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E-Governance to Cut
Corruption in Public Service
Delivery: A Case Study of Fiji
a a
Raghuvar Dutt Pathak , Rafia Naz , Mohammed
b c
Habibur Rahman , Robert Frederick Ingram Smith
d
& Kamal Nayan Agarwal
a
School of Management and Public Administration ,
The University of the South Pacific , Suva, Fiji
b
Department of Public Policy and Administration ,
University Brunei Darussalam , Brunei Darussalam
c
Department of Management , Monash University ,
Melbourne, Australia
d
Department of Information Systems and Decision
Science , Howard University , Washington, DC, USA
Published online: 14 Apr 2009.

To cite this article: Raghuvar Dutt Pathak , Rafia Naz , Mohammed Habibur Rahman ,
Robert Frederick Ingram Smith & Kamal Nayan Agarwal (2009) E-Governance to Cut
Corruption in Public Service Delivery: A Case Study of Fiji, International Journal of
Public Administration, 32:5, 415-437, DOI: 10.1080/01900690902799482

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 Intl Journal of Public Administration, 32: 415437, 2009
Copyright Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
ISSN 0190-0692 print / 1532-4265 online
DOI: 10.1080/01900690902799482

E-Governance to Cut Corruption in Public Service

1532-4265
0190-0692
LPAD
Intl Journal of Public Administration,
Administration Vol. 32, No. 5, Mar 2009: pp. 00

Delivery: A Case Study of Fiji

Raghuvar Dutt Pathak and Rafia Naz

E-Governance
Pathak et al. to Cut Corruption in Public Service Delivery

School of Management and Public Administration, The University

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of the South Pacific, Suva, Fiji

Mohammed Habibur Rahman

Department of Public Policy and Administration,
University Brunei Darussalam, Brunei Darussalam

Robert Frederick Ingram Smith

Department of Management, Monash University, Melbourne, Australia

Kamal Nayan Agarwal

Department of Information Systems and Decision Science,
Howard University, Washington, DC, USA

Abstract: Experience in a number of developed and developing countries has shown

that E-Governance initiatives can promote greater transparency with the goal of cutting
corruption. This article examines perceptions of public service delivery in Fiji to
explore the potential of E-Governance to cut corruption and improve governance. Based
on a survey of community perceptions and a review of selected literature it suggests that
service-delivery oriented IT initiatives can contribute to an effective, multi-pronged
strategy to cut corruption in the Fiji public sector.

Keywords: E-Governance, corruption, IT (information technology)

INTRODUCTION

This article examines the potential of E-Governance applications in Fijis

public sector to curb corruption and increase efficiency, responsiveness, trans-
parency, and accountability. The article:

Address correspondence to Professor Raghuvar Dutt Pathak, School of Management

and Public Administration, Faculty of Business and Economics, University of the
South Pacific, Suva, Fiji; E-mail: pathak_r@usp.ac.fj
 416 Pathak et al.

(i) investigates the extent to which IT applications can bring about faster
delivery and reduce bureaucratic delays;
(ii) examines how IT can be applied to management processes and policy to
curb corruption; and
(iii) illustrates constraints to the use of IT for these purposes and suggests
ways to overcome such constraints.

Based on a survey of community perceptions and a review of selected literature

it suggests that service-delivery oriented IT initiatives can contribute to an
effective, multi-pronged strategy for cutting corruption in the Fiji public sector.
A basic definition understands corruption as the abuse of public power for
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private benefit (Bardhan, 1997; Rose-Ackerman, 1999). Kaufmann (2003,

2005) and Lambsdorff (2001) identify the drivers of corruption as:

(i) monopoly of power;

(ii) discretion; and
(iii) lack of accountability and transparency.

More generally Garcia-Murillo (2005) identifies the drivers of corruption as

economic, political, and cultural. The work of Rose-Ackerman (1973, 1978,
1994, 2004) and Klitgaard (1988, 1995a, 1995b) sets out the development of the
search for drivers of corruption . Such work leads to the proposition that to com-
bat corruption it is necessary to focus not on corrupt individuals, but on corrupt
systems. Rose-Ackerman and Klitgaards conclusions are summarized in the
following equation: Corruption = Monopoly + Discretion Transparency.
Corruption imposes on affected societies substantial economic, social and
moral costs. Transparency Internationals Corruption Perceptions Index
(2004) ranks a record 146 countries as prone to high corruption. The poorest
countries, most of which are in the bottom half of the index, are in greatest
need of support in fighting corruption. A recent report by Transparency Inter-
national shows that corruption is evident in the South Pacific (National Integ-
rity Systems Pacific Islands Overview Report, 2004). Larmour (1997) and
Crocombe (2001) also explore the incidence of corruption in the South
Pacific, especially in the public sector. Toatu (2004) examines explicitly the
deleterious effect of corruption on the growth of South Pacific economies,
reducing gross domestic product (GDP) growth rates by approximately two
percentage points. Publicized cases of corruption in Pacific countries involv-
ing politicians and public officials tend to be about kickbacks, palm greasing,
rank pulling, and other misuse and abuse of public funds or public office.
The National Integrity Country Study Reports for the South Pacific suggest
that the main drivers of corruption in these economies are variations on the driv-
ers identified at the outset: lack of social welfare systems, lack of understanding
of causes and effects of corruption, lack of personal values to deny corruption,
lack of personal responsibility and willingness to change, acceptance at all levels
 E-Governance to Cut Corruption in Public Service Delivery 417

