker), (Female, Non-smoker)} .
The logistic map xn+1 = rxn (1 xn ) has one parameter, r, which can take any positive value. The parameter
space is therefore positive real numbers.

For some values of r, this function ends up cycling round a few values, or xed on one value. These
long-term values can be plotted against r in a bifurcation diagram to show the dierent behaviours of the
function for dierent values of r.

In a sine wave model y(t) = A sin(t + ), the parameters are amplitude A > 0, angular frequency > 0,
and phase S1 . Thus the parameter space is R+ R+ S 1 .

In complex dynamics, the parameter space is the complex plane C = { z = x + y i : x, y R }, where i2 = 1.

The famous Mandelbrot set is a subset of this parameter space, consisting of the points in the complex
plane which give a bounded set of numbers when a particular iterated function is repeatedly applied from
that starting point. The remaining points, which are not in the set, give an unbounded set of numbers
(they tend to innity) when this function is repeatedly applied from that starting point.

225
226 CHAPTER 68. PARAMETER SPACE

68.2 History
Parameter space contributed to the liberation of geometry from the connes of three-dimensional space. For instance,
the parameter space of spheres in three dimensions, has four dimensionsthree for the sphere center and another
for the radius. According to Dirk Struik, it was the book Neue Geometrie des Raumes (1849) by Julius Plcker that
showed

...geometry need not solely be based on points as basic elements. Lines, planes, circles, spheres can all
be used as the elements (Raumelemente) on which a geometry can be based. This fertile conception
threw new light on both synthetic and algebraic geometry and created new forms of duality. The number
of dimensions of a particular form of geometry could now be any positive number, depending on the
number of parameters necessary to dene the element.[5]:165

The requirement for higher dimensions is illustrated by Plckers line geometry. Struik writes

[Plckers] geometry of lines in three-space could be considered as a four-dimensional geometry, or, as

Klein has stressed, as the geometry of a four-dimensional quadric in a ve-dimensional space.[5]:168

Thus the Klein quadric describes the parameters of lines in space.

68.3 See also

Sample space
Conguration space

Data analysis
Parametric equation

Parametric surface
Phase space

68.4 References
[1] Brandon G. Cook & John Eric Go (2006) Parameter Space for Successful Soccer Kicks European Journal of Physics
27:865.

[2] Gavin J.S. Ross (1990) Nonlinear Estimation, page 94, Springer-Verlag

[3] Van Eeden, C. (2006)Restricted parameter space estimation problems: admissibility and minimaxity properties, Springer
ISBN 0-387-33747-4 (p. 2) Gains in the minimax value can be very substantial when the parameter space is bounded.

[4] Gasperino, J.; Rom, W. N. (2004). Gender and lung cancer. Clinical Lung Cancer. 5 (6): 353359. doi:10.3816/CLC.2004.n.013.

[5] Dirk Struik (1967) A Concise History of Mathematics, 3rd edition, Dover Books
Chapter 69

Parametric family

In mathematics and its applications, a parametric family or a parameterized family is a family of objects (a set of
related objects) whose dierences depend only on the chosen values for a set of parameters.
Common examples are parametrized (families of) functions, probability distributions, curves, shapes, etc.

69.1 In probability and its applications

For example, the probability density function fX of a random variable X may depend on a parameter . In that case,
the function may be denoted fX ( ; ) to indicate the dependence on the parameter . is not a formal argument of
the function as it is considered to be xed. However, each dierent value of the parameter gives a dierent probability
density function. Then the parametric family of densities is the set of functions {fX ( ; ) | } , where denotes
the set of all possible values that the parameter can take. In particular the normal distribution is a family of similarly
shaped distributions parametrized by their mean and their variance.
In decision theory, two-moment decision models can be applied when the decision-maker is faced with random
variables drawn from a location-scale family of probability distributions.

69.2 In algebra and its applications

In economics, the CobbDouglas production function is a family of production functions parametrized by the elasticities
of output with respect to the various factors of production.
In algebra, the quadratic equation, for example, is actually a family of equations parametrized by the coecients of
the variable and of its square and by the constant term.

69.3 See also

Indexed family

69.4 References

227
Chapter 70

Parts-per notation

Parts per billion redirects here. For the lm, see Parts per Billion.
In science and engineering, the parts-per notation is a set of pseudo-units to describe small values of miscellaneous
dimensionless quantities, e.g. mole fraction or mass fraction. Since these fractions are quantity-per-quantity measures,
they are pure numbers with no associated units of measurement. Commonly used are ppm (parts-per-million, 106 ),
ppb (parts-per-billion, 109 ), ppt (parts-per-trillion, 1012 ) and ppq (parts-per-quadrillion, 1015 ).

70.1 Overview
Parts-per notation is often used describing dilute solutions in chemistry, for instance, the relative abundance of dis-
solved minerals or pollutants in water. The unit 1 ppm can be used for a mass fraction if a water-borne pollutant is
present at one-millionth of a gram per gram of sample solution. When working with aqueous solutions, it is common
to assume that the density of water is 1.00 g/mL. Therefore, it is common to equate 1 kilogram of water with 1 L of
water. Consequently, 1 ppm corresponds to 1 mg/L and 1 ppb corresponds to 1 g/L.
Similarly, parts-per notation is used also in physics and engineering to express the value of various proportional
phenomena. For instance, a special metal alloy might expand 1.2 micrometers per meter of length for every degree
Celsius and this would be expressed as = 1.2 ppm/C. Parts-per notation is also employed to denote the change,
stability, or uncertainty in measurements. For instance, the accuracy of land-survey distance measurements when
using a laser rangender might be 1 millimeter per kilometer of distance; this could be expressed as Accuracy = 1
ppm.[1]
Parts-per notations are all dimensionless quantities: in mathematical expressions, the units of measurement always
cancel. In fractions like 2 nanometers per meter (2 nm/m = 2 nano = 2 109 = 2 ppb = 2 0.000000001) so
the quotients are pure-number coecients with positive values less than 1. When parts-per notations, including the
percent symbol (%), are used in regular prose (as opposed to mathematical expressions), they are still pure-number
dimensionless quantities. However, they generally take the literal parts per meaning of a comparative ratio (e.g.,
2 ppb would generally be interpreted as two parts in a billion parts).[2]
Parts-per notations may be expressed in terms of any unit of the same measure. For instance, the coecient of thermal
expansion of a certain brass alloy, = 18.7 ppm/C, may be expressed as 18.7 (m/m)/C, or as 18.7 (in/in)/C; the
numeric value representing a relative proportion does not change with the adoption of a dierent unit of measure.[3]
Similarly, a metering pump that injects a trace chemical into the main process line at the proportional ow rate Qp
= 125 ppm, is doing so at a rate that may be expressed in a variety of volumetric units, including 125 L/L, 125
gal/gal, 125 cm3 /m3 , etc.

70.1.1 In nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy

In nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (NMR), chemical shift is usually expressed in ppm. It represents the
dierence of a measured frequency in parts per million from the reference frequency. The reference frequency de-
pends on the instruments magnetic eld and the element being measured. It is usually expressed in MHz. Typical
chemical shifts are rarely more than a few hundred Hz from the reference frequency, so chemical shifts are conve-
niently expressed in ppm (Hz/MHz). Parts-per notation gives a dimensionless quantity that does not depend on the

228
70.2. PARTS-PER EXPRESSIONS 229

Fluorescein aqueous solutions, diluted from 110,000 parts-per-million

instruments eld strength.

70.2 Parts-per expressions

One part per hundred is generally represented by the percent (%) symbol and denotes one part per 100 parts,
one part in 102 , and a value of 1 102 . This is equivalent to approximately one 'drop' (circa 1/20mL) of
water diluted into 5 milliliters (one teaspoonful) or about fteen minutes out of one day.
230 CHAPTER 70. PARTS-PER NOTATION

1% 1 1

1 ppm

Visualisation of 1%, 1, 1 and 1 ppm as the fraction of the red cube to its respective block (click for larger version)

One part per thousand should generally be spelled out in full and not as ppt (which is usually understood to
represent parts per trillion). It may also be denoted by the millage () symbol. Note however, that specic
disciplines such as oceanography, as well as educational exercises, do use the ppt abbreviation. One part
per thousand denotes one part per 1000 parts, one part in 103 , and a value of 1 103 . This is equivalent to
one drop of water diluted into 50 milliliters (ten spoon-fulls) or about one and a half minutes out of one day.

One part per ten thousand is denoted by the permyriad () symbol. In contrast, in nance, the basis point
70.3. CRITICISM 231

is a quantity with dimensions of (time1 ) and is typically used to denote changes in or dierences between
percentage interest rates. For instance, a change in an interest rate from 5.15% per annum to 5.35% per
annum could be denoted as a change of 20 basis points. Although rarely used in science (ppm is typically used
instead), one permyriad has an unambiguous value of one part per 10000 parts, one part in 104 , and a value of
1 104 . This is equivalent to one drop of water diluted into half a liter or about nine seconds out of one day.

One part per million (ppm) denotes one part per 1000000 parts, one part in 106 , 1/1000000 100% = 0.0001%
(or 1% = 10000 ppm), and a value of 1 106 . This is equivalent to one drop of water diluted into 50 liters
(roughly the fuel tank capacity of a compact car) or about 32 seconds out of a year; in distance measurement,
it is equivalent to 1 mm of error per km of distance traversed.

One part per billion (ppb) denotes one part per 1000000000 parts, one part in 109 , 1/1000000000 100% =
0.0000001% (or 1% = 10000000 ppb) and a value of 1 109 . This is equivalent to one drop of water diluted
into 250 chemical drums (50 m3 ), or about three seconds out of a century.

One part per trillion (ppt) denotes one part per 1000000000000 parts, one part in 1012 , and a value of 1
1012 . This is equivalent to one drop of water (0.05 mL) diluted into 20 Olympic-size swimming pools (2500
m3 ), or about three seconds out of every hundred thousand years.

One part per quadrillion (ppq) denotes one part per 1000000000000000 parts, one part in 1015 , and a value
of 1 1015 . This is equivalent to 1 drop of water diluted into a cube of water measuring approximately 368
meters on a side (fty million cubic meters, which is a cube about as tall as the Empire State Building's 102
stories), or two and a half minutes out of the age of the Earth (4.5 billion years). Although relatively uncommon
in analytical chemistry, measurements at the ppq level are sometimes performed.[4]

70.3 Criticism
Although the International Bureau of Weights and Measures (an international standards organization known also by
its French-language initials BIPM) recognizes the use of parts-per notation, it is not formally part of the International
System of Units (SI).[2] Note that although percent (%) is not formally part of the SI, both the BIPM and the ISO
take the position that in mathematical expressions, the internationally recognized symbol % (percent) may be used
with the SI to represent the number 0.01 for dimensionless quantities.[2][5] According to IUPAP, a continued source
of annoyance to unit purists has been the continued use of percent, ppm, ppb, and ppt. [6] Although SI-compliant
expressions should be used as an alternative, the parts-per notation remains nevertheless widely used in technical
disciplines. The main problems with the parts-per notation are the following:

70.3.1 Long and short scales

Because the named numbers starting with a billion have dierent values in dierent countries, the BIPM suggests
avoiding the use of ppb and ppt to prevent misunderstanding. In the English language, named numbers have a
consistent meaning only up to million. Starting with billion, there are two numbering conventions: the long and
short scales, and billion can mean either 1012 or 109 . The U.S. National Institute of Standards and Technology
(NIST) takes the stringent position, stating that the language-dependent terms [ . . . ] are not acceptable for use with
the SI to express the values of quantities. [7]

70.3.2 Thousand vs. trillion

Although ppt usually means parts per trillion, it occasionally means parts per thousand. Unless the meaning of
ppt is dened explicitly, it has to be guessed from the context.

70.3.3 Mass fraction vs. mole fraction vs. volume fraction

Another problem of the parts-per notation is that it may refer to mass fraction, mole fraction or volume fraction. Since
it is usually not stated which quantity is used, it is better to write the unit as kg/kg, mol/mol or m3 /m3 (even though
232 CHAPTER 70. PARTS-PER NOTATION

they are all dimensionless).[8] The dierence is quite signicant when dealing with gases and it is very important to
specify which quantity is being used. For example, the conversion factor between a mass fraction of 1 ppb and a mole
fraction of 1 ppb is about 4.7 for the greenhouse gas CFC-11 in air. For volume fraction, the sux V or v is
sometimes appended to the parts-per notation (e.g., ppmV, ppbv, pptv).[9][10] Unfortunately, ppbv and pptv are also
often used for mole fractions (which is identical to volume fraction only for ideal gases).
The usage is generally quite xed inside most specic branches of science, leading some researchers to draw the
conclusion that their own usage (mass/mass, mol/mol, volume/volume, or others) is the only correct one. This, in
turn, leads them to not specify their usage in their publications, and others may therefore misinterpret their results.
For example, electrochemists often use volume/volume, while chemical engineers may use mass/mass as well as vol-
ume/volume. Many academic papers of otherwise excellent level fail to specify their usage of the parts-per notation.

70.4 SI-compliant expressions

SI-compliant units that can be used as alternatives are shown in the chart below. Expressions that the BIPM explicitly
does not recognize as being suitable for denoting dimensionless quantities with the SI are shown in underlined red
text.
Note that the notations in the SI units column above are all dimensionless quantities; that is, the units of measurement
factor out in expressions like 1 nm/m (1 nm/m = 1 nano = 1 109 ) so the quotients are pure-number coecients
with values less than 1.

70.5 Uno
Because of the cumbersome nature of expressing certain dimensionless quantities per SI guidelines, the International
Union of Pure and Applied Physics (IUPAP) in 1999 proposed the adoption of the special name uno (symbol: U)
to represent the number 1 in dimensionless quantities.[6] This symbol is not to be confused with the always-italicized
symbol for the variable uncertainty (symbol: U). This unit name uno and its symbol could be used in combination
with the SI prexes to express the values of dimensionless quantities that are much lessor even greaterthan one.[12]
Common parts-per notations in terms of the uno are given in the table below.
In 2004, a report to the International Committee for Weights and Measures (known also by its French-language
initials CIPM) stated that response to the proposal of the uno had been almost entirely negative and the principal
proponent recommended dropping the idea.[13] To date, the uno has not been adopted by any standards organization
and it appears unlikely it will ever become an ocially sanctioned way to express low-value (high-ratio) dimensionless
quantities. The proposal was instructive, however, as to the perceived shortcomings of the current options for denoting
dimensionless quantities.

70.6 Improper applications

Parts-per notation may properly be used only to express true dimensionless quantities; that is, the units of measurement
must cancel in expressions like 1 mg/kg so that the quotients are pure numbers with values less than 1. Mixed-unit
quantities such as a radon concentration of 15 pCi/L" are not dimensionless quantities and may not be expressed
using any form of parts-per notation, such as 15 ppt. Other examples of measures that are not dimensionless
quantities are as follows:

Particulate matter in the air: 50 g/m3 ; not 50 ppb.

A stepper motor/gear system that produces a motion of 1 m/pulse; not 1 ppm

Mercury vapor concentration in air: 0.6 ng/L; not 0.6 ppt

Note however, that it is not uncommon to express aqueous concentrationsparticularly in drinking-water reports
intended for the general publicusing parts-per notation (2.1 ppm, 0.8 ppb, etc.) and further, for those reports to
state that the notations denote milligrams per liter or micrograms per liter. Although 2.1 mg/L is not a dimensionless
70.7. SEE ALSO 233

quantity, it is assumed in scientic circles that 2.1 mg/kg (2.1 ppm) is the true measure because one liter of water
has a mass of about one kilogram. The goal in all technical writing (including drinking-water reports for the general
public) is to clearly communicate to the intended audience with minimal confusion. Drinking water is intuitively a
volumetric quantity in the publics mind so measures of contamination expressed on a per-liter basis are considered to
be easier to grasp. Still, it is technically possible, for example, to dissolve more than one liter of a very hydrophilic
chemical in 1 liter of water; parts-per notation would be confusing when describing its solubility in water (greater
than a million parts per million), so one would simply state the volume (or mass) that will dissolve into a liter, instead.
When reporting air-borne rather than water-borne densities, a slightly dierent convention is used since air is ap-
proximately 1000 times less dense than water. In water, 1 g/m3 is roughly equivalent to parts-per-trillion whereas
in air, it is roughly equivalent to parts-per-billion. Note also, that in the case of air, this convention is much less
accurate. Whereas one liter of water is almost exactly 1 kg, one cubic meter of air is often taken as 1.143 kgmuch
less accurate, but still close enough for many practical uses.

70.7 See also

70.8 References
[1] This is a simplied explanation. Laser rangenders typically have a measurement granularity of one to ten millimeters;
thus, the complete specication for distance measurement accuracy might read as follows: Accuracy: (1 mm + 1 ppm).
Consequently, a distance measurement of only a few meters would still have an accuracy of 1 mm in this example.

[2] BIPM: 5.3.7 Stating values of dimensionless quantities, or quantities of dimension one

[3] In the particular case of coecient of thermal expansion, the change to inches (one of the U.S. customary units) is typically
also accompanied by a change to degrees Fahrenheit. Since a Fahrenheit-sized interval of temperature is only 5 9 that of a
Celsius-sized interval, the value is typically expressed as 10.4 (in/in)/F rather than 18.7 (in/in)/C.

[4] Measurements of dioxin are routinely made at the sub-ppq level. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) cur-
rently sets a hard limit of 30 ppq for dioxin in drinking water but once recommended a voluntary limit of 0.013 ppq. Also,
radioactive contaminants in drinking water, which are quantied by measuring their radiation, are often reported in terms
of ppq. The ability to chemically detect contaminants at this level is truly an impressive feat; 0.013 ppq is equivalent to the
thickness of a sheet of paper versus a journey of 146000 trips around the world.

[5] Quantities and units - Part 0: General principles, ISO 31-0:1992.

[6] Petley, Brian W. (September 1998). Report on recent Committee activities on behalf of IUPAP to the 1999 IUPAP
General Assembly. Archived from the original on 2017-08-15. Retrieved 2017-08-15.

[7] NIST: Rules and Style Conventions for Expressing Values of Quantities: 7.10.3 ppm, ppb, and ppt

[8] Schwartz and Warneck (1995). Units for use in atmospheric chemistry (PDF). Pure Appl. Chem. 67: 13771406.
Retrieved March 9, 2011.

[9] EPA On-line Tools for Site Assessment Calculation: Indoor Air Unit Conversion. Environmental Protection Agency.

[10] Milton R. Beychok (2005). Air Dispersion Modeling Conversions and Formulas. Fundamentals of Stack Gas Dispersion
(4th ed.). Milton R. Beychok. ISBN 0964458802.

[11] Compliance with the SI regarding the percent symbol (%) is limited in this chart. According to the BIPMs SI brochure:
Subsection 5.3.3, Formatting the value of a quantity, a space is always used to separate the unit symbol from the numeric
value. Notable exceptions are the unit symbols for degree, minute, and second for plane angle, , , and (e.g., a latitude
of 47 38 8.8). However, according to 5.3.7 Stating values of dimensionless quantities, or quantities of dimension one, the
exception does not apply to the % symbol; it states as follows: When it [the percent symbol] is used, a space separates the
number and the symbol %. This practice has not been well adopted with regard to the % symbol, is contrary to Wikipedias
Manual of Style, and is not observed here.

[12] Certain mathematical functions can produce proportional quantities with values greater than 1.

[13] Consultative Committee for Units (1314 May 2004). Report of the 16th meeting (1314 May 2004) to the International
Committee for Weights and Measures, of the International Bureau of Weights and Measures (PDF). Archived from the
original (PDF) on 2014-03-10.
234 CHAPTER 70. PARTS-PER NOTATION

70.9 External links

National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST): Home page

International Bureau of Weights and Measures (BIPM): Home page

Chapter 71

Pathological (mathematics)

Bad behavior redirects here. For other uses, see Bad Behaviour (disambiguation).
well behaved redirects here. It is not to be confused with good behaviour.
In mathematics, a pathological phenomenon is one whose properties are considered atypically bad or counterintuitive;
f (x)
2

x
-2 -1 1 2

-1

-2

The Weierstrass function is continuous everywhere but dierentiable nowhere.

the opposite is well-behaved. A notable case is the Alexander horned sphere, a counterexample showing that topo-
logically embedding the sphere S 2 in R3 may fail to separate the space cleanly, unless an extra condition of tameness
is used to suppress possible wild behaviour. See JordanSchnies theorem.

71.1 Pathological functions

A classic example is the Weierstrass function, which is continuous everywhere but dierentiable nowhere. The sum
of a dierentiable function and the Weierstrass function is again continuous but nowhere dierentiable; so there are
at least as many such functions as dierentiable functions. In fact, by the Baire category theorem one can show that
continuous functions are typically or generically nowhere dierentiable.
In layman's terms, this is because of the great number of possible functions; the majority are nowhere dierentiable,

235
236 CHAPTER 71. PATHOLOGICAL (MATHEMATICS)

and relatively few can ever be described and studied, of which most that are interesting or useful also turn out to be
well-behaved. To quote Henri Poincar:

Logic sometimes makes monsters. For half a century we have seen a mass of bizarre functions which
appear to be forced to resemble as little as possible honest functions which serve some purpose. More of
continuity, or less of continuity, more derivatives, and so forth. Indeed, from the point of view of logic,
these strange functions are the most general; on the other hand those which one meets without searching
for them, and which follow simple laws appear as a particular case which does not amount to more than
a small corner.
In former times when one invented a new function it was for a practical purpose; today one invents
them purposely to show up defects in the reasoning of our fathers and one will deduce from them only
that.
If logic were the sole guide of the teacher, it would be necessary to begin with the most general
functions, that is to say with the most bizarre. It is the beginner that would have to be set grappling with
this teratologic museum.
Henri Poincar, 1899

This highlights the fact that the term pathological is subjective or at least context-dependent, and its meaning in any
particular case resides in the community of mathematicians, not necessarily within the subject matter of mathematics
itself.

71.2 Prevalence
In cases of pathology, often most or almost all examples of a phenomenon are pathological, which is formalized
by measures of size such as cardinality, measure (almost everywhere), probability (almost surely), or a generic prop-
erty. For example, the set of rational numbers is countable (and has measure zero, and is a meagre set), but the set
of irrational numbers is uncountable (and has full measure, and is a comeagre set): almost all real numbers are
irrational, in these senses. In this case, pathologies are not the rare exceptions but the most common.

71.3 Well-behaved
Mathematicians (and those in related sciences) very frequently speak of whether a mathematical objecta function,
a set, a space of one sort or anotheris well-behaved. The term has no xed formal denition, and is dependent
on context, mathematical interests, fashion, and taste. To ensure that an object is well-behaved mathematicians
introduce further axioms to narrow down the domain of study. This has the benet of making analysis easier, but
cuts down on the generality of any conclusions reached. Concepts like non-Euclidean geometry were once considered
ill-behaved, but are now common objects of study.
In both pure and applied mathematics (optimization, numerical integration, or mathematical physics, for example),
well-behaved also means not violating any assumptions needed to successfully apply whatever analysis is being dis-
cussed.
The opposite case is usually labeled pathological. It is not unusual to have situations in which most cases (in terms
of cardinality or measure) are pathological, but the pathological cases will not arise in practice unless constructed
deliberately.
The term well-behaved is generally applied in an absolute senseeither something is well-behaved or it is not. For
example:

In algorithmic inference, a well-behaved statistic is monotonic, well-dened, and sucient.

In Bzouts theorem, two polynomials are well-behaved, and thus the formula given by the theorem for the
number of their intersections is valid, if their polynomial greatest common divisor is a constant.

A meromorphic function is a ratio of two well-behaved functions, in the sense of those two functions being
holomorphic.
71.4. PATHOLOGICAL EXAMPLES 237

The KarushKuhnTucker conditions are rst-order necessary conditions for a solution in a well-behaved
nonlinear programming problem to be optimal; a problem is referred to as well-behaved if some regularity
conditions are satised.
In probability, events contained in the probability space's corresponding sigma-algebra are well-behaved, as
are measurable functions.

Unusually, the term could also be applied in a comparative sense:

In calculus:
Analytic functions are better-behaved than general smooth functions.
Smooth functions are better-behaved than general dierentiable functions.
Continuous dierentiable functions are better-behaved than general continuous functions. The larger the
number of times the function can be dierentiated, the more well-behaved it is.
Continuous functions are better-behaved than Riemann-integrable functions on compact sets.
Riemann-integrable functions are better-behaved than Lebesgue-integrable functions.
Lebesgue-integrable functions are better-behaved than general functions.
In topology, continuous functions are better-behaved than discontinuous ones.
Euclidean space is better-behaved than non-Euclidean geometry.
Attractive xed points are better-behaved than repulsive xed points.
Hausdor topologies are better-behaved than those in arbitrary general topology.
Borel sets are better-behaved than arbitrary sets of real numbers.
Spaces with integer dimension are better-behaved than spaces with fractal dimension.
In abstract algebra:
Groups are better-behaved than magmas and semigroups.
Abelian groups are better-behaved than non-Abelian groups.
Finitely-generated Abelian groups are better-behaved than non-nitely-generated Abelian groups.
Finite-dimensional vector spaces are better-behaved than innite-dimensional ones.
Fields are better-behaved than skew elds or general rings.
Separable eld extensions are better-behaved than non-separable ones.
Normed division algebras are better-behaved than general composition algebras.

71.4 Pathological examples

Pathological examples often have some undesirable or unusual properties that make it dicult to contain or explain
within a theory. Such pathological behaviour often prompts new investigation which leads to new theory and more
general results. For example, some important historical examples of this are the following:

The discovery of irrational numbers by the school of Pythagoras in ancient Greece; for example, the length of
the diagonal of a unit square, that is 2
The cardinality of the rational numbers is equal to the cardinality of the integers.
Some
number elds have rings of integers that do not form a unique factorization domain, for example the eld
Q( 5) .
The discovery of fractals and other rough geometric objects (see Hausdor dimension).
Weierstrass function, a real-valued function on the real line, that is continuous everywhere but dierentiable
nowhere.
238 CHAPTER 71. PATHOLOGICAL (MATHEMATICS)

Test functions in real analysis and distribution theory, which are innitely dierentiable functions on the real
line that are 0 everywhere outside of a given limited interval. An example of such a function is the test function,

{
e1/(1t ) , 1 < t < 1,
2

(t) =
0, otherwise.

The Cantor set is a subset of the interval [0, 1] that has measure zero but is uncountable.
The Peano space-lling curve is a continuous surjective function that maps the unit interval [0, 1] onto [0, 1]
[0, 1].
The Dirichlet function, which is the indicator function for rationals, is a bounded function that is not Riemann
integrable.
The Cantor function is a monotonic continuous surjective function that maps [0,1] onto [0,1] but has zero
derivative almost everywhere.
Satisfaction classes containing intuitively false arithmetical statements can be constructed for countable, re-
cursively saturated models of Peano arithmetic.

At the time of their discovery, each of these was considered highly pathological; today, each has been assimilated into
modern mathematical theory. These examples prompt their observers to correct their beliefs or intuitions; sometimes
they may even necessitate a reassessment of foundational denitions and concepts. Over the course of history, they
have led to more correct, more precise, and more powerful mathematics. For example, the Dirichlet function is
Lebesgue integrable, and convolution with test functions is used to approximate any locally integrable function by
smooth functions. (The approximations converge almost everywhere and in the space of locally integrable functions.)
Whether a behavior is pathological is by denition subject to personal intuition. Pathologies depend on context,
training, and experiencewhat is pathological to one researcher may very well be standard behaviour to another.
Pathological examples can show the importance of the assumptions in a theorem. For example, in statistics, the
Cauchy distribution does not satisfy the central limit theorem, even though its symmetric bell-shape appears similar
to many distributions which do; it fails the requirement to have a mean and standard deviation which exist and are
nite.
Some of the best-known paradoxes such as the BanachTarski paradox and Hausdor paradox are based on the
existence of non-measurable sets. Mathematicians, unless they take the minority position of denying the axiom of
choice, are in general resigned to living with such sets.

71.5 Computer science

In computer science, pathological has a slightly dierent sense with regard to the study of algorithms. Here, an input
(or set of inputs) is said to be pathological if it causes atypical behavior from the algorithm, such as a violation of its
average case complexity, or even its correctness. For example, hash tables generally have pathological inputs: sets of
keys that collide on hash values. Quicksort normally has O(n log n) time complexity, but deteriorates to O(n2 ) when
given input that triggers suboptimal behaviour.
The term is often used pejoratively, as a way of dismissing such inputs as being specially designed to break a routine
that is otherwise sound in practice (compare with Byzantine). On the other hand, awareness of pathological inputs
is important as they can be exploited to mount a denial-of-service attack on a computer system. Also, the term in
this sense is a matter of subjective judgment as with its other senses. Given enough run time, a suciently large and
diverse user community, or other factors, an input which may be dismissed as pathological could in fact occur (as
seen in the rst test ight of the Ariane 5).

71.6 Exceptions
Main article: Exceptional object
71.7. EXTERNAL LINKS 239

A similar but distinct phenomenon is that of exceptional objects (and exceptional isomorphisms), which occurs when
there are a small number of exceptions to a general patternquantitatively, a nite set of exceptions to an otherwise
innite rule. By contrast, in cases of pathology, often most or almost all instances of a phenomenon are pathological,
as discussed in prevalence, abovee.g., almost all real numbers are irrational.
Subjectively, exceptional objects (such as the icosahedron or sporadic simple groups) are generally considered beau-
tiful, unexpected examples of a theory, while pathological phenomena are often considered ugly, as the name
implies. Accordingly, theories are usually expanded to include exceptional objects for example, the exceptional
Lie algebras are included in the theory of semisimple Lie algebras: the axioms are seen as good, the exceptional ob-
jects as unexpected but valid. By contrast, pathological examples are instead taken to point out a shortcoming in the
axioms, requiring stronger axioms to rule them out for example, requiring tameness of an embedding of a sphere
in the Schnies problem. One may study the more general theory, including the pathologies, which may provide
its own simplications (the real numbers have properties very dierent from the rationals, and likewise continuous
maps have very dierent properties from smooth ones), but will also in general study the narrower theory from which
the original examples were drawn.

71.7 External links

Pathological Structures & Fractals Extract of an article by Freeman Dyson, Characterising Irregularity,
Science, May 1978

This article incorporates material from pathological on PlanetMath, which is licensed under the Creative Commons
Attribution/Share-Alike License.
Chapter 72

Percentage point

Percent point redirects here. It is not to be confused with Percent point function.

A percentage point or percent point (pp) is the unit for the arithmetic dierence of two percentages. For example,
moving up from 40% to 44% is a 4 percentage point increase, but is an actual 10 percent increase in what is being
measured.[1] In the literature, the percentage point unit is usually either written out,[2] or abbreviated as pp or p.p. to
avoid ambiguity. After the rst occurrence, some writers abbreviate by using just point or points.
Consider the following hypothetical example: In 1980, 50 percent of the population smoked, and in 1990 only 40
percent smoked. One can thus say that from 1980 to 1990, the prevalence of smoking decreased by 10 percentage
points although smoking did not decrease by 10 percent (it decreased by 20 percent) percentages indicate ratios, not
dierences.
Percentage-point dierences are one way to express a risk or probability. Consider a drug that cures a given disease
in 70 percent of all cases, while without the drug, the disease heals spontaneously in only 50 percent of cases. The
drug reduces absolute risk by 20 percentage points. Alternatives may be more meaningful to consumers of statistics,
such as the reciprocal, also known as the number needed to treat (NNT). In this case, the reciprocal transform of the
percentage-point dierence would be 1/(20%) = 1/0.20 = 5. Thus if 5 patients are treated with the drug, one could
expect to heal one more case of the disease than would have occurred in the absence of the drug.
For measurements with percentage as unit, like growth, yield, or ejection fraction, the standard deviation will have
percentage points as unit. Mistakenly using percentage as the unit for the standard deviation is confusing, since
percentage is also used as a unit for the relative standard deviation, i.e. standard deviation divided by average value
(coecient of variation).

72.1 Related units

Percentage (%) 1 part in 100
Per mille () 1 part in 1,000
Basis point () 1 part in 10,000
Parts-per notation
Baker percentage
Percent point function

72.2 References
[1] Brechner, Robert (2008). Contemporary Mathematics for Business and Consumers, Brief Edition. Cengage Learning. p.
190. Retrieved 7 May 2015.
[2] Wickham, Kathleen (2003). Math Tools for Journalists. Cengage Learning. p. 30. Retrieved 7 May 2015.

240
Chapter 73

Pointwise

In mathematics, the qualier pointwise is used to indicate that a certain property is dened by considering each
value f (x) of some function f. An important class of pointwise concepts are the pointwise operations operations
dened on functions by applying the operations to function values separately for each point in the domain of denition.
Important relations can also be dened pointwise.

73.1 Pointwise operations

Examples include

(f + g)(x) = f (x) + g(x) addition) (pointwise

(f g)(x) = f (x) g(x) multiplication) (pointwise
(f )(x) = f (x) scalar) a by multiplication (pointwise

where f, g : X R .
See pointwise product, scalar.
Pointwise operations inherit such properties as associativity, commutativity and distributivity from corresponding
operations on the codomain. An example of an operation on functions which is not pointwise is convolution.
By taking some algebraic structure A in the place of R , we can turn the set of all functions X to the carrier set of A
into an algebraic structure of the same type in an analogous way.

73.2 Componentwise operations

Componentwise operations are usually dened on vectors, where vectors are elements of the set K n for some natural
number n and some eld K . If we denote the i -th component of any vector v as vi , then componentwise addition
is (u + v)i = ui + vi .
A tuple can be regarded as a function, and a vector is a tuple. Therefore, any vector v corresponds to the function
f : n K such that f (i) = vi , and any componentwise operation on vectors is the pointwise operation on functions
corresponding to those vectors.

73.3 Pointwise relations

In order theory it is common to dene a pointwise partial order on functions. With A, B posets, the set of functions A
B can be ordered by f g if and only if (x A) f(x) g(x). Pointwise orders also inherit some properties of the
underlying posets. For instance if A and B are continuous lattices, then so is the set of functions A B with pointwise
order.[1] Using the pointwise order on functions one can concisely dene other important notions, for instance:[2]

241
242 CHAPTER 73. POINTWISE

A closure operator c on a poset P is a monotone and idempotent self-map on P (i.e. a projection operator) with
the additional property that idA c, where id is the identity function.
Similarly, a projection operator k is called a kernel operator if and only if k idA.

An example of innitary pointwise relation is pointwise convergence of functions a sequence of functions

{fn }
n=1

with

fn : X Y

converges pointwise to a function f if for each x in X

lim fn (x) = f (x).

n

73.4 Notes
[1] Gierz, p. xxxiii

[2] Gierz, p. 26

73.5 References
For order theory examples:

T.S. Blyth, Lattices and Ordered Algebraic Structures, Springer, 2005, ISBN 1-85233-905-5.

G. Gierz, K. H. Hofmann, K. Keimel, J. D. Lawson, M. Mislove, D. S. Scott: Continuous Lattices and Domains,
Cambridge University Press, 2003.

This article incorporates material from Pointwise on PlanetMath, which is licensed under the Creative Commons
Attribution/Share-Alike License.
Chapter 74

Porism

A porism is a mathematical proposition or corollary. In particular, the term porism has been used to refer to a direct
result of a proof, analogous to how a corollary refers to a direct result of a theorem. In modern usage, a porism is
a relation that holds for an innite range of values but only if a certain condition is assumed, for example Steiners
porism.[1] The term originates from three books of Euclid with porism, that have been lost. Note that a proposition
may not have been proven, so a porism may not be a theorem, or for that matter, it may not be true.

74.1 History

74.1.1 Beginnings
The treatise which has given rise to this subject is the Porisms of Euclid, the author of the Elements. As much as
is known of this lost treatise is due to the Collection of Pappus of Alexandria, who mentions it along with other
geometrical treatises, and gives a number of lemmas necessary for understanding it.[2] Pappus states:

The porisms of all classes are neither theorems nor problems, but occupy a position intermediate between
the two, so that their enunciations can be stated either as theorems or problems, and consequently some
geometers think that they are really theorems, and others that they are problems, being guided solely
by the form of the enunciation. But it is clear from the denitions that the old geometers understood
better the dierence between the three classes. The older geometers regarded a theorem as directed to
proving what is proposed, a problem as directed to constructing what is proposed, and nally a porism
as directed to nding what is proposed ( ).[2]

Pappus goes on to say that this last denition was changed by certain later geometers, who dened a porism on the
ground of an accidental characteristic as " " (to lepon hypothsei topiko
thermatos), that which falls short of a locus-theorem by a (or in its) hypothesis. Proclus points out that the word
porism was used in two senses. One sense is that of corollary, as a result unsought, as it were, but seen to follow
from a theorem. On the porism in the other sense he adds nothing to the denition of the older geometers except
to say that the nding of the center of a circle and the nding of the greatest common measure are porisms.[3][2]

74.2 Pappus on Euclids porism

Pappus gave a complete enunciation of a porism derived from Euclid, and an extension of it to a more general case.
This porism, expressed in modern language, asserts the following: Given four straight lines of which three turn about
the points in which they meet the fourth, if two of the points of intersection of these lines lie each on a xed straight
line, the remaining point of intersection will also lie on another straight line. The general enunciation applies to any
number of straight lines, say n + 1, of which n can turn about as many points xed on the (n + 1)th. These n straight
lines cut, two and two, in 1/2n(n 1) points, 1/2n(n 1) being a triangular number whose side is n 1. If, then, they
are made to turn about the n xed points so that any n 1 of their 1/2n(n 1) points of intersection, chosen subject
to a certain limitation, lie on n 1 given xed straight lines, then each of the remaining points of intersection, 1/2n(n

243
244 CHAPTER 74. PORISM

1)(n 2) in number, describes a straight line. Pappus gives also a complete enunciation of one porism of the rst
book of Euclids treatise.[2]
This may be expressed thus: If about two xed points P, Q we make turn two straight lines meeting on a given straight
line L, and if one of them cut o a segment AM from a xed straight line AX, given in position, we can determine
another xed straight line BY, and a point B xed on it, such that the segment BM' made by the second moving line
on this second xed line measured from B has a given ratio X to the rst segment AM. The rest of the enunciations
given by Pappus are incomplete, and he merely says that he gives thirty-eight lemmas for the three books of porisms;
and these include 171 theorems. The lemmas which Pappus gives in connexion with the porisms are interesting
historically, because he gives:

1. the fundamental theorem that the cross or an harmonic ratio of a pencil of four straight lines meeting in a point
is constant for all transversals;
2. the proof of the harmonic properties of a complete quadrilateral;
3. the theorem that, if the six vertices of a hexagon lie three and three on two straight lines, the three points of
concourse of opposite sides lie on a straight line.[2]

From the 17th to the 19th centuries this subject seems to have had great fascination for mathematicians, and many
geometers have attempted to restore the lost porisms. Thus Albert Girard says in his Trait de trigonometrie (1626)
that he hopes to publish a restoration. About the same time Pierre de Fermat wrote a short work under the title
Porismatum euclidaeorum renovata doctrina et sub forma isagoges recentioribus geometeis exhibita (see uvres de
Fermat, i., Paris, 1891); but two at least of the ve examples of porisms which he gives do not fall within the classes
indicated by Pappus.[4]

74.2.1 Later analysis

Robert Simson was the rst to throw real light upon the subject. He rst succeeded in explaining the only three
propositions which Pappus indicates with any completeness. This explanation was published in the Philosophical
Transactions in 1723. Later he investigated the subject of porisms generally in a work entitled De porismatibus tra-
clatus; quo doctrinam porisrnatum satis explicatam, et in posterum ab oblivion tutam fore sperat auctor, and published
after his death in a volume, Roberti Simson opera quaedam reliqua (Glasgow, 1776).[4]
Simsons treatise, De porismatibus, begins with denitions of theorem, problem, datum, porism and locus. Respecting
the porism Simson says that Pappuss denition is too general, and therefore he will substitute for it the following:

Porisma est propositio in qua proponitur demonstrare rem aliquam, vel plures datas esse, cui, vel
quibus, ut et cuilibet ex rebus innumeris, non quidem datis, sed quae ad ea quae data sunt eandem habent
rationem, convenire ostendendum est aectionem quandam communem in propositione descriptam.
Porisma etiam in forma problematis enuntiari potest, si nimirum ex quibus data demonstranda sunt,
invenienda proponantur.

A locus (says Simson) is a species of porism. Then follows a Latin translation of Pappuss note on the porisms, and
the propositions which form the bulk of the treatise. These are Pappuss thirty-eight lemmas relating to the porisms,
ten cases of the proposition concerning four straight lines, twenty-nine porisms, two problems in illustration and some
preliminary lemmas.[4]
John Playfair's memoir (Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin., 1794, vol. iii.), a sort of sequel to Simsons treatise, had for its
special object the inquiry into the probable origin of porisms, that is, into the steps which led the ancient geometers to
the discovery of them. Playfair remarked that the careful investigation of all possible particular cases of a proposition
would show that (1) under certain conditions a problem becomes impossible; (2) under certain other conditions,
indeterminate or capable of an innite number of solutions. These cases could be enunciated separately, were in
a manner intermediate between theorems and problems, and were called porisms. Playfair accordingly dened a
porism thus: A proposition arming the possibility of nding such conditions as will render a certain problem
indeterminate or capable of innumerable solutions.[4]
Though this denition of a porism appears to be most favoured in England, Simsons view has been most generally
accepted abroad, and had the support of Michel Chasles. However, in Liouville's Journal de mathematiques pures et
appliques (vol. xx., July, 1855), P. Breton published Recherches nouvelles sur les porismes d'Euclide, in which he
74.3. SEE ALSO 245

gave a new translation of the text of Pappus, and sought to base thereon a view of the nature of a porism more closely
conforming to the denitions in Pappus. This was followed in the same journal and in La Science by a controversy
between Breton and A. J. H. Vincent, who disputed the interpretation given by the former of the text of Pappus, and
declared himself in favour of the idea of Schooten, put forward in his Mathematicae exercitationes (1657), in which he
gives the name of porism to one section. According to Frans van Schooten, if the various relations between straight
lines in a gure are written down in the form of equations or proportions, then the combination of these equations in
all possible ways, and of new equations thus derived from them leads to the discovery of innumerable new properties
of the gure, and here we have porisms.[4]
The discussions, however, between Breton and Vincent, in which C. Housel also joined, did not carry forward the
work of restoring Euclids Porisms, which was left for Chasles. His work (Les Trois livres de porismes d'Euclide, Paris,
1860) makes full use of all the material found in Pappus. But we may doubt its being a successful reproduction of
Euclids actual work. Thus, in view of the ancillary relation in which Pappuss lemmas generally stand to the works
to which they refer, it seems incredible that the rst seven out of thirty-eight lemmas should be really equivalent (as
Chasles makes them) to Euclids rst seven Porisms. Again, Chasles seems to have been wrong in making the ten
cases of the four-line Porism begin the book, instead of the intercept-Porism fully enunciated by Pappus, to which
the lemma to the rst Porism relates intelligibly, being a particular case of it.[4]
An interesting hypothesis as to the Porisms was put forward by H. G. Zeuthen (Die Lehre von den Kegelschnitten im
Altertum, 1886, ch. viii.). Observing, e.g., that the intercept-Porism is still true if the two xed points are points on
a conic, and the straight lines drawn through them intersect on the conic instead of on a xed straight line, Zeuthen
conjectures that the Porisms were a by-product of a fully developed projective geometry of conics. It is a fact that
Lemma 31 (though it makes no mention of a conic) corresponds exactly to Apollonius's method of determining the
foci of a central conic (Conics, iii. 4547 with 42). The three porisms stated by Diophantus in his Arithmetica are
propositions in the theory of numbers which can all be enunciated in the form we can nd numbers satisfying such
and such conditions"; they are suciently analogous therefore to the geometrical porism as dened in Pappus and
Proclus.[4]

74.3 See also

Poncelets porism

Steiners porism

74.4 References
[1] Eves, Howard W. (1995). College geometry. p. 138. ISBN 0867204753.

[2] Chisholm 1911, p. 102.

[3] Proclus, ed. Friedlein, p. 301

[4] Chisholm 1911, p. 103.

This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911).
Porism. Encyclopdia Britannica. 24 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 102103.

Alexander Jones (1986) Book 7 of the Collection, part 1: introduction, text, translation ISBN 0-387-96257-3,
part 2: commentary, index, gures ISBN 3-540-96257-3, Springer-Verlag .

J. L. Heiberg's Litterargeschichtliche Studien ber Euklid (Leipzig, 1882) A valuable chapter on porisms (from
a philological standpoint) is included.

August Richter. Porismen nach Simson bearbeitet (Elbing, 1837)

M. Cantor, "ber die Porismen des Euklid and deren Divinatoren, in Schlomilch's Zeitsch. f. Math. u. Phy.
(1857), and Literaturzeitung (1861), p. 3 seq.

Th. Leidenfrost, Die Porismen des Euklid (Programm der Realschule zu Weimar, 1863)
246 CHAPTER 74. PORISM

John J. Milne (1911) An Elementary Treatise on Cross-Ratio Geometry with Historical Notes, page 115,
Cambridge University Press.
Fr. Buch-binder, Euclids Porismen und Data (Programm der kgl. Landesschule Pforta, 1866).
Chapter 75

Projection (mathematics)

In mathematics, a projection is a mapping of a set (or other mathematical structure) into a subset (or sub-structure),
which is equal to its square for mapping composition (or, in other words, which is idempotent). The restriction to a
subspace of a projection is also called a projection, even if the idempotence property is lost. An everyday example
of a projection is the casting of shadows onto a plane (paper sheet). The projection of a point is its shadow on the
paper sheet. The shadow of a point on the paper sheet is this point itself (idempotence). The shadow of a three-
dimensional sphere is a closed disk. Originally, the notion of projection was introduced in Euclidean geometry to
denote the projection of the Euclidean space of three dimensions onto a plane in it, like the shadow example. The
two main projections of this kind are:

The projection from a point onto a plane or central projection: If C is a point, called the center of projec-
tion, then the projection of a point P dierent from C onto a plane that does not contain C is the intersection
of the line CP with the plane. The points P such that the line CP is parallel to the plane do not have any image
by the projection, but one often says that they project to a point at innity of the plane (see projective geometry
for a formalization of this terminology). The projection of the point C itself is not dened.

The projection parallel to a direction D, onto a plane or parallel projection: The image of a point P is
the intersection with the plane of the line parallel to D passing through P. See Ane space Projection for an
accurate denition, generalized to any dimension.

The concept of projection in mathematics is a very old one, most likely having its roots in the phenomenon of
the shadows cast by real world objects on the ground. This rudimentary idea was rened and abstracted, rst in a
geometric context and later in other branches of mathematics. Over time diering versions of the concept developed,
but today, in a suciently abstract setting, we can unify these variations.
In cartography, a map projection is a map of a part of the surface of the Earth onto a plane, which, in some cases,
but not always, is the restriction of a projection in the above meaning. The 3D projections are also at the basis of the
theory of perspective.
The need for unifying the two kinds of projections and of dening the image by a central projection of any point
dierent of the center of projection are at the origin of projective geometry. However, a projective transformation is
a bijection of a projective space, a property not shared with the projections of this article.

75.1 Denition
In an abstract setting we can generally say that a projection is a mapping of a set (or of a mathematical structure)
which is idempotent, which means that a projection is equal to its composition with itself. A projection may also
refer to a mapping which has a left inverse. Both notions are strongly related, as follows. Let p be an idempotent
map from a set A into itself (thus pp = p) and B = p(A) be the image of p. If we denote by the map p viewed as a
map from A onto B and by i the injection of B into A, then we have .i= IdB. Conversely, .i = IdB implies that i
is idempotent.

247
248 CHAPTER 75. PROJECTION (MATHEMATICS)

The commutativity of this diagram is the universality of the projection , for any map f and set X.

75.2 Applications
The original notion of projection has been extended or generalized to various mathematical situations, frequently, but
not always, related to geometry, for example:

In set theory:
An operation typied by the j th projection map, written projj , that takes an element x = (x1 , ..., xj , ...,
xk) of the cartesian product X1 Xj Xk to the value projj (x) = xj . This map is always
surjective.
A mapping that takes an element to its equivalence class under a given equivalence relation is known as
the canonical projection.
The evaluation map sends a function f to the value f(x) for a xed x. The space of functions Y X can
be identied with the cartesian product iX Yi , and the evaluation map is a projection map from the
cartesian product.
In spherical geometry, projection of a sphere upon a plane was used by Ptolemy (~150) in his Planisphaerium.
The method is called stereographic projection and uses a plane tangent to a sphere and a pole C diametrically
opposite the point of tangency. Any point P on the sphere besides C determines a line CP intersecting the
plane at the projected point for P. The correspondence makes the sphere a one-point compactication for the
plane when a point at innity is included to correspond to C, which otherwise has no projection on the plane.
A common instance is the complex plane where the compactication corresponds to the Riemann sphere.
Alternatively, a hemisphere is frequently projected onto a plane using the gnomonic projection.
75.3. REFERENCES 249

In linear algebra, a linear transformation that remains unchanged if applied twice (p(u) = p(p(u))), in other
words, an idempotent operator. For example, the mapping that takes a point (x, y, z) in three dimensions to
the point (x, y, 0) in the plane is a projection. This type of projection naturally generalizes to any number of
dimensions n for the source and k n for the target of the mapping. See orthogonal projection, projection
(linear algebra). In the case of orthogonal projections, the space admits a decomposition as a product, and the
projection operator is a projection in that sense as well.
In dierential topology, any ber bundle includes a projection map as part of its denition. Locally at least this
map looks like a projection map in the sense of the product topology, and is therefore open and surjective.
In topology, a retract is a continuous map r: X X which restricts to the identity map on its image. This
satises a similar idempotency condition r2 = r and can be considered a generalization of the projection map.
A retract which is homotopic to the identity is known as a deformation retract. This term is also used in category
theory to refer to any split epimorphism.
The scalar projection (or resolute) of one vector onto another.

In category theory, the above notion of cartesian product of sets can be generalized to arbitrary categories.
The product of some objects has a canonical projection morphism to each factor. This projection will take
many forms in dierent categories. The projection from the Cartesian product of sets, the product topology of
topological spaces (which is always surjective and open), or from the direct product of groups, etc. Although
these morphisms are often epimorphisms and even surjective, they do not have to be.

75.3 References

75.4 Further reading

Thomas Craig (1882) A Treatise on Projections from University of Michigan Historical Math Collection.
Chapter 76

Proof by innite descent

In mathematics, a proof by innite descent is a particular kind of proof by contradiction that relies on the least
integer principle. One typical application is to show that a given equation has no solutions.
Typically, one shows that if a solution to a problem existed, which in some sense was related to one or more natural
numbers, it would necessarily imply that a second solution existed, which was related to one or more 'smaller' natural
numbers. This in turn would imply a third solution related to smaller natural numbers, implying a fourth solution,
therefore a fth solution, and so on. However, there cannot be an innity of ever-smaller natural numbers, and
therefore by mathematical induction (repeating the same step) the original premisethat any solution exists is
incorrect: its correctness produces a contradiction.
An alternative way to express this is to assume one or more solutions or examples exists. Then there must be a smallest
solution or examplea minimal counterexample. We then prove that if a smallest solution exists, it must imply the
existence of a smaller solution (in some sense)which again proves that the existence of any solution would lead to
a contradiction.
The earliest uses of the method of innite descent appear in Euclids Elements. A typical example is Proposition 31
of Book 7, in which Euclid proves that every composite integer is measurable by some prime number.
The method was much later developed by Fermat, who often used it for Diophantine equations.[1] Two typical exam-
ples are showing the non-solvability of the Diophantine equation r2 + s4 = t 4 and proving Fermats theorem on sums
of two squares, which states that an odd prime p can be expressed as a sum of two squares only when p 1 (mod 4)
(see proof). In some cases, to the modern eye, his method of innite descent is an exploitation of the inversion of
the doubling function for rational points on an elliptic curve E. The context is of a hypothetical non-trivial rational
point on E. Doubling a point on E roughly doubles the length of the numbers required to write it (as number of dig-
its), so that a halving a point gives a rational with smaller terms. Since the terms are positive, they cannot decrease
forever. In this way Fermat was able to show the non-existence of solutions in many cases of Diophantine equations
of classical interest (for example, the problem of four perfect squares in arithmetic progression).

76.1 Number theory

In the number theory of the twentieth century, the innite descent method was taken up again, and pushed to a point
where it connected with the main thrust of algebraic number theory and the study of L-functions. The structural
result of Mordell, that the rational points on an elliptic curve E form a nitely-generated abelian group, used an
innite descent argument based on E/2E in Fermats style.
To extend this to the case of an abelian variety A, Andr Weil had to make more explicit the way of quantifying the
size of a solution, by means of a height function a concept that became foundational. To show that A(Q)/2A(Q) is
nite, which is certainly a necessary condition for the nite generation of the group A(Q) of rational points of A, one
must do calculations in what later was recognised as Galois cohomology. In this way, abstractly-dened cohomology
groups in the theory become identied with descents in the tradition of Fermat. The MordellWeil theorem was at
the start of what later became a very extensive theory.

