The Problem of Testament in Luther's "Lectures on Hebrews"

Kenneth Hagen

The Harvard Theological Review, Vol. 63, No. 1. (Jan., 1970), pp. 61-90.

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 THE PROBLEM OF TESTAMENT IN LUTHER'S
LECTURES ON HEBREWS
KENNETH HAGEN

FORsome decades now, Luther scholars have concentrated on the

early "young Luther" (1513-16). He is being dissected month
by month, year by year. I t may be another decade or so, however,
before any attempt can be made a t a complete presentation of
the theology of the young Luther. This study is intended to be a
partial contribution to the construction of a full picture of the
young Luther.
Progress has been made in all the very specialized studies of
the young Luther. With the opening up of the 14th and 15th
centuries to theological-historical investigation and with the be-
ginning made on the new edition of Luther's first exegetical work
(Dictata super Psalterium [ I 513-1 61 ) there is increasing interest
in the young Luther in the light of medieval exegetical and aca-
demic theology. With the new direction of post-Lortz, Vatican-I1
studies of Luther, the attempt to blame the "tragedy" of the
Reformation on the later Middle Ages is being superseded in
Roman Catholic circles by a more constructive approach to Lu-
ther's relation to the Middle Ages. With the demise of the "Tur-
merlebnis" problem scholars are no longer limiting themselves
to the fruitless task of trying to date when Luther ceases to be
"Roman Catholic" and becomes "Lutheran." * In short, we are
now in an ecumenical situation where the many facets and prob-
lems of the theology of the young Luther can be studied in the
light of medieval theology without apologetic polemic.
Interest in the young Luther has been confined largely to a
study of the Dictata and the Lectures on Romans (1515-16).
During the summer and winter semesters of I 5I 7-1 8 at the Uni-
versity of Wittenberg, the majority of theological students gath-
KENNETHHAGEN,Changes in the Understanding of Luther: The Development
of the Young Luther, Theological Studies 29 (Sept., 1968),472-96.
 HARVARD THEOLOGICAL REVIEW

ered to hear Luther lecture on the Epistle to the Hebrews. These

lectures of the young Luther have only recently been discovered,
edited, and p ~ b l i s h e d .The
~ only significant study of these lec-
tures appeared in Dutch in 1 9 6 5 . ~Perhaps the world of Luther
a L ~own~lecture~ notes
~ are~ not' extant.
~ Two sets of student lecture notes
have survived. One of these was the set of notes on chapters 1-5 of the Scholium
taken by SIGISMUNDREICHENBACH, and in the mid-sixteenth century another set
of student lecture notes was copied by AURIFABERand someone else. In 1899
HERMANNVOPEL and JOHANNES FICKERdiscovered AURIFABER'S copy of student
notes in the Vatican library. FICKER also made another important discovery in
1904: REICHENBACH'S lecture notes. FICKER,however, was reluctant to publish
an edition of the lectures, partly because he never gave up hope that additional
material might be discovered. Finally in 1g2g, tired of waiting for FICKER'S
edition, EMANUELHIRSCHand HANNSR ~ ~ C K Ecame R T out with a critical edition
of the Vatican manuscript (Luthers Vorlesung iiber den Hebriierbrief nach der
Vatikanischen Handschrift [Arbeiten zur Kirchengeschichte, vol. 13 ; Berlin, 19291 1 .
Shortly after the appearance of the HIRSCH-R~~CKERT edition, FICKERpublished
his critical edition (Luthers Vorlesung iiber den Hebraerbrief 1517-18 [Anfange
reformatorischer Bibelauslegung, vol. 2; Leipzig, rgzg]). FICKERalso prepared
the Weimar edition (WA 57.111 [Weimar, 1g3gI).
J. P. BOENDERMAKER, Luthers Commentaar op de Brief aan de Hebregn
1517-1518 (Assen, 1965). BOENDERMAKER'S study goes beyond previous work on
these lectures in that he examines Luther's relation to some of the medieval
exegetes of Hebrews. However, his work is incomplete. He limits his study to the
exegesis of Chrysostom, the Glossa, and Lyra, but then proceeds to summarize
their relation to LUTHERby describing them as "the exegetical tradition" (74).
BOENDERMAKER does not even treat all those medieval exegetes whom LUTHER
explicitly quotes in his lectures - Valla, Faber, Erasmus. Besides, there are a
number of other exegetes of Hebrews who are important representatives of the
medieval exegetical tradition, namely, Alcuin, Aquinas, Tarantasia, and Dionysius
the Carthusian. Furthermore, BOENDERMAKER'S comparison of LUTHER with
medieval exegetes plays no significant part in his discussion of "Important Theo-
logical Concepts Found in Luther's Lectures" (85-113). And, finally, his interest
in the "young Luther" is largely limited to the "Turmerlebnis" problem and the
influence of "the mystical tradition" on LUTHER.
Previous work on LUTHER'SLectures on Hebrews was done from the perspective
of their relation either to the thought of Erasmus (ERICHVOGELSANG, Die Bedeutung
der neuveroffentlichten Hebraerbrief-Vorlesung v o n 1517-18: Ein Beitrag zur
Frage: Humanismus und Reformation [Tiibingen, 1g301) ; the thought of Augustine
(ADOLFHAMEL,Der junge Luther und Augustin, ihre Beziehungen in der Recht-
fertigungslehre nach Luthers ersten Vorlesungen 1509-18, I1 [Giitersloh, 19351) ;
the "Turmerlebnis" problem (AXEL GYLLENKROK, Rechtfertigung und Heiligung
in der friihen evangelischen Theologie Luthers [Uppsala, ~ g s z ] ;and ERNSTBIZER,
Fides ex auditu. Eine Untersuchung iiber die Entdeckung der Gerechtigkeit Gottes
durch Martin Luther [sd ed.; Darmstadt, 19611) ; the contemporary effort by
New Testament scholars to interpret the Epistle (JEAN BARUZI,Le commentaire
de Luther A 1'Epitre aux Htbreux, Revue &Histoire et de Philosophie Religieuses
11 [1931], 461-98) ; selected writing of LUTHER(HANSTHIMME, Christi Bedeutung
fur Luthers Glauben. Unter Zugrundelegung des Romerbrief- des Hebraerbrief-
des Galaterbrief-kommentars v o n 1j31, und der Disputationem [Giitersloh, 19331) ;
the development of LUTHER'Stheologiu crucis (EDUARD ELLWEIN,Die Entfaltung
der theologia crucis in Luthers Hebraerbriefvorlesung, in Theologische Aufsiitze:
 LUTHER AND TESTAMENT 63
scholarship has come to the point where the study of the Dictata
and the Lectures on Romans needs to be complemented by work
on the later lectures of the young Luther.
Luther did not lecture on Hebrews in a vacuum. And so first
we will consult some of the great giants of medieval exegesis to
determine if there is a central theme decisive for their interpre-
tation of Hebrews? Then we will look at Luther's Lectures on
Hebrews in order to compare his over-all understanding of He-
brews with that of the medieval exegetical tradition and to see
what light this tradition sheds on Luther's lectures. Finally, we
will relate Luther's interpretation of I 5 I 7-1 8, illumined by me-
dieval exegesis, to his earlier biblical commentaries in order to
clarify the theology of the young Luther from this one perspective.
By comparing Luther's exegesis of 1517-18 with his earlier
exegesis, the question of the development and/or continuity of
the young Luther will be raised.

Karl Barth zum 50. Geburtstag [Munich, 19361, 382-404) ; or to LUTHER'Sexegesis

of Heb. 10:s (ALBERTBRANDENBURG, "Solae aures sunt organa Christiani hominis."
Zu Luthers Exegese von Hebr, ro,gf., in Einsicht und Glaube. Gottlieb Siihngen
zum 70. Geburtstag, ed. Joseph Ratzinger und Heinrich Fries [Freiburg, Herder,
196:l).
Bibliographies of medieval commentaries on Hebrews are scant. In addition
to the critical editions of HIRSCH-RUCKERT a nd FICKER, DENIFLE'S study of
Western exegesis of Rom.1:17 is of some help for locating texts, though not every
one who commented on Romans also commented on Hebrews: HEINRICHDENIFLE,
O.P., Die abendl2ndischen Schriftausleger bis Luther iiber "Justitia Dei" ( R o m .
1:17) und "Justificatio," I , Part 2 (2d ed., Luther und Luthertum; Mainz, 1905).
C. SPICQ,O.P., in his L'Epftre aux Htbreux (Paris, 1952), has an annotated "Bibli-
ographie" which is a general survey of the exegesis of Hebrews from the Eastern
commentaries of the ancient Church up to our own time. More valuable for its
almost exhaustive bibliography is FRIDERICU~ S T E G M ~ ~ L ERepertorium
R'S Biblicum
Medii Aevi (7 vols.; Madrid, 1950-61). STEGM~~LLER lists both manuscript and
printed copies. For complete manuscript listings of the medieval Hermits of the
Order of St. Augustine see ADOLARZUMKELLER, Manuskripte von Werken der
Autoren des Augustiner-Eremitenordens in mitteleuropaischen Bibliotheken, Augus-
t i n i a n ~11 (1961), 27-86, 261-319, 478-532; 1 2 (1962), 27-92, 299-357; 13 (1963),
418-73; 14 (1964)~ 105-62. EDUARDRIGGENBACH has made a study of the early
medieval Latin commentaries on Hebrews: Historische Studien zum Hebraerbrief.
Part I : Die altesten lateinischen Kommentare zum Hebraerbrief (Forschungen zur
Geschichte des neutestamentlichen Kanom und der altkirchlichen Literatur;
Leipzig, 1907). A. LANDGRAF has worked on the Pauline commentaries of the
twelfth century: Farnilienbildung bei Paulinen-kommentaren des 1 2 . Jahrhunderts,
Biblica 13 (1932), 61-72, 169-93 ; Untersuchung zu den Paulinenkommentaren
des 12. Jahrhunderts, Recherches de Thtologie Ancienne et Mtditvale 8 (1936),
253-81.
64 HARVARD THEOLOGICAL REVIEW

