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GENERAL
CHEMISTRY 1
SPECIALIZED SUBJECT | ACADEMIC STEM
Lesson 2: Matter and Its Various Forms 14 Lesson 19: Flame Test (Laboratory) 158
Lesson 5: Atoms, Molecules, and Ions (Lecture) 30 Lesson 22: Periodic Relationships among the Elements 190
Lesson 6: Atoms, Molecules, and Ions (Laboratory) 47 Lesson 23: Periodic Relationships of Main Group 203
Lesson 8: The Mole Concept and Molar Mass (Lecture) 60 Lesson 24: Ionic Bonds 208
Lecture 9: The Mole Concept and Molar Mass (Laboratory) 70 Lesson 25: Covalent Bonds and Lewis Structures 220
Lesson 10: Percent Composition and Chemical Formulas 76 Lesson 26: Geometry of Molecules and Polarity 236
Lesson 12: Chemical Reactions and Chemical Equations (Laboratory) 89 Lesson 27: Geometry of Molecules and Polarity 250
Lesson 17: Electromagnetic Waves, Plancks Quantum Theory, and 132 Biographical Notes 314
Photoelectric Effect Additional Images 317
Introduction
As the Commission supports DepEds implementation of Senior High School (SHS), it upholds the vision
and mission of the K to 12 program, stated in Section 2 of Republic Act 10533, or the Enhanced Basic
Education Act of 2013, that every graduate of basic education be an empowered individual, through a
program rooted on...the competence to engage in work and be productive, the ability to coexist in
fruitful harmony with local and global communities, the capability to engage in creative and critical
thinking, and the capacity and willingness to transform others and oneself.
To accomplish this, the Commission partnered with the Philippine Normal University (PNU), the National
Center for Teacher Education, to develop Teaching Guides for Courses of SHS. Together with PNU, this
Teaching Guide was studied and reviewed by education and pedagogy experts, and was enhanced with
appropriate methodologies and strategies.
Furthermore, the Commission believes that teachers are the most important partners in attaining this
goal. Incorporated in this Teaching Guide is a framework that will guide them in creating lessons and
assessment tools, support them in facilitating activities and questions, and assist them towards deeper
content areas and competencies. Thus, the introduction of the SHS for SHS Framework.
The SHS for SHS Framework, which stands for Saysay-Husay-Sarili for Senior High School, is at the
SHS for SHS core of this book. The lessons, which combine high-quality content with flexible elements to
Framework accommodate diversity of teachers and environments, promote these three fundamental concepts:
As Higher Education Institutions (HEIs) welcome the graduates of On the other hand, the Commission declared the College
the Senior High School program, it is of paramount importance to Readiness Standards that consist of the combination of knowledge,
align Functional Skills set by DepEd with the College Readiness skills, and reflective thinking necessary to participate and succeed -
Standards stated by CHED. without remediation - in entry-level undergraduate courses in
The DepEd articulated a set of 21st century skills that should be college.
embedded in the SHS curriculum across various subjects and tracks. The alignment of both standards, shown below, is also presented in
These skills are desired outcomes that K to 12 graduates should this Teaching Guide - prepares Senior High School graduates to the
possess in order to proceed to either higher education, revised college curriculum which will initially be implemented by AY
employment, entrepreneurship, or middle-level skills development. 2018-2019.
Produce all forms of texts (written, oral, visual, digital) based on:
1. Solid grounding on Philippine experience and culture;
2. An understanding of the self, community, and nation; Visual and information literacies, media literacy, critical thinking
3. Application of critical and creative thinking and doing processes; and problem solving skills, creativity, initiative and self-direction
4. Competency in formulating ideas/arguments logically, scientifically, and creatively; and
5. Clear appreciation of ones responsibility as a citizen of a multicultural Philippines and a
diverse world;
v
K to 12 BASIC EDUCATION CURRICULUM
SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, ENGINEERING AND MATHEMATICS (STEM) SPECIALIZED SUBJECT
Subject Description: Composition, structure, and properties of matter; quantitative principles, kinetics, and energetics of transformations of matter; and fundamental
concepts of organic chemistry
PERFORMANCE
CONTENT CONTENT STANDARD LEARNING COMPETENCIES CODE
STANDARD
Quarter 1 General Chemistry 1
Matter and its properties The learners The learners: The learners:
1. the particulate nature of demonstrate an 1. recognize that substances are made up STEM_GC11MP-Ia-b-1
matter understanding of: design using multimedia, of smaller particles
2. states of matter demonstrations, or models, 2. describe and/or make a representation of
a. the macroscopic the properties of matter a representation or the arrangement, relative spacing, and
STEM_GC11MP-Ia-b-2
b. microscopic view and its various forms simulation of any of the relative motion of the particles in each of
3. Physical and chemical following: the three phases of matter
properties a. atomic structure 3. distinguish between physical and
4. Extensive and intensive b. gas behavior STEM_GC11MP-Ia-b-3
chemical properties and give examples
properties c. mass relationships in 4. distinguish between extensive and
5. Ways of classifying matter d. reactions STEM_GC11MP-Ia-b-4
intensive properties and give examples
a. pure substances and 5. use properties of matter to identify
mixtures STEM_GC11MP-Ia-b-5
substances and to separate them
b. elements and 6. differentiate between pure substances
compounds STEM_GC11MP-Ia-b-6
and mixtures
c. homogeneous and 7. differentiate between elements and
heterogeneous STEM_GC11MP-Ia-b-7
compounds
mixtures 8. differentiate between homogenous and
6. Methods of separating STEM_GC11MP-Ia-b-8
heterogenous mixtures
mixtures into their 9. recognize the formulas of common
component substances STEM_GC11MP-Ia-b-9
chemical substances
10. describe separation techniques for
STEM_GC11MP-Ia-b-10
mixtures and compounds
11. compare consumer products on the basis
of their components for use, safety, STEM_GC11MP-Ia-b-11
quality and cost
12. (LAB) apply simple separation techniques
STEM_GC11MP-Ia-b-12
such as distillation, chromatography
K to 12 Senior High School STEM Specialized Subject General Chemistry 1 and 2 December 2013 Page 1 of 17
K to 12 BASIC EDUCATION CURRICULUM
SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, ENGINEERING AND MATHEMATICS (STEM) SPECIALIZED SUBJECT
PERFORMANCE
CONTENT CONTENT STANDARD LEARNING COMPETENCIES CODE
STANDARD
Measurements 1. the difference
1. differentiate between precision and
1. Accuracy and precision between accuracy STEM_GC11MT-Ib-13
accuracy
2. Significant figures in and precision
calculations 2. different sources of
3. Density measurement errors in 2. (LAB) Determine the density of liquids &
STEM_GC11MT-Ib-14
measurements solids
Atoms, Molecules, and Ions 1. atomic structure 1. explain how the basic laws of matter (law
1. Daltons atomic theory 2. formulas and of conservation of mass, law of constant
2. Basic laws of matter names of composition, law of multiple proportion) STEM_GC11AM-Ic-e-15
3. Atomic structure compounds led to the formulation of Daltons Atomic
4. Subatomic particles Theory
(protons, electrons,
neutrons) 2. describe Daltons Atomic Theory STEM_GC11AM-Ic-e-16
5. Molecules and Ions
6. Chemical Formulas 3. differentiate among atomic number, mass
7. Naming Compounds number, and isotopes, and which of these STEM_GC11AM-Ic-e-17
distinguishes one element from another
PERFORMANCE
CONTENT CONTENT STANDARD LEARNING COMPETENCIES CODE
STANDARD
9. name compounds given their formula and
write formula given the name of the STEM_GC11AM-Ic-e-23
compound
10. (LAB) Practice chemical nomenclature:
writing the chemical formulas of ionic
STEM_GC11AM-Ic-e-24
compounds; naming ionic compounds
from formulas
Stoichiometry 1. the mole concept in 1. explain relative atomic mass and average
1. Atomic mass relation to STEM_GC11S-Ie-25
atomic mass
2. Avogadros number Avogadros number
3. The mole concept and mass
2. define a mole STEM_GC11S-Ie-26
K to 12 Senior High School STEM Specialized Subject General Chemistry 1 and 2 December 2013 Page 3 of 17
K to 12 BASIC EDUCATION CURRICULUM
SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, ENGINEERING AND MATHEMATICS (STEM) SPECIALIZED SUBJECT
PERFORMANCE
CONTENT CONTENT STANDARD LEARNING COMPETENCIES CODE
STANDARD
K to 12 Senior High School STEM Specialized Subject General Chemistry 1 and 2 December 2013 Page 4 of 17
K to 12 BASIC EDUCATION CURRICULUM
SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, ENGINEERING AND MATHEMATICS (STEM) SPECIALIZED SUBJECT
PERFORMANCE
CONTENT CONTENT STANDARD LEARNING COMPETENCIES CODE
STANDARD
a. Boyles Law a gas 3. use the gas laws to determine pressure,
b. Charles Law volume, or temperature of a gas under STEM_GC11G-Ih-i-45
c. Avogadros Law certain conditions of change
3. Ideal Gas Equation 4. use the ideal gas equation to calculate
pressure, volume, temperature, or STEM_GC11G-Ih-i-46
number of moles of a gas
5. use Daltons law of partial pressures to
4. Daltons Law of partial 6. the partial pressures
relate mole fraction and partial pressure of STEM_GC11DL-Ii-47
pressures of gases in a mixture
gases in a mixture
7. quantitative
6. apply the principles of stoichiometry to
relationships of
determine the amounts (volume, number
5. Gas stoichiometry reactants and STEM_GC11GS-Ii-j-48
of moles, or mass) of gaseous reactants
products in a
and products
gaseous reaction
K to 12 Senior High School STEM Specialized Subject General Chemistry 1 and 2 December 2013 Page 5 of 17
K to 12 BASIC EDUCATION CURRICULUM
SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, ENGINEERING AND MATHEMATICS (STEM) SPECIALIZED SUBJECT
PERFORMANCE
CONTENT CONTENT STANDARD LEARNING COMPETENCIES CODE
STANDARD
4. Quantum numbers
5. write the electronic configuration of atoms STEM_GC11ES-IIa-b-56
5. Electron Configuration
a. Aufbau Principle 6. determine the magnetic property of the
b. Pauli Exclusion Principle STEM_GC11ES-IIa-b-57
atom based on its electronic configuration
c. Hunds Rule 7. draw an orbital diagram to represent the
d. Diamagnetism and STEM_GC11ES-IIa-b-58
electronic configuration of atoms
Paramagnetism 8. (LAB) Perform exercises on writing
e. Orbital diagrams STEM_GC11ES-IIa-b-59
electronic configuration
Electronic Structure and the arrangement of 1. explain the periodic recurrence of similar
Periodicity elements in the periodic properties among elements in the periodic STEM_GC11ESP-IIc-d-60
1. The Electron Configuration table and trends in the table in terms of electronic structure
and the Periodic Table properties of the 2. relate the number of valence electrons of
2. Periodic Variation in Atomic elements in terms of elements to their group number in the STEM_GC11ESP-IIc-d-61
Properties electronic structure periodic table
a. Atomic Radius and 3. compare the properties of families of
effective nuclear charge; STEM_GC11ESP-IIc-d-62
elements
the shielding effect in 4. predict the properties of individual
many-electron atoms elements based on their position in the STEM_GC11ESP-IIc-d-63
b. Ionic radius periodic table
c. Ionization energy 5. describe and explain the trends in atomic
d. Electron affinity STEM_GC11ESP-IIc-d-64
properties in the periodic table
6. (LAB) Investigate reactions of ions and
STEM_GC11ESP-IIc-d-65
apply these in qualitative analysis
7. (LAB) Determine periodic properties of
STEM_GC11ESP-IIc-d-66
the main group elements
Chemical Bonding 1. ionic bond formation 1. relate the stability of noble gases to their
Ionic Bonds in terms of atomic STEM_GC11CB-IId-g-67
electron configuration
1. The stability of noble gases properties
2. Forming ions 2. the properties of ionic 2. state the octet rule STEM_GC11CB-IId-g-68
3. Ionic bonding compounds in relation 3. determine the charge of the ions formed
4. Ionic compounds to their structure by the representative elements and relate
5. Formulas this to their ionization energy or electron STEM_GC11CB-IId-g-69
6. Structure affinity, valence electron configuration
7. Properties and position in the periodic table
K to 12 Senior High School STEM Specialized Subject General Chemistry 1 and 2 December 2013 Page 6 of 17
K to 12 BASIC EDUCATION CURRICULUM
SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, ENGINEERING AND MATHEMATICS (STEM) SPECIALIZED SUBJECT
PERFORMANCE
CONTENT CONTENT STANDARD LEARNING COMPETENCIES CODE
STANDARD
K to 12 Senior High School STEM Specialized Subject General Chemistry 1 and 2 December 2013 Page 7 of 17
K to 12 BASIC EDUCATION CURRICULUM
SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, ENGINEERING AND MATHEMATICS (STEM) SPECIALIZED SUBJECT
PERFORMANCE
CONTENT CONTENT STANDARD LEARNING COMPETENCIES CODE
STANDARD
Organic compounds the properties of organic
1. The carbon atom compounds and 1. describe the special nature of carbon STEM_GC11OC-IIg-j-84
2. Bonding patterns in polymers in terms of
2. list general characteristics of organic
hydrocarbons their structure STEM_GC11OC-IIg-j-85
compounds
3. Properties and reactivities
of common functional 3. describe the bonding in ethane,
groups ethene(ethylene) and
4. Polymers ethyne(acetylene) and explain their STEM_GC11OC-IIg-j-86
5. Biomolecules geometry in terms of hybridization and
and carbon-carbon bonds
4. describe the different functional
STEM_GC11OC-IIg-j-87
groups
5. cite uses of representative examples of
compounds bearing the different STEM_GC11OC-IIg-j-88
functional groups
6. describe structural isomerism; give
STEM_GC11OC-IIg-j-89
examples
7. describe some simple reactions of
organic compounds: combustion of
STEM_GC11OC-IIg-j-90
organic fuels, addition, condensation,
and saponification of fats
8. describe the formation and structure of
STEM_GC11OC-IIg-j-91
polymers
K to 12 Senior High School STEM Specialized Subject General Chemistry 1 and 2 December 2013 Page 8 of 17
K to 12 BASIC EDUCATION CURRICULUM
SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, ENGINEERING AND MATHEMATICS (STEM) SPECIALIZED SUBJECT
PERFORMANCE
CONTENT CONTENT STANDARD LEARNING COMPETENCIES CODE
STANDARD
13. (LAB) Perform exercises on the
structure of organic compounds using STEM_GC11OC-IIg-j-96
of models
14. (LAB) Prepare selected organic
compound and describe their STEM_GC11OC-IIg-j-97
properties
15. (LAB) Perform laboratory activities on
enzyme action, protein denaturation,
STEM_GC11OC-IIg-j-98
separation of components in coconut
milk
Third Quarter General Chemistry 2
Intermolecular Forces and 1. the properties of design a simple
1. use the kinetic molecular model to
Liquids and Solids liquids and solids to investigation to determine STEM_GC11IMF-IIIa-c-99
explain properties of liquids and solids
1. Kinetic molecular model of the nature of forces the effect on boiling point
liquids and solids between particles or freezing point when a 2. describe and differentiate the types of STEM_GC11IMF-IIIa-c-
2. Intermolecular Forces 2. phase changes in solid is dissolved in water intermolecular forces 100
3. Dipole-dipole forces terms of the
4. Ion-dipole forces accompanying 3. predict the intermolecular forces STEM_GC11IMF-IIIa-c-
5. Dispersion forces changes in energy possible for a molecule 101
6. Hydrogen bonds and forces between
7. Properties of liquids and particles 4. describe the following properties of
IMF liquids, and explain the effect of
8. Surface Tension intermolecular forces on these STEM_GC11IMF-IIIa-c-
9. Viscosity properties: surface tension, viscosity, 102
10. Vapour pressure, boiling vapor pressure, boiling point, and
point molar heat of vaporization
11. Molar heat of vaporization 5. explain the properties of water with its
STEM_GC11IMF-IIIa-c-
12. Structure and Properties of molecular structure and intermolecular
103
Water forces
13. Types and properties of 6. describe the difference in structure of STEM_GC11IMF-IIIa-c-
solids crystalline and amorphous solids 104
14. Crystalline and amorphous
solids 7. describe the different types of crystals
STEM_GC11IMF-IIIa-c-
15. Types of Crystals ionic, and their properties: ionic, covalent,
105
molecular, and metallic.
K to 12 Senior High School STEM Specialized Subject General Chemistry 1 and 2 December 2013 Page 9 of 17
K to 12 BASIC EDUCATION CURRICULUM
SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, ENGINEERING AND MATHEMATICS (STEM) SPECIALIZED SUBJECT
PERFORMANCE
CONTENT CONTENT STANDARD LEARNING COMPETENCIES CODE
STANDARD
covalent, molecular, 8. describe the nature of the following
metallic phase changes in terms of energy
STEM_GC11IMF-IIIa-c-
16. Phase Changes change and the increase or decrease in
106
- phase diagrams of water molecular order: solid-liquid, liquid-
and carbon dioxide vapor, and solid-vapor
9. interpret the phase diagram of water STEM_GC11IMF-IIIa-c-
and carbon dioxide 107
10. (LAB) Measure and explain the
STEM_GC11IMF-IIIa-c-
difference in the viscosity of some
108
liquids
11. (LAB) Determine and explain the
STEM_GC11IMF-IIIa-c-
heating and cooling curve of a
109
substance
Physical Properties of properties of solutions, 1. describe the different types of
Solutions solubility, and the STEM_GC11PP-IIId-f-110
solutions
1. Types of Solutions stoichiometry of
2. use different ways of expressing
2. Energy of solution reactions in solutions
concentration of solutions: percent by
formation
mass, mole fraction, molarity, molality, STEM_GC11PP-IIId-f-111
3. Concentration Units and
percent by volume, percent by mass,
comparison of
ppm
concentration units
a. percent by mass, by 3. perform stoichiometric calculations for
STEM_GC11PP-IIId-f-112
volume reactions in solution
b. mole fraction
4. explain the effect of temperature on
c. molality STEM_GC11PP-IIId-f-113
the solubility of a solid and of a gas
d. molarity
e. percent by volume, 5. explain the effect of pressure on the
percent by mass, ppm STEM_GC11PP-IIId-f-114
solubility of a gas
4. Solution stoichiometry
5. Factors affecting Solubility 6. describe the effect of concentration on
STEM_GC11PP-IIId-f-115
6. Colligative Properties of the colligative properties of solutions
Nonelectrolyte and 7. differentiate the colligative properties
electrolyte solutions of nonelectrolyte solutions and of STEM_GC11PP-IIId-f-116
electrolyte solutions
K to 12 Senior High School STEM Specialized Subject General Chemistry 1 and 2 December 2013 Page 10 of 17
K to 12 BASIC EDUCATION CURRICULUM
SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, ENGINEERING AND MATHEMATICS (STEM) SPECIALIZED SUBJECT
PERFORMANCE
CONTENT CONTENT STANDARD LEARNING COMPETENCIES CODE
STANDARD
8. Calculate boiling point elevation and
freezing point depression from the STEM_GC11PP-IIId-f-117
concentration of a solute in a solution
9. calculate molar mass from colligative
STEM_GC11PP-IIId-f-118
property data
PERFORMANCE
CONTENT CONTENT STANDARD LEARNING COMPETENCIES CODE
STANDARD
components reactants
4. Collision theory 3. differentiate zero, first-, and second-
5. Catalysis STEM_GC11CK-IIIi-j-132
order reactions
4. write the rate law for first-order
STEM_GC11CK-IIIi-j-133
reaction
5. discuss the effect of reactant
concentration on the half-time of a STEM_GC11CK-IIIi-j-134
first-order reaction
6. explain the effect of temperature on
STEM_GC11CK-IIIi-j-135
the rate of a reaction
7. explain reactions qualitatively in terms
STEM_GC11CK-IIIi-j-136
of molecular collisions
8. explain activation energy and how a
STEM_GC11CK-IIIi-j-137
catalyst affects the reaction rate
9. cite and differentiate the types of
STEM_GC11CK-IIIi-j-138
catalysts
10. (LAB)Determine the effect of various
STEM_GC11CK-IIIi-j-139
factors on the rate of a reaction
Fourth Quarter General Chemistry 2
Chemical Thermodynamics spontaneous change, prepare a poster on a 1. predict the spontaneity of a process based
1. Spontaneous processes entropy, and free energy specific application of one STEM_GC11CT-IVa-b-140
on entropy
2. Entropy of the following:
2. determine whether entropy increases or
3. The Second Law of a. Acid-base
decreases if the following are changed: STEM_GC11CT-IVa-b-141
Thermodynamics equilibrium
temperature, phase, number of particles
4. Gibbs Free Energy and b. Electrochemistry
Chemical Equilibrium 3. explain the second law of
STEM_GC11CT-IVa-b-142
Include in the poster the thermodynamics and its significance
concepts, principles, and 4. use Gibbs free energy to determine the
chemical reactions involved, STEM_GC11CT-IVa-b-143
direction of a reaction
and diagrams of processes
Chemical Equilibrium Chemical equilibrium and other relevant
1. The equilibrium condition and Le Chateliers 1. describe reversible reactions STEM_GC11CE-IVb-e-144
materials
K to 12 Senior High School STEM Specialized Subject General Chemistry 1 and 2 December 2013 Page 12 of 17
K to 12 BASIC EDUCATION CURRICULUM
SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, ENGINEERING AND MATHEMATICS (STEM) SPECIALIZED SUBJECT
PERFORMANCE
CONTENT CONTENT STANDARD LEARNING COMPETENCIES CODE
STANDARD
2. Writing the reaction Principle 2. explain chemical equilibrium in terms of
quotient/equilibrium the reaction rates of the forward and the STEM_GC11CE-IVb-e-145
constant expression reverse reaction
3. Predicting the direction of a 3. write expressions for the reaction
reaction STEM_GC11CE-IVb-e-146
quotient/equilibrium constants
4. Significance of the
equilibrium constant 4. explain the significance of the value of the
STEM_GC11CE-IVb-e-147
5. Le Chateliers Principle equilibrium constant.
5. calculate equilibrium constant and the
pressure or concentration of reactants or STEM_GC11CE-IVb-e-148
products in an equilibrium mixture
6. state the Le Chateliers principle and apply
it qualitatively to describe the effect of
STEM_GC11CE-IVb-e-149
changes in pressure, concentration and
temperature on a system at equilibrium
7. (LAB) Describe the behavior of reversible
STEM_GC11CE-IVb-e-150
reactions
8. (LAB) Describe the behavior of a reaction
mixture when the following takes place:
a. change in concentration of reactants STEM_GC11CE-IVb-e-151
or products
b. change in temperature
9. (LAB) Perform calculations involving
STEM_GC11CE-IVb-e-152
equilibrium of gaseous reactions
Acid-Base Equilibria and Salt 1. acid-base equilibrium
1. define Bronsted acids and bases STEM_GC11AB-IVf-g-153
Equilibria and its applications
1. Bronsted acids and bases to the pH of 2. discuss the acid-base property of water STEM_GC11AB-IVf-g-154
2. The acid-base properties of solutions and the
water use of buffer 3. define pH STEM_GC11AB-IVf-g-155
3. pH- a measure of acidity solutions
4. Strength of acids and bases 2. solubility equilibrium 4. calculate pH from the concentration of
5. Weak acids/weak bases and and its applications hydrogen ion or hydroxide ions in STEM_GC11AB-IVf-g-156
aqueous solutions
K to 12 Senior High School STEM Specialized Subject General Chemistry 1 and 2 December 2013 Page 13 of 17
K to 12 BASIC EDUCATION CURRICULUM
SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, ENGINEERING AND MATHEMATICS (STEM) SPECIALIZED SUBJECT
PERFORMANCE
CONTENT CONTENT STANDARD LEARNING COMPETENCIES CODE
STANDARD
ionization constants 5. determine the relative strength of an acid
6. Relationship between the or a base, from the value of the ionization STEM_GC11AB-IVf-g-157
ionization constants of acids constant of a weak acid or base
and their conjugate bases 6. determine the pH of a solution of weak
STEM_GC11AB-IVf-g-158
7. The Common Ion Effect acid or weak base
8. Buffer solutions
7. explain the Common Ion Effect STEM_GC11AB-IVf-g-159
9. Solubility equilibria
8. describe how a buffer solution maintains
STEM_GC11AB-IVf-g-160
its pH
9. calculate the pH of a buffer solution using
STEM_GC11AB-IVf-g-161
the Henderson-Hasselbalch equation
10. explain and apply the solubility product
STEM_GC11AB-IVf-g-164
constant to predict the solubility of salts
11. describe the common ion effect on the
STEM_GC11AB-IVf-g-165
solubility of a precipitate
12. explain the effect of pH on the solubility
STEM_GC11AB-IVf-g-166
of a precipitate
13. (LAB) Determine the pH of solutions of a
weak acid at different concentrations and STEM_GC11AB-IVf-g-167
in the presence of its salt
14. (LAB)Determine the behavior of the pH
of buffered solutions upon the addition of STEM_GC11AB-IVf-g-168
a small amount of acid and base
Electrochemistry Redox reactions as 1. define oxidation and reduction reactions
STEM_GC11AB-IVf-g-169
1. Redox reactions applied to galvanic and
2. Galvanic cells electrolytic cells 2. balance redox reactions using the change
3. Standard reduction in oxidation number method STEM_GC11AB-IVf-g-170
potentials
4. Spontaneity of redox 3. draw the structure of a galvanic cell and
reactions label the parts STEM_GC11AB-IVf-g-171
5. Batteries
6. Corrosion
7. Electrolysis 4. identify the reaction occurring in the
different parts of the cell STEM_GC11AB-IVf-g-172
K to 12 Senior High School STEM Specialized Subject General Chemistry 1 and 2 December 2013 Page 14 of 17
K to 12 BASIC EDUCATION CURRICULUM
SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, ENGINEERING AND MATHEMATICS (STEM) SPECIALIZED SUBJECT
PERFORMANCE
CONTENT CONTENT STANDARD LEARNING COMPETENCIES CODE
STANDARD
5. write the half-equations for the reactions
occurring in the electrodes STEM_GC11AB-IVf-g-173
K to 12 Senior High School STEM Specialized Subject General Chemistry 1 and 2 December 2013 Page 15 of 17
K to 12 BASIC EDUCATION CURRICULUM
SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, ENGINEERING AND MATHEMATICS (STEM) SPECIALIZED SUBJECT
PERFORMANCE
CONTENT CONTENT STANDARD LEARNING COMPETENCIES CODE
STANDARD
commercial electrolytic processes
K to 12 Senior High School STEM Specialized Subject General Chemistry 1 and 2 December 2013 Page 16 of 17
K to 12 BASIC EDUCATION CURRICULUM
SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, ENGINEERING AND MATHEMATICS (STEM) SPECIALIZED SUBJECT
Sample: STEM_GC11AB-IVf-g-183
DOMAIN/ COMPONENT CODE
Learning Competencies
At the end of the lesson, the learners: 6. Differentiate between pure substances and mixtures
1. Recognize that substances are made of smaller particles (STEM_GGC11-MP-Ia-b-6);
(STEM_GGC11-MP-Ia-b-1); 7. Differentiate between elements and compounds
2. Describe and make a representation of the arrangements, (STEM_GGC11-MP-Ia-b-7);
relative spacing, and relative motion of the particles in the three 8. Differentiate between homogenous and heterogeneous
phases of matter (STEM_GGC11-MP-Ia-b-2); mixtures (STEM_GGC11-MP-Ia-b-8);
3. Distinguish between physical and chemical properties and give 9. Recognize the formula of common chemical substances
examples (STEM_GGC11-MP-Ia-b-3); (STEM_GGC11-MP-Ia-b-9);
4. Distinguish between extensive and intensive properties and give 10. Describe separation techniques for mixtures and compounds
examples (STEM_GGC11-MP-Ia-b-4); (STEM_GGC11-MP-Ia-b-10); and
5. Use properties of matter to identify substances and to separate 11. Compare consumer products on the basis of their components
them (STEM_GGC11-MP-Ia-b-5); for use, safety, quality, and cost (STEM_GGC11-MP-Ia-b-11).
1
INTRODUCTION (5 minutes) Teacher Tip
1. Introduce the learning objectives by using the suggested protocol (Read-aloud): Display the objectives prominently on the
board, so that the learners can track the
a. I will be able to describe the particulate nature of the different forms of matter
progress of their learning.
b. I will be able to classify the properties of matter
c. I will be able to differentiate pure substance and mixtures; elements and compounds;
homogeneous and heterogeneous mixtures
d. I will be able to recognize the formulas of some common substances
e. I will be able to discuss methods to separate the components of a mixtures
f. I will be able to recognize chemical substances present in some consumer products
Teacher Tip
2. Present the keywords for the concepts to be learned:
List these keywords on the board or through
a. Atoms PowerPoint slides. Alternatively, you can write
b. Chemical properties them on flip charts. The learners will be asked
c. Compounds to complete a concept map using words from
this list.
d. Distillation
e. Elements Another approach is to write these keywords
f. Extensive properties in meta cards of different colors.
g. Filtration
h. Gas
i. Heterogeneous mixtures
j. Homogeneous mixtures
k. Intensive properties
l. Ions
m. Liquid
n. Magnetic separation
o. Mixtures
p. Molecules
q. Physical properties
r. Pure substances
s. Solid
2
MOTIVATION (15 minutes) Teacher Tip
1. Present two 60-mL plastic syringes with the needle removed and replaced by a seal. One syringe This demonstration is meant to make them
realize the usefulness of visualizing matter
contains a small block of wood, while the other contains entrapped air. The plunger is set to touch being made up of particles.
the wood block, as shown below:
It is likely that their answers will be based on
what they will recall from experience and from
what they learned from junior high school:
that the plunger can be moved more easily in
the syringe containing an entrapped gas than
in the other syringe containing a solid.
A gas is made up of particles that are far
2. Ask them what will happen if the plunger will be pushed down the syringe. apart from each other, which can be
pushed closer towards each other;
3. Make one learner push the plunger in the two syringes, and check if they have predicted the A solid is made up of particles which are
behavior of the plunger in the two syringes correctly. compact, so that it is no longer possible
to push these particles closer to each
4. Ask them to answer the question: Why is it easier to compress the entrapped air than the wood other.
block?
5. Highlight that a particulate model for matter is very useful in explaining the properties of matter. Let them recognize that the keywords to be
encountered in the lesson are commonly used
Point out that some basic concepts on matter that have been introduced in junior high school will to describe the things around them.
be reviewed in this lesson.
Teacher Tip
Make them take turns in filling up each box
INSTRUCTION (60 minutes) with the correct keyword (or in placing the
1. Construct the following block diagram and make the learners fill it up using the keywords listed in proper meta cards). The block diagram can
the board. be presented through PowerPoint slides
projected on a white board. Alternatively, it
can be prepared on flip charts or on manila
paper.
3
3. Construct the following block diagram and make them fill it up using the keywords listed in the Answer for Number 3
board. The block diagram can be presented through
PowerPoint slides projected on a white board.
Alternatively, it can be prepared on flip charts
or on manila paper.
4. For the bottom layer of boxes, ask them to illustrate how the particles are distributed or arranged
in each state of matter using circles.
5. Ask them to answer the following questions: Answer for Number 5
a. How separated are the particles in each state of matter? Solid: closely packed; restricted motion
b. How free are the particles to move in each state of matter? Liquid: far apart; free movement
Gas: very far apart; very free (chaotic)
movement
6. Ask them to classify the following substances according to the three states of matter:
a. Iron nail Answer for Number 6
b. Sugar a. Solid
c. Syrup b. Solid
c. Liquid
d. Air d. Gas
e. Ice e. Solid
f. Alcohol f. Liquid
4
7. Construct the following block diagram and make them fill it up using the keywords listed in the Answer for Number 7
board. The block diagram can be presented through
PowerPoint slides projected on a white board.
Alternatively, it can be prepared on flip charts
or on manila paper.
5
10. Ask them to classify the following examples as intensive or extensive properties: Answer for Number 10
a. Boiling point a. Intensive property
b. Extensive property
b. Weight c. Extensive property
c. Volume d. Intensive property
d. Density
6
13. Present the following substances (or pictures of these substances), and ask them to answer the Answer for Number 13
question: Which of the following are pure substances and which are mixtures? a. Pure substance
b. Pure substance
a. Table sugar c. Mixture
b. Table salt d. Mixture
e. Pure substance
c. Iodized salt f. Mixture
d. Brown sugar g. Pure substance
h. Mixture
e. Distilled water
f. Soft drinks
g. Oxygen gas (in tank)
h. Human breath
7
16. Present the following mixtures (or pictures of these mixtures), and ask them the question: Which of Answer for Number 16
the following are homogeneous mixtures? Which are heterogeneous mixtures? a. Homogeneous mixture
b. Heterogeneous mixture
a. Rubbing alcohol c. Heterogeneous mixture
b. Mixture of water and oil d. Homogeneous mixture
e. Homogeneous mixture
c. Mixture of salt and pepper
d. Carbonated soft drink
e. Human breath
Answer for Number 17
The block diagram can be presented through
17. Construct the following block diagram and make them fill it up using the keywords listed in the PowerPoint slides projected on a white board.
board. Alternatively, it can be prepared on flip charts
or on manila paper.
8
ENRICHMENT (30 minutes) Teacher Tip
1. Present a demonstration for the visualization of matter. This will reinforce the concept on the This activity can be done at the end of the
differences between pure substances, mixtures, elements, and compounds. See attached sheet. lecture session.
2. Then conduct the learners activity on Visualization and Classification of Matter. See the teachers
guide and learners worksheet.
EVALUATION
EXCEEDS EXPECTATIONS MEETS EXPECTATIONS NEEDS IMPROVEMENT NOT VISIBLE
The learner classified six or more The learner classified four to five The learner classified less than The learner did not do the
substances in Part 1 correctly, and substances in Part 1 correctly, and four substances in Part 1 correctly, assigned tasks.
ten or more substances in their six to nine substances in their list and less than five substances in
list in Part 2. for Part 2. their list for Part 2.
9
VISUALIZATION AND CLASSIFICATION OF MATTER
Introduction
In this activity, physical models, such as balls or beads, will be used to illustrate that matter is made up of particles. A ball or a bead will
represent an atom of an element, and a combination of balls or bead will represent a compound. A collection of single balls and/or combined
balls will be used to show the difference between pure substances and mixtures.
This activity was adapted from Chemistry with Charisma, published by Terrific Science Press.
Materials
a. A set of balls or beads of two or more colors
b. Zip lock bags
Procedure
1. Assemble the following sets of balls and place them in 4. Ask them the following questions:
unlabelled zip lock bags. a. Are the balls the same or different?
b. Do the balls represent a pure substance of a mixture?
c. Do the balls represent an element or a compound?
5. Repeat Step 3 with the mixture set.
6. Repeat Step 3 with the compound set.
7. Repeat Step 3 with the diatomic set. Highlight and discuss the
answer to the last question.
8. Introduce the concept of formulas. Each ball of a certain color
will be assigned a letter (e.g. A for the white, B for the black,
2. Show the bags to the learners and tell them that their task is to and C for another color).
find out if the bag contains a pure substance or a mixture. If the 9. Ask them for a possible formula for:
content is a pure substance, they have to determine if it is a a. the monoatomic element (Answer: A)
monoatomic element, a diatomic element, or a compound. b. the diatomic element (Answer: A2)
3. Show them the bag with monoatomic elements, and ask them if c. the compound (Answer: AB)
it is a pure substance or a mixture. Take out the contents from
the bag one by one, and show them to the learners.
10
LEARNER WORKSHEET
PURE SUBSTANCE or ELEMENT(S) or FORMULA FOR EACH
BAG LABEL
MIXTURE COMPOUND(S) SUBSTANCE IN THE BAG
11
LEARNERS ACTIVITY: TEACHERS GUIDE
Introduction
In this activity, physical models, such as balls or beads, will be used to illustrate that matter is made up of particles. A ball or a bead will
represent an atom of an element, and a combination of balls or bead will represent a compound. A collection of single balls and/or combined
balls will be used to show the difference between pure substances and mixtures.
