Quasigroup

en.wikipedia.org

In mathematics, especially in abstract algebra, a quasigroup is an algebraic structure resembling a group in the sense
that "division" is always possible. Quasigroups dier from groups mainly in that they need not be associative.
A quasigroup with an identity element is called a loop.

1 Denitions
There are at least two structurally equivalent formal denitions of quasigroup. One denes a quasigroup as a set with
one binary operation, and the other, from universal algebra, denes a quasigroup as having three primitive operations.
The homomorphic image of a quasigroup dened with a single binary operation, however, need not be a quasigroup.[1]
We begin with the rst denition.
A quasigroup (Q, ) is a set, Q, with a binary operation, , (that is, a magma), obeying the Latin square property.
This states that, for each a and b in Q, there exist unique elements x and y in Q such that both

a x = b,
ya=b

hold. (In other words: Each element of the set occurs exactly once in each row and exactly once in each column of the
quasigroups multiplication table, or Cayley table. This property ensures that the Cayley table of a nite quasigroup is
a Latin square.) The uniqueness requirement can be replaced by the requirement that the magma be cancellative.[2]
The unique solutions to these equations are written x = a \ b and y = b / a. The operations '\' and '/' are called,
respectively, left and right division.
The empty set equipped with the empty binary operation satises this denition of a quasigroup. Some authors accept
the empty quasigroup but others explicitly exclude it.[3][4]

1.1 Universal algebra

Given some algebraic structure, an identity is an equation in which all variables are tacitly universally quantied, and
in which all operations are among the primitive operations proper to the structure. Algebraic structures axiomatized
solely by identities are called varieties. Many standard results in universal algebra hold only for varieties. Quasigroups
are varieties if left and right division are taken as primitive.
A quasigroup (Q, , \, /) is a type (2,2,2) algebra (i.e., equipped with three binary operations) satisfying the identities:

y = x (x \ y),
y = x \ (x y),
y = (y / x) x,
y = (y x) / x.

In other words: Multiplication and division in either order, one after the other, on the same side by the same element,
have no net eect.
Hence if (Q, ) is a quasigroup according to the rst denition, then (Q, , \, /) is the same quasigroup in the sense of
universal algebra.

1
2 1 DEFINITIONS

1.2 Loop

Magma

divisibility associativity

Quasigroup Semigroup

identity identity

Loop Monoid

associativity invertibility

Group
Algebraic structures between magmas and groups.

A loop is a quasigroup with an identity element; that is, an element, e, such that

x e = x and e x = x for all x in Q.

It follows that the identity element, e, is unique, and that every element of Q has a unique left and right inverse. Since
the presence of an identity element is essential, a loop cannot be empty.
A quasigroup with an idempotent element is called a pique (pointed idempotent quasigroup); this is a weaker notion
than loop but common nonetheless because given an abelian group, (A, +), its subtraction operation (as quasigroup
multiplication) yields a pique (A, ) with the abelian groups zero/identity turned into a pointed idempotent"; i.e.,
theres a principal isotopy (x, y, z) (x, y, z).
A loop that is associative is a group. A group can have a non-associative pique isotope, but it cannot have a nonasso-
ciative loop isotope. There are also some weaker associativity-like properties which have been given special names.
A Bol loop is a loop that satises either:

x (y (x z)) = (x (y x)) z

for each x, y and z in Q (a left Bol loop),

or else
 3

((z x) y) x = z ((x y) x)

for each x, y and z in Q (a right Bol loop).

A loop that is both a left and right Bol loop is a Moufang loop. This is equivalent to any one of the following single
Moufang identities holding for all x, y, z:

x (y (x z)) = ((x y) x) z,
z (x (y x)) = ((z x) y) x,
(x y) (z x) = x ((y z) x), or
(x y) (z x) = (x (y z)) x.

2 Symmetries
Smith (2007) names the following important subclasses:

2.1 Semisymmetry
A quasigroup is semisymmetric if all of the following equivalent identities hold:

xy = y / x,
yx = x \ y,
x = (yx)y,
x = y(xy).

