Special Concretes and

UNIT 7 SPECIAL CONCRETES AND Concreting Methods

CONCRETING METHODS
Structure
7.1 Introduction
Objectives
7.2 Lightweight Concrete
7.3 Heavy Concrete
7.4 Mass Concrete
7.5 Pre-cast Concrete
7.6 High Early Strength Concrete
7.7 Vacuum Concrete
7.8 Pre-stressed Concrete
7.9 Ultra-light-weight Concrete
7.10 Colcrete
7.11 Ready Mix Concrete
7.12 Gunite
7.13 Ferro-cement
7.14 Roller Compacted Concrete
7.15 Fibre Reinforced Concrete
7.16 Hot Weather Concreting
7.17 Cold Weather Concreting
7.18 Underwater Concreting
7.19 Quality Control of Concrete
7.20 Summary
7.21 Answers to SAQs

7.1 INTRODUCTION
In the previous unit, you have studied different concreting operations, concreting
formwork, types of joints in concrete. In this unit, you will study special types of
concrete and concreting methods under extreme environmental conditions.
Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to
classify the types of special concrete,
appreciate the importance and purposes of special concretes,
discuss the problems encountered in hot and cold weather concreting,
describe the precautions to be taken in hot and cold weather
concreting, and
discuss the methods of underwater concreting.
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Concrete Technology
7.2 LIGHTWEIGHT CONCRETE
Lightweight concrete is manufactured not only on account of its lightweight but
also due to high thermal insulation compared with normal concrete.
The self weight of conventional concrete is high. Density of normal concrete
varies from 2200 to 2600 kg/m3. Due to heavy weight, conventional concrete
becomes an uneconomical structural material to some extent particularly for high
rise buildings. The density of lightweight concrete varies from 300 to 1850 kg/m3.
Lightweight concrete is prepared from the following materials.
Binding Material
Different types of cements can be used as binding material. The materials
such as lime-slag, lime-cinder, etc. can also be used as binding material.
Aggregates
The loose porous materials are used as aggregates for lightweight concrete.
The natural porous aggregates can be obtained by crushing light-weight
rocks. The artificial porous aggregates can be obtained from industrial
wastes.
Steel
As lightweight concrete is highly porous, the corrosion of reinforcement
takes place, if not properly protected. Hence, the lightweight concrete
should be made sufficiently dense when used for RCC work. Sometimes,
the reinforcement is coated with anti-corrosive treatments, when
lightweight concrete is used.
Water
The strength of lightweight concrete mainly depends on the amount of
water in the concrete mix. The use of potable water is necessary to prepare
light weight concrete. The water-cement ratio should be carefully calculated
to achieve optimum strength of lightweight concrete. When water content
reaches its optimum value, there is corresponding increase in the strength of
lightweight concrete.
Advantages
Following are the advantages of lightweight concrete :
(a) The use of lightweight concrete results in the reduction of cost
to the extent of about 30 to 40%.
(b) The reduction in weight of concrete helps easy removal,
transport and erection of pre-cast products.
(c) The lightweight concrete can be prepared by using the local
industrial waste, if found suitable.
(d) The lightweight concrete has greater fire resistance as compared
to the ordinary concrete.
(e) The sound absorption coefficient of the lightweight concrete is
about twice that of the ordinary concrete. The sound absorption
of lightweight concrete is good because the air-borne sound
energy is converted into heat in the small channels of the
concrete.
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 (f) The lightweight concrete has generally a lower thermal Special Concretes and
Concreting Methods
expansion than ordinary concrete.
(g) The lightweight concrete increases the progress of construction
work.
Limitations
Following are the limitations of lightweight concrete :
(a) The depth of carbonation, i.e. the depth within which corrosion
can occur under suitable conditions, is nearly twice than that of
normal concrete. Hence, special care will have to be taken to
provide sufficient cover to the reinforcement of the lightweight
structures to take protection against corrosion.
(b) The lightweight concrete has less strength as compared to the
ordinary concrete.
(c) The lightweight concrete produces a harsh mix, therefore it is of
low workability.
(d) Mixed design procedures are not well established for the
lightweight concrete.
Production
The various methods of producing lightweight concrete depend on :
(a) The formation of air voids in the concrete by omitting fine
aggregates called as No-fine concrete.
(b) The formation of air voids in a cement paste by the addition of
some substance which causes a foam called as Aerated or
Cellular or Gas or Foamed concrete.
(c) The presence of air voids in the aggregate called as Lightweight
aggregate concrete.
Types
Following are the types of lightweight concrete:
(a) Lightweight aggregate concrete
(b) No-fines concrete
(c) Air-entrained concrete
7.2.1 Lightweight Aggregate Concrete
Lightweight aggregates can be classified into two categories namely natural
lightweight aggregates and artificial lightweight aggregates.
Following are the examples of natural lightweight aggregates.
(a) Rice husk (b) Pumice
(c) Volcanic cinders (d) Diatomite
(e) Sawdust (f) Scoria
Following are the examples of artificial light weight aggregates.
(a) Thermocole beads (b) Artificial cinders
(c) Expanded perlite (d) Coke breeze
(e) Foamed slag (f) Exfoliated vermiculite 133
Concrete Technology (g) Sintered fly ash (h) Expanded shales and slate
(i) Bloated clay.
Natural lightweight aggregates are not found in many places. They are also not of
uniform quality. Therefore, they are not used widely in making lightweight
concrete. Pumice is the only natural lightweight aggregate which is used widely.
Lightweight aggregate concrete is made by the use of lightweight aggregates.
Different lightweight aggregates have different densities. Strength of lightweight
concrete depends on the density of concrete. Less porous aggregate which is
heavier in weight produces stronger concrete particularly with higher cement
content. The grading of aggregate, the water-cement ratio and the degree of
compaction also affect the strength of concrete. Lightweight aggregate concrete
exhibits higher moisture movement than the normal concrete. Concrete while
wetting swells more and while drying shrinks more. The coefficient of thermal
expansion of concrete made with lightweight aggregate is generally much lower
than ordinary concrete.

7.2.2 No-fines Concrete

This concrete is obtained by omitting fine aggregate from the mix so that there is
an agglomeration of nominally one-size coarse aggregate particles, each
surrounded by a coating of cement paste up to about 1.3 mm thick. There exists,
therefore, large pores within the body of the concrete, their large size means that
no capillary movement of water can take place and consequently the rate of water
penetration is low.
The density of no-fines concrete depends primarily on the grading of the
aggregate for a given type of the aggregate. With one-size aggregate, the density
is about 10% lower than when well-graded aggregate of the same specific gravity
is used. The usual aggregate size is 10 to 20 mm. No-fines concrete compacts
very little as compared to ordinary concrete. The compressive strength of no-fines
concrete varies generally from 1.4 MPa to 14 MPa.