This activity was adapted from Chemistry with Charisma, published by Terrific Science Press.
Materials
A set of balls or beads of two or more colors
Zip lock bags
Procedure
1. Assemble the following sets of balls and place them in zip lock 2. Distribute the set of bags and ask the learners to fill up the
bags labeled only with the letters. provided worksheet (see below) using the bags labeled A to H.
3. Ask them to compare their results.
4. For the bags containing models of compounds, ask them to
write the formula of the compound represented by the model.
12
LEARNERS ACTIVITY: LEARNER WORKSHEET:
VISUALIZATION AND CLASSIFICATION OF MATTER
Introduction
In this activity, physical models, such as balls or beads, will be used to illustrate that matter is made up of particles. A ball or a bead will
represent an atom of an element, and a combination of balls or bead will represent a compound. A collection of single balls and/or combined
balls will be used to show the difference between pure substances and mixtures. This activity was adapted from Chemistry with Charisma,
published by Terrific Science Press.
Materials
1. A set of balls or beads of two or more colors
2. Zip lock bags
Procedure
1. Obtain a set of bags with physical models of the particles of different substances from your teacher.
2. Examine the particles in each bag and classify them as pure substances or mixtures, monoatomic elements, or diatomic elements. Fill up
the worksheet provided below using the bags labeled A to H.
3. For the bags with models of compounds, write the formula of the compound represented by the model.
H
13
General Chemistry 1 120 MINS
Resources
(1) Separation of a mixture [PDF file]. Retrieved from Princeton High
School web site: http://phs.princetonk12.org/teachers/jgiammanco/
Chem%201/Labs/C2-SepMixtureLab.pdf
(2) Solar still challenge [PDF file]. Retrieved from American Chemical
Society web site: http://www.acs.org/content/dam/acsorg/global/
iyc2011/global-water-experiment-purification.pdf
14
INTRODUCTION (10 minutes) Teacher Tip
1. This introduction can serve as a pre-laboratory discussion prior to the experiment proper. A laboratory experiment sheet has to be prepared
and distributed to the learners.
2. Ask the learners to recall how to differentiate a pure substance from a mixture.
3. Point out that mixtures are common and that in some situations, it is necessary to separate the The experiment described in Annex 1 could be
adopted or revised to suit the available facilities.
components or to isolate one component of a mixture.
4. State the objective of the experiment they will be performing.
Teacher Tip
MOTIVATION (5 minutes) This could be given as an assignment before the
1. Ask them how table salt is obtained from seawater.
laboratory session. They will be asked to search
2. As an alternative, you can ask how drinking water is obtained from seawater. the internet on how these processes are actually
carried out.
Teacher Tip
INSTRUCTION (90 minutes) Low-cost (or zero-cost materials) can be used in
1. Provide each group with a prepared mixture of salt, sand, and iron filings. place of the materials described in the experiment
sheet:
2. Ask them to follow the procedure in the experiment sheet.
a. A vial can be used instead of the evaporating
dish, and the watch glass can be omitted. A
moistened filter paper can be used to cover
the vial.
b. A vial or a small bottle can be used in place of
a beaker.
c. A plastic funnel used at home can be a
substitute for the glass funnel.
15
ENRICHMENT (15 minutes) Teacher Tip
1. In the post-laboratory discussion, ask them what properties of the components were used to The volatile nature of naphthalene enabled its
sublimation. Point out that the odor of
separate each from the other. naphthalene is caused by the vapor it produces.
2. Discuss possible alternative procedures for the separation.
The difference in the solubility of sodium chloride
3. They can be asked to perform the Solar Still Challenge, as described in the following internet and sand (or silicon dioxide) in water was used in
webpage: http://www.acs.org/content/dam/acsorg/global/iyc2011/global-water-experiment- separating the two components.
purification.pdf
An alternative procedure could involve the
differences in the solubility of the components in
alcohol and in water.
EVALUATION
a. Naphthalene dissolves in ethanol but not in
1. Ask them to submit a report on the experiment.
water.
2. They could be provided with a worksheet that they have to fill up, which could include some b. Sodium chloride dissolves in water, but not in
questions. alcohol.
c. Silica does not dissolve in alcohol and in
water.
EVALUATION
EXCEEDS EXPECTATIONS MEETS EXPECTATIONS NEEDS IMPROVEMENT NOT VISIBLE
16
SEPARATION OF THE COMPONENTS IN A MIXTURE
Introduction
Several components, which retain their identity and characteristic properties, are present in a mixture. No chemical reactions occur between
the components of a mixture. Many of the materials surrounding us are mixtures, such as soil, cement, soft drinks, and pharmaceuticals. In this
experiment, the components of a mixture will be separated from each other. The techniques applied for this separation does not involve a
chemical reaction, so that the isolated components will retain their identity.
Materials
1. A mixture containing the following: 4. Funnel
a. Sodium chloride, NaCl 5. Watch glass
b. Naphthalene 6. Masking tape
c. Silicon dioxide, SiO2 (sand) 7. Evaporating dish
2. Digital balance 8. Filter paper
3. Beaker 9. Hot plate
Procedure
1. Weigh 0.50 to 0.60 g of the mixture on the digital balance.
2. Place the mixture on an evaporating dish and cover it with the pre-weighed watch glass.
3. Seal the sides with masking tape.
4. Place a moist tissue paper over the watch glass, and gently heat the evaporating dish until white vapors are emitted.
5. Cool the setup and carefully remove the watch glass. Describe the solid adhering to the watch glass.
6. Pour distilled water into the mixture remaining in the evaporating dish and stir it carefully.
7. Filter the mixture and collect the filtrate in the pre-weighed beaker. Wash the residual solid in the filter paper with a small amount of water,
combining the washing with the filtrate.
8. Gently heat to evaporate the water in the filtrate.
9. Cool the beaker. Describe the solid remaining in it
10. Dry the filter paper with the sand in an oven at 100oC. Describe the solid remaining in the filter paper.
17
Treatment of Results
1. Record the description of the substances isolated in the experiment. Tabulate your data below:
DESCRIPTION
2. Knowing the substances present in the mixture, identify the isolated solids.
IDENTITY
3. Devise another procedure to separate the components of the mixture used in the experiment.
18
General Chemistry 1 60 MINS
Lesson 3: Measurements
Content Standard
The learners demonstrate an understanding of measurement and the
Lesson Outline
difference between accuracy and precision.
Introduction Communicating Learning Objectives 3
Performance Standards Motivation Why is Measurement Important? 7
The learners shall be able to:
1. Discuss the need and describe the result of a measurement, in general;
Instruction Demonstration 30
2. Differentiate between the accuracy and precision of a measurement; Enrichment Laboratory Experiment 15
3. Point out possible sources of errors in a measurement; and
Evaluation Take-home Activity 5
4. Carry out a measurement and report the results correctly.
Materials
Projector, Computer, Flip charts
Learning Competencies
Resources
At the end of the lesson, the learners:
(1) Chang, R. & Goldsby, K. (2016). Chemistry. (12th ed.). New York:
1. Explain the need for measurements; McGraw-Hill.
2. Describe how to carry out measurements of length, mass, and volume; and
3. Dfferentiate between precision and accuracy (STEM_GC11MT-Ib-13).
19
INTRODUCTION (3 minutes) Teacher Tip
1. Introduce the following learning objectives using the suggested protocol (Read-aloud): The lesson is essentially a review of some concepts
presented and used in junior high school.
a. I will be able to describe the need for measurement
b. I will be able to carry out simple measurements of length, volume, and mass
c. I will be able to differentiate the accuracy and the precision of a measurement
Teacher Tip
2. Present the keywords for the concepts to be learned: List these keywords on the board or through
a. Measurements PowerPoint slides. Alternatively, you can write
them on flip charts.
b. Units of measurement
c. Accuracy
d. Precision
e. Significant figures
f. Errors
PROPERTY SI Units
Teacher Tip
Length The table can be presented through PowerPoint
slides projected on a white board. Alternatively, it
Mass can be prepared on flip charts or on manila paper.
It is expected that they will be able to fill up the
Volume
table, recalling what they have learned from junior
high school.
Time
Length
7. Ask them to cite some examples where these units of measurements are used in real life.
Mass
21
MEASUREMENTS TRIAL 1 TRIAL 2 TRIAL 3
Length
Mass
Volume
Teacher Tip
Time The correct results will include two decimal units.
10. Explain that based on the calibration of the ruler, the measurement is certain until the first Let them examine the ruler they used.
decimal unit and that the result can include one insignificant or uncertain figure.
At the end of this short activity, you should
address misconceptions that they have on the
! concepts presented.
12. Write the actual length, width, and thickness of the book on the board, and ask them to
compare their results with this value.
22
Ask them to answer the following questions: Answer Key
It is likely that:
a. Are the results of each measurement (length, width, or thickness) close to the true value?
a. The results will be close to the true value;
b. Were the measurements accurate or precise? b. The measurements were accurate
14. Evaluating the accuracy of a measurement will require the true value. However, the true value
for the dimensions of the book is not available. Point out that if twenty or more
measurements were done, the mean value can be taken as the true value. This is an
assumption in statistics.
15. Draw the following dot plots on the board, and explain that each dot is the result of a
measurement whose value is indicated in the horizontal (or x-) axis. Tell them that the plot Teacher Tip
presents the results of six measurements of the weight of a pebble whose true weight is 8.0 g. The dot plot can be drawn on a manila paper
before class, or presented through a PowerPoint
Ask them to determine whether each measurement is accurate or inaccurate, and precise or
slide.
imprecise.
Answer Key
(A) Accurate and precise
(B) Accurate and imprecise
(C) Inaccurate and imprecise
(D) Inaccurate and precise
23
16. Highlight that the measurement they made could have errors, which could:
I. Cause the result to be far from the true value (low accuracy). These errors are known as
systematic errors.
II. Cause the results to be different from each other (low precision). These errors are known
as random errors.
Teacher Tip
Point out that the errors could be due to the
Ask them to answer the question: What possible errors did the person who made the
measuring instrument or due to the person doing
measurements commit to lower the accuracy of the results? To lower the precision of the results? the measurement
EVALUATION (5 minutes)
1. Assign them to read the labels of some canned or bottled goods in the kitchen, and report
the mass or volume of the contents.
2. Let them classify the following measurement data as high precision or low precision:
a. Volume of a liquid: 11.0 cm3, 11.3 cm3, 10.9 cm3, 11.1 cm3
b. Mass of a solid: 25.0 g, 23.0 g, 20.0 g, 28.0 g
24
General Chemistry 1 120 MINS
Resources
(1) Laboratory experiment in Annex 1
25
Teacher Tip
INTRODUCTION (5 minutes) A laboratory experiment sheet has to be prepared
1. State the objective of the experiment that the learners will be performing. and distributed to the learners. The experiment
2. Ask them to recall the definition of density and the formula for calculating it. found in the Annex makes use of low-cost
3. Review the methods for measuring weight and volume. materials.
Introduction
Density is an important property of matter. It expresses the weight of a unit volume of a substance, is used to characterize substances, and can
provide a means for the identification of a solid, a liquid, or a gas.
In this experiment, the density of an aqueous solution will be determined by measuring the weight of different volumes of these solutions.
Several solutions containing different concentration of a solute will be assigned to different groups, and the variation of the density of the
solutions with the solute concentration will be studied. The behavior that you will observe has important applications in industrial and in health
monitoring.
Materials
1. NaCl solution, in 5%, 10%, 15%, and 20% concentrations
2. Digital balance
3. Syringe, 1 mL
4. Plastic mini tray
Procedure
1. Place the plastic mini tray on the stage of the digital balance and measure its weight.
2. Measure 1 mL of the test solution into the syringe, making sure that no air bubbles are trapped.
3. Slowly transfer the liquid in the syringe onto the mini tray. Measure the weight of the tray with the solution in it.
4. Repeat Steps 1 to 3 to provide a duplicate measurement. This will be used to check the repeatability of the results.
5. Repeat the whole procedure using 2 mL and 3 mL of the solution.
27
Treatment of results
1. Record the weight of the mini tray at the beginning of the experiment. Record the weight after each addition of 1 mL, 2 mL, and 3 mL of
the sample solution.
2. From the data above, calculate the weight of each of the different volumes that you have added to the plastic mini tray by subtracting the
weight before the addition from the weight after the addition. Calculate the average value of the measured weights.
Weight of 1 mL solution
Weight of 2 mL solution
Weight of 3 mL solution
28
3. From the data in the previous table, calculate the density of the solution. Calculate the average value of the density.
Based on 1 mL solution
Based on 2 mL solution
Based on 3 mL solution
AVERAGE
4. Obtain the results from the other groups who used different concentrations of the solution. Tabulate the density of the various solutions
studied.
Density, g/mL
5. Plot the concentration of the solution (in the x-axis) against its density (in the y-axis). Infer how the density varies based on the concentration
of the solution.
29
General Chemistry 1 160 MINS
30
Teacher Tip
INTRODUCTION (5 minutes) Display the objectives prominently on the board,
1. Introduce the following learning objectives using the suggested protocol (Read-aloud):
so that the learners can track the progress of their
a. I will be able to describe and discuss the basic laws of chemical change learning.
b. I will be able to discuss how Daltons Atomic Theory could explain the basic laws of
chemical changes
c. I will be able to give the information provided by the atomic number and mass number of
an atom and its isotopes
d. I will be able to differentiate atoms, molecules, and ions
e. I will be able to write the chemical formula of some molecules
f. I will be able to differentiate a molecular formula and an empirical formula
g. I will be able to give the name of a compound, given its chemical formula
Teacher Tip
2. Present the keywords for the concepts to be learned:
List these keywords on the board. They will be
a. Law of Conservation of Matter asked to complete a concept map based on words
on this list.
b. Law of Definite Proportion
c. Law of Multiple Proportion
d. Daltons Atomic Theory
e. Atomic number
f. Mass number
g. Isotope
h. Atom
i. Molecule
j. Ion
k. Chemical formula
l. Molecular formula
m. Empirical formula
31
Teacher Tip
MOTIVATION (5 minutes) The law might have been presented in the Science
1. Call one of the learners to the front and give him/her a piece of paper. Ask him/her to cut the
course in junior high school. In this case, ask a
paper in half, and then cut one of the halves again in half, and again and again. Let him/her learner to state the law.A PowerPoint slide can be
proceed as long as s/he can cut a piece into half. prepared for this part.
2. Ask him/her the question: Can you go on cutting the paper into half?
3. Tell him/her that though the cutting can go on and on mentally, there is a physical limit to this
process. It is impossible to cut the paper into half forever. There is a limit a point where the
piece can no longer be divided.
4. Highlight that the limit is an indivisible piece, which was called by the Greek philosopher
Democritus as the atom.
5. However, beginning in the late 1800s, experiments have indicated that atoms are made up of
smaller particles.
6. Ask them the question: What are these particles that make up the atom?
7. Point out that the science of chemistry is based on the concept of the atom and molecules.
Knowledge of the atoms and molecules in the environment and in biological systems has
provided an understanding of the changes occurring in them. It has also allowed the
prediction of their behavior and the solution to any problem observed in their behavior.
32
He weighed the system, and then subjected it to high temperature. During the heating, the red Teacher Tip
solid turned into a silvery liquid. This observation indicated that a chemical reaction took place. The law might have been presented in the Science
course in junior high school. In this case, ask a
After which, the setup was cooled and then weighed. The weight of the system was found to be learner to state the law.A PowerPoint slide can be
the same as before heating. prepared for this part.
Illustrate an application of this law through the following problems. Ask them to solve the
problems in their seats, and ask one learner to write his/her solution on the board:
a. How many grams of water will be formed if 1.00 g hydrogen gas reacts with 8.00 g
oxygen? The reaction can be represented by the following word equation:
b. 5.58 g iron reacted with 3.21 g sulfur. How many grams of iron (II) sulfide were produced?
The reaction involved was:
c. Magnesium burns in air to form magnesium oxide, as represented by the following word
equation:
When 2.43 g magnesium was burned, 4.03 g magnesium oxide was produced. How many
grams of oxygen reacted with the magnesium?
33
How many grams of nitrogen combined with 50.0 g hydrogen is needed to yield 283.3 g Teacher Tip
ammonia? The law might have been presented in the Science
course in junior high school. In this case, ask a
learner to state the law.
4. State the Law of Definite Proportion: A compound always contains the same constituent
elements in a fixed or definite proportion by mass. This experiment can be best described using a
PowerPoint slide. A picture of the burning
magnesium can be included in the slide.
If water samples coming from different sources are analyzed, all the samples will contain the
same ratio by mass of hydrogen to oxygen.
5. Illustrate the application of this law using the previous example of magnesium reacting with
oxygen:
a. Describe an experiment wherein different amounts of magnesium powder are heated
in air.
b. Magnesium burns brightly in air and reacts with oxygen. During the reaction, the gray
powder turns into a white substance. The reaction causes the weight of the solid to
increase.
c. The following data were collected:
Mass
Volume
Time
Temperature
34
d. Ask them to complete the third column by applying the Law of Conservation of Mass.
e. Ask them to fill up the fourth column by dividing the mass of oxygen (third column) by
the mass of the magnesium (first column).
7. Present the Law of Multiple Proportions: If two elements can combine to form more than
one compound, the masses of one element that will combine with a fixed mass of the other
element are in a ratio of small whole numbers.
8. Illustrate the application of this law using the example of carbon which reacts with oxygen to The law might have been presented in the Science
form carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide. course in junior high school. In this case, ask a
learner to state the law.
a. In carbon monoxide, 1.00 g carbon combines with 1.33 g oxygen; whereas, in carbon
dioxide, 1.00 g carbon combines with 2.66 g oxygen. Pictures or meta cards with chemical formulas may
be posted on the board and used to facilitate
b. It can be seen that the ratio is 1:2. discussion. It is highly encouraged to use pictures
of actual substances.
9. Remind them that laws are derived from experimental results. A theory is formulated to
provide an explanation to the laws.
35
Daltons Atomic Theory, proposed by John Dalton, can be used to explain the laws of chemical Teacher Tip
change. This theory is based on the following set of postulates: Draw atoms to clarify each postulate, particularly
Postulates 2, 3, and 4.
1. Elements are made up of very small particles known as atoms.
2. All the atoms of an element are identical in mass and size, and are different from the atoms Drawing the Dalton symbols for the element will
facilitate the understanding of Postulates 2 and 3.
of another element. Dalton used the different shapes or figures to represent different
elements, as follows:
Oxygen Hydrogen Carbon Nitrogen Sulfur Phosphorus
3. Compounds are composed of atoms of more than one element, combined in definite ratios
with whole number values.
4. During a chemical reaction, atoms combine, separate, or rearrange. No atoms are created
and no atoms disappear.
+""""2
Carbon Oxygen Carbon
dioxide
5. Ask them which postulate could provide an explanation for the: Answer Key
a. Postulate 4
a. Law of Conservation of Mass
b. Postulate 3
b. Law of Definite Proportion
6. Remind them that during the time of Dalton, the atom was believed to be the smallest
particle comprising substances. However, before the end of the 19th century, experiments
provided proof of the existence of smaller particles within the atom.
36
7. Ask them to recall the particles contained in an atom (or the subatomic particles) and Teacher Tip
differentiate the particles in terms of location, charge, and relative mass by filling up the This has been presented in the Science course in
junior high school.
following table:
PROTON Nucleus +1 1
Outside
ELECTRON -1 0.0006
nucleus
NEUTRON Nucleus 0 1
Ask them to recall the information about the composition of an atom provided by the
following: As enrichment, assign them to read and make a
report on the discovery of the existence of the
a. Atomic number
electron, proton, and nucleus.
b. Mass number
The concepts of atomic number and mass number
have been presented in the Science course in
Confirm that the above numbers are defined by the following equations: junior high school.
a. Atomic number = number of protons = number of electrons in a neutral atom
The table can be presented through PowerPoint
b. Mass number = number of protons + number of neutrons slides projected on a white board. Alternatively, it
can be prepared on a flip chart or on manila paper.
ATOMIC MASS NUMBER OF NUMBER OF NUMBER OF Atomic Mass Number of Number of Number of
Number number Protons electrons neutrons
NUMBER NUMBER PROTONS ELECTRONS NEUTRON
4 9 4 4 5
4 9
14 28 14 14 14
14 28
8 7 8 8 9
8 9
11 23 11 11 12
11 12
24 52 24 24 28
52 24
19 39 19 19 20
19 20
37
9. Introduce the concept of isotopes atoms of an element having the same atomic number Teacher Tip
but different mass number. The existence of isotopes was shown by mass spectroscopy For better understanding of the concept of
isotopes, they can be assigned to read about mass
experiments, wherein elements were found to be composed of several types of atoms, each
spectroscopy. Make them refer to General
with different masses. Chemistry books instead of the internet, because
a. The atomic number identifies an element. The atoms of isotopes of an element have the latter might lead them to complicated
description of this technique.
the same number of protons and electrons.
b. The atoms of isotopes of an element differ in the number of neutrons. Ask them to answer the following questions
afterwards:
1. What does a mass spectrometer do?
10. To apply the concept of isotopes, ask them to complete the following table containing 2. How does the mass spectro-meter separate
information about the isotopes of hydrogen: isotopes of different masses?
Atomic Number 1 1 1
ISOTOPE PROTIUM DEUTERIUM TRITIUM
Mass number 1 2 3 Atomic
1 1 1
Number
Number of protons
Mass
Number of electrons 1 2 3
number
38
Let them complete the following concept map showing the relationship of these particles: Assign them to find information from the internet
on useful isotopes. These concepts might have
been presented in the Science course in junior
Atoms high school.
? ?
11. Emphasize that each element has a characteristic atom. The concepts of characteristic atoms and ions
a. Dalton differentiated the elements and their atoms through drawings. might have been presented in the Science course
in junior high school.
b. However, in present day, elements are differentiated and represented through symbols.
i. Many symbols are abbreviations derived from the name of the element. Atoms
ii. Some symbols are derived from their Latin names. Gain of Loss of
electrons electrons
Call five or more learners to write some elements and their names and symbol on the board. CATIONS ANIONS
(Positive Ions) (Negative Ions)
Make them recall that the difference between an ion and an atom is the presence of charges.
The simple ions are derived from atoms through the gain or loss of an electron.
Let them complete the following concept map showing the relationship of these particles: An alternative diagram could be:
Ions can be made up of only one atom (monoatomic) or more than one type of atom
(polyatomic).
39
12. Monoatomic ions are named based on the element. Teacher Tip
The naming of the compound or molecule will be
a. For cations, the name of the element is unchanged. If an element can form two ions of discussed later.
different charges, the name, which is usually derived from its Latin name, is modified by
the suffix ic for the ion with the higher charge, and ous for that with the lower charge.
b. For anions, the name of the element is modified by the suffix ide.
Several anions are polyatomic and are named based on the atomic constituents and the
suffix ide.
40
16. A number of polyatomic anions containing oxygen atoms are named based on the root word
of the central (or non-oxygen) atom and the suffix ate for the one with more oxygen atoms
and ite for the one with less oxygen atom.
a. NO3- nitrate ion
b. NO2- nitrite ion
c. SO32- sulfite ion
d. SO42- sulfate ion
e. PO43- phosphate ion
17. Some anions have common names ending with the suffix ate.
a. C2H3O2- acetate ion
b. C2O42- oxalate ion
Teacher Tip
They might be able to recall some compounds that
Point out that the composition of a molecule or an ion can be represented by a chemical have been presented in the Science course in
formula. The formula consists of the symbols of the atoms making up the molecule. If there junior high school, such as sodium chloride and
is more than one atom present, a numerical subscript is used. Examples are the following: carbon dioxide.
a. O2 oxygen gas
b. H2O water
c. NaOH sodium hydroxide (liquid Sosa)
d. HCl hydrochloric acid (muriatic acid)
41
b. Empirical formula gives the composition of the molecule, in terms of the smallest ratio
of the number of atoms present. Examples are the following:
i. CH2O
ii. NaCO2
Answers for Number 19
i. NaI sodium iodide
19. The naming of compounds follows a set of rules. ii. MgCl2 magnesium chloride
Start the lesson with the rule of naming of binary compounds. Binary compounds made iii. FeS iron (II) sulfide
up of two elements. Discuss the rules for naming in two groups of binary compounds: iv. K2O potassium oxide
a. Ionic compounds made up of a cation and an anion. They are named by giving the
name of the cation first, followed by the name of the anion. Ask them to name the
following compounds:
i. NaI
ii. MgCl2
iii. FeS
iv. K2O
Answers for Number 20
b. Molecular compounds made up of two non-metals. They are named by giving the i. HCl hydrogen chloride
ii. CO2 carbon dioxide
name of the first nonmetal and then that of the second nonmetal modified by the ending - iii. SO3 sulfur trioxide
ide. Molecular compounds are usually gases. Ask them to name the following compounds:
i. HCl
ii. CO2
iii. SO3
20. After they have learned how to name binary compounds, discuss the rules for naming
ternary compounds made up of three elements. The naming of ternary compounds
follows the same rule as that of the binary ionic compound: the name of the cation is given
first, followed by the name of the anion.
42
Answers for Number 20
i. NaNO3 sodium nitrate
Ask them to name the following compounds: ii. BaCrO4 barium chromate
i. NaNO3 iii. K2SO4 potassium sulfate
ii. BaCrO4
iii. K2SO4
Answers for Number 21.a
i. HCl hydrochloric acid
21. Discuss next the naming of acids. Acids yield hydrogen ions in aqueous solutions. ii. H2S hydrosulfuric acid
iii. HI hydroiodic acid
a. Binary acids composed of hydrogen and another element, usually a nonmetal. The first
part of the name starts with the prefix hydro- followed by the name of the element,
modified by the ending ic. The second part consists of the word acid. Name = hydro-
(root name of element) -ic + acid
43
Answers for Number 22
i. Silver nitrate AgNO3
22. After they have become familiar with the naming of compounds, it would be easy to write the ii. Potassium iodide KI
formula of the compound. Emphasize that in writing the formula, the total positive charges iii. Nitrogen dioxide NO2
of the cations should be equal to the total of the negative charges of the anion. The net iv. Barium chloride BaCl2
charge should be zero. v. Hydrobromic acid HBr
Ask them to write the formula of the following compounds, given the name of the
compound:
i. Silver nitrate
ii. Potassium iodide
iii. Nitrogen dioxide
iv. Barium chloride
v. Hydrobromic acid
Teacher Tip
Refer to the laboratory teaching guide of this
ENRICHMENT lesson as well as the Formula Writing and Naming
1. Conduct a laboratory session on the naming of compounds and on formula writing. of Compounds data table.
2. When 24.3 g magnesium reacts completely with 16.0 g oxygen, exactly 40.3 g magnesium
oxide is formed. Which of the following laws is illustrated by this observation?
A. Law of Definite Proportion C. Law of Conservation of Mass
B. Law of Multiple Proportion D. Law of Conservation of Energy
44
3. Which of the following statements is consistent with Daltons Atomic Theory?
A. The atoms of element A are identical with the atoms of another element D.
B. The atoms of element A have the same mass as the atoms of another element D.
C. The atoms of element A are different from the atoms of another element D.
D. The atoms of element A have the same properties as the atoms of another element D.
6. In which of the following quantities will two isotopes of an element have different values?
A. Atomic number C. Number of protons
B. Mass number D. Number of electrons
7. Which of the following information on the number of protons (p), electrons (e) and neutrons
(n) is correct for 92 U238?
A. 92 p, 92 n, 92 e C. 238 p, 146 n, 238 e
B. 92 p, 146 n, 92 e D. 146 p, 82 n, 92 e
8. What is the mass number of an atom which has 11 protons, 11 electrons, and 12 neutrons?
A. 11 C. 22
B. 12 D. 23
45
9. Which of the following data is correct for the Mg2+ ion (atomic number = 12)?
A. 12 protons and 13 electrons C. 14 protons and 12 electrons
B. 12 protons and 10 electrons D. 12 protons and 14 electron
11. Which of the following takes place when a monovalent cation is formed from an atom?
A. One electron is gained. C. Two electrons are gained.
B. One electron is lost. D. Two electrons are shared.
13. Which of the following is the correct formula of copper (II) nitrate?
A. CuNO3 C. Cu(NO3)2
B. Cu2NO3 D. Cu2(NO3)2
46
General Chemistry 1 90 MINS
47
Teacher Tip
Point out that the formula gives qualitative and
quantitative information about the composition of
INTRODUCTION (15 minutes) a compound. It shows what elements make up the
1. Reiterate to the learners the importance of the names and formulas of compounds. Make compound (qualitative information) and the mole
them recall the basic rules involved in formula writing and chemical nomenclature. ratio of the elements (quantitative information).
2. Review the symbols of the common elements encountered in compound. Call the learners one by one and ask him/her to
3. State the objective of the exercise that they will work on for the laboratory period. give the symbol of an element which you will
name.
Teacher Tip
MOTIVATION (5 minutes) The exercise worksheet given in Annex 1 could be
1. Point out that the names and formulas of compounds will be needed in the succeeding adopted or revised.
lessons, particularly in writing chemical equations.
Each learner will work independently. It might be
best to keep the exercise as a closed-book activity,
PRACTICE (70 minutes) and discourage them from consulting one another.
1. Provide each of them a copy of the exercise worksheet, and ask them to answer the exercise.
At the end of the exercise, let them check the
answers of their fellow learners who are seated
away from them.
ENRICHMENT
1. Ask them to identify where they committed mistakes. Discuss the correct answers.
EVALUATION
EXCEEDS EXPECTATIONS MEETS EXPECTATIONS NEEDS IMPROVEMENT NOT VISIBLE
The learner answered more than The learner answered 70% to 89% The learner answered less than The learner did not answer any
90% of the items correctly. of the items correctly. 70% of the items correctly. item correctly.
48
FORMULA WRITING AND NAMING OF COMPOUNDS
Na+ KCl
Ca2+ Ba(NO3)2
Fe3+ Na2O
Ba2+ Al(OH)3
Cl-
NO3-
phosphate ion
OH-
chromate ion
C2O42-
permanganate ion
49
Section 3: Writing formulas from chemical names Section 4: Chemical names from formulas
Write the formula of the ions expected from the following Write the chemical name of the ions expected from the following
compounds. compounds.
Calcium ZnCl2
sulfate
K3PO4
Potassium
Cu(NO3)2
chloride
Na2CrO4
Tin (IV) oxide
Ni(OH)2
Lead iodide BaO
Bismuth (NH4)2C2O4
nitrate
Sodium
carbonate
Strontium
chromate
50
Section 5: Binary covalent compounds Section 6: Acids and bases
Complete the table below by filling up the missing formula or Complete the table below by filling up the missing formula or
chemical name. chemical name.
SbBr5 H2S
P2O5 H3PO4
CI4 HNO2
Mg(OH)2
carbonic acid
51
General Chemistry 1 60 MINS
52
INTRODUCTION (5 minutes)
1. Introduce the following learning objectives using any of the suggested protocol (Verbatim,
Own Words, or Read-aloud):
a. Define atomic mass unit
b. Calculate the average atomic mass of elements
c. Determine the average molecular mass of molecules
d. Determine the average formula mass of ionic compounds
2. Present the keywords for the concepts to be learned:
a. Atomic mass unit (amu)
b. Average atomic mass
c. Molecular mass
d. Formula mass
e. Avogadros number
f. Mole
Answers for Number 3
3. Review isotopes a. Isotopes are atoms that have the same
a. What are isotopes? number of protons but different number of
neutrons.)
b. Give examples of isotopes. b. Here are some examples of isotopes:
c. What is the similarity between Mg-24 and Mg-25? What is their difference? i. U-235 and U-238
ii. O-17 and O-18
iii. Kr-80, Kr-82, Kr-83
MOTIVATION (10 minutes) c. Mg-24 and Mg-25 both have 12 protons.
However, Mg-24 has 12 neutrons while Mg-25
Activity: Counting by Weighing
has 13 neutrons.
1. Ask the learners if they can count objects by weighing them. Present to them this situation:
Ms. Lilia sells shelled peanuts in a store. But she meets customers asking for 150 peanuts,
another for 750 peanuts, and another for 2,000 peanuts. Obviously, it will take Ms. Lilia a very
long time to count the peanuts. What would be another way to count them?
53
Ms. Lilia takes 20 peanuts and weighs them. She finds out that 20 peanuts weigh 32 g. How Teacher Tip
much then will each peanut weigh? Display the question clearly. Present the problem
to the class.
Ask them to draw a conclusion. Is it possible to count objects by weighing? Summarize the Answer Key
The procedure is as follows:
procedure done with the peanuts. This can be done with other objects like mongo beans,
1. Count a given number of peanuts and weigh
marbles, etc. them.
2. Get the average mass of a peanut. This
assumes that the objects are identical.
3. Divide the mass of a sample of peanuts by the
average mass to get the number of peanuts in
the sample.
54
INSTRUCTION (35 minutes) Teacher Tip
Ask them to check the meaning of the word
relative when used as an adjective. Ask them to
What is the Atomic Mass and the Atomic Mass Unit?
provide their source of information. Then, let
them express the meaning in English and in
Filipino.
Relate the exercise on counting peanuts by weighing to counting atoms. Ask them if it is possible
to use the same procedure to count atoms. Why or why not? Briefly, relative, when used as an adjective, means
compared to something or to someone.
Whether it is peanuts or mongo beans or candies or atoms, the Emphasize that they should always use the
procedure should be the same. The problem, however, is appropriate unit in calculations. For atomic mass,
atoms are very, very small and it is not possible to see them and the unit is amu.
By international agreement, the reference atom chosen is the C-12 isotope which contains six
protons and six neutrons. By definition, one atom of C-12 has a mass of exactly 12 atomic mass
units (amu). One amu, therefore, is one-twelfth (1/12) the mass of a C-12 atom.
The atomic mass of Cu-63 is 62.93 amu. This means that relative to C-12, one atom of Cu-63 is
62.93/12 or 5.244 times the mass of a C-12 atom.
If C has six protons and six neutrons, why is the relative atomic mass of carbon given as 12.01
amu and not 12 amu? There are no individual atoms of carbon with a mass of 12.01 amu.
Ask them to look up the atomic masses of other
elements to familiarize them with using the
The periodic table provides the average atomic mass which takes into account the different periodic table.
isotopes of an element and their relative abundances. It is not a simple average that is taken but
a weighted average.
For the class in Chem 345, the teacher informs the class that the final grade will be based on
Exam 1 (15%), Exam 2 (15%), Problem Sets (30%), and Final Exam (40%). To pass the course, the
learner must get a final grade of 75% or higher. Calculate the final grade of learner Ms. Julita if
she got the following scores:
For carbon, the natural abundance of C-12 is 98.90% while that of C-13 is 1.10%. The atomic Misconception
mass of C-13 has been determined to be 13.00335 amu while that of C-12 is exactly 12 amu. They may think that there is a carbon atom with a
Now, we calculate the average atomic mass of carbon: mass of 12.01 amu. There is none. There are only
atoms of C-12 and C-13. The value 12.01 amu is
an average atomic mass.
= (atomic mass of C-12) (% abundance of C-12) + (atomic mass of C-13) (% abundance of C-13)
= (12.0000 amu) (.9890) + (13.00335 amu) (.0110)
= 12.01 amu
3. An element consists of an isotope with mass of 10.0129 amu and 19.91% abundance, and
another isotope with mass of 11.0093 amu and 80.09% abundance. Calculate the average
atomic mass of this element. Refer to the periodic table and identify the element.
57
Average Molecular Mass (also referred to as molecular mass) Teacher Tip
The molecular mass is the sum of the average atomic masses of the atoms in the molecule. Note the difference between molecular mass and
formula mass. Molecular mass is used for covalent
Ask them to answer the following examples: compounds while formula mass is used for ionic
1. What is the molecular mass of carbon dioxide, CO2? compounds.
2. Determine the molecular mass of the following molecules: For brevity, many books refer to the average
a. Water, H2O molecular mass as simply molecular mass.
