VERBAL

Must Know
Grammar Rules
for CAT 2017
 1

Chapter 1 Introduction to Grammar

1.1 Introduction

To be able to speak and write effectively, it is essential to be aware of the structure of words and how words
come together to form meaningful sentences which makes effective communication possible. Grammar
includes the rules and principles which determine the structure of sentences. Though, it is possible to
communicate even without knowing the intricate rules of grammar, knowledge of grammar is absolutely
essential for mastering the language. As a manager you are expected to frame right sentence structures for all
forms of communication.

As Grammar is vast, this module on grammar is restricted to certain topics that can help the MBA aspirants
improve on language skills and avoid committing errors on questions asked in the verbal ability section.

1.2 Relevance in entrance tests

In the verbal ability section of various tests, questions on grammar are frequently asked. The questions from
Grammar have not been asked in the CAT exam from last few years, however, it is an extremely important
topic for all other MBA entrance exams such as- SNAP, XAT, IIFT, NMAT etc. Approximately 4-5 questions
in XAT, 6-7 questions in IIFT and NMAT, 8-9 questions in SNAP on basic Grammar and Vocabulary are
asked each year.

1.3 What is measured & skills required?

Your ability to understand the usage of correct English language

Ability to spot and correct grammatical errors

Skills required

Being familiar with basic grammar rules

Practising Grammar questions from tests
Being aware of prepositions, phrasal verbs while reading

1.4 Format of questions asked

Grammar questions can be asked in any format.

Few examples have been given below:

(A) Do As Directed:

DIRECTIONS for questions: Each sentence below has been divided into three parts. Mark the part that
carries an error

1. The elder brother/ is different/ than the younger one.

1 2 3

2. He was either /unaware or indifferent to/ her accomplishments.

1 2 3

3. This is /the man whom/ met me yesterday.

1 2 3
 2
4. He went/ to attend a conference/ at London.
1 2 3

5. I have not/ seen him /from a long time.

1 2 3

(B) Fill up the following blanks with appropriate Prepositions :-

6. I have been here .a long time.

7. I left Mumbai three weeks..and have lived in Delhi .then.

8. .. last month the weather has improved,

9. It has been raining..yesterday.

10. He was killed..a highwayman.a dagger.

C) Cloze Test on Prepositions:

I'm Peter and I live ____(11)_____Germany. _____(12)______summer I like to travel ___(13)______Italy,

because ____(14)______ the weather and the people there. Last summer I took a plane ____(15)_____
Munich to Rome. ______(16)_____ the airport we went to our hotel _____(17)____ bus. We stopped
_____(18)_____ a small restaurant for a quick meal. The driver parked the bus ____(19)_______ the
restaurant. Nobody could find the bus and the driver, so we waited ____(20)_______ the restaurant
___(21)_______ one hour. The driver was walking _____(22)_________ the small park _____(23)_________
the restaurant which we did not know. So we were very angry ________(24)________ him. But my holidays
were great. We sat _______(25)_____ campfires and went dancing ____(26)______ the early mornings.

D) Identify the sentence/ sentences which are grammatically correct

27. a) He had leave of four days.

b) I am hopeless to pass.
c) We have never seen a so good boy.
d) It was so big a box that I could not lift it.

Ans we r Ke y

1. 3 11. In 21. For

2. 2 12. In 22. Through
3. 2 13. To 23. Near
4. 3 14. Of 24. With
5. 3 15. From 25. Round
6. Since 16. From 26. Till
7. Ago, since 17. By 27. Option D
8. Since 18. At
9. Since 19. Behind
10. By, with 20. Outside
 3

Chapter 2 Parts of Speech

Here, we will acquaint you with basic terms of Grammar. This chapter is important as most of the questions
that appear in the tests are based on basic concepts.
After going through the terms, solve the exercise given in the chapter.

2.1 Parts of Speech

In grammar, a part of speech (also called lexical categories, grammatical categories or word classes) is a
linguistic category of words. In English there are eight parts of speech.