Although this class may seem special, every quasigroup Q induces a semisymmetric quasigroup Q on the direct
product cube Q3 via following operation:

(x1 , x2 , x3 ) (y1 , y2 , y3 ) = (y3 /x2 , y1 \x3 , x1 y2 ) = (x2 //y3 , x3 \\y1 , x1 y2 ),

where "//" and "\\" are the conjugate division operations; the latter formula more explicitly shows that the construction
is exploiting an orbit of S3 .

2.2 Triality

2.3 Total symmetry

A narrower class that is a total symmetric quasigroup (sometimes abbreviated TS-quasigroup) in which all con-
jugates coincide as one operation: xy = x / y = x \ y. Another way to dene (the same notion of) totally symmetric
quasigroup is as a semisymmetric quasigroup which additionally is commutative, i.e. xy = yx.
Idempotent total symmetric quasigroups are precisely (i.e. in a bijection with) Steiner triples, so such a quasigroup is
also called a Steiner quasigroup, and sometimes the latter is even abbreviated as squag; the term sloop is dened
similarly for a Steiner quasigroup that is also a loop. Without idempotency, total symmetric quasigroups correspond
to the geometric notion of extended Steiner triple, also called Generalized Elliptic Cubic Curve (GECC).

2.4 Total antisymmetry

A quasigroup (Q, ) is called totally anti-symmetric if for all c, x, y Q, both of the following implications hold:[5]

1. (c x) y = (c y) x implies that x = y
4 4 PROPERTIES

2. x y = y x implies that x = y.

It is called weakly totally anti-symmetric if only the rst implication holds.[5]

This property is required, for example, in the Damm algorithm.

3 Examples
Every group is a loop, because a x = b if and only if x = a1 b, and y a = b if and only if y = b a1 .
The integers Z with subtraction () form a quasigroup.
The nonzero rationals Q (or the nonzero reals R ) with division () form a quasigroup.
Any vector space over a eld of characteristic not equal to 2 forms an idempotent, commutative quasigroup
under the operation x y = (x + y) / 2.
Every Steiner triple system denes an idempotent, commutative quasigroup: a b is the third element of the
triple containing a and b. These quasigroups also satisfy (x y) y = x for all x and y in the quasigroup. These
quasigroups are known as Steiner quasigroups.[6]
The set {1, i, j, k} where ii = jj = kk = +1 and with all other products as in the quaternion group forms
a nonassociative loop of order 8. See hyperbolic quaternions for its application. (The hyperbolic quaternions
themselves do not form a loop or quasigroup).
The nonzero octonions form a nonassociative loop under multiplication. The octonions are a special type of
loop known as a Moufang loop.
An associative quasigroup is either empty or is a group, since if there is at least one element, the existence of
inverses and associativity imply the existence of an identity.
The following construction is due to Hans Zassenhaus. On the underlying set of the four-dimensional vector
space F4 over the 3-element Galois eld F = Z/3Z dene

(x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 ) (y1 , y2 , y3 , y4 ) = (x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 ) + (y1 , y2 , y3 , y4 ) + (0, 0, 0, (x3 y3 )(x1 y2 x2 y1 )).

Then, (F4 , ) is a commutative Moufang loop that is not a group.[7]

More generally, the set of nonzero elements of any division algebra form a quasigroup.

4 Properties
In the remainder of the article we shall denote quasigroup multiplication simply by juxtaposition.

Quasigroups have the cancellation property: if ab = ac, then b = c. This follows from the uniqueness of left division
of ab or ac by a. Similarly, if ba = ca, then b = c.

4.1 Multiplication operators

The denition of a quasigroup can be treated as conditions on the left and right multiplication operators L(x), R(y):
Q Q, dened by

L(x)y = xy
R(x)y = yx

The denition says that both mappings are bijections from Q to itself. A magma Q is a quasigroup precisely when all
these operators, for every x in Q, are bijective. The inverse mappings are left and right division, that is,
4.2 Latin squares 5

L(x)1 y = x\y
R(x)1 y = y/x
In this notation the identities among the quasigroups multiplication and division operations (stated in the section on
universal algebra) are

L(x)L(x)1 = 1 to corresponding x(x\y) = y

1
L(x) L(x) = 1 to corresponding x\(xy) = y
1
R(x)R(x) =1 to corresponding (y/x)x = y
1
R(x) R(x) = 1 to corresponding (yx)/x = y
where 1 denotes the identity mapping on Q.