of the status quo (political and social hierarchies), bureaucratic and regulatory
inefficiencies, hardship and opportunity followed by a conducive public service
environment, lack of watchdog agencies, lack of institutional capacity and
mechanisms of accountability, lack of civil society involvement, poor pay, lack
of political will, reluctance to enforce laws, lack of legislative mechanisms to
punish and deter corruption, economic difficulties, and tradition and culture.
The Transparency International Corruption Perception Index (CPI)
(2005) for Asia and Pacific ranks Fiji with a CPI of 4.0. This is a moderate
ranking. But in 2001 Transparency International noted with concern that
greasing the palms of public servants is fast becoming an accepted way of
life in the Fiji Islands (Country Governance Assessments: Governance in the
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Pacific: Focus for Action 20052009). A report prepared by the Fiji Law
Reform Commission (2003) states further that corruption in Fiji is on the rise.
In addition, Fiji Auditor Generals Reports from 19992002 have all high-
lighted corruption including rent seeking behavior, bribery, scams, and mis-
management of funds (Auditor General Reports, 1999, 2000, 2001, 2002).
Reports by the Fiji Law Commission and National Integrity Systems
highlight the costs of corruption to the nation which include: personal
losses, loss of time, development costs, political costs, decline in work eth-
ics and degradation of values and costs to the economy (Fiji Law Reform
Commission, 2003; National Integrity Report, 2001). Professor Scott William
with Professor Ron Duncan, Professor Vijay Naidu and Father Kevin Barr,
speaking at the Fiji Update 2002, pointed out that corruption and bad gov-
ernance were evident in Fiji (Naidu and Barr, 2002; USP Beat, 2002). It is
estimated that the overall debt position in 2001 due to corruption was $1.68
billion, and it had increased in 2002 to $1.87 billion and in 2003 to $1.91
billion.
In these circumstances developing an effective strategy to cut corruption
in Fiji is urgent. The attraction of using IT to fight corruption is that IT can
streamline and speed up information management and transactions, especially
in providing services to the public. As a recent report commissioned by the
British government (Booz, Allen, Hamilton, 2005:11) states, IT is a key
enabler for new policies and business processes transformations aimed at pro-
viding better and more efficient Public Services. IT has the most immediate
applications where services are highly clerical and transaction oriented.
Such services are inherently amenable to digitization, or highly bitable
(Booz, Allen, Hamilton, 2005:16). Such services are also among those most
hospitable to the corrupt use of management discretion.
By making information about services more transparent to users and cut-
ting the unaccountable discretion of service providers, appropriate IT initia-
tives hold out the hope that they can help cut corruption. The following
diagram (Figure 1) sets out key relationships and impacts.
In the diagram the unbroken line depicts a direct relationship: by increas-
ing information to service users, the use of IT cuts corruption directly.
 418 Pathak et al.

Unaccountable
discretion of
service providers
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Transparent
service delivery Reduced
through IT corruption

Figure 1. Key relationships and impacts.

These factors have the ability to transform the way public services are
delivered and improve relationships between the public sector and citizens. In
the model IT enabled systems remove opportunities for corrupt use of discre-
tion by dis-intermediating services and allowing citizens to conduct transac-
tions themselves. Such systems also extend accessibility of information within
the public sector and in the public domain and, in so doing cut the impacts of
distance and time that shore up official monopolies of information.
Further, by providing enhanced accounting, monitoring and auditing sys-
tems, such systems ensure that public business is more fully open to senior
managerial and external scrutiny. More generally, there is less excuse for not
publishing the rules and criteria governing decisions and entitlements; and
those responsible for particular decisions or activities can be more readily
identified. Finally, enhanced communication means that citizens can be more
fully involved in all aspects of government, including policy-making, thus
reinforcing the creation of a culture of trust and mutual interest.
However, these authors also argue that if IT systems are to curb corrup-
tion the design of such systems needs an appropriate conceptual framework.
Policy makers and public managers need to understand the factors that affect
levels of corruption. It is useful to consider three types of corruption. The first
type consists of petty bureaucratic corruption. The second type consists of
self-serving asset stripping by state officials (state capture). The third type
involves grand corruption at the political level (Shah & Schacter, 2004).
These three groups are not equally amenable to reduction through the use
of IT. IT driven transparency is perhaps most effective against petty bureau-
cratic corruption. Many cases can be cited (for example, Bhatnagar, 2003a,b,c;
2005a,b; Sarah, 2003). The most noted example is the OPEN (Online
 E-Governance to Cut Corruption in Public Service Delivery 419