7.2.3 Air-entrained Concrete

The cement concrete, prepared by mixing aluminium in it, is called air entrained
or cellular or aerated or gas or foamed concrete.
Following are the types of air entrained concrete :
Gas Concrete
It is obtained by mixing finely divided aluminium powder in cement matrix.
A chemical reaction takes place with hydroxide or alkali or calcium. It
liberates hydrogen which forms the bubbles. Hydrogen peroxide can also be
used which generates oxygen.
Foamed Concrete
It is produced by adding foaming agent to the mix. It introduces and
stabilizes air bubbles during mixing at high speed.
Air entrained concrete may not contain the aggregate. Powdered zinc can
also be used in this concrete. Depending upon density, strength and thermal
conductivity also vary. Mixes have densities between 480 kg/m3 to
1120 kg/m3. Cellular concrete has a high thermal shrinkage and moisture
movement. These can be minimized by high pressure steam curing. It also
increases the compressive strength of concrete. Cellular concrete offers
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 better fire resistance than ordinary concrete. It has good resistance to frost. Special Concretes and
Concreting Methods
Cellular concrete is mostly suited for partitions for heat insulation purposes
due to its low thermal conductivity and for fire proofing.

7.3 HEAVY CONCRETE

Heavy concrete is also called as heavy-weight concrete or high density concrete.
Heavy concrete can be produced by using specially heavy weight aggregates and
compacting well by mechanical means. Both natural and artificial heavy
aggregates are available. The high density aggregates are heavy iron ores such as
magnesite or haematite, etc. Fine natural sand is used as fine aggregate. The
density of such concrete is around 3400 kg/m3. The heavy aggregate is crushed to
produce a fine material and this is used as a fine aggregate instead of sand to
produce extra heavy concrete. Steel shots and iron punching are the artificial
aggregates. Artificial aggregate used should be free from oil, which prevents
bond. The artificial aggregates are very costly compared to natural aggregates.
Heavy concrete produced from artificial aggregates may have a density of about
5500 kg/m3 .The density of heavy weight concrete varies from 3360 to
5280 kg/m3.
Heavy weight concretes can be suitably used for gravity dams, retaining walls or
special atomic power plants, vessels, etc. It is also suited for preparing counter-
balance weights for lift bridges and ballast blocks for ships, where the high
density of heavy concrete reduces the volume of concrete required to produce the
same dead weight, leading to economy.

SAQ 1

(a) Fill in the blanks.

(i) The weight of lightweight concrete is _______________ that of
dense concrete.
(ii) The cement requirements of lightweight are ____________ than
that of gravel concrete.
(iii) Air-entrained concrete is also called _______________.
(iv) Concrete for atomic reactors must of _______________.
(b) State True or False.
(i) The lightweight concrete aggregates have high values of
absorption.
(ii) Bond strengths of lightweight as well as dense concrete are
same.
(iii) Cellular concrete has a high thermal shrinkage and moisture
movement.
(iv) In heavy density concrete, the aggregates of higher specific
gravity are used.
(c) What do you mean by lightweight concrete?
(d) What are the properties of lightweight concrete?
(e) Why lightweight concrete is preferable than dense concrete?
(f) What are the advantages of lightweight concrete?
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Concrete Technology (g) Write notes on gas concrete and foamed concrete.
(h) What do you understand by heavy density concrete?
(i) Where heavy density concrete is used?

7.4 MASS CONCRETE

Mass concrete can be defined as concrete which is placed in massive structures
like dams, canal locks, bridge piers, etc. A large size aggregate (up to 150mm
maximum size) and a low slump are adopted to reduce the quantity of cement in
the mix to about 5 bags per cubic meter of mass concrete. The mix is relatively
harsh and dry and hence requires power vibrators of the immersion type for
compaction. This concrete is generally placed in open forms. The heat of
hydration may lead to a considerable rise of temperature because of the large
mass of the concrete. It results in extensive and serious shrinkage cracks. These
shrinkage cracks can be prevented by using low cements and placed by
continuous proper curing of concrete. Placing the concrete in shorter lifts and
allowing several days before the placement of the next lift of concrete can help in
the dissipation of heat. Circulation of cold water through the pipes buried in the
concrete mass may prove useful. Alternatively, where possible, concreting can be
done in the winter season such that the peak temperature in concrete can be
lowered, or the aggregates may be cooled before use. Mass concrete develops
relatively high strength during the first month because of the temperature rise due
to heat of hydration. At later periods, the strength will be less than that of a
continuously cured concrete at normal temperatures. The volume changes of mass
concrete during setting and hardening are very small but large creep can occur at
later ages.

7.5 PRE-CAST CONCRETE

Pre-cast concrete means the members or blocks are pre-casted at some factory
and are transported to the place where these are required. It is possible to prepare
well-made pre-cast products by keeping a high standard of finishing. The pre-cast
products are fencing posts, pipes, paving slabs, concrete blocks, etc.
Following is the procedure for preparing pre-cast products :
(a) The moulds of timber or steel are prepared to the shape of the
product.
(b) The reinforcement, if any, is put up in the moulds as per design.
(c) The concrete is mixed in the desired proportion and placed in the
moulds.
(d) The finishing of the products is then carried out.
(e) The products are then sufficiently cured in specially constructed
tanks.
(f) The products are then dispatched for use at site of work.
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Advantages Special Concretes and
Concreting Methods
Following are the advantages of pre-cast concrete :
(a) As production takes place in a factory, quality control is excellent.
(b) As mass production takes place, it is economical.
(c) The labour required in the manufacturing process of the pre-cast units
can easily be trained.
(d) The pre-cast products may be given the desired shape and finish with
accuracy.
(e) The pre-cast structures can be dismantled, when required and they can
be suitably used elsewhere.
(f) The work can be completed in a short time, when pre-cast units are
adopted.
(g) When pre-cast structures are to be installed, the amount of scaffolding
and formwork is considerably reduced.
(h) The moulds used for preparing the pre-cast units are of steel with
exact dimensions in all directions. These moulds are more durable
and they can be used several times.
Disadvantages
Following are the disadvantages of pre-cast concrete :
(a) It requires good roads for transporting their products to distant
sites without delay and damage.
(b) It becomes difficult to produce satisfactory connections between
the pre-cast members.
(c) It requires special and heavy equipment to handle their products
at site as well as at factory.
(d) Pre-cast concrete requires standardized designs and massive
repetitive type of construction to achieve economy.