4.2 Latin squares

The multiplication table of a nite quasigroup is a Latin square: an n n table lled with n dierent symbols in such
a way that each symbol occurs exactly once in each row and exactly once in each column.
Conversely, every Latin square can be taken as the multiplication table of a quasigroup in many ways: the border row
(containing the column headers) and the border column (containing the row headers) can each be any permutation
of the elements. See small Latin squares and quasigroups.

4.3 Inverse properties

Every loop element has a unique left and right inverse given by

x = e/x x x = e
x = x\e xx = e
A loop is said to have (two-sided) inverses if x = x for all x. In this case the inverse element is usually denoted by
x1 .
There are some stronger notions of inverses in loops which are often useful:

A loop has the left inverse property if x (xy) = y for all x and y . Equivalently, L(x)1 = L(x ) or
x\y = x y .
A loop has the right inverse property if (yx)x = y for all x and y . Equivalently, R(x)1 = R(x ) or
y/x = yx .
A loop has the antiautomorphic inverse property if (xy) = y x or, equivalently, if (xy) = y x .
A loop has the weak inverse property when (xy)z = e if and only if x(yz) = e . This may be stated in terms
of inverses via (xy) x = y or equivalently x(yx) = y .

A loop has the inverse property if it has both the left and right inverse properties. Inverse property loops also have the
antiautomorphic and weak inverse properties. In fact, any loop which satises any two of the above four identities
has the inverse property and therefore satises all four.
Any loop which satises the left, right, or antiautomorphic inverse properties automatically has two-sided inverses.

5 Morphisms
A quasigroup or loop homomorphism is a map f : Q P between two quasigroups such that f(xy) = f(x)f(y).
Quasigroup homomorphisms necessarily preserve left and right division, as well as identity elements (if they exist).
6 6 GENERALIZATIONS

5.1 Homotopy and isotopy

Main article: Isotopy of loops

Let Q and P be quasigroups. A quasigroup homotopy from Q to P is a triple (, , ) of maps from Q to P such
that

(x)(y) = (xy)
for all x, y in Q. A quasigroup homomorphism is just a homotopy for which the three maps are equal.
An isotopy is a homotopy for which each of the three maps (, , ) is a bijection. Two quasigroups are isotopic if
there is an isotopy between them. In terms of Latin squares, an isotopy (, , ) is given by a permutation of rows ,
a permutation of columns , and a permutation on the underlying element set .
An autotopy is an isotopy from a quasigroup to itself. The set of all autotopies of a quasigroup form a group with
the automorphism group as a subgroup.
Every quasigroup is isotopic to a loop. If a loop is isotopic to a group, then it is isomorphic to that group and thus is
itself a group. However, a quasigroup which is isotopic to a group need not be a group. For example, the quasigroup
on R with multiplication given by (x + y)/2 is isotopic to the additive group (R, +), but is not itself a group. Every
medial quasigroup is isotopic to an abelian group by the BruckToyoda theorem.

5.2 Conjugation (parastrophe)

Left and right division are examples of forming a quasigroup by permuting the variables in the dening equation.
From the original operation (i.e., x y = z) we can form ve new operations: x o y := y x (the opposite operation),
/ and \, and their opposites. That makes a total of six quasigroup operations, which are called the conjugates or
parastrophes of . Any two of these operations are said to be conjugate or parastrophic to each other (and to
themselves).

5.3 Isostrophe (paratopy)

If the set Q has two quasigroup operations, and , and one of them is isotopic to a conjugate of the other, the
operations are said to be isostrophic to each other. There are also many other names for this relation of isostrophe,
e.g., paratopy.