1. Noun
A noun is a word used to refer to people, animals, objects, substances, states, events, ideas and
feelings. A noun functions as a subject or object of a verb and can be modified by an adjective.
John, lion, table, freedom, love

2. Adjective
Adjectives are used to describe or specify a noun or pronoun.
Example: The slow, meandering creek sang a gentle song.
good, beautiful, nice, my ...

3. Pronoun
A pronoun is used in the place of a noun or phrase. (known as the antecedent).
Example: The pronoun is a lonely word; it must always be paired with an antecedent.
I, you, he, she, it ..

4. Verb
A verb is used to show an action or a state of being
Example: He is writing an essay
go, write, exist, be

5. Adverb
An adverb is used to modify a verb, adjective and other adverbs
Example: He sat quietly under the tree.
completely, never, there ...

6. Preposition
Prepositions are used before nouns to form a phrase that shows where, when, how and why
Eg-in, above, to, for, at ...

7. Conjunction
Conjunctions join clauses or sentences or words
Eg-and, but, however, so, although

8. Interjection
Interjections are used to show surprise or emotion.
oh!, Good Lord
 4
2.2 Practise Exercise

Directions: Identify the part of speech of the underlined words

1. She was running a high temperature.

a) adjective b) adverb c) noun

2. I am the happiest woman in the world.

a) adverb b) adjective c) verb

3. He has many influential friends.

a) noun b) verb c) adjective

4. Choose the lesser of the two evils.

a) adverb b) noun c) verb

5. Hari is the most intelligent boy in the class.

a) conjunction b) preposition c) adverb

6. A fast car goes fast.

a) verb b) adjective c) adverb

7. She was angry but she said nothing.

a) preposition b) pronoun c) conjunction

8. There is something under the bed.

a) preposition b) conjunction c) noun

9. They live in a small cottage above the lake.

a) verb b) noun c) preposition

10. He cut himself while shaving.

a) adverb b) adjective c) verb

11. She was angry with him.

a) adverb b) adjective c) noun

12. I have other things to attend to.

a) adjective b) adverb c) noun

13. But for cancer I would not have given up smoking. But in this sentence is

a) an adverb b) a preposition c) an adjective d) a verb

 5
14. Practice make a man perfect. Hence, to master your skill you should practise well.
A b

a) Noun, noun b) Verb, noun c) Noun, verb d) Noun, adverb

15. Albert Einstein was a very smart mathematician.

a) an adverb b) a preposition c) an adjective d) a verb

16. Find the correct match of grammatical function with usage (SNAP)

1) adjective 5) You may go after having your lunch

2) adverb 6) It appears to be the after effect of the disease
3) conjunction 7) Many graduates are hankering after jobs
4) preposition 8) He came soon after

(a) 1-8, 2-5, 3-6, 4-7 (b) 1-6, 2-5, 3-8, 4-7 ((c) 1-5, 2-8, 3-7, 4-6 (d) 1-6, 2-8, 3-5, 4-7

17.
1) adjective 5) The fire engine came rushing down the hill
2) Preposition 6. He has seen the ups and downs of life
3) Noun 7) Down with the tyrant!
4) Verb 8) The porter was hit by the down train.

(a) 1-8, 2-5, 3-6, 4-7 (b) 1-6, 2-5, 3-8, 4-7 (c) 1-5, 2-6, 3-7, 4-8 (d) 1-5, 2-7, 3-6, 4-8

18.
1) adjective 5) Rain comes from above.
2) adverb 6. His conduct is above suspicious.
3) Noun 7) Look above the mantel piece.
4) Preposition 8) The above information is for the public.

a b c d
1 -8 1 -7 1 -8 1 -6
2 -7 2 -6 2 -5 2 -8
3- 5 3 -5 3 -6 3 -5
4 -6 4 -8 4 -7 4 -7

An s we r Ke y:

Practice Ex
1. Adjective (modifies the noun temperature) 11. Adjective
2. Adjective 12. Adjective
3. Noun 13. a
4. Verb 14. c
5. Preposition 15. a
6. Adverb (modifies the verb goes) 16. d
7. Conjunction 17. a
8. Preposition 18. a
9. Preposition
10. Verb
 6

