M53 Lec1.2 One-Sided2 and Infinite Limits PDF

One-sided limits and
Infinite Limits
Mathematics 53
Institute of Mathematics (UP Diliman)
Institute of Mathematics (UP Diliman) One-sided limits and Infinite Limits Mathematics 53 1 / 49
For today
1 One-Sided Limits (continuation)
2 Infinite Limits
For today
2 Infinite Limits
Recall..
Intuitive Definition
The
limit of f ( x ) as x approaches a from the left is L
[limit of f ( x ) as x approaches a from the right is L]
if the values of f ( x ) get closer and closer to L as the values of x get closer and
closer to a, but are less [greater] than a.
Notation:
lim f ( x ) = L lim f ( x ) = L
x a x a+
Recall
Recall
Let n be an even positive integer.
Recall
1 lim f ( x ) = L > 0
xa
Recall
p
n

n
1 lim f ( x ) = L > 0 lim f (x) = L
xa xa
Recall
p
n

n
1 lim f ( x ) = L > 0 lim f (x) = L
xa xa
2 lim f ( x ) = L < 0
xa
Recall
p
n

n
1 lim f ( x ) = L > 0 lim f (x) = L
xa xa
p
n
2 lim f ( x ) = L < 0 lim f ( x ) dne
xa xa
Recall
p
n

n
1 lim f ( x ) = L > 0 lim f (x) = L
xa xa
p
n
2 lim f ( x ) = L < 0 lim f ( x ) dne
xa xa
Question: lim f ( x ) = 0
xa
Recall
p
n

n
1 lim f ( x ) = L > 0 lim f (x) = L
xa xa
p
n
2 lim f ( x ) = L < 0 lim f ( x ) dne
xa xa
p
n
Question: lim f ( x ) = 0 lim f ( x ) =?
xa xa
Consider: f ( x ) = 9 x2
lim f ( x ) = 0 and lim f ( x ) = 0

x 3 x 3
lim f ( x ) = 0 and lim f ( x ) = 0

x 3 x 3
(, 3) (3, 3) (3, +)
(3 + x )(3 x )
lim f ( x ) = 0 and lim f ( x ) = 0

x 3 x 3
(, 3) (3, 3) (3, +)
(3 + x )(3 x )
lim f ( x ) = 0 and lim f ( x ) = 0

x 3 x 3
(, 3) (3, 3) (3, +)
(3 + x )(3 x ) +
lim f ( x ) = 0 and lim f ( x ) = 0

x 3 x 3
(, 3) (3, 3) (3, +)
(3 + x )(3 x ) +
lim f ( x ) = 0 and lim f ( x ) = 0

x 3 x 3
(, 3) (3, 3) (3, +)
(3 + x )(3 x ) +
As x 3 , f ( x ) 0,
lim f ( x ) = 0 and lim f ( x ) = 0

x 3 x 3
(, 3) (3, 3) (3, +)
(3 + x )(3 x ) +
As x 3 , f ( x ) 0, passing through negative values as it approaches 0.
lim f ( x ) = 0 and lim f ( x ) = 0

x 3 x 3
(, 3) (3, 3) (3, +)
(3 + x )(3 x ) +
As x 3+ , f ( x ) 0,
lim f ( x ) = 0 and lim f ( x ) = 0

x 3 x 3
(, 3) (3, 3) (3, +)
(3 + x )(3 x ) +
As x 3+ , f ( x ) 0, passing through positive values as it approaches 0.
lim f ( x ) = 0 and lim f ( x ) = 0

x 3 x 3
(, 3) (3, 3) (3, +)
(3 + x )(3 x ) +
As x 3 , f ( x ) 0, passing through positive values as it approaches 0.
lim f ( x ) = 0 and lim f ( x ) = 0

x 3 x 3
(, 3) (3, 3) (3, +)
(3 + x )(3 x ) +
As x 3 , f ( x ) 0, passing through positive values as it approaches 0.
As x 3+ , f ( x ) 0, passing through negative values as it approaches 0.
Approaching 0 through positive/negative values
Notation
Suppose lim f ( x ) = 0.
xa
Notation
xa
If f ( x ) approaches 0 through positive [negative] values,
we write
Notation
xa
If f ( x ) approaches 0 through positive [negative] values,
we write
f ( x ) 0+ [ f ( x ) 0 ]
lim f ( x ) = 0 and lim f ( x ) = 0

x 3 x 3
(, 3) (3, 3) (3, +)
(3 + x )(3 x ) +
lim f ( x ) = 0 and lim f ( x ) = 0

x 3 x 3
(, 3) (3, 3) (3, +)
(3 + x )(3 x ) +
As x 3 ,
lim f ( x ) = 0 and lim f ( x ) = 0

x 3 x 3
(, 3) (3, 3) (3, +)
(3 + x )(3 x ) +
As x 3 , f (x) 0
lim f ( x ) = 0 and lim f ( x ) = 0

x 3 x 3
(, 3) (3, 3) (3, +)
(3 + x )(3 x ) +
As x 3 , f ( x ) 0
lim f ( x ) = 0 and lim f ( x ) = 0

x 3 x 3
(, 3) (3, 3) (3, +)
(3 + x )(3 x ) +
As x 3 , f ( x ) 0
As x 3+ ,
lim f ( x ) = 0 and lim f ( x ) = 0

x 3 x 3
(, 3) (3, 3) (3, +)
(3 + x )(3 x ) +
As x 3 , f ( x ) 0
As x 3+ , f (x) 0
lim f ( x ) = 0 and lim f ( x ) = 0

x 3 x 3
(, 3) (3, 3) (3, +)
(3 + x )(3 x ) +
As x 3 , f ( x ) 0
As x 3+ , f ( x ) 0+
lim f ( x ) = 0 and lim f ( x ) = 0

x 3 x 3
(, 3) (3, 3) (3, +)
(3 + x )(3 x ) +
As x 3 , f ( x ) 0
As x 3+ , f ( x ) 0+
As x 3 , f ( x ) 0+
lim f ( x ) = 0 and lim f ( x ) = 0

x 3 x 3
(, 3) (3, 3) (3, +)
(3 + x )(3 x ) +
As x 3 , f ( x ) 0
As x 3+ , f ( x ) 0+
As x 3 , f ( x ) 0+
As x 3+ , f ( x ) 0
Example
Consider: f ( x ) = 2 x.
Example
As x 2 ,
Example
As x 2 , f (x) 0
Example
As x 2 , f ( x ) 0+
Example
As x 2 , f ( x ) 0+
As x 2+ ,
Example
As x 2 , f ( x ) 0+
As x 2+ , f (x) 0
Example
As x 2 , f ( x ) 0+
As x 2+ , f ( x ) 0
Example
As x 2 , f ( x ) 0+
As x 2+ , f ( x ) 0
Consider: g( x ) = (2 x )2 .
Example
As x 2 , f ( x ) 0+
As x 2+ , f ( x ) 0
Consider: g( x ) = (2 x )2 .
As x 2,
Example
As x 2 , f ( x ) 0+
As x 2+ , f ( x ) 0
Consider: g( x ) = (2 x )2 .
As x 2, g( x ) 0
Example
As x 2 , f ( x ) 0+
As x 2+ , f ( x ) 0
Consider: g( x ) = (2 x )2 .
As x 2, g ( x ) 0+
Note
f ( x ) 0+
p
n
1 If as x a, lim f (x)
xa
Note
f ( x ) 0+
p
n
1 If as x a, lim f (x) = 0
xa
Note
f ( x ) 0+
p
n
xa
f ( x ) 0
p
n
2 If as x a, lim f (x)
xa
Note
f ( x ) 0+
p
n
xa
f ( x ) 0
p
n
2 If as x a, lim f ( x ) dne
xa
Example

lim 2x2 + x 1
x 1
Example

lim 2x2 + x 1
x 1
p
= lim (2x 1)( x + 1)
x 1
Example

lim 2x2 + x 1
x 1
p p
= lim (2x 1)( x + 1)
x 1
Example

lim 2x2 + x 1
x 1
p p
= lim (2x 1)( x + 1) (3)
x 1
Example

lim 2x2 + x 1
x 1
p p
= lim (2x 1)( x + 1) (3)(0 )
x 1
Example

lim 2x2 + x 1
x 1
p p
= lim (2x 1)( x + 1) (3)(0 )
x 1
Example

lim 2x2 + x 1
x 1
p p
(3)(0 )

= lim (2x 1)( x + 1) 0+
x 1
Example

lim 2x2 + x 1
x 1
p p
(3)(0 )

= lim (2x 1)( x + 1) 0+
x 1
=0
Example

lim 2x2 + x 1
x 1
p p
(3)(0 )

= lim (2x 1)( x + 1) 0+
x 1
=0

lim 2x2 + x 1
x 1+
Example

lim 2x2 + x 1
x 1
p p
(3)(0 )

= lim (2x 1)( x + 1) 0+
x 1
=0

lim 2x2 + x 1
x 1+
p
= lim (2x 1)( x + 1)
x 1+
Example

lim 2x2 + x 1
x 1
p p
(3)(0 )