6 Generalizations

6.1 Polyadic or multiary quasigroups

An n-ary quasigroup is a set with an n-ary operation, (Q, f) with f: Qn Q, such that the equation f(x1 ,...,xn) = y
has a unique solution for any one variable if all the other n variables are specied arbitrarily. Polyadic or multiary
means n-ary for some nonnegative integer n.
A 0-ary, or nullary, quasigroup is just a constant element of Q. A 1-ary, or unary, quasigroup is a bijection of Q to
itself. A binary, or 2-ary, quasigroup is an ordinary quasigroup.
An example of a multiary quasigroup is an iterated group operation, y = x1 x2 xn; it is not necessary to
use parentheses to specify the order of operations because the group is associative. One can also form a multiary
quasigroup by carrying out any sequence of the same or dierent group or quasigroup operations, if the order of
operations is specied.
There exist multiary quasigroups that cannot be represented in any of these ways. An n-ary quasigroup is irreducible
if its operation cannot be factored into the composition of two operations in the following way:

f (x1 , . . . , xn ) = g(x1 , . . . , xi1 , h(xi , . . . , xj ), xj+1 , . . . , xn ),

6.2 Right- and left-quasigroups 7

where 1 i < j n and (i, j) (1, n). Finite irreducible n-ary quasigroups exist for all n > 2; see Akivis and Goldberg
(2001) for details.
An n-ary quasigroup with an n-ary version of associativity is called an n-ary group.

6.2 Right- and left-quasigroups

A right-quasigroup (Q, , /) is a type (2,2) algebra satisfying both identities: y = (y / x) x; y = (y x) / x.

Similarly, a left-quasigroup (Q, , \) is a type (2,2) algebra satisfying both identities: y = x (x \ y); y = x \ (x y).

7 Number of small quasigroups and loops

The number of isomorphism classes of small quasigroups (sequence A057991 in the OEIS) and loops (sequence
A057771 in the OEIS) is given here:[8]

8 See also
Bol loop

Division ring a ring in which every non-zero element has a multiplicative inverse

Semigroup an algebraic structure consisting of a set together with an associative binary operation

Monoid a semigroup with an identity element

Planar ternary ring has an additive and multiplicative loop structure

Small Latin squares and quasigroups

Problems in loop theory and quasigroup theory

Mathematics of Sudoku

9 Notes
[1] Smith, Jonathan D. H. (2007). An introduction to quasigroups and their representations. Boca Raton, Fla. [u.a.]: Chapman
& Hall/CRC. pp. 3, 2627. ISBN 1-58488-537-8.

[2] H. Rubin; J. E. Rubin (1985). Equivalents of the Axiom of Choice, II. Elsevier. p. 109.

[3] Pugfelder 1990, p. 2

[4] Bruck 1971, p. 1

[5] Damm, H. Michael (2007). Totally anti-symmetric quasigroups for all orders n2,6. Discrete Mathematics. 307 (6):
715729. doi:10.1016/j.disc.2006.05.033.

[6] Colbourn & Dinitz 2007, p. 497, denition 28.12

[7] Smith, Jonathan D. H.; Romanowska, Anna B. (1999), Example 4.1.3 (Zassenhauss Commutative Moufang Loop)",
Post-modern algebra, Pure and Applied Mathematics, New York: Wiley, p. 93, ISBN 0-471-12738-8, MR 1673047,
doi:10.1002/9781118032589.

[8] McKay, Brendan D.; Meynert, Alison; Myrvold, Wendy (2007). Small Latin squares, quasigroups, and loops (PDF). J.
Comb. Des. 15 (2): 98119. Zbl 1112.05018. doi:10.1002/jcd.20105.
8 11 EXTERNAL LINKS

10 References
Akivis, M. A.; Goldberg, Vladislav V. (2001). Solution of Belousovs problem. Discussiones Mathematicae.
General Algebra and Applications. 21 (1): 93103. doi:10.7151/dmgaa.1030.
Bruck, R.H. (1971) [1958]. A Survey of Binary Systems. Springer-Verlag. ISBN 0-387-03497-8.