C hapt e r 3 B asic G ra mm a r Rule s - 1

3.1 Rul es for Usage o f Nouns

1. The following nouns are used in the same form, whether` singular or plural:
Deer, sheep, fish, apparatus, yoke, pice

2. The following nouns are singular in form but are used as plurals:
Progeny, alphabet, swine, poultry, cattle, peasantry, artillery, police, company, infantry, clergy,
gentry, people

3. The following nouns are plural in form. Their form is not changed whether these are used as singular
or plural:
odds, spectacles, alms, tidings, trousers, intestines, annals, tongs, riches, credentials, proceeds,
scissors, gymnastics, environs, measles, gallows, assets, breeches, wages, auspices

4. The following nouns are plural in form but are used as singulars:
physics, economics, innings, news, mathematics, statistics

5. The following nouns are not changed into plural nor are preceded by an article of indefiniteness (a or
an)
bread, mischief, business, advice, language, hair, furniture, poetry, information, scenery

6. Material nouns like brick, stone, marble, iron, wood are not changed into plurals when they denote a
mass of matter:
7. When a noun serves the purpose of an adjective in a compound word (a word made up of two nouns),
it is not changed into the plural form.
a ten-rupee note; four-mile race, five-man delegation

8. Possessive case of a noun (nouns with s) is used:

(a) with living things.

For example: Mohans cap, Rams school, sisters right.

Incorrect: This rooms carpet must be changed.

Correct: The carpet of this room must be changed. (Room is a lifeless thing)

(b) with personified things. For example: Fortunes wheel, Natures laws, Fates doing etc.

(c) with time or weight or space. For example: Days work, Minutes rest, Nights journey.

(d) for objects with dignity. For example: the Courts order.
(e) in some phrases like out of harms way, at his wits end.

10. When two nouns are joined by and apostrophe s (s) is added to both if we want to denote the
possession of both and to last if we denote joint possession.
Incorrect. Suzys and Juicys father was present.
Correct. Suzy and Juicys father was present.

11. Sometimes s is wrongly put in place of a preposition.

Incorrect. This authors book is not good. (Book possessed by this author).
Correct. The book of this author is not good. (Book written by this author).
 7
12. Double possessives should not be used.
Incorrect: My mothers brothers daughter came.
Correct: The daughter of the brother of my mother came.

13. In the case of somebody else, everyone else, anybody else, anyone else etc., s is put after
else.
Incorrect: This is somebodys else job.
Correct: This is somebody elses job.

14. When we speak of two things of the same class, the word other should not be left out.
Incorrect: Neither his brother nor any member of the family helped him.
Correct: Neither his brother nor any other member of the family helped him.

15. The same noun should not be used first as the object of a transitive verb and then as the object of a
preposition used after an intransitive verb in the same sentence.
Incorrect: The more I think the less willing I am to accept your suggestion.
Correct: The more I think about your suggestion the less willing I am to accept your suggestion.

16. If a noun is used twice and is compounded with two different adjectives, it must be used twice.
Incorrect: What is your opinion about our home and foreign policy?
Correct: What is your opinion about our home policy and foreign policy?

3.2 Rul es for Usage o f Verbs

There are three periods in which any work can be done

Present, Past, Future.

I. The Present Tense

Clearly there are four forms of the Present Tense.

a) Present Indefinite, e.g. He works hard

b) Present Continuous, e.g. He is working hard
c) Present Perfect, e.g. He has worked hard
d) Present Perfect Continuous, e.g. He has been working hard.

a) Present Indefinite Tense is used in the following cases.

1. Whenever there is a customary or habitual activity seen as a whole, e.g. He always greets me.
2. For expressing a general truth, e.g. The sun rises in the east.
3. When we speak of a person or an event, which occupies a significant place in history, e.g. Kalidas is
the greatest writer of Sanskrit plays.
4. When we refer to an authors writing, e.g. Shakespeare, in one his plays, says that Life is a tale told
by an idiot .
5. If a subordinate adverbial clause begins with any of the following words.