7.6 HIGH EARLY STRENGTH CONCRETE

High early strength concrete sets and hardens quickly as compared to ordinary
concrete. It is used for construction work especially in cold weather which
enables the formwork to be reused quickly. Sometimes it is desired to obtain a
concrete which can be put to use as early as possible. The concrete, under such
situations, must be capable of gaining sufficient strength at an early age. This can
be achieved either with normal Portland cement or with special cements, e.g.
High early strength Portland cement. There is difference between properties of
raw materials between the two cements. The early strength cement is more finely
ground. The strength of concrete is governed by time of mixing, water-cement
ratio, compaction, temperature, etc.

SAQ 2

(a) What are the advantages of pre-cast concrete?

(b) What are the disadvantages of pre-cast concrete?
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Concrete Technology (c) What do you understand by pre-cast concrete?
(d) Write a short note on high early strength concrete.

7.7 VACUUM CONCRETE

High water-cement ratio is harmful to the quality of concrete and low water-
cement ratio does not give sufficient workability. In concreting thin sections like
slab and walls a fluid mix with water-cement ratio of 0.5 to 0.65 is required to
facilitate the placing and compaction. Such a mix will have relatively low
strength and poor abrasion resistance. In such situations, the vacuum treatment of
concrete, involving the removal of excess water and air by using suction can be
helpful. The process, when properly applied, produces concrete of good quality. It
also permits removal of formwork at an early age to be used in other repetitive
work. The equipment consists of a vacuum pump, water separator and filtering
mat. The duration of treatment depends upon the water-cement ratio and the
quantity of water to be removed. It generally ranges from 1 to 15 minutes for
slabs varying in thickness from 25 mm to 125 mm. The vacuum treatment is not
very effective for water-cement ratios below 0.4. The vibration of concrete before
vacuum treatment can assist the process. The application of vibration
simultaneously with vacuum treatment after initial vibration is very defective.
Vibration beyond 90 s may damage the structure of concrete and hence the
vibrations should be stopped beyond this period and only vacuum needs to be
applied for the remaining duration of the treatment.
Vacuum-treated concrete provides a good bond with the underlying concrete. The
vacuum treatment has been found to considerably reduce the time of final
finishing of floor and stripping of wall forms. The strength of concrete and its
resistance to wear and abrasion increases and total shrinkage is reduced. Vacuum
treatment can be effectively used in the resurfacing and repair of road pavements,
Vacuum concrete has been extensively used for factory production of plain and
reinforced concrete units. It is also used in construction of horizontal and sloping
concrete slabs, such as floor slabs, road and air pavements, thin load-bearing and
partition walls.

7.8 PRE-STRESSED CONCRETE

The concrete in which internal stresses are intentionally induced in a systematic
planned manner such that the stresses resulting from the superimposed loads get
counter balanced to a desire degree is called a pre-stress concrete.
The principle of pre-stressing concrete consists of inducing sufficient
compressive stress in concrete before a member is subjected to loads, in the zones
which develop tensile stress due to applied load. The pre-induced compressive
stress in concrete neutralizes the tensile stress developed due to external loads.
Hence, zone ultimately will be free from any stress. In a pre-stressed member, the
entire cross-section becomes effective for resisting bending and danger of
cracking is minimized.
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Advantages Special Concretes and
Concreting Methods
(a) Pre-stressing eliminates the cracks under all stages of loading. The
entire cross-section becomes effective.
(b) There is considerable reduction in dead weight of superstructure. Due
to this, cost of foundation also considerably reduces.
(c) It is possible to take full advantage of high compressive strength of
concrete and high tensile strength of steel used.
(d) Because of higher strength, pre-stressed concrete can be safely used
for structures having longer spans and which are subjected to heavy
loads, impact and vibrations.
(e) In the pre-stressed concrete structures, deflection of beams is
considerably reduced.
(f) Pre-stressed concrete requires only 1/3 of the concrete required for
reinforced concrete but of superior quality. The amount of steel
required is about only 1/4 of steel in reinforced cement concrete.
Thus, there is always a considerable saving in material cost in the
case of pre-stressed concrete.
(g) There is considerable saving in cost of shuttering and centering in
large structures, because pre-stressed concrete members are
manufactured in factories.
Limitations
(a) Higher grades of concrete and steel are required.
(b) Skilled labours are required.
(c) Pre-stressed concrete is generally limited to members which have
long spans and carry heavy loads.
(d) Special pre-stressing equipment are required.
(e) Handling and transportation of heavy pre-stressed member is difficult.
(f) Cost of the materials is higher due to the higher grade.
(g) More labours are required.

SAQ 3

(a) Write short note on vacuum concrete?

(b) What do you understand by pre-stressed concrete?
(c) What are the advantages of pre-stressed concrete?
(d) What are the limitations of pre-stressed concrete?

7.9 ULTRA-LIGHT-WEIGHT CONCRETE

The density of ultra-light-weight concrete varies from 600 kg/m3 to 1000 kg/m3.
It is made up from a mixture of cement, sand and expanded-polystyrene beads
(1 mm to 6 mm in diameter). This concrete is mainly used for pre-fabricated
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Concrete Technology non-load bearing panels, hollow and solid blocks, and in highway construction as
a part of sub-base where frost could endanger the stability of the sub-grade. This
concrete has high thermal insulation efficiency. The expanded bead products may
be treated with bromine solutions for improving the fire resistance and
self-extinguishing characteristics. The expanded beads have density about
12 kg/m3 to 25 kg/m3. The commonly used size of expanded beads is about 1 mm
to 3 mm. The beads deteriorate producing a characteristic yellowing when
exposed to sunlight. The expanded-polystyrene concrete mixes can be designed to
have compressive strengths up to 15 MPa to 20 MPa. The expanded-polystyrene
beads become electro-statically charged during processing which makes them
difficult to wet during mixing. Proneness to segregation can be overcome by
using a bonding agent controlling the fluidity of the paste. Thermal insulation and
compressive strength properties of expanded-polystyrene concrete increase with
its density. The setting and hardening rates can be controlled by selecting the
suitable cement and using water-reducing admixtures. Conventional methods can
be used for casting and placing the expanded-polystyrene concrete. The elastic
and shrinkage deformations are considerably greater than for normal-weight
concrete. The conventional workability tests, i.e. slump test, Vee-Bee test,
flow table test and compacting factor test are unsuitable in case of expanded
polystyrene concrete.

