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ABSTRACT
Lake Ogawara is a brackish water lake with a strong halocline has become eutrophicated very rapidly due to the
contaminant upwelling from anaerobic hypolimnion. In this study, a numerical model of salinity circulation was
constructed to explain the process of lake condition change. By referring the past field observations, three sub-processes
were considered to compose the total model; (a) seawater inflow through the river under the effect of tide, (b) dilution
of saltwater with lake freshwater in the process of gravity current on the lake bed slope, (c) vertical turbulent mixing
and upward salinity transport in the lake. The processes-(a) and (b) were formulated being based on field observation
data. The process-(c) was calculated by vertical 1-D k- model taking into account the buoyancy effect caused by salinity
and water temperature.Computation for ten years when the lake condition got worse explained the long-term trend of
salinity condition in the lake. Major points are as follows; the depth of halocline used to be almost constant around 20
meters before 2000, started to rise in 2002 and reached the depth of 14 meters in 2008. The area of halocline became three
times larger, showing the increase of bottom water transport to the surface layer. As a result, surface salinity increased
three times larger than the past stable condition. The simulation results also showed a good agreement with
observations on seasonal changes of vertical profiles of salinity and water temperature.
1
Figure 2 shows the depth of halocline and Figure 3 shows (d) by using vertical 1-D k- model (Qian et al., 1998). In
the COD in the surface layer. The halocline came up from this paper, the results of formulation for the processes
the depth of 20m to 15m, and the COD increased from (a)-(c) are summarized briefly, and the process (d) is
3mg/l to 5mg/l in the 10 years. According to Figure 1, described in detail.
the area at the depth of 15m is about 3 times larger than
that at 20m. It means that the entrainment rate of
dissolved substance in hypolimnion to the surface mixed
layer became larger.
S S2
K [2]
S1 S 2
3. MODEL DESCRIPTION
3.1 Outline of salinity circulation Figure 5. Relative salinity vs. Volume integral of lake-ward flow
According to existing field observation results (Nagao et
al., 1997), the salinity circulation is composed by the 3.2.2 Process (b): Mixing of gravity underflow on the lake
following three processes (see Figure 4): (a) Seawater slope
flows up the Takase River during high tide. (b) The
saltwater flows on the lake bed slope as a gravity From the deformation of salinity profile at the lake
underflow after the plunging point (PLP) is diluted by center, we estimated relative salinity after the gravity
lake water entrainment. (c) The density current detaches underflow (Kc). Figure 6 shows the correlation between
from the bed when it meets the layer of equal density, Kc and Kp, and it is approximated by the following Eq. [3],
and penetrates horizontally to change salinity in which the coefficient weakly depends on the depth
stratification. (d) Saltwater near halocline is entrained to of halocline as show in Figure 7.
the surface mixed layer by wind induced turbulence and
discharged to the ocean during low tide. We formulated
the processes (a), (b) and (c) empirically being based on
the results of field observation, and modeled the process
2
g
G [12]
z
3
where I is solar radiation, L is net long wave
radiation, e is latent heat and c is sensible heat. r is
reflection rate at water surface and assumed 0.03. c is an
empirical constant and assumed 0.6 following Umeda
M.(2005). For the case that daily averaged
meteorological data are used.
Each heat flux component was estimated from daily
meteorological data collected at Lake Ogawara station
(see Figure 1). L was estimated by the Swinbank
equation (Swinbank, W.C., 1963), and (e+c) was Figure 9. Volume of lake-ward flow at each event (bar graph) and
obtained by the Rohwer equation (Rohwer, C., 1931). It the total volume for each year (orange line)
is assumed that the heat exchange of these components
is generated on the top layer of water body. On the 4.2 Stratification in the lake
other hand, hourly data of solar radiation, L, was
constructed by distributing the daily data according to 4.2.1 Computation result
the solar angle calculated for the Jurious day and the
latitude. It was divided to two components as follows: Time series of lake-ward flow estimated from the
monitoring data at Takase Bridge Station as well as the
I ( ) {(1 bs ) ( ) bs exp( )} I [18] daily meteorological data collected at the Lake Center
Station were input into the computation processes
described in chapter3.