When, whenever, until, till, as soon as, before, after, as long as, if, unless future tense is replaced by present
indefinite tense, e.g. I will ask him when he meets me.

b) The Present Continuous Tense

In this case IS, ARE, AM are followed by first form of the verb + ING, e.g. am going, is doing. It is used:

1. When action is in progress, e.g. I am listening to you.

 8
2. When we refer to something happening now but not necessarily at that moment, e.g. I am writing an
article though I am busy these days.
3. Sometimes it refers to the future e.g. I am leaving tomorrow.
4. The following verbs are not used in the continuous form:-
see, feel, hear, smell, know, think, understand, suppose, wish, hope, doubt, prefer, remember, forget,
seem, belong, possess.

c) The Present Perfect

The Present Perfect is formed by putting past participle of the verb after HAS or HAVE, e.g. I have already
resigned.

The Present Perfect tense is used:

1. to express a recently completed action. Example: He has just returned from Bombay.
2. for such past actions in which time is neither given nor definite. Example: I have read your letter but I
do not agree.
3. for actions which occurred in the past and the connection with the present is still maintained.
Example: He has written many poems.
The above given sentence implies that the person is alive and can write poems now also.
4. is used with the words like lately, recently, yet. Examples: There have been many changes recently.
They havent finished their work yet.
5. is used with a time expression. Examples :
I have smoked since my college days.
He has lived in this house all his life.
6. verbs knowing, believing, understanding cannot be used in the Present Perfect tense. But we can
say:
I have always believed my friends.
I have known him since long.

d) The Present Perfect Continuous

This tense is formed by using Present Perfect of the verb to be + the present participle.
Examples: 1. I have been listening to you.
2. He has been avoiding your company.

It can be used:

1. for the action which began in the past and is still continuing.
Examples: I have been typing for an hour.
I have been exercising since morning.
2. for a repeated action in the simple prese nt perfect.
Example: I have been warning him since morning.

II. The Past Tense

a) The Simple Past Tense

It is formed by adding ed to the infinitive past tense in the regular verb. It can be used:
1. for a past action when the time is given. Example: He left this place yesterday.
2. when the time is asked. Example: When did you visit him?
3. when the action occurred at a definite time though the time is not mentioned. Example: I bought this
pen from that shop.
4. for an action whose time is not given but it was during a period of time but now finished. Example: he
played cricket for years (does not play now).
 9
5. for a past habit. Example: He always bullied me.
6. Past subjunctive (it has the same form as the simple past tense in all verbs exce pt to be whose past
subjunctive is WERE) is used after if, if any, as if, as though or wish to indicate unreality or
improbability.

Examples: If we lived on the moon (unreal)

He behaves as if he were my boss.
I wish I were a king. (unreal).

b) The Past Continuous Tense

It is formed by the past tense of the verb to be + the present participle.

Example: I was helping him in that work.
This tense is used:

1. a) to indicate gradual development.

Example: I was getting late.

b) for action which began earlier but continued after it. Example: At that time I was examining papers.
c) when time expression is replaced by simple past-tense. Example: When I came he was changing his
dress.
d) in descriptions also. Example: He was reading a book, his mother was sleeping and his sister was
singing softly to herself when there was a knock at the door.

2. a) in the indirect speech,

Example: Direct: He said, I am working hard.
Indirect: He told that he was working hard.
b) in place of future in the past.

Example: He was studying hard for he was taking test in the afternoon
c) with always.
Example: He was always abusing me. (gives a frequently repeated past action).

3. to indicate a more casual and less deliberate action. Example : I was talking to him the other day.

c) The Past Perfect Tense

This tense is formed with had and the past participle of the verb. It is used:

1. for an action which began before the time of speaking in the past and is still continuing or has finished
recently.
Example: He was in police uniform; he had been with the police force for five years.

2. When the narrator speaks about an earlier action at a particular point of time in the past.
Example: He had resigned when I contacted him.