Chrysostom's Homilies on Hebrews was Luther's main source

for his Lectures on he brew^.^ Luther quotes Chrysostom more
than he does any other author. In fact, throughout the Middle
Ages, Chrysostom's homilies, in Latin translation, exerted a great
deal of influence and were read, quoted, and interpreted by most
exegetes on Hebrews.?
In strategic fashion, Chrysostom led his readers into the heart
of Hebrews. In the first of his Homilies on Hebrews he offers
few clues about the main message. In fact, he seems to make
conflicting claims. For example, in the first Homily he mentions
that Heb.1: I demonstrates the "eminentia" of Christ over the
prophets and the superiority of the Christians ("superiores") over
the J e ~ s .But
~ in Homily I11 Chrysostom states emphatically
that Paul is not comparing the two Testaments ("non comparans,
absit") - for the moment at leasLg Yet again in Homily V,
'St. JOHN CHRYSOSTOM (354-407) composed 34 Homilies on Hebrews which
were first issued after his death from stenographic notes by the Antiochene priest
Constantine. I t is an open question in CHRYSOSTOM research when and where
CHRYSOSTOM delivered these sermons (CHRYSOSTOMUS BAUR,O.S.B., John Chrysos-
iom and his Time, trans. Sr. M . Gonzaga, R . S. M., I1 [London, 19601, 94-95). In
the sixth century CASSIODOR~S (d. 563) delegated his friend Mutian, probably a
monk, to translate into Latin CHRYSOSTOM'S Homilies on Hebrews (Opera; Basel,
I 504; PG 63.237-456). We will use MIGNE'S edition of Mutian's translation.
' V o n den Konzilliis und Kirchen, 1539, WA j0.519.22-27: "Let them take a
book of the Bible and look up the interpretations of the Fathers and the same
thing will happen to them that happened to me when I took up the Epistle to
the Hebrews with the Gloss of St. Chrysostom, Titus and Galatians with the
help of St. Jerome, Genesis with the help of St. Ambrose and St. Augustine, the
Psalter with all the exegetes that I could find and so on."
In his Table Talk LUTHERassociates his lectures on Hebrews with CHRYSOSTOM,
while indicating disappointment in him: "Cum primum legerem epistolam ad He-
braeos, ibi accipiebam Chrysostomum eumque iegebam, sed er liess mich stecken
an allen orten, da ich sein dorfft. E r ist ein lauter wescher, lest den Text fallen;
tantum moralia tractat" (WA Tr. 1.85.1-3, Nr. 188, Feb.-March, 1532). "Dum
epistolam ad Hebraeos enarrarem et Chrysostomum consulerem, nihil ad argumenta
epistolae scripsit. E t credo Chrysostomum, summum rhetorem, habuisse audi-
torium copiosum, sed sine fructo docuisse" (WA Tr. 4.50.3-6, Nr. 3975, August,
1538).
"Es ist die Grundlage der gesamten abendl'andischen Auslegungsliteratur zum
Hebraerbrief geworden" (RIGGENBACH,

I I ).
' P G 63.237.

'PG 63.2 55

 LUTHER AND TESTAMENT 65

Chrysostom holds that Paul in 3 :1-3 compares Christ with Moses,
though Paul does so very cautiously and very gradually. In so
doing, Paul is "already [!I sowing the seeds of the excellence
[of Christ] ." lo
Finally, in Homily XI1 on 7: ~ f f . , Chrysostom says that Paul's
main purpose in writing to the Jews was to differentiate between
the Old and the New Testament. However, Paul was obliged to
soft-pedal the difference at first until he was sure that his Jewish
readers would be strong enough to accept them. Paul's initial
concern through the first six chapters was to build up the confi-
dence, faith, and hope of the Jews in order to lay sufficient ground-
work for his main message:
Therefore having removed their despondency by many both fright-
ening and gentle words, he now from this point on discusses the
reason for the difference between the two Testaments.ll

The difference between the Testaments for Chrysostom is the

"comparative excellence" of the New. The "eminentia" or "ex-
cellentia" of Christ is a relative matter. For example, the fact
that Christ is "superior" to the high priests of the Old Testament
means that there are some similarities between them as well as
some differences:
He points out first the things which are common [to Christ and the
high priests], and then he shows that Christ is superior. For com-
parative excellence means that they share certain things in common
and that in other matters he excels; otherwise it is not a matter of
comparison.12

A major source quoted by Luther is the Base1 Bible of 1508

with its full apparatus of the interlinear and marginal Gloss, the
Postillae of Nicholas of Lyra, the Additiones to Lyra's Postillae
by Paul of Burgos, and the Replicae to Burgos's Additiones by
Matthias Doering.13 Peter Lombard was responsible for the final
lo PC 63.273.
" PG 63.317.
* P C 63.291.
Biblia cum Glossa ordinaria, Nicolai de Lyra postilla, moralitatibzls eizlsdem,
Padi Burgensis additionibzcs, Matthiae Thoring replick (6 vols.; Basel, 1498-
66 HARVARD THEOLOGICAL REVIEW
composition of the interlinear and marginal Gloss on St. Paul and
the Psalms.14
The Glossa ordinaria begins with a statement of the purpose
and content of Paul's Epistle to the Hebrews. Paul's intent in
relation to the Hebrews was to show the "eminentia Christi" and
the "sufficiency of faith," and to compare it with the "insuffi-
ciency and uselessness of the law." First of all, claims the Glossa
ordinaria, Paul compares Christ with the prophets and shows that
"he is greater." Then, he compares ("comparat") Christ with
the angels and, finally, with Moses and shows that Christ is pref-
erable ("prefert") to both.15
Throughout the Glossa interliniaris and the Glossa ordinaria
comparison is made between the old and the new dispensations.
The new is better than the old. Christ is "greater than the proph-
ets," l6 and more faithful than Moses.17 The Glossa ordinaria
1502, 1506-1508) ; In Epistolam ad Hebreos, VI (Basel, 1508), 131r-162~. There
are two other editions of the Bible used in the critical apparatus of the new
edition (in progress) of Luther's Dictata super Psalterium: Biblia ..
. cum
concordantiis . . . summariis omnium capitum divisionibus, quattuor repertoriis
propositis . . . una cum Vera nominum Hebraicorum interpretatione (Basel, 1509) ;
Biblia cum concordantiis veteris et novi testamenti necnon et iuris canonici, ac
diversitatibus textuum, canonibwque evangeliorum ac quibusdam temporum inci-
dentibus i n margine positis et accentu singularum dictionum (Venice, 1511).
l4 BERYLSMALLEY, The Study of the Bible in the Middle Ages (Oxford, 1952),
64. BOENDERMAKER has hung on to the bibliographical legend that ascribed the
marginal Gloss to Walafrid Strabo and the interlinear Gloss to Anselm of Laon
(BOENDERMAKER, 23). In 1949, J. DE BLIC, in a posthumous article, unmasked
the Strabo-Anselm authorship of the Glossa as legendary (SMALLEY,57). The
major figures in the composition of the Gloss on St. Paul and the Psalms were,
first of all, Anselm of Laon (d. 1117) and, secondly, Gilbert de la Porrbe (d. 11541,
who expanded Anselm's text. Gilbert's Media Glosatura was expanded by Lom-
bard between 1135 and 1136, 1142 and 1143, and is known as the Magna (or
Maior) Glosatura: Super epistobs Pauli glossa ordinaria et magistralis, in the
Base1 Bible of 1508 (first published separately in Paris, 1535; PL 192.399-520).
l5 Biblia cum Glossa ordinaria (Basel, 1506-1 5081, 131r-I~IV:
L'Primum proponit audienda esse verba Christi conferendo eum prophetis, quia in
eo locutus est Dominus ut in prophetis; et maior est eis. Deinde commendat
eum alternatim secundum utramque naturam humanam scilicet et divinam.
Postea comparat eum angelis et praefert, multa interserens de excellentia eius
secundum utramque naturam. Deinde comparat eum Moysi et prefert. Deinde
multis rationibus et auctoritatibus gratiam fidei umbre legis preferendam declarat.
Et sacerdotium Christi Levitico sacerdotio; et testamentum novum veteri eiusque
sacrificium unum multis illius sacrificiis proponendum ostendit, quia ibi umbra,
hic veritas. Tandem ponit fidei descriptionem, eam multis testimoniis commen-
dans. Circa finem vero moralem subdit instructionem."
l e Zbid., 1 3 3 ~ .

l7 Zbid., 139r.

 LUTHER AND TESTAMENT 67

gives a summary statement of the first eight chapters of Hebrews
by. saying
. -
that the major theme has been to show the "difference
between the Testaments" because the New surpasses ("super-
eminet") the Old as well as transforms ("immutat") it.18 The
Glossa, therefore, interprets Hebrews as a comparison between
the two Testaments.

Although Luther does not quote Aquinas' commentary,ls it is

important that it be included in any comparison between Luther
and the exegetical tradition because of its influence and the fact
that it was read and quoted by later medieval authors - for ex-
ample, Lyra and Erasmus. Lyra's exegesis, especially his chapter
and verse divisions and his outlines of themes, is often very simi-
lar to Aquinas's interpretation.
The distinguishing theme of Paul's Epistle to the Hebrews
according to Aquinas, in his introduction, is the excellentia Christi:
"Therefore the excellence of Christ is clearly demonstrated in
these words and this is what distinguishes this Epistle to the
Hebrews from the others.'' 20 The theme of the excellentia Christi
is comparative. The New Testament is excellens vis-a-vis the
Old. The purpose of Hebrews is to show Jewish converts that
the New Testament is greater in every respect than the Old.
Christ is preferable ("praeferat") to the angels (c.1-2), to Moses
(c.3-4), and to the priesthood of the Old Testament (c.~ff.).~'
The New Testament, for Aquinas, is preferable to the Old
because it is better in so many ways. Christ is "greater than the
angels," 22 ('more excellent than Moses," 23 "of greater excellence
than Moses," 2 4 "more excellent than the priests of the old law," 25
la Ibid., 149r.
" W e will use the Marietti edition: Super Epktolus S. Pauli Lectura, ed. P .
Raphaelis Cai, 0.P., I1 (8th ed.; Rome, 19531, 335-506. Aquinas' Lectura super
Hebreos occurred between either 1261 and 1264 ( P . MANWNNET), or 1265 and
1268 ( P . SYNAVE),or 1259 and 1269 ( J . M . V O S ~ ) .
20 Ibid., 335.