7.10 COLCRETE
Colcrete is grouted and is generally suitable for underwater. It is made by
introducing colgrout into the voids of pre-placed coarse aggregates by injection
method. The surface area of coarse aggregate in 1 m3 of concrete amounts to
about 68800 m2 in the conventional concrete of 1 : 2 : 4 mix. Practically, it is
difficult to wet and activate the above area.
Properties
(a) The separation of smaller particles of cement is achieved efficiently.
(b) It makes it nearly immiscible in water. It prevent aggregation of sand
and reduces bleeding to a minimum.
(c) Its fluidity permits it to be pumped to considerable distances to the
point of placement.
(d) Every particle of cement in the mix is completely wetted. The cement
is thoroughly mixed with other constituents.
Materials for Colcrete
The materials for colcrete are :
(a) Water,
(b) Cement,
(c) Sand,
(d) Coarse aggregate
(e) Admixtures.
Water
Water should have the same properties as the mixing water for
conventional concrete.
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 Cement Special Concretes and
Concreting Methods
All cements as per IS specifications are suitable for colcrete work.
Sand
The grading of sand should be continuous without gap. It should not
have excess of larger, medium or smaller particles as these have
predominant effect on the strength of colcrete. The percentage of
oversize should be less than 5%. The fineness modulus of sand should
not vary more than plus or minus 0.10.
Coarse Aggregate
The size of coarse aggregate should not be less than 40 mm and more
than 5 % by weight of the particles smaller than this specified size.
The coarse aggregate acceptable for concrete may be used for
colcrete.
Admixtures
Admixtures like surkhi, flyash, pumice, pozzolanas can be
incorporated in the mix to substitute cement. On ignition, flyash
should not show 8 % loss.
Properties
Following are the properties of colcrete :
(a) Colcrete has higher strength.
(b) The compressive strength of cube increases with the
increase in mixing time. It becomes unworkable after a
total mixing time of 90 seconds.
(c) The strength decreases by about 20% when dirty
aggregates are used.
(d) The use of very coarse sand is not beneficial in colgrout
works although compressive strength increases with
fineness modulus.
(e) When fineness modulus of sand is between 1.9 to 2.2,
bleeding is minimum. It increases both ways with increase
or decrease of fineness modulus.
(f) The compressive strength of colcrete reduces by the use of
elongated and flat aggregates.
(g) Sand-cement ratio increases with the increase in
water-cement ratio. It is more true in case of fine sand
than coarse sand.

SAQ 4

(a) Write short note on ultra-light-weight concrete.

(b) Fill in the blanks :
Colcrete means _________________.
(c) What do you mean by colcrete?
(d) Describe the properties of colcrete.
(e) State true or false :
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Concrete Technology Colcrete is stable and pumpable.

7.11 READY MIX CONCRETE

Really this is not a special concrete but is an ordinary concrete of required grade
produced in bulk quantity by RMC automatic or semi-automatic plants situated at
a distance from the place of construction and, therefore, transportation facilities
are required. Ready Mix Concrete (RMC) is mainly associated with infra-
structural developments of medium and large size projects. In ready mix concrete
production, every ingredient of concrete in correct proportion is mixed by the
machines and so there are no chances of errors and better quality control is
achieved. Due to the higher speed one can produce large amount of concrete
within a short duration and then produced concrete either can be pumped to the
site or can be transported by transit mixers or by trucks.
Following are the limitations of RMC :
(a) Skilled operators are required.
(b) It is suitable for bulk production and for mass concreting operations.
(c) Not suitable for small consumers.
(d) Cement is required in bulk quantity.
(e) Good roads are required for transportation of concrete.
(f) Profit margin is low.
(g) Storage place for aggregate is required.

7.12 GUNITE
Gunite is referred as air blown mortar and concrete, gunned concrete, spraycrete,
sprayed concrete, shotcrete, pneumatically applied mortar or concrete. It is a
mortar or concrete conveyed through a hose and pneumatically projected at high
velocity onto a surface. The jet force impacting on the surface compacts the
material. Generally a dry mixture is used. The material is capable of supporting
itself without sloughing or sagging even for vertical as well as overhead
applications. Gunite is best adopted from the quality and cost point to thin lightly
reinforced sections. Gunite is also advantageous to shoot certain heavy structural
members in new construction and to bond columns, girders or walls to existing
construction. Gunite should not be used for spirally reinforced columns or pilings.
Uses
Gunite is used in the following works.
(a) Refractory linings in furnace walls, stacks and boilers.
(b) Coatings over masonry, concrete, rock and steel.
(c) Encasement of structural steel for reinforcing and fireproofing.
(d) Repairs of deteriorated concrete in structures like dams, tunnels,
reservoir linings, water front structures, etc.
(e) New structures like roofs, walls, tunnels, sewers, shafts,
pre-stressed tanks, reservoir linings, swimming pools, canal
linings.
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 (f) Repair of earthquake and fire damaged to concrete and masonry Special Concretes and
Concreting Methods
structures.
Properties
Following are the properties of gunite :
(a) Gunite is stronger than conventional concrete.
(b) Gunite requires low water-cement ratio which is lower than for
most concrete mixes.
(c) Gunite is structurally adequate and durable material.
(d) It is capable of excellent bond with masonry, concrete and steel.
(e) The drying shrinkage of gunite is somewhat higher than for
most low slump conventional concrete and generally falls
within the range of 0.06 to 0.10 %. Low slump conventional
concrete is placed in heavier sections using larger aggregates
and leaner mixes. It will tend to give more shrinkage cracking
and, therefore, may require a closer joint spacing.

SAQ 5

(a) What do you understand by RMC?

(b) What are the advantages of RMC?
(c) What are the disadvantages of RMC?
(d) What is gunite?
(e) Where gunite is used?
(f) State the properties of gunite.

7.13 FERRO-CEMENT
Ferro-cement is a relatively new material consisting of wire meshes and cement
mortar. It consists of closely spaced wire meshes which are impregnated with rich
cement mortar mix. The ferro-cement members are usually of 20 mm to 30 mm
thickness with 2 mm to 3 mm external covers to the reinforcement. The
reinforcement or wire mesh is usually of 0.5 mm to 1 mm in diameter at 5 mm to
10 mm spacing and cement mortar is of cement sand of 1 : 2 or 1 : 3 with
water-cement ratio 0.4 to 0.5. The steel quantities vary between 300 to
500 kg per m3 of mortar. The basic idea behind this material is that concrete can
undergo large stains without cracks in the neighborhood of the reinforcement
throughout the mass of the concrete.
Advantages
(a) It has lesser dead weight due to small thickness.
(b) It is simple in construction.
(c) It has high tensile strength.
(d) It has non-corrosive nature.
(e) It is easy to repair.
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Concrete Technology (f) It is suitable for special structures like shells, hanging roofs, silos,
water tanks and pipelines.
Limitations
(a) Skilled labours are required.
(b) Strict quality control is required.
(c) Proper pre-fabrication techniques are required.