3. The past perfect tense is used in the time clauses in the following cases:
a) when we refer to two actions first is complete before the second one started.
Example: when he had finished his argument, I started my arguments.
b) after is normally followed by perfect tense.
Example: After he had finished his work I called him.
c) verbs of knowing, understanding etc. except when modified by a time expression are not used in
past perfect tense in the time clauses.
Example: When I had learnt the work I was confirmed.
 10
4. Past perfect tense is used in indirect speech in the following cases:
a) Present Perfect tense in the direct speech is changed into past perfect tense in indirect speech.
Example:
Direct: He said, I have finished the work.
Indirect: He told me that he had finished the work.
b) Simple past tense in the direct speech generally changes into past perfect tense.
Example: Direct: He said, I knew her father.
Indirect: He told that he had known her father.

d) The Past Perfect Continuous

This verb is formed with had been + the present participle, e.g. had been looking.
It can be used:

1. When the action began before the time of speaking in the past and continued upto that time or stopped
just before it. Example: He had been work ing since 3 P.M. so he was exhausted.
2. A repeated action in the past perfect can sometimes be expressed as past perfect continuous.
Example: He had been trying to meet you.

III. The Future Tense

a) The Simple Future Tense

i) Simple future tense is formed by using shall/will + infinitive without to.

Will & Shall form can be used:

1. to express speakers opinions, assumptions & speculations about the future. It is accompanied by the
verbs like think, know, believe, doubt, suppose, assume, expect, hope, feel, dare-say, wonder etc. and
by the adverbs like probably, possibly, perhaps etc. Example: I suppose I will win the match. I hope I
will succeed. Probably he will come.
2. For future habitual action. Examples: Hens will lay eggs. Birds will build nests.
3. With clauses of condition, time & purpose. Examples: If deny he will abuse me. I am sending this
message so that he will be ready.
4. For the future plans. Examples: The President will inaugurate this meeting. He will take two months
leave.
5. Wont is used to express negative intention. Example: wont meet him today.

ii) Going to form is also used to express future tense.

Example: I am going to meet him. (I will meet him).

Going to form is used:

1. for the speakers intention to perform a future action. Intention is pre-mediated, some preparation has
been made and is likely to be performed (not definitely). Example: I am going to speak to the
President.
2. When we refer to the near future. Example: He is going to make a speech.
3. to express the speakers feeling of certainty. Example: Thick clouds are there; it is going to rain.

b) The Future Continuous Tense

It is formed with the future tense of the verb to be + the present participle.
Example: shall be working, will be meeting.
Sometimes present continuous tense is also used for future tense. The difference in the meaning will
be:
 11
1. Present continuous tense refers to deliberate future action. Future continuous tense refers to less
definite and more casual action.
2. The Present continuous can only be used with a definite time and for near future. Future continuous, is
used with or without definite time and for the near or distant future.
3. Will + infinitive should be distinguished from future continuous tense,

(a) the former express future with intention and the latter without intention,
(b) will + infinite can express invitation, police request or command but future continuous can have
none of these meanings.
4. The future continuous can also be used like other continuous tenses, to express an action which will
continue for some time without definite limits.
Example: When I reach there he will be waiting for me.

c) The Future Perfect

It is formed with shall/will + perfect infinitive (without to).

Example: You will have taught for 20 years before you retire.

It can be used with a time expression.

Example: I shall have finished by the time you leave. (This clearly implies that I have not finished.)

d) The Future Perfect Continuous

It is formed with will have been + present participle.

Example: I will have been waiting for my turn for 2 hours.

3.3 Auxiliary Verbs and Modals

Ru le s app l ic able to al l aux il i arie s :

1. All auxiliaries (except be, have, do) are used in the same form for all persons.
Example: I can, you can, we can, he can etc.

2. Auxiliaries are not normally used in the continuous tenses except when it is used in passive voice.

3. Auxiliaries are followed by the infinitive:

a) be, have, ought, used are followed by an inf initive with to.
Example: He is to meet you. He has to work hard.
b) do, can, may, must, will, shall are followed by the infinitive without to.
Example: You may come. You must finish work.
c) Need and Dare take infinitive without to, but when conjugated with do they take infinitive with
to.
Example: You dare not oppose me. He did not dare to speak the truth.

3.4 Subject Ver b Agreement

By Agreement we usually mean that the Number (singular/plural) of the Subject must match with the Verb.
This will be clear if you study the following rules carefully.