"Ibid., 337.
'"bid., 357.
"Zbid., 372.
" Ibid., 374.
"Ibid., 389.
68 HARVARD THEOLOGICAL REVIEW

"more excellent than the priesthood of the old law," 26 and "a
minister of greater and better sacraments than those of the old
law." 27 In short, the New Testament is "more excellent than
the Old." 28 In fact, the basic intent of Hebrews is to show that
Christ is excellentior:
Just as it was said from the beginning of this epistle, the intention
of the apostle is to show that Christ is more excellent than all those
from whom the law derives its authority, namely, the angels, by
whose ministry it was given: "Ordained through angels" (Gal.3: 19) ;
and Moses, who was the lawgiver: "The law was given through
Moses" (Jo.1: 17) ; and the priesthood and pontificate of Aaron,
through whom the law was a d m i n i ~ t e r e d . ~ ~

Hebrews is concerned with defining the relation between the two

Testaments. This relation is a matter of degree. The New is
better than the Old.
Aquinas compares the relation of Moses and Christ to the
giving of the law. In his lectures on Heb.3 :~ f f . ,Aquinas holds
that Moses is only "promulgator" of the law, whereas Christ is
"legislator Principalis." Christ is the true giver of the law, and
"as lawgiver built the Church." Moses, however, is "quasi legis-
lator" and only as "legis pronuntiator" deserves praise. Thus,
again, Christ is preferable to Moses.30 However, the category
for describing the ministry of both Moses and Christ is the same
- legislator.
The New Testament is an "interior tabernacle" or an interior
T e ~ t a m e n t .The
~ ~ New Testament is the interiorization of the
Old. But the two Testaments fall under the same category of
law. Aquinas says that the "same precepts" exist in both Testa-
ments:
" Zbid., 419.
wZbid., 421.
"Ibid., 436.
=Zbid., 389: "Sicut a principio huius epistolae dictum fuit, intentio Apostoli
est ostendere Christum excellentiorem esse omnibus his ex quibus lex habet auc-
toritatem, scilicet angelis, quorum ministerio data fuit, Gal.111, 19: 'Ordinata per
angelos,'-et Moyse, qui fuit legislator, Io.1,17: 'Lex per Moysen data est,'-
et sacerdotio et pontificatu Aaron, per quem lex administratur."
Ibid., 3 7 I.

"Ibid., 433.

 LUTHER AND TESTAMENT 69

In the Old Testament there are certain things which pertain to
the worship of God. These are ceremonial matters. There are also
certain things which pertain to the uprightness of life. These are
moral precepts, which remain. The ceremonial laws do not remain.
In the New Testament now counsel is added to these moral precepts.
This counsel is given to the perfect capable of spiritual matters.
And thus the same precepts remain, though the promises differ. The
sacraments are also different, because in the Old there was only the
figure of truth, whereas in the New, truth is given. All things con-
sidered, therefore, the New Testament is better.32

Lyra is widely acknowledged t o be one of the best equipped

biblical scholars of the Middle Ages, and an important exegete
of Hebrews for Luther. H e had an extensive knowledge of both
Christian and Jewish exegesis. The importance of Lyra is further
attested to by the fact that his Postillae together with the Glossa
ordinaria and the Glossa interliniaris were the classical texts for
subsequent exegesis.33
Lyra agrees with Aquinas, the Glossa interliniaris, the Glossa
ordinaria, and Chrysostom that the main theme of Hebrews is
the eminentia Christi, that is, the eminentia Christi with reference
to ("respectu") and b y comparison with ("comparatur") the Old
Testament:
Therefore in this epistle Paul shows the eminence of the New
Testament with reference to the Old, showing that the Old is com-
pared to the New as disposition to form and as imperfection to per-
fection. The imperfect passes away and ceases to exist with the
mZbid., 422: "Item in ill0 dicuntur quaedam, quae pertinent ad cultum Dei, et
ista sunt caeremonialia: quaedam vero, quae ad rectitudinem vitae, et ista sunt
praecepta moralia, quae manent: alia vero, non. In Novo autem adduntur con-
silia illis praeceptis, quae dantur perfectis, qui sunt capaces spiritualium. E t sic
manent praecepta eadem, sed promissa diversa. Item sacramenta sunt diversa;
quia ibi erat figura tantum, hic autem figurae veritas expressa. Per omnia ergo
testamentum illud est melius."
"NICHOLASOF LYRA,O.F.M.(d. 1349)~composed his influential Postilla lit-
teralis super totam biblium between 1322 and 1331,and his I n epistolas Pauli in
1329 (HERMANHAILPERIN,Rashi and the Christian Scholars [Pittsburgh, 19631,
138; LYRA, Epistola Pauli ad Hebreos, Lyrani Postillae [Nuremberg, 14931).
LYRA'SPostilh moralis was completed in 1339 and published separately before
1478; thereafter it was usually printed with the Postilla litteralis, e.g., Venice,
1588 (HAILPERIN,142).
70 HARVARD THEOLOGICAL REVIEW
coming of the perfect, as in I Cor.13 : 10: ["When the perfect comes
the imperfect will pass away"] .34

The conclusion that Lyra draws from this comparison is that the
New Testament is "excellentius et efficatius." 35
Lyra begins his commentary by stating that the comparison
between the two Testaments in Hebrews is made, first of all, from
the perspective of the inadequacies of the Old.36
A second perspective or theme is the perfection of the New
Testament with reference to the Old.37
The third theme of Hebrews is the ordo of the two Testaments
or laws. The relationship is that '' 'when the new comes the old
passes away' " ( I Cor. 13:10).38
The Old Testament "passes away" in various ways.3B In one
way, as is the case with ceremonial laws, the old law is made
completely void. With regard to the moral law of the Old Testa-
% Biblia cum Glossa ordinaria, Nicolai de Lyra postilla, moralitatibus eiusdem

(Basel, 1506-1508), 1 3 3 ~ :"Et ideo in hac epistola ostendit eminentiam novi tes-
tamenti respectu veteris, ostendens quod vetus comparatur ad novum sicut dis-
positio ad formam, et sicut imperfectum ad perfectum quod evacuatur et cessat
adveniente perfecto, ut dicitur I Cor.13 [IO]."
Ibid., 150v.
SB Ibid., I ~ I V .
87 Ibid., 1 3 2 ~ .
85 Ibid., 1 3 2 ~(Proemium) .

" Ibid., 132v-133r (Proemium) : "Considerandum tamen quod diversimode

evacuantur precepta moralia legis et cerimonialia et iudicialia. Ad cuius intellec-
tum sciendum, quod quando fit mutatio a contrario in contrarium, oportet ter-
minum a quo totaliter evacuari, sicut quando ex albo fit nigrum, albedo tollitur.
Quando autem ex imperfect0 fit perfectum; non tollitur totaliter terminus a quo
sed tantum eius imperfectio, scilicet, quando ex minus albo fit magis album non
tollitur albedo precedens, sed tantum eius imperfectio. Ulterius considerandum,
quod quando corrumpitur terminus a quo per accidens illud quod est ei adiunc-
tum corrumpitur, potest tamen manere cum termino ad quem si non habeat ad
ipsum contrarietatem, non tamen manet numero, sed specie tantum, sicut quando
de aere fit ignis, manet qualitas symbola. Cerimonialia igitur evacuantur primo
.
modo, contrariantur nove legis cultui. . . Moralia autem precepta evacuantur
.
tantummodo secundum quid, scilicet, quantum ad imperfectionem. . . E t sic pa-
tet quod moralia precepta veteris legis non evacuantur quantum ad substantiam
solum legis, sed quantum ad imperfectionem. Propter quod dicit apostolus i. Cor.
xiii. 'Cum factus sum vir, evacuavi quae erant parvuli.' Status autem veteris legis
comparatur puero, secundum quod habetur Ga. iii. a. 'Lex pedagogus noster fuit';
pedagogus autem est ductor pueri. Status nove legis comparatur viro perfecto; et
ideo sicut manet idem homo quantum ad substantiam in pueritia et virili etate,
remota tantum imperfectione pueritie, sic est de moralium preceptorum evacua-
tione. Iudicialia autem precepta evacuantur tertio modo, quia adveniente lege
gratie, cessat eorum obligatio."
 LUTHER AND TESTAMENT 71
ment Lyra holds that its imperfection is discarded. This claim of
Lyra as well as his statement that the new law is "perfect with
reference to" its "precepts," whereas the old law was imperfect,4O
is striking in the light of Thomas Aquinas' claim that the "same
precepts" exist in both Testaments. For Thomas Aquinas the
moral precepts of the Old Testament remain in force in the New
Testament as well as the new laws added to the old.41 For Lyra
the relation between the moral precepts of the old law to the pre-
cepts of the new law is that of "disposition" to "form," "imper-
fection" to "perfection," 42 ((boy7'to "man," "off white" to "pure
white," and terminus a quo to terminus ad quem. The old law
for Lyra is the basis of the new - the old moral law "does not
pass away as to substance" but "as to imperfection." 43

Other commentaries cited by Luther were by three prominent

humanists, Lorenzo Valla (ca. 1406-1457),~* Jacobus Faber
Stapulensis (ca. 1455-1536),~~and Desiderius Erasmus (ca.
1466-1 536) .46
Faber, like his predecessors, holds that the theme of Hebrews
is the excellentia C h ~ i s t i .This
~ ~ theme is comparative in nature,
because the "excellence" of Christ consists in the fact that the
New Testament is "more excellent" than the Old: "The New
Testament is as much more excellent than the Old as the Son of
God is superior to Moses; it is as much more excellent as the
promises of the New are preferable to the promises of the Old." 48
The comparative excellence of Christ is a much more radical
concept for Faber than for the other medieval exegetes. He em-
phasizes more the great difference between the two Testaments.