Procedures Enhancement) system in Seoul, South Korea. Kang (2001), Bhatnagar

(2003a,b,c; 2005), and Cho and Choi (2004) pay much attention to this sys-
tem. IT systems can also limit self-serving asset stripping by state officials
(Cisar, 2003; Dorotinsky, 2003, 2005; Yum, 2003, 2005; Talero, 2005). More
problematically IT systems may also potentially play an important role in
preventing some types of grand political corruption (Dash, 2005; Jain &
Ramani, 2005; Prahalad, 2005).
To cut corruption, transparency, and accountability need to be con-
sciously built into the political and administrative system. In the public ser-
vice delivery system they can be built in from the design and planning. An
interactive service model using IT applications offers considerable potential
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for greater objectivity, transparency, and accountability in decision-making

processes. This model has been successfully applied in developing countries
and deterred corruption. Information dissemination of critical value to tar-
geted audiences, including the wider public domain, through the use of IT and
convergent media is possible. Such a model requires foresight to understand
the use value of particular information sets, how to obtain such information,
how to use it strategically, and targeting it to users to whom the availability of
such information makes a difference.
Despite the attractiveness of the model, the effort required for implemen-
tation should not be underestimated. Booz, Allen, Hamilton (2005:13) point
out that the IT initiatives of developed countries still focus mainly on service
delivery and confront multiple challenges. Moreover, IT initiatives usually
have multiple objectives. With limited resources multiple objectives may lead
to a lack of focus. In such situations, the goal to promote transparency and
accountability to reduce corruption can be lost (Cisar, 2003; Mahmood, 2004;
Tangkitvanich, 2003).
With asset stripping and grand political corruption, focus is even harder
to achieve. Strategies to use IT to combat these groups of corruption rely more
on the soft power of fast, interactive electronic communication. The hope is
that strategic use of IT can enhance the involvement of different social actors
so as to spread the anticorruption effort and disseminate information about the
activities of a wide range of actors. This has the potential to increase the trans-
parency of the whole system without concentrating control in the hands of a
single institutional actor such as the state bureaucracy. It can promote a decen-
tralized model of corruption control and pre-empt the mismanagement of IT
initiatives by asymmetrically empowered actors such as politicians or bureau-
crats (Cisar, 2003; Mahmood, 2004).
This suggests that a viable anticorruption strategy must be a multi-
pronged endeavor that includes a set of measures in different spheres of soci-
ety and state organization. It is thus desirable to define all relevant dimensions
of the anticorruption struggle and the role IT can play. A strategy that starts
with the bureaucracy offers the tightest focus. Cisar (2003: 2) argues that,
within a bureaucracy:
 420 Pathak et al.

In order to fight corruption one needs to focus on three distinctive

aspects

1. corruption opportunities;
2. corruption incentives, i.e., salaries; and
3. the likelihood of detection and punishment of corrupt activities, i.e., policing.

A successful anticorruption strategy should incorporate all the three dimen-

sions. Thus, it has to

1. specify methods for minimizing corruption opportunities via increased

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transparency;
2. diminish corruption incentives through putting in place a stable system of
civil service, including clearly defined career prospects and a system of
remuneration, and
3. increase the probability of detection of corrupt activities, i.e., develop
concrete control mechanisms.

Accordingly, this article focuses on two aspects of the anticorruption effort

on minimizing corruption opportunities and maximizing the probability of
detection of corruption through control mechanisms.