where bs is assumed 0.6 following Kojima et al(2008). is
water depth and is a delta function having the peak Figures 10 and 11 compare calculation and observation
at the water surface. is light attenuation constant, which for salinity and water temperature respectively in the
was assumed as the reciprocal of transparency, D. Figure form of time-depth mapping. The origin of vertical scale
8 shows the observed D, which has decreased from 2002. is set at the deepest bed, and the water surface is at
Z=25m. Near bottom area masked by white means no
observation. The broken line in Figure 10 shows the
depth of halocline, which was defined as the mean value
of surface water salinity and bottom water salinity.
Vertical dotted lines in Figure 11 divide a fiscal year to
two periods (April-September, October-March) to show
seasonal variation clear. Bar graph in Figure 12 shows the
upward salinity flux at Z=15m, and the orange line graph
shows the total in each year. Orange line is the total in
each year, and purple bands show half years
Figure 8. Monthly data of visible depth
corresponding to vertical dotted lines in Figure 11
Calculation result of turbulent kinetic energy is shown in
4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Figure 13 to discuss the seasonal mixing and turbulence
generation. Figure 14 shows the profiles of salinity, water
4.1 Time series of saltwater Intrusion temperature and density.
Computation was made for the ten years from May 14,
1998 to March 16, 2009. From the data of river flow rate (a)
monitored at Takase Bridge Station, the volume of lake-
ward flow (V=Qdt : see Figure 5) was estimated. The bar
graph in Figure 9 shows the total volume for each event
of high tide, the scale for which is placed at the left hand
(b)
side of the figure. The horizontal red dotted line
corresponds to the value of Vp (143x10 4m3) in Figure 5
where relative salinity starts increasing. Therefore, the
volume above the line is considered to enter the lake. The
orange line shows the total in each year, the scale for
which is placed at the right hand side of the figure. The Figure 10. Time variation of salinity stratification:
saltwater intrusion became large since 2001 when the
halocline started to rise as was shown in Figure 2. Please (a)Calculation (b) Observation
note that year in the figures from hereupon is scaled for
Japanese fiscal year (April 1 March 31), and the
shadowed parts are from December to March. The
volume of seawater intrusion shows a clear seasonality; it
increases in winter because the lake water surface
becomes lower due to small river inflow in the season
(Nagao et al., 1997).
4
(See Figure 8). In winter, temperature inversion appears
(a) because the surface water becomes cooler than the high
salinity bottom water. The zone of high turbulent kinetic
energy (Figure 13) is accord with the depth of
thermocline in summer, and it penetrates deeper to the
halocline in winter when the thermocline is absent. This
(b) fact suggests that the vertical mixing is almost controlled
by wind action at the water surface.
The salinity stratification also changes seasonally: The
salinity near the bottom has a seasonal periodicity;
Figure 11. Time variation of thermal stratification:
increase in winter and decrease in spring (Figure 11). The
increase is caused by the volume of seawater intrusion
(above the red dotted line in Figure 9) from autumn to
(a)Calculation (b) Observation mid-winter. The decrease is considered due to diffusion
by weak turbulence in deep layer which appears near
bottom in winter and spring (Figure 12). The turbulence
is generated by the motion of deep saline layer induced
by wind when the thermocline does not exist.
Figure 14 shows variation of the profiles of salinity
(blue), water temperature (red) and water density (black)
for every two months in one year; calculation with solid
line and observation with broken line. Density depends
on salinity more than water temperature. In summer
Figure 12. Upward salinity flux at Z=15m
(from July to September), however, thermal stratification
causes weak density interface around Z=15 m. In other
seasons, density interface is accord with halocline. The
seasonal switching of density interface is reflected in
turbulent energy distribution as was shown in Figure 13.
5
line; January, 1999) before the lake condition changed of halocline across which salinity is entrained vertically.
when the halocline was still below Z=10m (1998-1999). In
5. The vertical salinity transport becomes active in winter
July, the salinity flux is large only above Z=15 m because
and in spring due to internal seiche of high salinity layer
the thermal stratification controls the turbulence in the
induced by the direct wind action during the absence of
lower layer.
thermocline in upper layer.