7.14 ROLLER COMPACTED CONCRETE

Roller compacted concretes are used in construction of dams, multiple layer
placements for foundations and rapid placement of single layer paving for
highways and runways. It is a dry concrete, i.e. no slump, which has been
consolidated by vibrating rollers. The roller compacted concrete must be dry
enough to support the mass of the vibrating equipment. It must be sufficient wet
to allow the mixing and consolidation processes. This concrete can be used for
continuous placements without cold joints. To achieve adequate bonding of the
roller compacted concrete to hardened concrete at the bottom of the cold joints,
segregation must be prevented and a high plasticity bedding mix must be used at
the start of placement.

7.15 FIBRE REINFORCED CONCRETE

Fibre reinforced concrete is defined as concrete made with hydraulic cement,
containing fine or fine and coarse aggregate and discontinuous discrete fibres.
The fibres can be made from natural material like cellulose, sisal or from artificial
material like glass, polymers, carbon and steel. The quantity of fibres used is
about 1 % to 5 % by volume. The reason of reinforcing the cement-based matrix
with fibres is to increase the tensile strength by delaying the growth of cracks.
Steel fibre is one of the most commonly used fibre. The diameter may vary from
0.25 mm to 0.75 mm. Nylon fibres are found suitable to increase the impact
strength of concrete. They possess very high tensile strength. Fibres may be
circular or flat. Glass fibre is a recent introduction in making fibre concrete.

SAQ 6

(a) Explain what is mean by ferro-cement.

(b) State the advantages and limitations of ferro-cement.
(c) Write short note on roller compacted concrete.
(d) Write short note on fibre reinforced concrete.

7.16 HOT WEATHER CONCRETING

The concreting done at atmospheric temperature above 40C or where the
temperature of concrete at the time of placement is expected to be beyond 40C
may be called as hot weather concreting. Special precautions should be taken to
place concrete at a temperature above 40C. High ambient temperature, reduced
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relative humidity and high wind velocity are the climatic factors affecting Special Concretes and
Concreting Methods
concrete in hot weather.
7.16.1 Problems Encountered in Hot Weather Concreting
Following are the problems encounter in hot weather concreting :
Reduction in Strength
Concrete produced and cured at higher temperature generally develops
higher early strength than normally produced concrete but the eventual
strengths are lower. High temperature causes greater evaporation and hence
requires increase of mixing water, consequently reducing the strength. The
effect of simultaneous reduction in the relative humidity, it is seen that
specimens moulded and cured in air at 23C and 60% relative humidity and
at 38C and 25% relative humidity attained strengths of only 73% and 62%
respectively, in comparison with the specimens which are moist-cured at
23C for 28 days.
Accelerated Setting
Rapid hydration takes place due to higher temperature causing accelerated
setting. This results in reducing the handling time of concrete and also
lowering the strength of hardened concrete. The workability of concrete
decreases and hence water requirement increases with the increase in the
temperature of concrete. It has been found that an approximately 25mm
decrease in slump has resulted from 11C increase in concrete temperature.
The addition of water without proper adjustments in mix proportions
adversely affects the quality of concrete.
Rapid Evaporation During Curing
A rapid initial hydration results in a poor microstructure of gel, which is
probably more porous, resulting in a large proportion of the pores
remaining unfilled. This reduces the strength of concrete. The hydration of
cement takes place only in water-filled capillaries so it is imperative that a
loss of water by evaporation from the capillaries be prevented. Water lost
internally by self-desiccation has to be replaced by water from outside.
Difficulty in Controlling the Air Content
It is very difficult to control the air content in air-entrained concrete at
higher temperature. Due to this control of workability is difficult. For a
given amount of air-entraining agent, hot concrete entrains less air than
does concrete at normal temperature.
Increased Tendency to Cracking
The rate of evaporation depends on the ambient temperature, relative
humidity, wind speed and concrete temperature. More rapid evaporation
leads to plastic shrinkage cracking, and subsequent cooling of hardened
concrete introduces tensile stresses.
7.16.2 Precautions to be Taken During Hot Weather Concreting
Proportioning of Concrete Mix
As far as possible, cement with lower heat of hydration should be preferred
to those having greater fineness and heat of hydration. The mix should be
designed to have minimum cement content consistent with other functional
requirements. Accelerators should not be used in hot weather concreting.
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Concrete Technology Water-reducing or set-retarding admixtures may be used in hot weather
concreting.
Temperature Control of Concrete Ingredients
Controlling the temperature of the ingredients of concrete results in
lowering the temperature of concrete. The ingredients may be protected
from direct sunrays by using sheds. Water can be sprinkled on to the
aggregate before using them in concrete. The temperature of water is easier
to control than that of other ingredients of concrete. The mixing water has
the greatest effect on lowering the temperature of concrete, because the
specific heat of water is nearly five times that of common aggregate. The
pre-cooling of aggregates can be achieved at the mixing stage by adding
calculated quantities of broken ice pieces as a part of mixing water,
provided the ice is completely melted by the time mixing is completed.
Production and Delivery
The period between mixing and delivery should be kept to an absolute
minimum by coordinating the delivery of concrete with its rate of
placement. The temperature of aggregates, water and cement should be
maintained at the lowest practical levels so that the temperature of concrete
is below 40C at the time of placement. A suitable metal clad thermometer
should be used to measure the temperature of concrete at the time of leaving
the batching plant.
Placement and Curing of Concrete
The sub-grade, formwork and reinforcement should be sprinkled with cool
water just before the placement of concrete. The area around the work
should be kept wet to the extent possible to cool the surrounding air and
increase its humidity. Speed of placement and finishing helps minimize
problems in hot weather concreting. After compaction the concrete should
be protected to prevent the evaporation of moisture by means of wet gunny
bags. After the concrete has attained a degree of hardening sufficient to
withstand surface damage, moist-curing should start. Continuous curing is
important because the volume changes due to alternate wetting and drying
promote the development of surface cracking. On the hardened concrete,
the curing shall not be much cool than the concrete because of the
possibilities of thermal stresses and resultant cracking. High velocity winds
cause higher rate of evaporation and hence windbreakers should be
provided as far as possible. Concreting can be done during night shifts as
far as possible.
7.16.3 Admixtures
Admixtures are the substances, other than the cement, water and aggregate, which
are used to incorporate or modify certain properties of concrete for certain
particular jobs and are added to the batch immediately before or during the
mixing of ingredients of concrete. Concrete is used for different purposes under
different conditions. Therefore, Ordinary Concrete may not serve the required
qualities. In such cases, admixtures are used to modify the properties of Ordinary
Concrete so as to make it suitable for any conditions. Admixtures are classified as
follows :
Accelerators
Accelerators are the materials which increase the rate of development of
strength of concrete and may be used where early strength of concrete is
146 required. Calcium chloride reduces the time of initial and final setting. With
 2% of CaCl2 in cement, the setting time is reduced one-third of the normal Special Concretes and
Concreting Methods
time. 2% mixture results in 170% more strength after one day and 30%
more strength after seven days. After 28 days increase in strength is 10%.
Beyond 4% it has been found to be harmful.
Retarders
Retarders are the substances which are used to retard the setting of cement
thereby increasing the setting time of cement. When pumping of concrete is
required for long distances, retarders are used so that concrete does not get
stiffened during pumping process. Calcium lingo sulfonate is one
compound, which is extensively being used for these purposes.
Water-repelling Agents
These are the materials which when mixed with concrete, repel the water
from concrete and to make the concrete more waterproof. These agents are
used when the concreting is going on in a very wet condition, to avoid the
entry of water into the concrete.
Workability Agents
The workability of concrete increases by using workability agents.
Workability agents give smoothness and reduce the bleeding of concrete.
These materials are useful in cases when the aggregate is deficient in fines
and to achieve workability requirement even with low water content ratio.
Commonly used workability agents are fly ash, bentonite clay, finely
divided clay, talc, hydrates lime, etc.
Gas Forming Agents
A gas forming agent is a chemical admixture such as aluminium
powder which produces minute bubbles of hydrogen gas throughout
the matrix. These agents are used to make concrete lightweight, to
stop bleeding in concrete, to make it more dense, etc. These are used
in very small quantities.
Air-entraining Agents
This admixture is used for inducing minute air bubbles uniformly
throughout the concrete mass. These are used to increase the
workability of concrete and also to increase resistance to freezing and
thawing. These agents also reduces the bleeding of concrete. These
agents entrap more air during the preparation of concrete and that air
acts as a sort of ball bearing between the ingredients of concrete.
Natural Cement Materials
Some materials have got cementing properties naturally and when these
materials are used with cement, then these have been found to give cement
of more strength. They increase the workability and decrease bleeding,
segregation and heat of hydration. Natural cement materials are hydraulic
lime, fly ash, surkhi, etc. As more water is required with natural cement
materials, the shrinkage may increase.

