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Metallogeny: The rationale behind space (WHERE?) – time

(WHEN?): distribution of ore deposits

Whether there is any globally discernible unifying pattern about the space-time
distribution pattern

¾ The exclusivity in spatial-temporal distribution of ore deposits is a tangible

proposition

¾ Such distribution patterns are REAL and not apparent (not artifacts due to
inadequate sampling)

¾ Such patterns can be explained in the light of the known/emerging facts

about the evolution of the planet Earth (⇒solid + fluid + living)

Salient Features of the global distribution pattern of ore

Deposits

A critical look at the spatial – temporal distributions of ore deposits on a global

scale reveals the following salient features:

1. Chemical heterogeneity in the lithosphere – three distribution patterns:

a) Occurrence of metallogenic provinces characterized by specific

metal(s) e.g. Arizona Cu (Archaean to Tertiary), Colorado plateau
U-V ores (Triassic to Tertiary)
b) Occurrence of barren tracts between regions of phenomenally rich
mineralization (eg. Ecuador and New England states)
c) S. African greenstone belt represents mantle heterogeneity of the
extreme type as nearly 67% of the world’s chromite have been
formed during 1.8 Ga
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d) Extensive VMS mineralization (Cu-Zn-Au-Ag) throughout the

Canadian Archaean shield
e) Greater amount of Archaean Au in S. Africa compared to that in
Canada, Western Australia and India.

2. Ore-lineament Association (eg. Rocky Mountain trench; Mother Lode, CA;

Owen Rift, Tasmania, Singhbhum Shear Zone?) ⇒ received a new
meaning with the advent of plate tectonics, leading to two interpretations:
they were (i) paleo- subduction zones now represented by mega-
lineaments and (ii) transform faults which were either genetically related to
oblique subduction zone of the ocean floor or extension of the transform
fault related to the beginning of ocean floor spreading beneath the intra-
continental rift (metal- rich brine in the Salton sea within the San Andreas
fault system, CA or extension of the ridge-ridge transform faults into
continental margin such as NW- trending fracture zone in Egypt and S-
Arabia that extend into the axial zone of Read sea).

3. Centrifugal dispersion of ore bodies around Precambrian tonalitic

batholiths in granite-granulite terrains and around the root zones of
Mesozoic-Cenozoic Cordilleran fold belts ⇒ emphasize a consistent
granitoid – hydrothermal ore relationship. THE CORDILLERAN
SITUATION ≡ MODERN ANALOGUE OF THE ARCHAEAN GRANITE –
GRANULITE BELT

4. Specificity of ORE – ROCK association: STRIKING in ultra mafics,

PROMINENT in mafics, FREQUENTLY CLEAR in felsics and
OCCASIONALLY CONSPICUOUS in sediments ⇒ imply common
heritage of the ores that persisted through out geological time.

5. On the continental basis, two major distribution patterns are often seen: (i)
syn-sedimentary ore deposits along the regional depositional and tectonic
fabrics in orogenic belts (eg. The Aravallis in Rajasthan and Gujarat,
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mineralized belt in western America) and (ii) those transverse to the

regional tectonic fabrics (mostly epigenetic, genetically diverse, often
lineament related and parallel to hot-spot tracts).

6. Matching of the tin belts (Bolivia & Nigeria) and BIF’s (India and Australia)
in reconstructed mega continent are features eventually traced by global
tectonics.

7. Temporal distribution pattern (as spatial) shows some distinctive features.

Compilation of age vs abundance if various metals indicate that some
metals (Au, U, Cu, Cr) formed ore deposits in rocks of all ages while
others (Pb, Zn, Sn, W, Mo) occur in rocks mainly younger than 1 Ga →
possibly indicating failure of evolutionary processes of concentration of
younger metals did not evolve before 1 by. Again deposits such as Ni-
sulfide, layered chromite, anorthosite- gabbro associated Fe-Ti- oxides
largely occur in Precambrian rocks while porphyry Cu-Mo and Hg sulfide
deposits were almost entirely formed in Mesozoic- Tertiary rocks.

8. Change in habitat: The habitat of ore formation of some metals seems to

have changed with time. Eg. Sedimentary Fe deposits formed the
Archaean deep sea, in shallow continental shelf around (2.0 – 2.2 Ga), in
epicontinental seas during Proterozoic-Mesozoic (Fe- stones) and finally
on land as bog Fe ores (and laterite).