Teacher Tip
Average Formula Mass (also referred to as formula mass)
Keep the examples simple. It is the concept that
The formula mass is the sum of the atomic masses of the atoms in the ionic compound. needs to be introduced. This will be taken up
again in the next lesson.
Answer key
1. Formula mass of NaCl
Ask them to answer the following examples:
= atomic mass of Na + atomic mass of Cl)
1. What is the formula mass of sodium chloride, NaCl? = 22.99 amu + 35.45 amu = 58.44 amu
2. Formula mass of MgCl2 = 95.21 amu
2. What is the formula mass of magnesium chloride, MgCl2?
58
Vitamins and minerals Teacher Tip
1. Vitamins and minerals are nutrients for the body. An example of a vitamin is Vitamin C. Look This can be given as an assignment.
up the molecular formula of Vitamin C and determine its average molecular mass. What is
another common name for Vitamin C? Give at least one important use of Vitamin C in the
body.
2. Minerals include potassium, calcium, iron, and zinc. Look up the average atomic mass of
calcium, Ca. Give at least one important use of Ca in the body.
Element A consists of isotope A-6 with natural abundance of 7.5% and a mass of 6.0151 amu, and
isotope A-7 with natural abundance 92.5% and mass of 7.0160 amu.
59
General Chemistry 1 120 MINS
60
INTRODUCTION (12 minutes)!
1. Introduce the following learning objectives using any of the suggested protocol (Verbatim,
Own Words, or Read-aloud):
a. State the value of Avogadros number
b. Perform calculations converting moles to number of entities and vice versa
c. Define molar mass
d. Determine the molar mass of elements and compounds
e. Perform calculations determining mass of a given number of particles of an element or
compound, or vice versa
2. Present the keywords for the concepts to be learned:
a. Avogadros number
b. Mole
c. Molar mass
3. Discuss the quiz given during the previous lesson. Show the answers with the corresponding
calculations.
4. Discuss the enrichment assignment given during the last lecture.
MOTIVATION (3 minutes)
1. What do chemists observe every October 23, from 6:02 am to 6:02 pm?
Teacher Tip
INSTRUCTION (75 minutes) Ask the learners to wait until the end of the lesson
The Mole to find the significance of the date and time.
What is a mole? What is Avogadros number? Mole Day is observed by chemists every October
23, from 6:02 am to 6:02 pm.
Atoms have very small masses. We expect that macroscopic samples will contain a very large
number of atoms. A special unit of measure, called the mole, is used to deal with extremely large
numbers. In the SI system, the mole is the amount of substance that contains as many entities as
there are in exactly 12 g of C-12.
61
Misconception
The number of atoms in 12 g of C-12 is experimentally determined to be 6.022 x 1023. This is Avogadros number is not a defined value. It is an
called Avogadros number. experimentally determined value. Mass
spectroscopy techniques are used to determine
the value of Avogadros number to a high degree
Illustrate the mole with different counting units: of accuracy.
62
6. How many molecules of H2O are there in 1 mole of water molecules? Answer Key
7. How many molecules of carbon dioxide, CO2, are there in 2.648 moles CO2? 6. 6.022 x 1023 H2O molecules
="3.189"x"10"24"O"atoms"
9. Determine the number of moles of ammonia, NH3, in 8.254 x 1025 molecules of ammonia.
="137.1"moles"NH3"
Notes:
1. The appropriate unit for molar mass is g/mol
2. The molar mass in grams is numerically equal to the atomic mass in amu. The molar mass in
grams is numerically equal to the molecular mass or the formula mass in amu.
63
Ask them to answer the following examples: Teacher Tip
1. What is the average atomic mass of Ca? What is the molar mass of Ca? Emphasize the use of the appropriate units in
calculations. For molar mass, the unit used is g/
2. The atomic mass of Br is 79.90 amu. What is its molar mass? mol.
3. The molecular mass of water, H2O, is 18.02 amu. What is the molar mass of water, H2O?
For brevity, atomic mass is often used instead of
4. The formula mass of NaCl is 58.44 amu. What is the molar mass of NaCl? average atomic mass. It is understood that the
value in the periodic table is the average atomic
mass.
Illustrate the relationship of amu and grams:
Answer Key
1. 40.08 amu; 40.08 g/mol
One mole of C-12 has a mass of exactly 12 g and one mole of C-12 has Avogadros number of 2. 79.90 g/mol
atoms. Calculate the mass of one atom of C-12 in grams. 3. 18.02 g/mol
4. 58.44 g/mol
Teacher Tip
NUMBER OF ATOMS Emphasize that while 1 mole Al, 1 mole Cu, 1 mole
SAMPLE MASS of 1 mole
in SAMPLE Ag, and 1 mole Au will each contain the same
number of atoms, they will not weigh the same.
1 mole of aluminium 6.022 x 1023 atoms 26.98 g Similarly, one dozen apples and one dozen cars
will each have 12 units but will not weigh the
1 mole of copper 6.022 x 1023 atoms 63.55 g same.
Therefore, 0.250 mole of Pb has a higher mass than 0.500 mole of Zn.
Using the above illustrations, ask them to do calculations involving moles, molar masses, and Teacher Tip
Avogadros number. Always observe the proper use of significant
figures in calculations. An Annex is included at the
end of this module for enrichment and review of
1. How many grams of silver, Ag, are there in 1.34 moles? (This example illustrates the significant figures and rounding off in calculations.
conversion of moles ! grams)
Show how the proper use of units will facilitate the
solution of the problem through dimensional
analysis. The units cancel out, leaving the correct
unit required.
65
2. How many moles of copper, Cu, are there in 875 g Cu? (This example illustrates the Teacher Tip
conversion of grams ! moles) Allow them to analyze the way to solve the
problem using relationships before doing the
calculation. In Problem 3, for example, the grams
need to be converted to moles, then the moles
converted to number of atoms.
3. A bottle of calcium supplements in tablet form contains 268 g Ca. How many atoms
are present in 268 g calcium, Ca? (This example illustrates the conversion of grams !
moles ! number of atoms)
4. What is the mass in grams of 2.06 x 1023 atoms of potassium, K? (This example
illustrates the conversion of number of atoms ! moles ! grams)
5. Which has more atoms? 3.68 g neon atoms or 1.10 g sodium atoms?
66
ENRICHMENT (15 minutes) Teacher Tip
1. What do chemists observe every October 23 from 6.02 am to 6.02 pm? Return to the motivation question and ask them
why October 23, from 6:02 AM to 6:02 PM, is the
2. Relate the mole to real life situations: chosen date for Mole Day.
A. How many pesos are there in one mole of pesos? Do you think Manny Pacquiao will have
This enrichment could be done for the more
one mole of pesos? Does Bill Gates have one mole of dollars? advanced learners.
B. Ask them to check the Philippine national budget for one fiscal year. Does the Philippine
national budget reach one mole of pesos? Answer Key for Enrichment
B. The Philippine National Budget for 2016 is
C. Ask them to look for the approximate age of the earth. Does the age of the earth PHP 3.002 trillion or 3,002,000,000,000 or
approximate one mole of years? 3.002 x 1012 pesos. The Philippine national
budget does not reach one mole of pesos.
C. Current data show the earth to be about 4.54
EVALUATION (15 minutes) billion years old. It is 4,540,000,000 years old
Check-up quiz or 4.54 x 109 years old. The age of the earth
Answer the following questions. Place the answers in the space provided. Show calculations does not approximate one mole of years.
where applicable. Observe the use of significant figures for calculations and indicate the
Answer Key for Evaluation
appropriate units. Learners can use the periodic table to answer the questions 1. 20 x 1024 molecules
2. 41 x 1024 C atoms
_____1. How many molecules of acetylene, C2H4, are there in 2.00 moles acetylene?
_____2. How many atoms of carbon are there in 2.00 moles acetylene?
NO 2.88 moles
CCl4 121.4 g
67
Answer Key
In scientific work, significant figures are always to be observed. Here are the rules on the use of significant figures:
1. Any digit that is not zero is significant. (Eg. 483 g has three significant figures; 2,578 m has four significant figures)
2. Zeros between nonzero digits are significant. (Eg. 6.06 kg has three significant figures; 60,804 cm has five significant figures)
3. Zeros to the left of the first nonzero digit are not significant. (Eg. 0.078 L has two significant figures; 0.004 kg has one significant figure)
4. A. If a number is greater than 1, the zeros after the decimal point are significant. (Eg. 4.0 mg has two significant figures; 20.04 g has four
significant figures)
B. If a number is less than 1, only the zeros after the first nonzero digit are significant. (Eg. 0.0750 m has three significant figures; 0.4006 g
has four significant figures.
5. For numbers without decimal points, the zeroes at the end of nonzero digits may or may not be significant (ambiguous). For example, 600
g may have one or three significant figures. To avoid the ambiguity, we use scientific notation. We can say 6.00 g and this will have three
significant figures. Or we can say 6 x 102 and this will have only one significant figure.
68
How do you handle significant figures in calculations?
1. In addition and subtraction, the answer cannot have more digits to the right of the decimal point than either of the original numbers.
39.092 ! round-off to 30.09 so the answer will have two digits after the decimal point
2. For multiplication and division, the number of significant figures in the final product or quotient is determined by the original number that
has the smallest number of significant figures.
6.9 x 12.34 = 85.146 Round of the answer to 85, which has only two significant figures.
26.98/3.05 = 23.93 Round of the answer to 23.9, which has three significant figures because the smallest number of significant
figures in the operation is 3.
3. Remember that exact numbers are considered to have infinite number of significant figures.
2. To round off a number at a certain point, add 1 to the preceding digit if the number that follows is 5 or greater than 5.
7.378 rounded off to three significant digits becomes 7.38.
8.465 rounded off to three significant digits becomes 8.47.
0.575 rounded off to two significant digits becomes 0.58.
69
General Chemistry 1 120 MINS
70
INTRODUCTION (10 minutes) Teacher Tip
Can you count objects by weighing them? 1. Prepare the classroom or laboratory, the
materials, the laboratory sheets to be used.
Ask the learners if they can count objects by weighing them. Present to them the following 2. Distribute the laboratory sheets at the start of
situations: the lesson.
3. After the introduction and motivation, explain
1. Ms. Lilia sells shelled peanuts in a store. But she meets customers asking for ten peanuts, the procedures of the activity.
another for 750 peanuts, and another for 2,000 peanuts. Obviously, it will take Ms. Lilia a very 4. Explain the safety precautions.
long time to count the peanuts. What would be another way to count them?
2. Mr. Jose goes to a hardware store and asks for 400 pieces of nails. What is an easier way to
approximate 400 pieces of nails without counting them one by one?
3. A candy factory sells chocolate chips in a bag. Each bag should have the same number of
chips. How does the candy factory count the number of chocolate chips in each bag?
71
Part II. Relating mass to moles Teacher Tip
Place the samples in small paper cups prior to the
Ask them to perform the activity on relating mass to moles. The samples are common
class. There are four samples in this activity, and
household materials: Aluminium, iron, sodium chloride, and sucrose. Have them answer the data make sure to prepare enough samples for the
tables and the questions. See the attached laboratory sheet. class. Each group must work on all four samples.
Label the cups (e.g. Sample A1, A2, A3, A4 for
Group A, etc.).
Sample of Teachers Reference Table
You must also pre-determine the approximate
A1 11 g B1 14 g amount of sample to put in each cup and put
these in your notes. This will serve as a reference
A2 22 g B2 27 g for the masses measured by the learners. However,
they must measure the masses up to .01 g.
A3 16 g B3 18 g
The masses do not have to be identical. For
A4 25 g B4 30 g example, the mass of Al in one group may have a
different value than the mass of Al in the other
1. For the Aluminium sample, crumple a sheet of Aluminium foil into a loose ball and place in group.
a small paper cup.
2. Be careful in using iron nails.
3. At the end of the activity, instruct them where to place the samples. Put separate
containers for each sample.
4. The samples may be reused for another class.
EVALUATION
Check their accomplished data tables and worksheet for correct use of units and significant
figures and the logical solutions.
72
LABORATORY ACTIVITY: THE MOLE CONCEPT AND MOLAR MASS
Introduction
Atoms have very small masses. Macroscopic samples contain a very large number of atoms. The mole is used to deal with these extremely
large numbers of atoms in macroscopic samples. The mole is defined as the amount of substance that contains as many entities as there are in
exactly 12 grams of C-12. This is experimentally determined to be 6.022 x 1023 and is referred to as Avogadros number. The molar mass is
the mass in grams of one mole of a substance. It is possible and practical to count very small objects by determining an average mass then
weighing a given sample. You will be asked to determine the number of entities in a given sample of material through this technique. You will
also determine the number of moles of different substances and the corresponding number of atoms present in the sample.
Objectives
1. To determine the number of entities present in a given sample by weighing it and identifying the average mass of a single entity of the
sample.
2. To determine the number of moles and the number of atoms present in given samples of materials.
Materials
1. Balance triple beam or electronic balance 5. Aluminium metal or foil
2. Paper cups 6. Iron (e.g. iron nails or iron filings)
3. Samples e.g. kidney beans, mongo beans, rice, dried sago 7. Sodium chloride (NaCl)
4. Plastic spoons 8. Sucrose (table sugar, C12H22O11)
Safety Precautions
1. Never taste anything during a science activity.
2. Dispose of the samples as directed by your teacher.
3. Wash your hands with soap and water after the activity.
4. Follow all laboratory instructions as directed by your teacher.
73
Part I. Counting by weighing: Relating mass to number
Procedure
Sample 1 Sample 2
1. Count 20 beans (kidney, peanuts, patani, or other samples as 1. Count 20 mongo beans (rice, dried sago, peas, or any smaller
given by your teacher) and place them in a paper cup. bean samples given by your teacher) and place them in a paper
2. Determine the mass of the 20 pieces of beans. Remember to cup.
subtract the mass of the container. If using an electronic 2. Determine the mass of the 20 pieces of beans. Remember to
balance, tare or set the balance to zero. subtract the mass of the container. If using an electronic
3. Determine the mass of one bean by dividing the mass of the balance, tare or set the balance to zero.
sample by 20. 3. Determine the mass of one bean by dividing the mass of the
sample by 20.
Data Table
SAMPLE 1 SAMPLE 2
Sample
Mass of container
74
Part II. Relating mass to moles
Procedure:
Determine the masses of Samples 1 to 4. Record these in the data tables provided. Calculate the number of moles in each sample. Show all
calculations and observe the correct use of units and significant figures.
2. Mass of container, g
3. Mass of sample, g
75
General Chemistry 1 60 MINS
76
INTRODUCTION (5 minutes) Teacher Tip
1. Introduce the learning objectives using any of the suggested protocol (Verbatim, Own Words, Give examples of empirical formulas and molecular
formulas such as
or Read-aloud) a. Benzene, with molecular formula C6H6 and
a. Interpret the information provided by the chemical formula empirical formula CH
b. Acetylene, with molecular formula C2H2 and
b. Explain the procedure used to determine the percent composition of a compound empirical formula CH
c. Explain the procedure used to determine the empirical formula of a compound given the c. Ammonia, with molecular formula NH3 and
percent composition empirical formula NH3.
d. Utilize molar mass data to obtain the molecular formula from the empirical formula
2. Present the keyword for the concepts to be learned:
a. Percent composition mass
3. Review empirical formulas and molecular formulas and give examples.
MOTIVATION (5 minutes)
Percentage of the class planning (as first choice) to go to the different strands in STEM Teacher Tip
This will give an indication of the interest of the
1. Get total number of learners in class. learners and their planned careers. This will also
2. Get the number of learners who would like to pursue engineering in college. Get the review the concept of percentage and its
application in the real world.
percentage.
3. Get the number of learners who would like to pursue the sciences. Get the percentage. Then, mention that the lesson will be about how
the concept of percentage is used in chemistry,
4. Get the number of learners who would like to pursue mathematics. Get the percentage.
especially in chemical compounds.
What information can be obtained from a chemical formula? For example, what information
can you get from the formula of carbon dioxide, CO2?
= CARBON = OXYGEN
77
a. The compound is made up of two elements, namely carbon and oxygen. Teacher Tip
You should motivate the learners to provide the
b. One molecule of CO2 is made up of one atom of carbon and two atoms of oxygen.
answers instead of just stating them.
c. One mole of CO2 molecules will have one mole of C atoms and two moles of O atoms.
It is important for them to understand the chemical
d. The ratio of the moles of C to the moles of O in CO2 is 1:2.
formula and all information that can be obtained
e. CO2 is composed of 27.29% carbon and 72.71% oxygen. The chemical formula provides from it.
the percent composition of CO2.
The percent composition by mass is the percent by mass of each element in a compound.
Mathematically,
Answer Key
1. 39.34% Na, 60.66% Cl
2. 39.99% C, 6.727% H, 53.28% O
The answer indicates that CO2 is composed of 27.29% C atom and 72.71% O atom.
3. O; the composition is 41.68% Mg, 54.89% O,
and 3.46% H
Ask them to answer the following practice exercises:
Teacher Tip
I. Calculate the percent composition of NaCl. You may want to connect the lesson to some real
II. The chemical formula of glucose is C6H12O6. Determine its percent composition. world examples. Magnesium hydroxide, Mg(OH)2,
is used as a medication to treat symptoms brought
III. Which element comprising Mg(OH)2 has the highest percentage by mass? about by too much stomach acid such as heartburn
or indigestion.
78
3. Empirical Formula from Percent Composition
The empirical formula of a compound can be calculated from the percent composition.
Because percentage is given, it is convenient to assume 100.00 grams of the compound.
A. A compound is found to consist of 7.81% C and 92.19% Cl. What is the empirical formula
of the compound?
Assume 100.00 grams of the compound. The sample will therefore contain 7.81 g C and
92.19 g Cl. The grams are converted to moles to get the ratios of the moles of the
elements in the compound:
The compound is C0.650Cl2.601. But chemical formulas are expressed in whole numbers.
Empirical formulas are expressed as the lowest whole number ratio between the atoms.
To convert to whole numbers, divide the number of moles by the smallest value (that is
0.650).
79
B. A compound is found to consist of 43.64% P and 56.36% O. The molar mass for the
compound is 283.88 g/mol. What is the empirical formula and molecular formula of the
compound?
Assume 100.00 grams of the compound. What is the mass of each element in 100.00
grams of compound?
The compound is PO2.5. But the subscripts are still not whole numbers. Multiply the
subscripts by a factor to get the smallest whole number. When multiplied by 2, the
empirical formula is P2O5.
80
Answer Key
1. 39.34% Na, 60.66% Cl
2. 39.99% C, 6.727% H, 53.28% O
3. O; the composition is 41.68% Mg, 54.89% O,
and 3.46% H
Therefore, the molecular formula is (P2O5)2 or P4O10.
Teacher Tip
You may want to connect the lesson to some real
ENRICHMENT world examples. Magnesium hydroxide, Mg(OH)2,
Determine the % sodium in snack food
is used as a medication to treat symptoms brought
Look at the food labels of some snack food like potato chips, peanuts, popcorn, etc. Fill up the about by too much stomach acid such as heartburn
table below. or indigestion.
81
General Chemistry 1 120 MINS
Note
3. Review the Law of Conservation of Mass Ask them to recall the Law of Conservation of
Mass and express their understanding of it.
83
MOTIVATION (3 minutes) Teacher Tip
Ask them what the following have in common: You may bring some actual samples of rusty iron
nails, bleached and unbleached hair, or other
a. Rusty iron nail materials to show to the class.
b. Change in color of leaves
These are evidences of chemical change.
c. Bleached hair
Consider the reaction of hydrogen gas (H2) with chlorine gas (Cl2) to yield hydrogen chloride.
The reaction is illustrated by the figure below.
Teacher Tip
Emphasize the Law of Conservation of Mass.
There must be the same type of atoms on both
sides of the arrow.
We can represent this reaction through a chemical equation. The reactants (starting
substances) are placed on the left side. The products (substances produced) are placed on
the right. An arrow points towards the direction of the reaction. The equation has to be
balanced so that the same number and types of atoms appear on the left and right side of the
equation. To balance, coefficients (numbers preceding the chemical formula) are used. For
additional information, the physical states of the reactants and products (s, l, g, for solid,
liquid, or gas, respectively)are indicated.
84
Hence, the balanced chemical equation is: Teacher Tip
Show learners where to put the coefficients.
H2(g) + Cl2(g) ! 2 HCl(g)
Reactants Products
H (2) H (2)
Cl (2) Cl (2)
When a substance is placed in water, we indicate this with aq, meaning it is in an aqueous
environment. For example, when KBr reacts with AgNO3 in an aqueous environment, KNO3
and solid AgBr are produced. This reaction is represented as
Ethane (C2H6) reacts with oxygen gas (O2) to produce carbon dioxide and water. Write the
balanced chemical equation for the reaction.
1. Identify reactants and products and write their correct formulas. Put reactants on the left
side and products on the right.
85
2. Balance the equation by changing the coefficients of the reactants or products. Do not Teacher Tip
change the subscripts or the chemical formula. Show learners where to put the coefficients.
To use the smallest whole number coefficients, we multiply the equation by 2 to give:
3. Check to make sure that the number of each type of atom is the same on each side of the
equation.
Reactants Products
4 C 4 C
12 H 12 H
14 O 14 O
1.
2.
3.
86
Balance the following equations Teacher Tip
Show them where to put the coefficients.
1. ____ C + ____ O2 ! ___ CO
Hint:
2. ____ Mg + ____ O2 ! ____ MgO Start with elements that appear only once on each
side.
3. ____ H2O2 ! ____ H2O + ____ O2
4. ____ CH4 + O2 ! ____ CO2 + ____ H2O Answer Key
1. 2, 1, 2
5. ____ N2O5 ! _____ N2O4 + _____ O2 2. 2, 1, 2
3. 2, 2, 1
Interpretation of a Chemical Equation 4. 1, 2, 1, 2
5. 2, 2, 1
How can a balanced chemical equation be interpreted? See the example:
H2 + Cl2 ! 2HCl
87
Types and Evidences that a Chemical Reaction has Occurred Teacher Tip
Here are some evidences that a chemical reaction has occurred: Ask them to give examples of evidences of
chemical changes they have observed around
a. Change in color them. Some examples are bleach turning hair
b. Formation of a solid (a precipitate) yellow, milk going sour, or apple slices becoming
brown.
c. Evolution of gas (bubble formation)
d. Change in temperature (heat is released or absorbed) Chemical reactions can be classified in other ways
such as acid-base reactions and oxidation-
reduction reactions. However, these concepts will
Most chemical reactions can be classified into five types: be introduced in later chapters.
1. Decomposition reaction a reactant breaks down into two or more products
AB ! A + B
Li2CO3 ! Li2O + CO2
ENRICHMENT (2 minutes)
1. Why do you need to store hydrogen peroxide away from light often in dark colored bottles? Note
The Evaluation will be through the exercises in the
2. Learners may watch the videos in the sites given in the Resources section above. These can laboratory session hour.
be given as assignments.
88
General Chemistry 1 120 MINS
Directions: Choose the best answer. Encircle the letter corresponding to your answer.
1. Balanced chemical equations imply which of the following? 3. The catalytic conversion of ammonia to nitric oxide is the first
A. Numbers of molecules are conserved in chemical change. step in a three-step process, which ultimately results in nitric
B. Numbers of atoms are conserved in chemical change. acid. Balance the equation for the reaction.
C. Volume is conserved in chemical change.
D. A and B a NH3(g) + b O2(g) ! c NO(g) + d H2O(g)
E. B and C
A. a = 2, b = 1, c = 2, d = 1
2. In balancing an equation, we change the __________ to make B. a = 3, b = 2, c = 3, d = 3
the number of atoms on each side of the equation balance. C. a = 4, b = 3, c = 2, d = 6
A. formulas of compounds in the reactants D. a = 4, b = 5, c = 4, d = 6
B. coefficients of reactants and products E. a = 6, b = 15, c = 6, d = 9
C. formulas of compounds in the products
D. subscripts of compounds
E. the reactants
90
4. In the reaction: a BaCl2 + b AgNO3 ! c Ba(NO3)2 + d AgCl 7. Which of the following equations is not balanced?
What is the coefficient, d, of silver chloride in the balanced A. 4Al + 3O2 ! 2Al2O3
equation? B. C2H6 + O2 ! 2CO2 + 3H2O
A. 1
B. 2 C. 2KClO3 ! 2KCl + O2
C. 3 D. 4P4 + 5S8 ! 4P4S10
D. 4 E. P4 + 5O2 ! P4O10
E. 5
5. Balance the following equation with the smallest set of whole 8. The first step in the Ostwald process for making nitric acid is the
numbers. formation of NO as follows:
What is the coefficient for CO2 in the balanced equation? According to the equation, 5 moles NH3 will react with ________
A. 1 moles O2 to form _______ moles of NO.
B. 4 A. 5, 4
C. 6
D. 8 B. 4, 5
E. 12 C. 25, 20
D. 5/4, 4/5
6. Balance the following equations: E. 25/4, 5
91
10. In the reaction given below, how many grams of water are 13. Balance the following equation:
consumed if 4.0 g hydrogen gas and 32.0 g oxygen gas are a NaNO3 ! b NaNO2 + c O2
produced?
What are the coefficients of the balanced equation for
2 H2O ! 2 H2 + O2
a, b, and c?
A. 2.0 g A. 2, 2, 1
B. 4.0 g B. 1, 1, 2
C. 18.0 g C. 1, 2, 1
D. 20.0 g D. 2, 3, 1
E. 36.0 g E. 3, 1, 1
11. In the reaction given below, for every two molecules of 14. Balance the following chemical reaction:
hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) consumed, how many molecules of a CO + b NO ! c CO2 + d N2
oxygen are produced?
2H2O2 ! 2H2O + O2 The coefficients a, b, c, and d for the balanced chemical
equation are:
A. 1 A. 2, 2, 2, 3
B. 2
B. 2, 2, 2, 1
C. 3
D. 6 C. 1, 1, 1, 2
E. 9 D. 2, 1, 2, 1
E. 1, 2, 2, 1
12. Balance the following reaction:
a Al2O3 ! b Al + c O2 15. Classify the following reaction:
2Na + Cl2 ! 2 NaCl
What is the sum of the coefficients of the reactant and products
(a + b + c) in the balanced equation using the smallest set of A. Synthesis
whole numbers as coefficients? B. Decomposition
A. 3 C. Combustion
B. 5
D. Single Displacement
C. 6
E. Double Displacement
D. 9
E. 10
92
16. Classify the following reaction: 19. Classify the following reaction:
Zn + 2HCl ! ZnCl2 + H2 NaCl(aq) + AgF(aq) ! NaF(aq) + AgCl(s)
A. Synthesis A. Synthesis
B. Decomposition B. Decomposition
C. Combustion C. Combustion
D. Single Displacement D. Single Displacement
E. Double Displacement E. Double Displacement
A. Synthesis
B. Decomposition
C. Combustion
D. Single Displacement
E. Double Displacement
93
General Chemistry 1 180 MINS
95
1. Illustrate stoichiometry using the following examples: Teacher Tip
a. Let us make hamburger sandwiches again. The equation is Illustrate stoichiometry with real life applications.
two$slices$of$bread$+$one$hamburger$patty$$!$$one$hamburger$sandwich$
Suppose Karen has 14 hamburger patties, how many slices of bread will she need to consume
all the patties? The ratio of slices of bread to hamburger patty is 2: 1.
2. Suppose that instead of plain burgers, Karen is to make double cheeseburgers. Show the
equation so Karen can shop for enough ingredients.
two$slices$of$bread$$+$one$hamburger$patty$$+$$two$slices$of$cheese$$$!$$$one$double$cheeseburger$
How many slices of cheese, hamburger patties, and slices of bread will Karen need to make 25
double cheeseburgers?
Karen will therefore have to buy 50 slices of cheese, 25 hamburger patties, and 50 slices of
bread.
96
3. Ammonia, NH3, is a leading industrial chemical used in the production of agricultural fertilizers Teacher Tip
and synthetic fibers. It is produced by the reaction of nitrogen and hydrogen gases: Before doing any calculations involving chemical
reactions, make sure that the chemical equation is
balanced.
3 H2(g) + N2(g) ! 2 NH3(g)
Recall the interpretation of a balanced chemical
equation.
The balanced equation says that 3 moles H2 are stoichiometrically equivalent to 1 mole N2
and to 2 moles NH3. The ratio of moles H2 to moles NH3 is 3:2; the ratio of moles N2 to moles Teacher Tip
Give these examples but ask them to supply the
NH3 is 1:2.
appropriate ratios or factors.
b. How many moles of N2 are needed to produce 42.4 moles NH3? (moles NH3 ! moles N2)
d. How many grams of NH3 will be produced if 122 g N2 reacts completely with H2?
(g N2 ! moles N2 ! moles NH3 ! g NH3)
97
4. Solid lithium hydroxide is used to remove carbon dioxide and is called a CO2 scrubber. This
technique has been used for space vehicles. The reaction is:
98
3. Given the reaction 4 Fe + 3 O2 ! 2 Fe2O3
a. How many grams of Fe2O3 will be formed from 4.86 moles Fe reacting with sufficient
oxygen gas?
b. How many grams of Fe are needed to react with sufficient oxygen to produce 28.8 moles
Fe2O3?
Limiting Reagents
The reactant used up first in the chemical reaction is called the limiting reagent. Excess reagents
are reactants present in quantities greater than what is needed by the reaction.
When Karen went shopping, she was able to buy 50 slices of cheese, 20 hamburger patties,
and 50 slices of bread. How many double cheeseburgers can she make? What is the limiting
material or reagent? What are the excess reagents?
To find the limiting reagent, determine which reagent will give the smallest amount of
product.
99
Therefore, the limiting reagent is the hamburger patty.
40$slices$of$bread$ 40$slices$of$cheese$
10$slices$in$excess
+ 20$patties +
10$slices$in$excess ! 20$double$cheeseburger
Karen can only make 20 double cheeseburgers. The limiting reagent is the hamburger patty.
There are ten slices of bread and ten cheese slices in excess. Karen cannot make more than
20 sandwiches because all the hamburger patties have been used up.
a. If 6.60 moles H2 are made to react with 4.42 moles N2, what is the limiting reagent? How
many moles NH3 will be produced? What reagent is in excess and by how much?
Determine which reagent will produce the smallest amount of product:
100
The amount of limiting reagent present at the start of the reaction determines the
theoretical yield. To determine the amount of NH3 produced, use the limiting reagent.
The excess reagent is N2. If you have 6.60 moles H2 then you will need
b. If 25.5 g H2 are made to react with 64.2 g N2, what is the limiting reagent? What is the Teacher Tip
theoretical yield in g of NH3 that will be produced? How do you determine the limiting This example shows that even though the mass of
N2 was greater than the mass of H2, the limiting
reagent?
reagent was still N2. This illustrates that the
i. Get the number of moles of each reactant. limiting reagent is not determined by which
ii. Calculate the number of moles of product using each reagent. reactant is present in greater amount. It is only by
considering the mole ratios and relationships in
iii. The one that yields the smallest number of moles of product is the limiting reagent. the balanced chemical reaction that the limiting
reagent can be determined.
From 12.6 moles of H2, how many moles of NH3 do we expect to get?
101
From 2.29 moles of N2, how many moles of NH3 do we expect to get?
If in the example given above, only 54.0 g NH3 were produced, then the actual yield is 54.0 g; the
theoretical yield is 78.0 g and the % yield is:
102
Ask them to answer this practice exercise: Answer Key
1. Ag
1. Silver metal reacts with sulfur to form silver sulfide according to the following reaction:
2. 57.5 g
2Ag (s) + S(s) ! Ag2S (s) 3. 2.57 g
4. 78.3 %
a. Identify the limiting reagent if 50.0 g Ag reacts with 10.0 g S.
b. What is the theoretical yield in g of Ag2S produced from the reaction?
c. What is the amount in g of the excess reactant expected to remain after the reaction?
d. When the reaction occurred, the amount of Ag2S obtained was 45.0 g. What is the
percent yield of the reaction?
104
General Chemistry 1 120 MINS
105
MOTIVATION (3 minutes) Teacher Tip
Why do we add baking soda, NaHCO3, in baking cookies and cakes? Baking soda is used to make cakes and cookies
rise. When a weak acid such as lemon juice,
vinegar, or buttermilk is added to baking soda,
bubbles of carbon dioxide are produced. The
INTRODUCTION (17 minutes) release of gas is what causes the cake to rise.
Introduce the laboratory experiment as indicated in the Laboratory Sheet.
Teacher Tip
1. Prepare the classroom or laboratory, the
INSTRUCTION: Laboratory activity (80 minutes) materials, the laboratory sheets to be used.
Safety Precautions: 2. Distribute the laboratory sheets at the start of
the lesson.
1. Never taste anything during a science activity. 3. After the introduction and motivation, explain
2. Wear appropriate laboratory attire; goggles and apron must be worn throughout the the procedures of the activity.
4. Explain the safety precautions.
experiment.
5. This activity can be performed individually or
3. Dispose of the materials as directed by your teacher. in groups.
4. Wash your hands with soap and water after the science activity.
Teacher Tip
5. Follow all laboratory instructions as directed by your teacher. It is important to discuss the safety precautions
thoroughly before starting the experiment.
106
ENRICHMENT (20 minutes)
POST-LABORATORY SESSION
Give them enough time to accomplish the activity sheet of the experiment.
EVALUATION
The learner performed the The learner needed to improve his/ The learner needed to improve his/ The learner did not observe
experiment using proper her use of laboratory techniques; her use of laboratory techniques proper safety procedures for
laboratory techniques while but was able to observe safety and observance of safety the experiment; did not use
observing safety precautions; and precautions; and was able to measures; and was able to answer proper laboratory techniques;
was able to answer at least 75% of answer at least 60% of the at least 50% of the calculations and and was able to answer less
the calculations and discussions in calculations and discussions in the discussions in the activity sheet. than 25% of the items in the
the activity sheet. activity sheet. activity sheet.
LABORATORY EXPERIMENT
MASS RELATIONSHIPS IN CHEMICAL REACTIONS
Introduction
A reaction is said to have been completed if one of the reactants is completely consumed by the reaction. In this experiment, sodium
bicarbonate (baking soda) is made to react with hydrochloric acid to produce sodium chloride according to the reaction:
You will use an accurately measured amount of NaHCO3 and add enough HCl until the bicarbonate is completely used up. You will isolate the
product, NaCl, from the other products and determine its mass. This is the actual yield of the reaction. The theoretical yield can be calculated
by using the mass relationships in the balanced chemical equation above. The percentage yield can be determined from the ratio of the actual
yield to the theoretical yield.
Objectives
1. To perform a chemical reaction and measure the actual yield of sodium chloride from the chemical reaction.
2. To determine the percent yield of the reaction.
107
Materials
a. Evaporating dish h. Iron stand
b. Long dropper i. Spatula or small plastic knife
c. Watch glass j. Iron ring
d. Bunsen burner k. Dilute hydrochloric acid (3 moles)
e. Balance (triple beam or electronic balance) l. Wash bottle
f. Wire gauze or mesh m. Beaker or glass container for the acid
g. Sodium bicarbonate n. Distilled water (use commercially available distilled water)
Safety Precautions
1. Never taste anything during a science activity.
2. Wear appropriate laboratory attire; goggles and apron must be worn throughout the experiment.
3. Dispose of the materials as directed by your teacher.
4. Wash your hands with soap and water after the science activity.
5. Follow all laboratory instructions as directed by your teacher.
Procedure:
1. Clean and dry an evaporating dish and a watch glass. The watch glass will be used as the cover of the evaporating dish.
2. Weigh the combination of the evaporating dish and the watch glass to the nearest 0.01 g. Record the mass in the data table.