40 Zbid., 1 3 2 ~ .
" AQUINAS,P. 422.
"LYRA,133V.
43 Ibid., 133r.

'* Adnotationes in latinam Novi Testamenti interpretationem, ed. ERASMUS

(Paris, 1505).
"Epistolae Pauli Apostoli (1st ed., Paris, 1512; 2d ed., Paris, 1515).
4b Novum instrumentum cum Annotationibus (Basel, 1516).
47 EpiStolae Pauli Apostoli, 2 3 0 ~ .
" Ibid., 246v.
72 HARVARD THEOLOGICAL REVIEW
The comparison of darkness and truth is prominent, and compared
to the light of truth darkness is nothing:
Between Moses and Christ there is a vast chasm of difference.
. . . He who places his confidence more in Moses than in Christ
confides more in darkness than in truth. The truth excels darkness
and is as much more powerful as a lord is more powerful than a
servant, as being than non-being, as God than a creature. When the
light comes, the darkness vanishes and is nothing. Thus, compared
with Christ, Moses is nothing. Of such light is the pre-eminence
of Christ.49

For Faber both Testaments fall under the same category, law.
The old is carnal; the new is spiritual. The new is the fulfillment
of the old; thus for Faber the old law is "not law pure and simple,"
but it is the "foundation of law." 50
We have seen from our study of Chrysostom, the Glossa,
Aquinas, Lyra, and Faber, that these exegetes of Hebrews agree
as to the central themes of Paul's Epistle to the Hebrews. One
could draw on other exegetes of ~ e b r e w s ,for example, Alcuin,
O.S.B. (730-804) ,51 Petrus de Tarantasia (Innocent V) , O.P.
(d.12 76) ,52Paul of Burgos, O.P. (d.1435) ,53 and Dionysius the
Carthusian (1404-1471))~~to substantiate further the thesis that
the medieval tradition as a whole agrees on the basic purpose and
message of Hebrews. But since these exegetes either are totally
dependent on the other exegetes or add nothing new, there is no
Ibid., 234r: "Sed inter Mosen et Christum: latum est differentiae intervallum.
. . . Ergo qui in Mose confidunt: in umbra confidunt. E t qui in Mose plus con-
fideret quam in Christo; in umbra plus confideret quam in veritate, quae tanto
praecellit et efficacior est umbra: quanto dominus servo, immo quanto ens non
ente et Deus creatura. E t u t umbra, adveniente luce, vanescit et nihil est: ita si a d
Christum confers nihil est Moses; tanta luce est Christi praeeminentia."
Ibid., 2 4 2 ~ :"Atqui venit Christus ut consumaret et perficeret omnia, ut ipse
dixit, 'Non veni solvere legem, sed adimplere.' Lex enim nova veteris est adimpletio.
Erat enim vetus non simpliciter lex, sed legis inchoatio, ut typus inchoatio con-
sumationis operis."
61 Expositio i n Epistolam Pauli Apostoli ad Hebraeos. P L 100.1031.

62 In Epistolam B. Pauli ad Hebraeos, I n Omnes Divi Pauli Epistolas Enurratio,

11 (Lyon, 1692), 163, 179, 216.

"Additiones 1-1100 ad postilam Nicolue de Lyra, Gens-Apoc. (Lyon, 149o),
136r.
uEnarratio in Epistolam Beati Pauli ad Hebraeos, Emrrationes Piue ac Eru-
ditae i n Omnes Beati Pauli Epistolas (1st ed., Cologne, 1530. Opera Omnia, 13;
Monstrolius, 1901) , 469.
 LUTHER AND TESTAMENT 73
need to execute that task in more detail. Medieval exegetes con-
sider Hebrews to be a comparison of the two Testaments which
results in highlighting the excellentia Christi. The conclusion of
the comparison between Christ and the angels, Moses and the
priest is that Christ is excellentior. The result is that the differ-
ence between the two Testaments is a matter of degree. The basic
presupposition is that both Testaments are law. Thus the com-
parison between the two Testaments shows that the new law is
better than the old.55
If one were to transpose the categories of medieval exegesis
from "comparative excellence" to the categories of Scripture and
Tradition, an apt description might be in terms of the language of
development. The New marks progress over the Old. On the
same level and line of development, the New absorbs the Old,
transforms it, and recasts it in terms of Christ.

Luther begins his Lectures on Hebrews with a brief statement

of its content and purpose:
We should note that Paul in this epistle exalts grace and contrasts
it with the arrogance of legal and human righteousness. He shows
that without Christ neither the law nor the priesthood nor prophecy
nor even finally the ministry of the angels was sufficient for salvation.
In fact, all these were established and ordained in reference to the
coming Christ. According to him, therefore, Christ alone should be
taught and nothing else.56
QThis conclusion adds another dimension to our general understanding of the
medieval concept of law and gospel. On the basis of sermonic and academic
works, HEIKO A. OBERMAN has shown that GABRIELBIEL in accord with tradi-
tional medieval academic theology taught that "whether Old or New, both Testa-
ments fall in the same category: Lex," and both their diipensors fall in the cate-
gory of Legislator (The Harvest of Medieval Theology: Gabriel Biel and Lute
Medieval Nominalism [Cambridge, 19631, 119). The medieval academic or sys-
tematic tradition held that the two laws differ only in degree. The law of Christ
fulfilled and perfected the law of Moses by "the interiorization of righteousness"
(ibid., 11zff.). In its interpretation of Hebrews the medieval exegetical tradition
gives OBERMAN'Streatment of the "medieval tradition" (ibid., 119) a broader
base of support.
WA 57.111.5.1~~16:"Notandum in hac epistola, quod Paulus gratiam extol-
lit adversus superbiam legalis et humane iustitie probans, quod sine Christo nec
lex nec sacerdotium nec prophetia neque denique angelorum etiam ministerium
74 HARVARD THEOLOGICAL REVIEW
Luther's introduction deviates greatly from medieval intro-
ductions by not discussing and developing the traditional theme
of the excellentia Christi compared with the angels, Moses, and
the priesthood of the Old Testament. Rather than use the com-
parative theme of the excellentia Christi, Luther tells his students
that Paul in Hebrews singles out gratia and Christus and con-
trasts them with the law, priesthood, prophecy, and angels prior
to the coming of Christ. Paul, reports Luther, intends to discuss
and emphasize "Christ alone and nothing else." One senses that
the words "alone" (solus) and "nothing else" (omnino) have a
polemical thrust over against the medieval exegetical tradition.
Whereas medieval exegetes in general held that Paul in Hebrews
was concerned to demonstrate that Christ is "more excellent" than
the old law, Luther seems to be saying that Christ cannot be com-
pared on the same level with anyone or anything, that the differ-
ence between Christ and the law, priesthood, prophecy, and
angels is not a matter of degree. Only Christ suffices for salva-
tion. Therefore Paul concentrates on him alone. Apparently
Luther operates with a different understanding of the relationship
between the two Testaments.
Research on Luther's Lectures on Hebrews gives us little help
at this point in determining Luther's understanding of testament
and of the relation between the two Testaments- a problem
which provides perennial matter for discussion for serious biblical
and systematic theologians, and to which historical theology also
has its contribution to make. In Luther study, however, Boen-
dermaker is the only scholar who gives any significant considera-
tion to this problem. He does not appear, though, to recognize
its importance in Luther's Lectures on Hebrews, either in them-
selves or in their relation to medieval exegesis and Luther's own
previous exegesis. In fact, Boendermaker finds both similarity
and contrast between Luther and medieval exegetes on the ques-
tion of te~tament.~? I n a discussion of Law and Gospel, Boender-
ad salutem satis fuerit, immo haec omnia in Christum futurum instituta et facta
fuerint. Omnino igitur solum Christum docendum proponit."
in his comparison of LUTHERand
m I t is difficult to see how BOENDERMAKER,
LYRA,could claim that the following quotations from LUTHERand LYRAshow
"important agreement": "Lu: gratiam extollit adversum superbiam legalis et hu-
mane iustitiae. Ly: ostendit eminentiam novi testamenti respectu veteris" (op.
 LUTHER AND TESTAMENT 75
maker simply says that for Luther the Old and New Testaments
are not related to each other as time-periods of wrath and grace.
For in the Old Testament also do we find expression of God's

While the relation between the two Testaments was the major
preoccupation of medieval exegetes of Hebrews, it remains to be
seen what understanding of testament Luther has and what im-
portance he attached to the problem.
Luther's opening Gloss to chapter 3 appears to be traditional:
After the apostle has praised the excellence of Christ, which is
that he was made higher than the angels, he now proceeds to teach
that one should extol Christ in preference to Moses, to whom the
Jews assigned the highest place below the angels. His purpose, there-
fore, is to remove their trust even in Moses and direct them to Christ
alone.58

The traditional elements seem to be the following: the phrase

excellentia Christi, use of the comparative degree, and the word
"preference" (praef erendum) . Luther uses the phrase excellentia
Christi only here and in one other place.60 Here the phrase ex-
cellentia Christi is a part of the following phrase, "who was made
higher than the angels." But actually this latter phrase is a quo-
tation from Heb.1:4. This fact is not mentioned in the Weimar
Ausgabe. The sentence ought to begin, therefore, as follows:
"After the apostle has praised the excellence of Christ, which is
that 'he was made higher than the angels'. . . .7,
Luther is traditional in that he understands the phrase ex-

cit., 27). In pointing out a difference between LUTHERand LYRAon Law and
Gospel, BOENDERMAKER misreads cornparatio (of the two Testaments) in LYRA
(op. cit., 16or) as cooperatio (BOENDERMAKER, 69, 78).