9. Excellent positive correlation between crustal abundance and known

reserve for all metals except Al implying crustal reworking as the major ore
forming process.

INFLUENCE OF CRUSTAL EVOLUTION ON ORE FORMATION

‰ Analysis of space-time distribution pattern of ore deposits indicate that
the dominant style of mineralization has changed with time
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‰ Could this long term variation be causally linked up with the changes
and behavior, mechanism of development and dominant chemical
processes of the evolving crust as a whole?
‰ The present day crust, made up of a number of rigid plates that move
at measurable rates in response to mantle convection – is relatively
cool, strong, rigid; the plate boundaries (creative or destructive) are
tectonically mobile, mechanically weak and thermally dissipative. On
the contrary, greater part of the early Archaean crust was hot, thin and
unstable. The evidence of hot thinner crust, early Archaean crust are:
absence of ophiolite, blue schist assemblages, eclogites and rarity of
kyanite in the Archaean time implying thin and hot lithospheric crust.

CRUSTAL EVOLUTION HISTORY – Four stages

1. Earliest stage (3.8 – 2.6 Ga) ⇒ mantle fed igneous activity
2. Transitional stage (2.6 – 1.6 Ga) ⇒ tapering off of igneous activity,
enlargement, stabilization and rifting of cratons
3. Advanced stage (1.6 – 0.3 Ga) ⇒ development of welded cratons and
new network of mobile belts
4. Latest stage (< 0.3 Ga) ⇒ Plate tectonics in full operation

The Earliest stage (3.8 – 2.6 Ga)

⇒ The oldest ore deposits are those containing Cr and Cu associated with
the early ultra mafics and anorthosites of greenstone belts. Eg. Chromites
in layered anorthosites in Fiskenneset (southern Greenland, 3.7 Ga)→
these ores started forming after about 100 my of the formation of the
oldest (?) crust. Once segregated within magmas in the mantle, such
early ores of Cr, Cu and Ni deposits remained virtually free from any
typical crustal chemical processes and their abundance in Archaean is
primarily an expression of stupendous mantle-fed igneous activity during
that time.
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⇒ Archaean Au (± associated metals) in greenstones→ often spatially

related to the granites emplaced within or at the margins of the belt.
Formation of these ores was definitely a 2-stage affair, i.e., their initial
introduction through mantle-derived mafic (and ultra mafic) melts followed
by subsequent concentration into workable lodes by distinct crustal
processes by metamorphogenic fluid(s), at places aided by granitic fluids.
The process continued for about 1 by, finally coming to an end with
stabilization of granite-greenstone belts. The Proterozoic greenstone-
granite belts are relatively less mineralized compared to their Archean
counterparts.

The transitional stage (2.6 –1.6 Ga)

ƒ After widespread mobility in the earliest stage, there followed a long

period of transition when the continental crust underwent cooling and
stabilization. Two major processes (tectonics and mineralization) adapted
to cratonic regimes and ore formation was due to recycling of the
preexisting protores (and ores).
ƒ A greenstone crustal provenance of the U-Au ore is indicated by 3.1 Ga
age of thorian uraninite and monazite within the 2.7 Ga old Dominion
Reef (S. Africa). Abnormally low concentration of U, Th in granulites (and
gneisses) in deep Archaean crusts world over indicate upward migration
of these radioactive elements from their rocks and their subsequent
impoverishment.

Four different tectonic regimes, with associated igneous activities and

attendant mineralization can be identified during late Achaean-Proterozoic
time. These are:
ƒ Intra-cratonic mafic igneous activity and associated mineralization
(layered intrusives of Great dyke, Zimbabwe, 2.6 Ga; Bushveld, 1.95 Ga)
hosting Cr, Pt (+other PGE), Ni-sulfide and Fe-Ti oxide ores.
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ƒ Diamondiferous kimberlites in the intra-continental rift zones – albeit

minor compared to the Paleozoic and Mesozoic ones.
ƒ Intra-cratonic sedimentary basins led to pronounced sedimentary
differentiation and precipitation of Fe oxides. The atmospheric O2-CO2
exchange by primitive organisms aided and abetted the large-scale global
formation of BIF. Subsequent evolution of organisms with more
sophisticated metabolic mechanism dispensed with the need of Fe as O2
acceptor and thus put an end to the BIF formation.
ƒ Mobile belts, located at the margins of Au- bearing Archaean terrains and
containing reworked ore forming nutrients from the greenstone belt host
Pb-Zn deposits formed between 1.8 and 1.6 Ga (Zawar, Broken Hills)
Although older Zn deposits (Agucha, Rajasthan and Abitibi greenstone
belt) are some examples, there is rarely any Pb deposit of > 1.0 Ga age.