Chein, O.; Pugfelder, H. O.; Smith, J.D.H., eds. (1990). Quasigroups and Loops: Theory and Applications.
Berlin: Heldermann. ISBN 3-88538-008-0.
Colbourn, Charles J.; Dinitz, Jerey H. (2007), Handbook of Combinatorial Designs (2nd ed.), Boca Raton:
Chapman & Hall/ CRC, ISBN 1-58488-506-8
Dudek, W.A.; Glazek, K. (2008). Around the Hosszu-Gluskin Theorem for n-ary groups. Discrete Math.
308 (21): 486176. arXiv:math/0510185 . doi:10.1016/j.disc.2007.09.005.
Pugfelder, H.O. (1990). Quasigroups and Loops: Introduction. Berlin: Heldermann. ISBN 3-88538-007-2.

Smith, J.D.H. (2007). An Introduction to Quasigroups and their Representations. Chapman & Hall/CRC Press.
ISBN 1-58488-537-8.

Shcherbacov, V.A. (2017). Elements of Quasigroup Theory and Applications. Chapman & Hall/CRC Press.
ISBN 978-1-4987-2155-4.
Smith, J.D.H.; Romanowska, Anna B. (1999). Post-Modern Algebra. Wiley-Interscience. ISBN 0-471-12738-
8.

11 External links
quasigroups

Hazewinkel, Michiel, ed. (2001) [1994], Quasi-group, Encyclopedia of Mathematics, Springer Science+Business
Media B.V. / Kluwer Academic Publishers, ISBN 978-1-55608-010-4
 9

12 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

12.1 Text
Quasigroup Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quasigroup?oldid=791365021 Contributors: AxelBoldt, Zundark, Tarquin, Patrick,
Michael Hardy, Charles Matthews, Dysprosia, Fibonacci, Zero0000, McKay, Tea2min, Giftlite, Fropu, Phe, Almit39, Sam Hocevar,
PhotoBox, Rich Farmbrough, Zaslav, Rgdboer, Tobyc75, Ma Baker, Josh Parris, Rjwilmsi, OneWeirdDude, Salix alba, Mathbot, Wave-
length, Michael Slone, Jeargle, SmackBot, Ohnoitsjamie, Sxtr, RDBrown, Concerned cynic, Nbarth, Daqu, Richard L. Peterson, Frentos,
Michael Kinyon, Valepert, Mets501, Saganatsu, Rschwieb, Seqsea, Cydebot, JustAGal, Lovibond, Magioladitis, McDoodle, David Epp-
stein, Pavel Jelnek, Neoprote, Squeezeweasel, Policron, LokiClock, Cbigorgne, Dlae, LeaveSleaves, Cnilep, BartekChom, Anchor Link
Bot, Atif.t2, Alexbot, Watchduck, Lunchscale, Download, Legobot, Luckas-bot, AnomieBOT, Joule36e5, SvartMan, MauritsBot, Xqbot,
GrouchoBot, Charvest, FrescoBot, Jonesey95, DAVilla, Greenfernglade, EmausBot, John of Reading, Chharvey, Quondum, Wcherowi,
Matthiaspaul, BG19bot, Nosuchforever, BattyBot, Xaviervia, Freeze S, Deltahedron, Cerabot~enwiki, W96, Faizan, CsDix, Suelru, Su-
peregz, GeoreyT2000, Bender the Bot and Anonymous: 69

12.2 Images
File:Lock-green.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg License: CC0 Contributors: en:
File:Free-to-read_lock_75.svg Original artist: User:Trappist the monk
File:Magma_to_group2.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d0/Magma_to_group2.svg License: CC0 Con-
tributors: Own work Original artist: RupertMillard
File:Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg License:
CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: This le was derived from Wiki letter w.svg: <a href='//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Wiki_letter_w.
svg' class='image'><img alt='Wiki letter w.svg' src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Wiki_letter_w.svg/
50px-Wiki_letter_w.svg.png' width='50' height='50' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Wiki_letter_
w.svg/75px-Wiki_letter_w.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Wiki_letter_w.svg/100px-Wiki_
letter_w.svg.png 2x' data-le-width='44' data-le-height='44' /></a>
Original artist: Derivative work by Thumperward

12.3 Content license

Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0