88 BOENDERMAKER,
78.

"'WA 57. 111. 15. 18-21: "Postquam Christi commendavit excellentiam, qua
angelis melior effectus est, iam prona sequela eum praeferendum docet Mosi, de
quo Iudei summam post angelos habebant opinionem, ut sic etiam Mosi fiduciam
ab eis tolleret et in solum Christum converteret." LYRA makes the following
statement with regard to the same loci: "UNDE FRATRES etc. [LUTHER'Scom-
ments are made with regard to UNDE]. Postquam apostolus declaravit excellen-
tiam novi testamenti respectu veteris per hoc quod preeminet Christus angelis, hic
consequenter ostendit hoc idem per hoc quod excellit Moysen" (op. cit., 138v).
BOENDERMAKER does not mention this parallel (op. cit., 34).
" WA 57. 111. 188. 18-19: "Ex quatuor colligit excellentiam Christi et sacer-
dotii eius, aeternitate, benedictione, perpetuitate, decimatione."
76 HARVARD THEOLOGICAL REVIEW

cellentia Christi to be comparative in nature: Christ is greater

than the angels. The thrust of his interpretation, however, is not
traditional, because he does not develop or use the theme excel-
lentia Christi. Nor, secondly, does he capitalize, as did his me-
dieval predecessors, on the comparative phrases in Hebrews.
Hebrews uses the comparative, with regard to the relation be-
tween the two testaments, in nine places: I :4 ; 2 :I ; 3 :3 ; 7 :2 2 ;
8:6; 9:11; 9:14; 9:23 and 12:24. In six out of the nine cases
Luther does not comment at all in his Scholium on the verse.
Though in three cases he does comment on the verse, in two
cases ( 7 :2 2 and 9: 23) he does not comment on the comparative
degree, but on some other aspect of the verse. In the only in-
stance where Luther does deal with the comparative in a verse
from Hebrews (9: 14), he does so in order to contrast the differ-
ence between "purity" (munditk) in the Old and in the New
Testament - the difference is shown "per antitheses.'' 61
Finally, Luther's use of the word "preference" is colored by
the phrase "Christ alone.'' In other words, only Christ is to be
chosen. There is absolutely no comparison between him and any-
one else.
Luther's opening Gloss to chapter 3, therefore, is similar to his
introduction. Only Christ counts for salvation. The traditional
type of introduction is lacking, as well as the traditional signifi-
cance of the phrase excellentia Christi, the comparative degree,
and the word "preference."
As one works through Luther's Lectures on Hebrews, he soon
notices that Luther stresses the differences and contrasts between
the two Testaments: "He magnifies and places before their eyes
the difference between the two testaments." 62 With reference to
Heb.2 : z , Luther says that the law was "valid" only in an "ex-
ternal" way:
Therefore, to fulfill the law is an act of pure hypocrisy which
really weakens it, because the will of the heart sets it goal on some-
" W A 57. 111. 2 0 7 . 9 - 1 0 : "Diversam munditiam novi et veteris testamenti pul-
chre describit et per antitheses deducit." In his Scholium on Rom. I ~ : I("Hos-
tiam viventem") LUTHERdistinguishes between munditi before God (heilig) and
before man (rein) (WA 56.444. 9 - 2 1 ) .
a W A 57. 111. 8 2 . 2 2 - 2 3 . "Exaggerat et ante oculos ponit utriusque testamenti
differentiam, quia illud vetus scil. fuerit timoris, hoc autem novum amoris."
 LUTHER AND TESTAMENT 77
thing radically different from the law, namely, on punishment or
reward. . . . This is the case with every man who is outside Christ.68

Luther continues in his exegesis of the next verse (2:3) by

saying that law and gospel "also differ" with respect to the way
of salvation: "Law and gospel differ also because the law requires
many works which are all external, but the gospel requires one
work which is internal, and that is faith." 84
In his Scholium on 3: I Luther contrasts the law and the gospel
with reference to the way they are presented: "Roaring language
pertains to the law," whereas "a soft current of air," the gospel,
"ought to be presented gently to the terrified and the humili-
ated." 86
In fact, in his Gloss on 7: I Luther explicitly says that Paul's
purpose up to this point "has been to underscore repeatedly the
difference between the Old and the New Testament." 86 Luther
continues in chapter 8 to show the "differences" between the two
Testaments, the "differences" between the priests of the two
Testaments "as regards their office, offerings, and tabernacle." 87
The clue to the understanding of the relation between the law
and the gospel in his Lectures on Hebrews is to be found in his
Scholium on Heb.7: 12, which reads, "Once there is a change in
the priesthood, there is a change in the law as well." Luther says
that this word "law" can have a double meaning. The "inferior

" WA 57. 111. 113. 13-18: "Sic autem firmare est meram hipocrisin agere et
magis infirmare, videlicet quia voluntas cordis longe in aliud respicit quam in le-
gem, scil. in penam vel commodum. Ideo Helias 3. Regum arguit eos claudicare
in duas partes, et aliud agere in corde et aliud simulare in opere. Talis est omnis
homo, qui est extra Christum."
" W A 57. 111. 113. 21-23: "Lex et evangelium etiam hac ratione diffemnt,
quod in lege sunt opera plurima, sed externa omnia, in evangelio vero opus est
unicum, sed internum, quod est fides."
WA 57. 111. 136. 22-24: L i F r a genim
~ ~ ~sermo
~ pertinet ad legem, ut figuratum
est Exodi 2 0 . , ubi in vocibus buccine, caligine montis et igne fulguris terreban-
tur audientes,. . ."
ea WA 57. 111. 36. 8-11: "Huc usque voluit Apostolus saepius ingredi differ-
entiam veteris et novi testamenti. Sed prius ei curandum fuit, ut imbecilles sur-
gerent ad audiendum, nunc vigilantibus auditoribus inducit differentiae rationem."
" WA 57. 111. 43. 18-21: "Summa cap. 8.: Colligit et summam facit dictomm,
quibus differentias personales sacerdotio novi et veteris testamenti declaravit, de-
inceps simul differentias et ex officio, ex oblationibus ex tabernaculo ostensurus."
78 HARVARD THEOLOGICAL REVIEW
understanding" 6s is that "law" refers to ceremonial laws only.68
The "superior understanding" interprets law in the sense in which
Paul uses the word in his Epistles to the Romans and Galatians,
namely, as "everything that is prescribed by God and man, be it
ceremonial, judicial, or moral." 70
Thus for Luther the gospel has completely and totally replaced
the law, be it the ceremonial, judicial, or moral law. The gospel
of the New Testament is not merely by virtue of degree better
than the law of the Old Testament. 1t is completely other.71 The
gospel has replaced the law as the fundamental category of Chris-
tian theology.
Luther's understanding of Hebrews and of the relation between
the two testaments differs fundamentally from that of his pre-
decessors. For them the new is a development beyond the old -
better, more excellent, etc. For Luther there is not development
but absolute contrast. This is the conclusion that one reaches by
examining Luther's Lectures on Hebrews in the light primarily
of medieval exegesis of Hebrews. While the basic approach to
Hebrews for medieval exegetes involved a judgment about the
comparative excellence of the New Testament over the Old, for
Luther it meant that discussion of the new was on a completely
BsCf.BURWS (Additio I1 to c. j ) , 14jr: "Ex quo patet manifeste quod translato
sacerdotio veteris testamenti necesse est ut legis translatio fiat, quantum ad ceri-
monialia et iudicialia tantum; non autem quantum ad moralia; que nullam de-
pendentiam habebant a sacerdotio etc."
" W A 57. 111. 190. 16-25: "Unde hic notandum, quod vocabulum lex hic ab
Apostolo usurpatum dupliciter potest accipi.
"Primum secundum inferiorem intelligentiam, qua significat coeremonialia tantum,
scilicet vestes et ornamenta externa sacerdotum, item hostias et sacrificia carnalium
pecorum, item judicia et doctrinas leprae et immunditiarum ex tactibus mortuo-
rum et similia. Sic sensus est, quod lex translata est, id est huiusmodi coeremoniae
lege praeceptae abrogatae sunt, et ea, quae significabantur per haec, instituta, hoc
est spiritualia atque interior vestis et ornatus sacerdotum."
" W A 57. 111. 192. 16-25: "Secundo potest 'lex' accipi iuxta superiorem intelli-
gentiam, qua incedit Apostolus in epistola ad Romanos et Galatas, ubi per 'le-
gem' simpliciter intelligit, quicquid divinitus et humanitus praecipitur, sive sit
ceremoniale sive iudiciale et morale. Sic sensus est: 'lex translata est' id est per
Christum impleta est. Ipse enim 'finis est legis,' sicut dicit Matthei 5 . : 'Non veni
solvere legem, sed implere.' Hic prima ad Timot. I.: 'Iusto non est lex posita,'
id est ex quo iustus habet omnia, quae requirit lex, iam est extra legem, quia non
debet legi, sed facit legem et vita eius est lex ipsa viva et plena. Ideo sacerdotis
novi officium proprie non est docere legem, sed monstrare gratiam Iesu Christi,
quae est plenitudo legis."
W A 57. 111. 50. 16-17: "Arguit a minori probans Christi redemptionem esse
aeternam, quia aliam quam veterem."
 LUTHER AND TESTAMENT 79
different level from that of the old. Discussion of the new meant
Christ, who could not be compared with anyone or anything.
For medieval exegetes the continuity of the two Testaments
is the law. The Testaments differ insofar as the new law is better
than the old. For Luther the discontinuity between the testa-
ments is the gospel. Christ is in a category all of his own.
I t might seem from such an approach that Luther would have
nothing but disdain for the Old Testament. Of course, nothing is
further from the truth for this Professor of Old Testament. Luther
began his Lectura in Biblia with the Psalms.
Over against medieval exegesis Luther emphasizes the contrast
between the two testaments. Yet there is a basic relationship for
Luther, as can be seen in his approach to the authorship question.
The problem of Pauline authorship is raised in the Lectures on
Hebrews because of the lack of relationship between the two
Testaments in some texts -that is, questionable references in
Hebrews to the Old Testament (Heb. 9:4, 19-2 I ; 12 :2 I ) . I n
contrast, medieval exegetes, with the exception of Erasmus,12
begin with the assumption that Paul is the author and, therefore,
his references to the Old Testament are to be accepted. Further-
more, for them the New is to be accepted because, in the language
of development, the New is a fuller revelation of the Old. I n
his Dictata Luther sees Paul in Hebrews as a hermeneutical
guide to the Old T e ~ t a m e n t ,which
~ ~ only intensifies Luther's
search for the continuity of Hebrews with the Old Testament. I n
his Lectures on Hebrews there is harmony as well as contrast
between the two testaments. And so the difference between
Luther and his predecessors is not simply that they emphasize
comparison and he contrast.
79Prior t o ERASMUS,Pauline authorship of Hebrews was generally accepted,
though discussion continued on the question of the modus scribendi and the stilus.
ERASMUS,in 1516, is probably the first to express serious doubt as to Pauline
authorship. (Novum instrumentum cum Annotationibus, 585, 586, 590.) In h is
1517-18 Lectures on Hebrews LUTHER does not categorically accept Pauline au-
thorship but he does not clearly reject it until 1522.
mHebrews sometimes gives LUTHERa d u e to his Christological interpretation
of a Psalm (WA 3.224.2s). Perhaps a reason why LUTHERbecame so preoccupied
with the Old Testament is that he feels that the old is more Christobgical than the
new: LLvetuslex frequentius loquitur ad deum filium, sicut lex nova ad patrem.
Unde et ps. 101 Apostolus Hebr. I. exponit tanquam a d Christum dictus sit .. . ."
(WA 3. 553. 24-26).
80 HARVARD THEOLOGICAL REVIEW