= lim (2x 1)( x + 1) 0+
x 1
=0

lim 2x2 + x 1
x 1+
p p
= lim (2x 1)( x + 1) (3)
x 1+
Example

lim 2x2 + x 1
x 1
p p
(3)(0 )

= lim (2x 1)( x + 1) 0+
x 1
=0

lim 2x2 + x 1
x 1+
p p
= lim (2x 1)( x + 1) (3)(0+ )
x 1+
Example

lim 2x2 + x 1
x 1
p p
(3)(0 )

= lim (2x 1)( x + 1) 0+
x 1
=0

lim 2x2 + x 1
x 1+
p p
0

= lim (2x 1)( x + 1) (3)(0+ )
x 1+
Example

lim 2x2 + x 1
x 1
p p
(3)(0 )

= lim (2x 1)( x + 1) 0+
x 1
=0

lim 2x2 + x 1
x 1+
p p
0

= lim (2x 1)( x + 1) (3)(0+ )
x 1+
dne
Example

lim 2x2 + x 1
x 1
p p
(3)(0 )

= lim (2x 1)( x + 1) 0+
x 1
=0

lim 2x2 + x 1
x 1+
p p
0

= lim (2x 1)( x + 1) (3)(0+ )
x 1+
dne
p
lim 2x2 + x 1
x 1
Example

lim 2x2 + x 1
x 1
p p
(3)(0 )

= lim (2x 1)( x + 1) 0+
x 1
=0

lim 2x2 + x 1
x 1+
p p
0

= lim (2x 1)( x + 1) (3)(0+ )
x 1+
dne
p
lim 2x2 + x 1 dne
x 1
Example

lim 2x2 + x 1

x 21
Example

lim 2x2 + x 1

x 21
p
= lim (2x 1)( x + 1)

x 12
Example

lim 2x2 + x 1

x 21
q
p
= lim (2x 1)( x + 1)

x 12
Example

lim 2x2 + x 1

x 21
q
p
= lim (2x 1)( x + 1) (0 )

x 12
Example

lim 2x2 + x 1

x 21
q
(0 )( 32 )
p
= lim (2x 1)( x + 1)

x 12
Example

lim 2x2 + x 1

x 21
q
(0 )( 32 )
p
= lim (2x 1)( x + 1)

x 12
dne
Example

lim 2x2 + x 1

x 21
q
(0 )( 32 )
p
= lim (2x 1)( x + 1)

x 12
dne

lim 2x2 + x 1
+
x 21
Example

lim 2x2 + x 1

x 21
q
(0 )( 32 )
p
= lim (2x 1)( x + 1)

x 12
dne

lim 2x2 + x 1
+
x 21
p
= lim (2x 1)( x + 1)
+
x 12
Example

lim 2x2 + x 1

x 21
q
(0 )( 32 )
p
= lim (2x 1)( x + 1)

x 12
dne

lim 2x2 + x 1
+
x 21
q
p
= lim (2x 1)( x + 1)
+
x 12
Example

lim 2x2 + x 1

x 21
q
(0 )( 32 )
p
= lim (2x 1)( x + 1)

x 12
dne

lim 2x2 + x 1
+
x 21
q
p
= lim (2x 1)( x + 1) (0+ )
+
x 12
Example

lim 2x2 + x 1

x 21
q
(0 )( 32 )
p
= lim (2x 1)( x + 1)

x 12
dne

lim 2x2 + x 1
+
x 21
q
(0+ )( 32 )
p
= lim (2x 1)( x + 1)
+
x 12
Example

lim 2x2 + x 1

x 21
q
(0 )( 32 )
p
= lim (2x 1)( x + 1)

x 12
dne

lim 2x2 + x 1
+
x 21
q
(0+ )( 32 )
p
= lim (2x 1)( x + 1)
+
x 12
=0
Example

lim 2x2 + x 1

x 21
q
(0 )( 32 )
p
= lim (2x 1)( x + 1)

x 12
dne

lim 2x2 + x 1
+
x 21
q
(0+ )( 32 )
p
= lim (2x 1)( x + 1)
+
x 12
=0
p
lim 2x2 + x 1 dne
x 21
Example

x2 x 2
, x<0

x+1

f (x) = 4 x, 0x4 lim f ( x ) = ?

x 0

x2 5x + 4, x > 4

Example

x2 x 2
, x<0

x+1

f (x) = 4 x, 0x4 lim f ( x ) = ?

x 0

x2 5x + 4, x > 4

lim f ( x )
x 0
Example

x2 x 2
, x<0

x+1

f (x) = 4 x, 0x4 lim f ( x ) = ?

x 0

x2 5x + 4, x > 4

x2 x 2
lim f ( x ) = lim
x 0 x 0 x+1
Example

x2 x 2
, x<0

x+1

f (x) = 4 x, 0x4 lim f ( x ) = ?

x 0

x2 5x + 4, x > 4

x2 x 2
lim f ( x ) = lim = 2
x 0 x 0 x+1
Example

x2 x 2
, x<0

x+1

f (x) = 4 x, 0x4 lim f ( x ) = ?

x 0

x2 5x + 4, x > 4

x2 x 2
lim f ( x ) = lim = 2
x 0 x 0 x+1
lim f ( x )
x 0+
Example

x2 x 2
, x<0

x+1

f (x) = 4 x, 0x4 lim f ( x ) = ?

x 0

x2 5x + 4, x > 4

x2 x 2
lim f ( x ) = lim = 2
x 0 x 0 x+1

lim f ( x ) = lim 4x
x 0+ x 0+
Example

x2 x 2
, x<0

x+1

f (x) = 4 x, 0x4 lim f ( x ) = ?

x 0

x2 5x + 4, x > 4

x2 x 2
lim f ( x ) = lim = 2
x 0 x 0 x+1

lim f ( x ) = lim 4x = 2
x 0+ x 0+
Example

x2 x 2
, x<0

x+1

f (x) = 4 x, 0x4 lim f ( x ) dne

x 0

x2 5x + 4, x > 4

x2 x 2
lim f ( x ) = lim = 2
x 0 x 0 x+1

lim f ( x ) = lim 4x = 2
x 0+ x 0+
Example

x2 x 2
, x<0

x+1

f (x) = 4 x, 0x4 lim f ( x ) = ?

x 4

x2 5x + 4, x > 4

Example

x2 x 2
, x<0

x+1

f (x) = 4 x, 0x4 lim f ( x ) = ?

x 4

x2 5x + 4, x > 4

lim f ( x )
x 4
Example

x2 x 2
, x<0

x+1

f (x) = 4 x, 0x4 lim f ( x ) = ?

x 4

x2 5x + 4, x > 4

lim f ( x ) = lim 4x
x 4 x 4
Example

x2 x 2
, x<0

x+1

f (x) = 4 x, 0x4 lim f ( x ) = ?

x 4

x2 5x + 4, x > 4

lim f ( x ) = lim 4x 0+
x 4 x 4
Example

x2 x 2
, x<0

x+1

f (x) = 4 x, 0x4 lim f ( x ) = ?

x 4

x2 5x + 4, x > 4

lim f ( x ) = lim 4x = 0 0+
x 4 x 4
Example

x2 x 2
, x<0

x+1

f (x) = 4 x, 0x4 lim f ( x ) = ?

x 4

x2 5x + 4, x > 4

lim f ( x ) = lim 4x = 0 0+
x 4 x 4
lim f ( x )
x 4+
Example

x2 x 2
, x<0

x+1

f (x) = 4 x, 0x4 lim f ( x ) = ?

x 4

x2 5x + 4, x > 4

lim f ( x ) = lim 4x = 0 0+
x 4 x 4
lim f ( x ) = lim ( x2 5x + 4)
x 4+ x 4+
Example

x2 x 2
, x<0

x+1

f (x) = 4 x, 0x4 lim f ( x ) = ?

x 4

x2 5x + 4, x > 4

lim f ( x ) = lim 4x = 0 0+
x 4 x 4
lim f ( x ) = lim ( x2 5x + 4) = 0
x 4+ x 4+
Example

x2 x 2
, x<0

x+1

f (x) = 4 x, 0x4 lim f ( x ) = 0

x 4

x2 5x + 4, x > 4

lim f ( x ) = lim 4x = 0 0+
x 4 x 4
lim f ( x ) = lim ( x2 5x + 4) = 0
x 4+ x 4+
Example

x2 x 2
, x<0

x+1

f (x) = 4 x, 0x4 lim f ( x ) = ?

x 1

x2 5x + 4, x > 4

Example

x2 x 2
, x<0

x+1

f (x) = 4 x, 0x4 lim f ( x ) = ?

x 1

x2 5x + 4, x > 4

lim f ( x )
x 1
Example

x2 x 2
, x<0

x+1

f (x) = 4 x, 0x4 lim f ( x ) = ?

x 1

x2 5x + 4, x > 4

x2 x 2
lim f ( x ) = lim
x 1 x 1 x+1
Example

x2 x 2
, x<0

x+1

f (x) = 4 x, 0x4 lim f ( x ) = ?

x 1

x2 5x + 4, x > 4

x2 x 2 ( x 2)( x + 1)
lim f ( x ) = lim = lim
x 1 x 1 x+1 x 1 x+1
Example

x2 x 2
, x<0

x+1

f (x) = 4 x, 0x4 lim f ( x ) = ?