RESEARCH APPROACH

Further analysis is based on two sources. The main source is a survey of com-
munity perceptions in Fiji about corruption and the potential of IT applications
to cut it. Survey participants were not selected as experts in the use of ICT but as
reasonably informed citizens. A complementary source, presented more fully in
a separate paper (Naz et al., 2006), is a case study of service delivery. The data
for the survey of community perceptions were collected in 2005 from the East-
ern, Western, and Northern Divisions in Fiji from a sample of 400. Structured
questionnaires were distributed to different groups of respondents based on
stratified random sampling. As far as possible the numbers of people selected
for survey were in proportion to the respective populations in each division.
The complementary case study was of service delivery in the Ministry of
Agriculture. The case study focused on assistance to farmers through the
Rural Farming Assistance Scheme delivered through extension officers in the
Ministry of Agriculture to poor farmers. The scheme was chosen because it is
one of the most important forms of assistance for farmers.
A separate survey for the case study included sixty farmers from the
Eastern, Western, and Northern divisions in Fiji. In-depth interviews were
conducted with selected officials (including extension officers responsible for
administering the scheme) and with beneficiaries (mostly farmers). Interviews
 E-Governance to Cut Corruption in Public Service Delivery 421

with farmers included the detailed experiences of two individual farmers. Pub-
lished official reports were also used.
Farmers were asked to say whether they themselves had ever given a bribe to

(i) get a service rendered,

(ii) manipulate procedures and
(iii) get an award of financial assistance from the rural farming assistance scheme.

All respondents said that they were aware of bribery in service delivery both
with extension officials and higher-level officials at processing centres for
claims for assistance.
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Auditor Generals Reports (1999, 2000, 2001, 2002) corroborate such

perceptions. Responses showed that 35 farmers contacted extension officials
to bribe the higher-level decision making authorities. Eleven farmers paid
bribes direct to extension officials. Another 5 farmers bribed higher-level offi-
cials at the processing center. Their comments suggested that the exchange
of gifts and sharing of award supplies was rife. Some of these farmers also
commented that they were reluctant to pay bribes, but because those who they
thought did not deserve assistance had paid bribes and benefited, they resorted
to similar practices.
The remaining 9 farmers stated that they had never been involved in any
kind of bribery, but knew of farmers who had given bribes and received ser-
vices. These farmers reflected that although they did not want to involve
themselves in any form of bribery, securing services had become a pain.
The case study of assistance to farmers provides a detailed illustration of
issues of corruption in a significant section of society in Fiji. The survey of
community perceptions explores such issues in a wider setting.
To analyze the survey of community perceptions four hypotheses were
formulated:

H1: IT initiatives are positively related to cutting problems faced by services

providers and service users and corruption reduction
H2: Cutting problems faced by services providers and service users is posi-
tively related to corruption reduction
H3: Corruption reduction is dependent on cutting problems faced by services
providers and service users
H4: The independent variable (IT initiatives) will significantly explain the
variance in corruption reduction.

FINDINGS

The survey of community perceptions showed that perceptions of corruption

in public service delivery in Fiji are growing. Three-hundred and twenty-two
 422 Pathak et al.

of the 400 respondents (80.5%) felt that corruption was increasing. The
respondents especially commented that bribery and bureaucratic corruption
were on the rise. Activities mentioned included kickbacks, extortion, and
greasing palms. One hundred and thirty six respondents felt that corruption
was fairly high and 186 that it was very high. However, 54 respondents
rated corruption in service delivery as fairly low and 54 as low. These
findings complement the findings from the case study about the Ministry of
Agriculture.
Respondents to the surveys of both farmers and a wider community
sample suggested that responsiveness in service delivery was extremely
slow and inefficient. The survey of community perceptions indicated that
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82 percent of respondents felt that the time factor in handling requests for
services was a problem. Farmers commented that from the application
stage for rural assistance to final approval could take between 1 and 3
years. The costs of applying for services were also a significant problem. In
the survey of community perceptions 81.1 percent of respondents high-
lighted cost factors as a major problem. The survey of farmers provided a
similar result.
Overall, respondents described a service delivery system that was poor
and in which citizens found it extremely difficult to make enquiries.
Respondents perceived that those who provided corrupt incentives to offi-
cials could bypass queues, manipulate rules, and get favorable outcomes
for their applications for services. It was perceived that lack of transpar-
ency in processing and decision making resulted in officials not being held
accountable to anyone even the citizens at large. The findings are consis-
tent with the discussion above that monopoly of access to information by
officials, the high degree of discretion that officials exercise and lack of
transparency and accountability lead to principal-agent problems that foster
corrupt practices.
With regard to the potential of E-Governance to improve service delivery,
66 percent of respondents to the survey of community perceptions were aware
of E-Governance and 34 percent were unaware. Sixty-three percent
(253 respondents) suggested that E-Governance could reduce corruption in
service delivery, while another 147 (36.8%) felt otherwise. Responses were
analyzed using the four hypotheses set out above.
The results are as follows:

Hypothesis One states: IT initiatives are positively related to cutting

problems faced by services providers and users problems and corruption
reduction. Pearsons coefficient correlation was conducted to test H1.
The findings in the survey reveal that the correlation between IT initia-
tives and cutting problems faced by services providers and users is 0.878
while the correlation between IT initiatives and Corruption Reduction is
0.995 and is significant at 0.01significance level. The results show positive
 E-Governance to Cut Corruption in Public Service Delivery 423

correlation, with IT initiatives explaining nearly 77.09 percent of the vari-

ance in the problems faced by services providers and users. Similarly,
nearly 99.03 percent of the variance in Corruption Reduction is also
explained by IT initiatives. Therefore these results support H1 in this
study (Table 1).
Hypothesis Two states: Cutting problems faced by services providers and
users is positively related to corruption reduction. Again Pearsons correla-
tion was conducted. The findings reveal a correlation of 0.867 significant at
0.01 significance level. R value of 0.867 indicates a strong/large linear asso-
ciation between the two variables. Cutting problems faced by services pro-
viders and users helps to explain nearly 75.17 percent of the variance in
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Corruption Reduction. Therefore, H2 was supported in this study (Table 1).

Hypothesis Three states: Corruption reduction is dependent on cutting
problems faced by services providers and users. Chi-squared test was used
to test H3. Chi-squared = 462.9 with p value 0.000 < 0.05, showed a signif-
icant statistical relationship between the two variables. Therefore H3 was
also supported. Corruption Reduction is dependent on cutting problems
faced by services providers and users (Table 1).
Hypothesis Four states: The independent variable (IT initiatives) will sig-
nificantly explain the variance in corruption reduction. Multiple regression
analysis was done to test H4. The results for multiple regression showed
that r square equals 0.991. This means that the model outlined above helped
to explain 99.1 percent of the variance in Corruption Reduction (dependent
variable). To determine the relative contribution of each of the variables, the
beta values were compared. The beta values in the study showed that IT ini-
tiatives equals 1.022 while cutting problems faced by services providers and
users equals 0.30. This means that the variable which makes the strongest
unique contribution to explaining the dependent variableCorruption
Reductionwhen the variance explained by all other variables in the model
is controlled for, is IT initiatives. The beta value for cutting problems faced
by services providers and users is 0.30, implying it made less of a contri-
bution. To identify the variables making significant contributions, the sig-
nificance values for the two variables were compared. The significance
values show that IT initiatives equals 0.000, and cutting problems faced by
services providers and users equals 0.003. Since IT initiatives 0.000, and
cutting problems faced by services providers and users 0.003 are less than
p value 0.05, they are making a significant contribution to the prediction of
Corruption reduction. Therefore, H4 was confirmed (Table 1).

Table 1 summarizes the results of hypothesis testing.

The expectations of gains from the findings for IT initiatives were: trans-
parency and accountability, increased opportunity for participation in policy
making, visible impact of feedback, access to information, public service deliv-
ered via IT enabled processes, bridging issues of digital divide, citizen-centerd
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424
Table 1. Results of Hypothesis Testing

Hypotheses Results

H1: IT initiatives are positively related to cutting service Correlation coefficient:

providers and service users problems and corruption IT initiatives and cutting Principal- 0.878
reduction Agent problems
IT initiatives and Corruption 0.995
Reduction
H2: Cutting service providers and service users problems Correlation coefficient:
is positively related to corruption reduction Cutting Principal-Agent Problems 0.867
and Corruption Reduction

H3: Corruption reduction is dependent on cutting service Pearson Chi-square:

Value = 462.904 P value = 0.000
providers and service users problems
H4: The independent variable (IT initiatives) will Unstandardized
Standardized
significantly explain the variance in Corruption Coefficient
Coefficients
Reduction
B Std.Error Beta t Sig (b)

Constant 0.008 .002 3.535 .000

Cutting Principal-Agent 0.23 .008 .030 2.990 .003
Problems
Corruption Reduction 1.729 .017 1.022 102.506 .000

Source: Analysis of Survey of Community Perceptions in Fiji.