250
76.2. APPLICATION EXAMPLES 251

76.2 Application examples

76.2.1 Irrationality of 2

The proof that the square root of 2 (2) is irrational (i.e. cannot be expressed as a fraction of two whole numbers)
was discovered by the ancient Greeks, and is perhaps the earliest known example of a proof by innite descent.
Pythagoreans discovered that the diagonal of a square is incommensurable with its side, or in modern language, that
the square root of two is irrational. Little is known with certainty about the time or circumstances of this discovery,
but the name of Hippasus of Metapontum is often mentioned. For a while, the Pythagoreans treated as an ocial
secret the discovery that the square root of two is irrational, and, according to legend, Hippasus was murdered for
divulging it.[2][3][4] The square root of two is occasionally called Pythagoras number or Pythagoras Constant, for
example Conway & Guy (1996).[5]
The ancient Greeks, not having algebra, worked out a geometric proof by innite descent (John Horton Conway
presented another geometric proof (no. 8 ' ' ' ) by innite descent that may be more accessible). The following is an
algebraic proof along similar lines:
Suppose that 2 were rational. Then it could be written as

p
2=
q

for two natural numbers, p and q. Then squaring would give

p2
2= ,
q2

2q 2 = p2 ,
so 2 must divide p2 . Because 2 is a prime number, it must also divide p, by Euclids lemma. So p = 2r, for some
integer r.
But then

2q 2 = (2r)2 = 4r2 ,

q 2 = 2r2 ,
which shows that 2 must divide q as well. So q = 2s for some integer s.
This gives

p 2r r
= =
q 2s s

Therefore, if 2 could be written as a rational number, it could always be written as a rational number with smaller
parts, which itself could be written with yet-smaller parts, ad innitum. But this is impossible in the set of natural
numbers. Since 2 is a real number, which can be either rational or irrational, the only option left is for 2 to be
irrational.
(Alternatively, this proves that if 2 were rational, no smallest representation as a fraction could exist, as any attempt
to nd a smallest representation p/q would imply a smaller one existed, which is a similar contradiction).

76.2.2 Irrationality of k if it is not an integer

For positive integer k, suppose that k is not an integer, but is rational and can be expressed as m n for natural numbers
m and n, and let q be the largest integer no greater than k. Then
252 CHAPTER 76. PROOF BY INFINITE DESCENT

m
k=
n

m( k q)
=
n( k q)

m k mq
=
n k nq

(n k) k mq
=
n ) nq
n( m

nk mq
=
m nq

The numerator and denominator were each multiplied by the expression (k q)which is positive but less than
1and then simplied independently. So two resulting products, say m' and n' , are themselves integers, which are
less than m and n respectively. Therefore, no matter what natural numbers m and n are used to express k, there exist
smaller natural numbers m' < m and n' < n that have the same ratio. But innite descent on the natural numbers is
impossible, so this disproves the original assumption that k could be expressed as a ratio of natural numbers.[6]

76.2.3 Non-solvability of r2 + s4 = t 4
See also: Fermats right triangle theorem Fermats proof

The non-solvability of r2 + s4 = t4 in integers is sucient to show the non-solvability of q 4 + s4 = t4 in integers,

which is a special case of Fermats Last Theorem, and the historical proofs of the latter proceeded by more broadly
proving the former using innite descent. The following more recent proof demonstrates both of these impossibilities
by proving still more broadly that a Pythagorean triangle cannot have any two of its sides each either a square or twice
a square, since there is no smallest such triangle:[7]
Suppose there exists such a Pythagorean triangle. Then it can be scaled down to give a primitive (i.e., with no
common factors) Pythagorean triangle with the same property. Primitive Pythagorean triangles sides can be written
as x = 2ab, y = a2 b2 , z = a2 + b2 , with a and b relatively prime and with a+b odd and hence y and z both odd.
There are three cases, depending on which two sides are postulated to each be a square or twice a square:

y and z: Neither y nor z, being odd, can be twice a square; if they are both square, the right triangle with

legs yz and b2 and hypotenuse a2 also would have integer sides including a square leg ( b2 ) and a square
hypotenuse ( a2 ), and would have a smaller hypotenuse ( a2 compared to z = a2 + b2 ).
y and x: If y is a square and x is a square or twice a square, then each of a and b is a square or twice a square

and the integer right triangle with legs b and y and hypotenuse a would have two sides (b and a) each of which
is a square or twice a square, with a smaller hypotenuse than the original triangle ( a compared to z = a2 + b2
).
z and x: If z is a square and x is a square or twice a square, again
each of a and b is a square or twice a square
and the integer right triangle with legs a and b and hypotenuse zalso would have two sides ( a and b ) each
of which is a square or twice a square, and a smaller hypotenuse ( z compared to z ).

In any of these cases, one Pythagorean triangle with two sides each of which is a square or twice a square has led to a
smaller one, which in turn would lead to a smaller one, etc.; since such a sequence cannot go on innitely, the original
premise that such a triangle exists must be wrong.
This implies that the equations

r2 + s4 = t4 ,
76.3. SEE ALSO 253

r4 + s2 = t4 ,
r4 + s4 = t2
cannot have non-trivial solutions, since non-trivial solutions would give Pythagorean triangles with two sides being
squares.
For other similar proofs by innite descent for the n = 4 case of Fermats Theorem, see[8] and.[9]

76.3 See also

Vieta jumping

76.4 References
[1] Weil, Andr (1984), Number Theory: An approach through history from Hammurapi to Legendre, Birkhuser, pp. 7579,
ISBN 0-8176-3141-0

[2] Stephanie J. Morris, The Pythagorean Theorem, Dept. of Math. Ed., University of Georgia.

[3] Brian Clegg, The Dangerous Ratio ..., Nrich.org, November 2004.

[4] Kurt von Fritz, The discovery of incommensurability by Hippasus of Metapontum, Annals of Mathematics, 1945.

[5] Conway, John H.; Guy, Richard K. (1996), The Book of Numbers, Copernicus, p. 25

[6] Sagher, Yoram (February 1988), What Pythagoras could have done, American Mathematical Monthly, 95: 117, doi:10.2307/2323064

[7] Dolan, Stan, Fermats method of descente innie", Mathematical Gazette 95, July 2011, 269271.

[8] Grant, Mike, and Perella, Malcolm, Descending to the irrational, Mathematical Gazette 83, July 1999, pp. 263267.

[9] Barbara, Roy, Fermats last theorem in the case n = 4, Mathematical Gazette 91, July 2007, 260262.

76.5 Further reading

Innite descent at PlanetMath.org.

Example of Fermats last theorem at PlanetMath.org.

Chapter 77

Property (philosophy)

Determinate redirects here. For the biology term, see Determinate growth. For the song, see Determinate (song).

In philosophy, mathematics, and logic, a property is a characteristic of an object; a red object is said to have the
property of redness. The property may be considered a form of object in its own right, able to possess other prop-
erties. A property however diers from individual objects in that it may be instantiated, and often in more than one
thing. It diers from the logical/mathematical concept of class by not having any concept of extensionality, and from
the philosophical concept of class in that a property is considered to be distinct from the objects which possess it.
Understanding how dierent individual entities (or particulars) can in some sense have some of the same properties
is the basis of the problem of universals. The terms attribute and quality have similar meanings.

77.1 Essential and accidental properties

In classical Aristotelian terminology, a property (Greek: idion, Latin: proprium) is one of the predicables. It is a
non-essential quality of a species (like an accident), but a quality which is nevertheless characteristically present in
members of that species. For example, ability to laugh may be considered a special characteristic of human beings.
However, laughter is not an essential quality of the species human, whose Aristotelian denition of rational animal
does not require laughter. Therefore, in the classical framework, properties are characteristic qualities that are not
truly required for the continued existence of an entity but are, nevertheless, possessed by the entity.

77.2 Determinate and determinable properties

A property may be classied as either determinate or determinable. A determinable property is one that can get more
specic. For example, color is a determinable property because it can be restricted to redness, blueness, etc.[1] A
determinate property is one that cannot become more specic. This distinction may be useful in dealing with issues
of identity.[2]

77.3 Lovely and suspect qualities

Daniel Dennett distinguishes between lovely properties (such as loveliness itself), which, although they require an
observer to be recognised, exist latently in perceivable objects; and suspect properties which have no existence at all
until attributed by an observer (such as being suspected of a crime)[3]

77.4 Property dualism

Main article: Property dualism
Property dualism describes a category of positions in the philosophy of mind which hold that, although the world is

254
77.5. PROPERTIES IN MATHEMATICS 255

Property dualism: the exemplication of two kinds of property by one kind of substance

constituted of just one kind of substancethe physical kindthere exist two distinct kinds of properties: physical
properties and mental properties. In other words, it is the view that non-physical, mental properties (such as beliefs,
desires and emotions) inhere in some physical substances (namely brains).

77.5 Properties in mathematics

In mathematical terminology, a property p dened for all elements of a set X is usually dened as a function p: X
{true, false}, that is true whenever the property holds; or equivalently, as the subset of X for which p holds; i.e. the
set {x| p(x) = true}; p is its indicator function. It may be objected (see above) that this denes merely the extension
of a property, and says nothing about what causes the property to hold for exactly those values.

77.6 Properties and predicates

The ontological fact that something has a property is typically represented in language by applying a predicate to a
subject. However, taking any grammatical predicate whatsoever to be a property, or to have a corresponding property,
leads to certain diculties, such as Russells paradox and the GrellingNelson paradox. Moreover, a real property can
imply a host of true predicates: for instance, if X has the property of weighing more than 2 kilos, then the predicates
"..weighs more than 1.9 kilos, "..weighs more than 1.8 kilos, etc., are all true of it. Other predicates, such as is
an individual, or has some properties are uninformative or vacuous. There is some resistance to regarding such
so-called "Cambridge properties" as legitimate.[4]
256 CHAPTER 77. PROPERTY (PHILOSOPHY)

77.7 Intrinsic and extrinsic properties

Main article: Intrinsic and extrinsic properties (philosophy)

An intrinsic property is a property that an object or a thing has of itself, independently of other things, including its
context. An extrinsic (or relational) property is a property that depends on a things relationship with other things.
For example, mass is a physical intrinsic property of any physical object, whereas weight is an extrinsic property that
varies depending on the strength of the gravitational eld in which the respective object is placed.

77.8 Relations
A relation is often considered to be a more general case of a property. Relations are true of several particulars, or
shared amongst them. Thus the relation ".. is taller than .. holds between two individuals, who would occupy the
two ellipses ('..'). Relations can be expressed by N-place predicates, where N is greater than 1.
It is widely accepted that there are at least some apparent relational properties which are merely derived from non-
relational (or 1-place) properties. For instance A is heavier than B is a relational predicate, but it is derived from
the two non relational properties: the mass of A and the mass of B. Such relations are called external relations, as
opposed to the more genuine internal relations.[5] Some philosophers believe that all relations are external, leading to
a scepticism about relations in general, on the basis that external relations have no fundamental existence.

77.9 See also

Abstraction

Doctrine of internal relations

Identity of indiscernibles (or "Leibniz's law)

Intension

Unary relation

77.10 References
[1] Stanford Encyclopaedia of Philosophy Determinate and Determinable Properties

[2] Georges Dicker (1998). Humes Epistemology & Metaphysics. Routledge. p. 31.

[3] Lovely and Suspect Qualities. Retrieved 3 August 2016.

[4] Nelson, Michael (1 January 2012). Zalta, Edward N., ed. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Retrieved 3 August
2016 via Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.

[5] George Moore, External and Internal Relations

77.11 External links

Properties. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
MacBride, Fraser. Relations. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.

This article incorporates material from property on PlanetMath, which is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution/Share-
Alike License.
Chapter 78

Proportionality (mathematics)

For other uses, see Proportionality.

In mathematics, two variables are proportional if a change in one is always accompanied by a change in the

variabley
y=kx

y
3

y
2
x y
1 variablex
4
x x x
1 2 3

y
4

Variable y is directly proportional to the variable x.

other, and if the changes are always related by use of a constant multiplier. The constant is called the coecient of
proportionality or proportionality constant.

If one variable is always the product of the other and a constant, the two are said to be directly proportional. x
and y are directly proportional if the ratio y/x is constant.

If the product of the two variables is always a constant, the two are said to be inversely proportional. x and y
are inversely proportional if the product xy is constant.

257
258 CHAPTER 78. PROPORTIONALITY (MATHEMATICS)

To express the statement "y is directly proportional to x" mathematically, we write an equation y = cx, where c is the
proportionality constant. Symbolically, this is written as y x.
To express the statement "y is inversely proportional to x" mathematically, we write an equation y = c/x. We can
equivalently write "y is directly proportional to 1/x".
An equality of two ratios is called a proportion. An example is a/c = b/d where no term is zero.

78.1 Direct proportionality

Given two variables x and y, y is directly proportional to x[1] if there is a non-zero constant k such that

y = kx.
The relation is often denoted, using the or ~ symbol, as

y x,
and the constant ratio

y
k=
x
is called the proportionality constant, constant of variation or constant of proportionality.

78.1.1 Examples
If an object travels at a constant speed, then the distance traveled is directly proportional to the time spent
traveling, with the speed being the constant of proportionality.
The circumference of a circle is directly proportional to its diameter, with the constant of proportionality equal
to .
On a map drawn to scale, the distance between any two points on the map is directly proportional to the distance
between the two locations that the points represent, with the constant of proportionality being the scale of the
map.
The force acting on a certain object due to gravity is directly proportional to the objects mass; the constant of
proportionality between the mass and the force is known as gravitational acceleration.

78.1.2 Properties
Since

y = kx
is equivalent to

( )
1
x= y,
k
it follows that if y is directly proportional to x, with (nonzero) proportionality constant k, then x is also directly
proportional to y, with proportionality constant 1/k.
If y is directly proportional to x, then the graph of y as a function of x is a straight line passing through the origin with
the slope of the line equal to the constant of proportionality: it corresponds to linear growth.
78.2. INVERSE PROPORTIONALITY 259

78.2 Inverse proportionality

Inverse proportionality with a function of y = 1/ x.

The concept of inverse proportionality can be contrasted with direct proportionality. Consider two variables said to
be inversely proportional to each other. If all other variables are held constant, the magnitude or absolute value
of one inversely proportional variable decreases if the other variable increases, while their product (the constant of
proportionality k) is always the same.
Formally, two variables are inversely proportional (also called varying inversely, in inverse variation, in inverse
proportion, in reciprocal proportion) if each of the variables is directly proportional to the multiplicative inverse
(reciprocal) of the other, or equivalently if their product is a constant.[2] It follows that the variable y is inversely
proportional to the variable x if there exists a non-zero constant k such that

( )
k
y=
x
or equivalently xy = k. Hence the constant is the product of x and y.
As an example, the time taken for a journey is inversely proportional to the speed of travel; the time needed to dig a
hole is (approximately) inversely proportional to the number of people digging.
The graph of two variables varying inversely on the Cartesian coordinate plane is a rectangular hyperbola. The product
of the x and y values of each point on the curve equals the constant of proportionality (k). Since neither x nor y can
equal zero (because k is non-zero), the graph never crosses either axis.

78.3 Hyperbolic coordinates

Main article: Hyperbolic coordinates
260 CHAPTER 78. PROPORTIONALITY (MATHEMATICS)

The concepts of direct and inverse proportion lead to the location of points in the Cartesian plane by hyperbolic
coordinates; the two coordinates correspond to the constant of direct proportionality that species a point as being on
a particular ray and the constant of inverse proportionality that species a point as being on a particular hyperbola.

78.4 See also

Correlation

Eudoxus of Cnidus
Golden ratio

Proportional font
Ratio

Rule of three (mathematics)

Sample size

Similarity
Basic proportionality theorem

78.4.1 Growth
Linear growth
Hyperbolic growth

78.5 Notes
[1] Weisstein, Eric W. Directly Proportional. MathWorld A Wolfram Web Resource.

[2] Weisstein, Eric W. Inversely Proportional. MathWorld A Wolfram Web Resource.

78.6 References
Ya.B. Zeldovich, I.M. Yaglom: Higher math for Beginners. pp. 34-35
Brian Burell: Merriam-Websters Guide to Everyday Math: A Home and Business Reference. Merriam-Webster,
1998, ISBN 9780877796213, pp. 85-101
Lanius, Cynthia S.; Williams Susan E.: PROPORTIONALITY: A Unifying Theme for the Middle Grades. Math-
ematics Teaching in the Middle School 8.8 (2003), pp. 392-96 (JSTOR)
Seeley, Cathy; Schielack Jane F.: A Look at the Development of Ratios, Rates, and Proportionality. Mathematics
Teaching in the Middle School, 13.3, 2007, pp. 140-42 (JSTOR)
Van Dooren, Wim; De Bock Dirk; Evers Marleen; Verschael Lieven : Students Overuse of Proportional-
ity on Missing-Value Problems: How Numbers May Change Solutions. Journal for Research in Mathematics
Education, 40.2, 2009, pp. 187-211 (JSTOR)
Chapter 79

Q.E.D.

This article is about the Latin phrase. For the physical theory, see quantum electrodynamics. For other uses, see
QED (disambiguation).

Q.E.D. (also written QED and QED) is an initialism of the Latin phrase quod erat demonstrandum, meaning
what was to be demonstrated, or without Latin borrowings, what was to be shown.[1] These are shortenings
of, which is what was to be shown/demonstrated, however in modern English usage this is often shortened with
either which is, or is what, being dropped, therefore in this context starting a translation with either just which
was, or what was, are both syntactically acceptable English as either the corresponding is what, or which is is
then implied by whats leftover. Some may also use a less direct translation instead, thus it has been demonstrated.
Traditionally, the phrase is placed in its abbreviated form at the end of a mathematical proof or philosophical argument
when the original proposition has been restated exactly, as the conclusion of the demonstration.[2] The abbreviation
is used as a marker upon the completion of a proof.

79.1 Etymology and early use

The phrase, quod erat demonstrandum, is a translation into Latin from the Greek (hoper edei
deixai; abbreviated as ). Translating from the Latin into English yields, what was to be demonstrated, however,
translating the Greek phrase produces a slightly dierent meaning. Since the verb "" also
means to show or to prove,[3] a better translation from the Greek would read, The very thing it was required to have
shown.[2]
The Greek phrase was used by many early Greek mathematicians, including Euclid[4] and Archimedes.

79.2 Modern philosophy

Philippe van Lansberges 1604 Triangulorum Geometri used quod erat demonstrandum to conclude some proofs; others ended
with phrases such as sigillatim deinceps demonstrabitur, magnitudo demonstranda est, and other variants.[5]

261
262 CHAPTER 79. Q.E.D.

During the European Renaissance, scholars often wrote in Latin, and phrases such as Q.E.D. often were used to
conclude proofs.

Spinoza's original text of Ethics, Part 1, Q.E.D. is used at the end of Demonstratio of Propositio III on the right hand page

Perhaps the most famous use of Q.E.D. in a philosophical argument is found in the Ethics of Baruch Spinoza, published
posthumously in 1677. Written in Latin, it is considered by many to be Spinozas magnum opus. The style and system
of the book are, as Spinoza says, demonstrated in geometrical order, with axioms and denitions followed by
propositions. For Spinoza, this is a considerable improvement over Ren Descartes's writing style in the Meditations,
which follows the form of a diary.[6]

79.3 Dierence from Q.E.F.

There is another Latin phrase with a slightly dierent meaning, usually shortened similarly, but being less common
in use. od erat faciendum, originating from the Greek geometers closing (hoper edei poisai),
meaning which had to be done. Because of the dierence in meaning, the two phrases should not be confused.
Euclid used the phrase, Quod Erat Faciendum (Q.E.F.), to close propositions that were not proofs of theorems, but
constructions. For example, Euclids rst proposition showing how to construct an equilateral triangle, given one side,
is concluded this way.

79.4 Equivalents in other languages

Q.E.D. has acquired many translations in various languages, including:
There is no common formal English equivalent, although the end of a proof may be announced with a simple statement
such as this completes the proof, as required, hence proved, ergo, or by using a similar locution. WWWWW
or W5 - an abbreviation of Which Was What Was Wanted - has been used similarly. Often this is considered to be
more tongue-in-cheek than the usual Halmos symbol (see below) or Q.E.D.
79.5. TYPOGRAPHICAL FORMS USED SYMBOLICALLY 263

79.5 Typographical forms used symbolically

Main article: Tombstone (typography)

Due to the paramount importance of proofs in mathematics, mathematicians since the time of Euclid have developed
conventions to demarcate the beginning and end of proofs. In printed English language texts, the formal statements
of theorems, lemmas, and propositions are set in italics by tradition. The beginning of a proof usually follows im-
mediately thereafter, and is indicated by the word proof in boldface or italics. On the other hand, several symbolic
conventions exist to indicate the end of a proof.
While some authors still use the classical abbreviation, Q.E.D., this practice is increasingly viewed as archaic or even
pretentious. Paul Halmos pioneered the use of a solid black square at the end of a proof as a Q.E.D symbol, a practice
which has become standard, although not universal. Halmos adopted this use of a symbol from magazine typography
customs in which simple geometric shapes had been used to indicate the end of an article. This symbol was later
called the tombstone or Halmos symbol or even a halmos by mathematicians. Often the Halmos symbol is drawn on
chalkboard to signal the end of a proof during a lecture, although this practice is not so common as its use in printed
text.
The tombstone symbol appears in TeX as the character (lled square, \blacksquare) and sometimes, as a (hollow
square, \square). In the AMS Theorem Environment for LaTeX, the hollow square is the default end-of-proof symbol.
Unicode explicitly provides the End of proof character, U+220E (). Some authors use other Unicode symbols to
note the end of a proof, including, (U+25AE, a black vertical rectangle), and (U+2023, a triangular bullet). Other
authors have adopted two forward slashes (//) or four forward slashes (////).[7] In other cases, authors have elected to
segregate proofs typographically by displaying them as indented blocks.[8]

79.6 Modern humorous use

In Joseph Heller's book Catch-22, the Chaplain, having been told to examine a forged letter allegedly signed by him
(which he knew he didn't sign), veried that his name was in fact there. His investigator replied, Then you wrote
it. Q.E.D. The chaplain said he didn't write it and that it wasn't his handwriting, to which the investigator replied,
Then you signed your name in somebody elses handwriting again.[9]
In the 1978 science-ction radio comedy, and later in the television and novel adaptations of The Hitchhikers Guide
to the Galaxy, Q.E.D. is referred to in the Guides entry for the babel sh, when it is claimed that the babel sh
- which serves the mind-bogglingly useful purpose of being able to translate any spoken language when inserted
into a persons ear - is used as evidence for existence and non-existence of God. The exchange from the novel is as
follows: "'I refuse to prove I exist,' says God, 'for proof denies faith, and without faith I am nothing.' 'But,' says Man,
'The babel sh is a dead giveaway, isn't it? It could not have evolved by chance. It proves you exist, and so therefore,
by your own arguments, you don't. QED.' 'Oh dear,' says God, 'I hadn't thought of that,' and promptly vanishes in a
pu of logic.[10]
In Neal Stephenson's 1999 novel Cryptonomicon, Q.E.D. is used as a punchline to several humorous anecdotes in
which characters go to great lengths to prove something non-mathematical.[11]
Singer-songwriter Thomas Dolby's 1988 song Airhead includes the lyric, Quod erat demonstrandum, baby, refer-
ring to the self-evident vacuousness of the eponymous subject; and in response, a female voice squeals, delightedly,
Oooh... you speak French!" [12]

79.7 See also

List of Latin abbreviations

A priori and a posteriori

Bobs your uncle

Ipso facto
264 CHAPTER 79. Q.E.D.

79.8 References
[1] Denition of QUOD ERAT DEMONSTRANDUM. www.merriam-webster.com. Retrieved 2017-09-03.

[2] Euclids Elements translated from Greek by Thomas L. Heath. 2003 Green Lion Press pg. xxiv

[3] Entry at LSJ.

[4] Elements 2.5 by Euclid (ed. J. L. Heiberg), retrieved 16 July 2005

[5] Philippe van Lansberge (1604). Triangulorum Geometri. Apud Zachariam Roman. pp. 15.

[6] The Chief Works of Benedict De Spinoza, translated by R. H. M. Elwes, 1951. ISBN 0-486-20250-X.

[7] Rudin, Walter (1987). Real and Complex Analysis. McGraw-Hill. ISBN 0-07-100276-6.

[8] Rudin, Walter (1976). Principles of Mathematical Analysis. New York: McGraw-Hill. ISBN 007054235X.

[9] Heller, Joseph (1971). Catch-22. ISBN 9780573606854. Retrieved 15 July 2011.

[10] Adams, Douglas (2005). The Hitchhikers Guide to the Galaxy. The Hitchhikers Guide to the Galaxy (Film tie-in ed.).
Basingstoke and Oxford: Pan Macmillan. pp. 6264. ISBN 0-330-43798-4.

[11] Stephenson, Neal (1999). Cryptonomicon. New York, NY: Avon Books. ISBN 978-0-06-051280-4.

[12] Airhead - Thomas Dolby. play.google.com. Retrieved 2016-09-15.

79.9 External links

Earliest Known Uses of Some of the Words of Mathematics (Q)
Chapter 80

Quadrature (mathematics)

In mathematics, quadrature is a historical term which means determining area. Quadrature problems served as one
of the main sources of problems in the development of calculus, and introduce important topics in mathematical
analysis.

80.1 History

a b
A H C
Antique method to nd the geometric mean

Mathematicians of ancient Greece, according to the Pythagorean doctrine, understood determination of area of a
gure as the process of geometrically constructing a square having the same area (squaring), thus the name quadrature
for this process. The Greek geometers were not always successful (see quadrature of the circle), but they did carry
out quadratures of some gures whose sides were not simply line segments, such as the lunes of Hippocrates and the
quadrature of the parabola. By Greek tradition, these constructions had to be performed using only a compass and
straightedge.

For a quadrature of a rectangle with the sides a and b it is necessary to construct a square with the side x = ab (the
geometric mean of a and b). For this purpose it is possible to use the following: if one draws the circle with diameter
made from joining line segments of lengths a and b, then the height (BH in the diagram) of the line segment drawn

265
266 CHAPTER 80. QUADRATURE (MATHEMATICS)

perpendicular to the diameter, from the point of their connection to the point where it crosses the circle, equals the
geometric mean of a and b. A similar geometrical construction solves the problems of quadrature of a parallelogram
and of a triangle.

// //
d d

The area of a segment of a parabola is 4/3 that of the area of a certain inscribed triangle.

Problems of quadrature for curvilinear gures are much more dicult. The quadrature of the circle with compass
and straightedge was proved in the 19th century to be impossible. Nevertheless, for some gures (for example a lune
of Hippocrates) a quadrature can be performed. The quadratures of the surface of a sphere and a parabola segment
discovered by Archimedes became the highest achievement of analysis in antiquity.

The area of the surface of a sphere is equal to four times the area of the circle formed by a great
circle of this sphere.
The area of a segment of a parabola determined by a straight line cutting it is 4/3 the area of a
triangle inscribed in this segment.

For the proof of these results, Archimedes used the method of exhaustion[1]:113 of Eudoxus.
In medieval Europe, quadrature meant the calculation of area by any method. Most often the method of indivisibles
was used; it was less rigorous than the geometric constructions of the Greeks, but it was simpler and more powerful.
With its help, Galileo Galilei and Gilles de Roberval found the area of a cycloid arch, Grgoire de Saint-Vincent
investigated the area under a hyperbola (Opus Geometricum, 1647),[1]:491 and Alphonse Antonio de Sarasa, de Saint-
Vincents pupil and commentator, noted the relation of this area to logarithms.[1]:492[2]
John Wallis algebrised this method; he wrote in his Arithmetica Innitorum (1656) some series which are equivalent
to what is now called the denite integral, and he calculated their values. Isaac Barrow and James Gregory made
further progress: quadratures for some algebraic curves and spirals. Christiaan Huygens successfully performed a
quadrature of the surface area of some solids of revolution.
80.2. SEE ALSO 267

The quadrature of the hyperbola by Saint-Vincent and de Sarasa provided a new function, the natural logarithm, of
critical importance. With the invention of integral calculus came a universal method for area calculation. In response,
the term quadrature has become traditional (some would say archaic), and instead the modern phrase nding the area
is more commonly used for what is technically the computation of a univariate denite integral.

80.2 See also

Gaussian quadrature

Hyperbolic angle

Numerical integration
Quadrance

Quadratrix
Tanh-sinh quadrature

80.3 Notes
[1] Katz, Victor J. (1998). A History of Mathematics: An Introduction (2nd ed.). Addison Wesley Longman. ISBN 0321016181.

[2] Enrique A. Gonzales-Velasco (2011) Journey through Mathematics, 2.4 Hyperbolic Logarithms, page 117

80.4 References
Boyer, C. B. (1989) A History of Mathematics, 2nd ed. rev. by Uta C. Merzbach. New York: Wiley, ISBN
0-471-09763-2 (1991 pbk ed. ISBN 0-471-54397-7).

Eves, Howard (1990) An Introduction to the History of Mathematics, Saunders, ISBN 0-03-029558-0,
Christiaan Huygens (1651) Theoremata de Quadratura Hyperboles, Ellipsis et Circuli

Jean-Etienne Montucla (1873) History of the Quadrature of the Circle, J. Babin translator, William Alexander
Myers editor, link from HathiTrust.

Christoph Scriba (1983) Gregorys Converging Double Sequence: a new look at the controversy between
Huygens and Gregory over the 'analytical' quadrature of the circle, Historia Mathematica 10:27485.
Chapter 81

Reduction (mathematics)

For other uses, see Reduction (disambiguation).

In mathematics, reduction refers to the rewriting of an expression into a simpler form. For example, the process of
rewriting a fraction into one with the smallest whole-number denominator possible (while keeping the numerator an
integer) is called reducing a fraction. Rewriting a radical (or root) expression with the smallest possible whole
number under the radical symbol is called reducing a radical. Minimizing the number of radicals that appear
underneath other radicals in an expression is called denesting radicals.

81.1 Algebra
In linear algebra, reduction refers to applying simple rules to a series of equations or matrices to change them into
a simpler form. In the case of matrices, the process involves manipulating either the rows or the columns of the
matrix and so is usually referred to as row-reduction or column-reduction, respectively. Often the aim of reduction
is to transform a matrix into its row-reduced echelon form" or row-echelon form"; this is the goal of Gaussian
elimination.

81.2 Calculus
In calculus, reduction refers to using the technique of integration by parts to evaluate a whole class of integrals by
reducing them to simpler forms.

81.3 Static (Guyan) Reduction

In dynamic analysis, static reduction refers to reducing the number of degrees of freedom. Static reduction can also be
used in FEA analysis to refer to simplication of a linear algebraic problem. Since a static reduction requires several
inversion steps it is an expensive matrix operation and is prone to some error in the solution. Consider the following
system of linear equations in an FEA problem:

[ ][ ] [ ]
K11 K12 x1 F
= 1
K21 K22 x2 F2
where K and F are known and K, x and F are divided into submatrices as shown above. If F2 contains only zeros,
and only x1 is desired, K can be reduced to yield the following system of equations

[ ][ ] [ ]
K11,reduced x1 = F1
K11,reduced is obtained by writing out the set of equations as follows:

268
81.3. STATIC (GUYAN) REDUCTION 269

Equation (2) can be solved for x2 (assuming invertibility of K22 ):

1
K22 K21 x1 = x2 .

And substituting into (1) gives

1
K11 x1 K12 K22 K21 x1 = F1 .

Thus

1
K11,reduced = K11 K12 K22 K21 .

In a similar fashion, any row/column i of F with a zero value may be eliminated if the corresponding value of xi is
not desired. A reduced K may be reduced again. As a note, since each reduction requires an inversion, and each
inversion is an operation with computational cost O(n3 ) most large matrices are pre-processed to reduce calculation
time.
Chapter 82

Rigidity (mathematics)

In mathematics, a rigid collection C of mathematical objects (for instance sets or functions) is one in which every c
C is uniquely determined by less information about c than one would expect.
The above statement does not dene a mathematical property. Instead, it describes in what sense the adjective rigid
is typically used in mathematics, by mathematicians.
Some examples include:

1. Harmonic functions on the unit disk are rigid in the sense that they are uniquely determined by their boundary
values.
2. Holomorphic functions are determined by the set of all derivatives at a single point. A smooth function from
the real line to the complex plane is not, in general, determined by all its derivatives at a single point, but it is
if we require additionally that it be possible to extend the function to one on a neighbourhood of the real line
in the complex plane. The Schwarz lemma is an example of such a rigidity theorem.
3. By the fundamental theorem of algebra, polynomials in C are rigid in the sense that any polynomial is com-
pletely determined by its values on any innite set, say N, or the unit disk. Note that by the previous example,
a polynomial is also determined within the set of holomorphic functions by the nite set of its non-zero deriva-
tives at any single point.
4. Linear maps L(X, Y) between vector spaces X, Y are rigid in the sense that any L L(X, Y) is completely
determined by its values on any set of basis vectors of X.
5. Mostows rigidity theorem, which states that the geometric structure of negatively curved manifolds is deter-
mined by their topological structure.
6. A well-ordered set is rigid in the sense that the only (order-preserving) automorphism on it is the identity
function. Consequently, an isomorphism between two given well-ordered sets will be unique.
7. Cauchys theorem on geometry of convex polytopes states that a convex polytope is uniquely determined by
the geometry of its faces and combinatorial adjacency rules.
8. Alexandrovs uniqueness theorem states that a convex polyhedron in three dimensions is uniquely determined
by the metric space of geodesics on its surface.

82.1 See also

Uniqueness theorem
Structural rigidity, a mathematical theory describing the degrees of freedom of ensembles of rigid physical
objects connected together by exible hinges.

This article incorporates material from rigid on PlanetMath, which is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution/Share-
Alike License.

270
Chapter 83

Scope (logic)

In logic, the scope of a quantier or a quantication is the range in the formula where the quantier engages in. It
is put right after the quantier, often in parentheses. Some authors describe this as including the variable put right
after the forall or exists symbol. In the formula xP, for example, P (or xP [1] ) is the scope of the quantier x (or ).
A variable in the formula is free, if and only if it does not occur in the scope of any quantier for that variable. A term
is free for a variable in the formula (i.e. free to substitute that variable that occurs free), if and only if that variable
does not occur free in the scope of any quantier for any variable in the term.

83.1 See also

Modal scope fallacy

83.2 Notes
[1] Bell, John L.; Machover, Mosh (April 15, 2007). Chapter 1. Beginning mathematical logic. A Course in Mathematical
Logic. Elsevier Science Ltd. p. 17. ISBN 978-0-7204-2844-5.

271
Chapter 84

Sides of an equation

In mathematics, LHS is informal shorthand for the left-hand side of an equation. Similarly, RHS is the right-hand
side. The two sides have the same value, expressed dierently, since equality is symmetric.[1]
More generally, these terms may apply to an inequation or inequality; the right-hand side is everything on the right
side of a test operator in an expression, with LHS dened similarly.

84.1 Some examples

The expression on the right side of the "=" sign is the right side of the equation and the expression on the left of the
"=" is the left side of the equation.
For example, in

x + 5 = y + 8,

"x + 5 is the left-hand side (LHS) and "y + 8 is the right-hand side (RHS).

84.2 Homogeneous and inhomogeneous equations

In solving mathematical equations, particularly linear simultaneous equations, dierential equations and integral equa-
tions, the terminology homogeneous is often used for equations with some linear operator L on the LHS and 0 on the
RHS. In contrast, an equation with a non-zero RHS is called inhomogeneous or non-homogeneous, as exemplied by

Lf = g,

with g a xed function, which equation is to be solved for f. Then any solution of the inhomogeneous equation may
have a solution of the homogeneous equation added to it, and still remain a solution.
For example in mathematical physics, the homogeneous equation may correspond to a physical theory formulated
in empty space, while the inhomogeneous equation asks for more 'realistic' solutions with some matter, or charged
particles.

84.3 Syntax
More abstractly, when using inx notation

T *U

the term T stands as the left-hand side and U as the right-hand side of the operator *. This usage is less common,
though.

272
84.4. SEE ALSO 273

84.4 See also

Equals sign

84.5 References
[1] Engineering Mathematics, John Bird, p65: denition and example of abbreviation
Chapter 85

Sign (mathematics)

Not to be confused with the sine function in trigonometry.

For symbols named " sign, see List of mathematical symbols.
In mathematics, the concept of sign originates from the property of every non-zero real number of being positive

The plus and minus symbols are used to show the sign of a number.

or negative. Zero itself is signless, although in some contexts it makes sense to consider a signed zero, and in some
contexts it makes sense to call 0 its own sign. Along with its application to real numbers, change of sign is used
throughout mathematics and physics to denote the additive inverse (negation, or multiplication by 1), even for quan-
tities which are not real numbers (so, which are not prescribed to be either positive, negative, or zero). Also, the
word sign can indicate aspects of mathematical objects that resemble positivity and negativity, such as the sign of
a permutation (see below).

274
85.1. SIGN OF A NUMBER 275

85.1 Sign of a number

Every number has multiple attributes (such as value, sign and magnitude). A real number is said to be positive if its
value (not its magnitude) is greater than zero, and negative if it is less than zero. The attribute of being positive or
negative is called the sign of the number. Zero itself is not considered to have a sign (though this is context dependent,
see below). Also, signs are not dened for complex numbers, although the argument generalizes it in some sense.
In common numeral notation (which is used in arithmetic and elsewhere), the sign of a number is often denoted by
placing a plus sign or a minus sign before the number. For example, +3 denotes positive three, and 3 denotes
negative three. When no plus or minus sign is given, the default interpretation is that a number is positive. Because
of this notation, as well as the denition of negative numbers through subtraction, the minus sign is perceived to have
a strong association with negative numbers (of the negative sign). Likewise, "+" associates with positivity.
In algebra, a minus sign is usually thought of as representing the operation of additive inverse (sometimes called
negation), with the additive inverse of a positive number being negative and the additive inverse of a negative number
being positive. In this context, it makes sense to write (3) = +3.
Any non-zero number can be changed to a positive one using the absolute value function. For example, the absolute
value of 3 and the absolute value of 3 are both equal to 3. In symbols, this would be written |3| = 3 and |3| = 3.

85.1.1 Sign of zero

The number zero is neither positive nor negative, and therefore has no sign. In arithmetic, +0 and 0 both denote the
same number 0, which is the additive inverse of itself.
Note that this denition is culturally determined. In France and Belgium, 0 is said to be both positive and negative.
The positive resp. negative numbers without zero are said to be strictly positive resp. strictly negative.
In some contexts, such as signed number representations in computing, it makes sense to consider signed versions of
zero, with positive zero and negative zero being dierent numbers (see signed zero).
One also sees +0 and 0 in calculus and mathematical analysis when evaluating one-sided limits. This notation refers
to the behaviour of a function as the input variable approaches 0 from positive or negative values respectively; these
behaviours are not necessarily the same.

85.1.2 Terminology for signs

Because zero is neither positive nor negative (in most countries), the following phrases are sometimes used to refer
to the sign of an unknown number:

A number is positive if it is greater than zero.

A number is negative if it is less than zero.
A number is non-negative if it is greater than or equal to zero.
A number is non-positive if it is less than or equal to zero.

Thus a non-negative number is either positive or zero, while a non-positive number is either negative or zero. For
example, the absolute value of a real number is always non-negative, but is not necessarily positive.
The same terminology is sometimes used for functions that take real or integer values. For example, a function would
be called positive if all of its values are positive, or non-negative if all of its values are non-negative.

85.1.3 Sign convention

Main article: Sign convention

In many contexts the choice of sign convention (which range of values is considered positive and which negative) is
natural, whereas in others the choice is arbitrary subject only to consistency, the latter necessitating an explicit sign
convention.
276 CHAPTER 85. SIGN (MATHEMATICS)

85.2 Sign function

y
1

1
Signum function y = sgn(x)

Main article: Sign function

The sign function or signum function is sometimes used to extract the sign of a number. This function is usually
dened as follows:

1 ifx < 0,
sgn(x) = 0 ifx = 0,


1 ifx > 0.

Thus sgn(x) is 1 when x is positive, and sgn(x) is 1 when x is negative. For nonzero values of x, this function can
also be dened by the formula

x |x|
sgn(x) = =
|x| x

where |x| is the absolute value of x.

85.3 Meanings of sign

85.3. MEANINGS OF SIGN 277

(0,0) A (1,0)

Measuring from the x-axis, angles on the unit circle count as positive in the counterclockwise direction, and negative in the clockwise
direction.

85.3.1 Sign of an angle

In many contexts, it is common to associate a sign with the measure of an angle, particularly an oriented angle or an
angle of rotation. In such a situation, the sign indicates whether the angle is in the clockwise or counterclockwise
direction. Though dierent conventions can be used, it is common in mathematics to have counterclockwise angles
count as positive, and clockwise angles count as negative.
It is also possible to associate a sign to an angle of rotation in three dimensions, assuming the axis of rotation has been
oriented. Specically, a right-handed rotation around an oriented axis typically counts as positive, while a left-handed
rotation counts as negative.

85.3.2 Sign of a change

When a quantity x changes over time, the change in the value of x is typically dened by the equation

x = xnal xinitial .

Using this convention, an increase in x counts as positive change, while a decrease of x counts as negative change.
In calculus, this same convention is used in the denition of the derivative. As a result, any increasing function has
positive derivative, while a decreasing function has negative derivative.
278 CHAPTER 85. SIGN (MATHEMATICS)

85.3.3 Sign of a direction

In analytic geometry and physics, it is common to label certain directions as positive or negative. For a basic example,
the number line is usually drawn with positive numbers to the right, and negative numbers to the left:

-9 -8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

As a result, when discussing linear motion, displacement or velocity to the right is usually thought of as being positive,
while similar motion to the left is thought of as being negative.
On the Cartesian plane, the rightward and upward directions are usually thought of as positive, with rightward being
the positive x-direction, and upward being the positive y-direction. If a displacement or velocity vector is separated
into its vector components, then the horizontal part will be positive for motion to the right and negative for motion to
the left, while the vertical part will be positive for motion upward and negative for motion downward.

85.3.4 Signedness in computing

Main article: Signedness

In computing, an integer value may be either signed or unsigned, depending on whether the computer is keeping track
of a sign for the number. By restricting an integer variable to non-negative values only, one more bit can be used for
storing the value of a number. Because of the way integer arithmetic is done within computers, the sign of a signed
integer variable is usually not stored as a single independent bit, but is instead stored using twos complement or some
other signed number representation.
In contrast, real numbers are stored and manipulated as Floating point values. The oating point values are represented
using three separate values, mantissa, exponent, and sign. Given this separate sign bit, it is possible to represent both
positive and negative zero. Most programming languages normally treat positive zero and negative zero as equivalent
values, albeit, they provide means by which the distinction can be detected.

85.3.5 Other meanings

In addition to the sign of a real number, the word sign is also used in various related ways throughout mathematics
and the sciences:

Words up to sign mean that for a quantity q is known that either q = Q or q = Q for certain Q. It is often
expressed as q = Q. For real numbers, it means that only the absolute value |q| of the quantity is known. For
complex numbers and vectors, a quantity known up to sign is a stronger condition than a quantity with known
magnitude: aside Q and Q, there are many other possible values of q such that |q| = |Q|.

The sign of a permutation is dened to be positive if the permutation is even, and negative if the permutation
is odd.

In graph theory, a signed graph is a graph in which each edge has been marked with a positive or negative sign.

In mathematical analysis, a signed measure is a generalization of the concept of measure in which the measure
of a set may have positive or negative values.

In a signed-digit representation, each digit of a number may have a positive or negative sign.

The ideas of signed area and signed volume are sometimes used when it is convenient for certain areas or
volumes to count as negative. This is particularly true in the theory of determinants.

In physics, any electric charge comes with a sign, either positive or negative. By convention, a positive charge
is a charge with the same sign as that of a proton, and a negative charge is a charge with the same sign as that
of an electron.
85.4. SEE ALSO 279

Electric charge may be positive or negative.

85.4 See also

Signedness
Positive element

Symmetry in mathematics
Chapter 86

Single-valued function

X Y
1 D

2 B
3 C

A
This diagram represents a single-valued function with domain {1, 2, 3} . Each
input, on the left, maps to a single output, on the right. This function is not injective, however, because two dierent
numbers both map to the output C

X Y
1 D

2 B
3 C
4 A
This does not represent a single-valued function; the input 2 maps to two
distinct outputs. This type of correspondence is a multi-valued function.

A single-valued function is an emphatic term for a mathematical function in the usual sense. That is, each element
of the functions domain maps to a single, well-dened element of its range. This contrasts with a general binary
relation, which can be viewed as being a multi-valued function.

86.1 Example

In complex analysis, each complex number other than 0 has three distinct cube roots. Therefore, the function f(z) =
z1/3 can be naturally treated as a multi-valued function in which each number other than zero maps to three distinct
values. The theory of Riemann surfaces gives a way to study the behavior of this function and other multi-valued
functions on the complex numbers.

280
86.2. INJECTIVE FUNCTIONS 281

86.2 Injective functions

A function is injective (also called one-to-one) if each element of the range arises from a single element of the
domain. In contrast, a function is single-valued if each element of the domain maps to a single element of the range.
Chapter 87

Space (mathematics)

This article is about mathematical structures called spaces. For other uses, see Space (disambiguation).
Space (geometry)" redirects here. It is not to be confused with Geometrical space.
In mathematics, a space is a set (sometimes called a universe) with some added structure.

Topological spaces

Metric spaces

Normed
vector spaces

Inner
product
spaces

A hierarchy of mathematical spaces: The inner product induces a norm. The norm induces a metric. The metric induces a topology.

282
87.1. HISTORY 283

Mathematical spaces often form a hierarchy, i.e., one space may inherit all the characteristics of a parent space. For
instance, all inner product spaces are also normed vector spaces, because the inner product induces a norm on the
inner product space such that:

x = x, x,

where the norm is indicated by enclosing in double vertical lines, and the inner product is indicated enclosing in by
angle brackets.
Modern mathematics treats space quite dierently compared to classical mathematics.

87.1 History

87.1.1 Before the golden age of geometry

In the ancient mathematics, space was a geometric abstraction of the three-dimensional space observed in the
everyday life. The axiomatic method had been the main research tool since Euclid (about 300 BC). The method of
coordinates (analytic geometry) was adopted by Ren Descartes in 1637.[1] At that time, geometric theorems were
treated as an absolute objective truth knowable through intuition and reason, similar to objects of natural science;[2]:11
and axioms were treated as obvious implications of denitions.[2]:15
Two equivalence relations between geometric gures were used: congruence and similarity. Translations, rotations
and reections transform a gure into congruent gures; homotheties into similar gures. For example, all circles
are mutually similar, but ellipses are not similar to circles. A third equivalence relation, introduced by Gaspard Monge
in 1795, occurs in projective geometry: not only ellipses, but also parabolas and hyperbolas, turn into circles under
appropriate projective transformations; they all are projectively equivalent gures.
The relation between the two geometries, Euclidean and projective,[2]:133 shows that mathematical objects are not
given to us with their structure.[2]:21 Rather, each mathematical theory describes its objects by some of their properties,
precisely those that are put as axioms at the foundations of the theory.[2]:20
Distances and angles are never mentioned in the axioms of the projective geometry and therefore cannot appear in its
theorems. The question what is the sum of the three angles of a triangle is meaningful in the Euclidean geometry
but meaningless in the projective geometry.
A dierent situation appeared in the 19th century: in some geometries the sum of the three angles of a triangle is
well-dened but dierent from the classical value (180 degrees). The non-Euclidean hyperbolic geometry, introduced
by Nikolai Lobachevsky in 1829 and Jnos Bolyai in 1832 (and Carl Gauss in 1816, unpublished)[2]:133 stated that
the sum depends on the triangle and is always less than 180 degrees. Eugenio Beltrami in 1868 and Felix Klein in
1871 obtained Euclidean models of the non-Euclidean hyperbolic geometry, and thereby completely justied this
theory.[2]:24[3]
This discovery forced the abandonment of the pretensions to the absolute truth of Euclidean geometry. It showed
that axioms are not obvious, nor implications of denitions. Rather, they are hypotheses. To what extent do
they correspond to an experimental reality? This important physical problem no longer has anything to do with
mathematics. Even if a geometry does not correspond to an experimental reality, its theorems remain no less
mathematical truths.[2]:15
A Euclidean model of a non-Euclidean geometry is a clever choice of some objects existing in Euclidean space and
some relations between these objects that satisfy all axioms (therefore, all theorems) of the non-Euclidean geometry.
These Euclidean objects and relations play the non-Euclidean geometry like contemporary actors playing an ancient
performance. Relations between the actors only mimic relations between the characters in the play. Likewise, the
chosen relations between the chosen objects of the Euclidean model only mimic the non-Euclidean relations. It shows
that relations between objects are essential in mathematics, while the nature of the objects is not.

87.1.2 The golden age and afterwards: dramatic change

According to Nicolas Bourbaki,[2]:131 the period between 1795 (Geometrie descriptive of Monge) and 1872 (the
"Erlangen programme" of Klein) can be called the golden age of geometry. Analytic geometry made a great progress
284 CHAPTER 87. SPACE (MATHEMATICS)

and succeeded in replacing theorems of classical geometry with computations via invariants of transformation groups.[2]:134,5
Since that time new theorems of classical geometry are of more interest to amateurs rather than to professional
mathematicians.[2]:136
However, it does not mean that the heritage of the classical geometry was lost. According to Bourbaki,[2]:138 passed
over in its role as an autonomous and living science, classical geometry is thus transgured into a universal language
of contemporary mathematics.
According to the famous inaugural lecture given by Bernhard Riemann in 1854, every mathematical object parametrized
by n real numbers may be treated as a point of the n -dimensional space of all such objects.[2]:140 Contemporary math-
ematicians follow this idea routinely and nd it extremely suggestive to use the terminology of classical geometry
nearly everywhere.[2]:138
In order to fully appreciate the generality of this approach one should note that mathematics is a pure theory of
forms, which has as its purpose, not the combination of quantities, or of their images, the numbers, but objects of
thought (Hermann Hankel, 1867).[2]:21 This is a controversial characterization of the purpose of mathematics, which
is not necessarily committed to the existence of objects of thought.
Functions are important mathematical objects. Usually they form innite-dimensional function spaces, as noted
already by Riemann[2]:141 and elaborated in the 20th century by functional analysis.
An object parametrized by n complex numbers may be treated as a point of a complex n-dimensional space. However,
the same object is also parametrized by 2 n real numbers (if c is a complex number, then c = a + b i, where a and b
are real), thus, a point of a real 2n-dimensional space. The complex dimension diers from the real dimension. This
is only the tip of the iceberg. The algebraic concept of dimension applies to vector spaces. For topological spaces
there are several dimension concepts including inductive dimension and Hausdor dimension, which can be non-
integer (especially for fractals). Some kinds of spaces (for instance, measure spaces) admit no concept of dimension
at all.
The original space investigated by Euclid is now called three-dimensional Euclidean space. Its axiomatization, started
by Euclid 23 centuries ago, was reformed with Hilberts axioms, Tarskis axioms and Birkhos axioms. These axiom
systems describe the space via primitive notions (such as point, between, congruent) constrained by a number
of axioms. Such a denition from scratch is now not often used, since it does not reveal the relation of this space
to other spaces. The modern approach denes the three-dimensional Euclidean space more algebraically, via vector
spaces and quadratic forms, namely, as an ane space whose dierence space is a three-dimensional inner product
space.
Also a three-dimensional projective space is now dened non-classically, as the space of all one-dimensional subspaces
(that is, straight lines through the origin) of a four-dimensional vector space.
A space consists now of selected mathematical objects (for instance, functions on another space, or subspaces of
another space, or just elements of a set) treated as points, and selected relationships between these points. It shows
that spaces are just mathematical structures of convenience. One may expect that the structures called spaces are
more geometric than others, but this is not always true. For example, a dierentiable manifold (called also smooth
manifold) is much more geometric than a measurable space, but no one calls it dierentiable space (nor smooth
space).

87.2 Taxonomy of spaces

87.2.1 Three taxonomic ranks

Spaces are classied on three levels. Given that each mathematical theory describes its objects by some of their
properties, the rst question to ask is: which properties?
For example, the upper-level classication distinguishes between Euclidean and projective spaces, since the distance
between two points is dened in Euclidean spaces but undened in projective spaces. These are spaces of dierent
types.
Another example. The question what is the sum of the three angles of a triangle makes sense in a Euclidean space
but not in a projective space; these are spaces of dierent types. In a non-Euclidean space the question makes sense
but is answered dierently, which is not an upper-level distinction.
Also, the distinction between a Euclidean plane and a Euclidean 3-dimensional space is not an upper-level distinction;
87.2. TAXONOMY OF SPACES 285

the question what is the dimension makes sense in both cases.