x 1

x2 5x + 4, x > 4

x2 x 2 ( x 2)( x + 1)
lim f ( x ) = lim = lim = lim ( x 2)
x 1 x 1 x+1 x 1 x+1 x 1
Example

x2 x 2
, x<0

x+1

f (x) = 4 x, 0x4 lim f ( x ) = ?

x 1

x2 5x + 4, x > 4

x2 x 2 ( x 2)( x + 1)
lim f ( x ) = lim = lim = lim ( x 2) = 3
x 1 x 1 x+1 x 1 x+1 x 1
Example

x2 x 2
, x<0

x+1

f (x) = 4 x, 0x4 lim f ( x ) = 3

x 1

x2 5x + 4, x > 4

x2 x 2 ( x 2)( x + 1)
lim f ( x ) = lim = lim = lim ( x 2) = 3
x 1 x 1 x+1 x 1 x+1 x 1
Example
t+4
Evaluate lim .
t4 | t + 4|
Example
t+4
Evaluate lim .
t4 | t + 4|
Solution:
Example
t+4
Evaluate lim .
t4 | t + 4|
Solution:
t + 4,
t+4 0
| t + 4| =
(t + 4), t + 4 < 0

Example
t+4
Evaluate lim .
t4 | t + 4|
Solution:
t + 4,
t 4
| t + 4| =
(t + 4), t < 4

Example
t+4
Evaluate lim .
t4 | t + 4|
Solution:
t + 4,
t 4
| t + 4| =
(t + 4), t < 4

t+4
lim
t4 | t + 4|
Example
t+4
Evaluate lim .
t4 | t + 4|
Solution:
t + 4,
t 4
| t + 4| =
(t + 4), t < 4

t+4 t+4
lim = lim
t4 |t + 4| t4 (t + 4)
Example
t+4
Evaluate lim .
t4 | t + 4|
Solution:
t + 4,
t 4
| t + 4| =
(t + 4), t < 4

t+4 t+4
lim = lim = lim (1)
t4 |t + 4| t4 (t + 4) t4
Example
t+4
Evaluate lim .
t4 | t + 4|
Solution:
t + 4,
t 4
| t + 4| =
(t + 4), t < 4

t+4 t+4
lim = lim = lim (1) = 1
t4 |t + 4| t4 (t + 4) t4
Example
t+4
Evaluate lim .
t4 | t + 4|
Solution:
t + 4,
t 4
| t + 4| =
(t + 4), t < 4

t+4 t+4
lim = lim = lim (1) = 1
t4 |t + 4| t4 (t + 4) t4
t+4
lim
t4+ | t + 4|
Example
t+4
Evaluate lim .
t4 | t + 4|
Solution:
t + 4,
t 4
| t + 4| =
(t + 4), t < 4

t+4 t+4
lim = lim = lim (1) = 1
t4 |t + 4| t4 (t + 4) t4
t+4 t+4
lim = lim
t4+ |t + 4| t4+ (t + 4)
Example
t+4
Evaluate lim .
t4 | t + 4|
Solution:
t + 4,
t 4
| t + 4| =
(t + 4), t < 4

t+4 t+4
lim = lim = lim (1) = 1
t4 |t + 4| t4 (t + 4) t4
t+4 t+4
lim = lim = lim (1) = 1
t4+ |t + 4| t4+ (t + 4) t4+
Example
t+4
Evaluate lim .
t4 | t + 4|
Solution:
t + 4,
t 4
| t + 4| =
(t + 4), t < 4

t+4 t+4
lim = lim = lim (1) = 1
t4 |t + 4| t4 (t + 4) t4
t+4 t+4
lim = lim = lim (1) = 1
t4+ |t + 4| t4+ (t + 4) t4+
t+4
lim dne
t4 | t + 4|
The Greatest Integer Function
Recall
[[ x ]] = n for n x < n + 1, n Z
Recall
[[ x ]] = n for n x < n + 1, n Z
..

.

3, 3 x < 2

2, 2 x < 1

[[ x ]] = 1, 1 x < 0

0, 0x<1

1, 1x<2

..

.
Recall
[[ x ]] = n for n x < n + 1, n Z
..

. 1 lim [[ x ]]
x 2

3, 3 x < 2

2, 2 x < 1

[[ x ]] = 1, 1 x < 0

0, 0x<1

1, 1x<2

..

.
Recall
[[ x ]] = n for n x < n + 1, n Z
..

. 1 lim [[ x ]] = lim 3
x 2 x 2

3, 3 x < 2

2, 2 x < 1

[[ x ]] = 1, 1 x < 0

0, 0x<1

1, 1x<2

..

.
Recall
[[ x ]] = n for n x < n + 1, n Z
..

. 1 lim [[ x ]] = lim 3 = 3
x 2 x 2

3, 3 x < 2

2, 2 x < 1

[[ x ]] = 1, 1 x < 0

0, 0x<1

1, 1x<2

..

.
Recall
[[ x ]] = n for n x < n + 1, n Z
..

. 1 lim [[ x ]] = lim 3 = 3
x 2 x 2

3, 3 x < 2

lim [[ x ]]

2

2, 2 x < 1 x 2+

[[ x ]] = 1, 1 x < 0

0, 0x<1

1, 1x<2

..

.
Recall
[[ x ]] = n for n x < n + 1, n Z
..

. 1 lim [[ x ]] = lim 3 = 3
x 2 x 2

3, 3 x < 2

lim [[ x ]] = lim 2

2

2, 2 x < 1 x 2+ x 2+

[[ x ]] = 1, 1 x < 0

0, 0x<1

1, 1x<2

..

.
Recall
[[ x ]] = n for n x < n + 1, n Z
..

. 1 lim [[ x ]] = lim 3 = 3
x 2 x 2

3, 3 x < 2

lim [[ x ]] = lim 2 = 2

2

2, 2 x < 1 x 2+ x 2+

[[ x ]] = 1, 1 x < 0

0, 0x<1

1, 1x<2

..

.
Recall
[[ x ]] = n for n x < n + 1, n Z
..

. 1 lim [[ x ]] = lim 3 = 3
x 2 x 2

3, 3 x < 2

lim [[ x ]] = lim 2 = 2

2

2, 2 x < 1 x 2+ x 2+

[[ x ]] = 1, 1 x < 0 3 lim [[ x ]]

x 12

0, 0x<1

1, 1x<2

..

.
Recall
[[ x ]] = n for n x < n + 1, n Z
..

. 1 lim [[ x ]] = lim 3 = 3
x 2 x 2

3, 3 x < 2

lim [[ x ]] = lim 2 = 2

2

2, 2 x < 1 x 2+ x 2+

[[ x ]] = 1, 1 x < 0 3 lim [[ x ]] = lim 0

x 12 x 12

0, 0x<1

1, 1x<2

..

.
Recall
[[ x ]] = n for n x < n + 1, n Z
..

. 1 lim [[ x ]] = lim 3 = 3
x 2 x 2

3, 3 x < 2

lim [[ x ]] = lim 2 = 2

2

2, 2 x < 1 x 2+ x 2+

[[ x ]] = 1, 1 x < 0 3 lim [[ x ]] = lim 0 = 0

x 12 x 12

0, 0x<1

1, 1x<2

..

.
f ( x ) = [[2x 1]] = n for
f ( x ) = [[2x 1]] = n for

n 2x 1 < n + 1, n Z
f ( x ) = [[2x 1]] = n for

n + 1 2x < n + 2, n Z
f ( x ) = [[2x 1]] = n for

n +1
2 x < n+ 2
2 , n Z
f ( x ) = [[2x 1]] = n for

n +1
2 x < n+ 2
2 , n Z

..

.

1
1, 0 x <

2

1
[[2x 1]] = 0, 2 x<1

3

1, 1x<

2

..

.
f ( x ) = [[2x 1]] = n for

n +1
2 x < n+ 2
2 , n Z
1 lim [[2x 1]]

x 21
..

.

1
1, 0 x <

2

1
[[2x 1]] = 0, 2 x<1

3

1, 1x<

2

..

.
f ( x ) = [[2x 1]] = n for

n +1
2 x < n+ 2
2 , n Z
1 lim [[2x 1]] = lim 1

x 21 x 12
..

.

1
1, 0 x <

2

1
[[2x 1]] = 0, 2 x<1

3

1, 1x<

2

..

.
f ( x ) = [[2x 1]] = n for

n +1
2 x < n+ 2
2 , n Z
1 lim [[2x 1]] = lim 1 = 1

x 21 x 12
..

.

1
1, 0 x <

2

1
[[2x 1]] = 0, 2 x<1

3

1, 1x<

2

..

.
f ( x ) = [[2x 1]] = n for

n +1
2 x < n+ 2
2 , n Z
1 lim [[2x 1]] = lim 1 = 1

x 21 x 12
..

. 2 lim [[2x 1]]
+
1 x 21
1, 0 x <

2

1
[[2x 1]] = 0, 2 x<1

3

1, 1x<

2

..

.
f ( x ) = [[2x 1]] = n for

n +1
2 x < n+ 2
2 , n Z
1 lim [[2x 1]] = lim 1 = 1

x 21 x 12
..