3. Put about 2.00 grams of pure NaHCO3 into the dish. Weigh the dish, the contents, and the cover watch glass to the nearest 0.01 g.
4. Set up the Bunsen burner, ring, and wire mesh, and set the evaporating dish on the wire mesh. To cover the dish, place the curved side
down and the glass slightly off center so that the lip of the dish is uncovered. Do not light the burner yet.
5. Add dilute hydrochloric acid drop wise down the lip of the dish to the bicarbonate sample in the dish. Continue adding the acid dropwise
until no more reaction takes place when a drop of acid is added. Gently swirl the contents of the dish so that all of the solid gets in contact
with the liquid. Do not add excess acid.
Caution: HCl acid is caustic and corrosive. Avoid contact with skin and eyes. Avoid breathing the vapors. Wear safety goggles and apron.
Wipe away all spills. If any acid spills on you, immediately flush the area with water and notify your teacher.
108
6. Carefully rinse the bottom of the watch glass with distilled water, a few drops at a time, and collect all the washings in the evaporating dish.
7. Gently heat the evaporating dish, contents, and cover with a low flame until the salt is completely dry. Move the burner back and forth to
avoid spattering. If the contents of the dish spatter, reduce the flame.
8. Turn off the flame. Allow the dish to cool to room temperature. Weigh the dish, contents, and cover watch glass to the nearest 0.01 g.
Caution: Before you light the burner, make sure that long hair and loose clothing have been confined. Remember to allow all apparatus to
cool before you handle it again.
9. Repeat Steps 7 and 8 to be sure that constant weight has been obtained. Two consecutive mass readings should agree within 0.02 g.
Calculations:
1. Calculate the theoretical yield of NaCl that should have been obtained from the reaction. Show your calculations.
2. Determine the percentage yield.
Discussion:
1. What is the cause of the effervescence that you observed during the reaction?
2. How can you conclude that the reaction has gone to completion?
3. How do you know if the product was completely dry?
4. List possible sources of error which you think affected the yield of your reaction. Did your error cause your result to be higher or lower than
the theoretical yield?
Mass of NaHCO3
4. Explain the properties and behavior of a gas in terms of its molecular Resources
composition. (1) Brown, T. L., Bursten, B. E., LeMay Jr., H. E., Murphy, C., & Woodward,
Learning Competency P. (2014). Chemistry: The central science. (13th ed.). Upper Saddle
River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
At the end of the lesson, the learners: (2) Burdge, J. (2013).Chemistry. (3rd ed). New York: McGraw-Hill.
1. Define pressure and give the common units of pressure (3) Chang, R. & Goldsby, K. (2016). Chemistry. (12th ed.). New York:
(STEM_GC11G-Ih-i-43); McGraw-Hill.
2. Express the gas laws in equation form (STEM_GC11G-Ih-i-44);
3. Use the gas laws to determine pressure, volume, or temperature
of a gas under certain conditions of change (STEM_GC11G-Ih- 6. Apply the principles of stoichiometry to determine the amounts
i-45); (volume, number of moles, or mass) of gaseous reactants and
4. Use the Ideal Gas Equation to calculate pressure, volume, products (STEM_GC11GS-Ii-j-48);
temperature, or number of moles of a gas (STEM_GC11G-Ih- 7. Explain the gas laws in terms of the kinetic molecular theory of
i-46); gases (STEM_GC11KMT-Ij-49); and
5. Use Daltons Law of Partial Pressures to relate mole fraction and 8. Relate the rate of gas effusion with molar mass
partial pressure of gases in a mixture (STEM_GC11DL-Ii-47); (STEM_GC11KMT-Ij-50).
110
INTRODUCTION (5 minutes) Teacher Tip
1. Introduce the learning objectives using the suggested protocol (Read-aloud): Display the objectives prominently on the board,
so that the learners can track the progress of their
a. I will be able to calculate the pressure or volume of a gas at different conditions learning. List these keywords on the board.
b. I will be able to determine the pressure of a gas mixture or of its components
c. I will be able to determine the amount of products or reactants involved in a gas phase
reaction
d. I will be able to discuss the properties and behavior of gases in terms of its molecular
composition
111
INSTRUCTION / DELIVERY / PRACTICE (200 minutes) Teacher Tip
Note: The delivery will be done in four 50-minute sessions. It is best to summarize the concepts Ask them how the balloon would look like if there
is no gas inside the balloon.
learned at the end of each session.
It would be helpful if a picture of an automobile
with tires is shown to them.An alternative example
PART ONE is an air mattress.
Ask the learners to recall the definition of pressure the amount of force exerted per unit area.
Let them give the unit for pressure. Showing a picture of a gasoline station air pump
may also be beneficial to the learners.
Show them a balloon and ask them to point out the role of the pressure of the gas inside the
balloon.
Ask them to imagine the tire of a vehicle and the need to pump air into the tire up to a given
pressure.
a. What will happen if the pressure is much lower than what it should be?
b. What will happen if the pressure is much greater than what it should be?
Ask them if they know how the air pressure of the tire is measured and expressed. Point out the
various units used for pressure:
a. The old air pump in the gasoline stations used the unit pounds per square inch (psi), which is
widely used especially in the United States, but usage of which is supposedly discouraged.
b. Later on, the new air pumps used kilopascal (KPa) (or newton per square meter, N/m2),
which is the SI unit for pressure.
c. In chemistry, a widely used unit for pressure is the atmosphere (atm), but the International
Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry discourages its usage. However, it takes some time for
usage of this unit to be discontinued.
d. Another old and popular unit for pressure is the Torr (or mmHg), yet the International Union
of Pure and Applied Chemistry is also discouraging the usage of this unit.
112
Write on the board the relationship between the different units: Teacher Tip
Ask them the origin of the unit Torr and the
1 atm = 760 Torr (mm Hg)
experiment of Torricelli. If they are not familiar
1 atm = 101.3 kPa with this, assign them to read about this from the
internet and to write a report on what they read.
Point out to that aside from pressure, the other parameters (or variables) used to describe gases
are volume and temperature.
The common unit for volume is the liter (L), but the SI unit for volume is m3. The equivalence of
the liter in SI units is simple:
1 L = 1000 m3
1 L = 1 dm3
1 mL = 1 cm3
The common unit for temperature is degree Celsius (oC), but the SI unit is Kelvin (K). The
relationship between the units is
K = oC + 273
Point out that the relationship between these three parameter are expressed by the Gas Laws:
1. Boyles Law
2. Charless Law
3. Avogadros Law
Ask them to state Boyles Law and emphasize on expressing the law correctly: The volume of a Teacher Tip
They would be familiar with Boyles Law and
given amount of gas is inversely proportional to its pressure at constant temperature.
Charless Law from their Chemistry course in junior
Highlight that Boyles Law is valid only if the amount of the gas and the temperature is high school. A review and an enrichment could be
constant. done for these topics.
Write the mathematical expression for Boyles Law: It would be helpful to demonstrate Boyles Law
through a 60-mL plastic syringe sealed at its inlet.
In terms of a proportion: V 1/ P (at constant amount and temperature) Show what happens to the volume of the trapped
gas once pressure of the gas is increased by
In terms of an equation: V = k/P (at constant amount and temperature) pushing the plunger inwards.
PV = k or
P1 V1 = P2 V2
113
Teacher Tip
They should be familiar with the expressions, and
Draw the graph relating pressure and volume. Point out that the plot is called an isotherm, since
they could be asked to write them on the board.
the relationship is exhibited only at constant temperature.
They might be familiar with the plot from junior
high school, and they could be asked to sketch it
on the board.
Answer key:
1. 3.75 L
2. 3.0 atm
A graph showing the relationship between
volume and pressure, as stated by Boyles Law
Teacher Tip
Ask them to state Charless Law and emphasize on expressing the law correctly: The volume of
They should be familiar with the expressions, and
a given amount of gas is directly proportional to its absolute temperature at constant pressure. they could be asked to write them on the board.
1. Highlight that Charless Law is valid only if the amount of the gas and the pressure is constant.
Also, point out that the temperature should be expressed in the unit Kelvin (K).
114
Teacher Tip
Write the mathematical expression for Charless Law: They might be familiar with the plot from junior
high school, and they could be asked to sketch it
In terms of a proportion: V T (at constant amount and pressure) on the board.
In terms of an equation: V = k T (at constant amount and pressure)
V/T=k or
V1 / T1 = V2 / T2
Draw the graph relating volume and temperature. Point out that the plot is called an isobar,
since the relationship is exhibited only at constant pressure.
A graph showing the relationship between volume and pressure, as stated by Charles Law
V/n = k or
V1 / n1 = V2 / n2
Answer Key
1. 168 L
Ask them to solve the following problems: 2. 0.446 mol
1. 1.0 mole of a gas occupies a volume of 22.4 L gas at 0oC and 1 atm. What would be the
volume of 7.5 mol of the gas at the same temperature and pressure?
2. The volume of a gas sample at 0oC and 1.0 atm is 10.0 L. How many moles of gas are
contained in the sample?
The three gas laws can be combined into a single equation known as the Ideal Gas Equation:
PV = nRT
116
This equation can be rearranged into an equation known as the combined gas law, which holds
true for a given amount of gas:
PV
= nR = k
T
P 1 V1 P2V2
=
T1 T2
The combined gas law reduces to Boyles Law, if temperature is kept constant (i.e. T1#=#T2):
P1 V1 = P2V2
V1 V2
=
T1 T2
It will also show that pressure of a gas is directly proportional to its absolute temperature, if the
volume is kept constant (i.e. V1 = V2):
P1 P2
=
T1 T2
The value of R can be calculated from the molar volume at 0oC and 1 atm (V#=#22.4#L).
Point out the importance of R, which is known as the gas constant, and that it is one of the few
universal constants, i.e. its value is the same anywhere and anytime.
117
Answer Key
1. 0.0347 mol
Ask them to solve the following problems:
2. 8.90 L
1. A gas sample occupies a volume of 12.0 L at 50oC and 700 Torr. How many moles of gas are 3. 1.07 atm
contained in the sample?
2. Calculate the volume that will be occupied by 20.0 g carbon dioxide at 25oC and 1.25 atm.
3. What would be the pressure of 6.40 g oxygen gas in a vessel with a volume of 4.5 L at 20oC?
The ideal gas equation can be transformed into an expression involving density. The number of
moles n can be expressed in terms of mass and molar mass (or weight and molecular weight,
respectively):
n = w/M
P V = (w / M) R T
P M = (w / V) R T
PM = dRT
Note that if the value of R as 0.0821 (atm L) / (mol K) is used, the unit for density
in the equation should be g#/#L.
118
For a given gas (i.e. M = constant ) at a given pressure, the equation can be reduced into
dT = K or
d1 T1 = d2 T2
This equation shows that the density of a gas is inversely proportional to its temperature. This Teacher Tip
Assign them to read on passive cooling from
means that hot air has a lower density than cold air.
internet resources. This reading will make them
realize the relevance of the gas laws in building
design.
The relationship between density and temperature can explain:
a. The principle of the hot air balloon
b. The principle behind passive cooling in building design
PART TWO
Highlight that many of the gases encountered in the surrounding are mixtures.
Point out that the Ideal Gas Equation can also be applied to not only to pure gases, but also to
mixtures of gases.
Present a system composed of three gases contained in a vessel of volume V and kept at a
temperature T. The number of moles of each gas is n1, n2 and n3, for gases 1, 2 and 3,
respectively, so that the total number of moles of gases is
n total = n1 + n2 + n3
P mixture V = n total R T
119
Expressing ntotal in terms of the number of moles of each gas and solving for Pmixture will result in Teacher Tip
The learners could be asked to write the resulting
expression for each step of the derivation.
( n 1 + n 2 + n 3 ) RT
P mixture =
V
If the right-hand side of the equation is expanded, the expression becomes
n 1 RT n 2 RT n 3 RT
P mixture + +
=
V V V
Let them realize that the term ni R T / V is equal to P and see that the previous equation can be
written as
P mixture = P1 + P2 +P3
The pressures P1, P2, and P3, called partial pressure of each gas, corresponds to the pressure that
the gas will exert in a volume equal to that of the mixture.
According to this expression, the total pressure of a gas mixture is equal to the sum of the partial
pressure of each gas. This is known as Daltons Law of Partial Pressure.
120
The application of Daltons Law can also yield information about the composition of the mixture, Teacher Tip
in terms of the mole fraction of each component. Let them write on the board the expression for They could be asked to write the resulting
expression for each step of the derivation.
the pressure of gas 1 and that of the mixture:
n 1 RT n total RT
P1 = P mixture =
V V
P1 n1
= = x1
P mixture n total
The term at the right-hand of the equation is actually a fraction, i.e. part divided the whole, and is
known as mole fraction X1. Rearranging the expression leads to an important relationship:
P1 = Pmixture X1
PART THREE
As an introduction to this section, make the learners realize that reactions involving gases are
common, such as the burning of fuel and the digestion of sugars:
121
Let them recall the basic principle of reaction stoichiometry, which is expressed by the balanced Note
chemical equation. Reaction stoichiometry the relationship between
the moles of reactants and products in a reaction
Highlight the following principles learned in the previous discussion: Answer Key
1. They can be guided in solving the problem by
1. The Ideal Gas Equation enables the calculation of the number of moles of a gas from its asking them to solve first the number of moles
pressure, volume, and temperature: of NaN3:
mol NaN3 = 2
PV
n = Then, ask them to solve the number of moles
of N2 produced, using the balanced equation:
RT
mol N2 = 3
2. The volume of a gas at standard temperature (0oC) and standard pressure (1 atm) can provide Finally, ask them to recall the molar volume at
information about the number of moles of the gas, through the known molar volume under STP (22.4 L) and use it to solve for the final
the standard condition: answer:
VN2 = 67.2 L
V STP
2. The mole of C2H2 is first calculated through
n = the molar volume (22.4 L) at STP:
22.4 mol C2H2 = 0.446
1. The airbag is a safety device used in cars to cushion the passenger during a crash. It involves
the following chemical reaction which is triggered by an impact:
Calculate the volume of N2 gas (measured at STP) that can be produced from 130.0 g of NaN3
(molar mass = 65).
122
2. Acetylene is formed by the reaction of water with calcium carbide, according to the following Answer Key
equation: 3. The mole of C2H2 is first calculated through
the molar volume (22.4 L) at STP:
mol of C2H2 = 2.23
CaC2 (s) + 2 H2O(l) g Ca(OH)2 (aq) + C2H2 (g) From this, the mole of CO2 is calculated:
mol CO2 = 4.46
How many grams of CaC2 would be needed to produce 10.0 L (measured at STP) acetylene? The volume (measured at STP) of CO2 is
calculated from the number of moles:
V CO2 = 100.0 L
3. The reaction involved in the explosive combustion of acetylene is:
This answer can also be obtained through the
ratio of the mol CO2 to mol C2H2.
2 C2H2 (g) + 5 O2(g) g 4 CO2 (g) + 2 H2 (g)
Teacher Tip
They can be given a set of problems involving
reaction stoichiometry as homework.
How many L of CO2 gas (measured at STP) will be formed during the combustion of 50.0 L
C2H2 gas (measured at STP)?
PART FOUR
Emphasize to the learners that the gas laws summarize the general behavior of gases. Through
these laws, the behavior of gases can be predicted. However, no explanation is given for this
behavior.
Teacher Tip
Point out that the explanation is provided by the Kinetic Molecular Theory. The theory assumes
To highlight each postulate, write the keyword for
a model which can be used to explain why gases behave the way they do. The model is each statement on the board.
described through a set of postulates:
1. Gases are made up of very small molecules,which are separated by a very great distance
between them. The dimension of the molecules is very much smaller than the distance
between them.
2. Because of the very great distance between them, the force of attraction between the
molecules is negligible. The molecules are independent of each other.
3. The molecules are in constant motion, moving in randomly in all directions.
4. Due to the great number of molecules and their random motion, it is unavoidable that the
molecules will collide with each other and with the walls of the container.
123
5. During these collisions, there is no change in the momentum of the molecules.
6. The average kinetic energy of the molecules is determined only by the absolute temperature
of the gas.
Ask them to draw a representation of the model of the Kinetic Molecular Theory. The model
should be:
Teacher Tip
The model would be familiar to them from the
Science course in junior high school. What might
not have been emphasized then is the motion of
the molecules.
b. Why does the volume of a gas decrease as the pressure is increased at constant
temperature?
This question asks for an explanation for the behavior described by Boyles Law. The answer
would be similar to the previous question on the compressibility of gases. As the molecules
become closer to each other, the volume of the gas becomes smaller.
124
d. Why does the volume of a gas increase as it is heated at constant pressure?
This question asks for an explanation for the behavior described by Charless Law. Help them
recognize that Postulate 5 expresses the effect of temperature on gases. According to this
postulate, if the temperature is increased, the kinetic energy of the molecule increases. The
increased kinetic energy makes the molecules to move faster and farther apart from each
other, leading to a greater volume.
Point out that a mathematical treatment of the Kinetic Molecular Theory would lead to an
equation for the root-mean-square velocity of the molecule:
This equation clearly shows that as the temperature increases, the velocity of the molecule
increases.The gas molecules move faster at a higher temperature. It also shows that as the
molar mass M of the molecule increases, the velocity of the molecule decreases.
If the velocity of two molecules of molar mass M1 and M2 are compared, the result is Teacher Tip
The root-mean-square velocity is the square-
root of the mean of the square of the
2 velocities of the molecules:
1
The velocity of the molecules determines the rate of diffusion of the gases. The relationship
between diffusion rate and molar mass has been verified by experiments, and is known as
Grahams Law of Diffusion.
Ask them to imagine that two bottles are placed at opposite ends of the room at equal distance
from them. One bottle contains ammonia gas, NH3 (M = 17) which has a pungent odor, and the
other contains hydrogen sulfide, H2S (M = 34) which has an odor like that of a rotten egg. Which
odor will they sense first?
125
ENRICHMENT
1. As mentioned in the Delivery, at the end of each session, summarize the concepts discussed in the session.
2. Conduct a session on problem solving to provide more exercises on the application of the gas equations.
3. Conduct a laboratory activity on Grahams Law of Diffusion.
1. Under which of the following volumes will 1.00 mol of an ideal gas exhibit the greatest pressure at 300 K?
A. 0.01 L C. 1.00 L
B. 0.10 L D. 10.0 L
2. How will the volume of 0.50 mol of a gas behave if the temperature is raised from 30oC to 60oC at constant pressure?
A. The volume will increase. C. The volume will be doubled.
B. The volume will decrease. D. The volume will be halved.
3. Which among the following systems will have the greatest volume at STP?
A. 1.00 g N2 gas (M = 28 g/mol)
B. 1.00 g NH3 gas (M = 17 g/mol)
C. 1.00 g CO2 gas (M = 44 g/mol)
D. 1.00 g He gas (M = 4 g/mol)
4. How will the density of a gas vary if its temperature is increased from 25oC to 50oC at constant pressure?
A. The density of the gas will not change! !
B. The density of the gas will increase
C. The density of the gas will decrease
D. The density of the gas will double
126
5. Which of the following volumes of oxygen will contain the greatest number of molecules at 300K and 1 atm pressure?
A. 0.01 L C. 1.00 L
B. 0.10 L D. 10.0 L!
6.!In which of the following gas mixtures of N2(g) and He(g) is the partial pressure of He(g) the greatest?
A. 2 moles N2(g) and 3 mole He(g)
B. 3 moles N2(g) and 1 mole He(g)
C. 4 moles N2(g) and 2 mole He(g)
D. 5 moles N2(g) and 5 mole He(g)
A. 5.00 L C. 20.0 L
B. 10.0 L D. 100.0 L
8. Which of the following postulates of the Kinetic Molecular Theory for gases can explain why gases exhibit pressure?
A. The molecules are in constant random motion!
B. The molecules collide with the walls of the vessel!
C. The distance between the molecules is great!
D. The molecular kinetic energy depends on temperature!
9. How will the velocity of a gas molecule vary if its molecular weight is increased from 32 g mol-1 to 64 g mol-1?
A. The velocity will increase !
B. The velocity will decrease
C. The velocity will double
D. The velocity will remain the same
127
General Chemistry 1 120 MINS
128
INTRODUCTION (5 minutes) Teacher Tip
1. State the objective of the experiment that the learner will be performing. A laboratory experiment sheet has to be prepared
and distributed to the learners.
2. Ask them to recall the diffusion property of gases and explain in terms of the kinetic molecular
theory. The experiment found in the internet could be
revised or simplified to suit the available facilities
3. Point out safety measures to be observed.
in the laboratory.
Teacher Tip
MOTIVATION (5 minutes) An alternative experiential approach to the
Point out why we can smell the odor of a fruit (such as durian) or a flower (such as sampaguita) motivation can be done using an open bottle of
from a distance. perfume in front of the class.
Sample Problems
ENRICHMENT (25 minutes) a. Gas X has amolar mass of72 g/mol and Gas Y
Assign them to solve some problems involving Grahams Law. has amolar mass of4 g/mol. How much faster
or slower does Gas Y effuse from a small
opening than Gas X if they are at the same
temperature?
b. If the density of hydrogen is 0.090 g/L and its
rate of diffusion is 5.93 times that of chlorine,
what is the density of chlorine?
Teacher Tip
EVALUATION (25 minutes) Provide them with the worksheet that they have to
Ask them to submit a report on the experiment. fill up. It could include some more questions.
129
DIFFUSION OF GASES
Introduction
One of the properties of gases is its ability to diffuse easily. This property can be explained by the motion of the gas molecules and the
absence of intermolecular forces of attraction. As a result of this property, a gas spreads easily in the air and fills up all available space.
In this experiment, the diffusion of two gases will be investigated and their relative rates of diffusion will be measured. The gases will be
confined in a glass tube and will be introduced at the opposite ends of the tube.The mixing of the two gases will be indicated by the formation
of a white solid in the tube.
Materials
a. Concentrated hydrochloric acid, HCl
b. Ammonia solution, NH3
c. Glass tube
d. Cotton buds (Q-tips)
Procedure
1. Set the glass tube against a black background and place markings on both ends to indicate where the cotton tips will be introduced.
2. Place two drops of concentrated HCl in one cotton bud, and two drops of NH3 solution in the second cotton bud.
Caution: These solutions can irritate your skin. Use gloves, if possible.
3. Simultaneously insert the cotton buds in the opposite ends of the glass tube.
4. Note which part of the tube a white ring will form. Mark this part and measure its distance from the HCl end and from the NH3 end.
5. Repeat Steps 1 to 4 to provide a duplicate measurement. This will be used to check the repeatability of the results.
6. Dispose the cotton buds in the designated waste container.
130
Treatment of results
1. Record the distance of the white ring formed in the tube from the ends where the two gases were introduced. Calculate the ratio of these
two distances. This ratio is equal to the ratio of the rates of diffusion of the two gases.
2. Obtain the molar mass of HCl and NH3, and calculate the ratio of the diffusion rates of the two gases using Grahams Law of Diffusion.
3. Compare the observed and predicted ratio of the diffusion rates.
Distance from the HCl end (dHCl) Molar mass of HCl (MHCl)
Distance from the NH3 end (dNH3) Molar mass of NH3 (MNH3)
Ratio of distances (dHCl) / dNH3) Calculated ratio of diffusion rates (dHCl) / dNH3)
EVALUATION
EXCEEDS EXPECTATIONS MEETS EXPECTATIONS NEEDS IMPROVEMENT NOT VISIBLE
131
General Chemistry 1 120 MINS
132
INTRODUCTION (10 minutes)
1. Introduce the following learning objectives using any of the suggested protocol
At the end of Part I, I will be able to:
a. Describe the characteristics of a wave
b. Relate the order of the regions of the electromagnetic spectrum in terms of their
wavelength and frequency
c. State Plancks equation.
d. Solve problems related to electromagnetic radiation, its energy, wavelength, and
frequency.
e. Describe the particle-wave duality of light
f. Recognize technological applications of the photoelectric effect
3. Certain experimental results observed at the beginning of the 20th century could not be
explained by classical physics. These included the blackbody radiation, photoelectric effect,
and the emission spectrum of hydrogen. The new age of physics began when the German
physicist, Max Planck proposed his quantum theory of energy. The lesson will discuss the
emergence of this new theory and the contributions of Max Planck and Albert Einstein to the
development of the quantum theory.
133
4. Post on the board the following essential questions that will be answered after the discussion Teacher Tip
a. What is a wave? Check the Infrared Image Gallery site at http://
coolcosmos.ipac.caltech.edu/image_galleries/. If
b. What is a particle? possible, print a few infrared pictures beforehand
c. Is the electron a wave or a particle? and pass these to the students during class.
Alternatively, ask the students to visit the website
from their homes, their mobile phones, or from the
MOTIVATION (5 minutes) school library.
Engage the students in a discussion and ask them the following questions:
Ask the students to go to the PAGASA website at
1. What is a thermal imaging infrared photography? http://meteopilipinas.gov.ph/ to see the IR
Thermal imaging infrared photography detects infrared light and converts this to an weather satellite map.
electronic signal that is processed to produce a thermal image.
2. Give some uses of thermal imaging photography.
Examples of uses:
Military operations
Construction check efficiency of insulation and detect where there are heat leaks; check
electrical wirings in houses to see where there are overheating joints
Fire fighters use this to locate hotspots in a building or locate people who are trapped.
PAGASA weather maps showing warm and cool areas of the ocean
e. The period of a wave is the time for a particle on a medium to make one complete
vibrational cycle.
135
The figures above show two waves travelling between two points at a constant speed. Note
that the wave with longer wavelength has the lower frequency, and the wave with the shorter
wavelength has higher frequency. Thus, wavelength, , and frequency, v, are indirectly related
to one another. The wavelength of the wave multiplied by the frequency of the wave
corresponds to the speed, , of the wave. In an equation form,
= c
136
Give the learners some practice exercises:
1. If the wavelength is decreased to half its original length, what happens to the frequency?
Answer: The frequency is doubled.
2. A yellow light emitted by a sodium vapor lamp has a wavelength of 589 nm. What is the frequency of the yellow light?
c# 3.00#x#10#8#m/s# 10#9#nm#
v## =
=
589#nm
x
1#m
! 5.09"x"10"14"s"+1""or##5.09"x"10"14"Hz
3. A radio station broadcasts at a frequency of 590 KHz. What is the wavelength of the radio waves?
4. A particular electromagnetic radiation was found to have a frequency of 8.11 x 1014Hz. What is Note
the wavelength of this radiation in nm? To what region of the electromagnetic spectrum would Give the practice exercises as a seatwork. Ask
you assign it? some students to show their solutions on the
board and explain their answer.
Planck made a radical proposal to explain the experimental results of the blackbody radiation. He
proposed that the atoms on the surface of the heated solid could absorb energy only in discrete
quantities or quanta, and not continuously as assumed by classical physics. The energy absorbed
137
or released by any oscillator are in integer multiples, or quanta, of h. This became known as Teacher Tip
Plancks equation. Make sure the learner understands the meaning of
integral multiples and quanta. There is no need for
E"="h" the learner to memorize Plancks constant, h. The
value should be given to the student during exams
Energy, E, is equal to frequency, , multiplied by Plancks constant, h, with a value of and quizzes.
6.626 x 10-34 J s. According to quantum theory proposed by Planck, the amount of energy
emitted or absorbed by a body can have values of h, 2 h, 3 h, 10 h, but never 4.8 h
or 0.25 h.
c#
E"="h"="h""
a. When light is made to hit a metal surface, there is a threshold frequency below which no
electrons can be ejected regardless of the intensity of the incident light.
b. Above the threshold frequency, the number of ejected electrons was proportional to the
intensity (or brightness) of the incident light but their energies were not.
Source: Retrieved (https://upload.wikimedia.org/
c. Above the threshold frequency, the kinetic energy of the emitted electrons increased wikipedia/commons/f/f5/Photoelectric_effect.svg)
linearly with the frequency of the incident light. 11/02/16, 08:12 am
138
These results could not be explained by the wave theory of light. Waves can have any amount of
energy - big waves have a lot of energy, small waves have very little. And if light is a wave, then
the brightness of the light affects the amount of energy - the brighter the light, the bigger the
wave, the more energy it has.
E#=#h#
Where is the frequency of the light and h is Plancks constant: h = 6.626 x 10-34 J s.
In explaining the results of the photoelectric effect experiment, the energy, h, of the incident
light is used to remove the electron from the surface of the metal. If the electron is tightly held by
the metal and the energy of the incident light (corresponding to the threshold frequency) is not
sufficient, no electron will be ejected. If the energy of the incident light is sufficient, it will use the
energy to eject the electron; the rest will be given off as the kinetic energy of the electron. In
equation form, this is given by
h#=#W#+#K.E.#
where W is the work function (the energy needed to eject the electron) and K.E. is the kinetic
energy.
K.E.="h"+"W"
This explains the observation that the kinetic energy of the emitted electrons varied linearly with
the frequency of the incident light.
139
Light is a wave as shown by different experiments like the diffraction of light by a prism to yield Note
the visible spectrum. However, the photoelectric effect experiment showed that light also The apparent mass of a photon of light with
behaves like a particle. Thus light has both wavelike and particlelike properties. This concept is wavelength, , can be expressed from the
relationship of Einsteins famous energy equation
called the particle-wave duality of light.
from the theory of relativity:
E"="mc"2"
hc"
Ephoton"="hv"=""
And is given by
E" c/"" h"
m"=""""""""""""""=""""""""""""""""""""""="
c 2 c 2 c
E""=""hv""=""(6.626"x"10"+34"Js)"(1.00"x"10"15"s"+1")""=""6.626"x"10+19"J"
This energy is greater than the work function of cesium metal. Therefore, electrons will be
ejected from the metal.
KE""=""hv"+"W"=""(6.626"x"10"+19"J"+"3.42"x"10"+19"J""=""3.21"x"10+19"J"
140
3. The blue color in fireworks is due to copper (I) chloride , (CuCl), is heated at a temperature of 1200
oC. What is the energy emitted at 4.50 x 102 nm by CuCl?
Solution:))The)quantum)of)energy)can)be)calculated)from)Plancks)equation)!E"="hv."
a. The frequency can be calculated from the equation, c = v ; rearranging the terms, we have:
c" 3.00"x"10"8"m"/"s"
v"" = = =""6.67"x"10"14"s"+1
4.50"x"10"+7"m
!"E"="hv"="(6.626"x"10"+34"Js")"("6.67"x"10"14"s"+1")"="4.41"x"10"+19"J""
This means that, CuCl emitting a blue light at 450 nm can lose energy only in the increments of
4.41 x 10-19 J, the size of the quantum in this case.
4. There are three types of UV radiation classified by wavelength: UVA (320 400 nm), UVB (290 320
nm), and UVC (180 280 nm). Which type of UV has the lowest energy?
5. A photon of ultraviolet (UV) light possesses enough energy to mutate a strand of human DNA. What
is the energy of a single UV photon having a wavelength of 5.00 nm?
6. Compare the energy (in joules) of (a) photon with a wavelength of 5.00 x 104 nm and (b) photon with
a wavelength of 5.00 x 10-2 nm. At what regions in the spectrum do the samples come from? Relate
the relationship of the wavelength of a radiation to the energy.
7. Chlorophyll absorbs light energies of 3.06 x 10-19J/photon and 4.41 x 10-19J/photon. To what color
and frequency do these absorptions correspond?
141
8. The protective action of ozone in the atmosphere comes through ozones absorption of UV radiation Answer Key
in the 230 to 290 nm wavelength range. What is the energy, in kJ/mol, associated with radiation in 4. UVA
this wavelength range? 6.a. E = 3.98 x 10 -21 J
6.b. E = 3.98 x 10 -15 J from x-ray region
6.c. Wavelength is inversely proportional
9. The work function of potassium metal is 3.68 x 10-19 J. Which of the following will cause electrons to to energy.
be ejected from the surface of potassium metal?
a. Red light ( = 7.00 x 10 -7 m)
b. Green light ( = 5.51 x 10 -7 m)
c. Violet light ( = 4.00 x 10 -7 m)
2. Return also to the motivation questions on thermal imaging infrared photography. Relate these to
the lesson.
a. Which has longer wavelength, IR or visible radiation?
b. Which will have more energy, IR or visible radiation?
142
TAKE HOME ACTIVITY: Scientists on Parade Make a profile of each scientist and
Explain to the students the take home activity. This may be assigned to individual students or to groups. explain their contributions to the
Ask the students to prepare a poster which illustrates or describes the role of the scientists listed below behavior of the electron.
in the development of the quantum mechanical description of the atom. If an LCD projector and laptop
are available, the students may present a 7-slide power point presentation.
Samples
1. Max Planck
Ask the students also to reflect on the lives of these scientists and relate what they liked in the life story
of the scientists and what attributes did they possess that are worthy to emulate. 2. Albert Einstein
3. Niels Bohr
Give the students about 1 to 2 weeks to work on the project. They are to present their work in class at 4. Louis de Broglie
the end of the lesson on the quantum mechanical description of the atom.
5. Werner Heisenberg
6. Erwin Schrdinger
EVALUATION
Information 3-4 unique details or examples 2-3 details are provided 1-2 details are provided; some Incomplete information;
provided; content is complete; information clearly relates to information provided is not irrelevant ideas or examples
all information clearly relates to topic; diagrams (if present) relate closely related to topic included
topic to topic and add to clarity
Organization Clear organizational method Information generally organized; 2-3 gaps or out of sequence Information is presented out of
chosen suits work; content the content flows nicely; the information cause viewer or sequence
flows in a clear pattern; reader reader has no difficulty following reader to re-read numerous times
is able to concentrate on the the information despite a minor for clarity
information error or two
Presentation An occasional grammar or 3 or fewer minor grammar or Many minor grammar or spelling Major and minor errors in
spelling error may result from spelling errors; mostly errors; messy; inconsistent care in grammar and spelling;
risk-taking; materials are aesthetically pleasing, some attaching materials or drawing or information attached without
organized and glued down; messy parts; evident care of writing care of the project is attention to pleasing effect;
presenting a polished, pleasing project inconsistent care of project not evident
result (edges rolled, etc.)
Creativity Images or layout show original Images or layouts use a common Images or layout reproduce Images or layout copied from
ideas; reader is surprised, pattern which get intended common patterns, and give others or standard or so
interested and pleased audience interested viewer/reader what he/she is sketchy that intent cant be
accustomed to determined
143
General Chemistry 1 120 MINS
144
INTRODUCTION (12 minutes)
1. Introduce the following learning objectives using any of the suggested protocol (Verbatim, Own
Words, or Read-aloud):
At the end of Part II, I will be able to:
a. Explain the emission spectrum of hydrogen using the Bohr model of the hydrogen atom
b. Calculate the energy, wavelength, and frequencies involved in the electron transitions in the
hydrogen atom.
c. Relate the emission spectra to common occurrences like fireworks and neon lights.
d. Describe the Bohr model of the atom and the inadequacies of the Bohr model
e. Explain the wave-particle duality of matter
f. Perform calculations to determine wavelengths associated with moving bodies
3. Post on the board the following essential questions that will be answered after the discussion
Why do elements emit different colors when heated?
What is the wave-particle duality of matter?
145
MOTIVATION (3 minutes)
1. What causes the colors in fireworks displays? Ask the students to recall fireworks displays and ask
them what they think give the colors in the fireworks?
2. What causes the colors in neon lights?
From Rutherfords theory, the atom was described to be mostly empty space having a very tiny but Teacher Tip
Here is another occurrence that classical
dense nucleus that contained the protons. The electrons whirled around the nucleus in circular orbits at
mechanics is unable to explain.
high velocities. Classical mechanics and electromagnetic theory explained that any charged particle
moving on a curved path would emit electromagnetic radiation. This implies that electrons would lose
energy and spiral into the nucleus. Why this is not observed had to be explained.