In terms of Bourbaki[4] the upper-level classication is related to typical characterization (or typication). How-
ever, it is not the same (since two equivalent structures may dier in typication).
On the second level of classication one takes into account answers to especially important questions (among the
questions that make sense according to the rst level). For example, this level distinguishes between Euclidean
and non-Euclidean spaces; between nite-dimensional and innite-dimensional spaces; between compact and non-
compact spaces, etc.
In terms of Bourbaki[4] the second-level classication is the classication by species. Unlike biological taxonomy,
a space may belong to several species.
On the third level of classication, roughly speaking, one takes into account answers to all possible questions (that
make sense according to the rst level). For example, this level distinguishes between spaces of dierent dimension,
but does not distinguish between a plane of a three-dimensional Euclidean space, treated as a two-dimensional Eu-
clidean space, and the set of all pairs of real numbers, also treated as a two-dimensional Euclidean space. Likewise
it does not distinguish between dierent Euclidean models of the same non-Euclidean space.
More formally, the third level classies spaces up to isomorphism. An isomorphism between two spaces is dened as
a one-to-one correspondence between the points of the rst space and the points of the second space, that preserves
all relations between the points, stipulated by the given typication. Mutually isomorphic spaces are thought of as
copies of a single space. If one of them belongs to a given species then they all do.
The notion of isomorphism sheds light on the upper-level classication. Given a one-to-one correspondence between
two spaces of the same type, one may ask whether it is an isomorphism or not. This question makes no sense for two
spaces of dierent type.
Isomorphisms to itself are called automorphisms. Automorphisms of a Euclidean space are motions and reections.
Euclidean space is homogeneous in the sense that every point can be transformed into every other point by some
automorphism.

87.2.2 Two relations between spaces, and a property of spaces

Topological notions (continuity, convergence, open sets, closed sets etc.) are dened naturally in every Euclidean
space. In other words, every Euclidean space is also a topological space. Every isomorphism between two Euclidean
spaces is also an isomorphism between the corresponding topological spaces (called "homeomorphism"), but the
converse is wrong: a homeomorphism may distort distances. In terms of Bourbaki,[4] topological space is an
underlying structure of the Euclidean space structure. Similar ideas occur in category theory: the category of
Euclidean spaces is a concrete category over the category of topological spaces; the forgetful (or stripping) functor
maps the former category to the latter category.
A three-dimensional Euclidean space is a special case of a Euclidean space. In terms of Bourbaki,[4] the species of
three-dimensional Euclidean space is richer than the species of Euclidean space. Likewise, the species of compact
topological space is richer than the species of topological space.
Euclidean axioms leave no freedom, they determine uniquely all geometric properties of the space. More exactly: all
three-dimensional Euclidean spaces are mutually isomorphic. In this sense we have the three-dimensional Euclidean
space. In terms of Bourbaki, the corresponding theory is univalent. In contrast, topological spaces are generally non-
isomorphic, their theory is multivalent. A similar idea occurs in mathematical logic: a theory is called categorical
if all its models of the same cardinality are mutually isomorphic. According to Bourbaki,[5] the study of multivalent
theories is the most striking feature which distinguishes modern mathematics from classical mathematics.

87.2.3 Types of spaces

Linear and topological spaces

Two basic spaces are linear spaces (also called vector spaces) and topological spaces.
Linear spaces are of algebraic nature; there are real linear spaces (over the eld of real numbers), complex linear spaces
(over the eld of complex numbers), and more generally, linear spaces over any eld. Every complex linear space
is also a real linear space (the latter underlies the former), since each real number is also a complex number.[details 1]
286 CHAPTER 87. SPACE (MATHEMATICS)

Overview of types of abstract spaces. An arrow from space A to space B implies that space A is also a kind of space B. That means,
for instance, that a normed vector space is also a metric space.

Linear operations, given in a linear space by denition, lead to such notions as straight lines (and planes, and other
linear subspaces); parallel lines; ellipses (and ellipsoids). However, orthogonal (perpendicular) lines cannot be dened,
and circles cannot be singled out among ellipses. The dimension of a linear space is dened as the maximal number
of linearly independent vectors or, equivalently, as the minimal number of vectors that span the space; it may be nite
or innite. Two linear spaces over the same eld are isomorphic if and only if they are of the same dimension.
Topological spaces are of analytic nature. Open sets, given in a topological space by denition, lead to such notions
as continuous functions, paths, maps; convergent sequences, limits; interior, boundary, exterior. However, uniform
continuity, bounded sets, Cauchy sequences, dierentiable functions (paths, maps) remain undened. Isomorphisms
between topological spaces are traditionally called homeomorphisms; these are one-to-one correspondences contin-
uous in both directions. The open interval (0, 1) is homeomorphic to the whole real line (, ) but not homeo-
morphic to the closed interval [0, 1] , nor to a circle. The surface of a cube is homeomorphic to a sphere (the surface
of a ball) but not homeomorphic to a torus. Euclidean spaces of dierent dimensions are not homeomorphic, which
seems evident, but is not easy to prove. Dimension of a topological space is dicult to dene; inductive dimension
and Lebesgue covering dimension are used. Every subset of a topological space is itself a topological space (in
contrast, only linear subsets of a linear space are linear spaces). Arbitrary topological spaces, investigated by general
topology (called also point-set topology) are too diverse for a complete classication (up to homeomorphism). They
are inhomogeneous (in general). Compact topological spaces are an important class of topological spaces (species
of this type). Every continuous function is bounded on such space. The closed interval [0, 1] and the extended real
line [, ] are compact; the open interval (0, 1) and the line (, ) are not. Geometric topology investigates
87.2. TAXONOMY OF SPACES 287

manifolds (another species of this type); these are topological spaces locally homeomorphic to Euclidean spaces.
Low-dimensional manifolds are completely classied (up to homeomorphism).
The two structures discussed above (linear and topological) are both underlying structures of the linear topological
space structure. That is, a linear topological space is both a linear (real or complex) space and a (homogeneous, in
fact) topological space. However, an arbitrary combination of these two structures is generally not a linear topological
space; the two structures must conform, namely, the linear operations must be continuous.
Every nite-dimensional (real or complex) linear space is a linear topological space in the sense that it carries one
and only one topology that makes it a linear topological space. The two structures, nite-dimensional (real or com-
plex) linear space and nite-dimensional linear topological space, are thus equivalent, that is, mutually underlying.
Accordingly, every invertible linear transformation of a nite-dimensional linear topological space is a homeomor-
phism. In the innite dimension, however, dierent topologies conform to a given linear structure, and invertible
linear transformations are generally not homeomorphisms.

Ane and projective spaces

It is convenient to introduce ane and projective spaces by means of linear spaces, as follows. An n -dimensional
linear subspace of an (n + 1) -dimensional linear space, being itself an n -dimensional linear space, is not homoge-
neous; it contains a special point, the origin. Shifting it by a vector external to it, one obtains an n -dimensional ane
space. It is homogeneous. In the words of John Baez, an ane space is a vector space thats forgotten its origin. A
straight line in the ane space is, by denition, its intersection with a two-dimensional linear subspace (plane through
the origin) of the (n + 1) -dimensional linear space. Every linear space is also an ane space.
Every point of the ane space is its intersection with a one-dimensional linear subspace (line through the origin) of
the (n + 1) -dimensional linear space. However, some one-dimensional subspaces are parallel to the ane space; in
some sense, they intersect it at innity. The set of all one-dimensional linear subspaces of an (n + 1) -dimensional
linear space is, by denition, an n -dimensional projective space. Choosing an n -dimensional ane space as before
one observes that the ane space is embedded as a proper subset into the projective space. However, the projective
space itself is homogeneous. A straight line in the projective space, by denition, corresponds to a two-dimensional
linear subspace of the (n + 1) -dimensional linear space.
Dened this way, ane and projective spaces are of algebraic nature; they can be real, complex, and more generally,
over any eld.
Every real (or complex) ane or projective space is also a topological space. An ane space is a non-compact
manifold; a projective space is a compact manifold.

Metric and uniform spaces

Distances between points are dened in a metric space. Every metric space is also a topological space. Bounded
sets and Cauchy sequences are dened in a metric space (but not just in a topological space). Isomorphisms between
metric spaces are called isometries. A metric space is called complete if all Cauchy sequences converge. Every
incomplete space is isometrically embedded into its completion. Every compact metric space is complete; the real
line is non-compact but complete; the open interval (0, 1) is incomplete.
A topological space is called metrizable, if it underlies a metric space. All manifolds are metrizable.
Every Euclidean space is also a complete metric space. Moreover, all geometric notions immanent to a Euclidean
space can be characterized in terms of its metric. For example, the straight segment connecting two given points A
and C consists of all points B such that the distance between A and C is equal to the sum of two distances, between
A and B and between B and C .
Uniform spaces do not introduce distances, but still allow one to use uniform continuity, Cauchy sequences, com-
pleteness and completion. Every uniform space is also a topological space. Every linear topological space (metrizable
or not) is also a uniform space. More generally, every commutative topological group is also a uniform space. A non-
commutative topological group, however, carries two uniform structures, one left-invariant, the other right-invariant.
Linear topological spaces are complete in nite dimension but generally incomplete in innite dimension.
288 CHAPTER 87. SPACE (MATHEMATICS)

Normed, Banach, inner product, and Hilbert spaces

Vectors in a Euclidean space are a linear space, but each vector x has also a length, in other words, norm, x . A (real
or complex) linear space endowed with a norm is a normed space. Every normed space is both a linear topological
space and a metric space. A Banach space is a complete normed space. Many spaces of sequences or functions are
innite-dimensional Banach spaces.
The set of all vectors of norm less than one is called the unit ball of a normed space. It is a convex, centrally symmetric
set, generally not an ellipsoid; for example, it may be a polygon (on the plane). The parallelogram law (called also
parallelogram identity) x y2 + x + y2 = 2x2 + 2y2 generally fails in normed spaces, but holds for vectors
in Euclidean spaces, which follows from the fact that the squared Euclidean norm of a vector is its inner product to
itself.
An inner product space is a (real or complex) linear space endowed with a bilinear (or sesquilinear) form satisfying
some conditions and called inner product. Every inner product space is also a normed space. A normed space
underlies an inner product space if and only if it satises the parallelogram law, or equivalently, if its unit ball is an
ellipsoid. Angles between vectors are dened in inner product spaces. A Hilbert space is dened as a complete inner
product space. (Some authors insist that it must be complex, others admit also real Hilbert spaces.) Many spaces
of sequences or functions are innite-dimensional Hilbert spaces. Hilbert spaces are very important for quantum
theory.[6]
All n -dimensional real inner product spaces are mutually isomorphic. One may say that the n -dimensional Euclidean
space is the n -dimensional real inner product space thats forgotten its origin.

Smooth and Riemannian manifolds (spaces)

Smooth manifolds are not called spaces, but could be. Smooth (dierentiable) functions, paths, maps, given in a
smooth manifold by denition, lead to tangent spaces. Every smooth manifold is a (topological) manifold. Smooth
surfaces in a nite-dimensional linear space (like the surface of an ellipsoid, not a polytope) are smooth manifolds.
Every smooth manifold can be embedded into a nite-dimensional linear space. A smooth path in a smooth manifold
has (at every point) the tangent vector, belonging to the tangent space (attached to this point). Tangent spaces to an n -
dimensional smooth manifold are n -dimensional linear spaces. A smooth function has (at every point) the dierential,
a linear functional on the tangent space. Real (or complex) nite-dimensional linear, ane and projective spaces
are also smooth manifolds.
A Riemannian manifold, or Riemann space, is a smooth manifold whose tangent spaces are endowed with inner
product (satisfying some conditions). Euclidean spaces are also Riemann spaces. Smooth surfaces in Euclidean
spaces are Riemann spaces. A hyperbolic non-Euclidean space is also a Riemann space. A curve in a Riemann space
has the length. A Riemann space is both a smooth manifold and a metric space; the length of the shortest curve is
the distance. The angle between two curves intersecting at a point is the angle between their tangent lines.
Waiving positivity of inner product on tangent spaces one gets pseudo-Riemann (especially, Lorentzian) spaces very
important for general relativity.

Measurable, measure, and probability spaces

Waiving distances and angles while retaining volumes (of geometric bodies) one moves toward measure theory.
Besides the volume, a measure generalizes area, length, mass (or charge) distribution, and also probability distribution,
according to Andrey Kolmogorov's approach to probability theory.
A geometric body of classical mathematics is much more regular than just a set of points. The boundary of the
body is of zero volume. Thus, the volume of the body is the volume of its interior, and the interior can be exhausted
by an innite sequence of cubes. In contrast, the boundary of an arbitrary set of points can be of non-zero volume
(an example: the set of all rational points inside a given cube). Measure theory succeeded in extending the notion of
volume (or another measure) to a vast class of sets, so-called measurable sets. Indeed, non-measurable sets almost
never occur in applications, but anyway, the theory must restrict itself to measurable sets (and functions).
Measurable sets, given in a measurable space by denition, lead to measurable functions and maps. In order to turn
a topological space into a measurable space one endows it with a -algebra. The -algebra of Borel sets is most
popular, but not the only choice (Baire sets, universally measurable sets etc. are used sometimes). Alternatively,
a -algebra can be generated by a given collection of sets (or functions) irrespective of any topology. Quite often,
87.3. MATHEMATICAL SPACES BY NAME 289

dierent topologies lead to the same -algebra (for example, the norm topology and the weak topology on a separable
Hilbert space). Every subset of a measurable space is itself a measurable space.
Standard measurable spaces (called also standard Borel spaces) are especially useful. Every Borel set (in particular,
every closed set and every open set) in a Euclidean space (and more generally, in a complete separable metric space)
is a standard measurable space. All uncountable standard measurable spaces are mutually isomorphic.
A measure space is a measurable space endowed with a measure. A Euclidean space with Lebesgue measure is a
measure space. Integration theory denes integrability and integrals of measurable functions on a measure space.
Sets of measure 0, called null sets, are negligible. Accordingly, a mod0 isomorphism is dened as isomorphism
between subsets of full measure (that is, with negligible complement).
A probability space is a measure space such that the measure of the whole space is equal to 1. The product of any
family (nite or not) of probability spaces is a probability space. In contrast, for measure spaces in general, only the
product of nitely many spaces is dened. Accordingly, there are many innite-dimensional probability measures
(especially, Gaussian measures), but no innite-dimensional Lebesgue measure.
Standard probability spaces are especially useful. Every probability measure on a standard measurable space leads to
a standard probability space. The product of a sequence (nite or not) of standard probability spaces is a standard
probability space. All non-atomic standard probability spaces are mutually isomorphic mod0; one of them is the
interval (0, 1) with Lebesgue measure.
These spaces are less geometric. In particular, the idea of dimension, applicable (in one form or another) to all other
spaces, does not apply to measurable, measure and probability spaces.
A topological space becomes also a measurable space when endowed with the Borel -algebra.[details 2] However, the
topology is not uniquely determined by its Borel -algebra; and not every -algebra is the Borel -algebra of some
topology.[details 3]

87.3 Mathematical spaces by name

Ane space
Algebraic space
Baire space
Banach Space
Base space
Bergman space
Besov space
Borel space
Calabi-Yau space
Cantor space
Cauchy space
Cellular space
Chu space
Conformal space
Complex analytic space
Dimension
Drinfelds Symmetric space
Eilenberg-Mac Lane Space
290 CHAPTER 87. SPACE (MATHEMATICS)

Euclidean Space
Fiber space
Finsler space
First-Countable space
Frchet space
Function space
G-space
Green space
Hardy space
Hausdor space
Heisenberg space
Hilbert Space
Inner Product Space
Kolmogorov space
L2-space
Lens space
Liouville space
Locally Finite Space
Loop Space
Mapping space
Measure space
Metric space
Minkowski Space
Mntz space
Normed space
Paracompact space
Planar space
Polish space
Probability Space
Projective Space
Quadratic space
Quotient Space
Riemanns Moduli space
Sample Space
Sobolev space
Standard space
87.4. SEE ALSO 291

State space

Stone space

Symplectic space (disambiguation)

T2-space

Teichmller space

Tensor space

Topological Space

Topological Vector Space

Total space

Vector Space

87.4 See also

Mathematical structure

Transport of structure

Set (mathematics)

87.5 Notes
[1] For example, the complex plane treated as a one-dimensional complex linear space may be downgraded to a two-dimensional
real linear space. In contrast, the real line can be treated as a one-dimensional real linear space but not a complex linear
space. See also Examples of vector spaces#Field extensions.

[2] The Borel -algebra is the most notable choice; some other choices: almost open sets; Baire sets; universally measurable
sets.

[3] The space 2R (equipped with its tensor product -algebra) has a measurable structure which is not generated by a topology.
A slick proof can be found in this answer on MathOverow.

87.6 Footnotes
[1] It 1993, page 987

[2] Bourbaki, Nicolas (1994), Elements of the history of mathematics, Masson (original), Springer (translation)

[3] Jeremy Gray (1989) Ideas of Space: Euclidean, Non-Euclidean and Relativistic, Part 2, Clarendon Press

[4] Bourbaki 1968, Chapter IV

[5] Bourbaki 1968, page 385

[6] Cornelius Lanczos (1970) Space through the Ages: The Evolution of Geometrical Ideas from Pythagoras to Hilbert and
Einstein, page 269, Academic Press
292 CHAPTER 87. SPACE (MATHEMATICS)

87.7 References
It, Kiyosi, ed. (1993), Encyclopedic dictionary of mathematics (second ed.), Mathematical society of Japan
(original), MIT press (translation).
Gowers, Timothy; Barrow-Green, June; Leader, Imre, eds. (2008), The Princeton Companion to Mathematics,
Princeton University Press, ISBN 978-0-691-11880-2.

Bourbaki, Nicolas, Elements of mathematics, Hermann (original), Addison-Wesley (translation).

Bourbaki, Nicolas (1968), Elements of mathematics: Theory of sets, Hermann (original), Addison-Wesley
(translation).

87.8 External links

Matilde Marcolli (2009) The notion of space in mathematics, from Caltech.

This article incorporates material from the Citizendium article "Space (mathematics)", which is licensed under the
Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License but not under the GFDL.
Chapter 88

Stochastic

For use in technical analysis of nancial instruments, see Stochastic oscillator.

The word stochastic is an adjective in English that describes something that was randomly determined.[1] The word
rst appeared in English to describe a mathematical object called a stochastic process, but now in mathematics the
terms stochastic process and random process are considered interchangeable.[2][3][4][5][6] The word, with its current
denition meaning random, came from German, but it originally came from Greek (stokhos), meaning 'aim,
guess.[1]
The term stochastic is used in many dierent elds, particularly where stochastic or random processes are used
to represent systems or phenomena that seem to change in a random way. Examples of such elds include the
physical sciences such as biology,[7] chemistry,[8] ecology,[9] neuroscience,[10] and physics[11] as well as technology
and engineering elds such as image processing, signal processing,[12] information theory,[13] computer science,[14]
cryptography[15] and telecommunications.[16] It is also used in nance, due to seemingly random changes in nancial
markets.[17][18][19]

88.1 Etymology
The word stochastic in English was originally used as an adjective with the denition pertaining to conjecturing,
and stemming from a Greek word meaning to aim at a mark, guess, and the Oxford English Dictionary gives the
year 1662 as its earliest occurrence.[1] In his work on probability Ars Conjectandi, originally published in Latin in
1713, Jakob Bernoulli used the phrase Ars Conjectandi sive Stochastice, which has been translated to the art
of conjecturing or stochastics.[20] This phrase was used, with reference to Bernoulli, by Ladislaus Bortkiewicz[21]
who in 1917 wrote in German the word stochastik with a sense meaning random. The term stochastic process rst
appeared in English in a 1934 paper by Joseph Doob.[1] For the term and a specic mathematical denition, Doob
cited another 1934 paper, where the term stochastischer Proze was used in German by Aleksandr Khinchin,[22][23]
though the German term had been used earlier in 1931 by Andrey Kolmogorov.[24]

88.2 Mathematics
In the early 1930s, Aleksandr Khinchin gave the rst mathematical denition of a stochastic process as a set of random
variables indexed by the real line.[25][22][lower-alpha 1] Further fundamental work on probability theory and stochastic
processes was done by Khinchin as well as other mathematicians such as Andrey, Joseph Doob, William Feller,
Maurice Frchet, Paul Lvy, Wolfgang Doeblin, and Harald Cramr.[27][28] Decades later Cramr referred to the
1930s as the heroic period of mathematical probability theory.[28]
In mathematics, specically probability theory, the theory of stochastic processes is considered to be an important
contribution to mathematics[29] and it continues to be an active topic of research for both theoretical reasons and
applications.[30][31][32]
The word stochastic is used to describe other terms and objects in mathematics. Examples include a stochastic matrix,
which describes a stochastic process known as a Markov process, and stochastic calculus, which involves dierential

293
294 CHAPTER 88. STOCHASTIC

equations and integrals based on stochastic processes such as the Wiener process, also called the Brownian motion
process.

88.3 Articial intelligence

In articial intelligence, stochastic programs work by using probabilistic methods to solve problems, as in simulated
annealing, stochastic neural networks, stochastic optimization, genetic algorithms, and genetic programming. A
problem itself may be stochastic as well, as in planning under uncertainty.

88.4 Natural science

One of the simplest continuous-time stochastic processes is Brownian motion. This was rst observed by botanist
Robert Brown while looking through a microscope at pollen grains in water.

88.4.1 Physics
The name Monte Carlo for the stochastic Monte Carlo method was popularized by physics researchers Stanisaw
Ulam, Enrico Fermi, John von Neumann, and Nicholas Metropolis, among others. The name is a reference to the
Monte Carlo Casino in Monaco where Ulams uncle would borrow money to gamble.[33] The use of randomness and
the repetitive nature of the process are analogous to the activities conducted at a casino. Methods of simulation and
statistical sampling generally did the opposite: using simulation to test a previously understood deterministic problem.
Though examples of an inverted approach do exist historically, they were not considered a general method until the
popularity of the Monte Carlo method spread.
Perhaps the most famous early use was by Enrico Fermi in 1930, when he used a random method to calculate the
properties of the newly discovered neutron. Monte Carlo methods were central to the simulations required for the
Manhattan Project, though were severely limited by the computational tools at the time. Therefore, it was only after
electronic computers were rst built (from 1945 on) that Monte Carlo methods began to be studied in depth. In the
1950s they were used at Los Alamos for early work relating to the development of the hydrogen bomb, and became
popularized in the elds of physics, physical chemistry, and operations research. The RAND Corporation and the
U.S. Air Force were two of the major organizations responsible for funding and disseminating information on Monte
Carlo methods during this time, and they began to nd a wide application in many dierent elds.
Uses of Monte Carlo methods require large amounts of random numbers, and it was their use that spurred the de-
velopment of pseudorandom number generators, which were far quicker to use than the tables of random numbers
which had been previously used for statistical sampling.

88.4.2 Biology
Stochastic resonance

In biological systems, introducing stochastic noise has been found to help improve the signal strength of the internal
feedback loops for balance and other vestibular communication.[34] It has been found to help diabetic and stroke pa-
tients with balance control.[35] Many biochemical events also lend themselves to stochastic analysis. Gene expression,
for example, has a stochastic component through the molecular collisionsas during binding and unbinding of RNA
polymerase to a gene promotervia the solutions Brownian motion.

88.4.3 Medicine
Stochastic eect, or chance eect is one classication of radiation eects that refers to the random, statistical nature
of the damage. In contrast to the deterministic eect, severity is independent of dose. Only the probability of an eect
increases with dose.

Stochastic theory of hematopoiesis

88.5. COMPUTER SCIENCE 295

88.4.4 Geomorphology
Stochastic theory of meander formation

88.4.5 Creativity
Simonton (2003, Psych Bulletin) argues that creativity in science (of scientists) is a constrained stochastic behaviour
such that new theories in all sciences are, at least in part, the product of a stochastic process.

88.5 Computer science

Stochastic ray tracing is the application of Monte Carlo simulation to the computer graphics ray tracing algorithm.
"Distributed ray tracing samples the integrand at many randomly chosen points and averages the results to obtain a
better approximation. It is essentially an application of the Monte Carlo method to 3D computer graphics, and for
this reason is also called Stochastic ray tracing.
Stochastic forensics analyzes computer crime by viewing computers as stochastic processes.

88.6 Music
In music, mathematical processes based on probability can generate stochastic elements.
Stochastic processes may be used in music to compose a xed piece or may be produced in performance. Stochastic
music was pioneered by Iannis Xenakis, who coined the term stochastic music. Specic examples of mathematics,
statistics, and physics applied to music composition are the use of the statistical mechanics of gases in Pithoprakta,
statistical distribution of points on a plane in Diamorphoses, minimal constraints in Achorripsis, the normal distribu-
tion in ST/10 and Atres, Markov chains in Analogiques, game theory in Duel and Stratgie, group theory in Nomos
Alpha (for Siegfried Palm), set theory in Herma and Eonta,[36] and Brownian motion in N'Shima. Xenakis frequently
used computers to produce his scores, such as the ST series including Morsima-Amorsima and Atres, and founded
CEMAMu. Earlier, John Cage and others had composed aleatoric or indeterminate music, which is created by chance
processes but does not have the strict mathematical basis (Cages Music of Changes, for example, uses a system of
charts based on the I-Ching). Lejaren Hiller and Leonard Issacson used generative grammars and Markov chains in
their 1957 Illiac Suite. See: Generative music.

88.7 Subtractive color reproduction

When color reproductions are made, the image is separated into its component colors by taking multiple photographs
ltered for each color. One resultant lm or plate represents each of the cyan, magenta, yellow, and black data.
Color printing is a binary system, where ink is either present or not present, so all color separations to be printed
must be translated into dots at some stage of the work-ow. Traditional line screens which are amplitude modulated
had problems with moir but were used until stochastic screening became available. A stochastic (or frequency
modulated) dot pattern creates a sharper image.

88.8 Language and linguistics

Non-deterministic approaches in language studies are largely inspired by the work of Ferdinand de Saussure, for
example, in functionalist linguistic theory, which argues that competence is based on performance.[37][38] This dis-
tinction in functional theories of grammar should be carefully distinguished from the langue and parole distinction. To
the extent that linguistic knowledge is constituted by experience with language, grammar is argued to be probabilistic
and variable rather than xed and absolute. This conception of grammar as probabilistic and variable follows from
the idea that ones competence changes in accordance with ones experience with language. Though this conception
has been contested,[39] it has also provided the foundation for modern statistical natural language processing[40] and
for theories of language learning and change.[41]
296 CHAPTER 88. STOCHASTIC

88.9 Social sciences

Stochastic social science theory is similar to systems theory in that events are interactions of systems, although with
a marked emphasis on unconscious processes. The event creates its own conditions of possibility, rendering it unpre-
dictable if simply for the number of variables involved. Stochastic social science theory can be seen as an elaboration
of a kind of 'third axis in which to situate human behavior alongside the traditional 'nature vs. nurture' opposition.
See Julia Kristeva on her usage of the 'semiotic', Luce Irigaray on reverse Heideggerian epistemology, and Pierre
Bourdieu on polythetic space for examples of stochastic social science theory.

88.10 Business

88.10.1 Manufacturing

Manufacturing processes are assumed to be stochastic processes. This assumption is largely valid for either continuous
or batch manufacturing processes. Testing and monitoring of the process is recorded using a process control chart
which plots a given process control parameter over time. Typically a dozen or many more parameters will be tracked
simultaneously. Statistical models are used to dene limit lines which dene when corrective actions must be taken
to bring the process back to its intended operational window.
This same approach is used in the service industry where parameters are replaced by processes related to service level
agreements.

88.10.2 Finance

The nancial markets use stochastic models to represent the seemingly random behaviour of assets such as stocks,
commodities, relative currency prices (i.e., the price of one currency compared to that of another, such as the price
of US Dollar compared to that of the Euro), and interest rates. These models are then used by quantitative analysts
to value options on stock prices, bond prices, and on interest rates, see Markov models. Moreover, it is at the heart
of the insurance industry.

88.10.3 Media

The marketing and the changing movement of audience tastes and preferences, as well as the solicitation of and
the scientic appeal of certain lm and television debuts (i.e., their opening weekends, word-of-mouth, top-of-mind
knowledge among surveyed groups, star name recognition and other elements of social media outreach and advertis-
ing), are determined in part by stochastic modeling. A recent attempt at repeat business analysis was done by Japanese
scholars and is part of the Cinematic Contagion Systems patented by Geneva Media Holdings, and such modeling
has been used in data collection from the time of the original Nielsen ratings to modern studio and television test
audiences.

88.11 See also

Stochastic terrorism

Jump process

88.12 Notes

[1] Doob, when citing Khinchin, uses the term 'chance variable', which used to be an alternative term for 'random variable'.[26]
88.13. REFERENCES 297

88.13 References
[1] Stochastic. Oxford Dictionaries. Oxford University Press.

[2] Robert J. Adler; Jonathan E. Taylor (29 January 2009). Random Fields and Geometry. Springer Science & Business Media.
pp. 78. ISBN 978-0-387-48116-6.

[3] David Stirzaker (2005). Stochastic Processes and Models. Oxford University Press. p. 45. ISBN 978-0-19-856814-8.

[4] Loc Chaumont; Marc Yor (19 July 2012). Exercises in Probability: A Guided Tour from Measure Theory to Random
Processes, Via Conditioning. Cambridge University Press. p. 175. ISBN 978-1-107-60655-5.

[5] Murray Rosenblatt (1962). Random Processes. Oxford University Press. p. 91.

[6] Olav Kallenberg (8 January 2002). Foundations of Modern Probability. Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 24 and
25. ISBN 978-0-387-95313-7.

[7] Paul C. Bresslo (22 August 2014). Stochastic Processes in Cell Biology. Springer. ISBN 978-3-319-08488-6.

[8] N.G. Van Kampen (30 August 2011). Stochastic Processes in Physics and Chemistry. Elsevier. ISBN 978-0-08-047536-3.

[9] Russell Lande; Steinar Engen; Bernt-Erik Sther (2003). Stochastic Population Dynamics in Ecology and Conservation.
Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-852525-7.

[10] Carlo Laing; Gabriel J Lord (2010). Stochastic Methods in Neuroscience. OUP Oxford. ISBN 978-0-19-923507-0.

[11] Wolfgang Paul; Jrg Baschnagel (11 July 2013). Stochastic Processes: From Physics to Finance. Springer Science &
Business Media. ISBN 978-3-319-00327-6.

[12] Edward R. Dougherty (1999). Random processes for image and signal processing. SPIE Optical Engineering Press. ISBN
978-0-8194-2513-3.

[13] Thomas M. Cover; Joy A. Thomas (28 November 2012). Elements of Information Theory. John Wiley & Sons. p. 71.
ISBN 978-1-118-58577-1.

[14] Michael Baron (15 September 2015). Probability and Statistics for Computer Scientists, Second Edition. CRC Press. p.
131. ISBN 978-1-4987-6060-7.

[15] Jonathan Katz; Yehuda Lindell (2007-08-31). Introduction to Modern Cryptography: Principles and Protocols. CRC Press.
p. 26. ISBN 978-1-58488-586-3.

[16] Franois Baccelli; Bartlomiej Blaszczyszyn (2009). Stochastic Geometry and Wireless Networks. Now Publishers Inc. pp.
200. ISBN 978-1-60198-264-3.

[17] J. Michael Steele (2001). Stochastic Calculus and Financial Applications. Springer Science & Business Media. ISBN
978-0-387-95016-7.

[18] Marek Musiela; Marek Rutkowski (21 January 2006). Martingale Methods in Financial Modelling. Springer Science &
Business Media. ISBN 978-3-540-26653-2.

[19] Steven E. Shreve (3 June 2004). Stochastic Calculus for Finance II: Continuous-Time Models. Springer Science & Business
Media. ISBN 978-0-387-40101-0.

[20] O. B. Shenin (2006). Theory of probability and statistics as exemplied in short dictums. NG Verlag. p. 5. ISBN 978-3-
938417-40-9.

[21] Oscar Sheynin; Heinrich Strecker (2011). Alexandr A. Chuprov: Life, Work, Correspondence. V&R unipress GmbH. p.
136. ISBN 978-3-89971-812-6.

[22] Doob, Joseph (1934). Stochastic Processes and Statistics. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United
States of America. 20 (6): 376379.

[23] Khintchine, A. (1934). Korrelationstheorie der stationeren stochastischen Prozesse. Mathematische Annalen. 109 (1):
604615. ISSN 0025-5831. doi:10.1007/BF01449156.

[24] Kolmogoro, A. (1931). "ber die analytischen Methoden in der Wahrscheinlichkeitsrechnung. Mathematische Annalen.
104 (1): 1. ISSN 0025-5831. doi:10.1007/BF01457949.

[25] Vere-Jones, David (2006). Khinchin, Aleksandr Yakovlevich": 4. doi:10.1002/0471667196.ess6027.pub2.

298 CHAPTER 88. STOCHASTIC

[26] Snell, J. Laurie (2005). Obituary: Joseph Leonard Doob. Journal of Applied Probability. 42 (1): 251. ISSN 0021-9002.
doi:10.1239/jap/1110381384.

[27] Bingham, N. (2000). Studies in the history of probability and statistics XLVI. Measure into probability: from Lebesgue
to Kolmogorov. Biometrika. 87 (1): 145156. ISSN 0006-3444. doi:10.1093/biomet/87.1.145.

[28] Cramer, Harald (1976). Half a Century with Probability Theory: Some Personal Recollections. The Annals of Proba-
bility. 4 (4): 509546. ISSN 0091-1798. doi:10.1214/aop/1176996025.

[29] Applebaum, David (2004). Lvy processes: From probability to nance and quantum groups. Notices of the AMS. 51
(11): 13361347.

[30] Jochen Blath; Peter Imkeller; Sylvie Rlly (2011). Surveys in Stochastic Processes. European Mathematical Society. pp.
5. ISBN 978-3-03719-072-2.

[31] Michel Talagrand (12 February 2014). Upper and Lower Bounds for Stochastic Processes: Modern Methods and Classical
Problems. Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 4. ISBN 978-3-642-54075-2.

[32] Paul C. Bresslo (22 August 2014). Stochastic Processes in Cell Biology. Springer. pp. viiix. ISBN 978-3-319-08488-6.

[33] Douglas Hubbard How to Measure Anything: Finding the Value of Intangibles in Business p. 46, John Wiley & Sons,
2007

[34] Hnggi, P. (2002). Stochastic Resonance in Biology How Noise Can Enhance Detection of Weak Signals and Help
Improve Biological Information Processing. ChemPhysChem. 3 (3): 28590. PMID 12503175. doi:10.1002/1439-
7641(20020315)3:3<285::AID-CPHC285>3.0.CO;2-A.

[35] Priplata, A.; et al. (2006). Noise-Enhanced Balance Control in Patients with Diabetes and Patients with Stroke (PDF).
Ann Neurol. 59: 412. PMID 16287079. doi:10.1002/ana.20670.

[36] Ilias Chrissochoidis, Stavros Houliaras, and Christos Mitsakis, Set theory in Xenakis EONTA", in International Symposium
Iannis Xenakis, ed. Anastasia Georgaki and Makis Solomos (Athens: The National and Kapodistrian University, 2005),
241249.

[37] Newmeyer, Frederick. 2001. The Prague School and North American functionalist approaches to syntax Journal of
Linguistics 37, pp. 101126. Since most American functionalists adhere to this trend, I will refer to it and its practitioners
with the initials 'USF'. Some of the more prominent USFs are Joan Bybee, William Croft, Talmy Givon, John Haiman,
Paul Hopper, Marianne Mithun and Sandra Thompson. In its most extreme form (Hopper 1987, 1988), USF rejects the
Saussurean dichotomies such as langue vs. parle. For early interpretivist approaches to focus, see Chomsky (1971) and
Jackendo (1972). parole and synchrony vs. diachrony. All adherents of this tendency feel that the Chomskyan advocacy
of a sharp distinction between competence and performance is at best unproductive and obscurantist; at worst theoretically
unmotivated. "

[38] Bybee, Joan. Usage-based phonology. p. 213 in Darnel, Mike (ed). 1999. Functionalism and Formalism in Linguistics:
General papers. John Benjamins Publishing Company

[39] Chomsky (1959). Review of Skinners Verbal Behavior, Language, 35: 2658

[40] Manning and Schtze, (1999) Foundations of Statistical Natural Language Processing, MIT Press. Cambridge, MA

[41] Bybee (2007) Frequency of use and the organization of language. Oxford: Oxford University Press

88.14 Further reading

See the stochastic process of an 8-foot-tall (2.4 m) Probability Machine comparing stock market returns to
the randomness of the beans dropping through the quincunx pattern on YouTube. from Index Funds Advisors
IFA.com

Formalized Music: Thought and Mathematics in Composition by Iannis Xenakis, ISBN 1-57647-079-2

Frequency and the Emergence of Linguistic Structure by Joan Bybee and Paul Hopper (eds.), ISBN 1-58811-
028-1/ISBN 90-272-2948-1 (Eur.)

The Stochastic Empirical Loading and Dilution Model provides documentation and computer code for mod-
eling stochastic processes in Visual Basic for Applications.
88.15. EXTERNAL LINKS 299

88.15 External links

The dictionary denition of stochastic at Wiktionary
Chapter 89

Stratication (mathematics)

Stratication has several usages in mathematics.

89.1 In mathematical logic

In mathematical logic, stratication is any consistent assignment of numbers to predicate symbols guaranteeing
that a unique formal interpretation of a logical theory exists. Specically, we say that a set of clauses of the form
Q1 Qn Qn+1 Qn+m P is stratied if and only if there is a stratication assignment S that
fullls the following conditions:

1. If a predicate P is positively derived from a predicate Q (i.e., P is the head of a rule, and Q occurs positively in
the body of the same rule), then the stratication number of P must be greater than or equal to the stratication
number of Q, in short S(P ) S(Q) .
2. If a predicate P is derived from a negated predicate Q (i.e., P is the head of a rule, and Q occurs negatively in
the body of the same rule), then the stratication number of P must be greater than the stratication number
of Q, in short S(P ) > S(Q) .

The notion of stratied negation leads to a very eective operational semantics for stratied programs in terms of the
stratied least xpoint, that is obtained by iteratively applying the xpoint operator to each stratum of the program,
from the lowest one up. Stratication is not only useful for guaranteeing unique interpretation of Horn clause theories.
It has also been used by W.V. Quine (1937) to address Russells paradox, which undermined Frege's central work
Grundgesetze der Arithmetik (1902).

89.2 In set theory

In New Foundations (NF) and related set theories, a formula in the language of rst-order logic with equality and
membership is said to be stratied if and only if there is a function which sends each variable appearing in
(considered as an item of syntax) to a natural number (this works equally well if all integers are used) in such a way
that any atomic formula x y appearing in satises (x) + 1 = (y) and any atomic formula x = y appearing in
satises (x) = (y) .
It turns out that it is sucient to require that these conditions be satised only when both variables in an atomic
formula are bound in the set abstract {x | } under consideration. A set abstract satisfying this weaker condition is
said to be weakly stratied.
The stratication of New Foundations generalizes readily to languages with more predicates and with term construc-
tions. Each primitive predicate needs to have specied required displacements between values of at its (bound)
arguments in a (weakly) stratied formula. In a language with term constructions, terms themselves need to be as-
signed values under , with xed displacements from the values of each of their (bound) arguments in a (weakly)
stratied formula. Dened term constructions are neatly handled by (possibly merely implicitly) using the theory of
descriptions: a term (x.) (the x such that ) must be assigned the same value under as the variable x.

300
89.3. IN TOPOLOGY 301

A formula is stratied if and only if it is possible to assign types to all variables appearing in the formula in such a
way that it will make sense in a version TST of the theory of types described in the New Foundations article, and this
is probably the best way to understand the stratication of New Foundations in practice.
The notion of stratication can be extended to the lambda calculus; this is found in papers of Randall Holmes.

89.3 In topology
In singularity theory, there is a dierent meaning, of a decomposition of a topological space X into disjoint subsets
each of which is a topological manifold (so that in particular a stratication denes a partition of the topological space).
This is not a useful notion when unrestricted; but when the various strata are dened by some recognisable set of
conditions (for example being locally closed), and t together manageably, this idea is often applied in geometry.
Hassler Whitney and Ren Thom rst dened formal conditions for stratication. See Whitney stratication and
topologically stratied space.

89.4 In statistics
See stratied sampling.
Chapter 90

Strict

Strictly redirects here. For the British reality show, see Strictly Come Dancing. For other uses, see Strict (disam-
biguation).

In mathematical writing, the adjective strict is used to modify technical terms which have multiple meanings. It
indicates that the exclusive meaning of the term is to be understood. (More formally, one could say that this is the
meaning which implies the other meanings.) The opposite is non-strict. This is often implicit but can be put explicitly
for clarity. In some contexts the word proper is used as a mathematical synonym for strict.

90.1 Use
This term is commonly used in the context of inequalities the phrase strictly less than means less than and not
equal to (likewise strictly greater than means greater than and not equal to). More generally a strict partial order,
strict total order and strict weak order exclude equality and equivalence
A related use occurs when comparing numbers to zero strictly positive and strictly negative mean positive
and not equal to zero and negative and not equal to zero, respectively. Also, in the context of functions, the adverb
strictly is used to modify the terms monotonic, increasing, and decreasing.
On the other hand, sometimes one wants to specify the inclusive meanings of terms. In the context of comparisons,
one can use the phrases non-negative, non-positive, non-increasing, and non-decreasing to make it clear that
the inclusive sense of the terms is intended.
Using such terminology helps avoid possible ambiguity and confusion. For instance, upon reading the phrase "x is
positive, it is not immediately clear whether x = 0 is possible, since some authors might use the term positive loosely,
and mean that x is not less than zero. Therefore, it is prudent to write "x is strictly positive for x > 0 and "x is
non-negative for x 0. (A precise term like non-negative is never used with the word negative in the wide, loose
sense that includes zero.)
The word proper is often used in the same way as strict. For example, a "proper subset" of a set S is a subset that
is not equal to S itself, and a "proper class" is a class which is not also a set.
This article incorporates material from strict on PlanetMath, which is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution/Share-
Alike License.

302
Chapter 91

Symplectic category

In mathematics, Weinsteins symplectic category is (roughly) a category whose objects are symplectic manifolds
and whose morphisms are canonical relations, inclusions of Lagrangian submanifolds L into M N where the
superscript minus means minus the given symplectic form (for example, the graph of a symplectomorphism; hence,
minus). The notion was introduced by A. Weinstein, according to whom Quantization problems[1] suggest that the
category of symplectic manifolds and symplectomorphisms be augmented by the inclusion of canonical relations as
morphisms. The composition of canonical relations is given by a ber product.
Strictly speaking, the symplectic category is not a well-dened category (since the composition may not be well-
dened) without some transversality conditions.

91.1 References
[1] He means geometric quantization.

Weinstein, Alan (2009). Symplectic Categories. arXiv:0911.4133 .

91.2 Further reading

V. Guillemin and S. Sternberg, Some problems in integral geometry and some related problems in microlocal
analysis, Amer. J. Math. 101, 915955, 1979.

91.3 See also

Fourier integral operator

303
Chapter 92

T.C. Mits

T.C. Mits (acronym for "the celebrated man in the street"),[1] is a term coined by Lillian Rosano Lieber to refer
to an everyman. In Liebers works, T.C. Mits was a character who made scientic topics more approachable to the
public audience.
The phrase has enjoyed sparse use by authors in elds such as molecular biology,[2] secondary education,[3] and
general semantics.[4]

92.1 The Education of T.C. MITS

Dr. Lillian Rosano Lieber wrote this treatise on mathematical thinking in twenty chapters. The writing took
a form that resembled free-verse poetry, though Lieber included an introduction stating that the form was meant
only to facilitate rapid reading, rather than emulate free-verse. Liebers husband, a fellow professor at Long Island
University, Hugh Gray Lieber, provided illustrations for the book.[5] The title of the book was meant to emphasize
that mathematics can be understood by anyone, which was further shown when a special Overseas edition for the
Armed Forces was published in 1942, and approved by the Council on Books in Wartime to be sent to American
troops ghting in World War II.[6]

92.2 References
[1] Mathematics for Mits - TIME. Time. 1944-04-03. Retrieved 2008-05-07.

[2] Bentley R (2005). The development of penicillin: genesis of a famous antibiotic. Perspect. Biol. Med. 48 (3): 44452.
PMID 16089021. doi:10.1353/pbm.2005.0068. Retrieved 2008-05-08.

[3] The Importance of Writing Well -- Goldstein 63 (423): 93 -- NASSP Bulletin. Retrieved 2008-05-08.

[4] Bruce I. Kodish, Ph.D. Changing Reputations: Demarginalizing General Semantics (PDF). Retrieved 2008-05-08.

[5] Lillian Lieber, The Education of T.C. MITS (Philadelphia: Paul Dry Books Incorporated, 2007).

[6] Barry Mazur. Introduction to The Education of T.C. MITS by Lillian Lieber (Philadelphia: Paul Dry Books Incorporated,
2007).

304
Chapter 93

Theorem

For the Italian lm, see Teorema (lm).

In mathematics, a theorem is a statement that has been proved on the basis of previously established statements,
such as other theorems, and generally accepted statements, such as axioms. A theorem is a logical consequence of
the axioms. The proof of a mathematical theorem is a logical argument for the theorem statement given in accord
with the rules of a deductive system. The proof of a theorem is often interpreted as justication of the truth of the
theorem statement. In light of the requirement that theorems be proved, the concept of a theorem is fundamentally
deductive, in contrast to the notion of a scientic law, which is experimental.[2]
Many mathematical theorems are conditional statements. In this case, the proof deduces the conclusion from condi-
tions called hypotheses or premises. In light of the interpretation of proof as justication of truth, the conclusion is
often viewed as a necessary consequence of the hypotheses, namely, that the conclusion is true in case the hypothe-
ses are true, without any further assumptions. However, the conditional could be interpreted dierently in certain
deductive systems, depending on the meanings assigned to the derivation rules and the conditional symbol.
Although they can be written in a completely symbolic form, for example, within the propositional calculus, theorems
are often expressed in a natural language such as English. The same is true of proofs, which are often expressed as
logically organized and clearly worded informal arguments, intended to convince readers of the truth of the statement
of the theorem beyond any doubt, and from which a formal symbolic proof can in principle be constructed. Such
arguments are typically easier to check than purely symbolic onesindeed, many mathematicians would express a
preference for a proof that not only demonstrates the validity of a theorem, but also explains in some way why it is
obviously true. In some cases, a picture alone may be sucient to prove a theorem. Because theorems lie at the core
of mathematics, they are also central to its aesthetics. Theorems are often described as being trivial, or dicult,
or deep, or even beautiful. These subjective judgments vary not only from person to person, but also with time:
for example, as a proof is simplied or better understood, a theorem that was once dicult may become trivial. On
the other hand, a deep theorem may be simply stated, but its proof may involve surprising and subtle connections
between disparate areas of mathematics. Fermats Last Theorem is a particularly well-known example of such a
theorem.

93.1 Informal account of theorems

Logically, many theorems are of the form of an indicative conditional: if A, then B. Such a theorem does not assert
B, only that B is a necessary consequence of A. In this case A is called the hypothesis of the theorem (note that
hypothesis here is something very dierent from a conjecture) and B the conclusion (formally, A and B are termed
the antecedent and consequent). The theorem If n is an even natural number then n/2 is a natural number is a typical
example in which the hypothesis is "n is an even natural number and the conclusion is "n/2 is also a natural number.
To be proved, a theorem must be expressible as a precise, formal statement. Nevertheless, theorems are usually
expressed in natural language rather than in a completely symbolic form, with the intention that the reader can produce
a formal statement from the informal one.
It is common in mathematics to choose a number of hypotheses within a given language and declare that the theory
consists of all statements provable from these hypotheses. These hypotheses form the foundational basis of the theory
and are called axioms or postulates. The eld of mathematics known as proof theory studies formal languages, axioms

305
306 CHAPTER 93. THEOREM

and the structure of proofs.

Some theorems are trivial, in the sense that they follow from denitions, axioms, and other theorems in obvious
ways and do not contain any surprising insights. Some, on the other hand, may be called deep, because their proofs
may be long and dicult, involve areas of mathematics supercially distinct from the statement of the theorem itself,
or show surprising connections between disparate areas of mathematics.[3] A theorem might be simple to state and
yet be deep. An excellent example is Fermats Last Theorem, and there are many other examples of simple yet deep
theorems in number theory and combinatorics, among other areas.
Other theorems have a known proof that cannot easily be written down. The most prominent examples are the four
color theorem and the Kepler conjecture. Both of these theorems are only known to be true by reducing them to a
computational search that is then veried by a computer program. Initially, many mathematicians did not accept this
form of proof, but it has become more widely accepted. The mathematician Doron Zeilberger has even gone so far as
to claim that these are possibly the only nontrivial results that mathematicians have ever proved.[4] Many mathemat-
ical theorems can be reduced to more straightforward computation, including polynomial identities, trigonometric
identities and hypergeometric identities.[5]

93.2 Provability and theoremhood

To establish a mathematical statement as a theorem, a proof is required, that is, a line of reasoning from axioms in the
system (and other, already established theorems) to the given statement must be demonstrated. However, the proof is
usually considered as separate from the theorem statement. Although more than one proof may be known for a single
theorem, only one proof is required to establish the status of a statement as a theorem. The Pythagorean theorem and
the law of quadratic reciprocity are contenders for the title of theorem with the greatest number of distinct proofs.

93.3 Relation with scientic theories

Theorems in mathematics and theories in science are fundamentally dierent in their epistemology. A scientic theory
cannot be proved; its key attribute is that it is falsiable, that is, it makes predictions about the natural world that are
testable by experiments. Any disagreement between prediction and experiment demonstrates the incorrectness of the
scientic theory, or at least limits its accuracy or domain of validity. Mathematical theorems, on the other hand, are
purely abstract formal statements: the proof of a theorem cannot involve experiments or other empirical evidence in
the same way such evidence is used to support scientic theories.
Nonetheless, there is some degree of empiricism and data collection involved in the discovery of mathematical the-
orems. By establishing a pattern, sometimes with the use of a powerful computer, mathematicians may have an idea
of what to prove, and in some cases even a plan for how to set about doing the proof. For example, the Collatz
conjecture has been veried for start values up to about 2.88 1018 . The Riemann hypothesis has been veried for
the rst 10 trillion zeroes of the zeta function. Neither of these statements is considered proved.
Such evidence does not constitute proof. For example, the Mertens conjecture is a statement about natural numbers
that is now known to be false, but no explicit counterexample (i.e., a natural number n for which the Mertens function
M(n) equals or exceeds the square root of n) is known: all numbers less than 1014 have the Mertens property, and the
smallest number that does not have this property is only known to be less than the exponential of 1.59 1040 , which
is approximately 10 to the power 4.3 1039 . Since the number of particles in the universe is generally considered
less than 10 to the power 100 (a googol), there is no hope to nd an explicit counterexample by exhaustive search.
Note that the word theory also exists in mathematics, to denote a body of mathematical axioms, denitions and
theorems, as in, for example, group theory. There are also theorems in science, particularly physics, and in en-
gineering, but they often have statements and proofs in which physical assumptions and intuition play an important
role; the physical axioms on which such theorems are based are themselves falsiable.

93.4 Terminology
A number of dierent terms for mathematical statements exist, these terms indicate the role statements play in a
particular subject. The distinction between dierent terms is sometimes rather arbitrary and the usage of some terms
has evolved over time.
93.4. TERMINOLOGY 307

An axiom or postulate is a statement that is accepted without proof and regarded as fundamental to a subject.
Historically these have been regarded as self-evident, but more recently they are considered assumptions that
characterize the subject of study. In classical geometry, axioms are general statements, while postulates are
statements about geometrical objects.[6] A denition is also accepted without proof since it simply gives the
meaning of a word or phrase in terms of known concepts.

An unproved statement that is believed true is called a conjecture (or sometimes a hypothesis, but with a
dierent meaning from the one discussed above). To be considered a conjecture, a statement must usually
be proposed publicly, at which point the name of the proponent may be attached to the conjecture, as with
Goldbachs conjecture. Other famous conjectures include the Collatz conjecture and the Riemann hypothesis.
On the other hand, Fermats Last Theorem has always been known by that name, even before it was proved; it
was never known as Fermats conjecture.

A proposition is a theorem of lesser importance. This term sometimes connotes a statement with a simple
proof, while the term theorem is usually reserved for the most important results or those with long or dicult
proofs. Some authors never use proposition, while some others use theorem only for fundamental results.
Note that in classical geometry, this term was used dierently. In Euclids Elements (c. 300 BCE), all theorems
and geometric constructions were called propositions regardless of their importance.