. 2 lim [[2x 1]] = lim 0
+ +
1 x 21 x 12
1, 0 x <

2

1
[[2x 1]] = 0, 2 x<1

3

1, 1x<

2

..

.
f ( x ) = [[2x 1]] = n for

n +1
2 x < n+ 2
2 , n Z
1 lim [[2x 1]] = lim 1 = 1

x 21 x 12
..

. 2 lim [[2x 1]] = lim 0 = 0
+ +
1 x 21 x 12
1, 0 x <

2

1
[[2x 1]] = 0, 2 x<1

3

1, 1x<

2

..

.
f ( x ) = [[2x 1]] = n for

n +1
2 x < n+ 2
2 , n Z
1 lim [[2x 1]] = lim 1 = 1

x 21 x 12
..

. 2 lim [[2x 1]] = lim 0 = 0
+ +
1 x 21 x 12
1, 0 x <

2

1
[[2x 1]] = 0, 2 x<1 3 lim [[2x 1]]
x 14
3

1, 1x<

2

..

.
f ( x ) = [[2x 1]] = n for

n +1
2 x < n+ 2
2 , n Z
1 lim [[2x 1]] = lim 1 = 1

x 21 x 12
..

. 2 lim [[2x 1]] = lim 0 = 0
+ +
1 x 21 x 12
1, 0 x <

2

1
[[2x 1]] = 0, 2 x<1 3 lim [[2x 1]] = lim 1
x 14 x 41
3

1, 1x<

2

..

.
f ( x ) = [[2x 1]] = n for

n +1
2 x < n+ 2
2 , n Z
1 lim [[2x 1]] = lim 1 = 1

x 21 x 12
..

. 2 lim [[2x 1]] = lim 0 = 0
+ +
1 x 21 x 12
1, 0 x <

2

1
[[2x 1]] = 0, 2 x<1 3 lim [[2x 1]] = lim 1 = 1
x 14 x 41
3

1, 1x<

2

..

.

..

.

1
1, 0 x <

2

1
Consider f ( x ) = [[2x 1]] = 0, 2 x<1

3

1, 1x<

2

..

.
Observe:
1 Since f ( x ) "splits" at x = 12 ,

..

.

1
1, 0 x <

2

1
Consider f ( x ) = [[2x 1]] = 0, 2 x<1

3

1, 1x<

2

..

.
Observe:
1 Since f ( x ) "splits" at x = 12 , we consider one-sided limits when computing
lim f ( x ).
x 12

..

.

1
1, 0 x <

2

1
Consider f ( x ) = [[2x 1]] = 0, 2 x<1

3

1, 1x<

2

..

.
Observe:
lim f ( x ).
x 12
2 Note that f ( x ) does not "split" at x = 14 , and is constantly equal to 1 for
values of x very near 41 .

..

.

1
1, 0 x <

2

1
Consider f ( x ) = [[2x 1]] = 0, 2 x<1

3

1, 1x<

2

..

.
Observe:
lim f ( x ).
x 12
values of x very near 41 . Thus, we replace f ( x ) in lim f ( x ) by 1.
x 14

..

.

1
1, 0 x <

2

1
Consider f ( x ) = [[2x 1]] = 0, 2 x<1

3

1, 1x<

2

..

.
Observe:
lim f ( x ).
x 12
values of x very near 41 . Thus, we replace f ( x ) in lim f ( x ) by 1. Notice also
x 14
hh ii
that the constant value of f for x very near 41 is equal to 2 14 1 .

f ( x ) = 5x = n

for
f ( x ) = 5x = n

for
n 5x < n + 1, n Z
f ( x ) = 5x = n

for
5n x > 5n 5, n Z
f ( x ) = 5x = n

for
5n 5 < x 5n, n Z
f ( x ) = 5x = n

for
5n 5 < x 5n, n Z

..

.

1, 0 x < 5

5x = 0, 5 x < 0

1, 10 x < 5

..

.
f ( x ) = 5x = n

for
5n 5 < x 5n, n Z
5x

1 lim
x 5
..

.

1, 0 x < 5

5x = 0, 5 x < 0

1, 10 x < 5

..

.
f ( x ) = 5x = n

for
5n 5 < x 5n, n Z
5x

1 lim = lim 1
x 5 x 5
..

.

1, 0 x < 5

5x = 0, 5 x < 0

1, 10 x < 5

..

.
f ( x ) = 5x = n

for
5n 5 < x 5n, n Z
5x

1 lim = lim 1 = 1
x 5 x 5
..

.

1, 0 x < 5

5x = 0, 5 x < 0

1, 10 x < 5

..

.
f ( x ) = 5x = n

for
5n 5 < x 5n, n Z
5x

1 lim = lim 1 = 1
x 5 x 5
..
.
5x

2 lim
1, 0 x < 5

x 5+

5x = 0, 5 x < 0

1, 10 x < 5

..

.
f ( x ) = 5x = n

for
5n 5 < x 5n, n Z
5x

1 lim = lim 1 = 1
x 5 x 5
..
.
5x

2 lim = lim 0
1, 0 x < 5

x 5+ x 5+

5x = 0, 5 x < 0

1, 10 x < 5

..

.
f ( x ) = 5x = n

for
5n 5 < x 5n, n Z
5x

1 lim = lim 1 = 1
x 5 x 5
..
.
5x

2 lim = lim 0 = 0
1, 0 x < 5

x 5+ x 5+

5x = 0, 5 x < 0

1, 10 x < 5

..

.
f ( x ) = 5x = n

for
5n 5 < x 5n, n Z
5x

1 lim = lim 1 = 1
x 5 x 5
..
.
5x

2 lim = lim 0 = 0
1, 0 x < 5

x 5+ x 5+

lim 5x

5x = 0, 5 x < 0 3

x 1

1, 10 x < 5

..

.
f ( x ) = 5x = n

for
5n 5 < x 5n, n Z
5x

1 lim = lim 1 = 1
x 5 x 5
..
.
5x

2 lim = lim 0 = 0
1, 0 x < 5

x 5+ x 5+

lim 5x = lim 1

5x = 0, 5 x < 0 3

x 1 x 1

1, 10 x < 5

..

.
f ( x ) = 5x = n

for
5n 5 < x 5n, n Z
5x

1 lim = lim 1 = 1
x 5 x 5
..
.
5x

2 lim = lim 0 = 0
1, 0 x < 5

x 5+ x 5+

lim 5x = lim 1 = 1

5x = 0, 5 x < 0 3

x 1 x 1

1, 10 x < 5

..

.
In general...
Let p( x ) = mx + b.
1 [[ p( x )]] splits only at the values of a where p( a) is an integer. Thus, in finding
lim [[ p( x )]], we have to consider each of the limits from the left and right of a.
xa
In general...
Let p( x ) = mx + b.
1 [[ p( x )]] splits only at the values of a where p( a) is an integer. Thus, in finding
lim [[ p( x )]], we have to consider each of the limits from the left and right of a.
xa
2 If p( a) is not an integer, then [[ p( x )]] is constant for values of x near a, and this
constant is precisely [[ p( a)]].
[[2x 1]] = n, n+ 1
2 x <
n +2
2
lim [[2x 1]] =?

x 3
[[2x 1]] = n, n+ 1
2 x <
n +2
2
lim [[2x 1]] =?

x 3
Is 2(3) 1 an integer?
[[2x 1]] = n, n+ 1
2 x <
n +2
2
lim [[2x 1]] =?

x 3
Is 2(3) 1 an integer? Yes.
[[2x 1]] = n, n+ 1
2 x <
n +2
2
lim [[2x 1]] =?

x 3
Since we are letting x 3 ,
[[2x 1]] = n, n+ 1
2 x <
n +2
2
lim [[2x 1]] =?

x 3
Since we are letting x 3 , we want the right endpoint of the interval to be 3.
[[2x 1]] = n, n+ 1
2 x <
n +2
2
lim [[2x 1]] =?

x 3
n +2
2 =3
[[2x 1]] = n, n+ 1
2 x <
n +2
2
lim [[2x 1]] =?

x 3
n +2
2 =3n=4
[[2x 1]] = n, n+ 1
2 x <
n +2
2
lim [[2x 1]] =?

x 3
n +2
2 =3n=4
This means [[2x 1]] = 4 when 52 x < 3.
[[2x 1]] = n, n+ 1
2 x <
n +2
2
lim [[2x 1]] =?

x 3
n +2
2 =3n=4
lim [[2x 1]]

x 3
[[2x 1]] = n, n+ 1
2 x <
n +2
2
lim [[2x 1]] =?

x 3
n +2
2 =3n=4
lim [[2x 1]] = lim 4

x 3 x 3
[[2x 1]] = n, n+ 1
2 x <
n +2
2
lim [[2x 1]] =?

x 3
n +2
2 =3n=4
lim [[2x 1]] = lim 4 = 4

x 3 x 3
[[2x 1]] = n, n+ 1
2 x <
n +2
2
lim [[2x 1]]

x 3+
Since we are letting x 3+ ,
[[2x 1]] = n, n+ 1
2 x <
n +2
2
lim [[2x 1]]

x 3+
Since we are letting x 3+ , we want n+ 1

2 =3
[[2x 1]] = n, n+ 1
2 x <
n +2
2
lim [[2x 1]]

x 3+

2 =3n=5
[[2x 1]] = n, n+ 1
2 x <
n +2
2
lim [[2x 1]]

x 3+

2 =3n=5
This means [[2x 1]] = 5 when 3 x < 72 .
[[2x 1]] = n, n+ 1
2 x <
n +2
2
lim [[2x 1]]

x 3+

2 =3n=5
This means [[2x 1]] = 5 when 3 x < 72 .
lim [[2x 1]] = lim 5 = 5

x 3+ x 3+
[[2x 1]] = n, n+ 1
2 x <
n +2
2
lim [[2x 1]]

+
x 13
[[2x 1]] = n, n+ 1
2 x <
n +2
2
lim [[2x 1]]

+
x 13
Is 2 31 1 an integer?