1. If the sentence has one subject then depending on the number of that subject the verb will be in
singular or plural to match the number of subject.
Example: A boy is crying. The boys are crying.
 12
2. If the sentence has two subjects which are joined by and then the verb is in P lural.
Example: A boy and a girl are crying. The boys and girls are crying.

3. If two singular subjects are joined by neither.nor, either.or then the verb is in singular .
Example: Either a boy or a girl is crying. Neither the boy nor the girl is crying.

4. If two Plural subjects are joined by neither.nor, either.or then the verb is in P lural .
Example: Either the boys or the girls are crying.
Neither the boys nor the girls are crying.

5. If one singular subject and one plural subject are joined by neither.nor, either.or then the verb
agrees with the subject nearer to it.
Example: Either the boy or the girls are crying.
Neither the boys nor the girl is crying

6. When two subjects are joined by as well as, rather than, more than, as much as, then the verb agrees
with the first subject.
Example: The boy, as well as the girl, is crying.
The boy, rather than the girls, is responsible.

7. (One or more/One or two) + Plural Subject +P lural Verb.

Example: One or more boys are crying
One or two girls are crying

8. (More than one/Many a ) + Singular Subject + Singular Verb.

Example: More than one boy is crying.
Many a girl is crying.

9. Any of + P lural Subject +Plural Verb.

Example: Were any of the boys crying.
One or two girls are crying.

10. None of + Plural Subject +Singular Verb.

Example: None of the clothes is dirty.
None of the money has been found.

3.5 Ver bal Idi oms and Thei r Us age

1. Come and Go
The king of Japan went on a visit to London while I was there.
The inspector is going to our school tomorrow.
These sentence constructs are incorrect. Movement towards the speakers position is given by come
and Movement away from the speaker is given by go. The correct sentence constructs would be
The king of Japan came on a visit to London while I was there.
The inspector is coming to our school tomorrow.

The following idioms to go for, to go to, to go on are used thus

We go to a function. (marriage, party, cinema)
We go for an activity. (walk, swim, run)
We go on a journey or anything involving travel.(picnic, tour, outing)

He went to Bombay by train last night and should be reaching there this evening.
He went is used only when the person referred to has already reached his destination. If he is still in
transit then we must say
He left for Bombay yesterday and should be reaching there this evening.
 13
2. To Say and To Tell
The verb to say takes a limited number of objects which are this, that, it, something, nothing,
everything, a lot, a great deal, little(a few, some, any) words, a word, prayers.
The difference between to say and to tell is clearly indicated in the example below.
He said me a story.
He told me a story.
* said never takes a Personal Object whereas told can take the same.
The verb said is never used with the infinitive whereas the verb told may be used with the same.

3. To Inform
Informed always takes a direct personal object and is used with of, about, or a that.
His brother informed him the good news. (Incorrect)
His brother informed him of the good news. (Correct)

4. To describe, to discuss, to mention

All these Verbs are Transitive hence the following sentences are incorrect.
1. He described about his experiences in Spain.
2. They are going to discuss about the matter.
3. Do not mention about the matter to anyone.
In all the three sentences the about must be dropped to get correct sentences.

5. To order, stress, emphasize

All these verbs are always transitive , therefore the following sentences are incorrect.
1. He ordered for a cup of coffee.
2. He stressed on the need for unity.
3. He emphasized on the critical aspects.
In Sentence 1 for must be dropped. In Sentences 2 and 3 on must be dropped.

6. The verbs, impress, oppress, overwhelm, affect, possess, surround, enclose can take both by
or with

1. I was impressed by (with) his kindness.

2. He was overwhelmed by (with) joy.
3. He was affected by (with) grief at his friends death.
4. He was possessed by (with) the idea of joining the army.

However the following sentence constructs are incorrect.

5. He impressed me by his kindness.
6. He overwhelmed me by his good manners.

Note: If the doer is the subject (as is the case in sentence 5 and 6) then the above verbs take only
with. Otherwise (as is the case in sentence 1, 2, 3 and 4) the verbs can take either with or by.

7. To Comment
He was heard commenting about the subject.
This sentence construct is incorrect. You always comment on something never comment about.