MOST METALLIC DEPOSITS OF EARLY – MID PROTEROZOIC OCCUR

IN INTRA-CONTINENTAL SETTING, MANY OF WHICH CAN BE
INTERPRETED AS FAILED ZONES – OCCURRED WITHIN SINGLE
MAJOR SUPER CONTINENT

The advanced stage (1.6 – 0.3 Ga)

The major changes in tectonic scenario include:

⇒ Welding of stabilized portions of the Proterozoic mobile belts to older
massifs producing large cratons
⇒ Extension and fracturing associated with the 2nd major phase of cratonic
mafic magmatism (1.4 – 0.9 Ga)
⇒ Development of new network of mobile belts

Mineralization during this stage had a modern style, with three features worth
mentioning. These are:
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1. The beginning of Sn-W mineralization around 1 Ga in two different

settings: in late orogenic (0.9 Ga) granites in Uganda and with shallower
anorogenic granites presumably affiliated to cratonic hot-spot magmatism
as in Rhondonia, Brazil. Such Sn-bearing granitoids recurred in the
Hercynian belt of W. Europe and in younger Mesozoic belts of Nigeria.

2. Cratonic mafic magmatism (II) and metallization during 1.4–0.9 Ga

includes diverse types of ore formation: Fe-Ti oxides in Duluth gabbro,
Minnesota; Michigan type Cu in Keweenawan lavas of Lake Superior,
intense Cu mineralization in Africa (Zambia, Zaire), North America and
Siberia – all bearing reprints of crustal recycling.

3. Pb-Zn deposits in cratonic environments became dominant features of

late Paleozoic sediments, represented by the Mississippi Valley (MV) type
ores. While sedimentation and diagenesis caused initial concentration,
substantial redistribution of metals (and S) occurred prior to final ore
formation ⇒ ore deposition by now was becoming a multi-cycle affair.
Predominance of carbonate rocks as a sequel to O2- rich atmosphere
aided to formation of formation of Pb-Zn ores. Additionally, the
appearance of metazoans during this period offered accommodating host
while erosion of older mineralized terrains supplied metals. THUS, THE
MINERALIZATION STYLE WAS 100% CRUSTAL.

The latest stage (< 0.3 Ga)

1. Stretching and fragmentation of large cratons, growth of new oceans,

eruption of continental flood basalts, emplacement of mantle-derived dyke
swarms and differentiated intrusives, all characterize this period with the
following mineralizations:
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2. A new surge of Cu, Ni, Pt mineralization (Siberian traps), similar to that

witnessed during Archaean mafic magmatism.

3. Initiation of major fracture systems in cratons triggered kimberlite

emplacement, particularly in the Archaean portions of the crust containing
the major global diamond resources. After a short time, they gave rise to
the placer deposits of diamond.

4. In the mobile belts a wide variety of mineralization occurred along the

advancing plate boundaries – most of these are associated with ophiolite
suits (massive Cu sulfides of Cyprus and Ni-ores of New Caledonia)

5. Tertiary Au-base metal sulfide deposits and porphyry Cu-Mo sulfide

deposits are both spatially and temporally related to granitoids emplaced
in island arcs or mountain belts above the active Benioff zones

6. Major deposits of diverse metals, including those of As, Sb and Hg during

this stage not only indicates crustal accumulation of these elements in
sufficient measures but also suggest RECYCLING of metals by
circulating fluids being the dominant ore forming process (analogous to
modern hydrothermal/geothermal ones), which were never active in the
older, immature crust.

SUMMING UP:

¾ On global scale, evolutionary processes of the earth’s crust can

explain the space-time relationships of the ore deposits.
¾ The style of mineralization has change through time.