[[2x 1]] = n, n+ 1
2 x <
n +2
2
lim [[2x 1]]

+
x 13
Is 2 31 1 an integer? No.

[[2x 1]] = n, n+ 1
2 x <
n +2
2
lim [[2x 1]]

+
x 13

Near 13 ,
[[2x 1]] = n, n+ 1
2 x <
n +2
2
lim [[2x 1]]

+
x 13

hh ii
Near 13 , [[2x 1]] is constantly equal to 2 13 1

= 1.
[[2x 1]] = n, n+ 1
2 x <
n +2
2
lim [[2x 1]]

+
x 13

hh ii

= 1.
lim [[2x 1]]

+
x 13
[[2x 1]] = n, n+ 1
2 x <
n +2
2
lim [[2x 1]]

+
x 13

hh ii

= 1.
lim [[2x 1]] = lim 1 = 1.

+ +
x 13 x 13
Example
Consider: f ( x ) = [[1 x ]]
Example
Consider: f ( x ) = [[1 x ]]
Solution:
[[1 x ]] = n for n 1x < n+1
Example
Consider: f ( x ) = [[1 x ]]
Solution:
[[1 x ]] = n for n 1x < n+1
for n 1 x < n
Example
Consider: f ( x ) = [[1 x ]]
Solution:
[[1 x ]] = n for n 1x < n+1
for n 1 x < n
for n < x 1 n
Example
Consider: f ( x ) = [[1 x ]]
Solution:
[[1 x ]] = n for n 1x < n+1
for n 1 x < n
for n < x 1 n
Example
Consider: f ( x ) = [[1 x ]]
Solution:
[[1 x ]] = n for n 1x < n+1
for n 1 x < n
for n < x 1 n
lim [[1 x ]]
x 2+
Example
Consider: f ( x ) = [[1 x ]]
Solution:
[[1 x ]] = n for n 1x < n+1
for n 1 x < n
for n < x 1 n
lim [[1 x ]] = lim 2

x 2+ x 2+
Example
Consider: f ( x ) = [[1 x ]]
Solution:
[[1 x ]] = n for n 1x < n+1
for n 1 x < n
for n < x 1 n
lim [[1 x ]] = lim 2 = 2

x 2+ x 2+
Example
Consider: f ( x ) = [[1 x ]]
Solution:
[[1 x ]] = n for n 1x < n+1
for n 1 x < n
for n < x 1 n
lim [[1 x ]] = lim 2 = 2

x 2+ x 2+
lim [[1 x ]]
x 2
Example
Consider: f ( x ) = [[1 x ]]
Solution:
[[1 x ]] = n for n 1x < n+1
for n 1 x < n
for n < x 1 n
lim [[1 x ]] = lim 2 = 2

x 2+ x 2+
lim [[1 x ]] = lim 1
x 2 x 2
Example
Consider: f ( x ) = [[1 x ]]
Solution:
[[1 x ]] = n for n 1x < n+1
for n 1 x < n
for n < x 1 n
lim [[1 x ]] = lim 2 = 2

x 2+ x 2+
lim [[1 x ]] = lim 1 = 1
x 2 x 2
Example
Consider: f ( x ) = [[1 x ]]
Solution:
[[1 x ]] = n for n 1x < n+1
for n 1 x < n
for n < x 1 n
lim [[1 x ]] = lim 2 = 2

x 2+ x 2+
lim [[1 x ]] = lim 1 = 1
x 2 x 2
lim [[1 x ]]
+
x 52
Example
Consider: f ( x ) = [[1 x ]]
Solution:
[[1 x ]] = n for n 1x < n+1
for n 1 x < n
for n < x 1 n
lim [[1 x ]] = lim 2 = 2

x 2+ x 2+
lim [[1 x ]] = lim 1 = 1
x 2 x 2
lim [[1 x ]] = lim 1 52

+ +
x 52 x 25
Example
Consider: f ( x ) = [[1 x ]]
Solution:
[[1 x ]] = n for n 1x < n+1
for n 1 x < n
for n < x 1 n
lim [[1 x ]] = lim 2 = 2

x 2+ x 2+
lim [[1 x ]] = lim 1 = 1
x 2 x 2
lim [[1 x ]] = lim 1 52

=3
+ +
x 52 x 25
Example
Consider: f ( x ) = 2x + [[3x + 1]]
Example
Consider: f ( x ) = 2x + [[3x + 1]]
Solution:
[[3x + 1]] = n for n 3x + 1 < n + 1
Example
Consider: f ( x ) = 2x + [[3x + 1]]
Solution:
[[3x + 1]] = n for n 3x + 1 < n + 1
for n 1 3x < n
Example
Consider: f ( x ) = 2x + [[3x + 1]]
Solution:
[[3x + 1]] = n for n 3x + 1 < n + 1
for n 1 3x < n
n 1 n
for 3 x< 3
Example
Consider: f ( x ) = 2x + [[3x + 1]]
Solution:
[[3x + 1]] = n for n 3x + 1 < n + 1
for n 1 3x < n
n 1 n
for 3 x< 3

lim 2x + [[3x + 1]] =

x 13
Example
Consider: f ( x ) = 2x + [[3x + 1]]
Solution:
[[3x + 1]] = n for n 3x + 1 < n + 1
for n 1 3x < n
n 1 n
for 3 x< 3

lim 2x + [[3x + 1]] = lim (2x

x 13 x 13
Example
Consider: f ( x ) = 2x + [[3x + 1]]
Solution:
[[3x + 1]] = n for n 3x + 1 < n + 1
for n 1 3x < n
n 1 n
for 3 x< 3

lim 2x + [[3x + 1]] = lim (2x + 1)

x 13 x 13
Example
Consider: f ( x ) = 2x + [[3x + 1]]
Solution:
[[3x + 1]] = n for n 3x + 1 < n + 1
for n 1 3x < n
n 1 n
for 3 x< 3
5

lim 2x + [[3x + 1]] = lim (2x + 1) = 3

x 13 x 13
Example
Consider: f ( x ) = 2x + [[3x + 1]]
Solution:
[[3x + 1]] = n for n 3x + 1 < n + 1
for n 1 3x < n
n 1 n
for 3 x< 3
5

lim 2x + [[3x + 1]] = lim (2x + 1) = 3

x 13 x 13

Question: lim 2x + [[3x + 1]] =?

x 23
For today
2 Infinite Limits
Illustration
1
Consider: Let f ( x ) = .
x2
Illustration
1
Consider: Let f ( x ) = . What happens as x 0?
x2
Illustration
1
x2
x f (x)
Illustration
1
x2
x f (x)
1
Illustration
1
x2
x f (x)
1 1
Illustration
1
x2
x f (x)
1 1
0.5
Illustration
1
x2
x f (x)
1 1
0.5 4
Illustration
1
x2
x f (x)
1 1
0.5 4
0.1
Illustration
1
x2
x f (x)
1 1
0.5 4
0.1 100
Illustration
1
x2
x f (x)
1 1
0.5 4
0.1 100
0.001
Illustration
1
x2
x f (x)
1 1
0.5 4
0.1 100
0.001 1000000
Illustration
1
x2
x f (x)
1 1
0.5 4
0.1 100
0.001 1000000
0.00001 10000000000
Illustration
1
x2
x f (x)
1 1
0.5 4
0.1 100
0.001 1000000
0.00001 10000000000
As x 0+ , f ( x ) increases, and there is no bound to its growth.
Illustration
1
x2
x f (x) x f (x)
1 1 1 1
0.5 4 0.5 4
0.1 100 0.1 100
0.001 1000000 0.001 1000000
0.00001 10000000000 0.00001 10000000000
Illustration
1
x2
x f (x) x f (x)
1 1 1 1
0.5 4 0.5 4
0.1 100 0.1 100
0.001 1000000 0.001 1000000
0.00001 10000000000 0.00001 10000000000
Similarly, as x 0 , f ( x ) increases indefinitely.
6
4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3
1
We say that the
limit of f ( x ) as x approaches a is positive infinity
We say that the
if the value of f ( x ) increases without bound whenever the values of x get closer
and closer to a.
We say that the
if the value of f ( x ) increases without bound whenever the values of x get closer
and closer to a.
Notation:
lim f ( x ) = +
xa
We say that the
limit of f ( x ) as x approaches a is negative infinity
We say that the
if the value of f ( x ) decreases without bound whenever the values of x get closer
and closer to a.
We say that the
if the value of f ( x ) decreases without bound whenever the values of x get closer
and closer to a.
Notation:
lim f ( x ) =
xa
We say that the
[limit of f ( x ) as x approaches a is negative infinity]
if the value of f ( x ) increases [decreases] without bound whenever the values of x

get closer and closer to a.
Notation:
lim f ( x ) = + [ lim f ( x ) = ]
xa xa
We say that the
[limit of f ( x ) as x approaches a is negative infinity]
if the value of f ( x ) increases [decreases] without bound whenever the values of x

get closer and closer to a.
Notation:
lim f ( x ) = + [ lim f ( x ) = ]
xa xa
Remark: In the definition above, x a may be replaced by x a or

x a+ .
Example
1
Let f ( x ) = .
x2
x f (x) x f (x)
1 1 1 1
0.5 4 0.5 4
0.1 100 0.1 100
0.001 1000000 0.001 1000000
0.00001 10000000000 0.00001 10000000000