A lemma is a helping theorem, a proposition with little applicability except that it forms part of the proof
of a larger theorem. In some cases, as the relative importance of dierent theorems becomes more clear, what
was once considered a lemma is now considered a theorem, though the word lemma remains in the name.
Examples include Gausss lemma, Zorns lemma, and the fundamental lemma.

A corollary is a proposition that follows with little proof from another theorem or denition.[7] Also a corollary
can be a theorem restated for a more restricted special case. For example, the theorem that all angles in a
rectangle are right angles has as corollary that all angles in a square (a special case of a rectangle) are right
angles.

A converse of a theorem is a statement formed by interchanging what is given in a theorem and what is to be
proved. For example, the isosceles triangle theorem states that if two sides of a triangle are equal then two
angles are equal. In the converse, the given (that two sides are equal) and what is to be proved (that two angles
are equal) are swapped, so the converse is the statement that if two angles of a triangle are equal then two
sides are equal. In this example, the converse can be proved as another theorem, but this is often not the case.
For example, the converse to the theorem that two right angles are equal angles is the statement that two equal
angles must be right angles, and this is clearly not always the case.[8]

A generalization is a theorem which includes a previously proved theorem as a special case and hence as a
corollary.

There are other terms, less commonly used, that are conventionally attached to proved statements, so that certain
theorems are referred to by historical or customary names. For example:

An identity is an equality, contained in a theorem, between two mathematical expressions that holds regardless
of what values are used for any variables or parameters appearing in the expressions. Examples include Eulers
formula and Vandermondes identity.

A rule is a theorem, such as Bayes rule and Cramers rule, that establishes a useful formula.

A law or a principle is a theorem that applies in a wide range of circumstances. Examples include the law
of large numbers, the law of cosines, Kolmogorovs zeroone law, Harnacks principle, the least-upper-bound
principle, and the pigeonhole principle.[9]

A few well-known theorems have even more idiosyncratic names. The division algorithm (see Euclidean division) is
a theorem expressing the outcome of division in the natural numbers and more general rings. The Bzouts identity
is a theorem asserting that the greatest common divisor of two numbers may be written as a linear combination of
these numbers. The BanachTarski paradox is a theorem in measure theory that is paradoxical in the sense that it
contradicts common intuitions about volume in three-dimensional space.
308 CHAPTER 93. THEOREM

93.5 Layout
A theorem and its proof are typically laid out as follows:

Theorem (name of person who proved it and year of discovery, proof or publication).
Statement of theorem (sometimes called the proposition).
Proof.
Description of proof.
End mark.

The end of the proof may be signalled by the letters Q.E.D. (quod erat demonstrandum) or by one of the tombstone
marks "" or "" meaning End of Proof, introduced by Paul Halmos following their usage in magazine articles.
The exact style depends on the author or publication. Many publications provide instructions or macros for typesetting
in the house style.
It is common for a theorem to be preceded by denitions describing the exact meaning of the terms used in the
theorem. It is also common for a theorem to be preceded by a number of propositions or lemmas which are then
used in the proof. However, lemmas are sometimes embedded in the proof of a theorem, either with nested proofs,
or with their proofs presented after the proof of the theorem.
Corollaries to a theorem are either presented between the theorem and the proof, or directly after the proof. Some-
times, corollaries have proofs of their own that explain why they follow from the theorem.

93.6 Lore
It has been estimated that over a quarter of a million theorems are proved every year.[10]
The well-known aphorism, A mathematician is a device for turning coee into theorems, is probably due to Alfrd
Rnyi, although it is often attributed to Rnyis colleague Paul Erds (and Rnyi may have been thinking of Erds),
who was famous for the many theorems he produced, the number of his collaborations, and his coee drinking.[11]
The classication of nite simple groups is regarded by some to be the longest proof of a theorem. It comprises
tens of thousands of pages in 500 journal articles by some 100 authors. These papers are together believed to give
a complete proof, and several ongoing projects hope to shorten and simplify this proof.[12] Another theorem of this
type is the four color theorem whose computer generated proof is too long for a human to read. It is certainly the
longest known proof of a theorem whose statement can be easily understood by a layman.

93.7 Theorems in logic

Logic, especially in the eld of proof theory, considers theorems as statements (called formulas or well formed
formulas) of a formal language. The statements of the language are strings of symbols and may be broadly divided
into nonsense and well-formed formulas. A set of deduction rules, also called transformation rules or rules of
inference, must be provided. These deduction rules tell exactly when a formula can be derived from a set of premises.
The set of well-formed formulas may be broadly divided into theorems and non-theorems. However, according to
Hofstadter, a formal system often simply denes all its well-formed formula as theorems.[13]
Dierent sets of derivation rules give rise to dierent interpretations of what it means for an expression to be a
theorem. Some derivation rules and formal languages are intended to capture mathematical reasoning; the most
common examples use rst-order logic. Other deductive systems describe term rewriting, such as the reduction rules
for calculus.
The denition of theorems as elements of a formal language allows for results in proof theory that study the structure
of formal proofs and the structure of provable formulas. The most famous result is Gdels incompleteness theorem;
by representing theorems about basic number theory as expressions in a formal language, and then representing
this language within number theory itself, Gdel constructed examples of statements that are neither provable nor
disprovable from axiomatizations of number theory.
93.7. THEOREMS IN LOGIC 309

A theorem may be expressed in a formal language (or formalized). A formal theorem is the purely formal analogue
of a theorem. In general, a formal theorem is a type of well-formed formula that satises certain logical and syntactic
conditions. The notation S is often used to indicate that S is a theorem.
Formal theorems consist of formulas of a formal language and the transformation rules of a formal system. Specif-
ically, a formal theorem is always the last formula of a derivation in some formal system each formula of which is
a logical consequence of the formulas that came before it in the derivation. The initially accepted formulas in the
derivation are called its axioms, and are the basis on which the theorem is derived. A set of theorems is called a
theory.
What makes formal theorems useful and of interest is that they can be interpreted as true propositions and their
derivations may be interpreted as a proof of the truth of the resulting expression. A set of formal theorems may be
referred to as a formal theory. A theorem whose interpretation is a true statement about a formal system is called a
metatheorem.

93.7.1 Syntax and semantics

Main articles: Syntax (logic) and Formal semantics (logic)

The concept of a formal theorem is fundamentally syntactic, in contrast to the notion of a true proposition, which
introduces semantics. Dierent deductive systems can yield other interpretations, depending on the presumptions
of the derivation rules (i.e. belief, justication or other modalities). The soundness of a formal system depends on
whether or not all of its theorems are also validities. A validity is a formula that is true under any possible inter-
pretation, e.g. in classical propositional logic validities are tautologies. A formal system is considered semantically
complete when all of its tautologies are also theorems.

93.7.2 Derivation of a theorem

Main article: Formal proof

The notion of a theorem is very closely connected to its formal proof (also called a derivation). To illustrate how
derivations are done, we will work in a very simplied formal system. Let us call ours FS Its alphabet consists only
of two symbols { A, B } and its formation rule for formulas is:

FS
The single axiom of FS is:

ABBA.

The only rule of inference (transformation rule) for FS is:

Any occurrence of "A" in a theorem may be replaced by an occurrence of the string "AB" and the result
is a theorem.

Theorems in FS are dened as those formulae that have a derivation ending with that formula. For example,

1. ABBA (Given as axiom)

2. ABBBA (by applying the transformation rule)
3. ABBBAB (by applying the transformation rule)

is a derivation. Therefore, "ABBBAB" is a theorem of FS . The notion of truth (or falsity) cannot be applied to the
formula "ABBBAB" until an interpretation is given to its symbols. Thus in this example, the formula does not yet
represent a proposition, but is merely an empty abstraction.
Two metatheorems of FS are:
310 CHAPTER 93. THEOREM

Every theorem begins with "A".

Every theorem has exactly two "As.

93.7.3 Interpretation of a formal theorem

Main article: Interpretation (logic)

93.7.4 Theorems and theories

Main articles: Theory and Theory (mathematical logic)

93.8 See also

Inference

List of theorems

Toy theorem

Metamath a language for developing strictly formalized mathematical denitions and proofs accompanied by
a proof checker for this language and a growing database of thousands of proved theorems

93.9 Notes
[1] Elisha Scott Loomis. The Pythagorean proposition: its demonstrations analyzed and classied, and bibliography of sources
for data of the four kinds of proofs (PDF). Education Resources Information Center. Institute of Education Sciences (IES)
of the U.S. Department of Education. Retrieved 2010-09-26. Originally published in 1940 and reprinted in 1968 by
National Council of Teachers of Mathematics.

[2] However, both theorems and scientic law are the result of investigations. See Heath 1897 Introduction, The terminology
of Archimedes, p. clxxxii:"theorem () from to investigate

[3] Weisstein, Eric W. Deep Theorem. MathWorld.

[4] Doron Zeilberger. Opinion 51.

[5] Petkovsek et al. 1996.

[6] Wentworth, G.; Smith, D.E. (1913). Art. 46, 47. Plane Geometry. Ginn & Co.

[7] Wentworth & Smith Art. 51

[8] Follows Wentworth & Smith Art. 79

[9] The word law can also refer to an axiom, a rule of inference, or, in probability theory, a probability distribution.

[10] Homan 1998, p. 204.

[11] Homan 1998, p. 7.

[12] An enormous theorem: the classication of nite simple groups, Richard Elwes, Plus Magazine, Issue 41 December 2006.

[13] Hofstadter 1980

93.10. REFERENCES 311

93.10 References
Heath, Sir Thomas Little (1897). The works of Archimedes. Dover. Retrieved 2009-11-15.

Homan, P. (1998). The Man Who Loved Only Numbers: The Story of Paul Erds and the Search for Mathe-
matical Truth. Hyperion, New York. ISBN 1-85702-829-5.

Hofstadter, Douglas (1979). Gdel, Escher, Bach: An Eternal Golden Braid. Basic Books.

Hunter, Georey (1996) [1973]. Metalogic: An Introduction to the Metatheory of Standard First Order Logic.
University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-02356-0.

Mates, Benson (1972). Elementary Logic. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-501491-X.
Petkovsek, Marko; Wilf, Herbert; Zeilberger, Doron (1996). A = B. A.K. Peters, Wellesley, Massachusetts.
ISBN 1-56881-063-6.

93.11 External links

Weisstein, Eric W. Theorem. MathWorld.

Theorem of the Day

312 CHAPTER 93. THEOREM
93.11. EXTERNAL LINKS 313

A planar map with ve colors such that no two regions with the same color meet. It can actually be colored in this way with only
four colors. The four color theorem states that such colorings are possible for any planar map, but every known proof involves a
computational search that is too long to check by hand.
314 CHAPTER 93. THEOREM

The Collatz conjecture: one way to illustrate its complexity is to extend the iteration from the natural numbers to the complex numbers.
The result is a fractal, which (in accordance with universality) resembles the Mandelbrot set.
93.11. EXTERNAL LINKS 315

Symbols and
strings of symbols

Well-formed formulas

Theorems

This diagram shows the syntactic entities that can be constructed from formal languages. The symbols and strings of symbols may
be broadly divided into nonsense and well-formed formulas. A formal language can be thought of as identical to the set of its
well-formed formulas. The set of well-formed formulas may be broadly divided into theorems and non-theorems.
Chapter 94

Toy model

In the modeling of physics, a toy model is a deliberately simplistic model with many details removed so that it can
be used to explain a mechanism concisely. It is also useful in a description of the fuller model.

In toy mathematical models, this is usually done by reducing the number of dimensions or reducing the
number of elds/variables or restricting them to a particular symmetric form.

In toy physical descriptions, an analogous example of an everyday mechanism is often used for illustration.

The phrase tinker-toy model is also used, in reference to the popular Tinkertoys used for childrens constructivist
learning.

94.1 Examples
Examples of toy models in physics include:

the Ising model as a toy model for ferromagnetism, or lattice models more generally;
orbital mechanics as described by assuming that Earth is attached to the Sun by an elastic band;

Hawking radiation around a black hole described as conventional radiation from a ctitious membrane at radius
r=2M (the black hole membrane paradigm);

frame-dragging around a rotating star considered as the eect of space being a conventional viscous uid.

94.1.1 Spekkens model

Main article: Spekkens Toy Model

94.2 See also

Physical model

Spherical cow
Toy problem

Toy theorem

316
Chapter 95

Toy theorem

In mathematics, a toy theorem is a simplied version (special case) of a more general theorem. For instance, by
introducing some simplifying assumptions in a theorem, one obtains a toy theorem.
Usually, a toy theorem is used to illustrate the claim of a theorem. It can also be insightful to study proofs of a
toy theorem derived from a non-trivial theorem. Toy theorems can also have education value. After presenting a
theorem (with, say, a highly non-trivial proof), one can sometimes give some assurance that the theorem really holds,
by proving a toy version of the theorem.
For instance, a toy theorem of the Brouwer xed-point theorem is obtained by restricting the dimension to one. In
this case, the Brouwer xed-point theorem follows almost immediately from the intermediate value theorem.

95.1 See also

Corollary

Lemma (mathematics)
Toy model

This article incorporates material from toy theorem on PlanetMath, which is licensed under the Creative Commons
Attribution/Share-Alike License.

317
Chapter 96

Transport of structure

In mathematics, transport of structure is the denition of a new structure on an object by reference to another object
on which a similar structure already exists. Denitions by transport of structure are regarded as canonical.
Since mathematical structures are often dened in reference to an underlying space, many examples of transport of
structure involve spaces and mappings between them. For example, if V and W are vector spaces, and if : V W
is an isomorphism, and if (, ) is an inner product on W , then we can dene an inner product [, ] on V by

[v1 , v2 ] = ((v1 ), (v2 ))

Although the equation makes sense even when is not an isomorphism, it only denes an inner product on V when
is, since otherwise it will cause [, ] to be degenerate. The idea is that allows us to consider V and W as the same
vector space, and if we follow this analogy, we can transport an inner product from one to the other.
A more involved example comes from dierential topology, in which we have the notion of a smooth manifold. If M
is such a manifold, and if X is any topological space which is homeomorphic to M, we can consider X as a smooth
manifold as well. That is, let : X M be a homeomorphism; we must dene coordinate charts on X, which we
will do by pulling back coordinate charts on M through . Recall that a coordinate chart on M is an open set U
together with an injective map

c : U Rn

for some n; to get such a chart on X, we let

U = 1 (U ) and c = c .

Furthermore, it is required that the charts cover M, we must check that the transported charts cover X, which follows
immediately from the fact that is a bijection. Finally, since M is a smooth manifold, we have that if U and V, with
their maps

c : U Rn and d : V Rn ,

are two charts on M, then the composition, the transition map

d c1 : c(U V ) Rn (a self-map of Rn )

is smooth. We must check this for our transported charts on X. We have

1 (U ) 1 (V ) = 1 (U V )

and therefore

318
 319

c (U V ) = (c )(1 (U V )) = c(U V )

d (c )1 = (d ) (c )1 = d ( 1 ) c1 = d c1
Therefore the transition map for U and V is the same as that for U and V, hence smooth. Therefore X is a smooth
manifold via transport of structure.
Although the second example involved considerably more checking, the principle was the same, and any experienced
mathematician would have no diculty performing the necessary verications. Therefore when such an operation is
indicated, it is invoked merely as transport of structure and the details left to the reader, if desired.
The second example also illustrates why transport of structure is not always desirable. Namely, we can take M to be
the plane, and we can take X to be an innite one-sided cone. By attening the cone we achieve a homeomorphism
of X and M, and therefore the structure of a smooth manifold on X, but the cone is not naturally a smooth manifold.
That is, we can consider X as a subspace of 3-space, in which context it is not smooth at the cone point. A more
surprising example is that of exotic spheres, discovered by Milnor, which states that there are exactly 28 smooth
manifolds which are homeomorphic (but by denition not dieomorphic) to S 7 , the 7-dimensional sphere in 8-
space. Thus, transport of structure is most productive when there exists a canonical isomorphism between the two
objects.
Chapter 97

Triviality (mathematics)

In mathematics, the adjective trivial is frequently used for objects (for example, groups or topological spaces) that have
a very simple structure. The noun triviality usually refers to a simple technical aspect of some proof or denition. The
origin of the term in mathematical language comes from the medieval trivium curriculum. The antonym nontrivial
is commonly used by engineers and mathematicians to indicate a statement or theorem that is not obvious or easy to
prove.

97.1 Trivial and nontrivial solutions

In mathematics, the term trivial is frequently used for objects (for examples, groups or topological spaces) that have
a very simple structure.
Examples are as follows:

empty set: the set containing no or null members.

trivial group: the mathematical group containing only the identity element.
trivial ring: a ring dened on a singleton set.

Trivial can also be used to describe solutions to an equation that have a very simple structure, but for the sake
of completeness cannot be omitted. These solutions are called the trivial solutions. For example, consider the
dierential equation

y = y
where y = f(x) is a function whose derivative is y. The trivial solution is

y = 0, the zero function

while a nontrivial solution is

y (x) = ex , the exponential function.

The dierential equation f (x) = f (x) with boundary conditions f (0) = f (L) = 0 is important in math and
physics, for example describing a particle in a box in quantum mechanics, or standing waves on a string. It always
has the solution f (x) = 0 . This solution is considered obvious and is called the trivial solution. In some cases,
there may be other solutions (sinusoids), which are called nontrivial.[1]
Similarly, mathematicians often describe Fermats Last Theorem as asserting that there are no nontrivial integer
solutions to the equation an + bn = cn when n is greater than 2. Clearly, there are some solutions to the equation.
For example, a = b = c = 0 is a solution for any n, but such solutions are all obvious and uninteresting, and hence
trivial.

320
97.2. IN MATHEMATICAL REASONING 321

97.2 In mathematical reasoning

Trivial may also refer to any easy case of a proof, which for the sake of completeness cannot be ignored. For instance,
proofs by mathematical induction have two parts: the base case that shows that the theorem is true for a particular
initial value such as n = 0 or n = 1 and then an inductive step that shows that if the theorem is true for a certain
value of n, it is also true for the value n + 1. The base case is often trivial and is identied as such, although there
are situations where the base case is dicult but the inductive step is trivial. Similarly, one might want to prove that
some property is possessed by all the members of a certain set. The main part of the proof will consider the case
of a nonempty set, and examine the members in detail; in the case where the set is empty, the property is trivially
possessed by all the members, since there are none. (See also Vacuous truth.)
A common joke in the mathematical community is to say that trivial is synonymous with provedthat is, any
theorem can be considered trivial once it is known to be true. Another joke concerns two mathematicians who
are discussing a theorem; the rst mathematician says that the theorem is trivial. In response to the others request
for an explanation, he then proceeds with twenty minutes of exposition. At the end of the explanation, the second
mathematician agrees that the theorem is trivial. These jokes point out the subjectivity of judgments about triviality.
The joke also applies when the rst mathematician says the theorem is trivial, but is unable to prove it himself. Often,
as a joke, the theorem is then referred to as intuitively obvious. Someone experienced in calculus, for example,
would consider the statement that

1
1
x2 dx =
0 3

to be trivial. To a beginning student of calculus, though, this may not be obvious at all.
Triviality also depends on context. A proof in functional analysis would probably, given a number, trivially assume
the existence of a larger number. When proving basic results about the natural numbers in elementary number theory
though, the proof may very well hinge on the remark that any natural number has a successor (which should then in
itself be proved or taken as an axiom, see Peanos axioms).

97.2.1 Trivial proofs

In some texts, a trivial proof refers to a statement involving a material implication where the consequent, or Q, in
PQ, is always true.[2] Here, the proof follows simply from noting that Q is always true, as the implication is then
true regardless of the truth value of the antecedent, P.[2]
A related concept is a vacuous proof, where the antecedent, P, in the material implication PQ is always false.[2]
Here, the implication is always true regardless of the truth value of the consequent, Q.[2]

97.3 Examples
In number theory, it is often important to nd factors of an integer number N. Any number N has four ob-
vious factors: 1 and N. These are called trivial factors. Any other factor, if any exist, would be called
nontrivial.[3]

The matrix equation Ax = 0 , where A is a xed matrix, x is an unknown vector, and 0 is the zero vector, has
an obvious solution x = 0 . This is called the trivial solution. If it has other solutions x = 0 , they would be
called nontrivial[4]

In the mathematics of group theory, there is a very simple group with just one element in it; this is often called
the trivial group. All other groups, which are more complicated, are called nontrivial.

In graph theory the trivial graph is a graph which has only 1 vertex and no edges.

Database theory has a concept called functional dependency, written X Y . It is obvious that the dependence
X Y is true if Y is a subset of X, so this type of dependence is called trivial. All other dependences,
which are less obvious, are called nontrivial.
322 CHAPTER 97. TRIVIALITY (MATHEMATICS)

It can be shown that Riemanns zeta function has zeros at the negative even numbers 2, 4, ... Though the
proof is comparatively easy, this result would still not normally be called trivial; however, it is in this case. For
its other zeros are not generally known and have important applications and involve open questions (such as the
Riemann hypothesis); and so, the negative even numbers are called the trivial zeros, and any other zeros are
called non-trivial.

97.4 See also

Degeneracy

Initial and terminal objects

Pathological

Trivialism

97.5 References
[1] Introduction to partial dierential equations with applications, by Zachmanoglou and Thoe, p309

[2] Zhang, Gary Chartrand, Albert D. Polimeni, Ping (2008). Mathematical proofs : a transition to advanced mathematics (2nd
ed.). Boston: Pearson/Addison Wesley. p. 68. ISBN 978-0-3-2139053-0.

[3] Number theory for computing, by Song Y. Yan, p250

[4] Mathematics for engineers and scientists, by Alan Jerey, p502

97.6 External links

Trivial entry at MathWorld
Chapter 98

Undened (mathematics)

In mathematics, undened has several dierent meanings, depending on the context:

in geometry, simple words such as point and line are taken as undened terms or primitive notions;

in arithmetic, some arithmetic operations are called undened, such as division by zero and zero to the power
of zero;

in algebra, a function
is said to be undened at points not in its domain -- for example, in the real number
system, f (x) = x is undened for negative x , i.e., no such values exist for function f .

98.1 In geometry

In ancient times, geometers attempted to dene every term. For example, Euclid dened a point as that which has
no part. In modern times, mathematicians recognized that attempting to dene every word inevitably led to circular
denitions, and therefore left some terms, point for example, as undened (see primitive notion).
POINT (an undened term) In geometry, a point has no dimension (actual size). Even though we represent a point
with a dot, the point has no length, width, or thickness. Our dot can be very tiny or very large and it still represents
a point. A point is usually named with a capital letter. In the coordinate plane, a point is named by an ordered pair,
(x,y).
LINE (an undened term) In geometry, a line has no thickness but its length extends in one dimension and goes on
forever in both directions. Unless otherwise stated a line is drawn as a straight line with two arrowheads indicating
that the line extends without end in both directions. A line is named by a single lowercase letter, , or by any two
points on the line, .
PLANE (an undened term) In geometry, a plane has no thickness but extends indenitely in all directions. Planes
are usually represented by a shape that looks like a tabletop or a parallelogram. Even though the diagram of a plane
has edges, you must remember that the plane has no boundaries. A plane is named by a single letter (plane m) or by
three non-collinear points (plane ABC).

98.2 In arithmetic

The expression 0/0 is undened in arithmetic, as explained in division by zero (the expression is used in calculus to
represent an indeterminate form).
00 is often left undened; see Zero to the power of zero for details.

323
324 CHAPTER 98. UNDEFINED (MATHEMATICS)

98.3 Values for which functions are undened

The set of numbers for which a function is dened is called the domain of the function. If a number is not in the
1
domain of a function, the function is said to be
undened for that number. Two common examples are f (x) = x
, which is undened for x = 0 , and f (x) = x , which is undened (in the real number system) for negative x .

98.4 Notation using and

In computability theory, if f is a partial function on S and a is an element of S, then this is written as f(a) and is
read as "f(a) is dened. [1]
If a is not in the domain of f, then this is written as f(a) and is read as "f(a) is undened".

98.5 The symbols of innity

In analysis, measure theory, and other mathematical disciplines, the symbol is frequently used to denote an innite
pseudo-number in real analysis, along with its negative, . The symbol has no well-dened meaning by itself, but
an expression like {an } is shorthand for a divergent sequence, which at some point is eventually larger than
any given real number.
Performing standard arithmetic operations with the symbols is undened. Some extensions, though, dene the
following conventions of addition and multiplication:

x + = x R {} .
+ x = x R {} .
x = x R+ .

No sensible extension of addition and multiplication with exists in the following cases:

0 (although in measure theory, this is often dened as 0 )

See extended real number line for more information.

98.6 Singularities in complex analysis

In complex analysis, a point z C where a holomorphic function is undened is called a singularity. One distinguishes
between removable singularities (the function can be extended holomorphically to z , poles (the function can be
extended meromorphically to z ), and essential singularities, where no meromorphic extension to z exists.

98.7 References
[1] Enderton, Herbert B. Computability: An Introduction to Recursion Theory. Elseveier, 2011, pp. 3-6, ISBN 978-0-12-
384958-8

98.8 Further reading

James R. Smart, Modern Geometries Third Edition, Brooks/Cole, 1988, ISBN 0-534-08310-2

Categoryl:Calculus
Chapter 99

Uniqueness quantication

Unique (mathematics)" redirects here. For other uses, see Unique (disambiguation).

In mathematics and logic, the phrase there is one and only one" is used to indicate that exactly one object with a
certain property exists. In mathematical logic, this sort of quantication is known as uniqueness quantication or
unique existential quantication.
Uniqueness quantication is often denoted with the symbols "!" or ". For example, the formal statement

!n N (n 2 = 4)

may be read aloud as there is exactly one natural number n such that n 2 = 4.

99.1 Proving uniqueness

The most common technique to proving unique existence is to rst prove existence of entity with the desired condition;
then, to assume there exist two entities (say, a and b) that both satisfy the condition, and logically deduce their equality,
i.e. a = b.
As a simple high school example, to show x + 2 = 5 has exactly one solution, we rst show by demonstration that at
least one solution exists, namely 3; the proof of this part is simply the calculation

3 + 2 = 5.

We now assume that there are two solutions, namely a and b, satisfying x + 2 = 5. Thus

a + 2 = 5 and b + 2 = 5.

By transitivity of equality,

a + 2 = b + 2.

By cancellation,

a = b.

This simple example shows how a proof of uniqueness is done, the end result being the equality of the two quantities
that satisfy the condition.

325
326 CHAPTER 99. UNIQUENESS QUANTIFICATION

Both existence and uniqueness must be proven, in order to conclude that there exists exactly one solution.
An alternative way to prove uniqueness is to prove there exists a value a satisfying the condition, and then proving
that, for all x , the condition for x implies x = a .

99.2 Reduction to ordinary existential and universal quantication

Uniqueness quantication can be expressed in terms of the existential and universal quantiers of predicate logic by
dening the formula !x P(x) to mean literally,

x (P (x) y (P (y) y = x))

which is the same as

x (P (x) y (P (y) y = x)).

An equivalent denition that has the virtue of separating the notions of existence and uniqueness into two clauses, at
the expense of brevity, is

x P (x) y z ((P (y) P (z)) y = z).

Another equivalent denition with the advantage of brevity is

x y (P (y) y = x).

99.3 Generalizations
One generalization of uniqueness quantication is counting quantication. This includes both quantication of the
form exactly k objects exist such that " as well as innitely many objects exist such that " and only nitely
many objects exist such that". The rst of these forms is expressible using ordinary quantiers, but the latter two
cannot be expressed in ordinary rst-order logic.[1]
Uniqueness depends on a notion of equality. Loosening this to some coarser equivalence relation yields quantication
of uniqueness up to that equivalence (under this framework, regular uniqueness is uniqueness up to equality). For
example, many concepts in category theory are dened to be unique up to isomorphism.

99.4 See also

One-hot
Singleton (mathematics)

99.5 References
Kleene, Stephen (1952). Introduction to Metamathematics. Ishi Press International. p. 199.
Andrews, Peter B. (2002). An introduction to mathematical logic and type theory to truth through proof (2.
ed.). Dordrecht: Kluwer Acad. Publ. p. 233. ISBN 1-4020-0763-9.

[1] This is a consequence of the compactness theorem.

Chapter 100

Univariate

In mathematics, univariate refers to an expression, equation, function or polynomial of only one variable. Objects
of any of these types involving more than one variable may be called multivariate. In some cases the distinction
between the univariate and multivariate cases is fundamental; for example, the fundamental theorem of algebra and
Euclids algorithm for polynomials are fundamental properties of univariate polynomials that cannot be generalized
to multivariate polynomials.
The term is commonly used in statistics to distinguish a distribution of one variable from a distribution of several
variables, although it can be applied in other ways as well. For example, univariate data are composed of a single
scalar component. In time series analysis, the term is applied with a whole time series as the object referred to: thus a
univariate time series refers to the set of values over time of a single quantity. Correspondingly, a multivariate time
series refers to the changing values over time of several quantities. Thus there is a minor conict of terminology
since the values within a univariate time series may be treated using certain types of multivariate statistical analyses
and may be represented using multivariate distributions.

100.1 See also

Univariate analysis

Univariate distribution
Univariate binary model

Bivariate (disambiguation)
Multivariate

327
Chapter 101

Univariate (statistics)

Univariate is a term commonly used in statistics to describe a type of data which consists of observations on only a
single characteristic or attribute. A simple example of univariate data would be the salaries of workers in industry.[1]
Like all the other data, univariate data can be visualized using graphs, images or other analysis tools after the data is
measured, collected, reported, and analyzed.[2]

101.1 Univariate data types

Some univariate data consists of numbers (such as the height of 65 inches or the weight of 100 pounds), while others
are nonnumerical (such as eye colors of black or blue). Generally, the terms categorical univariate data and numerical
univariate data are used to distinguish between these types.

101.1.1 Categorical univariate data

Categorical univariate data consist non-numerical observations that may be placed in categories. It includes labels or
names used to identify an attribute of each element. Categorical univariate data usually use either nominal or ordinal
scale of measurement.[3]

101.1.2 Numerical univariate data

Numerical univariate data consist observations that are numbers. They are obtained using either interval or ratio
scale of measurement. This type of univariate data can be classied even further into two subcategories: discrete and
continuous.[4] A numerical univariate data is discrete if the set of all possible values is nite or countably innite.
Discrete univariate data are usually associated with counting (such as the number of books read by a person). A
numerical univariate data is continuous if the set of all possible values is an interval of numbers. Continuous univariate
data are usually associated with measuring (such as the weights of people).

101.2 Data analysis and applications

Univariate analysis is the simplest form of analyzing data. Uni means one, so in other words the data has only
one variable.[5] Univariate data requires to analyze each variable separately. Data is gathered for the purpose of
answering a question, or more specically, a research question. Univariate data does not answer research questions
about relationships between variables, but rather it is used to describe one characteristic or attribute that varies from
observation to observation.[6] Usually there are two purposes that a researcher can look for. The rst one is to answer
a research question with descriptive study and the second one is to get knowledge about how attribute varies with
individual eect of a variable in Regression analysis. There are some ways to describe patterns found in univariate
data which include graphical methods, measures of central tendency and measures of variability.[7]

328
101.2. DATA ANALYSIS AND APPLICATIONS 329

101.2.1 Graphical methods

The most frequently used graphical illustrations for univariate data are:

Frequency distribution tables

Frequency is how many times a number occurs. The frequency of an observation in statistics tells us the number of
times the observation occurs in the data. For example, in the following list of numbers {1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 9, 9, 8, 5, 1, 1,
9, 9, 0, 6, 9}, the frequency of the number 9 is 5 (because it occurs 5 times).

Bar charts

This is an example of barplot.

Bar chart is a graph consisting of rectangular bars. There bars actually represents number or percentage of observa-
tions of existing categories in a variable. The length or height of bars gives a visual representation of the proportional
dierences among categories.

Histograms

Histograms are used to estimate distribution of the data, with the frequency of values assigned to a value range called
a bin.[8]

Pie charts

Pie chart is a circle divided into portions that represent the relative frequencies or percentages of a population or a
sample belonging to dierent categories.

101.2.2 Measures of central tendency

Central tendency is one of the most common numerical descriptive measures. Its used to estimate the central location
of the univariate data by the calculation of mean, median and mode.[9] Each of these calculation has its own advantages
and limitations.The mean has the advantage that its calculation includes each value of the data set, but it is particularly
330 CHAPTER 101. UNIVARIATE (STATISTICS)

histogram

susceptible to the inuence of outliers. The median is a better measure when the data set contains outliers. The mode
is simple to locate. The important thing is that its not restricted to using only one of these measure of central
tendency. If the data being analyzed is categorical, then the only measure of central tendency that can be used is the
mode. However, if the data is numerical in nature (ordinal or interval/ratio) then the mode, median, or mean can all
be used to describe the data. Using more than one of these measures provides a more accurate descriptive summary
of central tendency for the univariate.[10]

101.2.3 Measures of variability

A measure of variability or dispersion (deviation from the mean) of a univariate data set can reveal the shape of a
univariate data distribution more suciently. It will provide some information about the variation among data values.
The measures of variability together with the measures of central tendency give a better picture of the data than the
measures of central tendency alone.[11] The three most frequently used measures of variability are range, variance
and standard deviation.[12] The appropriateness of each measure would depend on the type of data, the shape of the
distribution of data and which measure of central tendency are being used. If the data is categorical, then there is no
measure of variability to report. For data that is numerical, all three measures are possible. If the distribution of data
is symmetrical, then the measures of variability are usually the variance and standard deviation. However, if the data
are skewed, then the measure of variability that would be appropriate for that data set is the range.[13]

101.3 Univariate distributions

Univariate distribution is a dispersal type of a single random variable described either with a probability mass function
(pmf) for discrete probability distribution, or probability density function (pdf) for continuous probability distribu-
tion.[14] It is not to be confused with multivariate distribution.

101.3.1 Common discrete distributions

Uniform distribution (discrete)

Bernoulli distribution
Binomial distribution
Geometric distribution
101.4. SEE ALSO 331

Negative binomial distribution

Poisson distribution
Hypergeometric distribution
Zeta distribution

101.3.2 Common continuous distributions

Uniform distribution (continuous)
Normal distribution
Gamma distribution
Exponential distribution
Weibull distribution
Cauchy distribution
Beta distribution

101.4 See also

Univariate

Univariate analysis

Univariate distribution

Bivariate analysis

Multivariate analysis

List of probability distributions

101.5 References
[1] Kachigan, Sam Kash (1986). Statistical analysis : an interdisciplinary introduction to univariate & multivariate methods.
New York: Radius Press. ISBN 0-942154-99-1.

[2] Lacke, Prem S. Mann ; with the help of Christopher Jay (2010). Introductory statistics. (7th ed. ed.). Hoboken, NJ: John
Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-0-470-44466-5.

[3] Anderson, David R.; Sweeney, Dennis J.; Williams, Thomas A. Statistics For Business & Economics (Tenth ed.). Cengage
Learning. p. 1018. ISBN 978-0-324-80926-8.

[4] Lacke, Prem S. Mann; with the help of Christopher Jay (2010). Introductory statistics. (7th ed. ed.). Hoboken, NJ: John
Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-0-470-44466-5.

[5] Univariate analysis. stathow.

[6] Univariate Data. study.com.

[7] Trochim, William. Descriptive Statistics. Web Center for Social Research Methods. Retrieved 15 February 2017.

[8] Diez, David M.; Barr, Christopher D.; etinkaya-Rundel, Mine (2015). OpenIntro Statistics (3rd ed.). OpenIntro, Inc. p.
30. ISBN 978-1-9434-5003-9.

[9] Stepanski, Norm O'Rourke, Larry Hatcher, Edward J. (2005). A step-by-step approach to using SAS for univariate &
multivariate statistics (2nd ed. ed.). New York: Wiley-Interscience. ISBN 1-59047-417-1.

[10] Longnecker, R. Lyman Ott, Michael (2009). An introduction to statistical methods and data analysis (6th ed., International
ed. ed.). Pacic Grove, Calif.: Brooks/Cole. ISBN 978-0-495-10914-3.

[11] Meloun, Milan; Militky, Jir (2011). Statistical Data Anaylsis A Practical Guide. New Delhi: Woodhead Pub Ltd. ISBN
978-0-85709-109-3.
332 CHAPTER 101. UNIVARIATE (STATISTICS)

[12] Purves, David Freedman ; Robert Pisani ; Roger (2007). Statistics (4. ed. ed.). New York [u.a.]: Norton. ISBN 0-393-
92972-8.

[13] Anderson, David R.; Sweeney, Dennis J.; Williams, Thomas A. Statistics For Business & Economics (Tenth ed.). Cengage
Learning. p. 1018. ISBN 978-0-324-80926-8.

[14] Samaniego, Francisco J. (2014). Stochastic modeling and mathematical statistics : a text for statisticians and quantitative
scientists. Boca Raton: CRC Press. p. 167. ISBN 978-1-4665-6046-8.
Chapter 102

Universal property

For other uses, see Universal (disambiguation).

In various branches of mathematics, a useful construction is often viewed as the most ecient solution to a certain
problem. The denition of a universal property uses the language of category theory to make this notion precise
and to study it abstractly.
This article gives a general treatment of universal properties. To understand the concept, it is useful to study sev-
eral examples rst, of which there are many: all free objects, direct product and direct sum, free group, free lat-
tice, Grothendieck group, DedekindMacNeille completion, product topology, Stoneech compactication, tensor
product, inverse limit and direct limit, kernel and cokernel, pullback, pushout and equalizer.

102.1 Motivation
Before giving a formal denition of universal properties, we oer some motivation for studying such constructions.

The concrete details of a given construction may be messy, but if the construction satises a universal property,
one can forget all those details: all there is to know about the construct is already contained in the universal
property. Proofs often become short and elegant if the universal property is used rather than the concrete
details. For example, the tensor algebra of a vector space is slightly painful to actually construct, but using its
universal property makes it much easier to deal with.
Universal properties dene objects uniquely up to a unique isomorphism.[1] Therefore, one strategy to prove
that two objects are isomorphic is to show that they satisfy the same universal property.
Universal constructions are functorial in nature: if one can carry out the construction for every object in a
category C then one obtains a functor on C. Furthermore, this functor is a right or left adjoint to the functor U
used in the denition of the universal property.[2]
Universal properties occur everywhere in mathematics. By understanding their abstract properties, one obtains
information about all these constructions and can avoid repeating the same analysis for each individual instance.

102.2 Formal denition

Suppose that U: D C is a functor from a category D to a category C, and let X be an object of C. Consider the
following dual (opposite) notions:
An initial morphism from X to U is an initial object in the category (X U ) of morphisms from X to U. In other
words, it consists of a pair (A, ) where A is an object of D and : X U(A) is a morphism in C, such that the
following initial property is satised:

Whenever Y is an object of D and f: X U(Y) is a morphism in C, then there exists a unique morphism g: A
Y such that the following diagram commutes:

333
334 CHAPTER 102. UNIVERSAL PROPERTY

An initial morphism from X to U

A terminal morphism from U to X is a terminal object in the comma category (U X) of morphisms from U to
X. In other words, it consists of a pair (A, ) where A is an object of D and : U(A) X is a morphism in C, such
that the following terminal property is satised:

Whenever Y is an object of D and f: U(Y) X is a morphism in C, then there exists a unique morphism g: Y
A such that the following diagram commutes:

A terminal morphism from U to X

The term universal morphism[3] refers either to an initial morphism or a terminal morphism, and the term universal
property refers either to an initial property or a terminal property. In each denition, the existence of the morphism
g intuitively expresses the fact that (A, ) is general enough, while the uniqueness of the morphism ensures that (A,
) is not too general.
102.3. DUALITY 335

102.3 Duality
Since the notions of initial and terminal are dual, it is often enough to discuss only one of them, and simply reverse
arrows in C for the dual discussion. Alternatively, the word universal is often used in place of both words.
Note: some authors may call only one of these constructions a universal morphism and the other one a co-universal
morphism. Which is which depends on the author, although in order to be consistent with the naming of limits
and colimits the latter construction should be named universal and the former couniversal. This article uses the
unambiguous terminology of initial and terminal objects.

102.4 Examples
Below are a few examples, to highlight the general idea. The reader can construct numerous other examples by
consulting the articles mentioned in the introduction.

102.4.1 Tensor algebras

Let C be the category of vector spaces K-Vect over a eld K and let D be the category of algebras K-Alg over K
(assumed to be unital and associative). Let

U : K-Alg K-Vect

be the forgetful functor which assigns to each algebra its underlying vector space.
Given any vector space V over K we can construct the tensor algebra T(V) of V. The tensor algebra is characterized
by the fact:

Any linear map from V to an algebra A can be uniquely extended to an algebra homomorphism from
T(V) to A.

This statement is an initial property of the tensor algebra since it expresses the fact that the pair (T(V), i), where i :
V T(V) is the inclusion map, is an initial morphism from the vector space V to the functor U.
Since this construction works for any vector space V, we conclude that T is a functor from K-Vect to K-Alg. This
means that T is left adjoint to the forgetful functor U (see the section below on relation to adjoint functors).

102.4.2 Products
A categorical product can be characterized by a terminal property. For concreteness, one may consider the Cartesian
product in Set, the direct product in Grp, or the product topology in Top, where products exist.
Let X and Y be objects of a category D. The product of X and Y is an object X Y together with two morphisms

1 : X Y X
2 : X Y Y

such that for any other object Z of D and morphisms f : Z X and g : Z Y there exists a unique morphism h : Z
X Y such that f = 1 h and g = 2 h.
To understand this characterization as a terminal property we take the category C to be the product category D D
and dene the diagonal functor

:DDD

by (X) = (X, X) and (f : X Y) = (f, f). Then (X Y, (1 , 2 )) is a terminal morphism from to the object (X,
Y) of D D: If (f, g) is any morphism from (Z, Z) to (X, Y), then it must equal a morphism (h : Z X Y) = (h,
h) from (Z) = (Z, Z) to (X Y) = (X Y,X Y), followed by (1 , 2 ).
336 CHAPTER 102. UNIVERSAL PROPERTY

102.4.3 Limits and colimits

Categorical products are a particular kind of limit in category theory. One can generalize the above example to
arbitrary limits and colimits.
Let J and C be categories with J a small index category and let C J be the corresponding functor category. The
diagonal functor

: C CJ

is the functor that maps each object N in C to the constant functor (N): J C to N (i.e. (N)(X) = N for each X
in J).
Given a functor F : J C (thought of as an object in C J ), the limit of F, if it exists, is nothing but a terminal morphism
from to F. Dually, the colimit of F is an initial morphism from F to .

102.5 Properties

102.5.1 Existence and uniqueness

Dening a quantity does not guarantee its existence. Given a functor U and an object X as above, there may or may
not exist an initial morphism from X to U. If, however, an initial morphism (A, ) does exist then it is essentially
unique. Specically, it is unique up to a unique isomorphism: if (A, ) is another such pair, then there exists a
unique isomorphism k: A A such that = U(k). This is easily seen by substituting (A, ) for (Y, f) in the
denition of the initial property.
It is the pair (A, ) which is essentially unique in this fashion. The object A itself is only unique up to isomorphism.
Indeed, if (A, ) is an initial morphism and k: A A is any isomorphism then the pair (A, ), where = U(k),
is also an initial morphism.

102.5.2 Equivalent formulations

The denition of a universal morphism can be rephrased in a variety of ways. Let U be a functor from D to C, and
let X be an object of C. Then the following statements are equivalent:

(A, ) is an initial morphism from X to U

(A, ) is an initial object of the comma category (X U)
(A, ) is a representation of HomC(X, U)

The dual statements are also equivalent:

(A, ) is a terminal morphism from U to X

(A, ) is a terminal object of the comma category (U X)
(A, ) is a representation of HomC(U, X)

102.5.3 Relation to adjoint functors

Suppose (A1 , 1 ) is an initial morphism from X1 to U and (A2 , 2 ) is an initial morphism from X2 to U. By the
initial property, given any morphism h: X1 X2 there exists a unique morphism g: A1 A2 such that the following
diagram commutes:
If every object Xi of C admits an initial morphism to U, then the assignment Xi 7 Ai and h 7 g denes a functor
V from C to D. The maps i then dene a natural transformation from 1C (the identity functor on C) to UV. The
functors (V, U) are then a pair of adjoint functors, with V left-adjoint to U and U right-adjoint to V.
102.5. PROPERTIES 337

Similar statements apply to the dual situation of terminal morphisms from U. If such morphisms exist for every X in
C one obtains a functor V: C D which is right-adjoint to U (so U is left-adjoint to V).
Indeed, all pairs of adjoint functors arise from universal constructions in this manner. Let F and G be a pair of adjoint
functors with unit and co-unit (see the article on adjoint functors for the denitions). Then we have a universal
morphism for each object in C and D:

For each object X in C, (F(X), X) is an initial morphism from X to G. That is, for all f: X G(Y) there exists
a unique g: F(X) Y for which the following diagrams commute.
For each object Y in D, (G(Y), Y) is a terminal morphism from F to Y. That is, for all g: F(X) Y there
exists a unique f: X G(Y) for which the following diagrams commute.

Universal properties of a pair of adjoint functors

Universal constructions are more general than adjoint functor pairs: a universal construction is like an optimization
problem; it gives rise to an adjoint pair if and only if this problem has a solution for every object of C (equivalently,
every object of D).
338 CHAPTER 102. UNIVERSAL PROPERTY

102.6 History
Universal properties of various topological constructions were presented by Pierre Samuel in 1948. They were later
used extensively by Bourbaki. The closely related concept of adjoint functors was introduced independently by Daniel
Kan in 1958.

102.7 See also

Free object

Adjoint functor

Monad (category theory)

Variety of algebras

Cartesian closed category

102.8 Notes
[1] Jacobson (2009), Proposition 1.6, p. 44.

[2] See for example, Polcino & Sehgal (2002), p. 133. exercise 1, about the universal property of group rings.

[3] It is also called a universal arrow; for example in (Mac Lane 1998, Ch. III, 1.)

102.9 References
Paul Cohn, Universal Algebra (1981), D.Reidel Publishing, Holland. ISBN 90-277-1213-1.

Mac Lane, Saunders, Categories for the Working Mathematician 2nd ed. (1998), Graduate Texts in Mathemat-
ics 5. Springer. ISBN 0-387-98403-8.

Borceux, F. Handbook of Categorical Algebra: vol 1 Basic category theory (1994) Cambridge University Press,
(Encyclopedia of Mathematics and its Applications) ISBN 0-521-44178-1

N. Bourbaki, Livre II : Algbre (1970), Hermann, ISBN 0-201-00639-1.

Milies, Csar Polcino; Sehgal, Sudarshan K.. An introduction to group rings. Algebras and applications, Volume
1. Springer, 2002. ISBN 978-1-4020-0238-0

Jacobson. Basic Algebra II. Dover. 2009. ISBN 0-486-47187-X

102.10 External links

nLab, a wiki project on mathematics, physics and philosophy with emphasis on the n-categorical point of view

Andr Joyal, CatLab, a wiki project dedicated to the exposition of categorical mathematics

Hillman, Chris. A Categorical Primer. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.24.3264 : formal introduction to category theory.

J. Adamek, H. Herrlich, G. Stecker, Abstract and Concrete Categories-The Joy of Cats

Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy: "Category Theory"by Jean-Pierre Marquis. Extensive bibliography.

List of academic conferences on category theory

Baez, John, 1996,The Tale of n-categories." An informal introduction to higher order categories.
102.10. EXTERNAL LINKS 339

WildCats is a category theory package for Mathematica. Manipulation and visualization of objects, morphisms,
categories, functors, natural transformations, universal properties.
The catsters, a YouTube channel about category theory.

Category Theory. PlanetMath.

Video archive of recorded talks relevant to categories, logic and the foundations of physics.

Interactive Web page which generates examples of categorical constructions in the category of nite sets.
Chapter 103

Universal space

In mathematics, a universal space is a certain metric space that contains all metric spaces whose dimension is bounded
by some xed constant. A similar denition exists in topological dynamics.

103.1 Denition
Given a class C of topological spaces, U C is universal for C if each member of C embeds in U . Menger stated
and proved the case d = 1 of the following theorem. The theorem in full generality was proven by Nbeling.
Theorem:[1] The (2d + 1) -dimensional cube [0, 1]2d+1 is universal for the class of compact metric spaces whose
Lebesgue covering dimension is less than d .
Nbeling went further and proved:
Theorem: The subspace of [0, 1]2d+1 consisting of set of points, at most d of whose coordinates are rational, is
universal for the class of separable metric spaces whose Lebesgue covering dimension is less than d .
The last theorem was generalized by Lipscomb to the class of metric spaces of weight , > 0 : There exist a
one-dimensional metric space J such that the subspace of J2d+1 consisting of set of points, at most d of whose
coordinates are rational (suitably dened), is universal for the class of metric spaces whose Lebesgue covering
dimension is less than d and whose weight is less than .[2]

103.2 Universal spaces in topological dynamics

Let us consider the category of topological dynamical systems (X, T ) consisting of a compact metric space X and
a homeomorphism T : X X . The topological dynamical system (X, T ) is called minimal if it has no proper
non-empty closed T -invariant subsets. It is called innite if |X| = . A topological dynamical system (Y, S) is
called a factor of (X, T ) if there exists a continuous surjective mapping : X Y which is eqvuivariant, i.e.
(T x) = S(x) for all x X .
Similarly to the denition above, given a class C of topological dynamical systems, U C is universal for C if each
member of C embeds in U through an eqvuivariant continuous mapping. Lindenstrauss proved the following theorem:
Theorem[3] : Let d N . The compact metric topological dynamical system (X, T ) where X = ([0, 1]36d )Z and
T : X X is the shift homeomorphism (. . . , x2 , x1 , x0 , x1 , x2 , . . .) (. . . , x1 , x0 , x1 , x2 , x3 , . . .) , is
universal for the class of compact metric topological dynamical systems which possess an innite minimal factor and
whose mean dimension is strictly less than d .

103.3 See also

Universal property
Urysohn universal space

340
103.4. REFERENCES 341

Mean dimension

103.4 References
[1] Hurewicz, Witold; Wallman, Henry (1941). Dimension Theory. Princeton Mathematical Series, v. 4. Princeton University
Press, Princeton, N. J.,. pp. Theorem V.2.

[2] Lipscomb., Stephen Leon (2009). The quest for universal spaces in dimension theory.. Notices Amer. Math. Soc. 56
(11): 14181424.

[3] Lindenstrauss, Elon (1999). Mean dimension, small entropy factors and an embedding theorem. Theorem 5.1. Inst.
Hautes tudes Sci. Publ. Math. 89 (1): 227262.
Chapter 104

Up to

In mathematics, the phrase up to appears in discussions about the elements of a set (say S), and the conditions under
which subsets of those elements may be considered equivalent. The statement elements a and b of set S are equivalent
up to X" means that a and b are equivalent if criterion X (such as rotation or permutation) is ignored. That is, a and
b can be transformed into one another if a transform corresponding to X (rotation, permutation etc.) is applied.
Looking at the entire set S, when X is ignored the elements can be arranged in subsets whose elements are equivalent
(equivalent up to X"). Such subsets are called equivalence classes.
If X is some property or process, the phrase up to X means disregarding a possible dierence in X. For instance
the statement an integers prime factorization is unique up to ordering", means that the prime factorization is unique
if we disregard the order of the factors. We might say the solution to an indenite integral is f(x), up to addition
by a constant", meaning that the added constant is not the focus here, the solution f(x) is, and that the addition of a
constant is to be regarded as a background, of secondary focus. Further examples concerning up to isomorphism, up
to permutations and up to rotations are described below.
In informal contexts, mathematicians often use the word modulo (or simply mod) for similar purposes, as in modulo
isomorphism.

104.1 Examples

104.1.1 Tetris
A simple example is there are seven reecting tetrominos, up to rotations, which makes reference to the seven
possible contiguous arrangements of tetrominoes (collections of four unit squares arranged to connect on at least one
side) which are frequently thought of as the seven Tetris pieces (O, I, L, J, T, S, Z.) This could also be written there
are ve tetrominos, up to reections and rotations, which would take account of the perspective that L and J could
be thought of as the same piece, reected, as well as that S and Z could be seen as the same. The Tetris game does
not allow reections, so the former notation is likely to seem more natural.
To add in the exhaustive count, there is no formal notation. However, it is common to write there are seven reecting
tetrominos (= 19 total) up to rotations. In this, Tetris provides an excellent example, as a reader might simply count
7 pieces 4 rotations as 28, where some pieces (the 22 O being the obvious example) have fewer than four rotation
states.