In 1913, Niels Bohr proposed his model of the hydrogen atom to explain how electrons could stay in Note
Remember that the Bohr model is no
stable orbits around the nucleus. This model is no longer considered to be correct in all its details.
longer considered correct. However,
However, it could explain the phenomenon of emission spectra. For his model of the hydrogen atom, some of its features are still useful. One of
Bohr made the following postulates: this is the explanation of the emission
spectrum. The limitations of the Bohr
model will be pointed out in a later
a. Electrons go around the nucleus in circular orbits. However, not all circular orbits are allowed. section.
The electron is allowed to occupy only specific orbits with specific energies. Therefore, the
energies of the electron are quantized.
b. If the electron stays in the allowed orbit, its energy is stable. It will not emit radiation and it will
not spiral into the nucleus.
c. If an electron jumps from one orbit to another, it will absorb or emit energy in quanta equal to
#E"="hv
146
According to Bohr, the energy of the electron in the H atom is given by:
n%=%3
n%=%2
n%=%1 The negative sign is an arbitrary convention. A free electron is arbitrarily
considered to have an energy of zero. A negative energy means that the
energy of the electron is lower than the energy of a free electron.
RH is the Rydberg constant for hydrogen equal to 2.18 x 10-18J. The number
n is an integer equal to n = 1, 2, 3,
Exercises
Teacher Tip
1. What is the energy of the electron when it is in the first orbit, n=1? It is important for the learner to understand the negative values
for the energy. As the value gets more negative, the energy
gets lower. As the value of the energy gets less negative, the
energy gets higher. Comparing the energies for the first 3
energy levels, we see that E3 has the highest energy. It is less
E1 refers to the energy when the electron is in n=1. negative. Therefore, as n increases, energy increases.
E1 = 2.18 x 10-18 J
E2 = 0.545 x 10-18 J
2. What is the energy of the electron in orbit n = 2? E3 = 0.242 x 10-18 J
Do not make the learner memorise the value of RH. The value
should be given to the learner.
147
3. What is the energy of the electron in orbit n = 3?
5. In which orbit will the electron have the highest energy, n=1, n=2, or n=3? Answer: n=3
6. As the value of n increases, what happens to the energy value of the electron? Answer: As n
increases, energy increases.
148
E1 is the lowest energy and, therefore, the most stable state. It is called the ground state or the Teacher Tip
ground level. E2, E3, E4, etc. have higher energies and are less stable than E1. They are called Note that this is the 3rd time that quantization of
energy is used to explain an experimental result.
excited states or excited levels. Note also that as the electron gets closer to the nucleus, it
The first was the blackbody radiation; the second
becomes more stable. was the photoelectric effect; and now the third is
When energy is absorbed by the atom, the electron gets excited and jumps from a lower orbit to the emission spectrum of the hydrogen atom.
a higher orbit. When electrons go from a higher energy level to a lower energy level, it emits
radiation. According to Bohr, if an electron jumps from one orbit to another, it will absorb or emit
energy in quanta equal to:
c
= h = h
The Bohr model can explain the experimental emission spectrum of hydrogen which includes a
wide range of wavelengths from the infrared to the UV region. These are summarized in the table
below:
Teacher Tip
SERIES n final n initial Spectrum Region Do not ask the learners to memorize the H atom
emission spectrum series. This is only for
Lyman 1 2, 3, 4 Ultraviolet illustration purposes only. We want them to
understand the concept and not memorize.
Balmer 2 3, 4, 5 Visible and ultraviolet
Paschen 3 4, 5, 6 Infrared
Brackett 4 5, 6, 7 Infrared
149
Exercises
1. The electron in the hydrogen atom undergoes a transition from n=3 to n=2.
a. Is energy absorbed or emitted? Answer: E is emitted because the electron goes from a
higher energy level to a lower energy level.
b. What is the energy involved in the transition?
2. Which transition of the electron in the hydrogen atom will involve the highest frequency?
a. n = 5 to n = 3
b. n = 4 to n = 3
c. n = 5 to n = 2
150
Similarly, when substances like metal ions are subjected to heat, they absorb energy. The
electrons jump from their ground state to an excited state. Once the electrons return from the
excited state to the ground state, light is given off. The light emitted corresponds to the
energy released.
Example: Potassium emitted a pinkish purple color (approx. 400 nm) while lithium emitted a
dark red hue (approx. 700 nm) when heated.
a. What caused the color change during heating?
b. Which element required the greater energy absorption for the electrons to be in the
excited state and produce the observed emissions? Why?
c. What is the relationship between wavelength and energy?
II. THE LIMITATIONS OF THE BOHR MODEL OF THE ATOM Teacher Tip
In contrast to standing waves, travelling waves: are
Although the Bohr model could explain the emission spectrum of hydrogen and was an important waves that travel in one-dimensional direction.
step in the development of atomic theory, it has several limitations: Concrete examples of travelling waves can be
a. It cannot explain the spectrum of atoms with more than one electron. seen from
Skipping rope held on one end, moved up and
b. It cannot explain the relative intensities of spectral lines (why are some lines more intense than down, forming waves, from one end to the
others) other
Ocean waves: the wind produces waves on the
c. It cannot explain why some lines are slit into several components in the presence of a surface of water producing crests and troughs
magnetic field (called the Zeeman effect) that travel great distances.
d. According to the Bohr model, when electrons go around the nucleus in certain orbits, its
energy remains constant. But moving electrons would lose energy by emitting
electromagnetic waves and the electron is expected to spiral into the nucleus.
e. It violates the Heisenbergs Uncertainty Principle. The Bohr model considers electrons to have
a known radius and orbit which is impossible according to Heisenberg. This will be explained
later in the next lesson.
151
The derivation of the De Broglie equation is only
III. THE DUAL NATURE OF THE ELECTRON; DE BROGLIES EQUATION for clarification for the teacher and need not be
In 1924, Louis de Broglie made a bold proposition based on Plancks and Einsteins concepts. De included in the lesson. It is important that the
student understand the concept more than
Broglie reasoned that if light could have particle-like properties, then particles like electrons could
knowing the derivation.
also have wavelike properties. Why are only certain orbits allowed in the Bohr model? Following
De Broglies idea, if the electron going around the nucleus in a circular orbit behaves as a wave, E%=%mc2%
then it should behave as a standing wave as shown in Figure 1. In a standing wave, there are E%=%hv%
fixed points, or nodes, where the amplitude is zero. The length of the wave must fit the mc2%=%hv%
circumference of orbit (see Figure 2). Otherwise the wave would cancel itself.
How did de Broglie arrive at his hypothesis? He
combined the energy relationship of Einsteins
relativistic equation and Plancks energy of a
photon.
p%=%mc%
hv%
p%=%
c
(b) (c)
Substituting the relationship c = v, the
momentum expression becomes
(a) For an allowed orbit, the circumference of the orbit must equal to integral
multiple of wavelengths (b). Otherwise, the wave will cancel itself (c).
h%
Standing Waves p"="
Mathematically, this means that the circumference of the allowed orbit (2r) must be equal to an
integral multiple of the wavelength. For a material particle, such as the electron, de
Broglie substituted for the momentum its
equivalent, the product of the mass of the particle,
m, and its velocity, u. Therefore,
h%
where n = 1, 2, 3. Because n is an integer, the radius, r, can only have certain values %de%Broglie%=
mu
corresponding to n. Therefore, only certain orbits with allowed r values are permissible.
152
How are the particle and wave properties related according to De Broglie?
This is given by the De Broglie equation:
Where h is Plancks constant, m is the mass of the particle, and u is the velocity. Therefore, a
particle in motion can be treated as a wave and a wave can exhibit properties of a particle. An
electron, for instance, has both particle and wavelike properties. This is referred to as the dual
nature of matter.
3. How will the wavelength vary if the velocity of the particles increases?
4. Calculate the wavelength of the following particles:
a. A 6.00 x 10-2 kg tennis ball travelling at 68 m/s.
b. An electron moving at the same speed (mass of electron is 9.1094 x 10-31 kg)
153
The wavelength of the tennis ball is exceedingly small considering that the size of the
atom is in on the order of 1 x 10-10 m. This makes it difficult for a tennis ball to be detected
by any existing measuring device. Meanwhile, the wavelength of the electron is in the
infrared region. This shows that only small particles like the electrons and other
submicroscopic particles have measurable wavelengths.
5. What must be the velocity, in m/s, of a beam of electrons if they are to display a de Broglie
wavelength of 1m?
6. 2. What is the de Broglie wavelength, in nm, of a 2.4 g bird flying at 1.20 x 102 mph? (1 mile
= 1.61 km)
7. What is the wavelength, in nm, associated with 1000 kg automobile travelling at a speed of 25
m/s. Comment on the experimental measurement of the wavelength associated with the
moving automobile.
Although De Broglie was credited for his hypothesis, he had no actual experimental evidence for
his conjecture. In 1927, Clinton J. Davisson and Lester H. Germer, from the United States, shot
electron particles onto a crystal of nickel. What they saw was the diffraction of the electron similar
to waves diffraction against crystals (x-rays). In the same year, an English physicist, George P.
Thomson, from Scotland, fired electrons towards thin metal foil providing him with the same
results as Davisson and Germer. As a historical note, the father and son demonstrated the wave-
particle duality of electrons. George P. Thomson is the son of J.J. Thomson, who won the Nobel
Prize in 1906 for discovering the electron. The father, J.J. Thomson, showed that the electron is a
particle and George P. Thomson, the son, showed that the electron is a wave.
154
ENRICHMENT (5 minutes)
Return to the question posted on the board during the introduction.
Ask the learners to answer the question based on the preceding lesson.
155
3. Which of the following types of electromagnetic radiation will have the least energy?
A. gamma rays D. x-rays
B. visible light E. radio waves
C. microwaves
4. What is the energy in joules of one photon of microwave radiation with a wavelength 0.122
m?
A. 2.70 x 10-43 J D. 4.07 x 10-10 J
B. 5.43 x 10-33 J E. 2.46 x 109 J
C. 1.63 x 10-24 J
6. Complete this sentence: Atoms emit visible and ultraviolet light __________.
A. As electrons jump from lower energy levels to higher levels.
B. As the atoms condense from a gas to a liquid.
C. As electrons jump from higher energy levels to lower levels.
D. As they are heated and the solid melts to form a liquid.
E. As the electrons move about the atom within an orbit.
156
7. The line spectrum of hydrogen gives proof of the
A. Shape of the orbits of the electron
B. Quantized nature of the H energy levels
C. Uncertainty of the momentum of the electron
D. Continuous emission of energy
E. B and D
8. Calculate the energy, in joules, required to excite a hydrogen atom by causing an electronic
transition from the n = 1 to the n = 4 principal energy level. Recall that the energy levels of the
H atom are given by En = -2.18 10-18 J(1/n2)
A. 2.07 10-29 J
B. 2.19 105 J
C. 2.04 10-18 J
D. 3.27 10-17 J
E. 2.25 10-18 J
9. Suppose that a tennis ball, a neutron, an electron, and a pingpong ball are all moving at the
same speed. The wavelengths associated with them will be of the order:
A. tennis ball > pingpong ball> electron> neutron
B. pingpong ball> tennis ball > electron > neutron
C. neutron > electron > pingpong ball > tennis ball
D. electron > neutron > pingpong ball > tennis ball
E. tennis ball > pingpong ball > neitron > electron
10. Calculate the wavelength of a neutron that has a velocity of 200. cm/s. (The mass of a
neutron = 1.675 10-27 kg.)
A. 1.98 10-9 m
B. 216 nm
C. 1.8 1050 m
D. 198 nm
E. 5.05 mm
157
General Chemistry 1 120 MINS
The learners can illustrate the dual nature of an electron. Enrichment Post-Lab Activity 20
Materials
Learning Competencies Cream of tartar (potassium hydrogen tartrate), table salt
At the end of the lesson, the learners: (sodium chloride), moisture absorber (calcium chloride),
barium chloride, lithium chloride, copper sulphate or copper
1. Describe the quantum mechanical model of the atom (STEM_GC11CB-IIa-
chloride, boric acid (sodium tetraborate), distilled water, 50-
b-52)
mL beaker or a clean glass container, popsicle sticks, large
a. Discuss quantum theory receptacle for used popsicle sticks, alcohol lamp, lighter/
b. Discuss the use of quantum theory in explaining the emission spectrum splinter
of the hydrogen atom
Resources
(1) Chang, Raymond and Goldsby, Kenneth A. (2016). Chemistry (12th
Specific Learning Competencies ed). New York: McGraw-Hill.
(2) Petrucci, Herring, Madura, and Bissonnette (2011). General Chemistry
At the end of the lesson, the learners will be able to:
and Modern Applications, 10th Ed. Pearson Canada, Inc.
1. Demonstrate the flame tests for various metal ions. (3) Zumdahl, S.S. and Zumdahl, S.A (2013).Chemistry, 8th ed. Cengage
Learning
2. Calculate the energy, wavelength, and frequencies involved in the electron
(4) Roque, et al. laboratory Manual in General Chemistry (2008). Philippine
transitions in the hydrogen atom. Normal University.
3. Relate the emission spectra to common occurrences like fireworks and
neon lights.
158
INTRODUCTION (5 minutes) Teacher Tip
Explore Colorful Elements 1. Prepare the classroom or laboratory,
When substances such as metal salts are heated to high temperatures, the electrons of the metal the materials, the lab sheets to be
ions are excited to higher energy levels. When these electrons return to their ground states, used.
energy is emitted in the form of light. Since each element emits a unique set of wavelengths, the 2. Distribute the lab sheets at the start of
emission spectrum can be used as a tool to identify the elements. the lesson.
3. After the introduction and motivation,
One method of demonstrating the emission spectrum of substances is through a qualitative explain the procedures of the activity.
analysis called the flame test. In this technique, a small amount of substance is heated. The heat 4. Explain the safety precautions.
of the flame excites the electrons of the metals ions, causing them to emit visible light the color of
which is unique to the metal ion.
Objectives
a. To be able to conduct a flame test for metal ions
b. To observe the flame colors emitted by selected metal ions.
c. To explain the origin of the flame colors.
Teacher Tip
INSTRUCTION and PRACTICE (35 minutes) The activity can be performed individually
1. Safety Precautions or in groups. Nevertheless, caution must
a. Do this activity with teacher supervision. Follow all laboratory instructions as directed by be observed in handling any material in
the instructor. the lab. Instruct the learners how to
behave in the laboratory.
b. Wear laboratory gown, goggles and mask.
Dispose the materials properly.
c. Consider all metal salts as harmful materials. Do not taste the chemicals. Avoid skin
contact with the chemicals.
d. Do not eat or drink while doing the activity.
e. Dispose of all materials according to the instructions of your teacher.
159
PROCEDURE Teacher Tip
1. Dip the popsicle stick in water. The teacher should prepare the samples ahead of
time. Place the salt samples in different watch
2. Dip the wet popsicle stick into the solid sample. glass or paper/plastic plates. Label the samples.
3. Heat over the flame. Observe the color change in the flame.
Guide to the flame colors
4. Repeat procedures 1-3 with the other samples.
Note: It is advisable to repeat the test to ensure that the right color of the flame is observed. Metal Ion Flame Color
5. Dispose of used popsicle sticks in a receptacle.
Lithium Red
6. Note your observation in the data table given.
Sodium Yellow
DATA TABLE
Potassium Lilac
Sample Material Metal Ion Flame Color
Calcium Orange / Yellow-red
Sodium chloride sodium
Strontium Red
There are many causes for the indicated color not to come out such as contaminants in the Note
material, contaminants in the water or in the popsicle stick. Or the flame may not be hot enough. Everyone sees and describes colors differently so
students may describe their colors as purple
instead of lilac or crimson instead of red.
The teacher should NOT mark as wrong any observation. Encourage the students to be honest
with stating the result rather than getting the supposedly correct answer. The purpose of the
experiment is to record observations and try to explain the observations as well as possible
sources of error.
160
b. Arrange the group of metals which produced the most easily identifiable colors. Start with those
that emitted the most intense color and end with those metals with colors that are least intense.
c. Colorful light emissions are observed in everyday life. Where else have you observed light
emissions? Are these light emissions an evidence of excited electrons?
d. Cite at least 2 reasons why the flame test is sometimes inaccurate.
2. Write your conclusion and recommendations for the lab activity.
EVALUATION
Use the following rubric to rate the learners performance in the lab activity.
Observations (10) Attendance and Lab Attire (10) Lab Results are presented well (10)
161
General Chemistry 1 120 MINS
162
INTRODUCTION (12 minutes)
1. Review the quiz given in the last meeting
2. Introduce the following learning objectives using any of the suggested protocol (Verbatim,
Own Words, or Read-aloud):
3. At the end of the lesson, I will be able to:
a. Explain Heisenbergs Uncertainty Principle
b. Describe how atomic orbitals arise from the Schrodinger equation
c. Relate orbital shapes to electron density distribution
d. Qualitatively sketch the orbital shapes
e. Interpret the information obtained from a set of four quantum numbers
f. Assign the correct set of quantum numbers for an electron
4. Present the keywords for the concepts to be learned:
a. Heisenbergs Uncertainty Principle
b. Schrodinger Equation
c. Wave function
d. Electron probability density
e. Atomic orbital
f. Principal quantum number
g. Angular momentum quantum number
h. Magnetic quantum number
i. Spin quantum number
j. Shell
k. Subshell
MOTIVATION (3 minutes)
If available, show 3-dimensional models of the orbitals (s, p, and d) to the students to gain their
attention and curiosity. If 3-D models are not available, post large illustrations on the board.
163
INSTRUCTION and PRACTICE (80 minutes)
I. HEISENBERGS UNCERTAINTY PRINCIPLE
With the discovery that particles like electrons are wavelike (shown by De Broglie, Davisson and
Germer, and Thomson), how can the position of a wave be specified? How can the precise
location of a wave be defined when a wave extends in space?
where "x is the uncertainty in position, "p is the uncertainty in momentum, and h is Plancks
constant.
164
3. According to the Bohr model, the electron goes around the nucleus in well-defined orbits, the
radius of which can be determined. How can you relate the Bohr model to Heisenbergs
Uncertainty Principle?
The Bohr model violates Heisenbergs Uncertainty Principle. Electrons do not go around
the nucleus in well-defined orbits. Otherwise, we will be able to determine the exact position
and momentum of the electron in the atom at the same time. A better model is needed to
fully describe the atom.
4. An electron is travelling at a speed of 2.05 x 106 m/s. Assuming that the precision
(uncertainty) of this value is 1.5%, with what precision can the position of the electron be
measured?
Uncertainty%in%velocity%=%u%=%(0.015)(%2.05%x%106%m/s)%=%3.1%x%104%m/s%%
To compute for the uncertainty in momentum, "p, multiply "u by the mass of the electron
"p%=%m(ru)%=%(9.109%x%10*31%kg)%(3.1%x%104%m/s)%=%2.8%x%10*26%kg*m/s%%
"x%=
This value shows that the electrons position is about 10 atomic diameters. Given the
uncertainty of the speed, there is no way to pin down the electrons position with any greater
accuracy.
165
Teacher Tip
5. Why is the uncertainty principle not significant when applied to large objects such as a The solution of the Schrodinger equation
transportation vehicle? involves advance calculus and differential
equations. The lesson will only deal with
the interpretation of the solution.
II. THE SCHRODINGER EQUATION
While the Bohr model of the atom could explain the emission spectrum of hydrogen, it could not
account for many observations and could not provide a complete description of the electronic The Schrodinger equation for the
behavior in atoms. hydrogen atom looks like this:
The wave function itself has no physical meaning. However, the probability of finding the electron
in a particular volume element in space is proportional to 2. In wave theory, the intensity of light
is proportional to the square of the amplitude of the wave or 2. Similarly, the most likely place
to find the particle is where the value of 2 is greatest.
The Schrodinger equation began a new field in physics and chemistry referred to as quantum
mechanics or wave mechanics. The Schrodinger equation can be solved exactly for the hydrogen
atom but not for atoms with more than one electron. For many-electron atoms, approximation
methods are used to solve the Schrodinger equation.
166
higher the probability of finding the electron in that region. In this case, the probability
distribution is spherical. The probability can also be plotted versus the distance from the nucleus
as shown in Figure (b). It can be seen that there is a probability of finding the electron even very
far from the nucleus, although this probability is small. The closer to the nucleus, the higher the
probability.
Sources
(a) and (b) Probability of Finding the Electron in
the Ground State of the Hydrogen Atom at
Different Points in Space, Atomic Orbitals and
Their Energies, section 6.5 from the book
Principles of General Chemistry (v. 1.0), Retrieved
from http://2012books.lardbucket.org/books/
principles-of-general-chemistry-v1.0/s10-05-
atomic-orbitals-and-their-ener.html (2 Nov. 2016),
Creative Commons by-nc-sa 3.0 license.
(a) (b)
167
IV. THE QUANTUM NUMBERS
In the mathematical solution of the Schrodinger equation, three quantum numbers are obtained.
These are the principal quantum number (n), the angular quantum number, () ,and the
magnetic quantum number (ml). They describe the atomic orbitals. A fourth quantum number,
the spin quantum number (ms) completes the description of the electrons in the atoms.
168
The Magnetic Quantum Number (ml)
a. Describes the orientation of the orbital in space
b. Can have the values:
- , (- + 1), 0, (+ -1), +
The four quantum numbers compose the numbers that describe the electron in an atom. The
quantum numbers shall be in the order: energy level (n), sub-level or orbital type (), the
orientation of the orbital specified in (m), and the orientation of the spin of the electron (ms). It
is written in the order (n, , m, ms ).
169
For example
1. An electron is found in the first energy level. What is the allowed set of quantum numbers for
this electron?
a. The energy level, n = 1.
b. The orbital type is only s, its designation is 0, thus, = 0
c. From , the orbital type is s. There is only one orientation of an s orbital, designated as 0,
thus, m = 0.m
d. An electron in the 1s orbital can have an up-spin or a down-spin. Therefore, ms could be
+1/2 or -1/2.
How does (1,0,0,1/2) differ from (1,0,0,-1/2)? The first set corresponds to the electron with spin
up and the second set refers to the electron with spin down.
Atomic Orbital
n m Number of Orbitals
Designation
1 0 0 1 1s
2 0 0 1 2s
3 0 0 1 3s
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Exercises
1. What is the total number of orbitals associated with the principal quantum number n=1?
Answer: 1
What is the total number of orbitals associated with the principal quantum number n=2?
Answer: 4
What is the total number of orbitals associated with the principal quantum number n=3?
Answer: 9
We can therefore say that the total number of orbitals associated with a given principal
quantum number n is n2.
171
Figure (d) shows that all the s orbitals are spherical in shape but differ in size, which increases
as the value of n increases.
The p orbitals starts when n =2 for which has a value of 1 and m has values -1, 0, +1.
Therefore, there are three 2p orbitals: 2px, 2py, 2pz indicating the axes along which they are
oriented. For the p orbitals, the electron probability density is not spherically symmetric but
has a double teardrop shape, or in some books, a dumbbell shape. The greatest probability of
finding the electron is within the two lobes of the dumbbell region; it has zero probability
along the nodal planes found in the axes. All three 2p orbitals are identical in shape and
energy but differ in orientation as shown in Figure (e). The p orbitals of higher principal
quantum numbers have similar shapes.
(e)
Figure (f) shows the d orbitals occur for the first time when n = 3. The angular function in these
cases possesses two angular (or planar) nodes. Four of the orbitals have the same basic shapes
except for the orientation with respect to the axes. The wave functions exhibit positive and
negative lobes along the axes and shows zero probability of finding the electron at the origin.
The fifth wave function, dx2 , has a similar shape with that of the p-orbital with a donut-shape
region along the x-axis. Sources
(e) The boundary surface diagrams of the 2p orbitals.
From Atomic Orbitals and Their Energies. Retrieved
from http://2012books.lardbucket.org/books/
principles-of-general-chemistry-v1.0/s10-05-atomic-
orbitals-and-their-ener.html (3 November 2016), ),
Creative Commons by-nc-sa 3.0 license.
(f)
ASSESSMENT/LAB ACTIVITY (25 minutes) Answer Key
QUANTUM NUMBERS Worksheet 1. Rearrange the letters
a. Principal
Rearrange the letters of the correct term that is described by the corresponding statement. b. Orbital
1. Write your answer on the space provided. c. Angular momentum
d. Electron
___________ a LAPNICRIP It is the quantum number that represents the e. Magnetic
energy level the electron is in. f. Energy level
g. Sphere
___________ b LATOBRI It is a representation of the wave function of a h. Ground state
hydrogen-like atom.
2. Give the n and values
___________ c ALGANUR MUTMENMO It is a quantum number that a. n=1, l = 0
b. n=3, l =1
represents the shape of orbitals.
c. n= 5, l= 3
___________ d NOTRECLE It is the particle that can be described by d. n= 4, l=2
174
General Chemistry 1 120 MINS
175
INTRODUCTION/ REVIEW (7 minutes)
1. Review orbitals and their shapes.
2. Introduce the following learning objectives using any of the suggested protocol (Verbatim,
Own Words, or Read-aloud):
At the end of the lesson, I will be able to:
a. Explain the unique electron distribution of the atom;
b. Compare and contrast the orbital energies in a hydrogen atom with that of the many-
electron atom;
c. Write the electron configuration of an atom using the conventional method as well as
the core noble gas configurations;
d. Illustrate the electron distribution using orbital diagrams;
e. Determine magnetic properties of an atom based on its electronic configuration; and
f. Determine valence configuration and valence electrons.
g. Relate valence configuration of elements with position of element in the periodic table.
176
MOTIVATION (3 minutes)
1. Ask a few learners to give their home addresses.
2. What are zip codes? What is the zip code of the school?
3. What is the use of zip codes? Look for the zip code of a school outside your city or province
and compare with yours.
where RH is equal to 2.18 x 10-18J. Therefore, the energies of the hydrogen atom increase
according to the following (see Figure 1):
1s"<"2s"="2p"<"3s"="3p"="3d"<"4s"="4p"="4d"="4f"<""
Orbitals with the same principal quantum number, n, have the same energy. It means that in a
hydrogen atom, the lowest energy is 1s. It is the most stable condition, or termed as the ground
state. An electron in the ground state is most strongly held by the nucleus.
In the case of hydrogen, there is only one electron. In the ground state, the one electron of
hydrogen will occupy the 1s orbital, the one with the lowest energy. This electron is represented
178
by the set of quantum numbers: n = 1, =0, ml = 0, and ms = or -. By convention, the set of
quantum numbers is written as (1, 0, 0, ) or (1, 0, 0, -). The ms value does not affect the
energy, orientation, or size of the orbital but is important in describing the arrangement of
electrons in the atom.
It is possible to represent this arrangement of the electron in hydrogen in terms of the electron
configuration or in terms of the orbital diagram. The electron configuration shows how the
electrons of an atom are distributed among the atomic orbitals. The orbital diagram shows the
spin of the electron. For the electron in the ground state of hydrogen, the electron configuration
is given as
In an orbital diagram, a 1s orbital can be represented as a box with 1 arrow up (up-spin) or arrow
down (down-spin)
In filling up the orbitals, the lower energy levels are filled up first before the higher energy levels.
For many-electron atoms, the Pauli Exclusion Principle is used. This states that in an atom or
molecule, no two electrons can have thesamefourelectronic quantum numbers. Consequently,
an orbital can contain a maximum of only two electrons, the two electrons must have opposing
spins. This means if one is assigned an up-spin (+1/2), the other must be down-spin (-1/2).
179
Consider the case of He with 2 electrons.
Teacher Tip
1. What are the sets of quantum numbers that
describe the first and second electrons in Cases
A, B, and C?
2. Why do Case A and Case B violate the Pauli
Exclusion Principle?
3. Why is the arrangement in Case C acceptable?
Exercises
Answer Key
1. What are the possible sets of quantum numbers that can describe a 2p electron in an atom? 1. All six representations are possible.
Answer: For a 2p electron, n = 2; = 1; ml can be -1, 0, +1; and ms can be or -. 2. 1s2 2s1
The outermost electron in Li can be described
(2, 1, -1, )
by the quantum numbers (2, 0, 0, )
(2, 1, -1, -)
3. 1s2 2s2
(2, 1, 0, )
(2, 1, 0, -)
(2, 1, 1, )
(2, 1, 1, -)
4. 1s2 2s2 2p1
2. Give the electron configuration of Li. Give the set of quantum numbers that describe the
outermost electron in lithium as shown in the orbital diagram below.
180
III. HUNDS RULE
For carbon, the electronic configuration is 1s2 2s2 2p2. But the orbital diagram shows three ways
in which the last electron can be placed in the orbitals which do not violate the Paulis exclusion
principle as shown in the following:
However, each arrangement provides a different energy value. The one with the lowest energy
has the greatest stability. Hunds rule is the guide in determining the most stable distribution.
Hunds rule: The most stable arrangement of electrons in the subshells is the one with the
most number of parallel spins.
Based on Hunds rule, the third option is the most favorable arrangement for the electron to
attain the greatest stability. In the first option, the presence of two electrons with opposing
spins in one orbital results in a greater mutual repulsion than when they occupy separate
orbitals. Hunds Rule is followed in d and f orbitals as well.
Any atom with an odd number of electrons will contain one or more unpaired spins, and are
therefore attracted by a magnet, thus, can be classified as paramagnetic. For an even number
of electrons like helium, if the two electrons in the 1s orbitals had parallel spins, their net
181
magnetic fields should strengthen each other. But experimental results showed that the helium
atom in its ground state has no net magnetic field.
This observation supports the pairing of two electrons with opposite spins in the 1s orbital. Thus,
helium gas is diamagnetic. Lithium, on the other hand, has an unpaired electron and is
paramagnetic. The orbital diagram provides information on the diamagnetic or paramagnetic
characteristic of an element.
Exercises:
Fill in the following table: Answer Key
H 1
He 2
Li 3
Be 4
B 5
C 6
N 7
O 8
F 9
Ne 10
Which of the 10 elements has the highest magnetic properties (most paramagnetic)?
182
IV. AUFBAU PRINCIPLE
The Aufbau principle dictates that as protons are added one by one to the nucleus to
build up the elements, electrons are similarly added to the atomic orbitals. The order of
filling up the atomic orbitals is from lowest energy to highest energy. Within the same
principal quantum number, the order of energies of the atomic orbitals is
s"<"p"<"d"<"f"
For example, for n = 3, the order is E3s < E3p < E 3d.
For multi-electron atoms, the general order of filling up orbitals can be diagrammed as
follows:
The electron configuration of elements higher than hydrogen and helium can be
represented using the noble gas core. In the periodic table, the noble gases are found
in the last column named as Group 8A (or Group 18 in the IUPAC convention). These
are 2He, 10Ne, 18Ar, 36Kr, 54Xe, 86Rn.
183
The smallest noble element is helium, so the shortened electronic configuration can be
written as follows for the given elements:
He 2 2 1s2 [He]
The elements in the 4th period, starting from potassium will have argon as the noble Teacher Tip
Please keep in mind that the electron configuration is a tool
gas core
used by chemists to explain various properties and phenomena.
19K: [Ar]4s1 Learners should not be made to recite electron configuration of
very large atoms as there are bound to be many cases when the
20Ca: [Ar] 4s2
general guide to filling up orbitals is not followed. It is better
to emphasize the concept rather than rote memorization.
184
The 4s orbital has lower energy than the 3d orbitals; it is first filled with electrons
before the 3d orbitals.
Elements scandium to copper are transition metals. These elements will have
incompletely filled d subshells or readily gives electrons and form cations that have
incomplete filled d subshells. There will be some irregularities in the electron
distribution of this series as seen in Cr and Cu.
21Sc: [Ar]4s23d1
22Ti: [Ar]4s23d2
24Cr: [Ar]4s13d5
29Cu: [Ar]4s13d10
30Zn: [Ar] 4s23d10
The irregularities in Cr and Cu are due to experimental results that show that there is a
greater stability associated with the half-filled (3d5) and the completely filled (3d10)
subshells. Similar observations are also found in the higher d and f-orbitals.
Gallium is the next element after Zn, its electronic configuration is:
31Ga: [Ar] 4s23d104p1
Important data that can be gathered from the shortened electronic configuration are
the following:
a. Valence configuration: The electronic configuration representing the outermost
subshells.
b. Valence electrons: the number of electrons in the outermost subshells.
185
NOBLE GAS VALENCE Note
ELEMENT CONFIGURATION CONFIGURATION VALENCE ELECTRONS
In the example on the left, there is no need to include the
completely filled 3d subshells in the valence configuration and
Li [He] 2s1 2s1 1 the inclusion of the 3d electrons in counting the valence
electrons.
Be [He] 2s2 2s2 2
Sc [Ar]4s23d1 4s23d1 3
Cr [Ar]4s13d5 4s13d5 6
Ga [Ar]4s23d104p1 4s24p1 3
Source
The periodic table showing the s, p, d, and f sublevel blocks.
From High School Chemistry/The Periodic Table and Electron
Configuration. Retrieved from https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/
High_School_Chemistry/
The_Periodic_Table_and_Electron_Configurations (3November
2016), Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 License.
186
ENRICHMENT/EVALUATION (30 minutes)
1. Which of the four quantum numbers (n, l, ml , ms) determine (a) 8. The atomic number of an element is 73. Is this element
the energy of an electron in a hydrogen atom and in a many- diamagnetic or paramagnetic?
electron atom, (b) the size of an orbital, (c) the shape of an
orbital, (d) the orientation of an orbital in space? 9. Indicate the number of unpaired electrons present in each of the
following atoms: B, Ne, P, Sc, Mn, Se, Kr, Fe, Cd, I, Pb.
Ans: (a) n (b) ms (c) l (d) ml
10. Draw the orbital diagrams for atoms with the following electron
2. Calculate the total number of electrons that can occupy (a) one s
configurations:
orbital, (b) three p orbital, (c) five d orbitals, (d) seven f orbitals.
(a) 1s22s22p5
Ans: (a) 2, (b) 6, (c) 10, (d) 14
(b) 1s22s22p63s23p3
3. List the values of n, l, and ml for the orbital in the 4d subshell. (c) 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d7
Ans: n = 4; l = 2; ml = -2, -1, 0, 1, 2
11. What is the maximum number of electrons in an atom that can
4. Write the four quantum numbers for an electron in a 3p orbital. have the following quantum numbers? Specify the orbitals in
which the electrons would be found. (a) n= 2, ms = +; (b)
Ans: (3, 1, -1, +) (3, 1, 0, +) (3, 1, 1, +)
n= 4, ml = +1; (c) n= 3, l = 2; (d) n= 2, l = 0, ms = -; (e) n= 4, l
(3, 1,-1, -) (3, 1, 0, -) (3, 1, 1, -) = 3, ml = -2
5. What is the total number of orbitals associated with the principal 12. Shown below are portions of orbital of diagrams representing
quantum number n = 3? the ground-state electron configurations of certain elements.
Ans: 9 Which of them violate the Pauli Exclusion Principle? Hunds rule?
187
Electron Configuration Worksheet
1. Complete the table below with the appropriate information as asked.
ORBITAL DIAGRAM OF
ELECTRONIC NOBLE GAS
ELEMENT ATOMIC NUMBER NO. OF ELECTRONS VALENCE
CONFIGURATION CONFIGURATION
CONFIGURATION
Na
Al
Si
Cl
Ar
Ca
Ti
Mn
Fe
Cu
Ge
Os
Au
Cf
2. From A, List 5 elements that exhibit paramagnetism and 5 elements that exhibit diamagnetism in its ground state.
3. Write the four quantum numbers of each electron in a nitrogen atom.
188
4. Determine the element whose outermost valence electron is 5. Write the electron configurations for the elements in number 4.
represented by the following quantum numbers. Encircle the valence configuration.
a. n=1, l= 0, ml= 0, ms=-1/2 6. Plot the elements in number 4 in the blank periodic table
b. n=2, l=1, ml= 0, ms= +1/2 provided for.
c. n=3, l=1, ml= 0, ms= +1/2 7. Pick 3 elements from number 4. Give their sources and a
minimum of three uses of the elements you picked.
d. n=4, l=2, ml= 0, ms= +1/2
e. n= 6, l=0, ml= 0, ms= -1/2
f. n=3, l=1, ml = -1, ms= +1/2
g. n=5, l= 3, ml = 0, ms= +1/2
h. n=4, l=1, ml = -1, ms= -1/2
i. n=4, l=1, ml = 0, ms= -1/2
j. n=5, l=1,ml = 1, ms =
1A 8A
2A 3A 4A 5A 6A 7A
189
General Chemistry 1 120 MINS
191
3. Development of the Periodic Table
The arrangement of elements in the modern periodic table was made possible through the
efforts of several chemists, such as; Dobereiner, John Newlands, Dmitri Mendeleev, and Henry
Moseley.