I t remains here our task to gain a more complete understanding

of the theology of the young Luther on the problem of the relation
between the two testaments. Ebeling recognizes the problem of
testament in Luther's Dictata, but the discussion is brief and is
only in terms of Law/Gospel and the unity of S ~ r i p t u r e .We ~~
will proceed here by examining the question of testament in its
own right. Preus has recently offered the development thesis that
Luther is "medieval" in his understanding of the Old Testament
in the earlier part of his Dictata (Pss. 1 - 8 4 ) . ~ ~The "medieval
Luther" for Preus is one who places the "hermeneutical divide"
between the books of the Old and New T e ~ t a m e n t .In ~ ~order to
examine the development, if any, in Luther's theology of testa-
ment and to organize the material, we will concentrate mainly on
those verses in the Dictata which Luther also deals with in his
Lectures on Hebrews (and where applicable, in his Lectures on
Romans). Other material from the Dictata will be included when
pertinent.

Ps. 18:8 and Heb. 4:12

An indication of the direction of Luther's theology of testa-
ment is given in his exegesis of Ps. 18:8 in the Dktata and the
Lectures on Hebrews. "The law of the Lord is spotless, converting
souls" (Ps. 18:8), which means it is not the law of Moses making
demands on the "hand" (Dictata) 77 but it is the Word of the
Lord, which is "living and active" (Heb. 4:12), cleansing the
"heart" (Lectures on Hebrews) .78
In the Dictata on Ps. I : 2 , referring to Ps. 18:8 and Heb. 4: 12,
Luther identifies "law of the Lord" (Ps. I :2, 18: 8) with Word
'&DieAnfange von Luthers Hermeneutik, Zeitschrift fur Theologie und Kirche
48 ( ~ g j ~208,
) , 211.

JAMESSAMUELPREUS,From Shadow to Promise. Old Testament I n t e r ~ e t a -

tion from Augustine to the Young Luther (Cambridge, 1969), 155.
" Zbid., 16.3.
WA '3. ;28. 17-18: '"Lex domini' non sic Mosi 'immaculata,' Et hoc sic,
quia 'convertens animas' non tantum manus sicut lex Mosi."
''W A j7.111.161.8-11:"Quarto 'per divisionem spiritus et animae' i.e. separans
affectus spiritus ab affectu animali; fides enim ubique purificat cor, Actorurn 15.
et ps.18: 'Lex Domini immaculata' etc."
 LUTHER AND TESTAMENT 81
of the Lord (Heb. 4: 12), with the "gospel," and with the "law
of Christ" which is seized only by faith.79 Faith adhering to the
Word purifies the heart and becomes like the Word, iustus (Ps.
18:8; Heb. 3: 12), both in the Old Testament and New Testa-
ment." The Word (law, gospel) is a message to the heart cleansed
by faith.
The Word of the Lord, as law, as gospel, is received in a certain
way. In his theology of testament in the Dictata Luther refers
often to Heb. I I :I in order to specify this way. Luther defines
"my testament" (Ps. 49: 16) as "the Word of God which testifies
to us about future and invisible realities.'' In this life, at any
point in time, we believe not in res ipsa but in res non apparen-
tium. The Word is "a testimony to the eternal realities them-
selves." The testament is a pactum fidei (Ps. 73 :2 0 ) .s3

Ps. 24 and Heb. 9.

Another cluster of texts involving Ps. 24 and Heb. 9 give us
an indication of the relation of the new testament to the old. In
his Dictata on Ps. 24: 14, cited in the Lectures on Hebrews g : 17,
* WA 55.11.31.4-32.10: " 'Voluntas in lege Domini' facit Christianum, non au-
tem manus. Unde Evangelium dicitur cohibere tam manum quam animum, lex
autem Mosi solam manum; Vemm nec Evangelium est lex Christi, nisi fide ca-
piatur. Lex enim Domini 'viva est et efficax'; ideo non est litere vel verba. sed
fides verbomm alioquin semper sub lege est, quandiu non habet fidem Evangelii;
unde psal.4: 'Signatum est super nos lumen vultus tui, Domine.' Non sufficit,
quod sit signum, nisi sit impressum signum et 'signatum,' hoc autem est, esse
fidem, scil. Evangelium suscipere et fide (credendo) imprimere. Sic Christus per
Hieremiam dicit se suam legem scribere in cordibus eorum, non in mortuis mem-
branis. Quia Verha Evangelii bene Scribunt et loquuntur, Sed non fidem. fides
autem est 'lex Domini immaculata,' 'purificans corda eorum,' ut infra psal.18."
WA 57.111.14j1.20-148.jI: "Fides enim verbi purificat, quia sicut verbum Dei
est purissimum et optimum, ita facit eum, qui adheret ei, similem sui purum et
bonum, et omnino, quicquid ipsum habet et potest, impertit suo adherenti et
credenti, psal.18: 'Lex Domini immaculata convertens animas.' E t Christus
Joan.15.: 'Vos mundi estis propter sermonem, quem locutus sum vobis.' Ita et
psal.50. dicitur Hebraice: 'Tibi soli peccavi, propterea iustificabis in verbo tuo,
mundabis in iudicando te.' Iste est iustus, sapiens, verus, bonus etc., qui credit
in verbum Dei."
WA 3.279.8-9: '''Testamenturn meum,' verbum Dei, quo testatur nobis de
futuris et invisibilibus."
WA 3.279.30-33: "In hac vita enim non rem ipsam, sed testimonia rerum
tenemus, quia fides non est res sed argumentum rerum non apparentium. Ita
Evangelium et verbum Dei est testificatio de rebus ipsis eternis."
" WA 3.491.10-1 I : "'Respice' miserendo 'in testamentum tuum' pastum scil.
fidei et evangelii, quia eternum est, ut rursum refloreat et prevaleat."
82 HARVARD THEOLOGICAL REVIEW
Luther says that the mystery of the new testament (law, pactum)
is manifest only to those who fear the Lord.84
In his Lectures on Hebrews 9: 17, Luther refers to testament
as the promise which was contained in all the laws of Moses:
The apostle here clearly lays open the allegorical interpretation of
the law of Moses, whereby everything in the law was a promise and
sign of Christ. Thus, as seen above, his death, the death of him who
was to be true God and true man, had been decided upon in former
times to be a testament and promise. For since God could not die,
but at the same time had promised that he would die when he made
this testament, it was necessary that he become man and fulfill that
which he had promised.s5

The Mosaic law, then, contains the promise and testament of

Christ. I n the Dictata, on Ps. 24:1o, cited in the Lectures on
Hebrews 9:24, Luther says that all who seek the new testament
which is spiritual will find that "All the ways of the Lord are
mercy and truth" (Ps. 24: 10)
In his commentary on Ps. 24: 12, Luther uses law and gospel
inter~hangeably.~~ In the Lectures on Hebrews 9:24, Luther
asks, "How were the saints of the Old Testament justified?" His
& W A 3.144.22-25: " 'Firmamentum' secretum, vel consilium Domini i.e. mys-
terium nove legis, quod idem est consilium Domini, 'est dominus timentibus eum,'
est apud eos, qui timent eum: 'et testamentum ipsius' i.e. novum pactum suum,
ostende eis 'ut manifestetur illis' et solum talibus."
W A 57.111.211.16-22: "Iste locus Apostoli plane aperit allegoricam intelli-
gentiam legis Moysi, qua cognoscimus omnia illius legis de Christo et in Christo
promissa figurataque fuisse, ideoque (ut superius visum est) sub nomine testamenti
et promissionis olim definitam fuisse mortem eius, qui verus esset Deus et verus
homo. Cum enim mori non possit et moriturum sese promittat (scilicet dum tes-
tatur), necesse fuit, u t homo fieret et sic impleret, quod promiserat."
8B W A 3.144.8-11: '"Universae viae domini,' in quibus ambulant sui, 'miseri-
cordia et veritas,' gratia et plenitudo: 'requirentibus' per fidem 'testamentum eius'
scilicet novum, quod est spirituale 'et testimonia eius' ab apostoli et diicipulis
nunciata."
W A 3.144.1 j-17: " 'Quis est homo qui timet dominum,' q.d. non quero, quis
sit filius Israel: 'legem' Evangelium 'statuit' Dominus 'ei in via quam elegit' scili-
cet Dominus, vel ipse timens Dominum."
Cf. W A 3 .2 78.7-10 (on Ps.49: 5 ) : " 'Congregate' vos angelice virtutes 'illi sanc-
tos eius' in se et aliis: 'qui ordinant' ordinate tradiderunt et disposuerunt 'testa-
mentum eius' legem evangeliumque 'super sacrificia' a d sacrificandum ei et colen-
dum." 4.42.4 (Ps.88:40): "'Avertisti' avertere fecisti, u t non reciperent eam im-
pii, 'testamentum' legem 'servi tui' Christi et populi eius." 4.44.7-9: " 'Avertisti'
scilicet ab illis ad gentes 'testamentum' evangelium 'servi tui,' u t Matt.21 'au-
feretur a vobis regnum.' "
 LUTHER AND TESTAMENT 83
answer, drawing on Ps. 24: 10 and other texts, is that their obedi-
ence to the law was rooted in faith and thus "their works of the
law were at the same time inwardly spiritual and outwardly cor-
poreal, . . . because 'for the saints all things work together for
their good' (Rom. 8:28), and 'all the ways of the righteous are
mercy and truth' (Ps. 24: IO)." 88
The new testament is contained and expressed in the old to
him who sees by faith both gospel and promise in the law. The
new is hidden in the old: "Formerly the gospel was hidden in
word, now it is revealed in voice [from heaven]" (Dictata on
Ps. 28:3).''