104.1.2 Eight queens

In the eight queens puzzle, if the eight queens are considered to be distinct, there are 3 709 440 distinct solutions.
Normally however, the queens are considered to be identical, and one says there are 92 ( = 3709440 8! ) unique
solutions up to permutations of the queens, or there are 92 solutions mod the names of the queens, signifying that
two dierent arrangements of the queens are considered equivalent if the queens have been permuted, but the same
squares on the chessboard are occupied by them.
If, in addition to treating the queens as identical, rotations and reections of the board were allowed, we would have

342
104.1. EXAMPLES 343

P up to rotation P up to rotation
and reflection
In a hexagon vertex set there are 20 partitions which have one three-element subset and three single-element subsets (uncolored) (top
gure). Of these there are four partitions up to rotation, and three partitions up to rotation and reection.
344 CHAPTER 104. UP TO

Tetris pieces I,J,L,O, S,T,Z

A solution of the eight queens problem

only 12 distinct solutions up to symmetry and the naming of the queens, signifying that two arrangements that are
symmetrical to each other are considered equivalent.
104.2. COMPUTER SCIENCE 345

104.1.3 Polygons
The regular n-gon, for given n, is unique up to similarity. In other words, if all similar n-gons are considered instances
of the same n-gon, then there is only one regular n-gon.

104.1.4 Group theory

In group theory, for example, we may have a group G acting on a set X, in which case we say that two elements of X
are equivalent up to the group action if they lie in the same orbit.
Another typical example is the statement that there are two dierent groups of order 4 up to isomorphism", or
"modulo isomorphism, there are two groups of order 4. This means that there are two equivalence classes of groups
of order 4, assuming we consider groups to be equivalent if they are isomorphic.

104.1.5 Non-standard analysis

A hyperreal x and its standard part st(x) are equal up to an innitesimal dierence.

104.2 Computer science

In computer science, the term up-to techniques is a precisely dened notion that refers to certain proof techniques for
(weak) bisimulation, to relate processes that only behave similarly up to unobservable steps.[1]

104.3 See also

Adequality
All other things being equal

Modulo
Quotient set

Quotient group
Synecdoche

Abuse of notation

104.4 References
Up-to Techniques for Weak Bisimulation

[1] Damien Pous, Up-to techniques for weak bisimulation, Proc. 32th ICALP, Lecture Notes in Computer Science, vol. 3580,
Springer Verlag (2005), pp. 730741
Chapter 105

Well-dened

For other uses, see Denition (disambiguation).

In mathematics, an expression is called well-dened or unambiguous if its denition assigns it a unique interpretation
or value. Otherwise, the expression is said to be not well-dened or ambiguous.[1] A function is well-dened if it
gives the same result when the representation of the input is changed without changing the value of the input. For
instance if f takes real numbers as input, and if f(0.5) does not equal f(1/2) then f is not well-dened (and thus: not
a function).[2] The term well-dened is also used to indicate whether a logical statement is unambiguous.
A function that is not well-dened is not the same as a function that is undened. For example, if f(x) = 1/x, then
f(0) is undened, but this has nothing to do with the question of whether f(x) = 1/x is well-dened. It is; 0 is simply
not in the domain of the function.

105.1 Simple example

Let A0 , A1 be sets, let A = A0 A1 and dene f : A {0, 1} as f (a) = 0 if a A0 and f (a) = 1 if a A1 .
Then f is well-dened if A0 A1 = . This is e. g. the case when A0 := {2, 4}, A1 := {3, 5} (then f(a) happens
to be mod(a, 2) ).
If however A0 A1 = then f is not well-dened because f (a) is ambiguous for a A0 A1 . This is e. g. the
case when A0 := {2} and A1 := {2} . Indeed, A0 A1 = {2} 2 and f(2) would have to be 0 as well as 1, which
is impossible. Therefore, the latter f is not well-dened and thus not a function.

105.2 Denition as anticipation of denition

In order to avoid the apostrophes around dene in the previous simple example, the denition of f could be
broken down into two simple logical steps:

1. The denition of the binary relation: In the example

{ }
f := (a, i) | i {0, 1} a Ai

(which so far is nothing but a certain subset of the Cartesian product A {0, 1} .)

2. The assertion: The binary relation f is a function; in the example

f : A {0, 1}

Whereas the denition in step 1. is formulated with the freedom of any denition and is certainly eective (without
the need to classify it as well-dened), the assertion in step 2. has to be proved: If and only if A0 A1 = , we
get a function f , and the f of denition is well-dened (as a function).

346
105.3. INDEPENDENCE OF REPRESENTATIVE 347

On the other hand: if A0 A1 = then for an a A0 A1 there is both, (a, 0) f and (a, 1) f , and the binary
relation f is not functional as dened in Binary relation#Special types of binary relations and thus not well-dened
(as a function). Colloquially, the function f is called ambiguous at point a (although there is per denitionem never
an ambiguous function), and the original denition is pointless.
Despite these subtle logical problems, it is quite common to anticipatorily use the term denition (without apostrophes)
for denitions of this kind, rstly because it is sort of a short-hand of the two-step approach, secondly because the
relevant mathematical reasoning (step 2.) is the same in both cases, and nally because in mathematical texts the
assertion is up to 100% true.

105.3 Independence of representative

The question of well-denedness of a function classically arises when the dening equation of a function does not
(only) refer to the arguments themselves, but (also) to elements of the arguments. This is sometimes unavoidable
when the arguments are cosets and the equation refers to coset representatives.

105.3.1 Functions with one argument

For example, consider the following function

f : Z/8Z Z/4Z
n8 7 n4 ,

where n Z, m {4, 8} and Z/mZ are the integers modulo m and nm denotes the congruence class of n mod m.
N.B.: n4 is a reference to the element n n8 , and n8 is the argument of f.
The function f is well-dened, because

n n mod 8 8 | (n n ) 2 4 | (n n ) 4 | (n n ) n n mod 4.

105.3.2 Operations
In particular, the term well-dened is used with respect to (binary) operations on cosets. In this case one can view
the operation as a function of two variables and the property of being well-dened is the same as that for a function.
For example, addition on the integers modulo some n can be dened naturally in terms of integer addition.

[a] [b] = [a + b]

The fact that this is well-dened follows from the fact that we can write any representative of [a] as a + kn , where
k is an integer. Therefore,

[a + kn] [b] = [(a + kn) + b] = [(a + b) + kn] = [a + b] = [a] [b];

and similarly for any representative of [b] .

105.4 Well-dened notation

For real numbers, the product a b c is unambiguous because (a b) c = a (b c) . (Therefore, the notation
is said to be well-dened.[1] ) Because of this property of the operation (here ), which is known as associativity, the
result does not depend on the sequence of multiplications, so that a specication of the sequence can be omitted.
348 CHAPTER 105. WELL-DEFINED

The subtraction operation, , is not associative. However, there is a convention (or denition) in that the operation
is understood as addition of the opposite, thus a b c is the same as a + (b) + (c) , and is called well-dened.
Division is also non-associative. However, in the case of a/b/c the convention /b := b1 is not so well established,
so this expression is considered ill-dened.
Unlike with functions, the notational ambiguities can be overcome more or less easily by means of additional de-
nitions, i. e. rules of precedence, and/or associativity of the operators. In the programming language C e. g. the
operator - for subtraction is left-to-right-associative which means that a-b-c is dened as (a-b)-c and the operator = for
assignment is right-to-left-associative which means that a=b=c is dened as a=(b=c). In the programming language
APL there is only one rule: from right to left but parentheses rst.

105.5 Other uses of the term

A solution to a partial dierential equation is said to be well-dened if it is determined by the boundary conditions
in a continuous way as the boundary conditions are changed.[1]

105.6 See also

Equivalence relation Well-denedness under an equivalence relation

Denitionism
Existence

Uniqueness
Uniqueness quantication

Undened

105.7 References

105.7.1 Notes
[1] Weisstein, Eric W. Well-Dened. From MathWorld--A Wolfram Web Resource. Retrieved 2 January 2013.

[2] Joseph J. Rotman, The Theory of Groups: an Introduction, p. 287 "... a function is single-valued, or, as we prefer to say
... a function is well dened., Allyn and Bacon, 1965.

105.7.2 Sources
Contemporary Abstract Algebra, Joseph A. Gallian, 6th Edition, Houghlin Miin, 2006, ISBN 0-618-51471-6.

Algebra: Chapter 0, Paolo Alu, ISBN 978-0821847817. Page 16.

Abstract Algebra, Dummit and Foote, 3rd edition, ISBN 978-0471433347. Page 1.
Chapter 106

Without loss of generality

WLOG redirects here. For the radio station, see WLOG (FM).

Without loss of generality (often abbreviated to WOLOG, WLOG or w.l.o.g.; less commonly stated as without
any loss of generality or with no loss of generality) is a frequently used expression in mathematics. The term is
used before an assumption in a proof which narrows the premise to some special case; it implies that the proof for
that case can be easily applied to all others, or that all other cases are equivalent or similar.[1] Thus, given a proof of
the conclusion in the special case, it is trivial to adapt it to prove the conclusion in all other cases.
This is often enabled by the presence of symmetry. For example, if some property P(x,y) of real numbers is known
to be symmetrical in x and y, namely that P(x,y) is equivalent to P(y,x), then in proving that P(x,y) holds for every x
and y, we may assume without loss of generality that x y. There is then no loss of generality in that assumption:
once the case x y P(x,y) has been proved, the other case follows by y x [2] P(y,x) [3] P(x,y); hence, P(x,y)
holds in all cases.

106.1 Example
Consider the following theorem (which is a case of the pigeonhole principle):

If three objects are each painted either red or blue, then there must be two objects of the same color.

A proof:

Assume without loss of generality that the rst object is red. If either of the other two objects is red,
we are nished; if not, the other two objects must both be blue and we are still nished.

This works because exactly the same reasoning (with red and blue interchanged) could be applied if the alternative
assumption were made, namely that the rst object is blue.

106.2 See also

Up to
Mathematical jargon

106.3 References
[1] Chartrand, Gary; Polimeni, Albert D.; Zhang, Ping (2008), Mathematical Proofs / A Transition to Advanced Mathematics
(2nd ed.), Pearson/Addison Wesley, pp. 8081, ISBN 0-321-39053-9

349
350 CHAPTER 106. WITHOUT LOSS OF GENERALITY

[2] from the just proved implication by interchanging x and y

[3] by symmetry of P

106.4 External links

WLOG. PlanetMath.
Without Loss of Generality by John Harrison - discussion of formalizing WLOG arguments in an auto-
mated theorem prover.
Chapter 107

Not to be confused with .

The character (HTML element: &#8706; or &part;, Unicode: U+2202) or is a stylized d mainly used as a
z
mathematical symbol to denote a partial derivative such as x (read as the partial derivative of z with respect to
[1]
x").

107.1 Overview
The symbol was originally introduced by Adrien-Marie Legendre in 1786, but gained popularity when it was used by
Carl Gustav Jacob Jacobi in 1841.[2][3][4]
is also used to denote the following:

(x,y,z)
The Jacobian (u,v,w) .

The boundary of a set in topology.

The boundary operator on a chain complex in homological algebra.

The boundary operator of a dierential graded algebra.

The Dolbeault operator on complex dierential forms.

The symbol is referred to as del[5] (not to be confused with , also known as del), dee,[6] partial dee,[7]
partial (especially in LaTeX), round d,[8] curly dee,[9] or dabba.[10]
The lowercase Cyrillic De looks similar when italicized.

107.2 See also

Delta (letter)

List of mathematical symbols

107.3 References
[1] Christopher, Essex (2013). Calculus : a complete course. p. 682. ISBN 9780321781079. OCLC 872345701.

[2] Adrien-Marie Legendre, Memoire sur la manire de distinguer les maxima des minima dans le Calcul des Variations,
Histoire de l'Academie Royale des Sciences (1786), pp. 737.

351
352 CHAPTER 107.

[3] Carl Gustav Jacob Jacobi, De determinantibus Functionalibus, Crelles Journal 22 (1841), pp. 319352.

[4] Aldrich, John. Earliest Uses of Symbols of Calculus. Retrieved 16 January 2014.

[5] Bhardwaj, R.S. (2005), Mathematics for Economics & Business (2nd ed.), p. 6.4

[6] Silverman, Richard A. (1989), Essential Calculus: With Applications, p. 216

[7] Pemberton, Malcolm; Rau, Nicholas (2011), Mathematics for Economists: An Introductory Textbook, p. 271

[8] Munem, Mustafa; Foulis, David (1978). Calculus with Analytic Geometry. New York, NY: Worth Publishers, Inc. p. 828.
ISBN 0-87901-087-8.

[9] Bowman, Elizabeth (2014), Video Lecture for University of Alabama in Huntsville

[10] Gokhale, Mujumdar, Kulkarni, Singh, Atal, Engineering Mathematics I, p. 10.2, Nirali Prakashan ISBN 8190693549.
107.4. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES 353

107.4 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

107.4.1 Text
Abstract nonsense Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abstract_nonsense?oldid=795399898 Contributors: Delirium, Hermeneus,
Schneelocke, Charles Matthews, Dysprosia, Fredrik, Schutz, Gandalf61, Tea2min, Dratman, CSTAR, Pmanderson, Paul August, Aranel,
C S, Msh210, Ruud Koot, FlaBot, Hairy Dude, Dmharvey, Crasshopper, Jrf, TenPoundHammer, Lambiam, Digana, Quentin72, Jim.belk,
Dreftymac, CRGreathouse, CBM, Knotwork, Tokenzero, Mikon, Katzmik, JackSchmidt, Xodarap00, Hans Adler, Addbot, Topology Ex-
pert, Yobot, AnomieBOT, KHirsch, FrescoBot, Vrenator, WikitanvirBot, Chricho, Purplecarrot2, ClueBot NG, Solomon7968, Miabraha,
Baking Soda, InternetArchiveBot, Telestew and Anonymous: 14
Abstract structure Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abstract_structure?oldid=668554454 Contributors: Michael Hardy, Glenn,
Schneelocke, Charles Matthews, Dysprosia, Jni, Gandalf61, Ruakh, Giftlite, Gubbubu, Antandrus, Karl-Henner, Diego Moya, Oleg
Alexandrov, Ruud Koot, Troj10, Jrtayloriv, DevastatorIIC, Jittat~enwiki, Anomalocaris, Jpbowen, A Doon, Bradtcordeiro, Bluebot,
Jon Awbrey, TenPoundHammer, Floridi~enwiki, Gregbard, AntiVandalBot, LibLord, David Eppstein, Addbot, Pcap, Erik9bot, Cfor-
rester101, SJ Defender and Anonymous: 16
Abstraction (mathematics) Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abstraction_(mathematics)?oldid=776891294 Contributors: Michael
Hardy, Ahoerstemeier, Schneelocke, Reddi, Dysprosia, Robbot, Gandalf61, Giftlite, Oleg Alexandrov, Linas, Juan Marquez, Jrtayloriv,
YurikBot, SmackBot, Well, girl, look at you!, GK tramrunner, Octahedron80, Jon Awbrey, Oliver202, Mhaitham.shammaa, Chill doubt,
MartinBot, Maurice Carbonaro, Athaenara, Blizzarddog, Stormin' Foreman, Everyheads, Lenary, XLinkBot, Addbot, Legobot, Reindra,
Philscott2, Lkd85, Paine Ellsworth, Orhanghazi, John of Reading, Acapbest, ClueBot NG, Brad7777, Param Mudgal, Bender the Bot and
Anonymous: 19
Abuse of notation Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abuse_of_notation?oldid=802780426 Contributors: Michael Hardy, Dominus,
Charles Matthews, Timwi, McKay, Bkell, Giftlite, Sendhil, Dratman, DragonySixtyseven, Sebbe, Chadernook, Frau Holle, , Zaslav,
Mike Schwartz, Penwhale, Cmprince, Kay Dekker, StradivariusTV, BD2412, JIP, OneWeirdDude, Mike Segal, Jwmcleod, Mathbot,
Hairy Dude, RussBot, Xihr, Cheeser1, Omtay38, Mais oui!, SmackBot, Chris the speller, Nbarth, Zoonfafer, Acepectif, Bowlhover,
Lambiam, J. Finkelstein, Ace Frahm, Olivierd, Generalcp702, Alan Taylor, HenningThielemann, A876, WISo, Thijs!bot, Headbomb,
Sangwinc, JamesBWatson, Usien6, Ensign beedrill, Pomte, Trumpet marietta 45750, Ross Fraser, Cuzkatzimhut, PaulTanenbaum, Geom-
etry guy, Cuddlyable3, Pirround, Paolo.dL, Thehotelambush, JackSchmidt, Skeptical scientist, Stfg, Tesi1700, Mx. Granger, The Thing
That Should Not Be, Arjayay, Hans Adler, Eebster the Great, Cbensf, Marc van Leeuwen, Addbot, Non-dropframe, Delaszk, Legobot,
Yobot, AnomieBOT, Magicxcian, FrescoBot, Nicolas Perrault III, Mr.ogren, I dream of horses, Syockit, Double sharp, Ybungalobill, Os-
ilivra, D.Lazard, Sapphorain, Mikhail Ryazanov, Helpful Pixie Bot, , GregRos, Seppi333, EntirelyTrue, Zeiimer, GeoreyT2000,
Loraof, Schweick, Deacon Vorbis and Anonymous: 50
Active and passive transformation Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Active_and_passive_transformation?oldid=777918595 Con-
tributors: Timo Honkasalo, Michael Hardy, Phys, Phil Boswell, Giftlite, BenFrantzDale, Lethe, Eregli bob, Rgdboer, Jag123, Mdd, Lec-
tonar, Oleg Alexandrov, Linas, Mushin, SmackBot, Javalenok, Vanisaac, Konradek, Venny85, Logan, Paolo.dL, Thegeneralguy, Brews
ohare, XLinkBot, Lemmey, Skyezx, Ettrig, Yobot, Sawomir Biay, Machine Elf 1735, Miracle Pen, Xnn, RjwilmsiBot, GoingBatty,
Slawekb, Hhhippo, Qniemiec, Anita5192, Helpful Pixie Bot, DanDangerous, Peyruz, Bender the Bot and Anonymous: 15
Adequality Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adequality?oldid=756667268 Contributors: Toby Bartels, Michael Hardy, William
M. Connolley, Giftlite, Dratman, Rgdboer, Rjwilmsi, Finell, Speight, A876, Thenub314, Magioladitis, JohnBlackburne, Someguy1221,
Dusti, Drmies, Mild Bill Hiccup, Jsondow, Addbot, Download, Yobot, AnomieBOT, Omnipaedista, Tkuvho, Trappist the monk, D.Lazard,
half-moon bubba, Enfcer, Helpful Pixie Bot, Qetuth, BattyBot, Brirush, CsDix, Klaus Barner, Jim Carter, Travailen, Yonathanyeremy
and Anonymous: 16
Adjoint Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adjoint?oldid=646351401 Contributors: AxelBoldt, Schneelocke, Charles Matthews, Dys-
prosia, Markus Krtzsch, Mikez, Oleg Alexandrov, Linas, BD2412, R.e.b., Mathbot, TexasAndroid, Markus Schmaus, GromXXVII,
David Eppstein, LokiClock, SetaLyas, Auntof6, FaleBot, Or michael, Quondum, DPL bot, ChrisGualtieri, Spectral sequence and Anony-
mous: 9
Almost Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Almost?oldid=589309618 Contributors: The Anome, SimonP, EdH, Revolver, Charles
Matthews, Timwi, Francs2000, Henrygb, ElBenevolente, Fluzwup, Scott Ritchie, Oleg Alexandrov, Spolster, Mathbot, Saberwyn, Be-
nandorsqueaks, SmackBot, Maksim-e~enwiki, Psiphiorg, Hraefen, TKD, Ualindia, Tawkerbot2, CRGreathouse, BetacommandBot, An-
tiVandalBot, VolkovBot, Zurishaddai, Tresiden, ClueBot, Polly, Addbot, Ankrom123, Friginator, SpBot, SamatBot, Fryed-peach, Yobot,
Tppersaud, Erik9bot, Jh3sb, Wikipelli, ClueBot NG, 123article456 and Anonymous: 17
Almost all Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Almost_all?oldid=793057426 Contributors: AxelBoldt, Bryan Derksen, Zundark, The
Anome, Patrick, Michael Hardy, Charles Matthews, Timwi, Finlay McWalter, Gandalf61, MathMartin, Tea2min, Giftlite, Herbee, Rich
Farmbrough, Aranel, Teorth, Scott Ritchie, Evaa, Sligocki, Erik Sandberg, SmackBot, RDBury, Bluebot, PrimeHunter, Nbarth, Dreadstar,
Breno, Mets501, Rahulchandra, RobHar, Jgro, SieBot, Johnoyd6675, Legobot, Omnipaedista, Erik9bot, Jordgette, YFdyh-bot, Brirush,
David9550, and Anonymous: 19
Almost everywhere Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Almost_everywhere?oldid=802791670 Contributors: AxelBoldt, Bryan Derk-
sen, Miguel~enwiki, Edward, JohnOwens, Michael Hardy, Bcrowell, Loisel, Julesd, Cyan, Bjcairns, Charles Matthews, Dino, Rob-
bot, MathMartin, Henrygb, Weialawaga~enwiki, Lupin, Jason Quinn, Sam Hocevar, Klemen Kocjancic, Tsirel, Mathbot, EnDumEn,
Hairy Dude, JHCaueld, Klutzy, Zvika, SmackBot, Maksim-e~enwiki, Stie, Eskimbot, Ppntori, Modest Genius, Gala.martin, J. Finkel-
stein, Mets501, CBM, Kilva, JAnDbot, Thenub314, M4701, David Eppstein, Anonymous Dissident, Geometry guy, KKoolstra, Thin-
boy00P, Addbot, Yobot, JWroblewski, KamikazeBot, Langmore, AnomieBOT, Citation bot, Quartl, Sawomir Biay, Tinton5, PyonDude,
DixonDBot, EmausBot, Zfeinst, BG19bot, Jochen Burghardt, David9550 and Anonymous: 30
Almost surely Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Almost_surely?oldid=780860760 Contributors: The Anome, B4hand, Michael Hardy,
Bjcairns, Charles Matthews, Doradus, Furrykef, Mirv, MathMartin, Henrygb, Bkell, Aetheling, Wile E. Heresiarch, Giftlite, Jao, Almost-
Surely, Everyking, Jason Quinn, Wiki Wikardo, Gadykozma, Bender235, MisterSheik, Floorsheim, Kop, Grick, Flxmghvgvk, Wayfarer,
Phoenixv, Katana, SMesser, LukeSurl, Zntrip, Jak86, LOL, OdedSchramm, Pdn~enwiki, Koavf, Flarn2006, Heycam, Gurch, Yurik-
Bot, Wavelength, Borgx, JJLeahy, Nol Aders, Epolk, KSmrq, Grubber, Wiki alf, Trovatore, Ott2, Hirak 99, Pb30, WikiFew, JJL,
SmackBot, Nbarth, Ladislav Mecir, N.MacInnes, MathStatWoman, Snak3st, SilverStar, Robosh, JorisvS, Alpha Omicron, Loadmaster,
354 CHAPTER 107.

Twas Now, Lenoxus, AGK, SeL, Btball, Davidhorman, Postlewaight, Thenub314, TonySever, Appraiser, Soulbot, Gnassar, David Epp-
stein, Anonymous Dissident, Liko81, Agharo, Discrete, Wolfch, Qwfp, KKoolstra, Addbot, Blackstar3, Topology Expert, Longbowman,
OlEnglish, Jarble, JWroblewski, AnomieBOT, Henry Godric, Citation bot, Venkateshwaran.d, Ehsan.azhdari, Alexparent, Citation bot 1,
Kiefer.Wolfowitz, Dude1818, Trappist the monk, Diannaa, Super7luv, Slawekb, Mz7, Dmitry123456, ClueBot NG, BarrelProof, Helpful
Pixie Bot, Chess, Pacerier, Jalfrock, AHusain314, Jochen Burghardt, Limit-theorem, Ugog Nizdast, PapiDimmi, Cpt Wise, Sizeont,
B2u9vm1ea8g and Anonymous: 78
Amari distance Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amari_distance?oldid=729370617 Contributors: Michael Hardy, Bearcat, David
Eppstein, BG19bot, Michael Barera and Kub1x
Ansatz Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ansatz?oldid=774127365 Contributors: Bryan Derksen, The Anome, SimonP, Sebastian-
Helm, Johan Magnus, Charles Matthews, Jeq, Refdoc, Giftlite, BenFrantzDale, Dratman, Karol Langner, Mormegil, Antaeus Feldspar,
Kwamikagami, Peter Shearan, Oleg Alexandrov, Angr, Radiant!, Josh Parris, Rjwilmsi, MZMcBride, HappyCamper, Mathbot, Sodin,
Digitalme, Alektzin, Yahya Abdal-Aziz, Johndburger, SmackBot, Kdliss, Ephraim33, Papa November, Complexica, SS2005, Robosh,
Loadmaster, Clarityend, Cydebot, TAnthony, Ste500, Magioladitis, Johnpacklambert, AgarwalSumeet, Maurice Carbonaro, Reedy Bot,
Smite-Meister, LordAnubisBOT, Elplatt, Cnilep, Quest for Truth, Moonraker12, Hans Adler, Addbot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Mihal Orela,
Xqbot, Arnoldma, Melimelo123, Omnipaedista, Tbunke, Citation bot 1, December21st2012Freak, TobeBot, Trappist the monk, Chronu-
lator, DexDor, Hhhippo, ZroBot, Teapeat, Helpful Pixie Bot, Cobalt pen, Geniejhang, Brirush, Mark viking, Kharkiv07 and Anonymous:
34
Apotome (mathematics) Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apotome_(mathematics)?oldid=646222645 Contributors: Michael Hardy,
Hyacinth, Bearcat, Brian0918, Keenan Pepper, Rjwilmsi, X42bn6, Finell, Dr.saptarshi, JHunterJ, CRGreathouse, Cydebot, Abtract,
PamD, Mentisto, JAnDbot, David Eppstein, Falcor84, STBotD, MystBot, Addbot, Cote d'Azur, AnomieBOT, Rubinbot, Omnipaedista,
Tinton5, AmphBot and Anonymous: 6
Arbitrarily large Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arbitrarily_large?oldid=749320809 Contributors: Michael Hardy, Neutrality,
Teorth, Masnevets, Ugur Basak, Gzabers, SmackBot, Maksim-e~enwiki, Fumblebruschi, Doctormatt, Jo7hs2, Tiddly Tom, Addbot,
Ettrig, Yobot, FrescoBot, Duxwing, Fred.Pendleton, Ca2james, GeoreyT2000, InternetArchiveBot, CrazyMonitor, GreenC bot and
Anonymous: 7
Arithmetic and geometric Frobenius Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arithmetic_and_geometric_Frobenius?oldid=459057897
Contributors: Charles Matthews, Chtito, SmackBot, Bluebot, Headbomb, Jakob.scholbach, Niceguyedc and Erik9bot
Axiom Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axiom?oldid=801244074 Contributors: AxelBoldt, LC~enwiki, Brion VIBBER, Mav, Zun-
dark, The Anome, Youssefsan, XJaM, Stevertigo, Michael Hardy, JakeVortex, Nixdorf, Graue, Glenn, Tim Retout, Nikai, Rotem Dan,
Andres, Hectorthebat, EdH, Rob Hooft, Mxn, Charles Matthews, Dysprosia, Greenrd, Markhurd, Furrykef, Hyacinth, CecilTyme, Rob-
bot, Josh Cherry, RedWolf, Altenmann, Jeronim, Flauto Dolce, Saforrest, Wikibot, Benc, Tea2min, Ancheta Wis, Tosha, Giftlite,
Mshonle~enwiki, Gene Ward Smith, Dissident, Alterego, Neilc, Andycjp, Knutux, Alberto da Calvairate~enwiki, Antandrus, Dunks58,
Sam Hocevar, Guppynsoup, Mormegil, EugeneZelenko, Rich Farmbrough, Iainscott, Mani1, Paul August, El C, Rgdboer, Irrtinal,
Bobo192, Babomb, Mintywalker, ParticleMan, Nk, Rje, Obradovic Goran, Haham hanuka, Jumbuck, Alansohn, 119, Jeltz, Hu, Simple-
brain, Kwikwag, Stephan Leeds, HenryLi, Killing Vector, Oleg Alexandrov, Natalya, Roland2~enwiki, Kzollman, Ruud Koot, Gimboid13,
Xeonx, Mandarax, Qwertyus, FreplySpang, Salix alba, Nmegill, Sinsearach, FlaBot, Matharvest, Mathbot, Alvin-cs, Chobot, YurikBot,
Wavelength, Splash, Chaos, Trovatore, Dbmag9, VinnyCee, Bucketsofg, Arthur Rubin, Vicarious, David Biddulph, Nahaj, SmackBot,
McGeddon, Od Mishehu, SaxTeacher, Bomac, KocjoBot~enwiki, Alksub, RobotJcb, Bluebot, Adam M. Gadomski, DMS, MalafayaBot,
SchftyThree, Spellchecker, Zhuravskij, Xiner, Xyzzyplugh, EPM, Pissant, Eddiesegoura, Jon Awbrey, Sammy1339, Vina-iwbot~enwiki,
Byelf2007, SashatoBot, Lambiam, DA3N, Dialectic~enwiki, Physis, Atoll, 16@r, Loadmaster, MTSbot~enwiki, Hu12, Dreftymac,
Lenoxus, Bruno321, Happy-melon, Bharatveer, JRSpriggs, CRGreathouse, CaveBat, CBM, RoddyYoung, Gregbard, Cydebot, Peter-
djones, Julian Mendez, Gproud, PamD, Fourchette, Ken Burns, CharlotteWebb, X96lee15, AlefZet, Escarbot, Widefox, Quintote,
Readro, Steelpillow, JAnDbot, Oxinabox, MER-C, Four Dog Night, Magioladitis, VoABot II, JamesBWatson, Swpb, Amorette, KCon-
Wiki, Daarznieks, David Eppstein, R'n'B, Trusilver, MistyMorn, Maurice Carbonaro, Amritasen7, Cpiral, SlowJog, McSly, Daniel5Ko,
Juliancolton, Dorftrottel, VolkovBot, Hotfeba, Je G., LokiClock, Philip Trueman, TXiKiBoT, AlexDenney, Billinghurst, Dmcq, Sub-
machinegum, Sfmammamia, LegoAxiom1007, SieBot, Dawn Bard, JerrySteal, MiNombreDeGuerra, IdNotFound, BrianGo28, Denis-
arona, DEMcAdams, ClueBot, Mild Bill Hiccup, Uncle Milty, Watchduck, Jotterbot, Eloigueiredo, Aitias, Blackhawkjxx7, GAT27,
YouRang?, JKeck, Marc van Leeuwen, Gnowor, Seshadri105, Addbot, Aelisabeths, NjardarBot, Tassedethe, Numbo3-bot, Dayewalker,
Tide rolls, Legobot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Fraggle81, TaBOT-zerem, KamikazeBot, Goldhawk08, Jalal0, AnomieBOT, Arjun G. Menon,
Jim1138, Piano non troppo, LlywelynII, Bob Burkhardt, ArthurBot, Xqbot, LordDelta, J JMesserly, Gap9551, GrouchoBot, The Wiki
ghost, Die4cheese5, Chjoaygame, FrescoBot, Paine Ellsworth, I dream of horses, RedBot, Xiglofre, Meier99, Gamewizard71,
, Lotje, Dinamik-bot, 777sms, Duoduoduo, Reaper Eternal, Peacedance, Minimac, EmausBot, Najeeb1010, GoingBatty, Wikipelli,
AvicBot, PBS-AWB, Jay-Sebastos, MonoAV, NTox, ClueBot NG, Wcherowi, Masssly, Helpful Pixie Bot, Calabe1992, Frog23, Pacerier,
Davidiad, Blue Mist 1, Glacialfox, HumanNaturOriginal, Jeremy112233, ChrisGualtieri, Br'er Rabbit, Spectral sequence, Josell2, Lak-
shya08, Yolow1, Gcc333, Narky Blert, Crystallizedcarbon, Cthulhu is love cthulhu is life, Tushar15mehta, Person420, Jhazelden, Deacon
Vorbis, Magic links bot, ENamel5 and Anonymous: 284
By inspection Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_mathematical_jargon?oldid=791622589 Contributors: The Anome, Michael
Hardy, Rp, DavidWBrooks, J'raxis, Charles Matthews, Evgeni Sergeev, Wernher, Gandalf61, Giftlite, Wmahan, CSTAR, Pmanderson,
PhotoBox, Poccil, Jiy, Aranel, Rgdboer, Lhowell, Msh210, Mailer diablo, MFH, Ryan Reich, Rjwilmsi, Salix alba, Gurch, Irregulargalax-
ies, Bgwhite, Algebraist, Jayme, Dmharvey, Frhstcksdienst, Finell, SmackBot, RDBury, Mhss, Scaife, Lambiam, Kuru, P199, White
Ash, Md2perpe, CRGreathouse, Ivan Pozdeev, Harej bot, Gregbard, Cydebot, Asmeurer, GromXXVII, David Eppstein, CarlFeynman,
Trumpet marietta 45750, Daniel5Ko, VolkovBot, Mrh30, Geometry guy, Pjoef, Thehotelambush, Anchor Link Bot, Mild Bill Hic-
cup, Anon126, Addbot, Verbal, Matj Grabovsk, Yobot, Fraggle81, AnomieBOT, 9258fahskh917fas, Citation bot, Eumolpo, Acebulf,
Mcoupal, FrescoBot, Aliotra, Liiiii, Citation bot 1, Tkuvho, Double sharp, Setitup, John of Reading, Mayur, Vladimirdx, Frietjes, Helpful
Pixie Bot, !mcbloobyenstein!!, Teika kazura, Brad7777, BattyBot, Cyrapas, Robevans123, Cosmia Nebula, Jackie Young, Omni Flames,
Bender the Bot and Anonymous: 54
Canonical form Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canonical_form?oldid=803523302 Contributors: Zundark, William Avery, Michael
Hardy, Dominus, Charles Matthews, Dysprosia, Maximus Rex, Olathe, Altenmann, MathMartin, Giftlite, Macrakis, Wmahan, Ze-
roOne, Andrejj, Longhair, Drbreznjev, Oleg Alexandrov, Linas, Mindmatrix, Qwertyus, Mathbot, Riki, Michael Slone, SmackBot,
InverseHypercube, Nbarth, Radagast83, B jonas, NickPenguin, Mathsci, Gregbard, Krauss, Oerjan, JAnDbot, Vanish2, Cdamama,
107.4. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES 355

Lantonov, Krishnachandranvn, Softtest123, Rinconsoleao, Functor salad, ClueBot, SchreiberBike, Humanengr, Addbot, Bte99, Bul-
tro, Matj Grabovsk, Zorrobot, Jarble, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Pcap, AnomieBOT, Rubinbot, Kingpin13, Citation bot, In digma, Xqbot,
Omnipaedista, Giovanni.ramirez, Trappist the monk, ZroBot, D.Lazard, Anita5192, ClueBot NG, Matthiaspaul, Jochen Burghardt,
Prepositionsdon'tendsentences, Tim.Vargo, Some Gadget Geek, Andrururu, Bromar71, Ilber8000, Deacon Vorbis and Anonymous: 26
Canonical map Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canonical_map?oldid=786275160 Contributors: Michael Hardy, TakuyaMurata,
RHaworth, TexasAndroid, Akriasas, Henry Delforn (old), Xqbot, Omnipaedista, Titodutta, Michael Barera, Sam Sailor and Popcrate
Characterization (mathematics) Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Characterization_(mathematics)?oldid=765844097 Contribu-
tors: Zundark, Michael Hardy, Charles Matthews, MathMartin, Phe, PhotoBox, Tainter, Oleg Alexandrov, Nowhither, Alex Law, Smack-
Bot, Konstable, CRGreathouse, Konradek, Colin Rowat, Cpiral, Jan1nad, Addbot, Erik9bot, BG19bot, Circlesareround, Loraof and
Anonymous: 6
Coecient Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coefficient?oldid=802678348 Contributors: The Anome, Rade Kutil, Heron, Michael
Hardy, Silversh, Ffransoo, Charles Matthews, SchmuckyTheCat, Bkell, Hadal, Michael Snow, Tea2min, Marc Venot, Giftlite, Bovlb,
Eequor, Mormegil, Discospinster, Paul August, Rgdboer, Sam Korn, Jumbuck, Msh210, Alansohn, Gene Nygaard, Crosbiesmith, WadeS-
imMiser, Magister Mathematicae, MarSch, Jameshsher, Fresheneesz, TheGreyHats, Chobot, Roboto de Ajvol, YurikBot, RobotE,
Pip2andahalf, Michael Slone, GeeJo, Shreshth91, S.L.~enwiki, Nucleusboy, Mad Max, DavidHouse~enwiki, Bota47, Haemo, Cedar101,
Spliy, SmackBot, Maksim-e~enwiki, Mscuthbert, Skizzik, IMacWin95, Octahedron80, Sidious1701, Cybercobra, Decltype, Amtiss,
Cronholm144, Mets501, Igoldste, Hynca-Hooley, Iokseng, Cydebot, ST47, Biblbroks, UberScienceNerd, Epbr123, Braveorca, Escar-
bot, AntiVandalBot, Oddity-, ClassicSC, JAnDbot, Bongwarrior, A Haupteisch, Granburguesa, JaGa, Hdt83, MartinBot, Drewmutt,
Thirdright, Pharaoh of the Wizards, Lantonov, Enuja, Jarry1250, Signalhead, VolkovBot, Someguy1221, Broadbot, Maxim, Dogah,
Xanstarchild, Paolo.dL, JackSchmidt, Denisarona, Hrdubwd, ClueBot, Deviator13, Gene93k, Uncle Milty, Niceguyedc, UKoch, Drag-
onBot, Excirial, CrazyChemGuy, Estirabot, Thingg, DumZiBoT, Hotcrocodile, Marc van Leeuwen, Stickee, Gggh, CalumH93, Addbot,
Proofreader77, Atethnekos, Fgnievinski, Ronhjones, Wikimichael22, Fluernutter, AndersBot, Tide rolls, , Zorrobot, Legobot,
Luckas-bot, Yobot, SwisterTwister, Tempodivalse, Ciphers, Speller26, IRP, Piano non troppo, Darolew, Materialscientist, E2eamon,
Capricorn42, Renaissancee, Gap9551, Mgtrevisan, 33rogers, LucienBOT, Bkerkanator, I dream of horses, Uknighter, Vrenator,
, Diannaa, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, EmausBot, WikitanvirBot, RA0808, Darkght, ZroBot, John Cline, Chharvey, D.Lazard, Chuis-
pastonBot, ClueBot NG, Gareth Grith-Jones, Wcherowi, Helpful Pixie Bot, DBigXray, WNYY98, Mark Arsten, Peru Serv, Gunn1t,
Omulae, GoShow, Makecat-bot, Lugia2453, Frosty, Cmckain14, Neitiznot, Tango303, Hollylilholly, NottNott, Physikerwelt, Gracer-
acer525, MRD2014, Carlos881, MinnieBeachBum1382, BetterMath, KATMAKROFAN, KAP03, SparklingPessimist, Ksanjeev.333,
Magic links bot and Anonymous: 216
Commutative diagram Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commutative_diagram?oldid=799795408 Contributors: AxelBoldt, JeLuF,
Toby Bartels, Chas zzz brown, Charles Matthews, Dysprosia, Tea2min, Giftlite, BenFrantzDale, Jason Quinn, Spayrard, EmilJ, Mdd,
Msh210, Oleg Alexandrov, Linas, Ryan Reich, SixWingedSeraph, Ligulem, YurikBot, Hairy Dude, SmackBot, XudongGuan~enwiki,
Bluebot, Nbarth, TdanTce, Vaughan Pratt, Floridi~enwiki, Sopoforic, Cydebot, LordAnubisBOT, VolkovBot, Anonymous Dissident,
SetaLyas, MystBot, Addbot, Topology Expert, Daniel Brown, Dranorter, LaaknorBot, Luckas-bot, AnomieBOT, Erel Segal, Materialsci-
entist, Taeshadow, Duncan.hawthorne, Stevensenger, D'ohBot, Magmalex, Ripchip Bot, Bgeron, Wcherowi, Aymankamelwiki, Monkbot,
Mgkrupa, Martijnvans, Deacon Vorbis and Anonymous: 23
Complete set of invariants Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Complete_set_of_invariants?oldid=790698029 Contributors: Charles
Matthews, Jitse Niesen, Rich Farmbrough, Nbarth, David Eppstein, Erik9bot, Elysion and Deacon Vorbis
Connectedness Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Connectedness?oldid=794420077 Contributors: Zundark, Toby Bartels, Dominus,
Kku, Tea2min, Giftlite, Eep, Yuval madar, Tompw, El C, Tauwasser, BD2412, Salix alba, Nowhither, Algebraist, Mikeblas, Action
potential, Danielx, SmackBot, Reedy, MalafayaBot, Andrei Stroe, 16@r, MistWiz, Oxinabox, Hqb, Synthebot, Bernie12345, Addbot,
Topology Expert, Yobot, Enisbayramoglu, Mrc419, Twri, DannyAsher, Erik9bot, CassMc, Peacedance, SporkBot, MerlIwBot, The
Banner Turbo, ChrisGualtieri, Tyler Yates, Fchimasanchez and Anonymous: 5
Continuous or discrete variable Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continuous_or_discrete_variable?oldid=799632029 Contribu-
tors: Michael Hardy, TakuyaMurata, Bearcat, Alex Cohn, Epipelagic, David Eppstein, AnomieBOT, Klbrain, ClueBot NG, EricEnfer-
mero, Loraof, Bear-rings, Pujari148 and Anonymous: 5
Control variable (programming) Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Control_variable_(programming)?oldid=721271044 Contribu-
tors: Dgpop, PamD, GenQuest, BG19bot and Marcocapelle
Corollary Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corollary?oldid=799264584 Contributors: Tarquin, Michael Hardy, Glinos, TakuyaMu-
rata, Rl, Robbot, Giftlite, Bepp, DanielCD, Kwamikagami, Toussaint, Me and, Katieh5584, Finell, Rutja76, BiT, SashatoBot, Bjanku-
loski06en~enwiki, Hvn0413, Werdan7, SmokeyJoe, BranStark, Iridescent, Heqs, CBM, Gregbard, J. W. Love, Deective, Ipthief, Ma-
gioladitis, Americanhero, Hdt83, WinterSpw, Jordo ex, VolkovBot, The Tetrast, Geometry guy, Kmhkmh, Ebasconp, ClueBot, Zack
wadghiri, Catasprone, Jotterbot, BodhisattvaBot, Dnael, Zc Abc, Addbot, Rainbow-ve, AnomieBOT, Rubinbot, Omnipaedista, Fvendi,
Erik9bot, Kwiki, WP addict 0, PiRSquared17, TheStrayCat, Dinamik-bot, U002764, DexDor, Dmwpowers, EmausBot, Racerx11, Mark-
massie, ClueBot NG, Lugia2453, Magnolia677, Nigellwh, Anareth, Raininja and Anonymous: 36
Correlation coecient Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Correlation_coefficient?oldid=784825562 Contributors: Orangemike, Dis-
cospinster, BD2412, Blutnk, CWenger, Rphirsch, Wwmbes, Fgnievinski, Materialscientist, Foysavas, MathEconMajor, Duoduoduo,
Gould363, ClueBot NG, Ramaksoud2000, BG19bot, Nathan2055, Mark Arsten, DavidLeighEllis, KH-1, Loraof, MunScru, Tareko88,
Hayden003, CAPTAIN RAJU, Getrektngr, Lcai0526 and Anonymous: 29
Correspondence (mathematics) Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Correspondence_(mathematics)?oldid=748161034 Contributors:
Michael Hardy, Isomorphic, Charles Matthews, Marc Venot, Bender235, Ben Standeven, Rgdboer, Smalljim, Oleg Alexandrov, Macad-
dct1984, BD2412, Salix alba, Random user 39849958, YurikBot, Bggoldie~enwiki, JRSpriggs, CBM, Myasuda, Headbomb, KennyDC,
Jakob.scholbach, Infovarius, VolkovBot, Antoni Barau, Synthebot, Dmcq, Bob1960evens, Cberry01, DragonBot, Addbot, Some jerk on
the Internet, Bte99, Txebixev, Isheden, MastiBot, RjwilmsiBot, Spaetzle, BG19bot, BattyBot, Bender the Bot and Anonymous: 15
Counterexample Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Counterexample?oldid=783595146 Contributors: XJaM, Toby Bartels, SimonP,
Michael Hardy, Darkwind, , Lumos3, Henrygb, Borislav, CryptoDerk, Kbh3rd, Rgdboer, C S, Jumbuck, Gary, V2Blast,
Ricky81682, Oleg Alexandrov, Jftsang, MFH, Marudubshinki, FreplySpang, Yurik, ElKevbo, Mathbot, Tardis, Salvatore Ingala, Jayme,
356 CHAPTER 107.

YurikBot, IanManka, ArsniureDeGallium, Jpbowen, Schmock, KnightRider~enwiki, SmackBot, Lambiam, Fvasconcellos, CBM, Greg-
bard, Ntsimp, Omicronpersei8, RichardVeryard, Widefox, JAnDbot, VoABot II, Albmont, Euku, Numbo3, Thegreenj, NiZhiDao, Re-
named user 5417514488, FlyingLeopard2014, SieBot, Techman224, JackSchmidt, ClueBot, Alexbot, BOTarate, Addbot, , Luckas-
bot, Papppfae, ArthurBot, GrouchoBot, Frosted14, Winterwater, Robert homan, Setitup, Bk314159, ClueBot NG, Wcherowi, John-
sonL623, Snotbot, Cntras, Kyorilys, BG19bot, GoShow, Crystallizedcarbon, Loraof, Kakurokuna, Magic links bot and Anonymous:
57
Cryptomorphism Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cryptomorphism?oldid=544482006 Contributors: Michael Hardy, Netsnipe,
Charles Matthews, Tea2min, Zaslav, Spayrard, Oleg Alexandrov, DL5MDA, Sayres, Pascal.Tesson, CalculatinAvatar, Asmeurer, Chang-
bao, A3nm, David Eppstein, Addbot and Anonymous: 2
Denition Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Definition?oldid=801111110 Contributors: Damian Yerrick, Bryan Derksen, Andre
Engels, XJaM, Fredbauder, PierreAbbat, Ben-Zin~enwiki, Merphant, Heron, Ryguasu, Netesq, Stevertigo, Lir, Patrick, Michael Hardy,
Fred Bauder, Owl, MartinHarper, Kalki, IZAK, Roger.wernersson, Docu, Angela, Kingturtle, Rossami, Vargenau, Nikola Smolenski,
Adam Conover, Peter Damian (original account), Random832, Lou Sander, Markhurd, Hyacinth, Vaceituno, TowerDragon, Eugene van
der Pijll, Banno, Bearcat, Robbot, Yelyos, Flauto Dolce, Halibutt, Sunray, Anthony, Snobot, Ancheta Wis, Giftlite, Wolfkeeper, Cap-
italistroadster, Bensaccount, Antandrus, JimWae, Sam Hocevar, Gscshoyru, Mike Rosoft, DanielCD, Jiy, Mindspillage, Discospinster,
Guanabot, ESkog, FrankCostanza, Petersam, Brian0918, Rgdboer, Hayabusa future, Triona, Bobo192, Smalljim, Tastyummy, Pokrajac,
Giraedata, Jojit fb, Rjhatl, Nsaa, Mdd, Jumbuck, Alansohn, Silver hr, Arthena, M7, Swift, Ghirlandajo, Oleg Alexandrov, Issk, Velho,
Simetrical, Camw, Rend~enwiki, CiTrusD, Prashanthns, Mandarax, BD2412, RxS, Tlroche, Sj, Rjwilmsi, Jake Wartenberg, Captain
Disdain, Salix alba, Lordkinbote, The wub, Nguyen Thanh Quang, Margosbot~enwiki, Nihiltres, GnniX, RexNL, Gurch, Intgr, BMF81,
Scimitar, Gwernol, Banaticus, YurikBot, Wavelength, Angus Lepper, Rodasmith, Gaius Cornelius, NawlinWiki, Robertvan1, Moe Ep-
silon, DeadEyeArrow, Bota47, A&D~enwiki, Scope creep, WAS 4.250, Georgewilliamherbert, Enormousdude, Imaninjapirate, Closed-
mouth, Zainubrazvi, SkerHawx, Hiddekel, SmackBot, Prodego, Larvatus, Bomac, ScaldingHotSoup, Josephprymak, Yamaguchi , Fil-
ius Rosadis, Gilliam, Andy M. Wang, Keegan, EncMstr, SchftyThree, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Chlewbot, Yidisheryid, Addshore,
Harnad, Khoikhoi, Jmlk17, Zrulli, Cybercobra, MichaelBillington, Dreadstar, Jon Awbrey, DMacks, Twir, Will Beback, Byelf2007,
Alexander256, Lambiam, Kuru, Euchiasmus, OcarinaOfTime, SilkTork, Ckatz, A. Parrot, Randomtime, Slakr, Hvn0413, Bendzh, Ryu-
long, Nabeth, Levineps, Ardo191, Iridescent, V111P, Sam Clark, Igoldste, Phoenixrod, Tawkerbot2, Dave Runger, George100, JFor-
get, CmdrObot, Nczempin, CWY2190, Dgw, El aprendelenguas, Sdorrance, Neelix, Gregbard, Cydebot, HokieRNB, SyntaxError55,
Chasingsol, Danielkitchener1, Histwr~enwiki, Willeeuwis, Thijs!bot, Epbr123, Aey, O, N5iln, Andyjsmith, Al Lemos, RickinBalti-
more, Cool Blue, JustAGal, Klausness, Escarbot, AntiVandalBot, Gioto, Luna Santin, Fru1tbat, SteveWolfer, Farosdaughter, AubreyEl-
lenShomo, ClassicSC, JAnDbot, MER-C, Andonic, TAnthony, Zack2007, Bongwarrior, VoABot II, Ecohero, Stijn Vermeeren, All-
starecho, DerHexer, JaGa, TheRanger, Jackson Peebles, Jtir, MartinBot, Arjun01, NAHID, Rettetast, Drewmutt, Anaxial, J.delanoy,
Pharaoh of the Wizards, Trusilver, Bogey97, Peter Chastain, Ginsengbomb, Jerry, Cpiral, Acalamari, Katalaveno, Mikael Hggstrm,
L'Aquatique, NewEnglandYankee, SJP, Sunderland06, KylieTastic, Juliancolton, Cometstyles, STBotD, Jamesontai, Elenseel, Bonadea,
Pdcook, Useight, Xiahou, CardinalDan, Idioma-bot, VolkovBot, CWii, LokiClock, Philip Trueman, TXiKiBoT, Oshwah, GDonato,
Spuzics, Qxz, Lexanado, Owain.wilson, Don4of4, LeaveSleaves, Shadowlapis, Wiae, Saturn star, Complex (de), Deneys, Meters, Lova
Falk, Falcon8765, Enviroboy, C45207, Quantpole, Vsst, Newbyguesses, Dan Polansky, SieBot, Ttony21, Tiddly Tom, Graham Beards,
BotMultichill, Paradoctor, WTucker, Caltas, Yintan, Rishavagarwal, Keilana, Happysailor, Flyer22 Reborn, Oda Mari, Antonio Lopez,
Avnjay, MiNombreDeGuerra, Alex.muller, Macy, IdreamofJeanie, OKBot, Kas-nik, Wahrmund, Memassivbeast, ClueBot, GorillaWar-
fare, The Thing That Should Not Be, Jeaubair, Rjd0060, Cecil912, Abhinav, Jagun, Wysprgr2005, R000t, Cpq29gpl, Bruceschuman,
Blanchardb, Puchiko, Excirial, Alexbot, Steamroller Assault, Gtstricky, Estirabot, Tyler, Sbfw, SchreiberBike, ChrisHodgesUK, Bald
Zebra, Thingg, Aitias, Mczack26, Versus22, Adriansrfr, Apparition11, Vanished User 1004, Crazy Boris with a red beard, XLinkBot,
Stickee, ScottyaNdNick, Rror, Libcub, Skarebo, SilvonenBot, Sqdyrc, D.M. from Ukraine, Addbot, Paulwakfer, Wsvlqc, Betteruser-
name, D0762, Exor674, West.andrew.g, Tide rolls, Vasi, Zorrobot, Legobot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Ht686rg90, 2D, Mmxx, Angel ivanov
angelov, THEN WHO WAS PHONE?, Magog the Ogre, AnomieBOT, Ciphers, Jim1138, IRP, Galoubet, AdjustShift, Fahadsadah,
Crecy99, Materialscientist, Citation bot, Paulatim, Xqbot, Samuel Robbins, Cureden, Nasnema, Grim23, Inferno, Lord of Penguins,
GrouchoBot, Zarcillo, Amaury, Doulos Christos, Weems010, Shadowjams, , Aaron Kauppi, Erik9, Endothermic, Samwb123, Sesu
Prime, Dan6hell66, Gorkaazk, GliderMaven, FrescoBot, Mfwitten, Machine Elf 1735, Citation bot 2, Rhalah, Citation bot 1, Pinethicket,
PrincessofLlyr, Jschnur, Serols, TobeBot, Lotje, Myriam2804~enwiki, Diannaa, 564dude, Jamietw, Bdx, TjBot, Tesseract2, LcawteHug-
gle, DASHBot, EmausBot, Orphan Wiki, Immunize, ScottyBerg, Hpvpp, Tommy2010, Wikipelli, K6ka, J.michael7, HiW-Bot, KuduIO,
Bigguyonyourdoorstep, Git2010, Joust558, Tolly4bolly, Thine Antique Pen, Peter M. Brown, Donner60, DASHBotAV, Cgt, ClueBot
NG, Wcherowi, Movses-bot, TheseusX, Widr, North Atlanticist Usonian, Helpful Pixie Bot, Jans2011, ProtoFire, HMSSolent, Guy van-
degrift, Amp71, Tarikelmallah22, Dan653, CitationCleanerBot, Lukedabomb, Glacialfox, GERILYNNEDUKE, Miszatomic, Mrt3366,
Dexbot, FoCuSandLeArN, Lugia2453, Frosty, Charan Gill, Jochen Burghardt, Brirush, Dschslava, Rayhan92, FactotumGeek, I am One
of Many, Melonkelon, Benigne, SamX, David9550, GreenGoldsh17, Shadowtickler, The Phase Master, SatanicSatanist, Carnivorous-
Bunny, Monkbot, BethNaught, Brian911?questions, MRD2014, KH-1, ROZZYGOLDENHEART, Abcdefghij69, Sutpeek, Zakariae
drabech, CV9933, Why1154000, KasparBot, Fabriziomacagno, Quackriot, Deez nuts2015, Sro23, CAPTAIN RAJU, Anonymous factZ,
THEMANNNIEY, Kyleen930, Marianna251, NutsDeez1230, SkyWarrior, Dhfhdaufhui, Judy10000downs1000000wasnice, Dova king
robert, Bender the Bot, -glove-, Jake72604, Home Lander, KolbertBot, SquidBoi and Anonymous: 619
Dependent and independent variables Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dependent_and_independent_variables?oldid=803464497
Contributors: Danny, SimonP, Anthere, D, Michael Hardy, Kku, Den fjttrade ankan~enwiki, Trontonian, Ike9898, Jitse Niesen, McKay,
Benwing, Gandalf61, Academic Challenger, Iaen, Ddstretch, Giftlite, Jackol, Neilc, Andycjp, Alexf, Antandrus, Piotrus, Icairns, DanielCD,
Discospinster, John FitzGerald, Spayrard, Yono, Bobo192, Longhair, Smalljim, Flxmghvgvk, R. S. Shaw, Kjkolb, Ivansanchez, Jhertel,
Craigy144, Riana, Calton, Fritzpoll, Wdfarmer, Snowolf, Ceyockey, Oleg Alexandrov, Miss Madeline, Plrk, Cyberman, Hughcharlesparker,
Dysepsion, Qwertyus, FreplySpang, RxS, Vary, Fel64, Yamamoto Ichiro, Vlad Patryshev, VKokielov, Mathbot, Godlord2, GnniX,
RexNL, Gurch, Jrtayloriv, Manscher, TexasAndroid, RattusMaximus, Hede2000, Dcalne, Rainbowjinjo, CambridgeBayWeather, Wimt,
Bullzeye, Astral, Janarius, Irishguy, Nick, Xdenizen, Pablo m123, DeadEyeArrow, Syldaril, Wknight94, Where next Columbus?, Zab-
Milenko, Ray Chason, Scoutersig, Emc2, Caballero1967, DVD R W, NickelShoe, Hpmagic, SmackBot, Eperotao, Emoscopes, Felic-
ity4711, KnowledgeOfSelf, David.Mestel, Jtneill, Clpo13, Mgreenbe, Mdd4696, Gilliam, Andy M. Wang, Markush, JDCMAN, Miquon-
ranger03, Nbarth, Ctbolt, Torzsmokus, Darth Panda, Chendy, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, TheGerm, JesseRafe, Addshore, Celarnor,
UU, Nakon, Kalathalan, T, Kukini, Kristenq, Fyver528, The undertow, Lambiam, Kuru, 7even~enwiki, NewTestLeper79, Lazylaces,
Mgiganteus1, Aleenf1, IronGargoyle, Cielomobile, LightYear, Slakr, Xunex, Mr Stephen, Eddieh, Caiaa, Ian Hocking, Tony Fox, Rek-
ishiEJ, SweetNeo85, Tawkerbot2, Alexbrewer, Tanthalas39, CWY2190, Thomasmeeks, Nilfanion, AndrewHowse, Cydebot, Master-
107.4. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES 357