It started with Dobereiners Law of Triads. He found a relationship among three elements
where the atomic weight of the middle element is nearly the same as average of the atomic
weights of other two elements. John Newlands arranged the elements in what is known as the
law of octaves. He noted that the eighth element has similar chemical properties with the first
element.
Mendeleev prepared a tabulation of elements based on equivalent weights (atomic mass) and
the regular recurrence of properties of the elements. In a few cases, the mass and the
properties did not go the same directions. But Mendeleev rationalized that the properties were
more accurate than the masses since technology used to determine the mass was still
improving. Henry Moseley discovered that each element in Mendeleevs table was arranged in
an order such that their integral positive charge (atomic number) increased numerically from
left to right and top to bottom.
The present periodic table is arranged according to increasing atomic number which also equals
the number of electrons. The electron configuration helps to predict and explain the recurrence
of chemical and physical properties.
MOTIVATION (3 minutes)
1. Show the learners some periodic tables. Ask them what they know about the periodic table.
2. Ask them to identify a few of the elements in the table.
192
INSTRUCTION/DELIVERY/PRACTICE (90 minutes) Majority of the elements are metals (shown in light gray shade
I. PERIODIC CLASSIFICATION OF ELEMENTS in the figure). Metals are good conductors of electricity. The
non-metals are shown as boxes with no shade. The metalloids
(shown in boxes with dark grey shade) have properties that are
intermediate between metals and nonmetals.
193
Exercises
1. Write the electron configuration (using noble gas notation)
of the elements in Group 1A.
2. Comment on the outermost electron configuration of
Group 1A elements.
3. How many valence electrons do Group 1A elements have?
4. Write the electron configuration (using noble gas notation)
of the halogens.
5. Comment on the outermost electron configuration of the
halogens.
6. How many valence electrons do the halogens have?
7. Comment on the arrangement of the representative
elements in the periodic table with respect to their electron
configuration.
Exercises
1. Give the electron configuration of Na and Na+.
II. ELECTRON CONFIGURATION OF CATIONS AND ANIONS Na: [Ne] 3s1 Na atom has 11 protons and 11 electrons.
Ions derived from representative elements Na+: [Ne] Na+ ion has 11 protons and 10 electrons. Na+ is
isoelectronic with Ne.
In the formation of cations from representative elements, the
electrons are removed from the outermost shell to achieve a noble 2. Give the electron configuration of Ca and Ca2+
gas configuration. In the formation of anions, electrons are added Ca: [Ar] 4s2
Ca2+: [Ar]
to the highest partially filled n shell so that they become
isoelectronic (same number of electrons) with the noble gas. 3. Give the electron configuration of F and F
F: 1s2 2s2 2p5
F : 1s2 2s2 2p6 or [Ne] F is isoelectronic with Ne.
194
Ions derived from transition elements
1. Give the electron configuration of Mn and Mn2+.
Mn: [Ar]4s2 3d5
Mn2+ [Ar] 3d5
Note that for transition elements, the ns electrons are removed first. In filling up the orbitals,
the ns orbitals are filled first before the (n-1)d orbitals because the ns orbitals are more stable
and lower energy. However, the electron-electron interactions are different in a neutral atom
from that in an ion. For transition metal ions the 3d orbital is more stable. Hence, the 4s
electrons are removed first before the 3d electrons.
195
c. Approximate the Zeff for F (Z=9).
F (electron configuration [He] 2s2 2p5) also has 2 inner core electrons to shield the 7 valence
electrons. The +9 charge of the F nucleus is neutralized by the 2 core electrons leaving a net
charge of +7. However, there are 7 valence electrons. A valence electron will also feel the
shielding effect of the other 6 valence electrons. Therefore, the Zeff is expected to be less
than 7 but larger than the Zeff of the outer electron in boron because there are more valence
electrons to provide shielding.
d. From the above analysis, how will Zeff vary across a period?
Zeff increases as you go from left to right across a period.
e. To validate the approximations made, values of Zeff for Li to Ne are given below:
Z 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Teacher Tip
2. Atomic Radius There are various types of radii used in inorganic
Atomic size is difficult to define because there is no distinct outer boundary to an atom. The chemistry. However, the lesson focuses only on
general trends in the sizes of atoms. There is no
probability of finding the electron decreases with increasing distance from the nucleus but the
need to further distinguish among these types of
probability does not fall to zero. Thus, it is safe to describe the effective atomic radius which is the radii.
distance of the electron from the nucleus within which 95% of the electron charge density is found.
A more specific way to get atomic radius values is to get one-half the distance between two nuclei
in adjacent atoms (the internuclear distance) in a metal solid or in a diatomic molecule.
196
The metallic radius: it is one-half the distance between the nuclei of
the two atoms in contact in the crystalline solid metal.
How does the atomic radius vary within a period for representative elements? Explain.
The atomic radius decreases from left to right through a period of elements for representative
elements. This corresponds to the increase in Zeff across a period. With the increase in Zeff, the
outer electrons are pulled in and attracted towards the nucleus resulting in a decrease in the size of
the atoms. Teacher Tip
For additional information, atomic size does not
How does the atomic radius vary down a group for representative elements? Explain. change very much for a transition series within a
period. Additional electrons in a transition series
The more electronic shells (n) in an atom, the larger is the atom. Atomic radius increases from top
go into an inner electron shell where they
to bottom through a group of elements. participate in shielding the outer shell-electrons
from the nucleus. The number of electrons in the
Exercises outer shell remains constant; they experience a
comparable force of attraction to the nucleus
Using the periodic table, arrange the following atoms in order of increasing atomic radius. Explain
throughout the transition series.
your reasoning.
a. C, Li, Be For example, for Fe (Z=25), Co (Z=26) and Ni (Z =
27), Zeff for the 4s electrons of the first transition
b. As, I, S series is approximately constant, thus the atomic
c. P, Si, N radii do not change very much for this series of
three elements, Fe (124 pm), Co (125 pm) and Ni
(125 pm).
3. Ionic Radius
Ionic radii are very difficult to measure with certainty because they are affected
by their immediate environment. They can be measured by x-ray diffraction.
The sizes vary depending on the environment. However, we are going to
discuss the general trends and relative sizes.
197
Atomic radius versus ionic radius
Cations are smaller than the atoms from which they are formed. When a metal atom loses one or
more electrons to form a positive ion, the positive nuclear charge exceeds the negative charge of
the electrons in the resulting cation. For isoelectronic cations, the more positive the ionic charge,
the smaller the ionic charge.
Anions are larger than the atoms from which they are formed
When a non-metal gains one or more electrons, it forms a negative ion termed as anion. The
nuclear charge remains constant, but Zeff is reduced because of the additional electrons. The
additional electrons results in increase repulsions among the electrons in the outer shell. This results
to the tendency of the electrons to spread out more, thus increasing the size of the anion.
For isoelectronic anions, the more negative charge, the larger is the ionic radius.
a. Compare the size of a neutral atom of Na and a Na+ ion. Which is larger. Explain.
The Na atom has 11 protons attracting 11 electrons. Its electron configuration is [Ne] 3s1. This
outer electron is lost when it forms the Na+ ion.
The Na+ ion has 11 protons attracting only 10 electrons. Therefore the electrons are pulled
closer to the nucleus.
The Na atom is larger than the Na+ ion: Na > Na+
b. Compare the size of a Mg atom and a Mg2+ ion. Which is larger?
The Mg atom has 12 protons attracting 12 electrons.
The Mg2+ ion has 12 protons attracting 10 electrons. The electrons feel a larger attractive force
towards the nucleus.
The Mg atom is larger than the Mg2+ ion: Mg > Mg2+
c. Compare the sizes of Na+, Mg2+, and Al3+. Arrange according to increasing size.
Na+, Mg2+, and Al3+ are isoelectronic; that is, they all have the same number of electrons. They
have 10 electrons outside the nucleus. But for Al3+, the 10 electrons are pulled by 13 protons;
for Mg2+, the 10 electrons are attracted by 12 protons; and for Na+, the 10 electrons are pulled
by only 11 protons.
198
Therefore, the sizes of the ions increase according to: Al3+ < Mg2+ < Na+.
f. Compare the sizes of F, O2, and N3. Arrange according to increasing size.
F, O2, and N3 are isoelectronic. All have 10 electrons. However, only 7 protons are attracting
the 10 electrons in the nitride ion; 8 protons are pulling in the 10 electrons in the oxide ion;
while 9 protons are attracting the 10 electrons in the fluoride ion. Therefore, the ionic sizes
increase according to F > O2 > N3. .
Exercises
Arrange the following set of ions and atoms in increasing size and explain your answer
a. K+, Cl-, S2-, Ca2+
b. N, Cs, As, Mg2+, Br-
Ionization Energy
Ionization energy (IE) is the minimum amount of energy (in kJ/mol) required to remove an electron
from a gaseous atom in its ground state.
The energy required to remove the first electron is called the first ionization energy. The first
ionization energy, IE1, has the lowest value. The second ionization energy, IE2, is the energy
199
required to strip the second electron from the atom; it has higher energy value, and so on.
IE1 < IE2 < IE3 <
Teacher Tip
When electrons are removed from the same shell, the main effect is that with each successive
There are various irregularities seen in the trends.
ionization there is one less electron left to repel the others. The electrons are more attracted to the These can be further discussed if time permits.
nucleus and are harder to remove. The fourth IE of Al is very much higher because now the outer They are contained in the enrichment section.
shell is exhausted and the tightly bound inner shell, 2p, is being ionized.
Ionization energies decrease as atomic radii increases. The farther an electron is from the nucleus,
the easier it is to be released. Down a group, as n increases and atomic size increases, electrons
are easily released. Thus, ionization energy decreases from top to bottom of a group. Across a
period, as Zeff increases and size decreases, ionization energy increases.
The following tables provide some first ionization energies for representative elements.
IE1 Li Be B C N O F Ne
IE1 Li Na K Rb Cs
200
Electron Affinity Teacher Tip
The electron affinity of an atom may be defined as the negative of the energy change that The teacher should be very careful in explaining
electron affinity because the sign conventions may
occurs when a gaseous atom accepts an electron. For example, for the F atom, vary in different textbooks. The convention used
here is from Chang and Goldsby.
F(g) + e> F (g) Energy involved = -328 kJ/mol
Note that there are many irregularities in the trends
The electron affinity is for electron affinities. Teachers need only to focus
on the general trends at this level.
F (g) > F(g) + e Electron Affinity = EA = +328 kJ/mol
Electronegativity will be discussed in relation to
This is the reason why electron affinity is sometimes defined as the ionization energy of a covalent bonding as is not included in this section.
negative ion. The more positive the electron affinity, the greater the tendency to accept an
electron and form an ion.Generally, the electron affinity increases across a period from left to
tight. The electron affinity generally decreases going down a group.
ENRICHMENT
Some applications of metal ions
1. Knowledge of atomic and ionic radii is used to vary physical properties of materials. For
example:
a. Strengthening Glass. Normal glass windows that contain Na+ and Ca2+ ions are brittle and
shatters easily. Replacing the Na+ ions with bigger K + ions results in surfaces where
surface sites are being filled up leaving less opportunity for cracking.
b. Colors in gemstones. Pure Al2O3 is colorless. Substituting Al3+ with a little amount of Cr3+
in Al2O3 gives a red color in ruby.
2. Explanation for the irregularities in the ionization potential trends for beryllium and boron
(This is optional topic)
a. Boron has lower ionization energy than Be. The ionization energy of B is slightly less than
that of Be because boron removes an electron from a 2p orbital, which is less tightly
bound than the 2s involved in lithium and beryllium.
b. Hunds rule play an important role in explaining the ionization energies of nitrogen and
oxygen. Remember, there are three 2p electrons that can be accommodated in different
orbitals with parallel spin so as to minimize their mutual repulsion. For O (2p)4 and
subsequent elements in the period some electrons are paired and repel more strongly,
leading to IE values less than would be predicted by extrapolation from the previous
three elements.
201
EVALUATION
Directions: Fill up the blank periodic table with the Element as described by each statement below:
1. Element A is the biggest in Group 1A.
2. Element B forms the biggest anion in period 2.
3. Element C has complete d electrons in period 4.
4. Element D is the most electronegative in period 2.
5. Element E will be isoelectronic with the noble gas in period 3 when it loses two electrons.
6. Element F has the highest ionization energy in period 4.
7. Element G has the least electron affinity in group 6.
8. Element H has the 4f14 configuration
9. Element I is the first member of the actinide series
1A 8A
2A 3A 4A 5A 6A 7A
B D
E C J F
A G
202
General Chemistry 1 60 MINS
Content Standard
Activity 2 Electron Configuration and Periodicity 30
The learners demonstrate an understanding of the arrangement of elements in
Materials
the periodic table and trends in the properties of the elements in terms of Materials for Activity No. 1
electronic structure. A. Reagents: 0.5 M magnesium nitrate, 0.5 M calcium nitrate, 0.5 M
Performance Standard strontium nitrate, 0.2 M barium nitrate, 1.0 M sodium hydroxide, 0.5 M
sodium fluoride, 0.5 M sodium chloride, 0.2 M potassium bromide, 0.2 M
The learners can arrange elements and explain their properties through the potassium iodide, 0.5 M sodium sulfate, 0.5 M sodium carbonate.
knowledge in electronic structure. B. Equipment: spot plate (use plastic film like that used for overhead
transparencies or plastic wrap in the absence of a spot plate or wax paper),
Learning Competencies respective droppers and small beakers for each solution
At the end of the lesson, the learners:
Materials for Activity No. 2
1. Compare the properties of families of elements (STEM_GC11CB-IIc-d-62) Giant Periodic table posted on the board, flash cards of elements with
2. (LAB) Investigate reactions of ions and apply these in qualitative analysis atomic number, whiteboard markers, manila paper
(STEM_GC11CB-IIc-d-65) Resources
3. (LAB) Determine periodic properties of the main group elements (1) Chang, Raymond and Goldsby, Kenneth A. (2016). Chemistry (12th
ed). New York: McGraw-Hill.
(STEM_GC11CB-IIc-d-66)
(2) Petrucci, Herring, Madura, and Bissonnette (2011). General Chemistry
Specific Learning Competencies and Modern Applications, 10th Ed. Pearson Canada, Inc.
(3) Zumdahl, S.S. and Zumdahl, S.A (2013).Chemistry, 8th ed. Cengage
At the end of the lesson, the learners will be able to:
Learning
1. Explain the periodic properties of the main group elements; (4) Silberberg (2006). Chemistry. The Molecular Nature of Matter and
Change. McGraw-Hill:
2. Investigate qualitatively the trends in chemical reactivity of metallic
(5) Roque, et al. Laboratory Manual in General Chemistry (2008).
elements; Philippine Normal University.
3. Analyze patterns in data and draw conclusions that are consistent with (6) Periodic Trends Laboratory. classrooms.tacoma.k12.wa.us/Wilson/
krichardson/documents/ ptrendlab.pdf, July4, 2007
evidence;
(7) http://www.rsc.org/learn-chemistry/resource/res00000513/the-
4. Compare and contrast the properties of main group elements; and periodic-table-properties-of-group-2-elements?cmpid=CMP00000583
5. Perform exercises and collaborative work with peers. (8) http://www.oresomeresources.com/resources_view/resource/
experiment_metal_reactivity
203
ACTIVITY NO. 1 Teacher Tip
PROPERTIES OF GROUP 2A ELEMENTS REACTIONS OF THEIR IONS Prior to the activity, the instructor needs to:
1. Prepare the room for the laboratory activity. Ensure that it
Arrangements of elements in the periodic table have been painstakingly thought of by is equipped with safety equipment especially eyewash and
scientists. We learned that elements are arranged in order of increasing atomic number. shower stations, fire extinguisher, sand buckets, first aid
Elements are grouped in s, p, d, f blocks with the same valence electrons in a group. kits, running water.
2. Place posters on safety measures around the room as
We found out that elements in the same group have similar physical properties. Is there reminders.
periodicity of chemical reactivity? Its time for you to find out. 3. Prepare the reagents, equipment, and materials.
4. Prepare the waste receptacles.
5. At the start of the activity, explain the activity. Go through
Pre-Activity the entire procedure. Identify the reagents and equipment.
1. Recall 6. Clearly discuss the safety precautions to be strictly
followed by the students. All students need to wear safety
In the periodic table, elements that are found in the left are metals and in the far right goggles and lab gowns. No open footwear. Long hair
are the non-metals. The elements found in the boundary of the two are called should be tied back.
metalloids.
2. Materials
Reagents: 0.5 M magnesium nitrate, 0.5 M calcium nitrate, 0.5 M strontium nitrate, 0.2
M barium nitrate, 1.0 M sodium hydroxide, 0.5 M sodium fluoride, 0.5 M sodium
chloride, 0.2 M potassium bromide, 0.2 M potassium iodide, 0.5 M sodium sulfate, 0.5
M sodium carbonate.
Equipment: spot plate (or use plastic film like that used for overhead transparencies or
plastic wrap in the absence of a spot plate or wax paper), respective droppers and
small beakers for each solution
3. Precautions
a. Always wear your laboratory gown and safety goggles.
b. Do not contaminate the reagents. Use respective droppers for each solution.
c. Avoid skin contact with the reagents
d. Dispose all solutions in the containers provided by your teacher. Wash your hands
before leaving the laboratory.
204
Instruction / Activity Teacher Tip
Procedure Ask the learners:
1. What group of elements is being investigated?
1. Place the spot plate or OHP film at the center of an 8 x 11 paper. Label the rows 2. What particular property of this group is investigated?
and columns as indicated below:
F Cl Br I CO32- SO42-
Mg2+
Ca2+
Sr+
Ba2+
2. Following the grid on the first row of the spot plate put two drops of magnesium
nitrate solution on the six holes (or boxes drawn on the OHP film). Then add two
drops of fluoride, chloride, bromide, iodide, carbonate, and sulfate
solutions to each of the holes or boxes as shown on the grid.
3. Repeat with calcium nitrate on the second row, then strontium nitrate on
the third row, and barium nitrate on the fourth row.
4. Record your observations in the data table.
F Cl Br I CO32- SO42-
Mg2+
Ca2+
Sr+
Ba2+
Additional Questions
5. What are the indications that a chemical reaction took place?
6. List the group IIA elements in order of increasing chemical reactivity
205
ACTIVITY NO. 2 Teacher Tip
ELECTRON CONFIGURATION AND PERIODICITY The teacher will need to prepare:
Rules for Task 1 1. Colored flash cards where element symbols and atomic
numbers are present (preferably laminated flashcards).
1. Each group earns 5 points for each correct answer. 2. Use the following colors for the elements:
2. An additional 5 point will be given to the group which finishes within 10 minutes. a. On yellow paper: Na, K, Cs, Cr, Mn, Fe
b. On blue paper: Mg, Ca, Ba, Mo, Tc, Ru
3. A group which finishes the task will raise the group flag. Time started and time c. On green paper: B, Al, Ga, Cu, Ag, Au
done should be recorded. d. On red paper: C, Si, Sn ,U, Am, Cf
e. On white paper: F, Cl, Br, Nd, Eu, Dy
f. On orange paper: Ne, Ar, Kr, Ni, Pd, Pt
Task 1 3. Prepare group flags corresponding to the color of the
flashcards.
1. The teacher will distribute flash cards of different colors randomly in the class. 4. Response Sheets enough for all the groups
2. Ask the learners to form groups according to the colors of the paper of the 5. A big giant periodic table can be posted on the board
flashcards.
3. Let the students write the long configuration and noble gas configuration of the
given elements on a response sheet.
NAMES: SCORE:
TIME STARTED: TIME DONE:
206
Task 2 Teacher Tip
1. Ask the students to write the valence configuration of elements in the flash cards. (if There are two types of valence configurations in the group of
elements:
the flash cards are not laminated, let students write the configuration on separate 1. (ns) (np) elements
strips of paper) 2. (ns) (n-1) d elements or (ns) (n-2) f elements
2. Ask the students what they observe about the valence configuration of the
elements in their group. Study what are the similarities and differences?
3. Ask the students to arrange the elements in the periodic table on the board. What
is the relationship of the configuration with their arrangement in the periodic table?
Elements found in the same family have the same number of valence electrons
but different period/energy level.
Elements with ns np configurations are called representative elements and the
(ns) (n-1)d elements are called transition elements, and the ones with (n-2)f
configurations are in the lanthanide or actinide series.
Answer Key
Exercises A.
1. 4s23d3 , 5, d-block, 5B, 4
A. Determine the valence configuration, the valence electrons, the block, the family, 2. 6s26p1 , 3, p-block, 3A, 6
and the period to which the following elements belong. 3. 4s24p3, 5, p block, 5A, 4
4. 4s2 , 2, s-block, 2A, 4
1. [Ar]4s23d3
5. 4d10 5s1, 11, d-block, 1B, 4
2. [Xe]4f145d106s26p1 6. 7s25f3, 5, f-block, Actinide series, 7
3. [Ar]4s23d104p3
B.
4. 1s22s22p63s23p64s2 1. V
2. Tl
5. [Kr]4d105s1
3. As
6. [Rn]7s25f3 4. Ca
5. Ag
B. Identify the following elements and indicate their position in a blank periodic table.
To the teacher, provide a blank periodic table.
1. [Ar]4s23d3
2. [Xe]4f145d106s26p1
3. [Ar]4s23d104p3
4. 1s22s22p63s23p64s2
5. [Kr]4d105s1
207
General Chemistry 1 120 MINS
Teacher Tip
3. Connecting and reviewing essential knowledge
The group number of the element is equal to
a. Briefly review the electron configuration of the elements found in Group 1A to Group 8A the number of valence electrons using the old
(representative elements). system of group numbering. Using the IUPAC
system of group numbering, the number of
b. Ask learners to identify the valence electron of these elements. valence electrons is equal to (Group number
c. Ask the learners what are valence electrons and why is their importance. -10). For example, chlorine is in Group 17, so
its valence electrons are (17-10 =7). Chlorine
has seven valence electrons.
MOTIVATION (5 minutes)
1. Let them deliver the following statement using the read-aloud protocol: A chemist named
Gilbert Lewis noticed something interesting about elements that were very stable.
209
2. Show them the following table and ask them to answer the following questions: Answer Key
a. Group 8A
Atomic Group Group Number Period b. Historically, they are called noble because
Element Electron Configuration they generally do not react with other
Number Number (Old) (IUPAC) Number elements and are stable.
He 2 1s2 c. In light bulbs, current is passed through a
8A 18 1
wire to heat it up until it emits light. Ar is
Ne 10 1s2 2s2 2p6 8A 18 2 used for its inert atmosphere. If oxygen
gas were to be used, it would react and
Ar 18 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 8A 18 3 explode.
d. 8
Kr 36 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d10 4s2 4p6 8A 18 4
Xe 54 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d10 4s2 4p6
8A 18 5
4d10 4f145s2 5p6
Ra 86 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d10 4s2 4p6
8A 18 6
4d10 4f145s2 5p6 5d10 6s2 6p6
210
In combining with other atoms, only outer electrons, the valence electrons, are involved. To keep Teacher Tip
track of these valence electrons, the Lewis dot symbol is used. The Lewis dot symbol consists of Ask the learners to give the Lewis dot symbols
of some of the elements in the table shown at
the symbol of an element and one dot for each valence electron in an atom of the element. See the left..
examples below.
Number of
Element Electron Configuration Lewis Dot Symbol
valence electrons
H 1s1 1 H
Li 1s22s1 1 Li
211
The Lewis dot symbols of the representative elements are shown in the table below. Teacher Tip
The teacher can prepare a power point slide
or a poster to show the Lewis dot symbols of
the representative elements as shown in the
figure on the left.
2. Ask the learners what common features exist for the dot symbols of the elements.
All elements belonging to the same group have the same number of valence electrons. They
have the same number of dots around the element symbol. For example, all Group 1A elements
have only one valence electron represented by one dot. All Group 7A elements have 7 valence
electrons represented by 7 dots.
212
Ionization energy (IE) is the minimum amount of energy (in kJ/mol) required to remove an electron Teacher Tip
from a gaseous atom in its ground state. Briefly discuss ionization energy and electron
affinity for the learners to recall the concepts.
Ionization energy increases from left to right across a period. It increases from bottom to top in a
group as shown in the figure below. Ask the learners the reason for the trend.
Examples
Increasing ionization energy
Li Li+ + e
1s22s1 1s2
[He] 2s1 [He]
Na Na+ + e
1s22s22p63s1 1s22s22p6
[Ne] 3s1 [Ne]
Ca Ca2+ + 2 e
[Ar] 4s2 [Ar]
Elements with small ionization energies tend to easily give up electrons to form positive ions or
cations. From the positions in the periodic table, these elements would be the metals particularly
those in Groups 1A and 2A. The larger the metal atom, the easier it is to lose valence electrons
and the more reactive the metal.
The electron affinity of an atom may be defined as the negative of the energy change that
occurs when a gaseous atom accepts an electron, or the ionization energy of a negative ion. The
more positive the electron affinity, the greater the tendency to accept an electron and form an ion.
Generally, the electron affinity increases across a period from left to right. The electron affinity
generally decreases going down a group.
213
Increasing tendency to accept electrons Examples
:F + e :F:
1s22s22p5 1s22s22p6
Increasing tendency to accept
:O + 2e : F :2
electrons
1s22s22p4 1s22s22p6
[He] 2s22p4 [Ne]
Therefore, the elements on the right hand side of the periodic table, the non-metals, have a high
tendency to accept electrons and form negative ions, or anions. The smaller the nonmetal atom,
the greater the tendency to attract electrons, and the higher the reactivity of the nonmetal. Using
dot symbols and their electron configuration, the formation of the anions are shown in the
equations below.
Exercises
1. Give the charge and draw the Lewis dot symbol
a. of the anion formed when a sulphur atom accepts electrons.
b. of the cation formed when a Rb atom loses an electron
c. of the anion formed when a nitrogen atom accepts electrons
d. of the anion formed when an iodine atom accepts an electron
214
III. IONIC BOND FORMATION Teacher Tip
Remember that the Bohr model is incorrect
From the previous section we saw that atoms with low ionization energies tend to form cations and should no longer be used to show the
while atoms with high electron affinities tend to form anions. These cations and anions combine to formation of ionic bonds. Do not use
form ionic compounds. electrons orbiting around the nucleus where
one is transferred to another atom also with
electrons orbiting the nucleus. This model is
An ionic bond is the electrostatic force that holds ions together in an ionic bond. The not the true picture of the formation of the
formation of the ionic compound, LiF, can be represented using the Lewis dot symbols. ionic bond.
The two ions, Li+ and F-, now attract each other to form Li+F- or LiF.
Exercises
1. Using the Lewis dot symbol, show the ionic bond formation for Ca2+O2- or CaO.
Ca + :O Ca2+ : O :2-
2. Using the Lewis dot symbol, show the ionic bond formation for Na2O.
2 Na + :O 2 Na+ : O : 2-
215
Therefore, the stronger the interaction among the ions in the ionic compound, the harder to Teacher Tip
separate them, the larger the lattice energy, the stronger the ionic bond. The lattice energy can be calculated using the
Born-Haber cycle. However, this is beyond
the scope of the lesson. Nevertheless, it is
The lattice energy is proportional to the product of the charges of the ions and inversely important to emphasize the meaning of lattice
energy and its relationship to the strength of
proportional to r, the distance of separation between the ions (Coulombs law). In the case of LiF, the ionic bond.
for example, the lattice energy is proportional to
Relate lattice energy to the melting points of
ionic compounds.
where QLi+ and QF%!are charges of Li+ and F, k is the proportionality constant. Therefore, the higher
the ion charges, the stronger the bond; the shorter the distance between ions, the stronger the
bond.
The lattice energy is correlated to the physical properties of ionic compounds such as the melting
points. The larger the lattice energy, the harder to separate the ions, the higher the melting point.
Exercises
1. Which is expected to have a higher melting point? LiF or NaF?
Both ions have +1 and -1 charges but the distances between ions are different. Na+ is larger than
Li+. Therefore the internuclear distance in LiF is shorter; hence, LiF will have the higher melting
point.
2. Arrange the melting points of the following ionic compounds in decreasing order: LiF, LiBr, LiI,
and LiCl.
Because all ions have +1 and -1 charges, the internuclear distance will affect the melting point.
The order of melting points will be: LiF > LiCl > LiBr > LiI.
3. Which will have the higher melting point, NaCl or MgO? Explain.
Answer: MgO
216
V. PROPERTIES OF IONIC COMPOUNDS
Ionic compounds have the following general properties:
Ionic substances form crystalline solids. In the solid state, the ions are in rigid formation in
relatively fixed positions in a crystal lattice. This makes them immobile and poor conductors of
electricity and heat. However, when they melt or are dissolved in solution, they become good
electrical conductors. Note, however, that not all ionic solids are soluble in water.
Because of the strong electrostatic force of attraction among ions in the solid, they have high
melting points and high boiling points. (See discussion on lattice energy).
Ionic solids are hard and brittle. The electrostatic forces have to be overcome to move the ions
and shift them away from one another.
ENRICHMENT (5 minutes)
Ions in the human body
Ions play an important role in the body. Calcium, potassium, sodium, chloride, and copper ions are
some key ions involved in the electrical events inside the body. Potassium is the major positive ion
inside the cell, while sodium is the major positive ion found in the fluid outside the cell. Ionic chlorine
is the most abundant negative ion.
What will happen to our body if there is an imbalance of any of these ions or certain trace ions
in the body?
Imbalances of any of these ions, certain traces of ions in the body, or inhibition of sodium ion
transport across the cell membranes can lead to dysfunction in the conduction of electrical messages.
This dysfunction quickly leads to a general body disturbance and loss of ability to maintain somewhat
stable internal conditions.
217
ACTIVITY
Drawing Lewis Dot Symbols
I. Using a simple periodic table, accomplish the following table. Write the atomic number, electron configuration (long form), number of
valence electrons, and Lewis dot symbol for each of the elements listed below.
Element Atomic Number Electron Configuration Number of Valence Electrons Lewis Dot Symbol
1. Fluorine
2. Phosphorus
3. Magnesium
4. Iodine
5. Carbon
6. Barium
7. Selenium
8. Silicon
9. Bromine
10. Aluminum
218
II. Complete the following table.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
III. Draw the Lewis dot symbol for the ions in Part II.
219
General Chemistry 1 180 MINS
220
INTRODUCTION (10 minutes)
1. Introduce the following learning objectives using any of the suggested protocol (Verbatim, Own
Words, or Read-aloud):
At the end of the lesson, I will be able to:
a. Illustrate the formation of covalent bonds in terms of electron sharing.
b. Apply the octet rule in forming covalent compounds.
c. Define electronegativity.
d. Describe the electronegativity trends in the periodic table.
e. Draw Lewis structure of covalent compounds.
f. Identify lone pairs and bond pairs
g. Draw the resonance structures of covalent compounds
h. Determine the polarity of a bond based on the electronegativities of the bonding atoms
i. Determine whether a bond is ionic, polar covalent, or covalent based on the differences in
electronegativities of the bonding atoms.
221
3. Post on the board the following essential questions that will be answered after the discussion Teacher Tip
a. How are covalent bonds formed? Clearly illustrate for the learners the formation of
the covalent bond through electron sharing.
b. Why are the electrons often unequally shared by the atoms in a covalent bond?
c. How do we represent covalent compounds?
d. How do we name covalent compounds?
MOTIVATION (5 minutes)
1. Bring to the class samples of covalent compounds. Tell the learners that they will be finding out
about how the atoms in these compounds are linked. This will be related to the assignment
activity at the end of the class.
Samples could be: water, naphthalene balls, sugar, acetone, ethyl alcohol, ammonia.
The two electrons are shared equally between the two atoms forming a covalent bond. The
bond is typically depicted by a single line, H - H. The electrons are attracted to the nuclei of
both atoms keeping the atoms together to form a molecule. Show the formation of the covalent
bond for the F2 molecule
222
The representation of the covalent compound above is called the Lewis structure. In the Lewis
structure, shared electrons that form a bond is represented by a line or a pair of dots; lone pairs
are represented by dots above the atom. Only valence electrons are included in Lewis
structures.
a. From the Lewis structure of F2, how many electrons are around each fluorine atom in F2?
Answer: There are eight electrons fulfilling the octet rule. By sharing the electrons, each
fluorine atom fulfils the octet rule.
Note: The octet rule works mainly for elements in the second period (2s and 2p subshells
can hold 8 electrons). For hydrogen, only two electrons are needed to fulfill the noble gas
configuration.
b. How many bond pairs are there in the F2 molecule? Answer: One
c. How many lone pairs are there in the F2 molecule? Answer: Six lone pairs
d. Further illustrate the formation of the covalent bond in Cl2. How many bond pairs are there?
How many lone pairs?
e. Illustrate the formation of the covalent bond in HCl.
223
Exercises
1. Draw the Lewis structure for H2O, CH4 (methane), and for NH3.
2. Which of the three molecules has the largest number of bond pairs (covalent bonds)?
Answer: CH4 has four bond pairs, NH3 has three, and H2O has two.
3. Draw the Lewis structure for carbon dioxide, CO2.
The unpaired electrons of O Note that there are 8 The unpaired electrons of N
and C will pair up. electrons around each of the will pair up.
atoms of C and O fulfilling the
octet rule.
The examples of CO2 and N2 show that there are different types of covalent bonds that are formed. Single bonds are formed when two atoms
are held together by one pair of electrons. Multiple bonds can be formed. A double bond is from the sharing of two pairs of electrons such as
in the case of O and C in CO2. A triple bond exists in N2 where the two N atoms are held by three pairs of electrons.
224
A property that distinguishes the polarity of bonds is electronegativity, the tendency of an atom Teacher Tip
in a chemical bond to attract electrons toward itself. Electronegativity is a theoretical concept Note that the F end of the HF bond is partially
negative. Why not totally negative? What would it
and devised as a relative scale. That is, it can be estimated relative to, or in comparison to,
mean if the F end is totally negative? Likewise, the
other elements in chemical bonds. Linus Pauling developed a relative scale of H end of the HF bond is partially positive. There
electronegativities which is widely used in General Chemistry textbooks. In contrast, ionization are other electronegativity scales used in inorganic
energies and electron affinities are physically measurable properties of elements. chemistry such as the Muliken scale and the Allred-
Rochow scale. What is important to note is that
unlike ionization energy or electron affinity,
In general, electronegativity increases from left to right across a period. It increases as atomic
electronegativity is a theoretical concept where a
radius decreases. The most electronegative elements are those in the upper right hand side of ranking of elements in chemical bonds is
the periodic table with fluorine as the most electronegative. Metals especially the ones with established in terms of their ability to attract
large atomic radii are the least electronegative. electrons. This is why different scales have been
used. The most commonly used scale in General
The difference in the electronegativity values (!EN) of two bonded atoms determines the Chemistry is that devised by Linus Pauling.
percent ionic character of the bond. If the bond is between two identical elements, for
example FF, then the bond is purely covalent with 0 percent ionic character. The difference in
electronegativity is 0.
Increasing electronegativity
1A 8A
2.1 2A 3A 4A 5A 6A 7A
Increasing electronegativity
0.7 0.9
225
Teacher Tip
For the molecule HCl, the difference in electronegativity is 0.9 showing that the bond is a polar Different textbooks use different cutoffs for
covalent bond. A 50% ionic character corresponds to EN=1.7. While there is no bond that is 100% classifying a bond to be ionic. Chemistry by
Chang and Goldsby uses the cutoff at 2.0 while
ionic, an electronegativity difference of 2.0 or greater is usually classified to be predominantly ionic.
other textbooks use a value of EN greater than
1.7 to classify a bond to be ionic. This lesson
When !EN 2.0, the bond is predominantly ionic. has chosen the cutoff value of 2.0.