7.17 COLD WEATHER CONCRETING

Concreting done at a temperature below 5C is called as cold weather concreting.
Special precautions should be taken to place concrete at a temperature below 5C.
Due to low temperature, the problems are mainly due to the slower development 147
Concrete Technology of concrete strength, the concrete in the plastic stage can be damaged if it is
exposed to low temperatures which cause ice lenses to form and expansion to
occur within the pore structure and subsequent damage may occur due to alternate
freezing and thawing when the concrete has hardened.
7.17.1 Problems Encountered in Cold Weather Concreting
Following problems are encountered during concreting in cold weather
conditions :
Delayed Setting
Temperature affects the rate of hydration of cement. If the temperature is
low, concrete will take long time to set and harden.
At low temperatures, the development of concrete strength is retarded as
compared to the strength development at normal temperatures. The setting
period necessary before removal of formwork is, thus, increased. Although
the initial strength of concrete is lower, the ultimate strength will not be
severely affected provided the concrete has been prevented from freezing
during its early life.
The rate of progress of work will be very slow and the economy will be
affected in case of cold weather concreting.
Early Freezing of Concrete
When the temperature is sub-zero the free water in the plastic concrete
freezes. This freezing prevents the hydration of cement and also makes the
concrete expand. This expansion affects the strength of concrete.
Plastic concrete may suffer permanent damage if it is exposed to freezing
temperature. If the concrete is allowed to freeze before a certain
pre-hardening period, it may suffer irreparable loss in its properties so much
so that even one cycle of freezing and thawing during the pre-hardening
period may reduce compressive strength to 50% of what would be expected
for normal temperature concrete. The pre-hardening period depends upon
the type of cement and environmental conditions. It may be specified in
terms of time required to attain a compressive strength of the order of 3.5 to
7 MPa; alternatively it can be specified in terms of period varying from
24 hours to even three days depending upon the degree of saturation and
water-cement ratio.
Stresses Due to Temperature Differential
A cracking of concrete may take place due to a large temperature
differential. It has a harmful effect on durability. Such situations are likely
to occur in cold weather at the time of removal of formwork.
7.17.2 Precautions to be Taken in Cold Weather Concreting
Proportioning of Concrete Ingredients
The quantity of cement in the mix affects the rate of increase in
temperature, an additional quantity of cement may be used. It would be
preferable to use high alumina cement for concreting during frost
conditions. The main advantage is that a higher heat of hydration is
generated during the first
24 hours. During this period, sufficient strength (approximately 10 to
15 MPa) is developed to make the concrete safe against frost action. No
accelerator should be used if high alumina cement is used. Alternatively,
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 the rapid hardening Portland cement or accelerating admixtures used with Special Concretes and
Concreting Methods
proper precautions can help in getting the required strength in short period.
Air-entraining agents are generally used in cold weather. Air-entrainment
increases the resistance of hardened concrete to freezing and thawing and
normally, at the same time, improves the workability of fresh concrete. The
calcium chloride used as accelerating admixture may cause corrosion of
reinforcing steel. In any case, calcium chloride should not be used in
pre-stressed concrete construction. The important factor for cold-weather
concreting is the attainment of suitable temperature for fresh concrete.
Temperature Control of Ingredients
The temperature at the time of setting of concrete can be raised by heating
the ingredients of the concrete mix. Heating of mixing water is easy. The
temperature of the water should not exceed 65C as the flash set of cement
will occur when the hot water and cement come in contact in the mixers.
Therefore, the heated water should come in direct contact with the
aggregate and the sand first. The aggregates may be heated by passing
steam through pipes embedded in aggregate storage bins. Another
precaution taken along with the heating of ingredients is to construct a
temporary shelter around the construction site. The air inside is heated by
electric or steam heating or central heating with circulating water. The
temperature of ingredients should be so decided that the resulting concrete
sets at a temperature of 10C to 20C.
Use of Insulating Formwork
The heat generated during hydration of cement can be gainfully conserved
by having insulating formwork covers capable of maintaining concrete
temperature above the desirable limit up to the first 3 days even though the
ambient temperatures are lower. Timber, clean straw, blankets, tarpaulins,
plastic sheeting, etc. can be used as a formwork covers. Timber formwork
may be sufficient for moderately cold weather. The efficiency of the covers
depends upon the thermal conductivity of the medium as well as ambient
temperature conditions.
Placement and Curing
The surface on which the concrete is to be placed should be sufficient
warm. All ice, snow and frost should be completely removed before
placing of the concrete. Water curing is not to be used during the periods of
freezing or in near freezing conditions.
Removal of Formwork
Formworks are a sort of protection against cold water to the concrete. It is
advantageous not to remove formworks until the end of a minimum period
of protection. As the rate of gain of strength is slow during the cold
weather, the formwork and props have to be kept in place for a longer time
than the normal concreting.