chiefkarthi, Leobh, DumbBOT, SpK, Thijs!bot, Epbr123, Kablammo, CompC, Gamer007, Mike Allen, Stella4, Mentisto, AntiVandal-
Bot, Majorly, Luna Santin, AndySpeed, Egpetersen, Farosdaughter, Spencer, Myanw, Husond, MER-C, Instinct, Ph.eyes, Hello32020,
Andonic, RainbowCrane, Bencherlite, VoABot II, Trnj2000, Catgut, Animum, 28421u2232nfenfcenc, Yaxu, Styrofoam1994, Dane,
Grimmjow, DerHexer, JaGa, PatPeter, WLU, UncleDenDen, Cortezdelobao, Cube b3, MartinBot, Vittau, NAHID, Vox Rationis, Shell-
wood, J.delanoy, Mange01, Rlsheehan, CMDadabo, Maurice Carbonaro, It Is Me Here, FIFvocals, AntiSpamBot, (jarbarf), Lbthrice,
Bagpipeturtle, Anna Bailey, Richard D. LeCour, Cometstyles, King Toadsworth, Kvdveer, Xnuala, Moggie mn, Lights, Renamed user
1579654863, Cerberus0, Benjicharlton, CWii, Je G., Soliloquial, Philip Trueman, Oshwah, Showjumpersam, Anbellofe, GDonato,
Nxavar, Anonymous Dissident, MackSalmon, Vgranucci, Itzcarlin, Wiae, Carinemily, Insane-Contrast, FlyingLeopard2014, Aname-
ofmyveryown, Newbyguesses, Euryalus, Damorbel, ToXikyogHurt, Duecex2, Keilana, Danielgrad, Green-eyed girl, Reinderien, Guy-
calledryan, Virginia malone, Oxymoron83, Nk.sheridan, Hello71, Phil Lu, Sunrise, Melcombe, Lloydpick, Emptymountains, ClueBot,
Artichoker, Alpha Beta Epsilon, Lawrence Cohen, WDavis1911, Mild Bill Hiccup, Polyamorph, Robert Skyhawk, Abrech, Autoplayer,
Tnxman307, Lenary, La Pianista, Calor, Aitias, Nebula2357, XLinkBot, Marc van Leeuwen, Rror, Protectthehuman, Eleven even,
Tayste, Samidril, Addbot, Jesterhasissues, Wheelman200, Fgnievinski, CanadianLinuxUser, TundraGreen, Tedtoal, Luckas-bot, 2D, The
Grumpy Hacker, Grebaldar, THEN WHO WAS PHONE?, AnomieBOT, Materialscientist, Southernwole, PowerUserPCDude, Arthur-
Bot, GenQuest, Br77rino, Gap9551, ProtectionTaggingBot, Thosjleep, Banak, Jamsyst, Redrose64, Machn, Ver-bot, Serols, Duoduoduo,
Onel5969, Dcirovic, K6ka, ZroBot, JA(000)Davidson, Dreispt, Donner60, Gestrid, ClueBot NG, Wcherowi, Rtucker913, Shovan Luessi,
Helpful Pixie Bot, BG19bot, Vadering, Marcocapelle, ConradMayhew, David.moreno72, Illia Connell, JYBot, Hume42, Mervat Salman,
Brirush, Coobit, Yardimsever, Rangeblock victim, ElHef, My name is not dave, Justin15w, KH-1, Crystallizedcarbon, Loraof, EoRdE6,
Adam9007, Sro23, JacobJakub, Bruh 777444, AutumnHearth, Jasnam2004, Rauschii, L3X1, -glove-, Deacon Vorbis, ImmernochEke-
lAlfred, Magic links bot, Tornado chaser, Amir Muhammad Khan, Theinstantmatrix, Rrrrrrrrrrr45668899h and Anonymous: 589
Dierential (mathematics) Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Differential_(mathematics)?oldid=777427497 Contributors: The Anome,
Toby Bartels, Michael Hardy, TakuyaMurata, Smack, Saltine, Itai, Merovingian, Giftlite, Fropu, Dratman, Rich Farmbrough, KittySat-
urn, H00kwurm, Alansohn, Greg Kuperberg, Flyaway1111, Oleg Alexandrov, DealPete, Linas, BD2412, Salix alba, R.e.b., Srleer,
YurikBot, 48v, Kungfuadam, Profero, SmackBot, Jbonneau, Mets501, Petr Matas, Myasuda, Zooloo, David Eppstein, STBot, R'n'B, Per-
sonjerry, STBotD, Anonymous Dissident, Geometry guy, Sentriclecub, Addbot, Ozob, Cesiumfrog, Gail, Jarble, AnomieBOT, Usuwiki,
Sahehco, MuedThud, Shadowjams, Erik9bot, Sawomir Biay, Kakhlon, Karimjbacchus, ClueBot NG, BG19bot, Wikispaghetti, DPL
bot and Anonymous: 26
Equidimensionality Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equidimensionality?oldid=669073314 Contributors: Michael Hardy, Jeroje,
Squids and Chips, Lamro, JackSchmidt, Mild Bill Hiccup, OlEnglish, EmausBot, Mohamed-Ahmed-FG and Anonymous: 2
Essentially unique Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Essentially_unique?oldid=432616000 Contributors: Rich Farmbrough, Alge-
braist, NawlinWiki, Nbarth, Sullivan.t.j, Erik9bot and Anonymous: 3
Eventually (mathematics) Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eventually_(mathematics)?oldid=744487890 Contributors: Michael
Hardy, Bearcat, Rich Farmbrough, Chenxlee, Malcolma, Tachikomas All Memory, Erik9bot, David9550, Narky Blert, Asgardiator and
Anonymous: 6
Exceptional object Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exceptional_object?oldid=797481894 Contributors: Michael Hardy, Chinju,
Charles Matthews, Fropu, Sigfpe, Jrme, BD2412, Rjwilmsi, MZMcBride, Wavelength, Pi Delport, SmackBot, Nbarth, Tamfang,
Headbomb, Vanish2, Wlod, STBot, LokiClock, Drschawrz, Double sharp, LilyKitty, LucasBrown, Qetuth, Khazar2, Monkbot, Teddyk-
tchan, XOR'easter and Anonymous: 5
Field, power, and root-power quantities Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Field%2C_power%2C_and_root-power_quantities?
oldid=790466741 Contributors: Michael Hardy, Omegatron, BD2412, Doncram, Fgnievinski, AnomieBOT, Dondervogel 2, Quondum
and Anonymous: 2
Formulario mathematico Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formulario_mathematico?oldid=784701043 Contributors: Tango, Math-
Martin, APH, MakeRocketGoNow, Bender235, Rgdboer, Salix alba, Mathbot, BMF81, Imz, Bluebot, Xdamr, Alice Mudgarden, Drini-
bot, Headbomb, RobotG, Gamall Wednesday Ida, Randy Kryn, Addbot, Dedekmraz, Lightbot, Yobot, Ulric1313, Omnipaedista, Helpful
Pixie Bot, OccultZone, K9re11, Superegz, Magic links bot and Anonymous: 6
Generalized inverse Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Generalized_inverse?oldid=802828654 Contributors: Kku, Aenar, Pavon,
RainerBlome, TedPavlic, Billlion, Oleg Alexandrov, Roboto de Ajvol, Gareth Jones, Zvika, Saippuakauppias, Vanisaac, DivideByZero14,
R'n'B, JohnBlackburne, A4bot, Jmath666, Melcombe, DragonBot, PixelBot, Estirabot, Rhuso, GDibyendu, AnomieBOT, Obersachsebot,
Tponweiser, RjwilmsiBot, Primefac, Quondum, AManWithNoPlan, Zfeinst, Anita5192, Helpful Pixie Bot, JohnMathTeacher, Qetuth,
DG-on-WP, Monkbot, Astrozot, Yongyi781, Daviddgl, Fmadd, KolbertBot and Anonymous: 19
Hand-waving Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hand-waving?oldid=793922882 Contributors: Damian Yerrick, Bryan Derksen,
The Anome, Hephaestos, Wwwwolf, Evercat, Harry Potter, Charles Matthews, Ww, Furrykef, Jerzy, Hankwang, Pengo, Mshonle~enwiki,
BenFrantzDale, MathKnight, Hob, Wmahan, Metahacker, CGP, Jetre85, Aranel, Diomidis Spinellis, Lysdexia, Msh210, Stillnotelf,
Caesura, Deathphoenix, Graham87, Mathbot, Wavelength, Hairy Dude, Gaius Cornelius, Ethan, Samois98, Rbarreira, SMcCandlish,
SmackBot, RDBury, Tom Lougheed, Herostratus, Ohnoitsjamie, Henning Makholm, Kendrick7, PseudoSudo, PRRfan, George100,
Emote, Harold f, Gregbard, Noclevername, Skomorokh, Grimlock, Arperry, Froid, Philg88, Connor Behan, Robin S, Artemis-Arethusa,
Daniel5Ko, Steel1943, Masaruemoto, Jreans, UKoch, No such user, XLinkBot, Good Olfactory, Addbot, Otterathome, Fgnievinski, Karl
gregory jones, AnomieBOT, Editbringer, DSisyphBot, PsuedoName, Urgos, Machine Elf 1735, Animalparty, John of Reading, Test
piggy, BG19bot, Badon, Cynival, Loraof, JJMC89, Meggah, Peterlocicero and Anonymous: 44
Harmonic (mathematics) Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harmonic_(mathematics)?oldid=709876098 Contributors: Michael Hardy,
Stevenj, Ercolino, Mckaysalisbury, Rgdboer, Oleg Alexandrov, Linas, Anilocra, BD2412, Eubot, Yecril, The Great Redirector, Addbot,
LaaknorBot, FrescoBot, Quondum and Anonymous: 1
If and only if Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/If_and_only_if?oldid=794464701 Contributors: Damian Yerrick, AxelBoldt, Matthew
Woodcraft, Vicki Rosenzweig, Zundark, Tarquin, Larry_Sanger, Toby Bartels, Ark~enwiki, Camembert, Stevertigo, Patrick, Chas zzz
brown, Michael Hardy, Wshun, DopeshJustin, Dante Alighieri, Dominus, SGBailey, Wwwwolf, Delirium, Georey~enwiki, Stevenj,
Kingturtle, UserGoogol, Andres, Evercat, Jacquerie27, Adam Conover, Revolver, Wikiborg, Dysprosia, Itai, Ledge, McKay, Robbot, Psy-
chonaut, Henrygb, Ruakh, Diberri, Tea2min, Adam78, Enochlau, Giftlite, DavidCary, var Arnfjr Bjarmason, Mellum, Chinasaur,
Jason Quinn, Taak, Superfrank~enwiki, Wmahan, LiDaobing, Mvc, Neutrality, Urhixidur, Ropers, Jewbacca, Karl Dickman, PhotoBox,
Brianjd, Paul August, Sunborn, Elwikipedista~enwiki, Chalst, Edward Z. Yang, Pearle, Ekevu, IgorekSF, Msh210, Interiot, ABCD, Still-
notelf, Suruena, Voltagedrop, Rhialto, Forderud, Oleg Alexandrov, Joriki, Velho, Woohookitty, Mindmatrix, Ruud Koot, Ryan Reich,
358 CHAPTER 107.

Adjam, Pope on a Rope, Eyu100, R.e.b., FlaBot, Mathbot, Rbonvall, Glenn L, BMF81, Bgwhite, RussBot, Postglock, Voidxor, El Pollo
Diablo, Gadget850, Jkelly, Danielpi, Lt-wiki-bot, TheMadBaron, Nzzl, Arthur Rubin, Netrapt, SmackBot, Ttzz, Gloin~enwiki, Incnis
Mrsi, InverseHypercube, Melchoir, GoOdCoNtEnT, Thumperward, Javalenok, Jonatan Swift, Peterwhy, Acdx, Shirifan, Evildictaitor,
Abolen, Rainwarrior, Dicklyon, Mets501, Yuide, Shoeofdeath, CRGreathouse, CBM, Joshwa, Picaroon, Gregbard, Eu.stefan, Letranova,
Thijs!bot, Egrin, Schneau, Jojan, Davkal, AgentPeppermint, Urdutext, Holyknight33, Escarbot, WinBot, Serpents Choice, Timlevin,
Singularity, David Eppstein, Msknathan, MartinBot, AstroHurricane001, Vanished user 47736712, Kenneth M Burke, Alsosaid1987,
DorganBot, Bsroiaadn, TXiKiBoT, Anonymous Dissident, Abyaly, Ichtaca, Mouse is back, Rjgodoy, TrippingTroubadour, KjellG, Alle-
borgoBot, Lillingen, SieBot, Iamthedeus, This, that and the other, Smaug123, Skippydo, Warman06~enwiki, Tiny plastic Grey Knight,
Francvs, Minehava, ClueBot, Surfeited, BANZ111, Master11218, WestwoodMatt, Excirial, He7d3r, Pfhorrest, Kmddmk, Addbot, Ron-
hjones, Wikimichael22, Lightbot, Jarble, Yobot, Bryan.burgers, AnomieBOT, Nejatarn, Ciphers, Quintus314, , Wissens-
Drster, Ex13, Rapsar, Mikespedia, Lotje, Igor Yalovecky, EmausBot, Ruxkor, Chricho, Sugarfoot1001, Tijfo098, FeatherPluma, Clue-
Bot NG, Wcherowi, Widr, MerlIwBot, Helpful Pixie Bot, Solomon7968, Chmarkine, CarrieVS, Me, Myself, and I are Here, Ekips39,
Epicgenius, Dr Lindsay B Yeates, Seppi333, Matthew Kastor, Cpt Wise, Loraof, Bender the Bot, Imminent77, Halo0520, Here2help,
Magic links bot and Anonymous: 147
Invariant (mathematics) Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invariant_(mathematics)?oldid=801283103 Contributors: Patrick, Michael
Hardy, Charles Matthews, Robbot, MathMartin, Tea2min, Giftlite, BenFrantzDale, Rgdboer, Krakhan, OoberMick, Mattpickman, Pop-
pafuze, BD2412, FlaBot, Alexb@cut-the-knot.com, YurikBot, Michael Slone, Gaius Cornelius, Gwaihir, Grafen, Mindthief, Cullinane,
Ghazer~enwiki, Zvika, RDBury, Adam majewski, Melchoir, Optikos, Nbarth, Jackzhp, Thijs!bot, Paxinum, JAnDbot, Magioladi-
tis, Powerinthelines, David Eppstein, TXiKiBoT, Arcfrk, -Midorihana-, Rulerofutumno, Addbot, Atharris, Luckas-bot, Vini 17bot5,
AnomieBOT, Twri, Almabot, Charvest, David Nemati, FrescoBot, Cerebral paul c, Magmalex, KHamsun, Anita5192, ClueBot NG,
Ignacitum, Nathanielrst, Makecat-bot, Loraof, Das O2, Some1Redirects4You, The Quixotic Potato, Nishantgupta9, Shilohchief50 and
Anonymous: 20
Inverse (mathematics) Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inverse_(mathematics)?oldid=803173183 Contributors: Patrick, Photo-
Box, Rgdboer, Oleg Alexandrov, BD2412, FlaBot, Thecurran, SmackBot, Lambiam, So9q, CBM, Leyo, Krishnachandranvn, Funandtrvl,
The Great Redirector, SieBot, ClueBot, SchreiberBike, Addbot, Glane23, Rtz-bot, Ciphers, LittleWink, John of Reading, Shhhnotsoloud,
ClueBot NG, Wcherowi, GKFX, Ahora and Anonymous: 17
Irreducibility (mathematics) Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irreducibility_(mathematics)?oldid=750892491 Contributors: Takuya-
Murata, Charles Matthews, Dino, Fropu, Interiot, Pethr, Oleg Alexandrov, Linas, Shreevatsa, Juan Marquez, R.e.b., JYOuyang, Robbie
Mouat, Lunch, SmackBot, Tekhnoend, JHunterJ, Mets501, CRGreathouse, Neelix, Rodrigo braz, Toobaz, Luy487, Marcosaedro,
PaulTanenbaum, Kiracofe8, Geometry guy, Cfriedt, Thomas T Howard, SieBot, JackSchmidt, HakcXY, Addbot, Zorrobot, Ringspec-
trum, Erik9bot, ZroBot, BG19bot, DPL bot, Purdygb, Jebanks, Loraof and Anonymous: 11
Left and right (algebra) Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Left_and_right_(algebra)?oldid=664035263 Contributors: Macrakis, In-
cnis Mrsi, JamesBWatson, Mild Bill Hiccup and Yobot
Lemma (mathematics) Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lemma_(mathematics)?oldid=803257280 Contributors: Archibald Fitzch-
estereld, Mav, Matusz, Boleslav Bobcik, Tox~enwiki, Michael Hardy, Tb81, Isomorphic, TakuyaMurata, Eric119, AugPi, Nohat, Jitse
Niesen, Pedant17, MathMartin, Wikibot, Jpbrenna, Pengo, Tea2min, Giftlite, Geeoharee, Adam McMaster, Lakefall~enwiki, Cryp-
toDerk, Beto, Alberto da Calvairate~enwiki, Thomas Veil, Pmanderson, PhotoBox, Jim Henry, Dablaze, Paul August, Evanbro, M7,
Dirac1933, Adrian.benko, Stemonitis, Shreevatsa, David Haslam, Julien Tuerlinckx, Hypercube~enwiki, FlaBot, Mathbot, Wars, Yurik-
Bot, Joerow, Me and, Lenthe, Bota47, FF2010, Saltmarsh, Algae, Bomac, Pkirlin, BiT, Gilliam, Octahedron80, Nbarth, alyosha,
CBM, Pajast, Cydebot, JAnDbot, Francis Tyers, Mbtucker, Tekmatic38, Drake Redcrest, AlleborgoBot, YonaBot, Dolphin51, Yamakiri,
Niceguyedc, Zack wadghiri, Jsondow, Gokaydince, Dekart, MystBot, Deineka, Addbot, Yarral, Cote d'Azur, Luckas-bot, Jim1138,
Salento81, Xqbot, Omnipaedista, RibotBOT, Dingruogu, Tom.Reding, Andri9, RedBot, 777sms, CobraBot, H.ehsaan, DexDor, Bert-
Seghers, EmausBot, Timtempleton, Cruella Lexx, K6ka, Aarp65, ChuispastonBot, RockMagnetist, ClueBot NG, Helpful Pixie Bot,
Brad7777, Brirush, Leegrc, YogiBuddhaTao69 and Anonymous: 58
Lemniscate Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lemniscate?oldid=796367373 Contributors: Nagelfar, DocWatson42, Gene Ward
Smith, Gil Dawson, BenFrantzDale, Leibniz, Bender235, Brainy J, Anthony Appleyard, Oleg Alexandrov, Shreevatsa, Scriberius, LOL,
Srleer, Dbrs, SmackBot, RDBury, Adam majewski, InverseHypercube, Bggoldie~enwiki, Gilliam, Tsca.bot, Ioscius, Clean Copy,
Lambiam, Olin, A. Parrot, JHunterJ, Fredwerner, A. Pichler, George100, CRGreathouse, Lentower, MichaelFrey, WinBot, David Epp-
stein, KenyaSong, Maurice Carbonaro, Krishnachandranvn, Policron, HyDeckar, The Great Redirector, Ronald S. Davis, Doprendek, Gi-
nosbot, OlEnglish, Yobot, Calle, AnomieBOT, LEMeZza, Addingrefs, Erik9bot, HRoestBot, Half price, Duoduoduo, Innitygem3541,
Alzarian16, EmausBot, Zerotonin, D.Lazard, Sapphorain, Strike Eagle, Pym1507, BeaumontTaz, Ekips39, FallingGravity, Tentinator,
Tyanna.rosee, Marinero Vakulinchuk, Jltml, Loraof, Hexagone59, KATMAKROFAN, Quinton Feldberg, Rumil and Anonymous: 36
Level (logarithmic quantity) Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Level_(logarithmic_quantity)?oldid=790466246 Contributors: Michael
Hardy, Omegatron, David Biddulph, Dicklyon, Dawynn, Fgnievinski, Tyrol5, Maggyero, Josve05a, Dondervogel 2, Quondum, Fraulein451,
Lsmll, Narky Blert and Anonymous: 1
List of mathematical jargon Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_mathematical_jargon?oldid=791622589 Contributors: The
Anome, Michael Hardy, Rp, DavidWBrooks, J'raxis, Charles Matthews, Evgeni Sergeev, Wernher, Gandalf61, Giftlite, Wmahan, CSTAR,
Pmanderson, PhotoBox, Poccil, Jiy, Aranel, Rgdboer, Lhowell, Msh210, Mailer diablo, MFH, Ryan Reich, Rjwilmsi, Salix alba, Gurch,
Irregulargalaxies, Bgwhite, Algebraist, Jayme, Dmharvey, Frhstcksdienst, Finell, SmackBot, RDBury, Mhss, Scaife, Lambiam, Kuru,
P199, White Ash, Md2perpe, CRGreathouse, Ivan Pozdeev, Harej bot, Gregbard, Cydebot, Asmeurer, GromXXVII, David Eppstein,
CarlFeynman, Trumpet marietta 45750, Daniel5Ko, VolkovBot, Mrh30, Geometry guy, Pjoef, Thehotelambush, Anchor Link Bot, Mild
Bill Hiccup, Anon126, Addbot, Verbal, Matj Grabovsk, Yobot, Fraggle81, AnomieBOT, 9258fahskh917fas, Citation bot, Eumolpo,
Acebulf, Mcoupal, FrescoBot, Aliotra, Liiiii, Citation bot 1, Tkuvho, Double sharp, Setitup, John of Reading, Mayur, Vladimirdx, Fri-
etjes, Helpful Pixie Bot, !mcbloobyenstein!!, Teika kazura, Brad7777, BattyBot, Cyrapas, Robevans123, Cosmia Nebula, Jackie Young,
Omni Flames, Bender the Bot and Anonymous: 54
Mathematical beauty Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematical_beauty?oldid=798925631 Contributors: Tarquin, Miguel~enwiki,
Michael Hardy, Nixdorf, MartinHarper, GTBacchus, Karada, Ahoerstemeier, DavidWBrooks, Jimfbleak, Angela, Nikai, Nikola Smolen-
ski, Revolver, Dysprosia, KRS, Ann O'nyme, Jmartinezot, Jose Ramos, Bevo, Aleph4, Gandalf61, Hadal, Randomness~enwiki, Ancheta
Wis, Giftlite, Dbenbenn, Lupin, Bnn, WHEELER, Dav4is, JRR Trollkien, Andycjp, Alexf, Elroch, Sam Hocevar, Gscshoyru, ChaTo,
Thorwald, Paul August, Bender235, Billymac00, C S, Andrewbadr, IonNerd, Orimosenzon, Critical, Linas, Mindmatrix, LOL, Ruud
107.4. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES 359

Koot, Tedneeman, Ryan Reich, Lawrence King, Grammarbot, Hack-Man, Salix alba, Slac, R.e.b., Nihiltres, Jersey Devil, DVdm, Yurik-
Bot, Wolfmankurd, Wikinick~enwiki, NawlinWiki, Arichnad, Raven4x4x, EEMIV, Sandstein, Cullinane, Gesslein, Allens, SmackBot,
Stepa, PeterSymonds, Kithburd, SMP, Silly rabbit, Nbarth, DHN-bot~enwiki, Colonies Chris, Scalene, Rrelf, Armend, Jon Awbrey,
DMacks, Xiutwel, Lambiam, Howdoesthiswo, Amenzix, RandomCritic, Waggers, Mets501, E-Kartoel, BranStark, Aeternus, Saku-
rambo, CRGreathouse, Wafulz, A civilian, CBM, WeggeBot, Gregbard, Nauticashades, Tsenapathy, MC10, M a s, Int3gr4te, Thijs!bot,
Kilva, Liquid-aim-bot, Mhaitham.shammaa, Narssarssuaq, HarmonicFeather, Xeno, David Eppstein, Ineable3000, Maurice Carbonaro,
Nigholith, TheSeven, Rnest2002, Chiswick Chap, NewEnglandYankee, DadaNeem, Ogranut, Funandtrvl, Hammersoft, Chitownmack,
SteveStrummer, Broadbot, Lambyte, Psyche825, Everything counts, Mouse is back, Billinghurst, Adam.J.W.C., Euryalus, Anchor Link
Bot, Tautologist, Mx. Granger, ClueBot, Mooeena, KarenSutherland, MonoBot, XLinkBot, Addbot, Idbelange, Guydrawers, Tassede-
the, Yobot, Fleabox, AnomieBOT, Citation bot, ProtectionTaggingBot, Kurosuke88, Ron Aharoni, Citation bot 1, Dacly, EdEveridge,
PPdd, WikitanvirBot, Klbrain, Kiatdd, ZroBot, Thewhyman, Mixedberries17, ZeroCool4ta, Fuzzy artist, Miegoreng, Rmashhadi, Clue-
Bot NG, Frietjes, Delusion23, Reify-tech, Luckimg, Helpful Pixie Bot, BG19bot, Brad7777, Cyberbot II, Pankaj Jyoti Mahanta, Math-
mensch, Mathbeauty, Ashorocetus, Nigellwh, LahmacunKebab, SJ Defender, Lamaballa, LZNQBD, Hampton11235, Blue-Continent,
Vksjn18, GreenC bot, KolbertBot and Anonymous: 127
Mathematical coincidence Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematical_coincidence?oldid=801767408 Contributors: Damian
Yerrick, The Anome, Michael Hardy, Egil, Kingturtle, Schneelocke, Charles Matthews, Crissov, Timwi, N-true, Furrykef, Omega-
tron, Dpbsmith, Pakaran, Denelson83, Fredrik, Lowellian, Bkell, JackofOz, Robinh, Tea2min, Giftlite, Tim, BenFrantzDale, Bnn,
Abqwildcat, Siroxo, Mooquackwooftweetmeow, Noe, Elektron, Pmanderson, Elroch, Icairns, Duja, 4pq1injbok, Bender235, Nabla, Pt,
Truthux, Army1987, Blotwell, Zr40, Pearle, MCiura, Diego Moya, Gene Nygaard, Kay Dekker, Oleg Alexandrov, WilliamKF, Thrydu-
ulf, Joriki, Mindmatrix, Wrath0fb0b, Taragui, Bennetto, Btyner, Cgsguy2, Radiant!, Sj, Rjwilmsi, MarSch, Staecker, Salix alba, Gareth
McCaughan, Tardis, MrHumperdink, EgbertW, Jtgibson, JocK, BirgitteSB, Deville, Arthur Rubin, Smurrayinchester, Tropylium, McC,
Finell, AndrewWTaylor, SmackBot, RDBury, Idji, Jpjandrade, InverseHypercube, Shai-kun, PrimeHunter, Gutworth, Nbarth, Mod-
est Genius, SheeEttin, Nick Levine, Tamfang, JamieVicary, Xiutwel, JamieJones, Acdx, Tesseran, Atkinson 291, JoshuaZ, Dicklyon,
EdC~enwiki, Iridescent, PurpleRain, CRGreathouse, The Missing Piece, CBM, Anakata, FilipeS, Cario24, KnightMove, JMPZ, Alek-
seyP, Drpixie, Timo3, Harsh manutd, WinBot, Hobscrk777, LaForge, .anacondabot, Prof.rick, VoABot II, Sebras, Albmont, Singularity,
Rua, David Eppstein, Leaderofearth, Fauble2000, Player 03, Pharaoh of the Wizards, Leon math, Peytonbland, Maurice Carbonaro,
Mrob27, Laurusnobilis, Gs, KylieTastic, Ploue, Eric Ng, Benjamin Barenblat, Salim edde, Japanada, FKmailliW, Dmcq, Rdmabry,
Ronald S. Davis, Droog Andrey, KathrynLybarger, Svick, Gaz v pol, Wahrmund, Mx. Granger, Shniken1, Athanasios.ofm, Zetud,
J.Gowers, Briefplan, MystBot, Addbot, Ninadgadrey, Favonian, Echo R314, Lightbot, Luckas-bot, Jason Recliner, Esq., AnomieBOT,
Dwayne, Danieljubert, Citation bot, Anne Bauval, Gap9551, ViolaPlayer, JScheinerman, Paine Ellsworth, Alkados, Robo37, Citation bot
1, Julzes, Double sharp, Trappist the monk, Duoduoduo, Jynto, Xnn, Jfmantis, John of Reading, LucasBrown, Libsteria, ZroBot, Kalle.,
ClueBot NG, Shenanenigans, half-moon bubba, Krollo, MillingMachine, Helpful Pixie Bot, Horn.imh, Boriaj, ServiceAT, Ugncreative
Usergname, Achowat, Fraulein451, Themeasureoftruth, Faizan, Comp.arch, Jclarke87, Opencooper, Ci47, Loraof, Ostrichyearning, Stu-
art.shirrell, EeeveeeFrost, Bender the Bot, Deacon Vorbis, Arguiot, WikipediaUserCalledChris, Msus88 and Anonymous: 171
Mathematical model Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematical_model?oldid=800917373 Contributors: AxelBoldt, Derek
Ross, Wesley, The Anome, Tbackstr, Jan Hidders, BenBaker, Arvindn, Jdpipe, Olivier, JohnOwens, Michael Hardy, Lexor, Dori,
JWSchmidt, Kingturtle, Nikai, Emperorbma, Dysprosia, Tpbradbury, Altenmann, Mayooranathan, MathMartin, Henrygb, TittoAssini,
Goodralph, Pdenapo, Giftlite, Neilc, Vina, Frau Holle, Abdull, Brianjd, Discospinster, Rich Farmbrough, Oliver Lineham, Bender235,
Billlion, Rgdboer, RoyBoy, Obradovic Goran, Hesperian, Helix84, Mdd, Passw0rd, Msh210, Atlant, GiantSloth, Oleg Alexandrov,
Tbsmith, Woohookitty, Karnesky, Pol098, Ruud Koot, Smmurphy, Palica, Graham87, Magister Mathematicae, BD2412, Kbdank71,
Porcher, Sj, John Deas, Ground Zero, Winhunter, YurikBot, Wavelength, RobotE, Elapsed, Filippof, Hede2000, Hydrargyrum, Grubber,
Manop, CarlHewitt, Ahills60, Trovatore, Doncram, Eurosong, Arthur Rubin, Abune, Wsiegmund, MaNeMeBasat, Silverhelm, Smack-
Bot, Maksim-e~enwiki, Eskimbot, Binarypower, Cazort, Commander Keane bot, Gilliam, Bluebot, Trebor, Ph7ve, DHN-bot~enwiki,
Audriusa, Cybercobra, Tilin, Spiritia, Lambiam, G.de.Lange, Spacemika, Dakart, RekishiEJ, JRSpriggs, Jonnat, CBM, Thomasmeeks,
Penbat, Gregbard, Ntsimp, Krauss, Gogo Dodo, SeniorScribbler, Kwaku~enwiki, Omicronpersei8, MCrawford, AndrewDressel, Al
Lemos, Marek69, Dvsphanindra, HolgerK~enwiki, Dawnseeker2000, AntiVandalBot, Seaphoto, Phanerozoic, Deadbeef, JAnDbot, Stephan-
hartmannde, EmersonLowry, Sangwinc, VoABot II, Squidonius, Gwern, Matqkks, EyeSerene, Sam Douglas, Alexei Kopylov, R'n'B,
Thirdright, Maurice Carbonaro, T.ogar, Tparameter, Rbakker99, The enemies of god, Josephfrodo, Camrn86, JohnBlackburne, Philip
Trueman, Ranilb5, TXiKiBoT, Oshwah, Martin451, Abdullais4u, PDFbot, Millancad, Nshackles, Wavehunter, Carlodn6, SieBot, Flyer22
Reborn, Soy ivan, Paolo.dL, DancingPhilosopher, Vanished user qkqknjitkcse45u3, Martarius, ClueBot, Fioravante Patrone en, Tomas e,
Mild Bill Hiccup, PMDrive1061, Djr32, Awickert, Skbkekas, Hans Adler, Agor153, DumZiBoT, GKantaris, XLinkBot, Good Olfactory,
Addbot, Fgnievinski, Globalsolidarity, Spradlig, Cst17, MrOllie, Vlado0605, Zorrobot, Wireless friend, Legobot, Luckas-bot, Yobot,
Julia W, Yotaloop, AnomieBOT, Piano non troppo, Materialscientist, HanPritcher, Farazgiki, Xqbot, Tasudrty, Cureden, Prazan, Paine
Ellsworth, Hxxvxxy, Aliotra, Meemee878, Smbotin, Dterp, Pinethicket, HRoestBot, RedBot, Cnwilliams, TobeBot, Howard.noble323,
Math.geek3.1415926, WikiTome, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, Onel5969, Dalba, HisashiKobayashi, Kai.velten, Emble64, EmausBot, Justin-
Time55, Azuris, Stricklandjs59, Donner60, Sameer143, ClueBot NG, Sina92, Aiwing, Wcherowi, Gilderien, Fioravante Patrone, Widr,
Aleksjag, Helpful Pixie Bot, Bibcode Bot, Brad7777, ChrisGualtieri, Dexbot, Stevebillings, Yourmomsdadsbrotherscousin, Csreser-
acher, Bluemix, ModalPeak, BillWhiten, Aubreybardo, Lev Kalmykov, Science.philosophy.arts, P1971, Hoogamaphone, Tranquil-
Hope, Flyb4ck88, Narky Blert, Loraof, Samf4u, Marab05, Nbro, Miraclexix, KasparBot, Claudiobong, DatGuy, Doulph88, Boxguy1,
RobbieIanMorrison, Bear-rings, Raydyday, Frode54, Uncle Roy and Anonymous: 207
Mathematical proof Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematical_proof?oldid=803347167 Contributors: AxelBoldt, Robert Merkel,
The Anome, Toby Bartels, Youandme, Edward, TeunSpaans, Michael Hardy, Spazlink, TakuyaMurata, LittleDan, Pratyeka, Glenn, Tim
Retout, Hashar, Revolver, Charles Matthews, Dysprosia, Jitse Niesen, Bjh21, Markhurd, Booya, Bcorr, Denelson83, Fredrik, Romanm,
Lowellian, Gandalf61, Paul G, Hadal, Giftlite, Markus Krtzsch, Yekrats, CSTAR, Karl-Henner, Tyler McHenry, Hkpawn~enwiki, Pe-
tershank, Peter Kwok, Andreas Kaufmann, PhotoBox, Jason Carreiro, Leibniz, Paul August, Robertbowerman, Bender235, Syp, El C,
Skeppy, Stesmo, Jojit fb, Nk, ACW, Jumbuck, Kanie, Arthena, Itsmine, Oleg Alexandrov, Jslu, Mindmatrix, Rodrigo Rocha~enwiki,
Bkkbrad, Pol098, Je3000, Tygar, Stevey7788, Seyon, Rjwilmsi, Salix alba, R.e.b., Alexb@cut-the-knot.com, KarlFrei, Jrtayloriv,
BMF81, Chobot, Jersey Devil, DVdm, Borgx, Trovatore, Cheeser1, Boivie, FF2010, PTSE, Josh3580, HereToHelp, Willtron, Curpsbot-
unicodify, Brentt, robot, SmackBot, KnowledgeOfSelf, Bomac, Jagged 85, Yamaguchi , Diegotorquemada, Gracenotes, Can't
sleep, clown will eat me, Rantingsteve, Rrburke, Drackap, MichaelBillington, Occultations, Luke Gustafson, Byelf2007, Lambiam, Eliyak,
Scottie 000, Heimstern, Loadmaster, Mets501, ZodoJats, Stephen B Streater, Newone, Mrdthree, Braddodson, CRGreathouse, CBM,
Larrywcusick, Dgw, MarsRover, Myasuda, Gregbard, Cydebot, NotQuiteEXPComplete, Thijs!bot, Epbr123, Nnn9245, Escarbot, Anti-
VandalBot, Joasiak, Nikolas Karalis, JAnDbot, Leuko, Hut 8.5, Four Dog Night, VoABot II, Soulbot, Singularity, Craw-daddy, Johnbibby,
360 CHAPTER 107.

Seberle, JJ Harrison, David Eppstein, Bernard Hurley, Rohan Ghatak, JaimeLesMaths, Naveed ahmad14382, Wiki Raja, J.delanoy, Leon
math, Numbo3, Maurice Carbonaro, Space-Age Meat, Sefog, Vvitor, Smeira, He is a shithead, Lupussy, M.M.S., Krishnachandranvn,
Tparameter, Policron, Jonjesbuzz, Dessources, Vanished user 39948282, Idioma-bot, VolkovBot, JohnBlackburne, Jimmaths, Great-
walk, TXiKiBoT, Gentlemath, Anonymous Dissident, Ocolon, AlleborgoBot, Symane, EmxBot, SieBot, YonaBot, Phe-bot, RiskAverse,
RJaguar3, Triwbe, X-Fi6, LeadSongDog, 360 Degree, Barliner, Radon210, Byrialbot, Thehotelambush, IdreamofJeanie, DesolateRe-
ality, Nusumareta, Randomblue, Myrvin, Tautologist, Khirurg, ClueBot, Justin W Smith, Dobermanji, Lozersk, Wysprgr2005, Adri-
anwn, ChandlerMapBot, I am a violinist, Wikiimee, DragonBot, Alexbot, Alejandrocaro35, La Pianista, Humanengr, Pichpich, Stickee,
Gerhardvalentin, Kwjbot, WikiDao, EEng, Addbot, Betterusername, Glane23, AndersBot, Roux, ChenzwBot, Jaydec, Numbo3-bot,
BOOLE1847, Legobot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Kan8eDie, JorgeFierro, Texhausballa, AnomieBOT, JRB-Europe, Materialscientist, Are
you ready for IPv6?, La comadreja, ArthurBot, LilHelpa, MauritsBot, Xqbot, Sourceholder, Timmyshin, Almabot, J04n, Geometryfan,
FrescoBot, LucienBOT, Pinethicket, FriedrickMILBarbarossa, Foodimentary, Di1000, Jauhienij, Leasnam, FoxBot, TobeBot, DixonD-
Bot, Robert homan, Dstone66, EmausBot, Primefac, Dcirovic, AmigoDoPaulo, Josve05a, TYelliot, Sven Manguard, Jijo925, ClueBot
NG, Wikigold96, CocuBot, Melville88, Widr, , Keetanii, Helpful Pixie Bot, Joolsa123, Wasbeer, Solomon7968, Mil-
lennium bug, Khonkhortisan, Toploftical, Kiewbra, Hebert Per, Layzeeboi, Was123ication, Dexbot, Mogism, Brirush, Epicgenius,
Gdaniel111, Jamesmcmahon0, Purnendu Karmakar, Schopenhauerswille, Blackbombchu, Coz7, Seansmoove27, Leegrc, OcerAPC,
TheCoeeAddict, Fabio Maria De Francesco, 9and50swans, Jaredboies123456789, Baking Soda, InternetArchiveBot, Fmadd, Gluons12,
Jgsyteul6wsyteltu, KolbertBot and Anonymous: 207
Mathematical theory Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematical_theory?oldid=801044635 Contributors: Bearcat, Whoisjohn-
galt, Jpbowen, Gilliam, David Eppstein, Eumolpo, FrescoBot, Ema--or, Kinetic37, Srednuas Lenoroc and Anonymous: 2
Mathematics Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematics?oldid=800892143 Contributors: AxelBoldt, Magnus Manske, LC~enwiki,
Brion VIBBER, Eloquence, Mav, Bryan Derksen, Zundark, The Anome, Tarquin, Koyaanis Qatsi, Ap, Gareth Owen, -- April, RK, Iwn-
bap, LA2, Youssefsan, XJaM, Arvindn, Christian List, Matusz, Toby Bartels, PierreAbbat, Little guru, Miguel~enwiki, Rade Kutil, Davi-
dLevinson, FvdP, Daniel C. Boyer, David spector, Camembert, Netesq, Zippy, Olivier, Ram-Man, Stevertigo, Spi~enwiki, Edward,
Quintessent, Ghyll~enwiki, D, Chas zzz brown, JohnOwens, Michael Hardy, Chris-martin, JakeVortex, Lexor, Isomorphic, Dominus,
Nixdorf, Grizzly, Kku, Mic, Ixfd64, Firebirth, Alireza Hashemi, Dcljr, Sannse, TakuyaMurata, Karada, Minesweeper, Alo, Tregoweth,
Dgrant, CesarB, Ahoerstemeier, Cyp, Ronz, Muriel Gottrop~enwiki, Snoyes, Notheruser, Angela, Den fjttrade ankan~enwiki, King-
turtle, LittleDan, Kevin Baas, Salsa Shark, Glenn, Jschwa1, Bogdangiusca, BenKovitz, Poor Yorick, Rossami, Tim Retout, Rotem Dan,
Evercat, Rl, Jonik, Madir, Mxn, Smack, Silversh, Vargenau, Pizza Puzzle, Nikola Smolenski, Charles Matthews, Guaka, Timwi, Space-
monkey~enwiki, Nohat, Ralesk, MarcusVox, Dysprosia, Jitse Niesen, Fuzheado, Gutza, Piolinfax, Selket, DJ Clayworth, Markhurd, Van-
couverguy, Tpbradbury, Maximus Rex, Hyacinth, Saltine, AndrewKepert, Fibonacci, Zero0000, Phys, Ed g2s, Wakka, Samsara, Bevo,
McKay, Traroth, Fvw, Power~enwiki, Babaloulou, Secretlondon, Jusjih, Cvaneg, Flockmeal, Guppy, Francs2000, Dmytro, Lumos3,
Jni, PuzzletChung, Donarreiskoer, Robbot, Fredrik, RedWolf, Peak, Romanm, Lowellian, Gandalf61, Georg Muntingh, Merovin-
gian, HeadCase, Sverdrup, Henrygb, Academic Challenger, IIR, Thesilverbail, Hadal, Mark Krueger, Wereon, Robinh, Borislav, Gar-
netRChaney, Ilya (usurped), Michael Snow, Fuelbottle, ElBenevolente, Lupo, PrimeFan, Zhymkus~enwiki, Dmn, Cutler, Dina, Mlk,
Alan Liefting, Rock69~enwiki, Cedars, Ancheta Wis, Fabiform, Centrx, Giftlite, Dbenbenn, Christopher Parham, Fennec, Markus
Krtzsch, Mikez, Inter, Wolfkeeper, var Arnfjr Bjarmason, Netoholic, Lethe, Tom harrison, Lupin, MathKnight, Bnn, Ayman,
Everyking, No Guru, Curps, Jorend, Ssd, Niteowlneils, Gareth Wyn, Andris, Guanaco, Sundar, Daniel Brockman, Siroxo, Node ue,
Eequor, Arne List, Matt Crypto, Python eggs, Avala, Jackol, Marlonbraga, Bobblewik, Deus Ex, Golbez, Gubbubu, Kennethduncan,
Cap601, Geospear, Utcursch, Andycjp, CryptoDerk, LucasVB, Quadell, Frogjim~enwiki, Antandrus, BozMo, Rajasekaran Deepak,
Beland, WhiteDragon, Bcameron54, Kaldari, PDH, Profvk, Jossi, Alexturse, Adamsan, CSTAR, Rdsmith4, APH, John Foley, Elektron,
Pethan, Mysidia, Pmanderson, Elroch, Sam Hocevar, Arcturus, Gscshoyru, Stephen j omalley, Jcw69, Ukexpat, Eduardoporcher, Qef,
Random account 47, Zondor, Adashiel, Trevor MacInnis, Grunt, Kate, Bluemask, PhotoBox, Mike Rosoft, Vesta~enwiki, Shahab, Os-
kar Sigvardsson, Brianjd, D6, CALR, DanielCD, Olga Raskolnikova, EugeneZelenko, Discospinster, Rich Farmbrough, Guanabot, FiP,
Clawed, Inkypaws, Spundun, Andrewferrier, ArnoldReinhold, HeikoEvermann, Smyth, Notinasnaid, AlanBarrett, Paul August, MarkS,
DcoetzeeBot~enwiki, Bender235, ESkog, Geoking66, Ben Standeven, Tompw, GabrielAPetrie, RJHall, MisterSheik, Mr. Billion, El
C, Chalst, Shanes, Haxwell, Brisis~enwiki, Art LaPella, RoyBoy, Lyght, Jpgordon, JRM, Porton, Bobo192, Ntmatter, Fir0002, Mike
Schwartz, Wood Thrush, Func, Teorth, Flxmghvgvk, Archfalhwyl, Jung dalglish, Maurreen, Man vyi, Alphax, Rje, Sam Korn, Krel-
lis, Sean Kelly, Jonathunder, Mdd, Tsirel, Passw0rd, Lawpjc, Vesal, Storm Rider, Stephen G. Brown, Danski14, Msh210, Poweroid,
Alansohn, Gary, JYolkowski, Anthony Appleyard, Blackmail~enwiki, Mo0, Polarscribe, ChristopherWillis, Lordthees, Rgclegg, Jet57,
Mun~enwiki, Mmmready, Riana, AzaToth, Lectonar, Lightdarkness, Giant toaster, Cjnm, Mysdaao, Hu, Malo, Avenue, Blobglob,
LavosBacons, Schapel, Orionix, BanyanTree, Saga City, Knowledge Seeker, ReyBrujo, Danhash, Garzo, Huerlisi, Jon Cates, Rain-
bowOfLight, CloudNine, TenOfAllTrades, Mcmillin24, Bsadowski1, Itsmine, Blaxthos, HenryLi, Bookandcoee, Kz8, Oleg Alexan-
drov, Ashujo, Stemonitis, Novacatz, Angr, DealPete, Kelly Martin, Wikiworkerindividual***, TSP, OwenX, Woohookitty, Linas, Mas-
terjamie, Yansa, Brunnock, Carcharoth, BillC, Ruud Koot, WadeSimMiser, Orz, Hdante, MONGO, Mpatel, Abhilaa, Al E., Wikiklrsc,
Bbatsell, Damicatz, I64s, MFH, Sengkang, Zzyzx11, Noetica, , Xiong Chiamiov, Gimboid13, Liface, Asdfdsa, PeregrineAY,
Thirty-seven, Graham87, Magister Mathematicae, BD2412, Chun-hian, FreplySpang, JIP, Island, Zoz, Icey, BorgHunter, Josh Parris,
Paul13~enwiki, Rjwilmsi, Mayumashu, MJSkia1, Prateekrr, Vary, MarSch, Amire80, Tangotango, Staecker, Omnieiunium, Salix alba,
Tawker, Zhurovai, Crazynas, Ligulem, Juan Marquez, Slac, R.e.b., The wub, Sango123, Yamamoto Ichiro, Kasparov, Staples, Titoxd,
Pruneau, RobertG, Latka, Mathbot, Harmil, Narxysus, Andy85719, RexNL, Gurch, Short Verses, Quuxplusone, Celendin, Ichudov,
Jagginess, Alphachimp, Malhonen, David H Braun (1964), Snailwalker, Mongreilf, Chobot, Jersey Devil, DONZOR, DVdm, Cac-
tus.man, John-Haggerty, Gwernol, Elfguy, Buggi22, Roboto de Ajvol, Raelx, JPD, YurikBot, Wavelength, Karlscherer3, Jeremybub,
Doug Alford, Grifter84, RobotE, Elapsed, Dmharvey, Gmackematix, 4C~enwiki, RussBot, Michael Slone, Geologician, Red Slash,
Jtkiefer, Muchness, Anonymous editor, Albert Einsteins pipe, Nobs01, Soltras, Bhny, Pi Delport, CanadianCaesar, Polyvios, Akamad,
Stephenb, Yakuzai, Sacre, Bovineone, Tungsten, Ugur Basak, David R. Ingham, NawlinWiki, Vanished user kjdioejh329io3rksdkj, Rick
Norwood, Misos, SEWilcoBot, Wiki alf, Mipadi, Lacipac, Armindo, Deskana, Johann Wolfgang, Trovatore, Joel7687, GrumpyTroll,
LMSchmitt, Schlay, Eighty~enwiki, Herve661, JocK, Mccready, Tearlach, Apokryltaros, JDoorjam, Abb3w, Misza13, My Cat inn,
Vikvik, Mvsmith, Brucevdk, DryaUnda, SFC9394, Font, Tachyon01, Mgnbar, Jemebius, Nlu, Mike92591, Dna-webmaster, Tonywalton,
Joshurtree, Wknight94, Pooryorick~enwiki, Avraham, Mkns, Googl, Noosfractal, SimonMorgan, Tigershrike, FF2010, Cursive, Schein-
werfermann, Enormousdude, TheKoG, Donald Albury, Zsynopsis, Skullssion, Claygate, MaNeMeBasat, GraemeL, JoanneB, Shawnc,
Bentong Isles, Donhalcon, JLaTondre, RenamedUser jaskldjslak904, Spliy, Flowersofnight, 158-152-12-77, RunOrDie, Kungfuadam,
Canadianism, Ben D., Greatal386, JDspeeder1, NeilN, Saboteur~enwiki, Asterion, Shmm70, Pentasyllabic, Lunch, DVD R W, Finell,
Capitalist, Sardanaphalus, Crystallina, JJL, SmackBot, RDBury, YellowMonkey, Selfworm, Smitz, Bobet, Diggyba, Warhawkhalo101,
Estoy Aqu, Reedy, Tarret, KnowledgeOfSelf, Royalguard11, Melchoir, McGeddon, Falustra77, Masparasol, Pgk, C.Fred, AndyZ, Kilo-
107.4. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES 361