 E-Governance to Cut Corruption in Public Service Delivery 425

services, and high quality and friendly and attentive services. The findings
bring to light respondents priorities for more transparency and accountability,
openness, flexibility, efficiency, better coordination, and savings in public ser-
vice delivery in Fiji.
The findings also provide examples of reasons for making greater use of
IT in service delivery. These include: improving the information base for
decision making, improving communication between political and administra-
tive processes, improving internal communication flows, developing integrated
information systems, better record keeping and archiving, freedom of infor-
mation data, inter-departmental coordination and cooperation, improving effi-
ciency, increasing public service flexibility, increasing public safety, and cost
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savings. Overall, the findings from the surveys of community perceptions and
of farmers suggest the expectation that all types of petty bureaucratic corrup-
tion can be powerfully diminished through the increased transparency and
accountability achieved by using IT in service delivery.
However, it is realized that E-Governance is not a panacea. Although IT
can facilitate change and create new, more efficient administrative processes,
it will not solve all problems of corruption and inefficiency, nor will it over-
come all barriers to civic engagement. Moreover, E-Governance does not hap-
pen just because a government buys more computers and puts up a website.
While online service delivery can be more efficient and less costly than other
channels, cost savings and service improvements are not automatic. E-Gover-
nance requires planning, sustained dedication of resources and political will.
To investigate why Fiji is lagging behind and what needs to be done the
research investigated perceptions of design and implementation issues that IT
initiatives in Fiji need to address. Responses from the survey of community
perceptions identified thirteen requirements for successfully employing E-
Governance as a tool to fight corruption. Two-hundred and fifty-two of the
400 respondents who were aware of the potential of E-Governance responded.
These requirements are presented in Figure 2 below. Responses distinguished
drivers from enablers. External pressures and internal will were identified as
significant drivers. Enablers such as strategy, effective change and project
management, effective design, adequate legal support, data and technological
infrastructure, requisite competencies, proper timing and sufficient time and
money were identified as critical success factors.
Responses highlighted that internal will (241 responses) contributed to a
greater extent as a driver for E-Governance than external pressure (94
responses). Of the enablers, overall strategy (244 responses) received the most
support. However all other enablers but one (communication environment)
received significant support.
In summary, the findings show perceptions of prevalent corruption in Fiji,
substantial opportunities to reduce petty corruption through IT initiatives to
improve service delivery, and the need to design and implement such initia-
tives with great care and commitment.
 426 Pathak et al.

Frequency(Respondents Success Factors/Requirements

300
241 244 241 241 222 240
250
180 166 197 204 192
200
Views)

150
94 103
100
50
0
1

External Pressure Internal Will

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Overall Strategy Effective Project Management

Effective Change Management
Effective Design
Adequate Data Infrastructure
Sufficient Time and Money
Communication Environment
Requisite Competencies
Adequate Technological Infrastructure
Adequate Legal Infrastructure
Proper Timing

Figure 2. Perceived requirements for successfully using E-Governance for reducing

corruption in fiji public service delivery.
Source: Survey of Community Perceptions in Fiji.

DISCUSSION

The results of the surveys support an integrated approach to cutting corruption

through the introduction of relevant IT initiatives in service delivery. They
suggest that improvements in overall governance need to be coordinated with
initiatives in service improvement through the use of appropriate technology
and that for effective reform programs local leadership in government is
essential. As the former president of the World Bank, James Wolfensohn
(1999: 9), stated:

It is clear to all of us that ownership is essential. Countries must be in

the drivers seat and set the course. They must determine goals and the
phasing, timing and sequencing of programs.

The responses are congruent with experience in other developing countries

that E-Governance initiatives driven from outside government by vendors,
donors or consultants do not work. E-Governance seems to require strong
political will, institutional support, and commitment from key stakeholders.
Further, responses indicated perceptions that reform initiatives need an
overall strategy. Heeks suggests that only rarely is IT properly integrated into
 E-Governance to Cut Corruption in Public Service Delivery 427

good governance reforms, with reform objectives in the driving seat, with infor-
mation requirements well understood, and with IT serving those requirements
and objectives (Heeks, 2001a; Heeks, 2004). In governance improvement strat-
egies IT is often either ignored, isolated, or idolised. In the programs of major
development institutions frequently there will be a structure for governance and
a separate structure for IT, but no effective communication between the two. In
still other cases, IT is idolized and becomes an end rather than a means.
To cut corruption both IT specialists and officials in direct contact with
the public need to work together to implement E-Governance systems.
A multi-faceted reform program needs to address issues such as inadequate
financial resources, greater use of market mechanisms, improving competi-
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tiveness in a globalised economy, and increasing citizen participation (Heeks,

1998 in Cisar, 2003; Pierre & Peters, 2000). IT improvements need to go
hand-in hand with such reforms, including business process re-engineering to
ensure increased transparency of rules and procedures, and to reduce unneces-
sary discretion by government officials that could be abused. As Heeks cau-
tions (1998, 1999a,b; 2001, 2004), applying advanced IT without other
reforms risks computerising inefficiency and bad practices.
Kudo (2005), Bassanini (2003), Ahmed (2004), Mahmood (2004), and
Chand (2005) also argue that to use E-Governance to cut corruption requires
long-term strategies and integrated institutional measures. As the survey find-
ings showed, IT in Fiji was perceived as a useful lever for change, but overall
governance goals should not be mislaid.
The survey responses reported above also are congruent with studies by
Heeks (2001) and Bhatnagar (2003a,b,c; 2005a,b), who have analyzed
dozens of E-Governance projects, that highlight the difference between
design ideas and organizational realities. If IT is to improve transparency,
close attention to IT enablers is essential. Enablers need to support both
implementation of initiatives and also ongoing operations (Heeks, 2004). In
particular, funding and support over time need to be sustainable (Bhatnagar,
2003a,b,c; 2005; Borwankar, 2005). Moreover, the support of key stakehold-
ers (users, clerical operators, citizen beneficiaries, community members) can-
not be taken for granted. It is vital to bridge any gaps in attitudes and
knowledge and go ahead with E-Governance only when reform strategies
include all relevant stakeholders.