SAQ 7

(a) What do you understand by hot weather concreting?

(b) State the problems encountered in hot weather concreting.
(c) What are the precautions required to be taken during hot weather
concreting?
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Concrete Technology (d) What do you understand by cold weather concreting?
(e) State the problems encountered in cold weather concreting.
(f) What are the precautions required to be taken during cold weather
concreting?

7.18 UNDERWATER CONCRETING

When the concrete is to be placed underwater, special precautions need to be
taken. Following are the recommendations of the Portland Cement Association in
regard to the quality of concrete :
The concrete should be plastic and cohesive but should have good flowability.
This requires a fairly high slump, usually 150 to 180 mm. A richer mix then
generally used for placing under normal conditions is required; usually the
cement requirement is not less than eight bags per cubic meter of concrete. The
proportions of fine and coarse aggregates should be adjusted to produce the
desired workability with a somewhat higher proportion of fine aggregate than
used for normal conditions. The fine aggregate proportion can often be from 45 to
50% of the total aggregate, depending on the grading. It is also important that the
aggregate contain sufficient fine material passing in the 300 micron and
150 micron sieves to produce a plastic and cohesive mixture. ASTM standard
specifications for concrete aggregate require that not less than 2% pass the
150 micron sieve. The fine aggregate should meet the minimum requirements and
somewhat higher percentage of fines would be better in many cases. For most
works, coarse aggregate should be graded up to 20 mm or 40 mm. The coarse
aggregate should not contain loam which may cause laitance while being worked.
The formwork not only has to impart the required shape to the structure or to fits
elements, it must also protect the concrete mix during placing until it matures,
from the direct action of current and waves. The formwork also serves as a
temporary protective casing which during concreting prevents possible washing
out of cement and the leakage of cement mortar from the concrete mix. After
completion of concreting, it will protect the soft concrete from the impact and
abrasive action of the water currents. The cofferdams may be constructed to
reduce the velocity of flow.
Methods of Concreting
Following are the principal methods of placing concrete underwater :
(a) Tremie method,
(b) Placing in dewatered caissons or cofferdams,
(c) Bucket placing,
(d) Placing in bags, and
(e) Pre-packed concrete.

7.18.1 Tremie Method

It is a watertight pipe having a funnel shaped hoper at its upper end and loose
plug at the bottom or discharge end. Its diameter is about 250 mm. To dewater the
tremie and control the distribution of concrete the valve at the discharge end is
used. The tremie is built up in 1 to 3.5 m sections. It is supported on a working
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platform above water level. The air and water must be excluded from the tremie Special Concretes and
Concreting Methods
by keeping the pipe full of concrete all the time during concrete. The capacity of
the hopper should be at least equal to that of tremie pipe. A plug formed of paper
is first inserted into the top of the pipe in charging the tremie. As the hopper is
filled, the pressure of fresh concrete forces the plug down the pipe, and the water
in the tremie is displaced by concrete. For concreting the tremie pipe is lowered
into position and the discharge end is kept as deeply submerged beneath the
surface of freshly placed concrete as the head of concrete in tremie permits. The
pipe is raised slightly as concreting proceeds and the concrete flows outward.
Care should be taken to maintain continuity of concreting without breaking the
seal provided by the concrete cover over the discharge end. The tremie should
never be moved laterally through freshly placed concrete. The tremie should be
lifted vertically above the surface of concrete and shifted to its new position.
When large quantities of concrete are to be placed continuously, place the
concrete simultaneously and uniformly through a battery of tremies, rather than
shift a single tremie from point to point. The segregation and non-uniform
stiffening can be minimized by maintaining the surface of concrete in the forms
as level as possible and by providing a continuous and rapid flow of concrete.
The spacing of tremies recommended between 3.5 m and 5 m and that the end
tremies should be about 2.5 m from the formwork.

Figure 7.1 : Typical Arrangement for a Tremie Pipe

7.18.2 Placing in Dewatered Caissons or Cofferdams

The placing in dewatered caissons or cofferdams follows the normal in-the-dry
practice.

7.18.3 Bucket Placing

The concreting can be carried out at considerable depths by using this method.
The buckets are usually fitted with drop-bottom or bottom-roller gates which
open freely outward when tripped. The bucket is completely filled with concrete
and its top covered with a canvas cloth or a gunny bag to prevent the disturbance
of concrete as the bucket is lowered into water. The bucket is lowered by a crane
up to the bottom surface of concrete and then opened by a suitable arrangement
provided at the top. The concrete should be discharged directly against the
surface on which it is deposited. Early discharge of bucket, which permits the
fresh concrete to drop through water, must be avoided. This method permits the
use of slightly stiffer concrete than does tremie method. In this method, some 151
Concrete Technology buckets are provided with a special base which limits the agitation of the concrete
during discharge and also while the empty bucket is hoisted away from the fresh
concrete. The disadvantage of this method is the difficulty in keeping the top
surface of the placed concrete reasonably level.