0+ + 0 +
Example
1
Let f ( x ) = .
x2
x f (x) x f (x)
1 1 1 1
0.5 4 0.5 4
0.1 100 0.1 100
0.001 1000000 0.001 1000000
0.00001 10000000000 0.00001 10000000000

0+ + 0 +
We now write:
1
lim
x 0 x2
Example
1
Let f ( x ) = .
x2
x f (x) x f (x)
1 1 1 1
0.5 4 0.5 4
0.1 100 0.1 100
0.001 1000000 0.001 1000000
0.00001 10000000000 0.00001 10000000000

0+ + 0 +
We now write:
1
lim = +
x 0 x2
Remark
Note that is NOT a number! So, lim f ( x ) = + or does not mean that
xa
the limit exists.
Remark
xa
the limit exists.
BUT...
Remark
xa
the limit exists.
BUT... the symbol is IMPORTANT.
Vertical Asymptotes
The line with equation x = a is a vertical asymptote of the graph of f if at least

one of the following is true:
Vertical Asymptotes

lim f ( x ) = +
x a
Vertical Asymptotes

lim f ( x ) = +
x a
x=a
Vertical Asymptotes

lim f ( x ) = + lim f ( x ) =
x a x a
x=a
Vertical Asymptotes

lim f ( x ) = + lim f ( x ) =
x a x a
x=a x=a
Vertical Asymptotes

lim f ( x ) = + lim f ( x ) = lim f ( x ) = +

x a x a x a+
x=a x=a
Vertical Asymptotes

lim f ( x ) = + lim f ( x ) = lim f ( x ) = +

x a x a x a+
x=a x=a x=a
Vertical Asymptotes

lim f ( x ) = + lim f ( x ) = lim f ( x ) = + lim f ( x ) =

x a x a x a+ x a+
x=a x=a x=a
Vertical Asymptotes

lim f ( x ) = + lim f ( x ) = lim f ( x ) = + lim f ( x ) =

x a x a x a+ x a+
x=a x=a x=a x=a
3x
f (x) =
x1
3x
f (x) =
x1
3x
lim =
x 1 x1
3x
f (x) =
x1

3x 3
lim =
x 1 x1 0
3x
f (x) =
x1

3x 3
lim =
x 1 x1 0
3x
f (x) =
x1

3x 3
lim =
x 1 x1 0
3x
f (x) =
x1

3x 3
lim =
x 1 x1 0
3x
lim =
x 1+ x1
3x
f (x) =
x1

3x 3
lim =
x 1 x1 0

3x 3
lim =
x 1 x 1
+ 0
3x
f (x) =
x1

3x 3
lim =
x 1 x1 0

3x 3
lim =
x 1 x 1
+ 0+
3x
f (x) =
x1

3x 3
lim =
x 1 x1 0

3x 3
lim = +
x 1 x 1
+ 0+
10
3x
f (x) = 8
x1
6

3x 3
lim = 4
x 1 x 1 0
2

3x 3
lim = + 6 4 2 0 2 4 6 8
x 1+ x1 0+ 2
In general,
Theorem
In general,
Theorem
Suppose lim f ( x ) = c and lim g( x ) = 0.
xa xa
In general,
Theorem
xa xa
1 If c > 0
In general,
Theorem
xa xa
1 If c > 0
1 and g( x ) 0+ as x a,
In general,
Theorem
xa xa
1 If c > 0
f (x)
1 and g( x ) 0+ as x a, then lim = +
xa g( x )
In general,
Theorem
xa xa
1 If c > 0
f (x)
xa g( x )
2 and g( x ) 0 as x a,
In general,
Theorem
xa xa
1 If c > 0
f (x)
g( x ) xa
f (x)
2 and g( x ) 0 as x a, then lim =
xa g( x )
In general,
Theorem
xa xa
1 If c > 0
f (x)
g( x ) xa
f (x)
xa g( x )
2 If c < 0
In general,
Theorem
xa xa
1 If c > 0
f (x)
g( x ) xa
f (x)
xa g( x )
2 If c < 0
1 and g( x ) 0+ as x a,
In general,
Theorem
xa xa
1 If c > 0
f (x)
g( x ) xa
f (x)
xa g( x )
2 If c < 0
f (x)
1 and g( x ) 0+ as x a, then lim =
xa g( x )
In general,
Theorem
xa xa
1 If c > 0
f (x)
g( x ) xa
f (x)
xa g( x )
2 If c < 0
f (x)
xa g( x )
2 and g( x ) 0 as x a,
In general,
Theorem
xa xa
1 If c > 0
f (x)
g( x ) xa
f (x)
xa g( x )
2 If c < 0
f (x)
g( x )
xa
f (x)
2 and g( x ) 0 as x a, then lim = +
xa g( x )
Example
5x
lim
x 2 4 x2
Example
5x
lim
x 2 4 x2
5x
= lim
x 2 (2 + x )(2 x )
Example
5x
lim
x 2 4 x2
5x
= lim
x 2 (2 + x )(2 x )
10

=
(0 )(4)
Example
5x
lim
x 2 4 x2
5x
= lim
x 2 (2 + x )(2 x )
10

= +
(0 )(4)
Example
5x 5x
lim lim
x 2 4 x2 x 2+ 4 x2
5x
= lim
x 2 (2 + x )(2 x )
10

= +
(0 )(4)
Example
5x 5x
lim lim
x 2 4 x2 x 2+ 4 x2
5x 5x
= lim = lim
x 2 (2 + x )(2 x ) x 2+ (2 + x )(2 x )
10

= +
(0 )(4)
Example
5x 5x
lim lim
x 2 4 x2 x 2+ 4 x2
5x 5x
= lim = lim
x 2 (2 + x )(2 x ) x 2+ (2 + x )(2 x )
10 10

= + =
(0 )(4) (0+ )(4)
Example
5x 5x
lim lim
x 2 4 x2 x 2+ 4 x2
5x 5x
= lim = lim
x 2 (2 + x )(2 x ) x 2+ (2 + x )(2 x )
10 10

= + =
(0 )(4) (0+ )(4)
Example
5x
lim
x 2 4 x2
Example
5x
lim
x 2 4 x2
5x
= lim
x 2 (2 + x )(2 x )
Example
5x
lim
x 2 4 x2
5x
= lim
x 2 (2 + x )(2 x )

10
=
(4)(0+ )
Example
5x
lim
x 2 4 x2
5x
= lim
x 2 (2 + x )(2 x )

10
= +
(4)(0+ )
Example
5x 5x
lim lim
x 2 4 x2 x 2+ 4 x2
5x
= lim
x 2 (2 + x )(2 x )

10
= +
(4)(0+ )
Example
5x 5x
lim lim
x 2 4 x2 x 2+ 4 x2
5x 5x
= lim = lim
x 2 (2 + x )(2 x ) x 2+ (2 + x )(2 x )

10
= +
(4)(0+ )
Example
5x 5x
lim lim
x 2 4 x2 x 2+ 4 x2
5x 5x
= lim = lim
x 2 (2 + x )(2 x ) x 2+ (2 + x )(2 x )

10 10
= + =
(4)(0+ ) (4)(0 )
Example
5x 5x
lim lim
x 2 4 x2 x 2+ 4 x2
5x 5x
= lim = lim
x 2 (2 + x )(2 x ) x 2+ (2 + x )(2 x )