Ps. 32:6-9 and Heb. 1:8

On the basis of the texts cited thus far it is not at all clear
that the relationship between the two testaments is one between
two distinct eras of salvation, represented by the books of the
two Testaments. These texts from the early Dictata and the
Lectures on Hebrews raise the question whether the relationship
is between two ways of receiving the one testament, Word, prom-
ise, gospel.
In both the Dictata on Ps. 32 :6-7 and the Lectures on Hebrews
I :8, citing Ps. 32 :6f., the verbum, gratia, evangelium, virga, re-
main constant from generation to generation. In the Dictata
Luther says that the Church "conveys" (transfundit) the Word
from people to people. There are two kinds of vessels: old and
new, that is, "people of the old and new testament." The people

88 WA 5 7 .III.216.2+217.1; 2 1 7 2 1 - 2 2 : "Duae sunt questiones. Una, quomodo

veteris legis sancti iustificati sint, quos his Apostolus negat sanctos esse per legem
iustos et perfectos, cum tamen certum sit opera eorum i.e. legis et obedientiae
fuisse meritoria, quin et multi emendati sunt per illa, ut Lucas I. Zacharias et
Elisabeth et coeteri. Ex praedictis facilis est responsio. His, qui fuerunt ex fide,
erant vere bona meritoria, i.e. dum legem simul intus spiritualiter et foris cor-
poraliter servabant. .. . quia 'omnia cooperantur in bonum sanctis,' et 'universae
viae iusti misericordia et veritas' sunt."
8B WA 3.157.28-34: ' ~ [ ~ V ODomini'l
X Licet vox anagogice sit ipse Christus in-
carnatus, quia sicut verbum induit vocem, sic filius Dei carnem, tamen aptius
hoc loco ipsa Evangelii vox per mundum sonans in apostolis intelligitur. Quia
olim in prophetis factum fuit super eos solummodo verbum Domini, super Chris-
tum autem in monte facta fuit vox de celo, quod significat, quod evangelium olim
erat in verbo et occulto, nunc autem in manifesto et voce."
84 HARVARD THEOLOGICAL REVIEW
are plural, divided into flesh and spirit, but the testament is
singular.90
In the Lectures on Hebrews Luther says that Christ has ruled
his kingdom from the beginning only by the one virga: "the
gospel or the Word of God." Luther, then, draws a parallel
between the old and new testament and the old and new vessel,
the flesh and spirit.

Ps. 44:3 and Heb. 8:ro

Ps. 44:3, cited in the Lectures on Romans, Galatians, and
Hebrews, leads further into the problematic of the twofold char-
acter of the singular testament. I n the Dictata on this verse
("Grace is poured upon your lips") Luther lists various senses
of the "lips of Christ." He says they are "both testaments spiri-
tually heard and presented." O2 Both testaments have the same
character, i.e., they need to be spiritually understood through
grace in order to be properly understood. The Word of the new
law, identified with the gospel and the spirit of the old law, is
always poured out through grace (Is. 5 5 :I I ) . In the Lectures on
Romans, Luther understands Ps. 44:3 to mean that, inasmuch as
the law promises and the gospel sets forth (exhibet) Christ, the
proper reception of Christ is to receive the gospel from the law
and the gospel from the gospel, i.e., to receive Christ from the
word of grace." The point of Ps. 44:3 in the Lectures on Gala-
80 W A 3.184.25-30: '(Sic Ecclesia a generatione in generationem transfundit vi-
num et oleum suum, verbum et gratiam Dei. Sunt autem utres veteres et novi,
id est populi novi et veteris testamenti. E t 'vinum novum non in utres veteres.'
Sic ait dominus, quando voluit facere distinctionem inter consolationem carnis
et spiritus. Quia homo carnalis non capit consolationem spiritus."
" W A 57.111.108.15-109.2: "Igitur quod alii virgam istam interpretantur po-
testatem inflexibilem, apparet quidem, sed re Vera non est aliud quam idem scil.
ipsum evangelium seu verbum Dei. Nulla enim potestate alia regit Christus Ec-
clesiam quam verbo, sicut scripturn est: (Verb0 Domini celi firmati sunt' etc."
ea
W A 3.zjg.1-3: "Quia diffusa est gratia in labiis tuis. Quare hic distinguen-
dum. Labia Christi sunt preter personalia.
"Primo utrunque testamentum spiritualiter audiendo et exponendo."
S3 W A 56.338.14-26: "Quare Evangelium vocetur verbum spiritus, Spiritualis
doctrina, verbum gratie et declaratio sermonum veteris legis et intelligentia in
mysterio abscondita etc. Respondetur, Quod ideo proprie, Quia docet, ubi et
unde gratia seu charitas habeatur, Scil. Ihesum Christum, quem lex promisit,
Evangelium Exhibet. Lex precipit Charitatem et Ihesum Christum habendum,
Sed Evangelium offert et exhibet utrunque. Ideo dicit psalmo 44.: 'Diffusa est
gratia in labiii tuis.' Ideo Evangelium, si non recipiatur, ut loquitur, similiter
 LUTHER AND TESTAMENT 85
tians is that the gospel announces grace, not knowledge.g4 In his
Lectures on Hebrews 8 : 10, Luther says that the Word of the
new testament proclaims that which is of the spirit by the Word
of grace according to Ps. 44:3.95 This set of texts indicate that
the Word, without reference to time, can be received as letter,
old testament, or as spirit, new testament, and it all depends on
the "pouring out" of grace.

Ps. 67:14 and Heb. 6: 12

Up until now one of the main thrusts of the texts has been that
testament as Word of the Lord is singular and that the distinction,
old and new testament, refers to the type of response by man.
Now we can go further into the relationship between the old and
new testament. In his Dictata on Ps. 67: 14, cited in the Lectures
on Hebrews 6:12, Luther identifies "lots" (cleros, sortes) as
"two testaments." Thus the sense of the verse ("If you sleep
in the midst of lots") in the Dictata is that a man of faith lives
between the two testaments, i.e., between the temporal and the
~elestial.~~
Luther uses this verse in his Lectures on Hebrews to draw a
parallel between the Christian and Christ on the cross. As Christ
on the cross was suspended in the air between heaven and earth,
"thus the faithful are suspended between heaven and earth, and
'sleep,' as the psalm says, 'in the midst of lots,' that is, they are
crucified with Christ lifted in the air." 97 The two testaments

est Litera. E t proprie Evangelium est, Ubi Christum predicat: Ubi autem arguit
et reprobat aut precipit, nihil aliud facit, quam quod presumentes de propria
Iustitia destruit, ut gratie locum preparet, ut sciant non ex viribus suis, Sed per
Christum solum legem impleri, qui diffundit spiritum in cordibus nostris."
04 W A 57.II.6o.zc+zz.
W A ~jr.III.1g~.zz-z4: "Novi testamenti haec est gratia, quod verbum et lit-
terae eius docent ea, quae spiritus sunt, et verba gratiae dicuntur iuxta illud
psalmi 44.: 'Diffusa est gratia in l a b i i tuis.' "
" W A 3.386.15-17: " 'Si dormiatis' a tumultu cupiditatum quiescentes 'inter
medios cleros' duo testamenta, vel fide inter temporalia et celestia vivere." Cf.
396dgff.
W A 57.111.18j.z-8: "Quam pulchre coniungit utrumque, fidem et patientiam!
Fides enim f a d t cor fixum haerere in coelestibus penitusque rapi et versari in in-
visibilibus. Ideo necessaria est patientia, qua sustentetur non solum in contemptu
allicientium, sed etiam in tollerantia sevientium rerum visibilium. Sic enim fit,
ut fidelis inter coelum et terram pendeat et 'inter medios deros,' ut psalmus ait,
'domiat,' hoc est, in Christo in aere suspensus crucifigatur."
86 HARVARD THEOLOGICAL REVIEW
coexist as the man of faith lives in an "in between" (inter medias)
situation. The coexistence is permanent because the man of faith
always lives between the testaments.
I n his Dictata on Ps. 90:4, Luther interprets the phrase, "Un-
der his wings you will find refuge (sperabis)," to mean "under
the two testaments you will be nourished through hope." g8 The
two wings are "the two testaments" (sinistra and dextera)."
God protects the faithful loowith both testaments, under both the
left and right wings.lOl