CHALLENGES FOR FIJI

The requirements identified above for political will, leadership and institu-
tional support pose challenges for Fiji. There is no agreed policy agenda of
E-Goverance for cutting corruption in public service delivery. Cultural resis-
tance and fear of technology by public officials are major obstacles. The coun-
try has limited IT infrastructure (specifically in rural areas), a long term
 428 Pathak et al.

telecommunications monopoly (Telecom Fiji), slow connectivity, high cost of

Internet connections, problems in power supply and lack of digitized informa-
tion in public sector agencies. There is a shortage of skilled IT workers and a
small computer literate population.
Awareness of the benefits of IT at grassroots levels, especially in poor/
illiterate rural populations, to meet development needs and cut corruption is
low. Access to the Internet is limited. There is a digital divide not only
between educated and uneducated citizens, but also between rural and urban
dwellers. The country also lags in the introduction of the most recent technol-
ogy. The cost of IT equipment, government difficulties in planning IT invest-
ment and lack of cooperation from stakeholders contribute to the lag.
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The use of IT within government has developed gradually and without an

overall guiding strategy. Information Technology and Computing Services
(ITC), which started out as a small unit in the Ministry of Finance, has
expanded its role to become the official ICT department for the whole of the
Fiji government (ITU, 2004). For three decades this department was princi-
pally concerned with the provision of server capacity to government depart-
ments and agencies. Policy development for E-Governance was hindered in
the late 1990s, as it suffered from a shortage of experienced ICT profession-
als. Political instability led some ICT professionals to emigrate. The only
sectors making use of computing services at that time included Customs and
Inland Revenue, Education, Treasury, Taxation, The Electoral Commission
and the Criminal Justice System (Information Technology and Computing
Services (ITC), 1995, 1996 in Hassall, 2005: 2). Pressures from providing
day to day services to government, as well as the need to address the Year
2000 issue prevented any activity on ICT Policy during the period 1997 to
1999(ICT, 1997, 1999 in Hassall, 2005: 2).
However, since Internet access in Fiji began in 1995, Fiji has aspired to
lead digital commerce in the region. In addition to having one of the largest
economies in the South Pacific, Fiji is the host nation to a number of regional
inter-governmental agencies. A combination of national and regional interests
drives the rapid elaboration of IT policy and utilization (Hassall, 2005: 1). In
August 2004, the Qarase government affirmed its commitment to the
Bangkok Agenda Action Plan on Broadband and Information, Communica-
tion and Technology Development (Hassall, 2005), an agreement calling for
Government action at national, sub-regional and regional levels to encourage
broadband access and usage.
By the end of 2000 ITC had connected most ministries and departments
in Suva to the Internet through the government network GOVNET (ITU,
2004). In 2001, the IT Advisory Council (ITAC) was set up to advise the
Minister of Communications on policy. The Council included representatives
of key government ministries, the academic community and the private sector.
The ITAC drafted an ICT policy. The draft (ITAC, 2003) had the vision to
harness Fijis ideal geographic location, competent workforce and world-class
 E-Governance to Cut Corruption in Public Service Delivery 429

information technology infrastructure to promote Fijis international competi-

tiveness and create a dynamic, vibrant, and well connected e-society.
In 2002, the Council reported to the second Preparatory Committee
(Prepcom) for WSIS (World Summit on the Information Society) that the
vision of the National ICT Strategy Plan was To Develop Fiji into a Vibrant
and Dynamic Pacific ICT Capital with a Thriving Digital Economy and IT
Empowered Citizens (Accessed Jun. 10, 2005, <http://www.itc.gov.fj\
wsis_prepcom2.doc >). According to this report four cornerstone programs
defined the National ICT Strategy Plan: eGovernment, eCommerce, ePersonal
and ICT industry.
At this stage the ITAC was ready to broaden consultation to include more
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government stakeholders. On the basis of consultations through a workshop