In winter, however, the flux takes the maximum near the
6. The above mentioned characteristics of vertical salinity
halocline because turbulence is generated by shearing
flux suggest that the eutrophication potential substances
motion across the density interface. The lower line of
stored in the anaerobic hypolimnion is supplied to the
Figure 15 shows their profiles after the halocline moved
surface mixed layer in the same manner.
up to Z=13m; in July, 2008 (solid line) and in January,
2009(dotted line). The salinity flux in July has the same 7. Eutrophication of Lake Ogawara is caused by the
tendency as before that it becomes large above the activation of vertical transport due to the volume growth
thermocline. In January, it has peaks around halocline as of anaerobic high salinity layer by the increase of
did in 1999. However, the level is a few times as large as seawater intrusion through Takase River. Therefore,
before. As mentioned earlier for Figure 1, the area for controlling the lake-ward flow in the river at high tide is
entrainment of salinity increased as the halocline became important and necessary to stop the eutrophication.
closer to the water surface.
REFERENCES
Ikenaga H. et al. (1996). Formation and Behavior of the
Two-Layers Structure of Salt and Fresh Water in Lake
Abashiri. Annual Journal of Hydraulic Engineering, 40,
589-594.
Ishikawa T., Kinoshita T., and Akoh R. (2013). Basic
Study on Modeling the Long Term Variation of Salinity
Condition in Lake Ogawara. Advances in River
Engineering, 19, 549-554.
Ishikawa T., Itai M., and Ozawa Y. (1991). A Model for
the Estimation of Salt Intrusion into Lake Ogawara.
Hydraulic Engineering, 35, 191-196.
Nagao M., Ishikawa T., and Nagashima S. (1997).
Entrainment Coefficient of an Inclined Plume in Lake
Ogawara. Proc. of JSCE, 579/-41, 105-114
Qian S., and Ishikawa T. (1998). Examination of k-
Model for the application to the Deepneing of Sur-face
Mixed Layer of DI-type Entrainment. Proc. of JSCE,
593/-43, 177-182.
Figure 15. Dependency of vertical salinity flux on density
stratification
UNESCO. (1991). Salinity and density of seawater,
Tables for high salinities. technical papers in marine
science,62.
5. CONCLUSIONS Kojima T., Nakamura T., and Ishikawa T. (2008).
Development of a Vertical 2D CIP-Soroban Solver for a
Long term simulation (from 1998 to 2008) by using the
Water Flow With Fluctuations in Water Temperature in
model of salinity circulation in Lake Ogawara proposed
a Reservoir. Annual Journal of Hydraulic Engineering, 52,
in this paper showed good agreements with existing
1039-1044.
observation data as follows:
Swinbank, W.C. (1963). Long-wave radiation from clear
1. Halocline stayed around the depth of 20 m before 2001, skies. QUART. J. Roy. Meteorol. Soc., Vol.89, pp.339-
but it went up to the depth around 15 m during the five 348.
years to 2007 due to the increase of seawater intrusion Rohwer, C. (1931). Evaporation from Free Water
through Takase River. Surface. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Technical
Bulletin, No.271
2. Salinity near the bed shows seasonal periodicity;
Umeda M. (2005).Numerical modeling of destratification
increase from late autumn to mid-winter and decrease
by bubble diffusers in a dam reservoir and its
from late winter to spring.
validation. Annual Journal of Hydraulic Engineering, 49,
3. Thermocline develops in 3-4 months in summer 1165-1170.
around the depth of 10 m, and maximum temperature Kondo J. (1994).Meteorology on the water environment
difference is in the order of 5 degrees.
From the computation results about dynamic factors Copyrights
(turbulent intensity and vertical salinity flux), the listed
below are concluded. Paper(s) submitted to the IAHR-APD2014 are interpreted
as declaration that the authors obtained the necessary
4. The halocline is stable around the depth of 15 m at authorization fo.r publication.
present, because the increased salinity inflow through
Takase River is balanced with the vertical salinity
transport from the high salinity bottom layer to the
surface mixed layer due to the increase of horizontal area