Even without electronegativity values, it is possible to predict the polarity of a bond by examining It is important to emphasize that there is no
the position of the bonded elements in the periodic table. bond that is 100% ionic.
Exercises
1. Classify the following bonds as ionic, polar covalent, or covalent. Explain your answers.
A. The C-C bond in H3CCH3
B. The K-I bond in KI
C. The C-F bond in CF4
D. The N-H bond in NH3
2. Arrange the flowing bonds according to increasing bond polarity: Cs to F, Cl to Cl, Br to Cl, Si to
C.
226
Exercises:
1. Write the Lewis structure for NCl3.
a. Skeleton structure is
!Cl!
Cl!!!!!!!!!!!!!N!!!!!!!!!!!Cl!
c. Distribute the 26 electrons to the atoms such that they fulfill the octet rule. Bonds are
equivalent to 2 electrons. Check if all atoms have 8 electrons around them.
227
3. Write the Lewis structure of CN.
a. Skeleton structure is C!!!!!!!!!!N
b. Valence electrons: 4 for carbon, 5 for nitrogen, and 1 for the negative charge = 10
c. Distribute the 10 electrons to the skeleton structure. The Lewis structure is:
228
However, experimental results show that there is only one bond length obtained for ozone. The
bond length is between that of a single bond and a double bond. This means the above Lewis
structure is not an accurate representation of ozone. In fact, we are unable to write the accurate
representation using either the first or second Lewis structure shown above.
Misconception
To resolve this discrepancy, we represent the ozone molecule using the two structures presented as The molecule does not oscillate between the
follows: two structures. We use the resonance structures
as a way to resolve the inability to represent
accurately the structure of a molecule. In the
case of ozone, the accurate picture is the
combination of the two structures.
Each of the above structures is called a resonance structure. The double sided arrow shows that
the structures are resonance structures. A resonance structure is one of two or more Lewis
structures for a molecule that cannot be represented accurately by only one Lewis structure.
What is the correct representation for ozone? The two resonance structures shown with the double
arrow.
2. Draw the resonance structures for the carbonate ion, CO32. Practice with this ion. The correct
resonance structures are:
How many resonance structures will the NO3 have? Draw them.
229
V. EXCEPTIONS TO THE OCTET RULE Misconception
1. The octet rule works best for second-period elements. Hence there are many exceptions. They The molecule does not oscillate between the
two structures. We use the resonance structures
fall into three categories: as a way to resolve the inability to represent
a. Incomplete octet accurately the structure of a molecule. In the
case of ozone, the accurate picture is the
b. Odd number of electrons combination of the two structures.
c. Expanded Octet
Incomplete octet
An example of a molecule with incomplete octet is BeH2, beryllium hydride. Its structure is
There are only 4 electrons around Be and not 8. Boron and aluminum also form molecules with
incomplete octets.
Exercise
Draw the Lewis structure of aluminum triiodide, AlI3, showing the incomplete octet.
The odd numbered molecules are sometimes referred to as radicals. They are generally highly
reactive.
Expanded Octets
Atoms belonging to the second period cannot have more than eight valence electrons around the
central atom because they only have the 2s and 2p subshells. This is different for atoms of
elements in the 3rd period and beyond.
230
These elements have 3d orbitals that can participate in the bonding. Hence they can have more Teacher Tip
than eight valence electrons around the central atom. An example is SF6, sulfur hexafluoride, with For Lewis structures and 3-D representations of
the Lewis structure shown below. SF6 has 12 electrons around the central atom. molecules, please see Chemical Education
Digital Library http://www.chemeddl.org/
resources/models360/models.php?pubchem
Sources
From Lewis Symbols and Structures, Rice
University. Retrieved from https://
opentextbc.ca/chemistry/chapter/7-3-lewis-
symbols-and-structures/ (3 November 2016),
Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International
License
Another example is phosphorus pentafluoride, PF5, where the central atom has 10 electrons
around it.
HF Hydrogen fluoride
HI Hydrogen iodide
SiC Silicon carbide
231
2. Prefixes (as shown in the table below) are used to denote the number of atoms in the formula.
The prefix mono usually omitted for the first element in the formula.
Samples
CO carbon monoxide
CO2 carbon dioxide
NO2 nitrogen dioxide
N2O4 dinitrogen tetroxide
CCl4 carbon tetrachloride
SF6 sulfur hexafluoride
Teacher Tip
ENRICHMENT (5 minutes) This can be given as an assignment at the end of
1. This is an assignment to be submitted the following meeting.
the first meeting on covalent compounds. This
2. Learners will look for at least 2 examples of covalent compounds that can be found in nature or can be discussed in class the following meeting
used in everyday life. They must include the following information: so the learners can all participate.
232
EVALUATION (30 minutes)
Multiple Choice: Encircle the letter corresponding to the best 4. The electron pair in a C - F bond could be considered
answer. You will be provided a simple periodic table. a. Closer to C because Carbon has a larger radius and thus
exerts greater control over the shared electron pair
1. Which element will have 5 electrons in its Lewis dot symbol? b. Closer to F because Fluorine has a higher electronegativity
a. Argon than Carbon
3. Write the correct Lewis dot structure for O2. Which statement 6. Which bond is the strongest?
correctly describes the structure of the whole molecule?
a. carbon - Nitrogen triple bond
a. There is a double bond and four lone pairs.
b. carbon - Nitrogen double bond
b. There is a double bond and six lone pairs.
c. carbon - Hydrogen bond
c. There is a single bond and four lone pairs.
d. carbon - Carbon triple bond
d. There is a single bond and six lone pairs.
e. carbon - Carbon single bond
e. There is a single bond, a double bond, and six lone pairs.
233
7. Predict qualitatively the relative bond lengths of the four single 10. Which element is the least electronegative?
bonds given below and arrange them from shortest to longest: a. Calcium
b. Cesium
C-N N-O N-Si O-O c. Iron
d. Barium
a. O-O < N-SI < C-N < N-O e. Potassium
b. O-O < N-O < C-N < N-Si
c. O-O < C-N < N-O < N-Si 11. Which of the following statements about resonance is true?
d. N-O < O-O < C-N < N-Si Resonance hybrids occur because a compound changes back
e. N-Si < C-N < N-O < O-O and forth between two or more resonance structures.
I. Resonance structures differ in the arrangement of electrons
but not in the arrangement of atoms.
8. Which of the following represents a non-polar covalent bond?
II. Resonance hybrids contain delocalized electrons.
a. H-O
III. Resonance structures for a given compound always
b. C-N
contribute equally to the resonance hybrid.
c. C-C
IV. Resonance structures occur when there are two or more valid
d. Li-F
Lewis structures for a given compound.
e. S-O
V. Resonance hybrids are a composite of resonance structures.
234
12. How many resonance forms will nitrate ion (NO3-) have? Answer Key
a. -1 1. D 8. C
2. E 9. B
b. 0 3. A 10. B
c. 1 4. B 11. D
5. C 12. E
d. 2 6. A 13. B
e. 3 7. B 14. B
14. Write the singly bonded Lewis dot structure for BF3. Which of
the following statements best describes this structure?
a. It obeys the octet rule on all atoms.
b. It has less than an octet on at least one atom.
c. It has a lone pair of electrons on the boron atom.
d. It has less than an octet of electrons on all atoms.
e. It exceeds the octet rule.
235
General Chemistry 1 120 MINS
The learners demonstrate an understanding of the properties of molecular Motivation Models of Solid Geometrics 5
covalent compounds in relation to their structure. Instruction I. Molecular Geometry 90
Performance Standard and Practice II. Molecular Geometry of Sample
The learners can demonstrate the properties of molecular compounds resulting Molecules
from their structure. III. Summary of Molecular Geometrics
236
INTRODUCTION (5 minutes)
1. Introduce the following learning objectives using any of the suggested protocol (Verbatim, Own
Words, or Read-aloud):
At the end of the lesson, I will be able to:
a. Apply the Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion Theory to predict the geometry of simple
molecules.
b. Define dipole moment.
c. Predict the polarity of molecules
MOTIVATION (5 minutes)
1. Bring to the class models of different solid geometries such as a tetrahedron, a trigonal
bipyramid, and an octahedron. If models are unavailable, show drawings of these geometries
to the learners. Ask the learners if they know the names of these geometries.
2. There are some fruit juices being sold in tetrahedral packs in the supermarket. The learners can
be shown some of these.
237
INSTRUCTION and PRACTICE (90 minutes)
I. MOLECULAR GEOMETRY
What is molecular geometry? Why do we need to know about the geometry of molecules?
Molecular geometry pertains to the three-dimensional arrangement of atoms in a molecule.
Geometry affects the physical and chemical properties of molecules and their reactivity towards
other molecules.
Number of
Orientation of Electron Pairs
Electron Pairs
2 Linear
3 Trigonal Planar
4 Tetrahedal
5 Trigonal bipyramidal
6 Octahedral
239
d. What is the molecular geometry?
The molecular geometry is determined by the arrangement of the nuclei of the atoms in the
molecule. The molecular geometry of BeCl2 is linear.
e. What is the Cl-Be-Cl bond angle? It will be 180o.
2. Predict the molecular geometry of CO2. This is also of the type AX2 but with double bonds.
a. In determining molecular geometry, always start with the Lewis structure.
b. How many electron pairs are around the central atom of carbon? We have indicated earlier
that in applying the VSEPR theory, we will treat multiple bonds to be like single bonds.
Therefore, there will be two pairs around carbon.
c. What will be the orientation of the electron pairs: Answer: Linear
d. What will be the molecular geometry of CO2? Answer: Linear
e. What will be the O C O bond angle? Answer: 180o.
3. Predict the molecular geometry of the molecule BCl3. This is of the type AX3.
a. Again, the first step is to get the Lewis structure.
trigonal planar
240
b. How many bond pairs surround the central atom of boron? Three bond pairs surround B.
c. How will three electron pairs orient themselves such that they will be as far apart from one
another as possible?
To minimize repulsion, the two electron pairs will be arranged in a trigonal planar
arrangement as shown above.
d. What is the molecular geometry?
The molecular geometry of BCl3 is trigonal planar. This is a flat molecule as shown in the
figure on the right above.
e. What is the Cl B Cl bond angle? The bond angle is 120o.
4. Predict the molecular geometry of ozone, O3. This molecule is of the type AX2E. Teacher Tip
You may relate the significance of ozone. Briefly
a. Lewis structure ask the learners what they know about ozone. What
is its role in the environment? Do they know its
chemical formula? Do they know its structure?
For predicting geometry, we may use only one of the resonance structures.
b. Number of electron pairs around central oxygen atom (treat multiple bonds as single
bonds): three electron pairs
c. Orientation of three electron pairs: trigonal planar
d. Molecular geometry: bent
We only use the positions of the nuclei of the atoms. We are unable to see the lone pair.
Therefore, the molecular geometry is bent.!!
The lone pair occupies more volume and pushes the bond pair closer. Therefore, the bond
angle is slightly less than 120o.
241
5. Predict the molecular geometry of the molecule methane, CH4. This is of the type AX4. Teacher Tip
a. Draw the Lewis structure of methane. Ask the students if they are familiar with a
tetrahedral shape. The teacher can bring some
b. Methane has four bonding pairs of electrons around C. samples of tetrahedra to class. There are some fruit
c. The four bonding pairs will arrange themselves to be as far apart from one another as juices being sold in tetrahedral packs in the
supermarket. The learners can be shown some of
possible. This is achieved through a tetrahedral arrangement where the four H atoms are at these. Show the bond angles using models.
the corners of a tetrahedron.
d. The molecular geometry is tetrahedral.
Source
The tetrahedral methane molecule. From
Introduction to Chemistry: General, Organic, and
Biological. Retrieved from http://
2012books.lardbucket.org/books/introduction-to-
chemistry-general-organic-and-biological/s15-
organic-chemistry-alkanes-and-.html (3 November
2016), Creative Commons by-nc-sa 3.0 license.
6. Predict the geometry and bond angles in ammonia, NH3. This molecule is of the type AX3E. Teacher Tip
a. Draw the Lewis structure. There are many other types of geometries.
However, at this level, it is important for the learner
b. NH3 has three bond pairs and one lone pair around nitrogen. to understand the geometries of the simple
c. The electron pairs are arranged in a tetrahedral orientation. molecules such as methane, water, ammonia and
relate their properties to structure. These will be
d. Since the lone pair is not considered, the molecular geometry is pyramid. taken up in the next lessons.
Source
Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion, University of
Liverpool. Retrieved from http://
www.chemtube3d.com/VSEPRShapeNH3.html (3
November 2016, Creative Commons Attribution-
Noncommercial ShareAlike 2.0, UK.
e. Again, since the lone pair occupies more volume, it will push the bond pair in and the
resulting H-N-H bond angle is slightly less than 109.5. Experimental results show it is 107o.
242
7. Predict the molecular geometry of water, H2O. This is of the type AX2E2. Source
a. Draw the Lewis structure of water. Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion, Water,
University of Liverpool. Retrieved from http://
b. There are four electron pairs around the central atom: two bond pairs and two lone pairs. www.chemtube3d.com/VSEPRShapeH2O.html (7
c. The electron pairs are tetrahedrally oriented. November 2016, Creative Commons Attribution-
Noncommercial ShareAlike 2.0, UK.
d. The molecular geometry is bent.
e. Because there are two lone pairs occupying more volume and pushing in the bond pairs,
the H-O-H bond angle is less than 1200. Experiment shows this to be 104.5o. This is
smaller than the bond angle in NH3. Remember that lone pair-lone pair repulsions > lone
pair-bond pair repulsions > bond pair-bond pair repulsions.
Source
8. Predict the molecular geometry of PF5. This is of the type AX5. Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion, Water,
a. Draw the Lewis structure of PF5. phosphorus pentafluoride, University of Liverpool.
Retrieved from http://www.chemtube3d.com/
b. There are five electron pairs around phosphorus. VSEPRShapePF5.html (7 November 2016, Creative
c. The orientation of the five electron pairs is trigonal bipyramidal. Commons Attribution-Noncommercial ShareAlike
2.0, UK.
d. The molecular geometry is trigonal bipyramidal.
243
9. Predict the molecular geometry of SF6. This is of the type AX6. Source
a. Draw the Lewis structure of SF6. Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion, Water, sulfur
hexaflouride, University of Liverpool. Retrieved
b. There are six electron pairs around S. from http://www.chemtube3d.com/
c. The electrons pairs are oriented in an octahedral manner. VSEPRShapeSF6.html (7 November 2016, Creative
Commons Attribution-Noncommercial ShareAlike
d. The molecular geometry is octahedral. 2.0, UK.
244
Exercises
1. Using the VSEPR theory, give the electron pair orientation and predict the geometry of the
following:
a. CH3I
b. SiH4
c. NF3
d. SCN (C is the middle atom)
e. H2S
245
Dipole Moments and Polarity of Molecules
As earlier discussed in polar covalent bonds, the electrons are not equally shared by the bonding
atoms. Instead, there is a shift in electron density towards the move electronegative atom. Such is
the case with the bond in HF. This shift is symbolized by a crossed arrow ( ) with the arrow
pointing toward the direction of the shift.
H##F or
The polarity of the bond can be experimentally measured in terms of the dipole moment, .
By definition, the dipole moment is the product of the charge, Q, and the distance between the
charges, r. To maintain neutrality, the charges on the ends of the molecule must be equal in
magnitude but opposite in sign.
Polar molecules exhibit dipole moments. In the presence of an electric field, the positive end of
the molecules orient themselves towards the negative plate. Nonpolar molecules have no dipole
moments. Remember to distinguish between polar bonds versus polar molecules. Some
molecules have polar bonds but are not polar. The molecular geometry determines whether the
molecule is polar or not.
The unit of the dipole moment is in terms of the DebyeD"where 1 D = 3.336 x 10-30 C m.
Examples
1. Is carbon dioxide a polar molecule or not?
To answer this, first determine the Lewis structure followed by the molecular geometry. Then
determine the net dipole moment for the molecule.
246
2. Is ammonia a polar molecule? Is so, which is the partially negative end? Note
Again draw the Lewis structure and determine the molecular geometry. The molecular Dipole moments are vector quantities; they have
magnitude and direction. CO2 Has a linear
geometry of ammonia is pyramidal. Because N is more electronegative than H, the N H geometry. The C O bond is polar with the oxygen
bond is polar with the N end as the more negative end. The three dipole moment vectors end as the - end. But the dipole moment vectors
point towards N. There is a resultant dipole moment. The nitrogen end is the - end. are equal in magnitude but point to opposite
Therefore, NH3 is a polar molecule; the N end is the - end. directions. Hence, they cancel out each other. The
resultant dipole moment is zero. Therefore, CO2 is
a nonpolar molecule. This is an example where
3. Is NF3 polar? If so, which end is partially negative? you have a polar bond but the resulting molecule is
nonpolar.
The molecular geometry os NF3 is pyramidal like NH3. However, in NF3 the F atoms are more
electronegative than N; therefore, the dipole moment vectors point towards the F atoms.
NF3 is a polar molecule; the F end is partially negative while the N end is partially positive.
Answer
The space-filling model for NH3 and its resultant
4. Is water, H2O polar? Which is the partially negative end?
dipole moment equal to 1.9113 Debye pointing
The molecular geometry of water is bent. The oxygen is more electronegative than towards the nitrogen end.
hydrogen; the dipole moment vectors point toward oxygen. Water is a polar molecule; the
oxygen end is the partially negative end. for H2O = 2.0967 D
6. Determine the polarity of the following molecules. If polar, determine the partially negative
end.
a. CH4
b. H2CCl2
c. BF3
d. H2S
7. Arrange the following molecules according to increasing polarity: HF, HCl, HBr, HI.
247
ENRICHMENT
There is a laboratory activity to illustrate bond polarity. This serves as enrichment.
248
6. The H - SH bond angle in H2S is approximately 9. If a compound has a polar bonds, then
A. 90o I. It is polar overall.
B. 180o II. There is an electronegativity difference between the
C. 109.5o bonded atoms.
D. 120o III. It is ionic.
E. 360o IV. It doesn't have resonance.
249
General Chemistry 1 60 MINS
250
Teacher Tip
INTRODUCTION (5 minutes) Prepare the laboratory materials needed before the
1. Introduce the activity to the class citing the objectives. class.
Molecular geometry affects physical and chemical properties of molecules, one of which is the
If learners need to bring some materials, assign
polarity. For this reason, it is important to determine the geometry of molecules. these to them before the day of the activity.
2. Safety Precautions
a. Never taste anything during a science activity.
b. Dispose of the samples and materials as directed by your instructor.
c. Wash your hands with soap and water after the activity.
d. Follow all laboratory instructions as directed by your instructor.
Procedure
1. Assemble the plastic cup on a ring stand or holder about 12 inches above the table. Place a
receptacle beneath the cup to catch the flowing water.
2. Pour water into the plastic cup with a hole at the bottom.
251
3. Rub the PVC pipe or any of the given objects against your hair or any surface so that it becomes
charged.
4. Bring the charged pipe near the stream of water. Observe what happens to the stream of water.
5. Repeat the process by using other objects (ballpen, balloon and comb) and observe also what
happens to the stream of water.
After the learners perform the experiment and answer the questions, they may watch the video on
static electricity and water at https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VhWQ-r1LYXY#t=39.
252
EVALUATION (15 minutes)
1. Ask the students to accomplish the data and observation tables for the polarity of water.
2. Discuss the results in class. Ask the learners their observations and their conclusions.
3. Ask the students to submit all paper models. Show all the paper models to the class. Learners
may make models of other molecules.
4. Each learner should have constructed at least one paper model.
253
General Chemistry 1 180 MINS
254
INTRODUCTION (5 minutes)
1. Introduce the learning objectives by using the suggested protocol (Read-aloud):
At the end of the lesson, I will be able to:
a. Use the Valence Bond Theory to explain the hybridization of atomic orbitals and bonding in
covalent compounds.
b. Relate the molecular geometries and bond angles to the hybridization of atomic orbitals used
in bonding.
c. Describe the formation of sigma bonds and pi bonds.
d. Describe the bonding in ethane, ethene, and ethyne and other covalent compounds
containing single, double, and triple bonds.
e. Discuss the special nature of carbon and its ability to form compounds.
f. Describe hydrocarbons, its properties and reactions.
g. Identify structural and geometric isomers.
h. Identify basic functional groups in organic compounds.
i. Describe simple reactions of organic compounds.
Teacher Tip
2. Present the keywords for the concepts to be learned:
There are many terms that the learner will
a. Hybridization encounter in the lesson. To save time, place
b. sp3 hybrid orbitals the terms on the board, on a flip chart, on
posters, or on power point slides. Check the
c. sp2 hybrid orbitals terms as you encounter them in the lesson.
d. sp hybrid orbitals
The learner will only be introduced to many of
e. Sigma bonds the terms.
f. Pi bonds
g. Organic chemistry
h. Hydrocarbons
i. Alkanes
j. Alkenes
k. Alkynes
l. Cycloalkanes
255
m. Aliphatic hydrocarbons
n. Aromatic hydrocarbons
o. Saturated hydrocarbons
p. Unsaturated hydrocarbons
q. Straight chain hydrocarbons
r. Branched hydrocarbons
s. Structural isomers
t. Geometric isomers
u. Cis and trans
v. Functional groups
w. Alcohols
x. Aldehydes
y. Carboxylic acids
z. Esters
aa. Amines
bb. Amides
cc. Hydrogenation
dd. Condensation reaction
ee. Saponification reaction
MOTIVATION (5 minutes)
1. Introduce the learners to some organic compounds through their odor. Some organic
compounds have foul smell while others have a sweet or fresh smell. Ask the learners if they are
familiar with the scents of the compounds below. While these molecules are meant to motivate
the learners, their structures and bonding will be discussed in the lesson.
256
Organic Compounds and Smells
Putrescine (butane-1,4-diamine) and cadaverine (pentane-1,5-diamine) are foul-smelling organic
compounds found in decaying animals.
Putrescine Cadaverine
NH2(CH2)4NH2 NH2(CH2)5NH2
Limonene is the source of the scent of lemons; vanillin gives the distinctive scent of vanilla;
cinnamaldehyde is the scent of cinnamon; and methyl salicylate is responsible for the smell of oil of
wintergreen
Limonene Vanillin
C10H16 C8H8O3
A more accurate description of bonding comes from quantum mechanics. There are two quantum
mechanical theories of bonding: the valence bond (VB) theory and the molecular orbital theory. This
lesson will briefly touch on the valence bond theory and its application to bonding for the carbon
atom.
According to the VB theory, when two single atoms of hydrogen approach each other, there will be an
optimum distance between them where the attractive forces of the nuclei will be greatest and
repulsion will be least. In this state, the energy of the system is at a minimum (lowest). Therefore the
system is most stable in this state and we say that a bond has been formed, the HH bond. VB
theory says that the bond is formed from the overlap of the s orbitals of the H atoms. Here, overlap
means that the electrons occupy a common region in space.
For the F2 molecule, the overlap is between the 2p orbitals of the F atoms. Remember that the
electron configuration of F is 1s2 2s2 2p5. A p orbital of F is partially filled. This will overlap with the
partially filled orbital of the second F atom.
258
For the HF molecule, the overlap is between the s orbital of hydrogen and the p orbital of fluorine.
Because different orbitals overlap, the differences in the properties of these bonds (e.g. bond length
and bond strength) can be explained by VB theory unlike the Lewis structures that treat all bonds
alike.
How can carbon form four bonds with hydrogen in CH4 when it only has two unpaired electrons?
Because the energy gap between the 2s and the 2p orbitals is small, one of the electrons in the 2s
orbital can be promoted to the 2p orbital as shown below.
Now the four unpaired electrons can form four bonds of different types: one bond will be the overlap Teacher Tip
Ask the learners to look up the meaning of
of the 1s orbital of hydrogen and the 2s orbital of carbon; the other three will be from the overlap of
the term hybrid. Give examples of hybrids.
the 1s orbital of H and the 2p orbitals of C. The 2p orbitals are 90o from one another. However,
experimental results show only one type of CH bond at angles of 109.5o and not 90o. To explain the
bonding in CH4, valence bond theory uses a theoretical concept of hybrid orbitals. Hybrid orbitals
are obtained from the combination or mixing of two or more nonequivalent orbitals of the same
atom. Hybridization produces hybrid orbitals which have the same energies.
259
When one s orbital and three p orbitals are combined through hybridization, four equivalent sp3
hybrid orbitals result. These sp3 hybrid orbitals are tetrahedrally oriented. The shape of an sp3
orbital is not symmetrical; it has a larger probability on one side of the nucleus compared to the
other.
Source
sp3 hybridization from Electronic structure.
Retrieved from https://
jahschem.wikispaces.com/electronic+structure
(5 November 2016), Creative Commons
Attribution Share-Alike 3.0 License.
The formation of CH4 with the overlap of the 1s orbital of hydrogen with the four sp3 hybrid orbitals
of carbon are shown in the figure below.
Source
The CH4 molecule. From Hybridization.
Retrieved from http://
mrstinechemistry.wikispaces.com/covalent
+bonding (5 November 2016), Creative
Commons Attribution Share-Alike 3.0 License.
260
Note that other atoms also exhibit hybridization. NH3 is pyramidal and the N atom is sp3 hybridized.
The lone pair occupies an sp3 orbital. H2O is bent with bond angles close to 109.5. The O atom is
sp3 hybridized.
sp2 hybridization
Consider the bonding in BF3. What is the electron configuration of boron? Answer: 1s2 2s2 2p1.
How can boron form three bonds with fluorine in BF3 when it only has only one unpaired electrons?
Because the energy gap between the 2s and the 2p orbitals is small, one of the electrons in the 2s
orbital can be promoted to the 2p orbital as shown below.
The 2s and two 20 orbitals can be mixed to form three hybrid orbitals called the sp2 hybrid orbitals. Source
sp2 hybridization. from Electronic structure.
The sp2 hybrid orbitals have a trigonal planar orientation. Therefore, all are on a plane with
Retrieved from https://
angles of 120o. jahschem.wikispaces.com/electronic+structure
(5 November 2016), Creative Commons
Attribution Share-Alike 3.0 License.
For trigonal planar planar, the hybridization used is sp2 as shown in the example for BF3. One electron Source
https://www.utdallas.edu/~scortes/ochem/
from the 2s orbital of carbon is promoted to the 2p. One 2s orbital and two 2p orbitals are mixed to OChem1_Lecture/Class_Materials/
form the three sp2 orbitals leaving one unpaired electron in a 2p orbital. 05_orbitals_hybrid_geom.pdf
Teacher Tip
Some textbooks refer to the end-to-end
overlap as head-to-head overlap or head-on
overlap.
262
We now make a distinction between two types of covalent bonds in C2H4: the sigma () bonds and
the pi () bonds.
Sigma bonds are formed by end-to-end overlap of the atomic orbitals with electron density
concentrated between the nuclei of the bonding atoms. Pi bonds, on the other hand, are formed by
the sideways overlap of orbitals with the electron density concentrated above and below the plane
of the nuclei of the bonding atoms. An end-to-end overlap is the most efficient way to bond
compared to a sideways overlap. Hence, sigma bonds are relatively stronger than pi bonds.
Source
Bonding orbitals in Ethene (ethylene) sp2.
Retrieved from http://www.chemtube3d.com/
orbitalsethene.htm (5 November 2016), by
Nick Greeves, Creative Commons Attribution-
Noncommercial-Share Alike 2.0 UK: England
& Wales License.
How many pi bonds are there in C2H4? There is only one pi bond. Note that a pi bond consists of
two lobes one above the plane and another below the plane.
263
sp hybridization
Describe the bonding in ethyne (also called acetylene, C2H2).
From the Lewis structure we deduce that the geometry around each carbon atom in acetylene is
linear. The valence electron configuration about each carbon atom is
One electron from the 2s orbital of carbon is promoted to the 2p. One 2s orbital and one 2p orbital
are mixed to form the two sp orbitals leaving unpaired electrons in two 2p orbitals. The unhybridized
p orbitals are perpendicular to each other.
Source
http://cnx.org/contents/Vd4OhCxi@2/
Multiple-Bonds
264
The hybridized sp orbitals of each carbon atom overlap end-to-end forming a bond. The Source
unhybridized p orbitals of each carbon atom overlap sideways forming two bonds. The bonding in C2H2 showing the formation of
sigma and pi bonds. From Multiple Bonds,
Advanced Theories of Covalent Bonding.
Retrieved from https://opentextbc.ca/
chemistry/chapter/8-3-multiple-bonds/ (5
November 2016), Creative Commons
Attribution 4.0 International License.
s, p sp linear 180o
s, p sp linear 180o
Exercises
1. Determine the hybridization of each carbon atom (going left to right) in the following molecules:
a. H3C CH3
Ask the learners to draw the Lewis structure.
Deduce the geometry around the carbon atoms.
From the geometry, determine the hybridization.
Answer: Both carbons have tetrahedral geometry. Therefore the hybridization of both carbon
atoms is sp3. All the bond angles are 109.5o.
265
b. H3C CHCH2 Answer Key
c. H3C C C CH3 1.
b. C1 is sp3 hybridized
d. H3C CH = O C2 is sp2 hybridized.
e. H2C = C = CH2 C3 is sp2 hybridized.
c. C1 is sp3 hybridized.
2. How many sigma bonds and pi bonds are in each of the molecules in #1? C2 is sp hybridized.
C3 is sp hybridized.
3. What is the hybridization of N in NH3? C4 is sp3 hybridized.
From the Lewis structure, we find that the geometry of NH3 is pyramidal with bond angles close to
d. C1 is sp3 hybridized
109.5o. Therefore, the hybridization of N in NH3 is sp3. C2 is sp2 hybridized.
4. What orbitals overlap in the formation of the O H bond in H2O?
e. C1 is sp2 hybridized.
5. What orbitals overlap in the formation of the C Cl bond in CH3Cl? C2 is sp hybridized.
C3 is sp hybridized.
C4 is sp2 hybridized.
III. THE SPECIAL NATURE OF CARBON
About 200 year ago, organic chemistry was defined as the study of compounds produced by living 2.
things like plants and animals. Organic compounds needed a life force to be produced. Compounds a. 7 sigma bonds; 0 pi bonds
b. 8 sigma bonds; 1 pi bond
that were from nonliving things like rocks were referred to as inorganic. All these changed in 1828 c. 9 sigma bonds; 2 pi bonds
with the experiment of Friedrich Whler. In his laboratory, Whler synthesized urea (an organic d. 6 sigma bonds; 1 pi bond
compound) from ammonium cyanate (an inorganic compound). This marked a turning point in e. 6 sigma bonds; 2 pi bonds
organic chemistry. It dispelled the belief that organic compounds could only be formed by nature.
3. sp3
4. 1s of H and sp3 of O
5. sp3 of C and 3p of Cl
From the discussion on the bonding properties of carbon in the previous sections, it can be seen that
carbon has a unique nature
The electron configuration of carbon is 1s2 2s2 2p2. Carbon completes its octet by sharing electrons
and not by forming ions. It shares its electrons with other carbon atoms forming single, double, and
triple bonds. It also shares its electrons and readily forms bonds with atoms of other elements like O,
H, N, and the halogens.
266
The small radius of carbon allows it to approach another carbon atom closely, giving rise to short and
strong covalent bonds and stable compounds. Because the sp or sp2 hybridized orbitals can
approach each other closely, the unhybridized p orbitals containing unpaired electrons can form pi
bonds resulting in stronger bonds.
Carbon can form four covalent bonds. This allows it to form chains (straight, branched or cyclic) in
endless arrays.
Carbon can form millions of different compounds. To date, over 20 million organic compounds, both
synthetic and natural, are known compared with only about 100,000 inorganic compounds. Carbon
can form more compounds than any other element in the periodic table.
267
1. Alkanes Teacher Tip
Alkanes have the general formula CnH2n+2 where n=1, 2, 3. Alkanes only have single bonds. It is not the objective of the lesson to learn
naming of organic compounds. Leave the
They are also known as saturated hydrocarbons. They are referred to as saturated hydrocarbons examples to the ten hydrocarbons
because they contain the maximum number of hydrogen atoms that can bond to the carbon
atoms present; that is, they are saturated with hydrogen atoms. In naming alkanes, the ane suffix Only the first ten alkanes are named here to
(ending) is used. The name of the parent compound is determined by the number of carbon show the use of prefixes. Ask the learners the
meaning of the prefixes and how they denote
atoms in the longest chain. Examples are ethane, propane, butane. the number of carbon atoms,
Number of Atoms Prefix Number of Atoms Prefix If you have a ball and stick model, show the
structures to the learners. Alternatively, the
1 Meth- 6 Hex- learners can view the ball and stick models at
http://www.chemeddl.org/resources/
2 Eth- 7 Hept- models360/models.php?pubchem=222.
3 Prop- 8 Oct-
Ask the learners if they are familiar with any of
4 But- 9 Non- the 10 hydrocarbons. In what way?
5 Pent- 10 Dec-
The table below shows the first ten straight-chain hydrocarbons. Ask the learners the following:
a. Fill in the molecular formula and the structural formula of straight chain pentane up to decane.
b. How many bonds does each carbon atom have in the compounds?
c. What is the geometry of each carbon atom?
d. What is the bond angle around each carbon atom?
e. What is the hybridization of each carbon atom in hydrocarbons?
f. Describe the boiling points of the hydrocarbons as the number of carbon atoms increases and
the chain gets longer.
g. Which of the hydrocarbons will be gases at room temperature (Room Temperature = 25oC)?
Answer: methane, ethane, propane, butane
268
Number of Atoms Prefix Number of Atoms Boiling Point
pentane 36.1oC
hexane 68.7oC
heptane 98.4oC
octane 125.7oC
nonane 150.8oC
decane 174.0oC
269
Structural Isomers Teacher Tips
Isomers are different compounds that have the same chemical formula. There are two ways of writing Ask the learners what is the meaning of iso.
In what lesson did they first meet this prefix?
the structure of butane: n-butane (where n stands for normal) and isobutene. These are called (Iso comes from the Greek word meaning
structural isomers. Structural isomers are molecules that have the same molecular formula but equal or same.)
different structures. Alkanes are described as having straight chains (such as n-butane) or branched
chains (such as isobutane). Some books refer to structural isomers as
constitutional isomers.
n-butane isobutane
straight chain branched chain
Boiling Point = -42.1oC Boiling Point = -11.7oC
For alkanes, the number of isomers increases as the number of carbon atoms increases. While butane Teacher Tip
Alkanes also exhibit stereoisomerism.
has only 2 isomers, decane has 75 isomers and the alkane C30H62 has over 400 million possible
However, this lesson will not deal with this
isomers. While many of these do not exist in nature, this illustrates how carbon forms more topic given the time limit and scope.
compounds than any other element.
Exercise: Pentane has three structural isomers. Can you draw them?
270
Cycloalkanes Teacher Tip
Alkanes whose carbon atoms are joined in rings are called cycloalkanes. They have the general Cycloalkanes exhibit different geometries
(called conformations) such as chair or
formula CnH2n. The simplest cycloalkane is cyclopropane. boat. However, these are outside the scope
of the lesson.
Reactions of Alkanes
a. Under suitable conditions, alkanes undergo combustion reactions to produce carbon dioxide
and water.
b. Alkanes undergo halogenation reaction where one or more hydrogen atoms are replaced by
halogen atoms.
271
CH2Cl2(g) + Cl2(g) CHCl3(g) + HCl(g)
chloroform
2. Alkenes
Alkenes are hydrocarbons that contain at least one carbon-carbon double bond. They are also
called olefins. Their formula is CnH2n where n = 2, 3. Alkenes are classified as unsaturated
hydrocarbons as opposed to the alkanes which are saturated hydrocarbons. In naming alkenes, the
ene suffix (ending) is used. The name of the parent compound is determined by the number of
carbon atoms in the longest chain. Examples are ethene, propene, butene.