10 10
= + =
(4)(0+ ) (4)(0 )
Theorem
Theorem
1 If lim f ( x ) exists and lim g( x ) = ,
xa xa
Theorem
1 If lim f ( x ) exists and lim g( x ) = , then lim ( f ( x ) + g( x ))
xa xa xa
Theorem
1 If lim f ( x ) exists and lim g( x ) = , then lim ( f ( x ) + g( x )) = .
xa xa xa
Theorem
xa xa xa
2 If lim f ( x ) exists and lim g( x ) = ,
xa xa
Theorem
xa xa xa
2 If lim f ( x ) exists and lim g( x ) = , then lim ( f ( x ) g( x ))
xa xa xa
Theorem
xa xa xa
2 If lim f ( x ) exists and lim g( x ) = , then lim ( f ( x ) g( x )) = .
xa xa xa
Theorem
xa xa xa
xa xa xa
3 If lim f ( x ) = + and lim g( x ) = +,
xa xa
Theorem
xa xa xa
xa xa xa
3 If lim f ( x ) = + and lim g( x ) = +, then lim ( f ( x ) + g( x ))
xa xa xa
Theorem
xa xa xa
xa xa xa
3 If lim f ( x ) = + and lim g( x ) = +, then lim ( f ( x ) + g( x )) = +.
xa xa xa
Theorem
xa xa xa
xa xa xa
xa xa xa
4 If lim f ( x ) = + and lim g( x ) = ,
xa xa
Theorem
xa xa xa
xa xa xa
xa xa xa
4 If lim f ( x ) = + and lim g( x ) = , then lim ( f ( x ) g( x ))
xa xa xa
Theorem
xa xa xa
xa xa xa
xa xa xa
4 If lim f ( x ) = + and lim g( x ) = , then lim ( f ( x ) g( x )) = +,
xa xa xa
Theorem
xa xa xa
xa xa xa
xa xa xa
4 If lim f ( x ) = + and lim g( x ) = , then lim ( f ( x ) g( x )) = +, and
xa xa xa
lim ( g( x ) f ( x ))
xa
Theorem
xa xa xa
xa xa xa
xa xa xa
4 If lim f ( x ) = + and lim g( x ) = , then lim ( f ( x ) g( x )) = +, and
xa xa xa
lim ( g( x ) f ( x )) = .
xa
Theorem
Theorem
1 Let c R \ {0}. Suppose xlim
a
f ( x ) = c and lim g( x ) = . Then,
xa
Theorem
a
xa
1 lim f ( x ) g( x ) = , if c > 0.
xa
Theorem
a
xa
1 lim f ( x ) g( x ) = , if c > 0.
xa
2 lim f ( x ) g( x ) = , if c < 0.
xa
Theorem
a
xa
1 lim f ( x ) g( x ) = , if c > 0.
xa
2 lim f ( x ) g( x ) = , if c < 0.
xa
2 If lim f ( x ) = + and lim g( x ) = +,

xa xa
Theorem
a
xa
1 lim f ( x ) g( x ) = , if c > 0.
xa
2 lim f ( x ) g( x ) = , if c < 0.
xa
2 If lim f ( x ) = + and lim g( x ) = +, then lim f ( x ) g( x )

xa xa xa
Theorem
a
xa
1 lim f ( x ) g( x ) = , if c > 0.
xa
2 lim f ( x ) g( x ) = , if c < 0.
xa
2 If lim f ( x ) = + and lim g( x ) = +, then lim f ( x ) g( x ) = +.

xa xa xa
Theorem
a
xa
1 lim f ( x ) g( x ) = , if c > 0.
xa
2 lim f ( x ) g( x ) = , if c < 0.
xa

xa xa xa
3 If lim f ( x ) = + and lim g( x ) = ,
xa xa
Theorem
a
xa
1 lim f ( x ) g( x ) = , if c > 0.
xa
2 lim f ( x ) g( x ) = , if c < 0.
xa

xa xa xa
3 If lim f ( x ) = + and lim g( x ) = , then lim f ( x ) g( x )
xa xa xa
Theorem
a
xa
1 lim f ( x ) g( x ) = , if c > 0.
xa
2 lim f ( x ) g( x ) = , if c < 0.
xa

xa xa xa
3 If lim f ( x ) = + and lim g( x ) = , then lim f ( x ) g( x ) = .
xa xa xa
Example

2
Evaluate lim x2 .
x 1 x1
Example

2
Evaluate lim x2 .
x 1 x1
lim x2
x 1
Example

2
Evaluate lim x2 .
x 1 x1
lim x2 = 1
x 1
Example

2
Evaluate lim x2 .
x 1 x1
lim x2 = 1
x 1
2
lim
x 1 x1
Example

2
Evaluate lim x2 .
x 1 x1
lim x2 = 1
x 1

2 2
lim =
x 1 x 1 0
Example

2
Evaluate lim x2 .
x 1 x1
lim x2 = 1
x 1

2 2
lim =
x 1 x 1 0

2 2
lim x = +
x 1 x1
Example

1 2x
Evaluate lim + .
x 3 x2 9 x + 3
Example

1 2x
Evaluate lim + .
x 3 x2 9 x + 3

1 2x
lim 2
+
x 3 x 9 x+3
Example

1 2x
Evaluate lim + .
x 3 x2 9 x + 3

1 2x
lim +
x 3 x2 9 x+3

1 2x
= lim +
x 3 ( x + 3)( x 3) x+3
Example

1 2x
Evaluate lim + .
x 3 x2 9 x + 3

1 2x
lim +
x 3 x2 9 x+3

1 2x 1
= lim +
x 3 ( x + 3)( x 3) x+3
Example

1 2x
Evaluate lim + .
x 3 x2 9 x + 3

1 2x
lim +
x 3 x2 9 x+3

1 2x 1
= lim +
x 3 ( x + 3)( x 3) x+3 (0 )
Example

1 2x
Evaluate lim + .
x 3 x2 9 x + 3

1 2x
lim +
x 3 x2 9 x+3

1 2x 1
= lim +
x 3 ( x + 3)( x 3) x+3 (0 )
Example

1 2x
Evaluate lim + .
x 3 x2 9 x + 3

1 2x
lim +
x 3 x2 9 x+3

1 2x 1
= lim +
x 3 ( x + 3)( x 3) x+3 (0 )(6)
Example

1 2x
Evaluate lim + .
x 3 x2 9 x + 3

1 2x
lim +
x 3 x2 9 x+3

1 2x 1
= lim + +
x 3 ( x + 3)( x 3) x+3 (0 )(6)
Example

1 2x
Evaluate lim + .
x 3 x2 9 x + 3

1 2x
lim +
x 3 x2 9 x+3
6

1 2x 1
= lim + +
x 3 ( x + 3)( x 3) x+3 (0 )(6) 0
Example

1 2x
Evaluate lim + .
x 3 x2 9 x + 3

1 2x
lim +
x 3 x2 9 x+3
6

1 2x 1
= lim + +
x 3 ( x + 3)( x 3) x+3 (0 )(6) 0
Example

1 2x
Evaluate lim + .
x 3 x2 9 x + 3

1 2x
lim +
x 3 x2 9 x+3
6

1 2x 1
= lim + +
x 3 ( x + 3)( x 3) x+3 (0 )(6) 0
= +
Recall
Theorem
xa xa xa
a
xa
1 lim f ( x ) g( x ) = , if c > 0.
xa
2 lim f ( x ) g( x ) = , if c < 0.
xa
Other Indeterminate Forms
Definition
Definition
1 Suppose lim f ( x ) = + and lim g( x ) = +.
xa xa
Definition
1 Suppose lim f ( x ) = + and lim g( x ) = +. Then
xa xa
lim ( f ( x ) g( x ))
xa
Definition
xa xa
lim ( f ( x ) g( x ))
xa
is called an indeterminate form of type .
Definition
xa xa
lim ( f ( x ) g( x ))
xa
2 Suppose lim f ( x ) = 0 and lim g( x ) = .

xa xa
Definition
xa xa
lim ( f ( x ) g( x ))
xa
2 Suppose lim f ( x ) = 0 and lim g( x ) = .Then

xa xa
lim f ( x ) g( x )
xa
Definition
xa xa
lim ( f ( x ) g( x ))
xa
2 Suppose lim f ( x ) = 0 and lim g( x ) = .Then

xa xa
lim f ( x ) g( x )
xa
is called an indeterminate form of type 0 .
Example

1 3
lim + 2
x 1 x + 1 2x x 1
Example

1 3
lim + 2
x 1 x + 1 2x x 1

1 3
= lim +
x 1 x + 1 (2x 1)( x + 1)
Example

1 3
lim + 2
x 1 x + 1 2x x 1

1 3 1 3
= lim + +
x 1 x + 1 (2x 1)( x + 1) 0 (3)(0 )
Example

1 3
lim + 2
x 1 x + 1 2x x 1

1 3 1 3
= lim + + ( )
x 1 x + 1 (2x 1)( x + 1) 0 (3)(0 )
Example

1 3
lim + 2
x 1 x + 1 2x x 1

1 3 1 3
= lim + + ( )
x 1 x + 1 (2x 1)( x + 1) 0 (3)(0 )
(2x 1) + 3
= lim
x 1 (2x 1)( x + 1)
Example

1 3
lim + 2
x 1 x + 1 2x x 1

1 3 1 3
= lim + + ( )
x 1 x + 1 (2x 1)( x + 1) 0 (3)(0 )
(2x 1) + 3
= lim
x 1(2x 1)( x + 1)
2x + 2
= lim
x 1 ( 2x 1)( x + 1)
Example

1 3
lim + 2
x 1 x + 1 2x x 1

1 3 1 3
= lim + + ( )
x 1 x + 1 (2x 1)( x + 1) 0 (3)(0 )
(2x 1) + 3
= lim
x 1(2x 1)( x + 1)

2x + 2 0
= lim
x 1 ( 2x 1)( x + 1) 0
Example

1 3
lim + 2
x 1 x + 1 2x x 1

1 3 1 3
= lim + + ( )
x 1 x + 1 (2x 1)( x + 1) 0 (3)(0 )
(2x 1) + 3
= lim
x 1(2x 1)( x + 1)