Lima, Jagged 85, PizzaMargherita, CapitalSasha, Antibubbles, AnOddName, Canthusus, BiT, Nscheey, Amystreet, Ekilfeather, Papep,
Jaichander, Ohnoitsjamie, Hmains, Skizzik, Richfe, ERcheck, Hopper5, Squiddy, Armeria, Durova, Qtoktok, Wigren, Keegan, Woof-
boy, Rmt2m, Fplay, Christopher denman, Miquonranger03, MalafayaBot, Silly rabbit, Alink, Dlohcierekims sock, Richard Woods,
Kungming2, Go for it!, Baa, RDT, Spellchecker, Baronnet, Colonies Chris, Ulises Sarry~enwiki, Nevada, Zachorious, Chendy, JAK,
Can't sleep, clown will eat me, RyanEberhart, Timothy Clemans, , TheGerm, HoodedMan, Chlewbot, Vanished
User 0001, Joshua Boniface, TheKMan, Rrburke, Addshore, Mr.Z-man, SundarBot, AndySimpson, Emre D., Iapetus, Jwy, CraigDes-
jardins, Daqu, Nakon, VegaDark, Jiddisch~enwiki, Maxwahrhaftig, Salt Yeung, Danielkwalsh, Diocles, Pg2114, Jon Awbrey, Ruwanraj,
Jklin, Xen 1986, Just plain Bill, Knuckles sonic8, Where, Bart v M, ScWizard, Pilotguy, Nov ialiste, TenPoundHammer, JoeTrumpet,
Math hater, Lambiam, Nishkid64, TachyonP, ArglebargleIV, Doug Bell, Harryboyles, Srikeit, Dbtfz, Kuru, JackLumber, Simonkoldyk,
Vgy7ujm, Nat2, J 1982, Cronholm144, Heimstern, Gobonobo, Mshergt, Coastergeekperson04, Sir Nicholas de Mimsy-Porpington,
Dumelow, Jazriel, Gnevin, Unterdenlinden, Ckatz, Loadmaster, Special-T, Dozing, Mr Stephen, Mudcower, AxG, Optakeover, Sandy-
Georgia, Mets501, Funnybunny, Markjdb, Ryulong, G~enwiki, RichardF, Limaner, Jose77, Asyndeton, Stephen B Streater, Politepunk,
DabMachine, Levineps, Hetar, BranStark, Roland Deschain, Kevlar992, Iridescent, K, Kencf0618, Zootsuits, Onestone, Nilamdoc, C.
Lee, CzarB, Polymerbringer, Joseph Solis in Australia, Newone, White wolf753, Muro, David Little, Igoldste, Amakuru, Marysunshine,
Maelor, Masshaj, Jatrius, Experiment123, Tawkerbot2, Daniel5127, Joshuagross, Emote, Pikminiman, Heyheyhey99, JForget, Smku-
mar0, Sakowski, Wolfdog, Sleeping123, CRGreathouse, Wafulz, Sir Vicious, Triage, Iced Kola, CBM, Page Up, Jester-Tester, Tay-
lorhewitt, Nczempin, GHe, Green caterpillar, Phanu9000, Yarnalgo, Thomasmeeks, McVities, Requestion, FlyingToaster, MarsRover,
Tac-Tics, Some P. Erson, Tim1988, Tuluat, Alaymehta, MrFish, Oo7565, Gregbard, Captmog, El3m3nt09, Antiwiki~enwiki, Cydebot,
Meznaric, Cantras, Funwithbig, MC10, Meno25, Gogo Dodo, DVokes, ST47, Srinath555, Pascal.Tesson, Goldencako, Benjiboi, An-
drewm1986, Michael C Price, Tawkerbot4, Dragomilo, Juansempere, M a s, Chrislk02, Brotown3, Mamounjo, 5300abc, Roccorossi,
Abtract, Daven200520, Omicronpersei8, Vanished User jdksfajlasd, Daniel Olsen, Ventifact, TAU710, Aditya Kabir, BetacommandBot,
Thijs!bot, Epbr123, Bezking, Jpark3591, Daemen, TheEmaciatedStilson, MCrawford, Opabinia regalis, Mattyboy500, Kilva, Daniel,
Loudsox, Ucanlookitup, Hazmat2, Wootwootwoot, Brian G. Wilson, Timo3, Mojo Hand, Djfeldman, Pjvpjv, West Brom 4ever, John254,
Alientraveller, Mnemeson, Ollyrobotham, BadKarma14, Sethdoe92, Dfrg.msc, RobHar, CharlotteWebb, Dawnseeker2000, RoboServien,
Escarbot, Itsfrankie1221, Thomaswgc, Thadius856, Sidasta, AntiVandalBot, Ais523, RobotG, Gioto, Luna Santin, Dark Load, DarkAu-
dit, Ringleader1489, Dylan Lake, Doktor Who, Chill doubt, AxiomShell, Abc30, Matheor, Archmagusrm, Falconleaf, Labongo, Space-
farer, Chocolatepizza, JAnDbot, Kaobear, MyNamesLogan, MER-C, The Transhumanist, Db099221, AussieOzborn au, Thenub314,
Mosesroses, Hut 8.5, Kipholbeck, Xact, Twospoonfuls, .anacondabot, Yahel Guhan, Bencherlite, Yurei-eggtart, Bongwarrior, VoABot II,
JamesBWatson, Swpb, Redaktor, EdwardLockhart, SineWave, Charlielee111, Cic, Ryeterrell, Caesarjbsquitti, Wikiwhat?, Bubba hotep,
KConWiki, Meb43, Faustnh, Hiplibrarianship, Johnbibby, Seberle, MetsBot, Pawl Kennedy, 28421u2232nfenfcenc, David Eppstein,
Systemlover, Bmeguru, Hotmedal, Just James, EstebanF, Glen, Rajpaj, Memorymentor, TheRanger, Calltech, Gun Powder Ma, Welsh-
leprechaun, Robin S, Seba5618, SquidSK, 0612, J0equ1nn, Riccardobot, Jtir, Hdt83, MartinBot, Vladimir m, Arjun01, Quanticle, Nock-
las, Rettetast, Fuzzyhair2, R'n'B, Pbroks13, Cmurphy au, Snozzer, Ben2then, PrestonH, Crazybobson, Thefutureschannel, RockMFR,
Hrishikesh.24889, J.delanoy, Nev1, Unlockitall, Phoenix1177, Numbo3, Sp3000, Maurice Carbonaro, Nigholith, Hellonicole, -jmac-,
Boris Allen, 2boobies, Jerry, TheSeven, NerdyNSK, Syphertext, Yadar677, Taop, G. Campbell, Wayp123, Keesiewonder, Matt1314,
Ksucemfof, Gzkn, Ivelnaps, Smeira, DarkFalls, Renamed user 5417514488, Vishi-vie, Washington8785, Xyzaxis, Arkuski, JDQuimby,
Batmanfan77, Alphapeta, Trd89, HiLo48, The Transhumanist (AWB), NewEnglandYankee, RANDP, MKoltnow, MhordeXsnipa, Milog-
ardner, Nacrha, Balaam42, Mviergujerghs89fhsdifds, Cfrehr, Elvisfan2095, Tiyoringo, Juliancolton, Cometstyles, DavidCBryant, Slight-
lyMad, Jamesontai, Remember the dot, Ilya Voyager, Huzefahamid, Dandy mandy, Andreas2001, Ishap, Sarregouset, CANUTELOOL2,
CANUTELOOL3, Devonboy69, Jeyarathan, Death blaze, Emo kid you?, Thedudester, Samlyn.josfyn, Mother69, Vinsfan368, Car-
tiod, Helldude99, Sternkampf, Steel1943, CardinalDan, RJASE1, Idioma-bot, Remi0o, Lights, Tamillimat, Bandaidboy, C.lettingaAV,
VolkovBot, Somebodyreallycool, Pleasantville, Je G., JohnBlackburne, Hhjk, The Catcher in The Rye D:, Alexandria, AlnoktaBOT,
Dboerstl, NikolaiLobachevsky, Bangvang, 62 (number), Tseay11, Soliloquial, Headforaheadeyeforaneye, Barneca, Szesetszedziesit-
sze, Zeuron, Yoyoyo9, Trehansiddharth, TXiKiBoT, Katoa, Jacob Lundberg, Candy-Panda, Chickenclucker, Antoni Barau, Walor,
Nxavar, Anonymous Dissident, Qxz, Nukemason4, Retiono Virginian, Ocolon, Savagepine, DennyColt, Digby Tantrum, JhsBot, Leafy-
plant, Beanai, 20em89.01, Cremepu222, Geometry guy, Canyonsupreme, Natural Philosopher, Teller33, Mathsmad, Unknown 987,
Tarten5, Nickmuller, Robomonster, Wolfrock, Jacob501, Kreemy, Synthebot, Tomaxer, Careercornerstone, Enviroboy, Rurik3, Sar-
donicone, Evanbrown326, Alliashax, Sylent, Rubentimothy, SMIE SMIE, Gamahucher, Braindamage3, Animalalley12895, Moohahaha,
Thanatos666, Dillydumdum, AlleborgoBot, Voicework, Symane, Katzmik, Monkeynuts27, Demmy, Cam275, GoonerDP, SieBot, Mike-
moral, LovelyLillith, James Banogon, BotMultichill, Timgregg96, Triwbe, 5150pacer, Soler97, Andersmusician, Anubhav29, Keilana,
Tiptoety, Arbor to SJ, Undead Herle King, Richardcraig, Paolo.dL, Boogster, Oxymoron83, Henry Delforn (old), Avnjay, MiNom-
breDeGuerra, RW Marloe, SH84, Deejaye6, Musse-kloge, Jorgen W, Kumioko, Correogsk, MadmanBot, Nomoneynotime, Nickm4c,
Darkmyst932, Anchor Link Bot, Jacob.jose, Randomblue, Melcombe, Yotex9, CaptainIron555, Yhkhoo, Dabomb87, Jat99, Pinkadel-
ica, Francvs, Khirurg, Ooswesthoesbes, ClueBot, Volcom5347, Gladysamuel, GPdB, Bwfrank, DFRussia, PipepBot, Fox, Dobermanji,
C1932, Remus John Lupin, Chocoforfriends, Smithpith, ArdClose, IceUnshattered, Plastikspork, Lawrence Cohen, Gawaxay, Nnemo,
Ukabia, Michael.Urban, Niceguyedc, Xenon54, Mspraveen, DragonBot, Isaac25, 4pario, Donkeyboya, Excirial, CBOrgatrope, Bed-
sandbellies, Soccermaster3112, Alexbot, TonyBallioni, Pjb14, 0na01der, Andy pyro, Wikibobspider, BrentLeah, Eeekster, Anony-
mous1324354657687980897867564534231, Mycatiscool, Greenjuice, Chance Jeong, Arunta007, Greenjuice3.0, Greenjuice4, Anime-
Fan7, MacedonianBoy, ZuluPapa5, NuclearWarfare, JoelDick, Honeyspots3121, Blondeychck7, Faty148, Jotterbot, RC-0722, Wulfric1,
Thingg, Franklin.vp, Aitias, DerBorg, Versus22, Hwalee76, SoxBot III, Apparition11, Mofeed.sawan, Slayerteez, XLinkBot, Marc van
Leeuwen, Moocow444, Joejill67~enwiki, Little Mountain 5, Drumbeatsofeden, SilvonenBot, Planb 89, Alexius08, Vianello, MystBot,
Zodon, RyanCross, Aetherealize, Zoltan808, Northdevonian, Aceleo, Blanche of Kings Lynn, Jetsboy101, Willking1979, Mattguzy,
3Nigma, DOI bot, Cdt laurence, Fgnievinski, Yobmod, Aaronthegr8, CanadianLinuxUser, Potatoscrub, MrOllie, Download, Protonk,
Chamal N, CarsracBot, Favonian, LinkFA-Bot, ViskonBot, Barak Sh, Aldermalhir, Jubeidono, PRL42, Lightbot, Ann Logsdon, Floc-
cinocin123, Matj Grabovsk, Fivexthethird, TeH nOmInAtOr, Jarble, Herve1729, Sitehut, Ptbotgourou, Senator Palpatine, TaBOT-
zerem, Legobot II, Kan8eDie, Nirvana888, Gugtup, Washburnmav, Mikeedla, THEN WHO WAS PHONE?, Skyeliam, MeatJustice,
Wierdox, AnomieBOT, Nastor, ThaddeusB, Connectonline, Taskualads, Themantheman, Galoubet, Neko85, Noahschultz, JackieBot,
Commander Shepard, Chingchangriceball, Piano non troppo, Supersmashballs123, Agroose, Pm11189, Riekuh, Hamlet, Deverenn,
Frank2710, Chief Heath, Easton12, Codycash33, Archaeopteryx, Citation bot, Merlissimo, ArthurBot, Tatarian, MauritsBot, Xqbot,
TinucherianBot II, Sketchmoose, Timir2, Capricorn42, Johnferrer, Jmundo, Locos epraix, Br77rino, Isheden, Inferno, Lord of Penguins,
Srich32977, Ragityman, Uarrin, LevenBoy, Quixotex, GrouchoBot, Resident Mario, ProtectionTaggingBot, Omnipaedista, Point-set
topologist, Gott wisst, RibotBOT, Charvest, KrazyKosbyKidz, MarilynCP, Gingerninja12, Caleb7693, Deathiscomin90919, VictorPor-
ton, Grg222, Daryl7569, Petes2176, GhalyBot, ThibautLienart, Prozo3190, Family400005, Bupsiij, Aaron Kauppi, Har56, Dr. Klim,
362 CHAPTER 107.

Velblod, CES1596, GliderMaven, Thomascjackson, FrescoBot, RTFVerterra, Triwikanto, Tobby72, Mark Renier, Oneve15, VS6507,
Alpboyraz, ParaDoxus, Sawomir Biay, Xefer, Zhentmdfan, Tzurvah MeRabannan, Citation bot 1, Amplitude101, Tkuvho, Rotje66,
Kiefer.Wolfowitz, AwesomeHersh, ElNuevoEinstein, Cnwilliams, Gamewizard71, FoxBot, TobeBot, DixonDBot, Burritoburritoburrito,
Fama Clamosa, Lotje, Dinamik-bot, Raiden09, Mrjames99, DJTrickyM, Stephen MUFC, Tbhotch, RjwilmsiBot, TjBot, Ripchip Bot,
Galois fu, Alphanumeric Sheep Pig, BertSeghers, Mr magnolias, DarkLightA, LibertyDodzo, EmausBot, PrisonerOfIce, Nima1024, Wik-
itanvirBot, Surlydu50, AThornyKoanz, Mehdiirfani, Legajoe, Wham Bam Rock II, Dcirovic, Bethnim, ZroBot, John Cline, Josve05a,
Leaest of Futures, Battoe19, Anmol9999, Scythia, Brandmeister, Vanished user jtji34toksdcknqrjn54yoimascj, Prototypehumanoid,
Ain92, Agatecat2700, Herk1955, Teapeat, Mjbmrbot, Anita5192, Liuthar, ClueBot NG, Incompetence, Wcherowi, Movses-bot, Kindyin,
LJosil, SilentResident, Braincricket, Rbellini, Zackaback, MillingMachine, Helpful Pixie Bot, Thisthat2011, Curb Chain, AnandVivek-
Satpathi, Nashhinton, EmilyREditor, Ariel C.M.K., Fraqtive42, Graham11, AvocatoBot, Davidiad, Ropestring, Edward Gordon Gey,
EliteforceMMA, Karthickraj007, VirusKA, MYustin, Brad7777, Idresjafary, Nbrothers, IkamusumeFan, Kavy32, Toploftical, Cyberbot
II, Sklange, Blevintron, BlevintronBot, Sulphuric Glue, Dexbot, Rezonansowy, Mudcap, Sglooney316, AndiPersti, CuriousMind01, Au-
gustus Leonhardus Cartesius, Pankaj Jyoti Mahanta, Ybidzian, Praemonitus, Comp.arch, TycoonSaad, Finnusertop, Jarash, George8211,
Chern038, FireySixtySeven, Kind Tennis Fan, Justin86789, 12visakhva, Dodi 8238, Suelru, Rcehy, Cosmia Nebula, Leegrc, Vanishe-
duser00348374562342, 115ash, AdditionSubtraction, Holypod, Mario Casteln Castro, Loraof, Arvind asia, GoldCoastPrior, Atvica,
Rctillinghast, User000name, KasparBot, Kashabbir, The name, Aviartm, Ermahgerd9, MarkYabloko, MartinZ, Baking Soda, Inter-
netArchiveBot, Jrheller1, Ttt74, GreenC bot, Dominic3203, Thephilosopher6, Hawkeye75, Apollo The Logician, Deacon Vorbis, Jon
Kolbert, King Prithviraj II, Fluyyyy, Wikigenstein, KolbertBot, Thechinesekid and Anonymous: 1222
Metatheorem Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metatheorem?oldid=706743049 Contributors: Markhurd, Hyacinth, Giftlite, Gre-
gorB, Arthur Rubin, SmackBot, Bluebot, Byelf2007, Dicklyon, JRSpriggs, CRGreathouse, CBM, Gregbard, Mrcs, Policron, Quux0r,
Alexbot, Addbot, Yobot, AnomieBOT, Xqbot, VladimirReshetnikov, Constructive editor and Anonymous: 3
Modulo (jargon) Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modulo_(jargon)?oldid=796414637 Contributors: Fubar Obfusco, Michael Hardy,
Lethe, RJFJR, Oleg Alexandrov, Linas, BD2412, Buster79, Mightymouse1584, SmackBot, KelleyCook, Benjamin Mako Hill, CR-
Greathouse, AntiVandalBot, SieBot, Paolo.dL, Yoda of Borg, Addbot, Vanished user rt41as76lk, Erik9bot, Mfwitten, DexDor, Pde-
calculus, Finagle29 and Anonymous: 10
N-topological space Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/N-topological_space?oldid=561910935 Contributors: Michael Hardy, Paul
A, Bearcat, Ottawahitech, AnomieBOT, Citation bot, Jamesx12345 and Kamran12341
Necessity and suciency Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Necessity_and_sufficiency?oldid=799139221 Contributors: The Anome,
Patrick, Michael Hardy, Wshun, Dante Alighieri, Kku, TakuyaMurata, AugPi, Evercat, Charles Matthews, Dcoetzee, Markhurd, Gakmo,
Chris Roy, Raeky, Tea2min, Giftlite, Pmanderson, Abdull, FT2, Paul August, Aranel, Polluks, Alansohn, Agquarx, Krubo, Kbolino,
Shreevatsa, Madmardigan53, Uncle G, Kzollman, Tlroche, Mayumashu, Tim!, KYPark, Quiddity, Joonasl, Roboto de Ajvol, Pagrash-
tak, Maunus, Black Falcon, Tomisti, NorsemanII, Arthur Rubin, That Guy, From That Show!, SmackBot, Motorneuron, Gif32, The
Gnome, Paxfeline, Bluebot, JMSwtlk, Epastore, Javalenok, Cybercobra, Hoof Hearted, Richard001, Drphilharmonic, Vulakh, Gan-
dalfxviv, Jeiki Rebirth, DabMachine, Rschwieb, JoeBot, CBM, Gregbard, Cydebot, Karho.Yau, Wolfgang hofkirchner, JAnDbot, Sko-
morokh, Alastair Haines, Nyttend, Fredlighthall, K95, Penpen~enwiki, R'n'B, CommonsDelinker, Yonitdm, SFinside, Yoak, Kenneth
M Burke, Akakios, VolkovBot, Pasixxxx, Gwib, Orie0505, PaulTanenbaum, Habaneroman, Lamro, Spinningspark, RubySS, SieBot,
Iamthedeus, Matuku, Anchor Link Bot, ClueBot, EeepEeep, EpicDream86, Spitre, MystBot, Flash94, Cibbic, Duttler, Addbot, Luckas-
bot, TaBOT-zerem, Empro2, LilHelpa, Constructive editor, FrescoBot, Nicolas Perrault III, D'ohBot, Machine Elf 1735, Tom.Reding,
December21st2012Freak, Miracle Pen, Igor Yalovecky, Dcirovic, Maximilianklein, Mikhail Ryazanov, Wcherowi, Jpgill86, Dgh725,
Gorthian, DUStof.zaidan, Hanlon1755, Attleboro, Sensorsweep, Seppi333, Acorley, POLY1956, JHU1959, Jerrymc2, Loraof, Crito10,
Javriello, Crazy brown-guy, KolbertBot and Anonymous: 100
Null (mathematics) Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Null_(mathematics)?oldid=768712488 Contributors: Boud, Abdull, Paul Au-
gust, TheProject, Woodstone, Oleg Alexandrov, Mindmatrix, Salix alba, RussBot, Sepand, SmackBot, Wakuran, Oscarthecat, Ozhiker,
Ser Amantio di Nicolao, Wvbailey, BrownHairedGirl, BurnDownBabylon, Ewok1, CBM, R9tgokunks, Cydebot, Alaibot, Greg L, Snowynight,
JamesBWatson, KConWiki, Schmloof, R'n'B, TomS TDotO, The Great Redirector, Twri, Solomonfromnland, Bg9989 and Anonymous:
11
Order (mathematics) Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Order_(mathematics)?oldid=778528309 Contributors: Michael Hardy, D6,
Mecanismo, BD2412, Bgwhite, RussBot, Voidxor, Gilliam, Kostmo, JHunterJ, JMK, CRGreathouse, RobHar, Magioladitis, Froid, David
Eppstein, Jwuthe2, Tavix, Malinaccier, SamuelTheGhost, Pot, Addbot, Jarble, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Pcap, FactSpewer, Serols, Alex9668,
WikitanvirBot, D.Lazard, ClueBot NG, J824h, Benzband, Victor Yus, Lugia2453, Mmitchell10 and Anonymous: 10
Orthomorphism Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orthomorphism?oldid=791881621 Contributors: Michael Hardy, Sammy1339,
David Eppstein, Wcherowi, Everymorning, David Fear and Anonymous: 1
Parameter Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parameter?oldid=802503643 Contributors: Toby Bartels, Miguel~enwiki, Dieter Si-
mon, Patrick, Michael Hardy, Dcljr, TakuyaMurata, Mdebets, Ahoerstemeier, Yaronf, Andrewa, Cyan, Rossami, Jtzg, Charles Matthews,
Robbot, Altenmann, Henrygb, Giftlite, Mintleaf~enwiki, Yekrats, Andycjp, Taka, Atemperman, Creidieki, Bender235, Charm, Rgdboer,
Roshan Shari, Tobacman, Musiphil, CyberSkull, Conan, Zippanova, Velella, Tony Sidaway, Ringbang, Kenyon, Oleg Alexandrov, Zn-
trip, Mindmatrix, Kokoriko, Mandarax, Ketiltrout, RexNL, YurikBot, NawlinWiki, ENeville, Woscafrench, Cloudbound, Eaefremov,
Darrel francis, Liujiang, SmackBot, NCurse, Nbarth, Joema, TedE, Jon Awbrey, SashatoBot, Rigadoun, Ben Moore, 16@r, Kvng,
Mrdthree, Irwangatot, Hucz, Makeemlighter, Cydebot, Jrgetsin, HJJHolm, Flarity, Cfsaracho, AntiVandalBot, MER-C, Olaf, Bong-
warrior, VoABot II, Shim'on, J.delanoy, Nigholith, Athaenara, Nonantum, Trumpet marietta 45750, Lbthrice, Rwessel, Lithis7, Deor,
VolkovBot, AlnoktaBOT, TXiKiBoT, Oshwah, Anonymous Dissident, IllaZilla, Wiae, Lerdthenerd, AlleborgoBot, SieBot, Wheasley,
J1-11-63, Adabow, Cuvette, Arbor to SJ, Cablehorn, Dynamitecow, OKBot, AlanUS, Anchor Link Bot, Melcombe, Ken123BOT, Rin-
consoleao, ClueBot, Swagat konchada, Niceguyedc, ChandlerMapBot, Ge556, DragonBot, Mathew-mage8, ChrisHamburg, Thehelpfu-
lone, HopeChrist, Marc van Leeuwen, Libcub, Badgernet, Jbeans, Addbot, AVand, SpellingBot, Fieldday-sunday, Mr. Wheely Guy,
, Jarble, Cote d'Azur, Yobot, Ht686rg90, Cm001, Peter Flass, Twri, Isheden, FastReverter~enwiki, LucienBOT, Mark Renier,
Pinethicket, Tom.Reding, Lingust, Gracefoo, DASHBot, EmausBot, WikitanvirBot, Winner 42, Wayne Slam, Christophe Krief, Tijfo098,
Peter Karlsen, Neil P. Quinn, ClueBot NG, Rezabot, Widr, Helpful Pixie Bot, BG19bot, Furkhaocean, Whyhelloclarice, , Aranea
Mortem, Pratyya Ghosh, Lugia2453, Frosty, Epicgenius, AomineDaiki27, SolidPhase, Lydiacoleson, GeneralizationsAreBad, Cnbr15,
Priyanksoni9713, Simplexity22, Fmadd, NoToleranceForIntolerance, Nihlus, MWpGA, Doritos28887278 and Anonymous: 139
107.4. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES 363

Parameter space Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parameter_space?oldid=796677093 Contributors: Michael Hardy, Den fjttrade

ankan~enwiki, Paul August, Bjelli, Rgdboer, Pearle, Rjwilmsi, Salix alba, Epolk, Deville, SmackBot, Adam majewski, Deimos 28, CBM,
N2e, Buurma, Wiae, Melcombe, Qwfp, Addbot, Erik9bot, Allion, Onel5969, Helpful Pixie Bot, BG19bot, Marcocapelle, Mmitchell10,
Mark viking, Monkbot, EmperorRyker, Loraof, FourViolas, Bender the Bot, PrimeBOT and Anonymous: 6
Parametric family Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parametric_family?oldid=791881759 Contributors: Bender235, Lensovet, ShelfSkewed,
David Eppstein, R'n'B, Bulkroosh, Melcombe, JL-Bot, Addbot, Twri, ArthurBot, Flavio Guitian, GermanJoe, Marcocapelle, Loraof and
Anonymous: 2
Parts-per notation Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parts-per_notation?oldid=795696998 Contributors: Jeronimo, Andre Engels,
Heron, Patrick, Shellreef, SebastianHelm, Den fjttrade ankan~enwiki, Crissov, SEWilco, Carbuncle, Robbot, Tomchiukc, Bkell, Ra-
dius, Bobblewik, Pm, Icairns, Gerrit, Thorwald, Spiy sperry, CALR, Guanabot, Andros 1337, Vsmith, DcoetzeeBot~enwiki, Violetriga,
Hooperbloob, Espoo, Orzetto, Keenan Pepper, Sligocki, Hadlock, Vuo, Gene Nygaard, Bookandcoee, Ceyockey, Oleg Alexandrov,
Bobrayner, Angr, OwenX, Blair P. Houghton, Trevor Andersen, Firien, Eras-mus, Ketiltrout, Koavf, Maxim Razin, FlaBot, Ground
Zero, Jeepo~enwiki, Thecurran, Srleer, Physchim62, Chobot, Bgwhite, Roboto de Ajvol, YurikBot, Jimp, RussBot, Hydrargyrum,
Shell Kinney, Gaius Cornelius, DeadEyeArrow, Bota47, TransUtopian, Mike Dillon, Closedmouth, OutPhase, NHSavage, Cmglee, Itub,
SmackBot, Jclerman, InverseHypercube, KnowledgeOfSelf, KocjoBot~enwiki, Boris Barowski, Yamaguchi , Cool3, Pzavon, Blue-
bot, Thumperward, GoodDay, RedKnight7, Crd721, Mwtoews, Bejnar, Saippuakauppias, Mbeychok, Muadd, Savonnn, AndrewHowse,
Cydebot, The Ultimate Koopa, Ignoramibus, Thijs!bot, Epbr123, RolfSander, Not-just-yeti, Mungomba, Nonagonal Spider, DmitTrix,
Electron9, J. W. Love, Greg L, Nick Number, Escarbot, Gh5046, JAnDbot, Davidomackay, Magioladitis, Roches, Nyttend, Chtfn,
Leyo, Zosma, Sarregouset, KudzuVine, Mokhtari, WarddrBOT, TXiKiBoT, Gruntguru, Q Science, Spinningspark, Paradoctor, Smsar-
mad, Adabow, Flyer22 Reborn, Oxymoron83, Anchor Link Bot, PabloStraub, Classicalecon, ClueBot, Pakaraki, Marshlight, NCDane,
Addbot, Fgnievinski, Aboctok, Ehrenkater, Tide rolls, Lightbot, Zorrobot, Bernoullies, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Eric-Wester, DiverDave,
AnomieBOT, LlywelynII, ArthurBot, Xqbot, JimVC3, El Irlands, XZeroBot, Br77rino, Andbrew.downes, Frosted14, , Mn-
mngb, Shadowjams, Dpasek, A. di M., Thehelpfulbot, Lodgerease, R8R, FrescoBot, ClickRick, RedBot, Obankston, Yamlikha, Rjwilm-
siBot, Born2bgratis, EmausBot, Tommy2010, The Blade of the Northern Lights, ZroBot, Candymishal, Mikhail Ryazanov, ClueBot NG,
Matthiaspaul, Frietjes, Widr, Savantas83, BG19bot, Zyxwv99, Aeropedia, MadCowpoke, FoCuSandLeArN, NYBrook098, Yadsalohcin,
Jianhui67, Ryk72, Trackteur, Emily Temple-Wood (NIOSH), User000name, Starsar, Bender the Bot and Anonymous: 130
Pathological (mathematics) Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pathological_(mathematics)?oldid=791137459 Contributors: The
Anome, Edward, Bdesham, Michael Hardy, Alodyne, Dcljr, Revolver, Charles Matthews, Dcoetzee, Dysprosia, Astronautics~enwiki,
Psychonaut, MathMartin, Henrygb, ComplexZeta, Tea2min, Tosha, Giftlite, CryptoDerk, Thincat, Vivacissamamente, PhotoBox, FT2,
Aranel, Srbauer, Crust, Storm Rider, Msh210, Kusma, Simetrical, BD2412, Phoenix-forgotten, Nneonneo, Mathbot, Kri, Hairy Dude,
Eighty~enwiki, Eaefremov, InverseHypercube, Stie, Nbarth, Titus III, Lim Wei Quan, Jafet, Salgueiro~enwiki, Maurice Carbonaro,
Trumpet marietta 45750, Fylwind, Quux0r, Rei-bot, Aaron Rotenberg, Rlendog, Acasson, J-puppy, AllHailZeppelin, Escape Orbit, Clue-
Bot, PipepBot, Mild Bill Hiccup, Ashweena, Certes, Mjharrison, Addbot, Jarble, MarioS, AnomieBOT, TechBot, GrouchoBot, Draperp,
777sms, Duoduoduo, Jorge c2010, ZroBot, U+003F, Widr, Wbm1058, BG19bot, Jeharmse, Jimw338, Kephir, Loraof, smail Canolu
and Anonymous: 36
Percentage point Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Percentage_point?oldid=799960255 Contributors: AxelBoldt, ToastyKen, Mis-
terSheik, Indil, Eddideigel, Woohookitty, Xiong, V8rik, YurikBot, Sasuke Sarutobi, Tony1, SmackBot, Derek Andrews, Da Vynci,
Tim bates, Buckyboy314, N2e, Freddiem, JAnDbot, R'n'B, Wiae, Quietbritishjim, Melcombe, Dmartid, Qwfp, Prof Wrong, Tarheel95,
Addbot, Fgnievinski, SamatBot, Vasi, Mollerup, AnomieBOT, ArthurBot, RibotBOT, Gfoley4, ZroBot, Sukumarsatyen, Wcherowi,
BG19bot, Marcocapelle, Who R you?, Dysrhythmia, Ekips39, Ira Leviton and Anonymous: 37
Pointwise Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pointwise?oldid=786525368 Contributors: Michael Hardy, Tea2min, Paul August, Tompw,
Oleg Alexandrov, WhiteHatLurker, CBM, SieBot, SchreiberBike, Beroal, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Pcap, J04n, 777sms, EmausBot, Dewritech,
BG19bot, AK456 and Anonymous: 4
Porism Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Porism?oldid=787512220 Contributors: Michael Hardy, Charles Matthews, Aetheling, Or-
angemike, DavidBrooks, ELApro, Rich Farmbrough, Gauge, Rgdboer, Ross Burgess, Mathbot, Siddhant, Kewp, That Guy, From That
Show!, SmackBot, RDBury, Kintetsubualo, Silly rabbit, Hemmingsen, CmdrObot, Thijs!bot, Mild Bill Hiccup, Addbot, FrescoBot,
Tkuvho, Tiled, EmausBot, John of Reading, PBS-AWB, Davidiad, Brad7777, ChrisGualtieri, DavidBrooks-AWB, Bender the Bot, Prime-
BOT and Anonymous: 6
Projection (mathematics) Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Projection_(mathematics)?oldid=793570628 Contributors: Hyacinth,
MathMartin, Lethe, PhotoBox, Paul August, Rgdboer, Cethegus, Chills42, YurikBot, Wavelength, Hairy Dude, Zvika, SmackBot, Mhym,
Jon Awbrey, Jim.belk, RomanSpa, Mauro Bieg, Thijs!bot, R'n'B, Enigmaman, Paolo.dL, Skarebo, Addbot, AnomieBOT, Erik9bot, All-
CluesKey, Aliotra, RandomDSdevel, Onel5969, D.Lazard, Wcherowi, MerlIwBot, DSNA-MECA, Mgunyho and Anonymous: 19
Proof by innite descent Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proof_by_infinite_descent?oldid=802222051 Contributors: Zundark,
Michael Hardy, Charles Matthews, Dcoetzee, Giftlite, Dissident, Silenteuphony, Rich Farmbrough, KneeLess, FT2, Bender235, Mailer
diablo, Joriki, Rjwilmsi, VKokielov, Mathbot, Maxal, Don Gosiewski, Salvatore Ingala, King of Hearts, David Pierce, SamuelRiv,
JCipriani, Flowersofnight, Mattmm, SmackBot, Mgreenbe, Bh3u4m, JCSantos, MalafayaBot, Mecrazywong, Sohale, TPIRFanSteve,
Iridescent, CRGreathouse, Cydebot, Asmeurer, David Eppstein, Joshua Issac, Nxavar, PaulTanenbaum, This, that and the other, Azu-
mashii, M4gnum0n, BOTarate, Rinpoche, MystBot, Addbot, Lightbot, ., Yobot, PMLawrence, LilHelpa, GeometryGirl, Bibek-
maths, Omnipaedista, Erik9bot, RedBot, Taylor561, Duoduoduo, DexDor, WikitanvirBot, RA0808, ZroBot, Fred Gandt, Sapphorain,
ChuispastonBot, Nullzero, BG19bot, Pastafarianist, Doyoon1995, Makecat-bot, Ginsuloft, DeathOfBalance, Cklasky, Monkbot, Loraof,
BeKowz, Deacon Vorbis, KolbertBot and Anonymous: 34
Property (philosophy) Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Property_(philosophy)?oldid=783323932 Contributors: The Anome, Ed-
ward, Michael Hardy, Rp, Kku, Andres, Philip Taron, MathMartin, Carnildo, Adam78, Nick04, Vadmium, CryptoDerk, Karol Langner,
Mike Storm, Ganymead, Mike Rosoft, LegCircus, Bender235, Ben Standeven, Diego Moya, Andrew Gray, Hu, Dziban303, Woohookitty,
Dustball, Kzollman, Ilya, BD2412, Mayumashu, Fresheneesz, YurikBot, Atfyfe, Trovatore, Tomisti, BytEfLUSh, SmackBot, Drnile-
scrane, Jyoshimi, Gilliam, Nekrorider, Pg2114, Acdx, Ged UK, Dfass, Samuelhendry, Levineps, MDude, Gregbard, Peterdjones, Dumb-
BOT, Nick Number, Chill doubt, Platypusx, Kennercat, Snowded, EagleFan, Adrian J. Hunter, AllenDowney, YukoValis, Pomte, Wood-
wardiocom, Adavidb, Lonjers, Galanskov, TredWel, KohanX, CoryC, Ontoraul, Collin Stocks, Laoris, Approaching, Smaug123, Mk-
bergman, Kuraimizu, MiNombreDeGuerra, ClueBot, Quinxorin, Dg brussels, Addbot, Monkeysocks2, Mjsa, Favonian, Fireattack, Kamikaze-
Bot, AnomieBOT, Materialscientist, Citation bot, Sophivorus, Philip of Montferrat, A.amitkumar, Voxii, Machine Elf 1735, Dinamik-
364 CHAPTER 107.

bot, 777sms, Tbhotch, EmausBot, Xeluther, Jorge c2010, Ajm500, PBS-AWB, A2soup, Elite ferns, The Nut, Gclink, H3llBot, Sbursi, Rc-
sprinter123, ClueBot NG, Ferndias, Clobberdonk, Faus, MauchoEagle, , WNYY98, Lowercase sigmabot, Stinkopus, Treecko.piplup,
Jaeron, Velthice, Noodle11235, Gadiii, Longbyte1, Hesante, Nporterkasbati, Game-Guru999, Edward Gordon Gey, BMags96, Undisked-
ste, Pablosanchez99, Blackandgold71, PercPlus5, PlanetEditor, Mathmensch, Orzm, IvanZhilin, IagoQnsi, Keiiri, Ciaran Marshall,
Crito10, Sro23, CAPTAIN RAJU, TheJazzTrumpet, Dbreagornks, DFrostedWang, Harambethegorrila, Sigma9, Mjgryphon, Hollikill
and Anonymous: 203
Proportionality (mathematics) Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proportionality_(mathematics)?oldid=800499649 Contributors:
AxelBoldt, Heron, Ewen, Patrick, Michael Hardy, Randywombat, AugPi, Andres, Kaihsu, Charles Matthews, Omegatron, Jerzy, Tea2min,
Marc Venot, Giftlite, Tom harrison, Alberto da Calvairate~enwiki, Beland, CSTAR, Sonett72, Paul August, Tompw, Rgdboer, Lankiveil,
Spoon!, La goutte de pluie, Krellis, Gigabyte~enwiki, Alansohn, Hq3473, Commander Keane, Mpatel, Btyner, CarbonUnit, Aide-
pikiw0000, Sohmc, Mathbot, Pfctdayelise, Krishnavedala, Bgwhite, YurikBot, Wavelength, Ecemaml, RussBot, David R. Ingham, Eighty~enwiki,
Brandon, Dhollm, Chichui, Wknight94, Arthur Rubin, Pred, Finell, Capitalist, Luk, SmackBot, Gilliam, Chris the speller, Fdskjs, Fuz-
zform, Nbarth, DHN-bot~enwiki, Cybercobra, Jna runn, Dicklyon, Levineps, Nicoli nicolivich, Audiosmurf, SamerZiadeh, Petr
Matas, CBM, Viridae, Kozuch, Thijs!bot, Pstanton, Andyjsmith, Pjvpjv, Marek69, Paste, Spencer, JAnDbot, Magioladitis, VoABot
II, CattleGirl, Noodle snacks, 28421u2232nfenfcenc, DerHexer, JaGa, STBotD, Ja 62, Funandtrvl, VolkovBot, TBster2001, Ryan032,
TXiKiBoT, Oshwah, Inector, Auron Cloud, Dendodge, Yeungchunk, Kmhkmh, Enviroboy, Spinningspark, Nuuskamikkonen, May-
fare, Zonuleofzinn, SieBot, Sakkura, Gerakibot, Tricore~enwiki, Permacultura, Oxymoron83, JerroldPease-Atlanta, Anchor Link Bot,
Dolphin51, Church, ClueBot, The Thing That Should Not Be, Rjd0060, Excirial, Jusdafax, Mindlurker, Estirabot, Dmyersturnbull, Van-
ished user uih38riiw4hjlsd, WikHead, Addbot, Willking1979, Asifkemalpasha, Atethnekos, Fgnievinski, Jncraton, Cbowman713, Tide
rolls, Zorrobot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, AnomieBOT, Jim1138, Materialscientist, Theoprakt, ArthurBot, Capricorn42, Termininja, Mil-
lahnna, Jacobusmaximus34, Isheden, GrouchoBot, Omnipaedista, Evan.oltmanns, MerlLinkBot, Erik9bot, Constructive editor, Fres-
coBot, Pinethicket, SpaceFlight89, Irbisgreif, Kuddle143, TobeBot, Mutt20, Kjarda, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, Aniten21, EmausBot, Wik-
itanvirBot, Racerx11, Tommy2010, Dcirovic, K6ka, Traxs7, Belajane123, WeijiBaikeBianji, Hazard-SJ, Quondum, Aughost, Makecat,
Iwilllearn2010, Donner60, Mikhail Ryazanov, ClueBot NG, Wcherowi, MelbourneStar, Baseball Watcher, JHBonarius, Widr, In actu,
BG19bot, Schrdingers Neurotoxin, John Cummings, Patrug, Thumani Mabwe, Bendt3.142, Mark Arsten, TejasDiscipulus2, Scot-
tish lad, The Pikachu Who Dared, Millennium bug, Darylgolden, Th4n3r, ChrisGualtieri, Webclient101, Lugia2453, TheMachine999,
Meeeeeeee39, JPaestpreornJeolhlna, Eyesnore, Harlem Baker Hughes, DavidLeighEllis, Alastor Crescent, M3owUsername1, Justinr-
leung, Agnelvishal, Ack! Ack! Pasta bomb!, Lor, CAPTHCHALOL, Sunmist, Sam the man on earth, 115ash, Loraof, Eagleeye209,
JafetCats, Ghahmed2002, Inorout, Pivotcoptr, Allan.Tarp, Simplexity22, Qzd, AlliKattt, Ak11234, AccurightHistory, Bear-rings, Dea-
con Vorbis, Here2help, CubeSat4U, Dampsalad and Anonymous: 251
Q.E.D. Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Q.E.D.?oldid=801814287 Contributors: MichaelTinkler, Zundark, The Anome, Koyaanis
Qatsi, Manning Bartlett, BlckKnght, Malcolm Farmer, Arvindn, Christian List, PierreAbbat, Michael Hardy, Wshun, Pit~enwiki, Brtkr-
bzhnv, Wapcaplet, Seav, Cyp, Cimon Avaro, Timwi, Choster, Joshuabowman, Dysprosia, Krithin, Furrykef, Fibonacci, Quoth-22, Eld-
Katt, Robbot, Astronautics~enwiki, Tomchiukc, Benwing, Hadal, Giftlite, Mshonle~enwiki, Marnanel, Sj, BenFrantzDale, Lethe, Lupin,
0x6D667061, Everyking, Nomad~enwiki, Jason Quinn, Shibboleth, LiDaobing, Craverguy, Armaced, Rdsmith4, Icairns, Almit39, Tyler
McHenry, Peter Kwok, Grunt, Canterbury Tail, Porges, Perey, N328KF, Gemtiger, Rich Farmbrough, Hydrox, Florian Blaschke, As-
cnder, TheJames, Bender235, MyNameIsNotBob, Joanjoc~enwiki, Barlow, PhilHibbs, Rpresser, Bobo192, Circeus, Func, Obradovic
Goran, MPerel, Jumbuck, Msh210, Honeycake, Anthony Appleyard, Blahma, UrsusArctos, Gssq, CyberSkull, Goldom, Sundar2000,
Stack, WikiParker, Bart133, Caesura, Suruena, Danhash, IMeowbot, DominicC13, NicM, Oleg Alexandrov, Woohookitty, Mindma-
trix, Shreevatsa, TigerShark, Sympleko, Mpatel, Jok2000, Tabletop, Ch'marr, Ryan Reich, Btyner, Gerbrant, Graham87, BD2412, Fre-
plySpang, Yurik, Rillian, Quiddity, Maeglin Lmion, Dewrad, Brighterorange, MLRoach, FlaBot, Pruneau, Maitch, Davidlwilliamson,
Mathbot, Chobot, Benlisquare, Uvaduck, E Pluribus Anthony, Deus ex machina, JPD, YurikBot, Wavelength, Borgx, RobotE, Wikky
Horse, Arzel, RussBot, Ventolin, Dobromila, Kyorosuke, Bovineone, Odysses, Nahallac Silverwinds, Trovatore, Twin Bird, Zwobot,
Merto, Raistlin8r, Nikkimaria, Pb30, Clayhalliwell, Saudade7, KenoSarawa, Pred, Serendipodous, EJSawyer, SmackBot, RDBury,
Dweller, EvilCouch, Andrewmb, Incnis Mrsi, Bigbluesh, Primetech, TheDoctor10, BiT, Nwebster84, Khuxan, Jcarroll, Jprg1966,
Je Parsons, Thumperward, Moshe Constantine Hassan Al-Silverburg, Poobarb, Egsan Bacon, Kchoose2, Ioscius, Nixeagle, ConMan,
Markymarkmagic, Ck lostsword, Lambiam, John, Lawrencemykytiuk, Cronholm144, Robosh, JoshuaZ, JHunterJ, Elvenbookwyrm,
Dicklyon, Mets501, Dr.K., ISD, Iridescent, PetaRZ, Darrel M, Tawkerbot2, Generalcp702, Timrem, MonkeeSage, ChrisCork, Sky-
Walker, CBM, PegArmPaul, Zyxoas, Jppellet, Neelix, Gregbard, Cydebot, Cra0422, TasowyTR, B3njaminyang, Unnatural20, Thijs!bot,
Newton2, Schneau, Rickyprego, Escarbot, AntiVandalBot, Kba, Aprogressivist, Paste, Dylan Lake, Mactabilis, Salgueiro~enwiki, Je-
shantz, JAnDbot, Magioladitis, Supermant, VoABot II, Avjoska, TheOtherBob, Froid, Seberle, RedMC, Smallhacker, MartinBot, On-
lynone, FDD, R'n'B, Marhahs, Arrivisto, Fruits Monster, Xeromus, KramerNL, Lhynard, Trumpet marietta 45750, Coin945, Hen-
nessey, Patrick, Hiwk, 83d40m, Alsosaid1987, Wikipeterproject, Bzeleznik, Inetpup, VolkovBot, Charleca, TXiKiBoT, Macfanatic,
Khutuck, Oric.gr, Nxavar, Qxz, Gekritzl, Eldaran~enwiki, LeaveSleaves, HawkeAnyone, Mcrable, Y, Belamp, Softlavender, Thomas
Hastay, AaronD12, Stryik, Portalian, Purbo T, SimonTrew, Fratrep, Svick, Arminnius, XKV8R, ClueBot, Metaprimer, Starvinsky,
Rhubbarb, Debsuvra, Davidje13, Naleh, PixelBot, Makotoy, He6kd, XLinkBot, Kumar hkr, Hermanoere, Miro modo, YrPolishUncle,
Addbot, JPINFV, Jetpower, CanadianLinuxUser, Download, SoSaysChappy, Htdart, Ukechukwupotikwa, Kicior99, Lightbot, Yobot,
AnomieBOT, Gpia7r, DemocraticLuntz, Ciphers, Boleyn2, Agorist, Dinesh smita, Materialscientist, Testing1212, Citation bot, Iglopolis,
Jchthys, EyNuel, MauritsBot, Xqbot, I Feel Tired, Erud, Capricorn42, AarnKrry, Kitsora, Loserpenguin15, Abce2, Edu7, YrMomEd-
itsWkpdia, Gehayes, Vaxquis, FrescoBot, Cdibuduo, Eyezee, Outback the koala, Danmux, 10metreh, Jonesey95, MastiBot, AKD157,
LCE1506, DixonDBot, Fama Clamosa, Jhiaxus, Thanhbinhlab, Webknjaz, Tbhotch, Onel5969, Mean as custard, RjwilmsiBot, Uanfala,
Guacamole622, EmausBot, Insorak, T3dkjn89q00vl02Cxp1kqs3x7, Hooktail154, Dixtosa, Arsvita734, Pet3ris, SavageHenry7, Sepguil-
herme, CILCIA, Kingdroid, A930913, Eelsdude~enwiki, GianniG46, Jhugh95, Maker2807, Vorziblix, DaveNDi, Anushirvan, ClueBot
NG, Irakli.janiashvili, Wcherowi, Aleksa Milievi, VigilantPenguin, Theopolisme, Anentiresleeve, Carlodellora, Nolan81, Walrus068,
EdwardRech, Ghna, ElphiBot, GustavWKrantz, Jelzur, Davidiad, Jordatech, CitationCleanerBot, Sheldon Kepler, Ido66667, TOmtiz-
zle, Slowlikemolasses, BattyBot, Scorchgeek, Kerolasa, Arr4, Monurcan, O.metoikos, Eneli27, Elec junto, Smeatteams, Dave Bowman
- Discovery Won, Theos Little Bot, Weux082690, Ashorocetus, JustBerry, Cypherquest, SharksShade, Zhantongz, T.gogniashvili, UY
Scuti, Lolorain, Monkbot, Oxford-and-sons, Leegrc, Bbssgg, Ukrainianbeatlemania, Jae.cs, 800-Pick-FedEx, User7998, Danieldhales,
Bingo20, Shaena42, Jonathanpoulter, Rannocir, Rajzin, Failo Taufa, Nbfd56, Straumannen, Scott wotty, Bender the Bot, Pndrej, Uncle
Roy and Anonymous: 557
Quadrature (mathematics) Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quadrature_(mathematics)?oldid=787631872 Contributors: Michael
Hardy, Dominus, Giftlite, Rgdboer, Woohookitty, Mindmatrix, Krishnavedala, R'n'B, Riwnodennyk, Mild Bill Hiccup, Qwfp, Pichpich,
107.4. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES 365

Addbot, Fgnievinski, Zorrobot, Arbitrarily0, LGB, AnomieBOT, Vladislav Pogorelov, Netheril96, ZroBot, Wcherowi, Abacenis, Akfoss,
Magic links bot and Anonymous: 5
Reduction (mathematics) Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reduction_(mathematics)?oldid=775037282 Contributors: SimonP,
Dcljr, D6, Tompw, Bobo192, Nwrc, OGoncho, Linas, Josh Parris, MarSch, Samuel Levine, Cedar101, SmackBot, Eskimbot, MaxSem,
CmdrObot, Paddles, Mulyahnto, Mx. Granger, DumZiBoT, Addbot, Vchorozopoulos, Favonian, Zorrobot, Bunnyhop11, Materialscien-
tist, Erik9bot, A.amitkumar, Dinamik-bot, CitrusPeel, Xos Antonio, Loraof, Jvanschoubroeck and Anonymous: 6
Rigidity (mathematics) Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rigidity_(mathematics)?oldid=715580793 Contributors: Patrick, Michael
Hardy, Charles Matthews, CryptoDerk, Joeblakesley, Elroch, GdB, Alansohn, Anthony Appleyard, Ultramarine, Linas, Awis, Happy-
Camper, Algebraist, Woseph, Mhym, Thijs!bot, Epbr123, RobHar, Davidtwu, David Eppstein, ClueBot, Twri, Capricorn42, Fortdj33,
Sawomir Biay, 777sms, Dexbot and Anonymous: 12
Scope (logic) Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scope_(logic)?oldid=785079386 Contributors: RJGray, I dream of horses, Doy-
oon1995, GeoreyT2000, DrStrauss and Krankmeister1917
Sides of an equation Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sides_of_an_equation?oldid=799950348 Contributors: Michael Hardy, Smack,
Schneelocke, Charles Matthews, Dysprosia, RedWolf, Merovingian, Henrygb, TPK, Alan Liefting, Giftlite, RainerBlome, Jrme, Oleg
Alexandrov, Myleslong, Pol098, MarSch, SmackBot, Bluebot, R'n'B, Phil Bridger, Vlifschitz, Shaded0, Niceguyedc, DragonBot, BO-
Tarate, Addbot, Zorrobot, JhanCRUSH, Erik9bot, Loreleil, Ollieinc, Jochen Burghardt, Naereen, Alterseemann, Loraof and Anonymous:
11
Sign (mathematics) Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sign_(mathematics)?oldid=797132108 Contributors: Zundark, Michael Hardy,
Robbot, Gandalf61, Giftlite, DragonySixtyseven, Discospinster, Zaslav, Waldir, Incnis Mrsi, Jim.belk, Maolmhuire, Altamel, Magio-
laditis, Peskydan, Ohms law, Jdaloner, Cli, Plastikspork, Drmies, Addbot, LaaknorBot, Sandrarossi, HerculeBot, Reinraum, Materi-
alscientist, Xqbot, Jewang, Alphanis, Quondum, SporkBot, ClueBot NG, Wcherowi, Widr, Justincheng12345-bot, SteenthIWbot, The
Anonymouse, Eyesnore, Yardimsever, YiFeiBot, Joeleoj123, Loraof, CheChe, Deacon Vorbis and Anonymous: 21
Single-valued function Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Single-valued_function?oldid=791884849 Contributors: Charles Matthews,
Giftlite, TheParanoidOne, Oleg Alexandrov, Alex Bakharev, Pseinstein, Kingdon, CmdrObot, CBM, David Eppstein, PV=nRT, AnomieBOT,
LilHelpa, Erik9bot, Wikeithpedia and Anonymous: 14
Space (mathematics) Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_(mathematics)?oldid=789299295 Contributors: Patrick, Michael Hardy,
Smack, Jhobson1, Bkell, Tea2min, Giftlite, Jason Quinn, Tarajala, Qef, Rgdboer, Army1987, Tsirel, Anthony Appleyard, Oleg Alexan-
drov, Isnow, BD2412, Salix alba, Hiding, RexNL, Bgwhite, RobotE, Hairy Dude, Crasshopper, SmackBot, InverseHypercube, Jhausauer,
Jon Awbrey, RekishiEJ, CBM, Escarbot, JAnDbot, Magioladitis, David Eppstein, Jimka, Owlgorithm, JohnBlackburne, Anonymous Dis-
sident, Paradoctor, Danmichaelo, SchreiberBike, MystBot, Addbot, Fgnievinski, Tide rolls, ., Luckas-bot, AnomieBOT, Ciphers,
Bean49, DannyAsher, Gap9551, Pratik.mallya, Atlantia, MastiBot, Wikivictory, EmausBot, WikitanvirBot, Quondum, Super-real dance,
Wcherowi, Helpful Pixie Bot, Comfr, YFdyh-bot, JYBot, Enterprisey, Brirush, Mark viking, Hierarchivist, Alastor Crescent, Narky Blert,
Loraof, KasparBot, Kedar nath roy, Manishkrisna108 and Anonymous: 35
Stochastic Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stochastic?oldid=801875603 Contributors: Camembert, Hephaestos, Stevertigo, Michael
Hardy, Kku, Julesd, Charles Matthews, Dysprosia, Doradus, Hyacinth, Melody, Astronautics~enwiki, TB, Giftlite, Fastssion, Var-
laam, Gracefool, Andycjp, Bcameron54, Demiurge, R, Smyth, Bender235, Dkroll2, Jashiin, Espoo, Gary, Kazvorpal, Oleg Alexan-
drov, Mahanga, WilliamKF, Angr, Woohookitty, Bkwillwm, Dionyziz, Mandarax, FreplySpang, Rjwilmsi, Kinu, Jeschuler, Drrn-
grvy, Fresheneesz, Preslethe, YurikBot, Wavelength, Chaos, Philopedia, Trovatore, Hymyly, Kkmurray, Botteville, FF2010, Rgis D-
camps, Sscomp2004, Patiwat, AndrewWTaylor, SmackBot, Unyoyega, Oed, Chris the speller, Reza1615, Keegan, Droll, Moshe Con-
stantine Hassan Al-Silverburg, Sct72, LoveMonkey, Pilotguy, Frglee, Ulner, 16@r, JHunterJ, Dee Jay Randall, RogueDuck, Rhetth,
Armando Serrano, Bribroder, CBM, Ron Oliver, Cydebot, Dantiston, Neubertdave, Roberta F., Lindsay658, Headbomb, Sobreira,
V400587, Benstam, Natalie Erin, Akshayaj, Egpetersen, Salgueiro~enwiki, Leevclarke, MikeLynch, JAnDbot, Michaelarabin, Magiola-
ditis, SNIX, R'n'B, Fconaway, TomS TDotO, Mikael Hggstrm, RHBridges, Ontarioboy, Showeropera, Ale2006, Pleclech, VolkovBot,
Jim.Callahan,Orlando, Philip Trueman, Seanmcox, Vipinhari, Daggerdragon, Markhebner, Tpb, Tradermatt, Richard8081, Melcombe,
Asd28, ClueBot, The Thing That Should Not Be, Resoru, Jedarib, Muro Bot, AC+79 3888, Qwfp, Addbot, Cleisthenes2, Tassede-
the, Skippy le Grand Gourou, Cote d'Azur, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Mmxx, THEN WHO WAS PHONE?, Je gruszynski, VectorField,
J27325, AnomieBOT, Rachelm1978, EryZ, Guissoares, Xqbot, ncel Acar, Tenshsticks, Srich32977, Omnipaedista, Operator873,
The Wiki ghost, Nagualdesign, FrescoBot, Iminfo, A little insignicant, Boxplot, Winterst, Pinethicket, Gingermint, Jandalhandler,
Trappist the monk, Zink Dawg, Jesse V., Minimac, Ripchip Bot, Lawdiver, Fixblor, BluBananallc, ChuispastonBot, DemonicPartyHat,
Iyerdaa, Derekschostall, ClueBot NG, ChristopherGregory, MerlIwBot, DBigXray, BG19bot, LouisAlain, Marcocapelle, Mark Arsten,
GEGranato, Jasperjackson, Electricmun11, Dexbot, Rikeus, SFK2, Mark viking, BreakfastJr, Int80, Derekdoth, Meteor sandwich yum,
Improbable keeler, Mehr86, Notsniwiast, Monkbot, Opencooper, ZeppoShemp, ChemicalyImbalanced, BabyChastie, HelpUsStopSpam,
45sixtyone, KasparBot, Ammarpad, Ninjaicesh, Www42www, Waterfall mg, John Hannibal Smith, Quasar G., DonkoXI and Anony-
mous: 187
Stratication (mathematics) Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stratification_(mathematics)?oldid=779727594 Contributors: Michael
Hardy, Charles Matthews, Dysprosia, Sundar, Randall Holmes, Oleg Alexandrov, Simetrical, Salix alba, R.e.b., SmackBot, Mhss, Mets501,
Zero sharp, 345Kai, Sdorrance, Gregbard, Gnewf, Magioladitis, MetsBot, R'n'B, Teu~enwiki, Jlazovskis, Addbot, Erik9bot, D.Lazard,
Tijfo098, ResearchRave and Anonymous: 11
Strict Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strict?oldid=783405150 Contributors: Patrick, Michael Hardy, TimR, Giftlite, Macrakis,
CryptoDerk, Robophilosopher, Angie Y., Nils Grimsmo, SmackBot, Tawkerbot2, Ezrakilty, WillowW, Dan D. Ric, David Eppstein,
Philip Trueman, Tavix, SimonTrew, ClueBot, PixelBot, Thingg, Addbot, ArthurBot, 777sms, SporkBot, Damirgrati, MerlIwBot, Cap-
tain Jake Smith, KH-1, Jeremyjay121 and Anonymous: 11
Symplectic category Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symplectic_category?oldid=636077694 Contributors: TakuyaMurata, Bearcat
and Iaritmioawp
T.C. Mits Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T.C._Mits?oldid=714285293 Contributors: Antelan, Triwbe, Sitush, Addbot, Pipgirl115b,
Yobot, AnomieBOT, Citation bot, PigFlu Oink, RjwilmsiBot and Pacerier
Theorem Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theorem?oldid=795360715 Contributors: AxelBoldt, Mav, Zundark, The Anome, Tar-
quin, Tbackstr, XJaM, Aldie, Michael Hardy, Zeno Gantner, TakuyaMurata, Bagpuss, Glenn, Tim Retout, Rotem Dan, Andres, Charles
366 CHAPTER 107.