Ps. 1o3:3.10 and Heb. 1:7

I n his Dictata on Ps. 1og:3, cited in the Lectures on Hebrews
1:7, Luther clearly relates the old and new testament with the
old and new law and with the old and new man. I n his fourfold
exegesis of the verse ("Who walkest upon the wings of the
winds") the allegorical meaning of wings (due penne) is "the
two testaments." Luther's point is that the old and new "unite"
(iunguntur, conveniunt) as the old is killed and the new born.
The old brings death; the new, life. Each testament is seen for
what it is only in relation to the other. Every doctor should have
both testaments to teach - to destroy the old and build the new
-so that he does not put new wine in old wineskins.lO"
W A 4 . 6 8 . 2 ~ 2 1 :"'Scapulis suis' doctoribus 'obumbrabit tibi' docebit te fidem:
'et sub pennis eius sperabis' duobus testamentis per spem enutrieris."
" W A 4.68.34 and footnote.
loo W A 4.62.1.
1 0 I L ucites ~ this
~ ~ verse
~ in his Lectures on Hebrews 4:14 to say that we are
sheltered from eternal punishment in the humanity of Christ, our high priest.
W A 57.111.164.14-18: "His enim, qui territi sunt a timore eterni illius iudicii et hor-
rende incisionis et divisionis, non est reliquum refugium nisi unicum illud asilum,
quod est Christus, pontifex noster, in cuius humanitate sola protegimur et sal-
vamur a iudicio huiusmodi, ut psal. go.: 'Scapulis suis obumbrabit tibi, e t sub
pennis eius sperabis.' "
lo' W A 4.176.26-36: "Tercio Penne due sunt duo testamenta, Ventorum, id est
spiritualium hominum, doctorum, prelatorum. E t iste due penne singulorum iun-
guntur, quia vetus et nova lex conveniunt, sicut homo vetus occisus et homo novus
suscitatus. Vetus lex hominem veterem monstrat mortuum, nova vivum novum
exhibet. E t sic amice conveniunt, ut supra dictum. Unde e t Angeli pinguntur et
finguntur duabus alis et Cherubin similiter. Quia omnis doctor duo testamenta
debet habere, sicut dominus Matth. 13. docuit dicens: 'omnis scriba doctus in
regno coelorum similis est homini patrifamilias, qui profert de thezauro suo nova
et vetera.' Quia de homine novo et vetere debet loqui et docere, quomodo ille
destruatur et iste edificetur, ne vinum n o w m in utres veteres immittat, sed in
novos etc."
 LUTHER AND TESTAMENT 87
In the context of the same psalm, verse 10 ("Thou sendest
forth springs in the valleys"), Luther says that "the old and
new law make the same valley," like two mountains having the
same valley. The two "come together in one Church, in one
Spirit, in one base (radice) of truth, in one faith, in one humility,
although in their peaks (vertice) they differ." The Church in
this life exists in the midst of the two mountains, "that is, between
the old and new law which unite harmoniously. Ps. 67:[14] 'If
you sleep in the midst of lots,' and so on. These are the two testa-
ments, two lots, two heritages by which the Church is instructed
in this life." lo3 The two testaments, then, remain separate (ver-
tice) but also together (radice) in this life.
At the base (radice) of it the two testaments are the same. I t
might be more accurate, then, to speak of Luther's theology of
testament (in the singular). The testamentum dei (singular)
equals the pomissio Christi. In his Dictata on Ps. 77: 10, Luther
identifies "testamentum dei" as "the law which testifies to future
grace in faith or to the law of Christ." lo4 Testament is constant.
In his Lectures on Galatians 3 :I 7, Luther draws on Ps. 80:9 and
Heb. 9: 17 to show that in Scripture promise, testament, pectum
all refer to passio Dei -all refer to the death of the God-man
which confirms or validates the testament.lo5 The testamentum
WA 4.179.30-180.9: "Sed notandum singulariter, quod 'in convallibus' dicit,
quia mons et mons habent eandem vallem. Sic vetus lex et nova lex faciunt
eandem vallem. E t ideo dicitur 'Convallii' propter consortium lateralis montis,
u t si mons monti dicat: 'Vallis mea est tue convallis, et vallis tua mee convallis,
quia eandem vallem habemus et communi valle concordamus.' E t hee convallis
sunt diverse Ecdesie singulatim. Nam et multi sunt montes hinc et inde, multi
Apostoli et multi prophete, quorum quilibet duo faciunt convallem suam, immo
omnes convalles. Secundo notandum, quod convalles in radicibus sunt montium,
non in cacumine. Quia scilicet prophete et Evangelium conveniunt in una Ec-
desia, in uno spiritu, in una radice veritatis, in una fide, in una humilitate, licet
in vertice differant. Quia iUa in gloria seculi, ista in gloria coeli altissima est. Et
illa velut p a s seu collis inferior, ista autem superior. Unde et illa ps.41 dicitur
'Mom modicus,' nostra autem 'mom magnus et superior,' sive 'mons excelsus'
Matth. 17. Sic ergo Ecdesia intra medium duorum montium versatur in hac vita,
id est inter veterem et novam legem concordantes. Ps. 67. 'Si dormiatis inter
medios cleros etc.' Hec sunt duo testamenta, due sortes, due hereditates, quibus
instruitur Ecclesia in hac vita."
lW WA 3.552.5-6: " 'Testamentum dei' legem, qua testatus est gratiam futuram
in fide vel legem Christi."
losWA 57.11.82.1-15: "Quia Apostolus promissiones Dei vocat 'testamentum,'
sicut et alibi in Scripturis vocatur, ut p a l . 81.: 'Audi, Israhel, et contestabor tibi'
etc., manifeste indicat futurum fuisse, ut Deus aliquando moreretur et sic in
88 HARVARD THEOLOGICAL REVIEW
Christi is the promise of God (law as well as gospel) that the
death of Christ is to demonstrate (exhibitio) the faithfulness of
God.

Conc2usion
Only one Word comes forth from God. That Word is constant
and the same. I t is variously called testament, promise, law, gos-
pel. Just as "the spiritual law [law spiritually preached] and the
gospel are the same," lo6 so the old and new testament are the
same with reference to God. During the time covered by the
books of both the Old and New Testament the testament of God
is the testamentum Christi. The designation of the old and new
(testament) does not, then, refer to two different testaments of
God. Just as "the law of Moses is not evil or blemished in itself,"
so too the old testament is not old in itself. ('He who does not
understand or teach it [law of Moses] with the spirit makes it
blemished"; so too the testament of God becomes old when it is
received as letter. All who receive the law as spirit or receive
the spirit through the law are "blessed." lo7 The difference be-
tween old and new testament, then, is parallel to the difference
between old and new law, old and new man, flesh and spirit, letter
and spirit - and one could also show that it parallels the differ-
ence between synagogue and church.lo8 The difference between
old and new testament is with man, not with God. The two testa-
promissione Dei tanquam in nuncupato testamento suo incarnatio simul et passio
Dei intelligeretur. Quia, u t Hebre.g., 'testamentum in mortuis confirmatur.' Quare
nec Dei testamentum confirmari potuit, nisi Deus ipse testatur moreretur. Unde
ibidem nono de Christo: 'Idcirco novi testamenti mediator est, u t morte interce-
dente repromissionem accipiant.' H i c etiam concordatur ista differentia, quod
beatus Ieronimus 'pactum' pocius quam 'testamentum' dicendum putat. Nam qui
paciscitur, vivus manet, qui testatur, moriturus est; ita Ihesus Christus ut Deus
immortalis fecit pactum, idem simul et testamentum, quia futurus mortalis, quare
recte idem est pactum et testamentum, sicut idem Christus est Deus et homo."
W A 4.134.20 and 26: "Quia lex spiritualis et euangelium idem sunt. . . .
Igitur psallere est Euangelium et spiritum predicare, citharisare autem est testi-
monia ex lege adhibere (seu legem spiritualiter predicare) ."
l W A 4.306.8-19
"
' (on P ~ . I I ~ : I ) .
W A 3.336.1-3 ; 23-25: " 'Deus repuliiti nos' sic enim apparet coram hominibus,
*
non utendo nostris virtutibus, 'et destruxisti nos' secundum veterem hominem:
'iratus es' vetustati nostrae 'et misertus es nobis' dando vitam secundum novum
hominem.
* Secundum synagogam, ut aediicaret Ecdesiam, sic enim et Apostoli destruunt,
scil, secundum statum synagoge: Iudaei primum, postea et gentes secundum suum."
 LUTHER AND TESTAMENT 89
ments refer to two different types of men: there are old testament
men and new testament men during the time covered by the books
of the Old and New Testament. The difference between the testa-
ments is the difference between receiving the testamentum dei et
Christi as letter or spirit, as old or new.
With reference to God there is one testament; with reference
to man there are two. However, the question is whether the dif-
ference among men is between men or within each and every
man. For Luther in his Dictata there do seem to be men who
during the time of the Old Testament "until today" have received
the testamentum dei only as letter.lo9 Luther's theologia crucis in
his Lectures on Hebrews is that revelation comes under oppo-
sites?1 To see the new is to see the old as old. To accept the
new is to reject the old- a constant struggle.ll1 The cross re-
veals that we are sinners and yet justified. As Christ is lifted
between earth and heaven, the Christian exists between the two
testaments. The new testament will be completely new only in
glory.l12 The theology of the cross is that God is simul absconditus
et revelatus. So, too, Luther's dualism is that man is both spirit
and flesh.lls Thus the relationship between the two testaments is
that in God they are identical and in man dualistic. The books
of the two Testaments must be kept together -every serious
theologian needs both. So, too, in the experience of man the old
is simultaneously present along with the new. In a phrase, we
might suggest the relationship for Luther is simul vetus et novum
testamentum.
The purpose of this paper has been to see what light medieval
exegesis of Hebrews sheds on Luther's Lectures on Hebrews.
The argument has been that over against the medieval exegetical
tradition, the fundamental force of Luther's interpretation is the
absolute contrast between the two testaments. However, in the
light of Luther's earlier exegetical work, this understanding of
Luther in the Lectures on Hebrews is only one aspect of his under-
standing of the two testaments. Luther's more complete under-
90 HARVARD THEOLOGICAL REVIEW
standing of the two testaments is that their relationship is dialecti-
cal. His emphasis on contrast does not mean that the new is an
era of salvation superseding an old era. The new does not absorb
or develop the old. They are in absolute contrast. Yet the testa-
ment is from God and it is constant. The contrast is continuous.
I t is not one of two different time periods, but one of two differ-
ent, and continuously different, types of response to the one
Word, testament, of God. By Anselmian standards this does not
adequately explain, "cur Deus homo?" Yet for Luther the theo-
logia crucis means that the cross is assumed and not argued. The
old and new types of response are possible for Luther during the
time of the Old and New Testaments precisely because Christ
makes all the difference - the testamentum Christ; is the Word
of the Lord to his Old and New Testament people.
Methodologically, the question of testament in Luther's Lec-
tures on Hebrews emerged precisely in the comparison of these
lectures with medieval exegesis. It would seem indispensable for
any future work on Luther's early exegesis to employ this method.
Also methodologically important, the Dictata was examined with
an eye to those Psalm verses which Luther cited in his Lectures
on Hebrews in order to compare Luther's thought associated with
these Psalms over a five-year period. With minor exegetical
exceptions no significant change was seen in Luther's thought.