organized in June 2002, the ICT Council drafted the Fiji ICT Policy in
2003. The Ministry of Information also maintained an official Fiji Govern-
ment web site (http://www.fiji.gov.fj) that included official press releases and
links to government agencies with their own web site. By August 2003 four out
of 25 ministries, some agencies, and the Parliament (http://www.parliament.
gov.fj/main/index.aspx) had their own web sites. Notable exceptions included
the Ministry of Communications and the Ministry of Education.
A significant actor in IT development in Fiji has been the University
of the South Pacific. The University has an active plan to promote IT
capacity. In May 2004 the University responded to the Fiji Governments
International Telecommuting Advisory Council (ITAC) Draft Policy e-Fiji:
The Future Online. The university identified lack of human capital and IT
networks as problematic areas (Hassall, 2005: 3). Toland and Purcell
(2002) identified that limited IT infrastructure and access was leading to a
sharp division between rural and urban areas in Fiji. Hassall (2005: 3)
noted that island nations such as Fiji have a particular need for strong policy
frameworks:

As the island nations are made up of archipelagos having distinct trans-

port and communication challenges, ICT policies need to be established
at the outset that aid in reducing rather than multiplying the digital
divide.

The Fiji government is embarking on a 3-year eGovernance Business Solu-

tion Program and Government Information Infrastructure (GII) Program
with the aim of moving government services online to ease the delivery of
services. ICT services plans to host these applications with mirror sites off
shore to ensure availability. Specific aims are to:

1. improve productivity;
2. have less paper handling;
3. less verification and data entry;
 430 Pathak et al.

4. recover delayed revenue;

5. deploy manpower for value added service and complex issues;
6. consolidated and consistent data and
7. data accuracy and easy availability.

Particular applications include: e-filing of income tax, company office search/

registration, drivers license, births/deaths, and marriage registrations and
immigration.
It is clear that Fiji now has IT policies and initiatives in place but that
employing E-Governance as a tool for reducing corruption is not part of the
official agenda. It is therefore timely to identify areas in government where IT
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can be successfully applied to curb corruption and improve the quality of life
of citizens. This can be envisaged if successful application makes the public
sector, Simple, Moral, Accountable, Responsive, and Transparent (SMART)
and brings the public sector closer to the citizens by empowering them and
reducing bureaucratic delays.
It is suggested that implementing E-Governance initiatives will place
considerable demand on human resource development, management skills and
the policy environment in Fiji. This is particularly true for human resource
management. Long-term strategies to develop skills, uphold motivation and
retain qualified staff will be important to sustain a positive learning environ-
ment and staff commitment. Policymakers will need to bear in mind that
public service officials will feel threatened by E-Governance, either because
they fear being caught for corruption or dcreating a positive atmosphere for
change by ensuring adequate training and rewarding those who support E-
Governance changes.

CONCLUSION

This article reports community perceptions that IT initiatives in Fiji can cut
corruption and promote good governance. It does this through a survey of
community perceptions complemented by a case study of service delivery. It
relates the survey findings to selected studies of E-Governance, especially
those that probe difficulties of implementation.
The article suggests that E-Governance initiatives should be an integral
factor in strategies for growth and development, institution building and eco-
nomic and democratic revival in Fiji. Survey responses indicate that E-Gover-
nance is seen to offer the potential to reshape public sector activities and
processes, increase overall transparency, and strengthen relations between the
government and citizens. However, it by no means provides the ultimate solu-
tion. Designing and implementing E-Governance is a challenge in itself. E-
Governance should not be seen narrowly as a technology issue and isolated
from the main thrust of governance and national policy reforms. The survey
 E-Governance to Cut Corruption in Public Service Delivery 431

responses suggest that it is important to identify pressure points in order to

remove official discretion, simplify procedures, and publish information in the
public domain. There is also a desire to encourage a strong civil society to
enhance public accounting and scrutiny.
This suggests that it is desirable that E-Governance in Fiji support
participatory models in public management. An emphasis on shared
visions, both at horizontal and vertical levels, of planning and manage-
ment is likely to be valued by citizens. To take this path will entail involv-
ing and educating communities at the grass root level in dialogue and
decision making at the public policy and practice levels. IT has the poten-
tial to make the governance sphere reachable for all stakeholders. Citizens
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of Fiji can become partners in governance and not merely recipients of

service delivery systems.
Finally, our analysis suggests that the benchmark to assess the IT
initiatives should be based on expectations about good governance. The
success of E-Governance should be measured by the efficiency and effec-
tiveness brought about by IT based interventions that promote equity,
transparency, accountability, participation, responsiveness, strategic
vision, and the rule of law. In other words, it is the transformation of sys-
tems and processes to bring out the best in people that is vital to effect
transformations in governance.

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