Molecular
Name Boiling Point
Formula
Ethene (ethylene) C2H4. -102.4oC
272
Note that in butene, there are two molecules: one with the double bond in the first carbon, and the
other with the double bond in the second carbon. The numbers in the names refer to the lowest
numbered carbon atoms in the chain that is part of the CC double bond.
Reactions of Alkenes
Alkenes are classified as unsaturated hydrocarbons which are compounds that have double or
triple bonds that enable them to add hydrogen atoms.
273
a. Addition Reactions: Unsaturated hydrocarbons commonly undergo addition reactions where
one molecule adds to another to form a single product.
Hydrogenation is very important in the food industry particularly for vegetable oils.
Alkenes also undergo addition reactions involving hydrogen halide, HX (where X is a halogen).
274
3. Alkynes Teacher Tip
Alkynes contain at least one CC triple bond. They have the general formula CnH2n-2 where n = 2, 3, Ask the learners to give common uses of
acetylene.
In naming alkenes, the yne suffix (ending) is used. The name of the parent compound is determined
by the number of carbon atoms in the longest chain. Like the alkenes, the names of alkynes indicate
the position of the carbon-carbon triple bond. Examples are ethyne, propyne, butyne.
Molecular
Name Boiling Point
Formula
Reactions of alkynes
a. Combustion
This reaction gives off a large amount of heat; thus its use in oxyacetylene torches for welding
metals.
b. Addition reaction
Hydrogenation: C2H2(g) + H2(g) C2H4(g)
275
4. Aromatic Hydrocarbons
Aromatic hydrocarbons are a class of hydrocarbons whose molecules contain a ring of six carbon
atoms (benzyl ring) attached.
Its simplest member is benzene, C6H6, with the following resonance structures:
! or!
The group containing benzene less one hydrogen atom (C6H5) is called a phenyl ring. Other
examples of aromatic hydrocarbons are shown below.
Toluene or
Methylbenzene 2-phenylpropane naphthalene
276
Simple Reactions of aromatic hydrocarbons
a. Substitution reactions an atom or group of atoms replaces an atom or group of atoms in
another molecule
General
Class Functional Group
Formula
Ester
RCOOR Ester group
(R=hydrocarbon)
Ketone
RCOR Carbonyl group
(R=hydrocarbon)
Amide
RCONRR Amide group
(R, R = H or hydrocarbon)
278
Alcohols
Some common alcohols are shown below.
Methanol is the simplest alcohol. It is highly toxic and causes blindness. Ethyl alcohol is a common
solvent and starting material for various commercial uses. It is produced commercially by the addition
reaction of ethylene with water at high pressure and temperature. It is also produced from the
fermentation of sugar. An isomer, isopropyl alcohol, is commonly called rubbing alcohol. Ethylene
glycol is used as an antifreeze.
Ethyl alcohol can be oxidized by inorganic oxidizing agents to acetaldehyde and acetic acid.
279
Ethers
280
Carboxylic Acids
The functional group in carboxylic acids is the carboxyl group, -COOH. Among the common
carboxylic acids are formic acid, acetic acid, and butyric acid.
Esters
Esters are sued in flavoring and perfumery owing to their characteristic smells. The smell of many
fruits come from esters such as those given in the motivation section.
A common reaction of esters is saponification. In this reaction, an ester reacts with aqueous NaOH
solution to produce back the carboxylic acid and the alcohol. This reaction originates from
soapmaking. Soap (Latin sapo) was originally produced by the hydrolysis of fats.
281
ENRICHMENT (5 minutes)
Go back to the molecules in the motivation section.
1. Using the table provided, identify if any the functional groups present in:
a. Putrescine
b. Cadaverine
c. Cinnemaldehyde
d. Limonene
e. Vanillin
f. Methyl salicylate
2. Which of the above molecules is a hydrocarbon?
Teacher Tips
EVALUATION Materials that will students use can be colored
Organic Compound Report: This may be assigned by groups or individually. paper, bond paper and magazines.
1. Choose an organic compound and present it as a poster. You must indicate the following: Encourage students to be creative in
presenting their work.
a. Chemical name and chemical formula of the organic compound Post the outputs on the walls around the room
b. Structure of the organic compound (identify the functional group/s if any) or corridor for all students to read and learn.
282
2 (NEEDS 4 (EXCEEDS
CRITERIA 1 (NOT VISIBLE) 3 (MEETS EXPECTATIONS)
IMPROVEMENT) EXPECTATIONS)
Few of the required
Most of the required All of the required elements
REQUIRED Missing most or all of the elements are clearly visible,
elements are clearly visible, are clearly visible, organized
ELEMENTS required elements. organized and well placed.
organized and well placed. and well placed.
May be missing elements.
The project has an excellent
The project needs The project needs The project has a nice
VISUAL CLARITY design and layout. It is neat
significant improvement in improvement in design, design and layout. It is neat
AND APPEAL and easy to understand the
design, layout and neatness. layout or neatness. and easy to read.
content.
Few of the drawings and
DRAWINGS/ The students drawings are Most drawings and graphics Drawings and graphics are
graphics are clear and
GRAPHICS not clear or relevant. are clear and relevant. clear and relevant.
relevant.
Almost no grammatical,
Many grammatical, spelling A few grammatical, spelling No grammatical, spelling or
MECHANICS spelling or punctuation
or punctuation errors. or punctuation errors. punctuation errors.
errors.
283
General Chemistry 1 60 MINS
The learners demonstrate an understanding of the properties of polymers in Motivation Polymers Used in Everyday Life 5
terms of their structure. Instruction I. What are Polymers? 40
Performance Standard II. Making Polymers
The learners can illustrate the reactions at the molecular level in enzyme action, III. Polymer Arrangements and Structures
protein denaturation and separation of components in coconut milk. IV. Plastics and Polymers
284
INTRODUCTION (5 minutes)
1. Introduce the following learning objectives using any of the suggested protocol (Verbatim, Own
Words, or Read-aloud):
At the end of the lesson, I will be able to:
a. Define polymers.
b. Give the basic classification of polymers.
c. Distinguish between addition polymerization and condensation polymerization.
d. Describe the arrangement of polymers.
e. Relate the arrangement of polymers to their properties.
f. Illustrate the appropriate uses of polymers.
285
MOTIVATION (5 minutes) Notes
Connect to a real life situations. Ask the learners to give at least five (5) objects or materials that The site is developed and maintained by the
polymer department of the University of Southern
they think are made of polymers. Ask the learners a brief description of polymers to check on prior
Mississippi. It uses the store of a modern shopping
knowledge. mall to illustrate the variety of polymers and their
practical uses before allowing you to explore the
chemistry of the polymers, including structure,
The following website called The Macrogalleria (http://pslc.ws/macrog/maindir.htm) is devoted properties, and synthesis, in as much detail as you
solely to polymers. This website is useful in studying polymers. The teacher may assign the wish.
learners to visit the Macrogalleria website before the lesson. The website has several levels of
discussion. The learners can view the introduction, Level 1.
286
II. MAKING POLYMERS
How are polymers made? The chemical reaction by which the monomers are linked together to
form polymers is called polymerization. There are several types of polymerization reactions. The
basic types are the addition polymerization and the condensation polymerization reactions.
1. Addition polymerization
In addition polymerization, the entire monomer becomes part of the polymer. They involve
molecules with double bonds or triple bonds. Consider the formation of polyethylene, a stable
polymer used widely as packaging wrap. The polymerization reaction consists of three steps:
Step 1: Initiation
An initiator molecule is heated to produce free radicals. These free radicals have one unpaired
electron each and are therefore very reactive seeking other electrons from other molecules to pair
up with. The free radicals react with the ethylene molecule monomer breaking the double bond
and forming a new radical.
Step 2: Propagation
The radical will react with another ethylene molecule monomer. This is repeated many times over
and a long chain is formed.
Step 3: Termination
The process gets terminated when two long-chained radicals combine to form the polyethylene
polymer.
287
Polyethylene is an example of a homopolymer. This is a type of polymer where there is only one
type of monomer. Other examples of monomers used to produce polymers are shown in the table
below:
MONOMER POLYMER
Polystyrene
In the examples given above, ethylene (CH2 = CH2) and tetrafluoroethylene (CF2 = CF2) are
symmetric monomers (the carbons have the same substituents) while vinyl chloride, styrene, and
propene are asymmetric monomers (the carbons in the monomer have different substituents).
The examples (polyethylene, polystyrene, polypropylene, and Teflon) are synthetic polymers.
288
Practice. Ask the learners the following: Answer Key
1. Write the structure of the polymer, tetrafluoroethylene (up to 10 carbons in length).
2. Write the structure of polyvinylchloride (up to 10 carbons in length)
3. Write the structure of polystyrene (up to 10 carbons in length)
For example, the polymer polyethylene terephthalate (PET or sometimes called PETE) is formed by
the reaction of terephthalic acid and ethylene glycol. PET is a polyester.
289
If the dicarboxylic acid is made to react with a diammine (instead of a dialcohol), then a
polyamide is formed such as nylon.
nylon
A linear polymer is a one where the arrangement of atoms is like that of a long chain.
This long chain is often referred to as the backbone. Atoms or small groups of atoms
attached to the long chain are called pendant atoms.
290
Teacher Tip
The polymer chains are very long. They can get
entangled with each other just like strands of
spaghetti pasta get entangled in a bowl of
pasta. These molecular level features are
manifested in the bulk properties of the
polymers.
The long chains are not stiff; they are flexible. They twist and bend and wrap around one another .
They become entangled like strands of spaghetti especially in the solid state. This makes the
polymer strong. When polymers are dissolved in solvents, the chains move very slowly compared to
small molecules. This is due to the entanglement of the long chain strands. Thus, polymers
dissolved in solvents can be more viscous than the pure solven.
The arrangement of the pendant atoms or pendant groups attached to the backbone gives different
properties to the polymer. Three distinct arrangements are observed: syndiotactic, isotactic, or
atactic.
The isotactic arrangement is where all the pendant groups or substituents (represented by R ) are
on the same side of the polymer chain. They pack efficiently resulting in polymers with high melting
point, high crystallinity, and superior mechanical strength. A syndiotactic polymer chain is one
where the substituent group alternates from left to right of the asymmetric carbons. They pack less
efficiently than isotactic chains. In atactic polymers, the substituents occur randomly. Therefore,
they do not pack well. These polymers are rubbery, not crystalline, and relatively weak.
Industrial synthesis is capable of producing pure syndiotactic or only isotactic polymers through the
use of special catalysts.
Depending on synthesis conditions, the chains can also be branched. Branched chain polymers are
more flexible and less dense than straight chained polymers. For example, high density
polyethylene (HDPE) polymers are used for firm plastic bottles and containers while low density
polyethylene (LDPE) are used for plastic food bags and plastic wraps.
291
Syndiotactic
Atactic
Sometimes, the polymer chains are cross-linked as in the case of vulcanized rubber. Rubber is a
natural organic polymer formed by the addition of the monomer isoprene. In vulcanized rubber, the
polymer strands of isoprene are crossed linked or bridged by short sulfur chains. The cross-linked
polymers can be visualized by the following diagram:
292
The crosslinks tie or bind the polymer strands together. Therefore, when these crosslinked polymers
are heated, the strands cannot flow past each other. They do not melt or break apart.
Sometimes, there are two or more different monomers that are joined together to form a polymer.
Such is called a copolymer. Let us say that the two monomers are monomer A and monomer B.
These two monomers may be arranged in several ways in a polymer giving different physical
properties to the polymer:
Examples of copolymers are Saran wrap, styrene butadiene rubber (used for soles of shoes)
Plastics are classified into two types: thermoplastics and thermosets. Thermoplastics are those
that keep their plastic properties: they melt when heated and harden when cooled. On the other
hand, thermosets are permanently set once they are formed. They cannot be melted or
293
reshaped; if enough heat is added, they will crack or become charred. Thermoplastic materials are
made of long linear polymer chains that are weakly bonded to each other. When heated, the bonds
are easily broken and the polymer chains easily glide past each other. Therefore, they are readily
remolded. On the other hand, thermosets are made up of linear chains that are cross-linked to one
another preventing the material from being melted and reformed.
294
EVALUATION (10 minutes)
Multiple Choice: Choose the best answer. Encircle the letter corresponding to your chosen answer.
1. A large molecule that consists of many repeating units is called a 5. In a ____________ reaction for the synthesis of a polymer, a small
A. Monomer molecule is removed from the reacting materials and produced
B. Polymer as a by product.
C. Polypeptide A. Elimination
D. Polyethylene B. Substitution
E. Polystyrene C. Addition
D. Condensation
2. Each unit that comes together to form a polymer is called a ___. E. Oxidation
A. Monomer
B. Copolymer 6. An example of a natural polymer is
C. Thermoset A. Nylon
D. Amino acid B. Dacron
E. Ethylene C. Polyethylene
3. The reactions in which polymers are produced are called _____ D. Rubber
reactions. E. Lucite
A. Synthesis
B. Polymerization 7. When asymmetric alkenes polymerize (such as chloroethene to
C. Decomposition produce PVC), the pendant group like chlorine can be arranged
D. Single displacement in different ways. An arrangement in which the Cl groups are
E. Oxidation arranged on the same side of the polymer chain is called a(n)
___________ arrangement.
4. Which of the following is a requirement for monomers to be A. Atactic
able to undergo addition polymerization? B. Isotactic
A. The presence of an oxygen atom C. Syndiotactic
B. The presence of a lone pair D. Sporadic
C. The presence of a carbon to carbon double bond E. Random
D. The presence of a nitrogen atom
E. The presence of an electronegative atom
295
8. Kevlar is a type of polymer which has a great resistance to tear. 10. This is one of the coding symbols adopted by the plastics
Its application includes its use in making bulletproof vests and industry for packaging materials. What is the purpose of these
radial tires. The two monomers used to make Kevlar are the coding symbols?
following:
296
General Chemistry 1 120 MINS
Instruction I. Carbohydrates 90
Performance Standard
II. Proteins
The learners can illustrate the reactions at the molecular level in protein III. Nucleic Acids
denaturation. IV. Lipids
297
INTRODUCTION (5 minutes)
1. Introduce the following learning objectives using any of the 2. Present the keywords for the concepts to be learned:
suggested protocol (Verbatim, Own Words, or Read-aloud): a. Carbohydrates
At the end of the lesson, I will be able to: b. Monosaccharides
a. Distinguish the biomolecules of proteins, carbohydrates, c. Disaccharides
nucleic acids, and lipids. d. Polysaccharides
e. Glucose
b. Give the monomers involved in the formation of the
f. Fructose
biopolymers of carbohydrates, proteins, and nucleic acids.
g. Galactose
c. Give examples of common monosaccharides, disaccharides,
h. Hexoses
and polysaccharides used in daily life.
i. Sucrose
d. Distinguish the properties of starch, glycogen and cellulose. j. Starch
e. Define an amino acid and give the functional groups present k. Glycogen
in the molecule. l. Cellulose
f. Describe the formation of the peptide linkage. m. Amino acid
n. Glycine
g. Describe the basic general features of the different levels of
o. Peptide bond
protein structure.
p. Dipeptide
h. Explain the denaturation of proteins in terms of protein
q. Primary protein structure
structure.
r. Secondary protein structure
i. Describe the general features of DNA and RNA. s. Tertiary protein structure
j. Differentiate between saturated and unsaturated fatty acids. t. Quaternary protein structure
k. Give the general features of a triglyceride. u. Denaturation
v. Nucleic acids
w. DNA
x. RNA
y. Nucleotides
z. Lipids
aa. Fatty acids
bb. Unsaturated fatty acid
cc. Saturated fatty acid
dd. Triglycerides
298
MOTIVATION (5 minutes)
1. Ask the learners if they are familiar with the food pyramid.
2. Show the food pyramid to the class and label the food pyramid. Discuss the food pyramid.
3. Which group will predominantly be carbohydrates?
4. Which group will predominantly be proteins?
5. Which group will predominantly provide triglycerides?
Source
USDA Food Pyramid. Retrieved from https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/
File:USDA_Food_Pyramid.gif (5 November 2016), Creative Commons Attribution-
ShareAlike License.
Mention to the learners that the lesson will be on biomolecules: carbohydrates, proteins, nucleic
acids, and lipids which are all found in the food pyramid.
299
Teacher Tip
INSTRUCTION (90 minutes) The lesson will not dwell on the different
I. CARBOHYDRATES forms of glucose (-glucose and
-glucose) as well as on the different ways
What are carbohydrates? of representing sugars (linear and ring
Carbohydrates are compounds made up of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. They are also known as forms). These are beyond the scope of the
lesson. The purpose of the lesson is to
saccharides. They have the general formula Cx (H2O)y. Carbohydrates function as the energy source of
serve as an introduction to different types
the body. of biomolecules.
Classification of carbohydrates
300
Monosaccharides: their formula, structure and sources
Fruits
Fructose C6H12O6
Honey
Not naturally
Galactose C6H12O6
occurring
Ask the learners to look at the table above and answer the following questions:
1. What is the formula of glucose? What is the formula of fructose? What is the formula of galactose?
2. What do you call compounds with the same formula but different structures?
3. What is the difference between the structure of glucose and the structure of fructose?
4. How many carbon atoms do glucose, fructose, and galactose have?
Answer: They have 6 carbon atoms. Hence they are called hexoses.
5. What functional groups are present in glucose, fructose, and galactose? Ask the learners to point
them out.
Answer: Alcohol groups and ether group.
301
When two monosaccharides join together through a condensation reaction, a disaccharide is produced
along with a molecule of water. For instance, when two glucose units react via condensation reaction,
the disaccharide, maltose, is formed.
Glu$+$Glu$$!$$$Glu$$O$$Glu$$$$+$$$$H2O$
$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$maltose$
When glucose and fructose are joined, sucrose (table sugar) is formed.
Glu$+$Fru$$$!$$$$Glu$$O$$Fru$$$$+$$$$H2O$
$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$Sucrose$$
When glucose and galactose are joined, lactose (milk sugar) is formed.
Glu$+$Gal$$$!$$$$Glu$$O$$Gal$$$$+$$$$H2O$
$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$lactose!
Sugar cane
Sucrose C12H22O11 Glu - O - Fru
sugar beet
Starch is found in plants and used as source of energy. Starch consists of two types of glucose polymers: Source
amylose and amylopectin which differ from each other in structure. Amylose which consists of about From A Closer Look at Carbohydrates, An
Introduction to Nutrition. Retrieved from
20% of all starch polymers has the simpler structure. http://2012books.lardbucket.org/books/
an-introduction-to-nutrition/s08-01-a-
closer-look-at-carbohydrates.html (5
November 2016),
Creative
Commonsby-nc-sa 3.0license.
303
The structure shown may be represented more simply by
Glu$$4$$(OGlu)n$$4$$OH$
where n is very large (about 1000 glucose units linked together by oxygen bridges). The long chains of
starch are tightly wound in a coil. When amylose reacts with water through hydrolysis, these oxygen
bridges break releasing glucose units.
Most of starch is made up of amylopectin, the molecules of which are even larger than amylose. Unlike
the more linear amylose, the amylopectin molecule consists of amylose molecules that are linked by
oxygen bridges from the end of one amylose unit to a site in another amylose chain.
Starch is not found in animals. Instead, animals use glycogen for energy storage. Glycogen has shorter
chains than starch and is more highly branched. Because of the shorter chains and branching, glycogen
is more readily hydrolyzed than starch
Like amylose, cellulose is a straight chain polymer consisting of glucose units. However. In cellulose. The
glycosidic links between the glucose units in cellulose alternate in direction. This produces a long,
straight and rigid molecule. There is no branching in cellulose. Cellulose the major structural material
which plants are made of. Wood is largely cellulose. Humans cannot digest cellulose but animals can.
304
II. PROTEINS Teacher Tip
Proteins are natural polymers. They are very large molecules that are critical for the functions of the There is no need at this point for the learners
to memorize the 20 amino acids. However, it
human body. They are made from the linkage of monomers called amino acids. Amino acids have the is important for them to realize that because
following structure: there are 20 amino acids, there will be
millions of different ways to connect them to
form peptides.
Notice that amino acids have two functional groups. What are they?
a. Carboxylic group (COOH)
b. Amine group (NH2)
There are 20 kinds of amino acids depending on the R group. The simplest amino acid is glycine
where R is a hydrogen atom. The body cannot make all the amino acids required by the body and is
dependent on protein taken through food.
Two amino acids can link together through a condensation reaction with the removal of a water
molecule. The linkage is called a peptide bond. Take the case of two amino acids reacting to form a
dipeptide.
When many amino acids are linked together through peptide bonds, the resulting molecule is called a Teacher Tip
polypeptide. A very large number of amino acids linked together results in a protein. Some proteins There is no need at this point for the learners
are made up of only one polypeptide while most proteins involve assemblies of two or more to memorize the 20 amino acids. However, it
is important for them to realize that because
polypeptides. The term polypeptide is usually used for shorter, unstructured chains while proteins fold there are 20 amino acids, there will be
into fixed structures. millions of different ways to connect them to
form peptides.
It is therefore possible to think of a protein as a strong of beads strung together where each bead is an
amino acid.
306
The primary structure refers to the linear sequence of amino acids joined by peptide bonds such as Teacher Tip
the sequence of amino acids below. In the diagrams, the amino acids are
abbreviated as follows: Gly (glycine), Ile
(isoleucine), Val (valine), Glu (glutamic acid),
Gly Ile Val Glu Gln Cys Gly Cys Ala Ser Val Cys Ser Leu Gln (glutamine), Cys (cysteine), Ala (alanine),
Ser (serine), Leu (leucine). Again, the
learners should not memorize these amino
The single bonds in the polypeptide chain allow rotation. Therefore, the polypeptide chain can twist acids. The enumeration is given only to
and fold in a variety of ways. These folded structures are referred to as secondary protein structures. clarify the diagram.
The two essential secondary structures are the alpha helix and the beta pleated sheets. The
structures are stabilized by hydrogen bonds between amino acids. In the alpha-helix structure, the
chain twists like a corkscrew while the chain takes the form of a folded sheet in the beta pleated
structure. Several secondary structures come together forming tertiary structures. When several
tertiary structures come together, a quaternary protein structure is formed. For example, the protein
hemoglobin is a quaternary structure formed by four tertiary structures.
Protein Functions
Proteins are important molecules in cell. Each protein in the body has a specific function. Some of the
types of proteins and their functions are :
a. Antibodies - proteins involved in defending the body against antigens. They are the molecules of
the immune system.
b. Contractile proteins responsible for body movement such as muscle contraction
c. Enzymes proteins that catalyze (speed up) or facilitate biochemical reactions
d. Hormonal proteins serve as messenger proteins to help coordinate some body functions. An
example is insulin (which controls blood sugar concentration).
e. Structural proteins are fibrous and provide support. An example is collagen which provides
support to connective tissues.
f. Storage proteins store amino acids like casein in milk.
g. Transport proteins are carrier proteins which move molecules from one place to another in the
body. An example is hemoglobin which transports oxygen.
Protein Denaturation
Denaturation is a process in which a protein loses its secondary, tertiary, or quaternary structures. This
may be caused by physical or chemical agents like strong acid, base, inorganic salt, heat, or solvent
which disrupt the bonds that hold the protein structures together. Denaturation does not cause the
cleavage of the peptide bond (the primary structure). Note that a protein will lose its biological activity
if it loses its 3-dimensional shape.
308
III. NUCLEIC ACIDS
Nucleic acids are natural polymers with very large molar masses. The two main types of nucleic acids
are deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA). DNA and RNA are polymers made up
of monomers in the form of nucleotides. When these nucleotides combine, they form
polynucleotides. DNA carries the genetic information passed on from parents to children. RNA plays
an important role in protein synthesis.
DNA RNA
Function Repository of genetic information Involved in protein synthesis
Structure Double helix Usually single-strands
Sugar used deoxyribose Ribose
Bases used C,T,A,G C, U, A, G
IV. LIPIDS
Lipids are a class of naturally occurring organic compounds distinguished by their solubility in an
organic solvent (and not in water). Lipids are hydrophobic, nonpolar, and made up mostly of
hydrocarbon chains. Some of the more important lipids are: triglycerides (fats), saturated and
unsaturated fatty acids, waxes, phospholipids, and steroids. Some of these are further discussed
below.
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1. Fatty Acids
a. Fatty acids consist of a long hydrocarbon chain (typically about 12 18 carbons) attached to a
carboxyl group.
i. Saturated fatty acid contains only single C-C bonds because the carbon atoms are saturated
or filled up with hydrogens. Because their structure is straight, they can pack well and are solid
at room temperature (e.g. fat in butter).
ii. Unsaturated fatty acids contain carbon-carbon double bonds. When there is only one C-C
double bond, it is called monounsaturated; if there are several C-C double bonds, they are
called polyunsaturated. Remember that when there are double bonds, there will be
geometric isomers (cis and trans). Because of the double bonds, they do not pack as tightly as
saturated fatty acids. They are usually liquids at room temperature. An example of an
unsaturated fatty acid is olive oil.
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ENRICHMENT
The process of denaturation is used as an antidote to lead or mercury poisoning. Egg whites can be
given to the person who has ingested a heavy metal. The egg whites are denatured by the heavy
metals and a precipitate is formed. Then, vomiting is induced to eliminate the metal-protein
precipitate.
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7. The carbohydrate that provides support in plants is called 11. Biopolymers formed from the linkage of monomers in the form
__________. of nucleotides are called
A. Chitin A. nucleic acids
B. Dextrose B. carbohydrates
C. Lipids C. rubber
D. Cellulose D. lipids
E. Amylose E. proteins
8. Glucose, galactose and fructose are __________. 12. Enzymes are _______
A. Disaccharides A. monosaccharides
B. Isotopes B. lipids
C. Polymers C. proteins
D. Isomers D. nucleic Acids
E. Amines E. polysaccharides
9. The small repeating units that make up proteins are called 13. Fats and oils are composed of what two groups of molecules?
__________. A. glucose and fructose
A. Fatty acids B. starch and sugar
B. Amino acids C. water and cellulose
C. Monosaccharides D. glycerol and fatty acids
D. Ethylene E. RNA and DNA
E. Styrene
14. Which of the following is a polymer of glucose?
10. The sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide is called the A. starch
proteins __________. B. glycogen
A. primary structure C. cellulose
B. secondary structure D. A nd B
C. tertiary structure E. A, B, and C
D. ouarternary structure
E. crystal structure
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15. What kind of molecule is represented by the structure below? 19. The structure on the left is a(n) __________ and the structure on
CH3CH2CH2CH2CHCHCH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2COOH the right is a(n) ________.
A. A sugar
B. A disaccharide
C. A dipeptide
D. A saturated fatty acid
E. An unsaturated fatty acid
A. Lipid, polypeptide
16. Table sugar is a form of B. Carbohydrate, lipid
A. protein C. Carbohydrate, amino acid
B. lipid D. Nucleotide, amino acid
C. carbohydrate E. Nucleotide, carbohydrate
D. nucleic acid
E. steroid 20. DNA is a ________
A. Carbohydrate
17. When a protein is boiled, it loses all levels of organization B. Lipid
except the primary level. When this happens, the protein is said C. Fatty Acid
to be: D. Nucleic Acid
A. hydrolyzed E. Protein
B. dehydrated
C. denatured
D. plasmolyzed
Answer Key
E. folded
1. B 11. A
2. D 12. C
18. The group of biologically important organic compounds 3. A 13. D
responsible for storage and transfer of information is 4. A 14. E
5. B 15. E
A. carbohydrates 6. A 16. C
B. phospholipids 7. D 17. C
8. D 18. D
C. polypeptides
9. B 19. A
D. nucleic acids 10. A 20. D
E. polysaccharides
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Biographical Notes
WYONA C. PATALINGHUG, PH.D. VIC MARIE I. CAMACHO
Team Leader Writer
Dr. Wyona C. Patalinghug served as a Professor of Chemistry at Prof. Vic Marie I. Camacho is currently finishing her doctoral
the De La Salle University for 26 years. She finished her doctoral degree in Science Education at the Philippine Normal University,
and masters degrees in Chemistry at the University of Hawaii; and finished her masters degree in Chemistry from the De La
and her bachelors degree in Chemistry at the College of the Salle University under a DOST ESEP Scholarship Grant. Prof.
Holy School, Manila where she finished Cum Laude. She is a Camacho is currently an Associate Professor 1 at the Philippine
member of the ASEAN University Network Quality Assurance Normal University, where she served as the Head of the Centre of
Council (2013-2016) ; Lead Assessor of the ASEAN University Science for the Mathematics and Technology. She served as an
Network Quality Assurance in Education (2007-2016); Director of Author and Technical Contributor for Sci-Tech Magazine, LET
the International Quality Assurance Office DLSU (2013-2015); Reviewers, and of various Learning Resource Materials for
Director of the Institutional Assessment and Accreditation, DLSU Advanced Physical Sciences. She has actively participated in
(2009-2013); Vice Chancellor for Research DLSU (2007-2008); and Institutional, National, and International conferences and
Chair of the Chemistry Department DLSU (2001-2005). workshops.
Dr. Patalinghug held consultancy work at the ASEAN University FORTUNATO B. SEVILLA III, PH.D.
Network and Asian Development Bank (2014-2016); Department Writer
of Education (2015-2016); and Quality Assurance and Dr. Fortunato Sevilla III is a professor in the chemistry department
Accreditation (2015-2016). at the University of Santo Tomas. Dr. Sevillas research specializes
on instrumentation and analytical science including the
development of optical chemical sensors and biosensors,
She received the Award for Continuing Excellence and Service
piezoelectric chemical sensors based on molecularly imprinted
from the Metrobank Foundation (2009), the Juan Medrano
polymers and conducting polymers, and low-cost designs of
Service Award (2008). the National Research Council of the
chemical equipment and instruments for chemical education. Dr.
Philippines Lifetime Achievement Award in Chemistry (1998),
Sevilla received his masters and doctoral degree in
Metrobank Foundations Outstanding Teacher (1994), British
Instrumentation and Analytical Science from the University of
Council Exchange Scientist from the University of Southampton
Manchester Institute of Technology. He received the G.F.
UK (1995), and a JSPS Exchange Scientist at Waseda University,
Kirkbright Award from the University of Manchester and the
Sophia University, and Tokyo University. She has a wide
Gregorio Zara for Applied Science Philippine Association for the
experience in materials production, teaching, assessment, quality
Advancement of Science Award in 1996.
assurance, and a deep appreciation of Chemistry.
MARIA CRISTINA D. SINGSON program. She was appointed as one of the Curriculum Program
Writer Leaders for of the Assessment, Curriculum, and Technology
Ms. Maria Cristina D. Singson has been teaching Chemistry at Research Centre, a a partnership between the University of
Pasay City West High School since 2007. She graduated with a Melbourne and the University of the Philippines, supported by
degree in Bachelor in Secondary Education, Major in Chemistry the Australian government.
from the Philippine Normal University Manila, and a degree in
Master of Arts in Science Education, specializing in Chemistry JANETH M. FUENTES, PH.D.
from the same institution. She received various awards in the Technical Editor
production of materials and in Science Teaching, including the Dr. Janeth Morata-Fuentes is a Special Science Teacher IV and
1st Place Winner for Strategic Intervention Material for 3rd Year the Curriculum Development Coordinator of the Philippine
High School Science (Division Level). She has attended Science High School System - Department of Science and
workshops on developing metacognitive readers across levels, Technology. Dr. Fuentes graduated as doctoral degree in
investigatory project making, and robotics. Chemistry Education from the University of the Philippines Open
University, and with a masters degree in Education (Teaching and
MARLENE B. FERIDO, PH.D. Curriculum Studies) from the University of Sydney, New South
Technical Editor Wales, Australia.
Dr. Marlene B. Ferido is a Science Education Specialist V and the
She was recognised as an Outstanding Educator by the Ministry
Chair of the Chemistry Group of the University of the Philippines
of Education, Singapore, and a 2002 Australian Development
National Institute for Science and Mathematics Education
Scholarship Awardee of the Australian Agency for International
Development (UP NISMED). She served as Deputy Director for
Development. She also received the Metrobank Outstanding
Research and Extension of UP NISMED for six years and as
Teacher Award in 2010, and the 2011 Presidential Lingkod Bayan
Deputy Director for Administration for three years.
Award from the Civil Service Commission Honor Awards
Program.
She served as UP NISMEDs coordinator in the development of
the Curriculum Guide of Science for K to 10, in collaboration with
She has authored and edited books for Integrated Science for
the Department of Education. She is one of the writers of
Grade 7, and served as a resource person and speaker to various
DepEds Grade 7 and Grade 8 Learners Modules and Teachers
local, national, and international teacher and student training
Guides in Science.
seminars and workshops.
She was one of the curriculum developers for Physical Science for
the Senior High School curriculum and for the Chemistry portion
of the Grades 11 & 12 Senior High School Science, Technology,
Engineering & Mathematics (STEM) strand of the K to 12
PATRICIA MARIE W. BAUN She also served as a contributing illustrator for The Fat Kid
Copyreader Inside, Wordplay, FringeMNL, Tripda, and Woman, Create. She
Ms. Patricia Marie W. Baun graduated with a degree in Bachelor finished her Bachelor of Fine Arts, Major in Information Design;
of Arts in Communication Arts from the De La Salle University and Bachelor of Science, Minor in Management at the Ateneo de
(Cum Laude), and received the Gawad Magaaral Service Merit Manila University.
Award. She worked as a Project Manager of the Clark
International Motor Show 2015, Creative Director of Breakfast DANIELLE CHRISTINE QUING
Magazine, and Production Trainee of Star Cinema. She is highly Illustrator
interested in photojournalism, media communication, whole Ms. Danielle Christine Quing graduated with a degree in
brain self mastery, and on Philippine media. Bachelor of Arts in Multimedia Arts at the De La Salle College of
Saint Benilde. She served as the illustrator and developer for e-
JUAN MIGUEL M. RAZON learning of Green Jakobsen and Rakso CT. She also participated
Illustrator in the Philippine Centre for Creative Imaging Workshop in 2016,
Mr. Juan Miguel M. Razon graduated with a degree in Bachelor and the Icon Manila Workshop in 2015. She won the Successful
of Science in Management and Bachelor of Science in Coffee Table Book Design: Case Studies on Award-Winning Book
Information Technology Entrepreneurship, Minor in Literature Design at the Fiera de Manila 18th Graphic Expo in 2013.
from the Ateneo de Manila University. He worked at IBM
Philippines and contributed in the ideation and implementation
of the intranet-based knowledge hub for the employees of RENAN U. ORTIZ
IBM. He also served as the Finance Commissioner of the Ateneo Illustrator
Commission on Elections and the Vice President for Public Mr. Renan U. Ortiz is a teacher and visual artist who has
Relations for Ateneo Kaingin. He intends to pursue a long-term collaborated in local and international art exhibitions such as the
career in business intelligence, corporate finance, and graphic SENSORIUM at the Ayala Museum, Populus in Singapore,
design. Censorship_2013 Move On Asia in South Korea, and the Triumph
of Philippine Art in New Jersey, USA. Mr. Ortizs solo exhibitions
RACHELLE ANN J. BANTAYAN include versereverse at the Republikha Art Gallery. He first
Illustrator completed his bachelors degree in Political Science at the
Ms. Rachelle Ann J. Bantayan is a full time graphic designer at University of the Philippines Manila before finishing his bachelors
Kalibrr and in charge of designing company collaterals, online degree in Fine Arts major in Painting at the University of the
and offline ads, infographics and graphics. She also served as the Philippines Diliman. Mr. Ortiz is an awardee of the Cultural
Graphic Artist at Edlir Pharma where she did the layout for the Center of the Philippines CCP Thirteen Artists Awards in 2012.
employee handbook, design and layout for advertisements.
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