Figure 7.2 : Typical Arrangement for a Bottom Opening Bucket

7.18.4 Placing in Bags
In this method, properly concrete filled bags are lowered into water and placed
carefully in a header and stretcher fashion as in brick masonry with the help of
divers. The method has advantages in that, in many cases, no formwork is
necessary and comparatively lean mixes may be used provided sufficient
plasticity is retained. The work is slow and laborious, as the accurate positioning
of the bags in place can be only accomplished by the divers. The bags and labour
necessary to fill and tie them are relatively expensive. This method is only suited
for placing the concrete in shallow water. Voids between adjacent bags are
difficult to fill. There is little bonding other than that achieved by mechanical
interlock between bags.
7.18.5 Pre-packed Concrete
In this method, the aggregate should be wetted before placing in position. This
method is also called as grouted concrete. It consists of placing the coarse
aggregate only in the forms and thoroughly compacting it to form a pre-packed
mass. This mass is then grouted with the cement mortar of the required
proportions. The mortar that grouts the concrete displaces water and fills the
voids. Dense and compact concrete should be prepared by using well graded
aggregates. The maximum size of aggregate conveniently used is 80 mm. The
coarse aggregate may also be allowed to fall from heights of up to 4 m, without
causing any appreciable segregation. Only shutter vibrations can be used for
compacting the coarse aggregate. The mortar consists of fine sand, pozzlanic
filler material and as chemical agent, which serves the penetration, early setting
of cement, the dispersion of particles and to increase the fluidity of mortar. An
air-entraining agent is also added to the mortar to entrain about 4% of air. A small
variation of the procedure of preparation of the cement mortar for grouting leads
to a process called colcrete. In this process, the mortar grout is prepared in a
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special high-speed mixer. No admixtures are used in this process. The high speed Special Concretes and
Concreting Methods
mixing produces a very fluid grout, which is immiscible with water. The
maximum size of sand used is 5 mm and the sand should be well graded. Rich
cement mortar is used for underwater construction and grouting of pre-stressing
cables in post-tensioned bonded construction. The mix ratio ranges from 1 : 1.5 to
1 : 4 with a water-cement ratio of about 0.45. The pre-packed aggregates can be
grouted by the following methods :
(a) The mould can be filled with grout and the coarse aggregate can be
deposited in the grout.
(b) The grout can be poured on the top surface of aggregate and allowed
to penetrate to the bottom. The method is particularly useful for
grouting thin sections.
(c) Pumping the grout into aggregate mass from bottom at carefully
designed positions through a network of pipes. The formwork should
be constructed at the top of the coarse aggregate in this method.
The grout pressure will be about 0.2 to 0.3 MPa. The quantity of grout should be
estimated from the void contents of the coarse aggregates. The pre-packed
concrete has lower drying shrinkage and higher durability, especially freezing and
thawing resistance compared to ordinary concrete for the same proportions. The
rate of development of strength is comparatively slow for the first two months
and the eventual strengths are about the same as for normal concrete. This method
is very much useful for underwater construction and repair work of mass concrete
structures, such as dams, spillways, etc.
SAQ 88
SAQ

(a) Enlist methods of underwater concreting.

(b) Explain with sketch bucket placing method of underwater concreting.
(c) Write short notes on Placing in bags and Pre-packed concrete.

7.19 QUALITY CONTROL OF CONCRETE

The quality control of concrete is important to achieve the intended requirements
of the structures. The true success of the quality control system is in timely
detections of errors in the concreting process. Efficient, reliable and maintenance
free service given by a structure during its life span by itself a testimony of strong
and durable concrete work. Following are some of the factors, which affect the
quality of concrete :
(a) Storage of cement,
(b) Measurement of ingredients of concrete,
(c) Batching operation,
(d) Admixtures,
(e) Mixing of concrete,
(f) Compaction of concrete,
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Concrete Technology (g) Placing of concrete,
(h) Curing of concrete,
(i) Formwork,
(j) Finishing of concrete, and
(k) Joining or repairs of concrete members.
There are three stages of Quality Control in concrete making, which are as
follows :
7.19.1 Stages of Quality Control
Quality Control Prior to Construction
In this stage, properties and testing of constituent materials of concrete are
done. Mainly cement and aggregates are tested for required physical and
chemical properties and their suitability of a particular concrete is
ascertained. Properties of aggregates like size, shape, texture, strength,
specific gravity, bulk density, water absorption, soundness, bulking of sand
and durability are found and tested in laboratory. Physical properties of
cement and chemical composition of cement are found out and cements
suitability is decided after matching these properties with standard
specifications. Effect of aggregate properties on strength of concrete is also
studied.
Quality Control During Construction
In this stage, water-cement ratio and its effect on concrete workability for
different conditions and concrete mix design are studied. Also how best the
ingredients of concrete can be stored, batched and mixed is decided.
Method of curing and duration of curing are decided and method of
finishing of concrete is also decided.
Quality Control After Construction
As such quality of concrete cannot be controlled after construction but
certain tests definitely can be carried out to check whether quality control in
concrete making has been ensured or not. There are different tests, which
can be done on hardened concrete to check the strength of concrete, which
will give the indication of the beginning of Quality Control.
7.19.2 Tests to Check Quality of Concrete in Various Stages
First Stage Test
(a) Fineness of cement
(b) Consistency of cement
(c) Initial and final setting time of cement
(d) Adulteration in cement
(e) Fineness modulus and grading of aggregates
(f) Bulking of sand
(g) Specific gravity of sand
(h) Impact value of aggregate
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 (i) Abrasion value of aggregate Special Concretes and
Concreting Methods
(j) Soundness of cement
(k) Crushing value of aggregate
Second Stage Tests
(a) Water-cement ratio
(b) Slump test
(c) Compressive strength test
(d) Tensile strength test
7.19.3 Functions of Quality Control System
Following are the functions of a Quality Control System :
(a) Ensure that the equipment and testing instruments are calibrated and
properly maintained.
(b) Define the activities affecting quality through instructions and
procedures.
(c) Carry out unannounced spot checks on the quality of materials.
(d) Identify the problems and take the action to get the solution.
(e) Verify the implementation of solutions and corrections.
(f) Report regularly on the effectiveness of the system.
7.19.4 Guidelines of Quality Control
Following are the guidelines of quality control :
(a) The quality control department must be under the control of the top
man, i.e. Highest authority.
(b) The highest authority in the organisation must believe in quality
control.
(c) Every person in organisation must be aware of quality control system
and inspection procedures.
(d) Quality must always be given preference over economy and speed.
(e) Timely inspection and remedial measures are essential.
(f) Good quality construction can only be done by using good quality
material and good workmanship.
(g) Detected mistakes should not be repeated.
(h) Quality Control inspector should be honest, alert and of high
integrity.
(i) Carelessness and ignorance should be avoided.
(j) No compromise should be done at any cost. Unacceptable material or
work must be rejected.
(k) Required material testing and concrete testing must be carried out at
site only.

SAQ 9
155
Concrete Technology

(a) State the importance of quality control of concrete.

(b) State and explain the stages of quality control of concrete.
(c) Enlist the tests to check quality of concrete.
(d) State guidelines for quality control of concrete.
(e) State the functions of quality control system.

7.20 SUMMARY
In this unit, you have studied special types of concrete and concreting methods
under extreme environmental conditions. Concrete is a widely used material
containing a binder and a mineral filler. The proportioning of ingredients of
concrete plays very important role in strength of concrete. In the next unit, you
will study objectives and methods of mix design, yield of concrete and cement
factor.

7.21 ANSWERS TO SAQs

Refer the relevant preceding text in the unit or other useful books on the topic
listed in the section Further Reading given at the end of the booklet to get the
answers of SAQs.

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