2x + 2 0
= lim
x 1 ( 2x 1)( x + 1) 0
2
= lim
x 1 2x 1
Example

1 3
lim + 2
x 1 x + 1 2x x 1

1 3 1 3
= lim + + ( )
x 1 x + 1 (2x 1)( x + 1) 0 (3)(0 )
(2x 1) + 3
= lim
x 1(2x 1)( x + 1)

2x + 2 0
= lim
x 1 ( 2x 1)( x + 1) 0
2
= lim
x 1 2x 1
2
=
3
Example

3 2x
lim
x 2+ x 2 x2 4
Example

3 2x
lim 2
x 2+ x 2 x 4

3 2x
= lim
x 2+ x 2 ( x 2)( x + 2)
Example

3 2x
lim 2
x 2+ x 2 x 4

3 2x 3
= lim
x 2+ x 2 ( x 2)( x + 2) 0+
Example

3 2x
lim 2
x 2+ x 2 x 4

3 2x 3 4
= lim +
x 2+ x 2 ( x 2)( x + 2) 0+ (0 )(4)
Example

3 2x
lim 2
x 2+ x 2 x 4

3 2x 3 4
= lim + ( )
x 2+ x 2 ( x 2)( x + 2) 0+ (0 )(4)
Example

3 2x
lim 2
x 2+ x 2 x 4

3 2x 3 4
= lim + ( )
x 2+ x 2 ( x 2)( x + 2) 0+ (0 )(4)
3x + 6 2x
= lim
x 2 + ( x 2)( x + 2)
Example

3 2x
lim 2
x 2+ x 2 x 4

3 2x 3 4
= lim + ( )
x 2+ x 2 ( x 2)( x + 2) 0+ (0 )(4)
3x + 6 2x
= lim
x 2 + ( x 2)( x + 2)
x+6
= lim
x 2+ ( x 2)( x + 2)
Example

3 2x
lim 2
x 2+ x 2 x 4

3 2x 3 4
= lim + ( )
x 2+ x 2 ( x 2)( x + 2) 0+ (0 )(4)
3x + 6 2x
= lim
x 2 + ( x 2)( x + 2)

x+6 8
= lim
x 2+ ( x 2)( x + 2) (0+ )(4)
Example

3 2x
lim 2
x 2+ x 2 x 4

3 2x 3 4
= lim + ( )
x 2+ x 2 ( x 2)( x + 2) 0+ (0 )(4)
3x + 6 2x
= lim
x 2 + ( x 2)( x + 2)

x+6 8
= lim
x 2+ ( x 2)( x + 2) (0+ )(4)
= +
Example

1 t 8
lim
t 4+ 4t t1 t+2
Example

1 t 8 1 4 8
lim ( 0)
t 4+ 4t t1 t+2 0 3 6
Example

1 t 8 1 4 8
lim ( 0)
t 4+ 4t t1 t+2 0 3 6
t ( t + 2) 8( t 1)

1
= lim
t 4+ 4 t (t 1)(t + 2)
Example

1 t 8 1 4 8
lim ( 0)
t 4+ 4t t1 t+2 0 3 6
t ( t + 2) 8( t 1)

1
= lim
t 4+ 4 t (t 1)(t + 2)
t2 6t + 8
= lim
t 4+ (4 t)(t 1)(t + 2)
Example

1 t 8 1 4 8
lim ( 0)
t 4+ 4t t1 t+2 0 3 6
t ( t + 2) 8( t 1)

1
= lim
t 4+ 4 t (t 1)(t + 2)
2
t 6t + 8

0
= lim
t4 (4 t )( t 1)( t + 2)
+ 0
Example

1 t 8 1 4 8
lim ( 0)
t 4+ 4t t1 t+2 0 3 6
t ( t + 2) 8( t 1)

1
= lim
t 4+ 4 t (t 1)(t + 2)
2
t 6t + 8

0
= lim
t4 (4 t )( t 1)( t + 2)
+ 0
(t 2)(t 4)
= lim
t 4+ (4 t)(t 1)(t + 2)
Example

1 t 8 1 4 8
lim ( 0)
t 4+ 4t t1 t+2 0 3 6
t ( t + 2) 8( t 1)

1
= lim
t 4+ 4 t (t 1)(t + 2)
2
t 6t + 8

0
= lim
t4 (4 t )( t 1)( t + 2)
+ 0
(t 2)(t 4)
= lim
(4 t)(t 1)(t + 2)
t 4+
(t 2)
= lim
t4+ ( t 1)( t + 2)
Example

1 t 8 1 4 8
lim ( 0)
t 4+ 4t t1 t+2 0 3 6
t ( t + 2) 8( t 1)

1
= lim
t 4+ 4 t (t 1)(t + 2)
2
t 6t + 8

0
= lim
t4 (4 t )( t 1)( t + 2)
+ 0
(t 2)(t 4)
= lim
(4 t)(t 1)(t + 2)
t 4+
(t 2)
= lim
t4+ ( t 1)( t + 2)
2
=
(3)(6)
Example

1 t 8 1 4 8
lim ( 0)
t 4+ 4t t1 t+2 0 3 6
t ( t + 2) 8( t 1)

1
= lim
t 4+ 4 t (t 1)(t + 2)
2
t 6t + 8

0
= lim
t4 (4 t )( t 1)( t + 2)
+ 0
(t 2)(t 4)
= lim
(4 t)(t 1)(t + 2)
t 4+
(t 2)
= lim
t4+ ( t 1)( t + 2)
2 1
= =
(3)(6) 9
Exercises
Evaluate the following limits:

x2 1
1 lim
x 21
1 2x
x2 2x
2 lim
x 2+ [[ x ]] x
p
3 lim x2 + 2x 3
x 3

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One-sided limits and

Institute of Mathematics (UP Diliman)

1 One-Sided Limits (continuation)

1 One-Sided Limits (continuation)

limit of f ( x ) as x approaches a from the left is L

[limit of f ( x ) as x approaches a from the right is L]

lim f ( x ) = 0 and lim f ( x ) = 0

lim f ( x ) = 0 and lim f ( x ) = 0

lim f ( x ) = 0 and lim f ( x ) = 0

lim f ( x ) = 0 and lim f ( x ) = 0

lim f ( x ) = 0 and lim f ( x ) = 0

lim f ( x ) = 0 and lim f ( x ) = 0

lim f ( x ) = 0 and lim f ( x ) = 0

As x 3 , f ( x ) 0, passing through negative values as it approaches 0.

lim f ( x ) = 0 and lim f ( x ) = 0

As x 3 , f ( x ) 0, passing through negative values as it approaches 0.

lim f ( x ) = 0 and lim f ( x ) = 0

As x 3 , f ( x ) 0, passing through negative values as it approaches 0.

As x 3+ , f ( x ) 0, passing through positive values as it approaches 0.

lim f ( x ) = 0 and lim f ( x ) = 0

As x 3 , f ( x ) 0, passing through negative values as it approaches 0.

As x 3+ , f ( x ) 0, passing through positive values as it approaches 0.

As x 3 , f ( x ) 0, passing through positive values as it approaches 0.

lim f ( x ) = 0 and lim f ( x ) = 0

As x 3 , f ( x ) 0, passing through negative values as it approaches 0.

As x 3+ , f ( x ) 0, passing through positive values as it approaches 0.

As x 3 , f ( x ) 0, passing through positive values as it approaches 0.

As x 3+ , f ( x ) 0, passing through negative values as it approaches 0.

If f ( x ) approaches 0 through positive [negative] values,

If f ( x ) approaches 0 through positive [negative] values,

lim f ( x ) = 0 and lim f ( x ) = 0

lim f ( x ) = 0 and lim f ( x ) = 0

lim f ( x ) = 0 and lim f ( x ) = 0

lim f ( x ) = 0 and lim f ( x ) = 0

lim f ( x ) = 0 and lim f ( x ) = 0

lim f ( x ) = 0 and lim f ( x ) = 0

lim f ( x ) = 0 and lim f ( x ) = 0

lim f ( x ) = 0 and lim f ( x ) = 0

lim f ( x ) = 0 and lim f ( x ) = 0

f ( x ) = [[2x 1]] = n for

f ( x ) = [[2x 1]] = n for

f ( x ) = [[2x 1]] = n for

f ( x ) = [[2x 1]] = n for

f ( x ) = [[2x 1]] = n for

f ( x ) = [[2x 1]] = n for

f ( x ) = [[2x 1]] = n for

f ( x ) = [[2x 1]] = n for

f ( x ) = [[2x 1]] = n for

f ( x ) = [[2x 1]] = n for

f ( x ) = [[2x 1]] = n for

f ( x ) = [[2x 1]] = n for

f ( x ) = [[2x 1]] = n for

f ( x ) = [[2x 1]] = n for

lim [[2x 1]] =?

lim [[2x 1]] =?

lim [[2x 1]] =?

Is 2(3) 1 an integer? Yes.

lim [[2x 1]] =?

Is 2(3) 1 an integer? Yes.

Since we are letting x 3 ,

lim [[2x 1]] =?

Is 2(3) 1 an integer? Yes.

Since we are letting x 3 , we want the right endpoint of the interval to be 3.