Matthews, Dcoetzee, Bemoeial, Hyacinth, Traroth, SirPeebles, Moriel~enwiki, Josh Cherry, Fredrik, MathMartin, Ojigiri~enwiki, Tim-
rollpickering, Hadal, Alan Liefting, Snobot, Ancheta Wis, Tosha, Giftlite, Monedula, Fropu, Fishal, Chowbok, Alaz, MarkSweep,
Karol Langner, Jacob grace, Pmanderson, Tyler McHenry, Hkpawn~enwiki, Tzanko Matev, Joyous!, EugeneZelenko, Discospinster,
Rich Farmbrough, Paul August, Bender235, Gauge, Tompw, El C, Edwinstearns, Billymac00, Sasquatch, Alansohn, Gary, Sciurin,
Joriki, Igny, Ruud Koot, Eras-mus, Mekong Bluesman, Tslocum, Graham87, BD2412, Gmelli, Sdornan, Salix alba, Jrtayloriv, AndriuZ,
M7bot, Chobot, MithrandirMage, Sbrools, DVdm, Algebraist, Roboto de Ajvol, Borgx, Chaos, Trovatore, Dbrs, Bota47, Tomisti,
Arthur Rubin, Kier07, Anclation~enwiki, Curpsbot-unicodify, Erudy, Finell, Sardanaphalus, SmackBot, RDBury, Bomac, Skizzik, Chris
the speller, Fuzzform, MalafayaBot, DHN-bot~enwiki, Colonies Chris, Sholto Maud, Cybercobra, Acdx, SashatoBot, Lambiam, Iron-
Gargoyle, Craigblock, Lalaith, Autonova, Mike Fikes, Zero sharp, JRSpriggs, CRGreathouse, Hi.ro, CBM, Gregbard, Cydebot, R Har-
ris, Moxmalin, Thijs!bot, Epbr123, Mrcs, Marek69, James086, Nick Number, AntiVandalBot, Widefox, Thenub314, .anacondabot,
Magioladitis, Dvptl, Animum, Seberle, Gwern, Stephenchou0722, Pomte, Hippasus the Younger, Fcsuper, Jeepday, Nznancy, Copper-
twig, Haseldon, Tparameter, Fjbfour, Dessources, DavidCBryant, Caiodnh, Austinmohr, VolkovBot, Psmythirl, Am Fiosaigear~enwiki,
TXiKiBoT, Rei-bot, IKiddo, Voorlandt, Philogo, Jackfork, Geometry guy, Wiae, Graymornings, Dmcq, HiDrNick, DestroyerofDreams,
Hthoreau2, Newbyguesses, SieBot, Respir, Huzzah018, Oxymoron83, SimonTrew, OKBot, Kumioko (renamed), DesolateReality, Wje-
mather, Loren.wilton, ClueBot, Blanchardb, Jandew, Excirial, Alexbot, TheSnacks, Hans Adler, Muzz 2008, MonoBot, XLinkBot,
Burkaja, Marc van Leeuwen, SilvonenBot, Badgernet, Addbot, DrThunder88, Some jerk on the Internet, Rainbow-ve, CanadianLin-
uxUser, CarsracBot, Dr. Universe, Favonian, Numbo3-bot, Flatsh89, Stepfordswife, Zorrobot, Jarble, Legobot, Cote d'Azur, Luckas-
bot, Yobot, II MusLiM HyBRiD II, AnomieBOT, Kristen Eriksen, LilHelpa, Xqbot, Doezxcty, Capricorn42, Sophivorus, Almabot,
Miym, GrouchoBot, Jubb-green, RibotBOT, FrescoBot, Sirtywell, Haeinous, Heptadecagon, BigDwiki, RedBot, Eric wisniewski, Alvaro
Vidal-Abarca, EmausBot, Dcirovic, ZroBot, The Nut, Xzenu, GZ-Bot, H3llBot, D.Lazard, Sapphorain, ChuispastonBot, RockMagnetist,
ClueBot NG, Helpful Pixie Bot, BG19bot, Howald, Jibun, bukiyou desu kara, Khazar2, Oracions, Wywin, Yamaha5, Leegrc, WillemienH,
Loraof, EoRdE6, BabyChastie, Nbro, KasparBot, Blakktaktiks, Youknowwhatimsayin, AmitMakwana008 and Anonymous: 115
Toy model Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toy_model?oldid=794715042 Contributors: The Anome, Nealmcb, Grendelkhan, Phys,
Lumidek, Jag123, Linas, Salsb, ErkDemon, SmackBot, Fuhghettaboutit, Mojo Hand, DavidCBryant, Bletchley, Addbot, AnomieBOT,
Jim1138, Xqbot, Erik9bot, ClueBot NG, Spinden, Me, Myself, and I are Here, Biogeographist, Comp.arch and Anonymous: 10
Toy theorem Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toy_theorem?oldid=794719148 Contributors: Charles Matthews, Phys, CryptoDerk,
Oleg Alexandrov, BeteNoir, Addbot, Frank MacCrory, Luckas-bot, Unara, 777sms, Set theorist, Me, Myself, and I are Here and Anony-
mous: 3
Transport of structure Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transport_of_structure?oldid=790778070 Contributors: CSTAR, Ryan
Reich, SmackBot, Pjoef, Erik9bot, Deacon Vorbis and Anonymous: 1
Triviality (mathematics) Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triviality_(mathematics)?oldid=789698001 Contributors: Danny, Heron,
Patrick, Michael Hardy, Dominus, Nixdorf, Dcljr, IZAK, Charles Matthews, Dysprosia, Hyacinth, Fredrik, Ajd, GreatWhiteNortherner,
Tea2min, Giftlite, ClockworkTroll, Jiy, Sum0, Man vyi, Msh210, Wtmitchell, Salix alba, YurikBot, NickBush24, Cheeser1, Alias Flood,
Finell, SmackBot, DarbyAsh, Drunken Pirate, Lambiam, Mattbuck, Konradek, Whatever1111, JAnDbot, David Eppstein, Melamed
katz, CompuChip, KCinDC, VolkovBot, Anonymous Dissident, Radagast3, SieBot, YonaBot, Alexbot, Qwfp, Addbot, Fgnievinski,
MuZemike, Legobot, Luckas-bot, Pcap, ArthurBot, Xqbot, Erik9bot, Coder0x2, MastiBot, H.ehsaan, Bobbi Fredericks, Countregie,
Sds2145, Quondum, RockMagnetist, Helpful Pixie Bot, BG19bot, Mankatha, BattyBot, Yashovardhan Dhanania, Googol30, Kephir,
RMCD bot, Me, Myself, and I are Here, Seppi333, Immanuel Thoughtmaker, Loraof, Bender the Bot and Anonymous: 50
Undened (mathematics) Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Undefined_(mathematics)?oldid=787462763 Contributors: Michael
Hardy, Bearcat, Bkell, Wavelength, Rick Norwood, Gilliam, MvH, Loadmaster, CBM, FilipeS, Widefox, Magioladitis, Trumpet ma-
rietta 45750, Wiae, Flyer22 Reborn, Dekart, Fgnievinski, Tide rolls, Yobot, Xqbot, I dream of horses, Shawnmjones, ClueBot NG,
Helpful Pixie Bot, Brad7777, Loraof, HakanIST and Anonymous: 15
Uniqueness quantication Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uniqueness_quantification?oldid=796694069 Contributors: Toby Bar-
tels, Michael Hardy, Dominus, Liftarn, AugPi, Nikai, Dysprosia, Jogloran, Jni, MathMartin, Tea2min, Nagelfar, Giftlite, ErikNY, Ger-
rit, EmilJ, Kine, Mareino, Alansohn, Gpvos, Richwales, Oleg Alexandrov, Apokrif, Marudubshinki, Qwertyus, DVdm, Hairy Dude,
Ihope127, SmackBot, Melchoir, Ohnoitsjamie, Mhss, MalafayaBot, TenPoundHammer, The Man in Question, Dr Greg, Waggers, Mets501,
Shoeofdeath, JRSpriggs, Intel4004, CRGreathouse, CBM, FilipeS, Cydebot, Alaibot, Thijs!bot, James086, JAnDbot, Steveprutz, CTF83!,
David Eppstein, It Is Me Here, Quux0r, Crisperdue, VictorMak, SieBot, Tiddly Tom, BotMultichill, ClueBot, Robmac87, Hans Adler,
Pugget, XLinkBot, MystBot, Addbot, ., PV=nRT, Ptbotgourou, AnomieBOT, ItsAlwaysLupus, Materialscientist, OllieFury, In-
ferno, Lord of Penguins, Rocco.Rossi, Constructive editor, I dream of horses, Serols, Horcrux92, Slawekb, ClueBot NG, Peter James,
Widr, Wbm1058, Jpeterson8425$, Luca Balsanelli, BattyBot, Jochen Burghardt, K9re11, Innite0694, BU Rob13, Luis150902, Samuel
Vaughn D. Duncan, Deacon Vorbis and Anonymous: 44
Univariate Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Univariate?oldid=784767682 Contributors: Michael Hardy, Kku, Chuunen Baka, Giftlite,
Piotrus, Landroni, Oleg Alexandrov, Dirknachbar, RussBot, Holon, Xaxafrad, SmackBot, Danlev, CmdrObot, CBM, AndrewHowse,
Quibik, Lewallen, Hippasus, Cellobarney, Melcombe, Niceguyedc, Likere, Aitias, Marc van Leeuwen, Addbot, Erik9bot, LucienBOT,
D.Lazard, ClueBot NG, Marcocapelle, XinmingLin and Anonymous: 7
Univariate (statistics) Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Univariate_(statistics)?oldid=797812255 Contributors: GnniX, Magiola-
ditis, Yobot, Alvin Seville, DPL bot, XinmingLin, Hyperbolick, Armanaljahan, Lukasmar and Anonymous: 1
Universal property Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universal_property?oldid=786523863 Contributors: AxelBoldt, Andre En-
gels, Michael Hardy, TakuyaMurata, Ciphergoth, AugPi, Dysprosia, Giftlite, Lupin, Fropu, Elias, Goochelaar, Cmdrjameson, Lys-
dexia, Bonotake, Linas, BD2412, Marozols, Don Gosiewski, Masnevets, Hairy Dude, Gaius Cornelius, Buster79, Zwobot, Reyk, Ron-
nieBrown, SmackBot, XudongGuan~enwiki, Silly rabbit, AeroSpace, Almeo, Michael Kinyon, Tyrrell McAllister, Zero sharp, AlainD,
CBM, Blaisorblade, Paddles, Twisted86, R'n'B, Cpiral, He7d3r, Hans Adler, Leen Droogendijk, Lightbot, Legobot, Yobot, Ht686rg90,
DrilBot, Magmalex, Ahangler, Quondum, Helpful Pixie Bot, Northamerica1000, Khazar2, Pintoch, Mark viking, Bender the Bot and
Anonymous: 28
Universal space Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universal_space?oldid=733267129 Contributors: Michael Hardy, Headbomb,
GrahamHardy, BG19bot, GeoreyT2000, Feminist and TopDym
Up to Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Up_to?oldid=760914394 Contributors: AxelBoldt, The Anome, Michael Hardy, Takuya-
Murata, Karada, Revolver, Charles Matthews, Timwi, Zero0000, Sabbut, Fredrik, Stewartadcock, Kesuari, Henrygb, Jorend, Number 0,
107.4. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES 367

Lhowell, Primalchaos, Oleg Alexandrov, YurikBot, Hairy Dude, SmackBot, Unyoyega, Stie, XudongGuan~enwiki, Skizzik, Mhss, Lhf,
Hetar, Keyi, Thenub314, Cpiral, Someguy1221, 0nlyth3truth, Yintan, Stevekass, JackSchmidt, Niceguyedc, Watchduck, Bender2k14,
Addbot, Ptbotgourou, Chillin da deace, Backslash Forwardslash, Tcho, Erik9bot, Gwideman, Tkuvho, Andrew2536, Just a guy from
the KP, FE Freak doesnt care for Jim Whalesy, Reconsider the static, Richard314159, ZroBot, , Spaetzle, Solomon7968, Jochen
Burghardt, Lambda Fairy, Loraof and Anonymous: 35
Well-dened Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Well-defined?oldid=792393779 Contributors: Stevertigo, Michael Hardy, Timwi,
Wik, MathMartin, ComplexZeta, Nagelfar, Giftlite, Lethe, Rich Farmbrough, Longhair, Plumbago, Ynhockey, Kenyon, Japanese Searobin,
FlaBot, Bgwhite, YurikBot, Rick Norwood, Trovatore, SmackBot, Melchoir, Pierrecurie, Byelf2007, MvH, Domitori, CBM, Neelix, Fil-
ipeS, Crito2161, Brad101, Whatever1111, R'n'B, Yonidebot, Nemo bis, Joshua Issac, VolkovBot, Rei-bot, Geometry guy, MiNombre-
DeGuerra, SL(2,R), Niceguyedc, Excirial, Alexbot, XLinkBot, Tilmanbauer, Addbot, Jasper Deng, Cesiumfrog, Yobot, Omnipaedista,
Erik9bot, Pratik.mallya, Saurael, WikitanvirBot, Ljfa-ag, Brent Perreault, Nomen4Omen, Chharvey, Quondum, 28bot, ClueBot NG,
Wcherowi, Helpful Pixie Bot, Dysrhythmia, Rockingsj.1997, Here2help and Anonymous: 22
Without loss of generality Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Without_loss_of_generality?oldid=786999013 Contributors: The Anome,
Tarquin, Michael Hardy, Wshun, Dominus, Charles Matthews, Furrykef, Phys, Sabbut, Doctorbozzball, Gjking, Giftlite, Fuzzy Logic,
CryptoDerk, PhotoBox, Andy Smith, Aranel, JRM, FlaBot, VKokielov, Pyroclastic, Googl, Rmharman, SmackBot, InverseHypercube,
Eskimbot, NYKevin, Spiritia, CBM, Simeon, Trumpet marietta 45750, Lyctc, Delikedi, Auros, Anonymous Dissident, Wiae, Niv.sarig,
Thehotelambush, Alexbot, Addbot, ., Luckas-bot, EnTerr, Xqbot, Rspence1234, SporkBot, MonoAV, ClueBot NG, Wcherowi,
Mkwallace, Victor Yus, Jochen Burghardt, , Nivsa 77, Leegrc, Kat1223 and Anonymous: 21
Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E2%88%82?oldid=800275633 Contributors: Goochelaar, Bender235, Pt, Wareh, JarlaxleArt-
emis, Oliphaunt, Redoubts, BD2412, Koavf, PlatypeanArchcow, TexasAndroid, Expensivehat, A bit iy, SmackBot, Melchoir, BiT,
Srnec, JDCMAN, Daniel Carrero, Cowbert, Iridescent, R'n'B, Potatoswatter, Anonymous Dissident, Spinningspark, Dpleibovitz, Jxw13,
Niceguyedc, Sun Creator, Will-B, Addbot, Ozob, Yobot, KamikazeBot, AnomieBOT, Xqbot, GrouchoBot, Omnipaedista, Gorpkaiser,
Josve05a, Jay-Sebastos, Maschen, 28bot, Socialservice, ClueBot NG, Widr, Gorobay, Lindhe94, Torvalu4, Yoshi24517, Eman235,
Tslive.de, Equinox, Manishkrisna108, KAP03, Hiabc and Anonymous: 49

107.4.2 Images
File:4CT_Non-Counterexample_1.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a6/4CT_Non-Counterexample_
1.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Based on a this raster image by Dmharvey on en.wikipedia. Original artist: Inductiveload
File:Abacus_6.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/af/Abacus_6.png License: Public domain Contributors:
Article for abacus, 9th edition Encyclopedia Britannica, volume 1 (1875); scanned and uploaded by Malcolm Farmer Original artist:
Encyclopdia Britannica
File:AdjointFunctors-02.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2f/AdjointFunctors-02.png License: CC-
BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia to Commons. Original artist: Fropu at English Wikipedia
File:Alias_and_alibi_rotations.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/69/Alias_and_alibi_rotations.png Li-
cense: CC BY 2.5 Contributors: text edited SVG and GLIPS Grati Original artist: KSmrq
File:Alias_and_alibi_transformations_1_en.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/09/Alias_and_alibi_transformations_
1_en.png License: GFDL Contributors: Own work Original artist: Qniemiec
File:Ambox_important.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg License: Public do-
main Contributors: Own work based on: Ambox scales.svg Original artist: Dsmurat, penubag
File:Anagram_canonical_svg.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a3/Anagram_canonical_svg.svg License:
CC BY-SA 4.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Jochen Burghardt
File:Angles_on_the_unit_circle.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ed/Angles_on_the_unit_circle.svg Li-
cense: CC BY-SA 4.0 Contributors: This le was derived from Angles on the unit circle.png: <a href='//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/
File:Angles_on_the_unit_circle.png' class='image'><img alt='Angles on the unit circle.png' src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/
commons/thumb/3/3f/Angles_on_the_unit_circle.png/50px-Angles_on_the_unit_circle.png' width='50' height='44' srcset='https://upload.
wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Angles_on_the_unit_circle.png/75px-Angles_on_the_unit_circle.png 1.5x, https://upload.
wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Angles_on_the_unit_circle.png/100px-Angles_on_the_unit_circle.png 2x' data-le-width='220'
data-le-height='192' /></a>
Original artist: CheCheDaWa
File:Arbitrary-gametree-solved.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d7/Arbitrary-gametree-solved.svg Li-
cense: Public domain Contributors:
Arbitrary-gametree-solved.png Original artist:
derivative work: Qef (talk)
File:Barplot.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e3/Barplot.jpg License: CC BY-SA 4.0 Contributors: Own
work Original artist: XinmingLin
File:BernoullisLawDerivationDiagram.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/20/BernoullisLawDerivationDiagram.
svg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Image:BernoullisLawDerivationDiagram.png Original artist: MannyMax (original)
File:Blackbox3D-withGraphs.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7c/Blackbox3D-withGraphs.png Li-
cense: CC BY-SA 4.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Krauss
File:Blacks-Law-Dictionary.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a4/Blacks-Law-Dictionary.jpg License:
CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Own photo by en:user:alex756 on en.wikipedia Original artist: User Alex756 on en.wikipedia
File:Braid-modular-group-cover.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/da/Braid-modular-group-cover.svg
License: Public domain Contributors: Own work, created as per: en:meta:Help:Displaying a formula#Commutative diagrams; source code
below. Original artist: Nils R. Barth
368 CHAPTER 107.

File:CH4-structure.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0f/CH4-structure.svg License: GPLv3 Contribu-

tors: File:Ch4-structure.png Original artist: Own work
File:Caesar3.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2b/Caesar3.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own
work Original artist: Cepheus
File:CantorEscalier.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/49/CantorEscalier.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0
Contributors: Own work Original artist: Theon
File:CardContin.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/75/CardContin.svg License: Public domain Contrib-
utors: en:Image:CardContin.png Original artist: en:User:Trovatore, recreated by User:Stannered
File:Carl_Friedrich_Gauss.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9b/Carl_Friedrich_Gauss.jpg License: Pub-
lic domain Contributors: Gau-Gesellschaft Gttingen e.V. (Foto: A. Wittmann). Original artist: After Christian Albrecht Jensen
File:Chinese_pythagoras.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c3/Chinese_pythagoras.jpg License: Public
domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:CollatzFractal.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1c/CollatzFractal.png License: Public domain Con-
tributors: English wikipedia Original artist: Pokipsy76
File:Commons-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg License: PD Contributors: ? Orig-
inal artist: ?
File:CommutativeDiagramExample.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/06/CommutativeDiagramExample.
png License: CC0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Mgkrupa
File:Commutative_diagram_for_morphism.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ef/Commutative_diagram_
for_morphism.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work, based on en:Image:MorphismComposition-01.png Original artist:
User:Cepheus
File:Commutative_square.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/91/Commutative_square.svg License: Pub-
lic domain Contributors: I created it myself Original artist: Ryan Reich
File:Composite_trapezoidal_rule_illustration_small.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/dd/Composite_
trapezoidal_rule_illustration_small.svg License: Attribution Contributors:
Composite_trapezoidal_rule_illustration_small.png Original artist:
derivative work: Pbroks13 (talk)
File:Compound_of_five_cubes.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/03/Compound_of_five_cubes.png Li-
cense: Attribution Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia to Commons by Sreejithk2000 using CommonsHelper. Original artist:
Tomruen at English Wikipedia
File:Conformal_grid_after_Mbius_transformation.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3f/Conformal_
grid_after_M%C3%B6bius_transformation.svg License: CC BY-SA 2.5 Contributors: By Lokal_Prol Original artist: Lokal_Prol
File:DAB_list_gray.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8c/DAB_list_gray.svg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0
Contributors: modied versions from File:Disambig gray.svg Original artist: Edokter (modied version)
File:DFAexample.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9d/DFAexample.svg License: Public domain Con-
tributors: Own work Original artist: Cepheus
File:Della_Pittura_Alberti_perspective_pillars_on_grid.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/38/Della_
Pittura_Alberti_perspective_pillars_on_grid.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: https://archive.org/stream/dellapitturaedel00albe#
page/n177/mode/2up Original artist: Leone Battista Alberti
File:Disambig_gray.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/5/5f/Disambig_gray.svg License: Cc-by-sa-3.0 Contribu-
tors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Dynkin_diagram_D4.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/59/Dynkin_diagram_D4.png License: Pub-
lic domain Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia to Commons by Bulwersator using CommonsHelper. Original artist: Fropu at
English Wikipedia
File:E-to-the-i-pi.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/35/E-to-the-i-pi.svg License: CC BY 2.5 Contribu-
tors: No machine-readable source provided. Own work assumed (based on copyright claims). Original artist: No machine-readable author
provided. Dermeister assumed (based on copyright claims).
File:Edit-clear.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg License: Public domain Contributors: The
Tango! Desktop Project. Original artist:
The people from the Tango! project. And according to the meta-data in the le, specically: Andreas Nilsson, and Jakub Steiner (although
minimally).
File:Elliptic_curve_simple.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/da/Elliptic_curve_simple.svg License: CC-
BY-SA-3.0 Contributors:
Elliptic_curve_simple.png Original artist:
derivative work: Pbroks13 (talk)
File:Euclid.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/21/Euclid.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Orig-
inal artist: ?
File:EulerIdentity2.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3b/EulerIdentity2.svg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0
Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Example_of_A_is_a_proper_subset_of_B.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/56/Example_of_A_
is_a_proper_subset_of_B.svg License: CC0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Stephan Kulla (User:Stephan Kulla)
107.4. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES 369

File:Example_of_C_is_no_proper_subset_of_B.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/59/Example_of_C_

is_no_proper_subset_of_B.svg License: CC0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Stephan Kulla (User:Stephan Kulla)
File:Exceptionalmindmap2.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7c/Exceptionalmindmap2.png License:
CC BY-SA 4.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Drschawrz
File:FWF_Samuel_Monnier_dtail.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/99/FWF_Samuel_Monnier_d%
C3%A9tail.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work (low res le) Original artist: Samuel Monnier
File:Fibonacci.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a2/Fibonacci.jpg License: Public domain Contributors:
Scan from Mathematical Circus by Martin Gardner, published 1981 Original artist: unknown 19th-century artist
File:First_isomorphism_theorem_(plain).svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/84/First_isomorphism_theorem_
%28plain%29.svg License: Public domain Contributors: I created this work entirely by myself. Original artist: Ryan Reich (<a href='//commons.
wikimedia.org/wiki/User_talk:Ryan_Reich' title='User talk:Ryan Reich'>talk</a>)
File:Fisher_iris_versicolor_sepalwidth.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/40/Fisher_iris_versicolor_sepalwidth.
svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: en:Image:Fisher iris versicolor sepalwidth.png Original artist: en:User:Qwfp (original); Pbroks13
(talk) (redraw)
File:FiveLemma.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/64/FiveLemma.png License: Public domain Contrib-
utors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Fluorescein_(2).jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8f/Fluorescein_%282%29.jpg License: CC BY-
SA 4.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: DiverDave
File:Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/48/Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg License: Cc-
by-sa-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Formal_languages.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/da/Formal_languages.svg License: CC BY-
SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work based on: en:Image:Formal languages.png by Gregbard. Original artist: MithrandirMage
File:GDP_PPP_Per_Capita_IMF_2008.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d4/GDP_PPP_Per_Capita_
IMF_2008.svg License: CC BY 3.0 Contributors: Sbw01fs work, but converted to an SVG le instead. Data from International Monetary
Fund World Economic Outlook Database April 2009 Original artist: Powerkeys
File:Geometric_mean.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8e/Geometric_mean.svg License: CC0 Con-
tributors: Own work Original artist: Krishnavedala
File:German_integral.gif Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b5/German_integral.gif License: Public domain
Contributors: Selbst erstellt (Font: Adobe Symbol) Original artist: Aleksaner
File:GodfreyKneller-IsaacNewton-1689.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/39/GodfreyKneller-IsaacNewton-1689.
jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.newton.cam.ac.uk/art/portrait.html Original artist: After Godfrey Kneller
File:Gottfried_Wilhelm_von_Leibniz.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6a/Gottfried_Wilhelm_von_
Leibniz.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: /gbrown/philosophers/leibniz/BritannicaPages/Leibniz/LeibnizGif.html Original artist:
Christoph Bernhard Francke
File:Gravitation_space_source.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/26/Gravitation_space_source.png Li-
cense: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Group_diagdram_D6.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0e/Group_diagdram_D6.svg License: Pub-
lic domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: User:Cepheus
File:Hexagonal_connectivity.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6f/Hexagonal_connectivity.svg License:
Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: MistWiz
File:Histarman2.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8c/Histarman2.jpg License: CC BY-SA 4.0 Contrib-
utors: Own work Original artist: XinmingLin
File:Hyperbolic_triangle.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/89/Hyperbolic_triangle.svg License: Public
domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:ICE_3_Fahlenbach.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8f/ICE_3_Fahlenbach.jpg License: CC BY-
SA 2.5 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Sebastian Teroth User:Sese_Ingolstadt
File:Illustration_to_Euclid{}s_proof_of_the_Pythagorean_theorem.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/
2/26/Illustration_to_Euclid%27s_proof_of_the_Pythagorean_theorem.svg License: WTFPL Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Injection_keine_Injektion_1.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bd/Injection_keine_Injektion_1.
svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Bin im Garten
File:Injection_keine_Injektion_2a.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/83/Injection_keine_Injektion_2a.
svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Bin im Garten
File:Integral_as_region_under_curve.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f2/Integral_as_region_under_
curve.svg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work, based on JPG version Original artist: 4C
File:Inverse_proportionality_function_plot.gif Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/84/Inverse_proportionality_
function_plot.gif License: CC0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Dokus 91
File:Kapitolinischer_Pythagoras_adjusted.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1a/Kapitolinischer_Pythagoras_
adjusted.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: First upload to Wikipedia: de.wikipedia; description page is/was here.
Original artist: The original uploader was Galilea at German Wikipedia
File:Kepler-solar-system-2.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/25/Kepler-solar-system-2.png License:
Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:KleinBottle-01.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/46/KleinBottle-01.png License: Public domain
Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
370 CHAPTER 107.

File:LampFlowchart.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/91/LampFlowchart.svg License: CC-BY-SA-

3.0 Contributors: vector version of Image:LampFlowchart.png Original artist: svg by Booyabazooka

File:Lattice_of_the_divisibility_of_60.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/51/Lattice_of_the_divisibility_

of_60.svg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: No machine-readable source provided. Own work assumed (based on copyright claims).
Original artist: No machine-readable author provided. Ed g2s assumed (based on copyright claims).
File:Lemniscate-of-Gerono2.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/83/Lemniscate-of-Gerono2.svg License:
CC0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Rumil
File:Lemniscate_of_Bernoulli.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ef/Lemniscate_of_Bernoulli.svg License:
Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Zorgit
File:Lemniscate_of_Booth.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d1/Lemniscate_of_Booth.png License: Pub-
lic domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Lemniskate_bernoulli2.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/57/Lemniskate_bernoulli2.svg License:
CC BY 4.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Kmhkmh
File:Leonhard_Euler_2.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/60/Leonhard_Euler_2.jpg License: Public
domain Contributors:
2011-12-22 (upload, according to EXIF data)
Original artist: Jakob Emanuel Handmann
File:Limitcycle.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/91/Limitcycle.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contribu-
tors: Own work Original artist: Gargan
File:Lock-green.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg License: CC0 Contributors: en:
File:Free-to-read_lock_75.svg Original artist: User:Trappist the monk
File:Logic_portal.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7c/Logic_portal.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Con-
tributors: Own work Original artist: <a href='//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Watchduck.svg' class='image'><img alt='Watchduck.svg'
src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Watchduck.svg/40px-Watchduck.svg.png' width='40' height='46' srcset='https:
//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Watchduck.svg/60px-Watchduck.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/
wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Watchduck.svg/80px-Watchduck.svg.png 2x' data-le-width='703' data-le-height='806' /></a> Watchduck
(a.k.a. Tilman Piesk)
File:Lorenz_attractor.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f4/Lorenz_attractor.svg License: CC BY 2.5
Contributors: Own work Original artist: Dschwen
File:Mandel_zoom_07_satellite.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b3/Mandel_zoom_07_satellite.jpg Li-
cense: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Market_Data_Index_NYA_on_20050726_202628_UTC.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/46/Market_
Data_Index_NYA_on_20050726_202628_UTC.png License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Mathematical_Spaces.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ed/Mathematical_Spaces.svg License: Pub-
lic domain Contributors: Own work by uploader, recreation of bitmap version by en:User:Jhausauer Original artist: Qef
File:Mathematical_implication_diagram_eng.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/60/Mathematical_implication_
diagram_eng.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: StefanEckert
File:Maximum_boxed.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1a/Maximum_boxed.png License: Public do-
main Contributors: Created with the help of GraphCalc Original artist: Freiddy
File:Maya.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1b/Maya.svg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Image:
Maya.png Original artist: Bryan Derksen
File:Measure_illustration.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a6/Measure_illustration.png License: Pub-
lic domain Contributors: self-made with en:Inkscape Original artist: Oleg Alexandrov
File:Merge-arrow.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Merge-arrow.svg License: Public domain Con-
tributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Navier_Stokes_Laminar.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/73/Navier_Stokes_Laminar.svg License:
CC BY-SA 4.0 Contributors: Own work
Brief description of the numerical method
The following code leverages some numerical methods to simulate the solution of the 2-dimensional Navier-Stokes equation.
We choose the simplied incompressible ow Navier-Stokes Equation as follows:

<img src='https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/1b352a66970b542690aff9810ff1514eca0952bd' class='mwe-

math-fallback-image-inline' aria-hidden='true' style='vertical-align: 2.505ex; width:27.565ex; height:6.176ex;' alt='{\displaystyle
\rho \left({\frac {\partial \mathbf {v} }{\partial t <i' />Original artist: $5+\mathbf {v} \cdot \nabla \mathbf {v} \right)=\mu
\nabla ^{2}\mathbf {v} .}">

The iterations here are based on the velocity change rate, which is given by

<img src='https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/84351a8157ffbc3af56ed19583c97d062bfd428d' class='mwe-

math-fallback-image-inline' aria-hidden='true' style='vertical-align: 2.338ex; width:23.36ex; height:5.843ex;' alt='{\displaystyle
{\frac {\partial \mathbf {v} }{\partial t <h2' />Content license $3={\frac {\mu }{\rho }}\nabla ^{2}\mathbf {v} -\mathbf
{v} \cdot \nabla \mathbf {v} .}">
107.4. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES 371

Or in X coordinates:

<img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/d009b926bc255277cd55f75f9773d3721861f3ac" class="mwe-

math-fallback-image-inline aria-hidden="true style="vertical-align: 2.505ex; width:45.497ex; height:6.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle
{\frac {\partial v_{x}}{\partial t}}={\frac {\mu }{\rho }}({\frac {\partial ^{2}v_{x}}{\partial x^{2}}}+{\frac {\partial
^{2}v_{x}}{\partial y^{2}}})-v_{x}{\frac {\partial v_{x}}{\partial x}}-v_{y}{\frac {\partial v_{x}}{\partial y}}.}">

The above equation gives the code. The case of Y is similar.|IkamusumeFan}}

File:Nicolas_P._Rougier{}s_rendering_of_the_human_brain.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/73/
Nicolas_P._Rougier%27s_rendering_of_the_human_brain.png License: GPL Contributors: http://www.loria.fr/~{}rougier Original artist:
Nicolas Rougier
File:Number-line.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/93/Number-line.svg License: CC0 Contributors: Own
work Original artist: Hakunamenta
File:Number_theory_symbol.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/01/Number_theory_symbol.svg License:
CC BY-SA 2.5 Contributors: SVG conversion of Nts.png Original artist: Radiant chains, previous versions by Tob and WillT.Net
File:Nuvola_apps_edu_mathematics_blue-p.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3e/Nuvola_apps_edu_
mathematics_blue-p.svg License: GPL Contributors: Derivative work from Image:Nuvola apps edu mathematics.png and Image:Nuvola
apps edu mathematics-p.svg Original artist: David Vignoni (original icon); Flamurai (SVG convertion); bayo (color)
File:Oldfaithful3.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0f/Oldfaithful3.png License: Public domain Con-
tributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Oxyrhynchus_papyrus_with_Euclid{}s_Elements.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8d/P._Oxy.
_I_29.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.math.ubc.ca/~{}cass/Euclid/papyrus/tha.jpg Original artist: Euclid
File:POV-Ray-Dodecahedron.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a4/Dodecahedron.svg License: CC-
BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Vectorisation of Image:Dodecahedron.jpg Original artist: User:DTR
File:Parabola_and_inscribed_triangle.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3e/Parabola_and_inscribed_
triangle.svg License: Public domain Contributors:
Parabola-and-inscribed_triangle.png Original artist:
derivative work: Pbroks13 (talk)
File:Partitions_of_6-set_with_3_singletons.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/82/Partitions_of_6-set_
with_3_singletons.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: <a href='//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:
Watchduck.svg' class='image'><img alt='Watchduck.svg' src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Watchduck.
svg/40px-Watchduck.svg.png' width='40' height='46' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Watchduck.
svg/60px-Watchduck.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Watchduck.svg/80px-Watchduck.svg.
png 2x' data-le-width='703' data-le-height='806' /></a> Watchduck (a.k.a. Tilman Piesk)
File:PassiveActive.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/70/PassiveActive.JPG License: CC BY-SA 3.0
Contributors: Own work Original artist: Brews ohare
File:People_icon.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/37/People_icon.svg License: CC0 Contributors: Open-
Clipart Original artist: OpenClipart
File:Persian_Khwarazmi.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b7/Persian_Khwarazmi.jpg License: Pub-
lic domain Contributors: Based on the USSR stamp of him, shaded by me, see File:Abu Abdullah Muhammad bin Musa al-Khwarizmi.jpg
for a version of the stamp, although perhaps not the one used here. Original artist: Unknown<a href='https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/
Q4233718' title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:Q4233718' src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/
ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png' width='20' height='11' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/
f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.
svg/40px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x' data-le-width='1050' data-le-height='590' /></a>
File:Philippe_van_Lansberge_1604_QED.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a0/Philippe_van_Lansberge_
1604_QED.png License: Public domain Contributors: Triangulorum geometriae libri quatuor: in quibus nov ... Original artist: Philippe
van Lansberge
File:PlusMinus.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c5/PlusMinus.svg License: Public domain Contribu-
tors: No machine-readable source provided. Own work assumed (based on copyright claims). Original artist: No machine-readable author
provided. MarianSigler assumed (based on copyright claims).
File:Poisson_pmf.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/16/Poisson_pmf.svg License: CC BY 3.0 Contribu-
tors: Own work Original artist: Skbkekas
File:Polynomialdeg2.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f8/Polynomialdeg2.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: <a href='//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Polynomialdeg2.png' class='image'><img alt='Polynomialdeg2.png' src='https:
//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/14/Polynomialdeg2.png' width='233' height='179' data-le-width='233' data-le-height='179'
/></a> Original artist: Original hand-drawn version: N.Mori

File:Portal-puzzle.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/f/fd/Portal-puzzle.svg License: Public domain Contributors:

? Original artist: ?
File:Proj-map.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9b/Proj-map.svg License: Public domain Contributors:
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Proj-map.png Original artist: User:Raggle
File:Property_dualism.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/99/Property_dualism.jpg License: CC-BY-
SA-3.0 Contributors: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Property_dualism.jpg Original artist: en:user:Altundra
File:Proportional_variables.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/03/Proportional_variables.svg License:
CC0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Krishnavedala
372 CHAPTER 107.

File:Pythag_anim.gif Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Pythag_anim.gif License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Con-

tributors: Own work Original artist: JohnBlackburne
File:Pythagoras-2a.gif Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/70/Pythagoras-2a.gif License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Con-
tributors: Own work Original artist: Alvesgaspar
File:Pythagorean_Proof_(3).PNG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/16/Pythagorean_Proof_%283%29.PNG
License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Brews ohare
File:Pythagorean_proof_(1).svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9a/Pythagorean_proof_%281%29.svg Li-
cense: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work (Original text: I (Phildonnia (talk)) created this work entirely by myself.) Original artist:
Phildonnia (talk)
File:Question_book-new.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/99/Question_book-new.svg License: Cc-by-sa-3.0
Contributors:
Created from scratch in Adobe Illustrator. Based on Image:Question book.png created by User:Equazcion Original artist:
Tkgd2007
File:Rectangle_example.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e0/Rectangle_example.svg License: Public
domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: George Esayas
File:Rubik{}s_cube.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a6/Rubik%27s_cube.svg License: CC-BY-SA-
3.0 Contributors: Based on Image:Rubiks cube.jpg Original artist: This image was created by me, Booyabazooka
File:Rubik{}s_cube_v3.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b6/Rubik%27s_cube_v3.svg License: CC-
BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Image:Rubik{}s cube v2.svg Original artist: User:Booyabazooka, User:Meph666 modied by User:Niabot
File:Set_intersection.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/da/Set_intersection.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Signal_transduction_pathways.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b0/Signal_transduction_pathways.
svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: This le was derived from: Signal transduction v1.png
Original artist: cybertory
File:Signum_function.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4f/Signum_function.svg License: CC-BY-SA-
3.0 Contributors: No machine-readable source provided. Own work assumed (based on copyright claims). Original artist: No machine-
readable author provided. Cronholm144 assumed (based on copyright claims).
File:Simple_feedback_control_loop2.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/90/Simple_feedback_control_
loop2.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: This le was derived from Simple feedback control loop2.png: <a href='//commons.
wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Simple_feedback_control_loop2.png' class='image'><img alt='Simple feedback control loop2.png' src='https://
upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Simple_feedback_control_loop2.png/50px-Simple_feedback_control_loop2.png'
width='50' height='17' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Simple_feedback_control_loop2.png/75px-Simple_
feedback_control_loop2.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Simple_feedback_control_loop2.png/
100px-Simple_feedback_control_loop2.png 2x' data-le-width='439' data-le-height='150' /></a>
Original artist: Simple_feedback_control_loop2.png: Corona
File:Sinusvg_400px.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8c/Sinusv%C3%A5g_400px.png License: Pub-
lic domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: User Solkoll on sv.wikipedia
File:Skak_8dronning.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e1/Skak_8dronning.png License: CC-BY-SA-
3.0 Contributors: Modication of File:Cb queen move.png - Transferred from da.wikipedia Original artist: User:Lee Daniel Crocker -
modied by Fispaul at da.wikipedia
File:Solar_eclipse_1999_4_NR.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1c/Solar_eclipse_1999_4_NR.jpg Li-
cense: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work www.lucnix.be Original artist: Luc Viatour
File:Sphere_symmetry_group_ih.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3e/Sphere_symmetry_group_ih.png
License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Sphere_symmetry_group_oh.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/19/Sphere_symmetry_group_oh.
png License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Sphere_symmetry_group_td.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a5/Sphere_symmetry_group_td.png
License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Tomruen at English Wikipedia
File:Spinoza_Ethica_Pars1_Prop1.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/07/Spinoza_Ethica_Pars1_Prop1.
jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:SporadicGroups.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b8/SporadicGroups.svg License: CC BY-SA
3.0 Contributors: [File:Finitesubgroups.svg] Original artist: en:User:Drschawrz
File:Square_4_connectivity.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5e/Square_4_connectivity.svg License: Pub-
lic domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: MistWiz
File:Square_8_connectivity.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1b/Square_8_connectivity.svg License:
Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: MistWiz
File:Supermindmap.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/64/Supermindmap.png License: CC BY 3.0 Con-
tributors: Own work Original artist: Paul Bird
File:Symbol_book_class2.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/89/Symbol_book_class2.svg License: CC
BY-SA 2.5 Contributors: Mad by Lokal_Prol by combining: Original artist: Lokal_Prol
File:Tesseract.gif Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/55/Tesseract.gif License: Public domain Contributors:
Own work Original artist: Jason Hise at English Wikipedia
File:Tetrominoes_IJLO_STZ_Worlds.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/39/Tetrominoes_IJLO_STZ_
Worlds.svg License: Public domain Contributors: own work, based on PNG version Original artist: Damian Yerrick, uploader
107.4. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES 373

File:Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a4/Text_document_

with_red_question_mark.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Created by bdesham with Inkscape; based upon Text-x-generic.svg
from the Tango project. Original artist: Benjamin D. Esham (bdesham)
File:Tile_3,6.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8a/Tile_3%2C6.svg License: Public domain Contributors:
? Original artist: ?
File:Tile_V46b.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e1/Tile_V46b.svg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contribu-
tors: No machine-readable source provided. Own work assumed (based on copyright claims). Original artist: No machine-readable author
provided. Fibonacci assumed (based on copyright claims).
File:Tile_V488_bicolor.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8f/Tile_V488_bicolor.svg License: Public do-
main Contributors: Own work Original artist: Tomruen at English Wikipedia
File:Torus.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/17/Torus.png License: Public domain Contributors: This
image was created with POV-Ray Original artist: LucasVB
File:Triangular_3_connectivity.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/98/Triangular_3_connectivity.svg Li-
cense: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: MistWiz
File:Tutte-Coxeter_graph_2COL.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/17/Tutte-Coxeter_graph_2COL.
svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Koko90
File:Two_red_dice_01.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/36/Two_red_dice_01.svg License: CC0 Con-
tributors: Open Clip Art Library Original artist: Stephen Silver
File:Twocolumnproof.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/13/Twocolumnproof.png License: Public do-
main Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:UniversalProperty-03.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cb/UniversalProperty-03.png License: Pub-
lic domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:UniversalProperty-04.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/UniversalProperty-04.png License: Pub-
lic domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:UniversalProperty-05.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9e/UniversalProperty-05.png License: Pub-
lic domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:VFPt_dipole_electric.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/df/VFPt_dipole_electric.svg License: CC
BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Geek3
File:Vector_field.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c2/Vector_field.svg License: Public domain Contrib-
utors: Own work Original artist: Fibonacci.
File:Venn1001.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/47/Venn1001.svg License: Public domain Contributors:
? Original artist: ?
File:Venn_A_intersect_B.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6d/Venn_A_intersect_B.svg License: Pub-
lic domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Cepheus
File:Visualisation_parts_per.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/67/Visualisation_parts_per.svg License:
CC BY-SA 4.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Cmglee
File:WeierstrassFunction.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/60/WeierstrassFunction.svg License: Pub-
lic domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Eeyore22
File:Wiki_letter_w.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/6/6c/Wiki_letter_w.svg License: Cc-by-sa-3.0 Contributors:
? Original artist: ?
File:Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg License:
CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: This le was derived from Wiki letter w.svg: <a href='//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Wiki_letter_w.
svg' class='image'><img alt='Wiki letter w.svg' src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Wiki_letter_w.svg/
50px-Wiki_letter_w.svg.png' width='50' height='50' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Wiki_letter_
w.svg/75px-Wiki_letter_w.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Wiki_letter_w.svg/100px-Wiki_
letter_w.svg.png 2x' data-le-width='44' data-le-height='44' /></a>
Original artist: Derivative work by Thumperward
File:Wikibooks-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0
Contributors: Own work Original artist: User:Bastique, User:Ramac et al.
File:Wikinews-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/24/Wikinews-logo.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0
Contributors: This is a cropped version of Image:Wikinews-logo-en.png. Original artist: Vectorized by Simon 01:05, 2 August 2006
(UTC) Updated by Time3000 17 April 2007 to use ocial Wikinews colours and appear correctly on dark backgrounds. Originally
uploaded by Simon.
File:Wikiquote-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: Own work Original artist: Rei-artur
File:Wikisource-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg License: CC BY-SA
3.0 Contributors: Rei-artur Original artist: Nicholas Moreau
File:Wikiversity-logo-Snorky.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1b/Wikiversity-logo-en.svg License:
CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Snorky
File:Wikiversity-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/91/Wikiversity-logo.svg License: CC BY-SA
3.0 Contributors: Snorky (optimized and cleaned up by verdy_p) Original artist: Snorky (optimized and cleaned up by verdy_p)
File:Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg License:
CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
374 CHAPTER 107.

File:Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg License: CC-BY-SA-

3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?

Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0

}}