8. The use of Both and Not onlybut

Examine the following sentences using Both and a Preposition

1. He was fond of both reading and writing poetry.

2. He was fond both of reading and of writing poetry.
The above two sentences are correct sentence constructs using both + preposition (of). However the
following sentence construct is incorrect.
 14
3. He was fond both of reading and writing poetry.
The same rule applies to Not onlybut
4. He was fond of not only reading but writing poetry as well
5. He was fond not only of reading but of writing poetry as well.

9. Cannibalism
This term is used when one Preposition swallows another resulting in a grammatical error.
Examples
Incorrect: The house that he stays in Madras is a small one.
Correct: The house he lives in, in Madras is a small one.

3.6 Rul es of Pronouns

A pronoun is a word used instead of a Noun. It helps us avoid repetition of the noun every time we
make a reference to the same noun.

I am young We are young

You are young You are young
He (she, it) is young They are young

All the underlined words are called Personal Pronouns.

Personal Pronouns have three forms.

1. Subject Form - Ask the question Who before the verb.

I (you, we, he, they) ate the apple.

2. Possessive Form - Ask the question whose before the verb.

The Apple is mine(yours, ours, his, theirs).

3. Object Form - Ask the question whom/to whom after the verb
The teacher hates me (you, us, him, them).
The apple belongs to me (you, us, him, them).

Example: Why dont you and me go for a walk?

This sentence construction is incorrect. Here the pronoun takes the Subject form as is indicated by asking the
question who before the verb. The correct sentence is
Why dont you and I take a walk?
For all inanimate objects we use it as the pronoun form.

Example : The desk fell and it split into two.

The baby had its bath.
Note - its as a personal pronoun is often confused with its which means it is.
The university said its closed for a week.
This sentence construct is incorrect. Here its stands for it is therefore use its.
The Pos se ss ive Cas e

The Possessive Case indicates the relation between two nouns placed next to each other, where the first noun
denotes possession or ownership.

Example: The kings crown, the boys book.

 15
Rules for the use of Possessive Case

1. If the noun is singular then we form the Possessive Case by adding an ap ostrophe and an s to the
noun as shown in the examples above.
2. When a noun is plural and ends in s then the Possessive Case is formed by adding an apostrophe at
the end of the plural form.
Example: horses tails, girls school
3. When two Nouns are in Apposition then we put the Possessive Case on the latter.
Example: That is Tagore the poets house.
4. When one noun follows another with the intention of describing the preceding noun, the noun which
follows is said to be in Apposition. In the above example the noun poet describes the noun Tagore.

Ru le s fo r Us age o f P ro no u ns

1. A pronoun must invariably gel with its antecedent

(i) one must be followed by one,

(ii) everyone, anyone or nobody are followed by his
(iii) if second (you) and third person (he) are used as pronouns following pronoun should be you,
your etc.,
(iv) if first (I) and second (you) person pronouns are used the following pronoun will be our.

1. Incorrect: One should not forget his work.

Correct: One should not forget ones work.
2. Incorrect: Everyone is in charge of ones job.
Correct: Everyone is in charge of his job.
3. Incorrect: You and he are aware of their duties.
Correct: You and he are aware of your duties.

2. If a pronoun is the complement of to be, it should be in the subjective case.

Incorrect: It is him who met me.
Correct: It is he who met me.

3. Let is followed by the objective case of the pronoun.

Incorrect: Let you and he work together on the project.
Correct: Let you and him work together on the project.

4. If a pronoun is the object of a preposition it should be in the objective case.

1. Incorrect: This is between you and I that he is a thief.
Correct: This is between you and me that he is a thief.
2. Incorrect: Besides I none else was there at the function.
Correct: Besides me none else was there at the function.

5. Pronoun who is used when the verb is in active voice.

Incorrect: There are many girls whom we know are flirts.
Correct: There are many girls who we know are flirts.

6. Pronoun whom is used when the verb related to it is in passive voice.

Incorrect: Who are you calling to inform?
Correct: Whom are you calling to inform?

7. If a relative pronoun is used in subjective and objective cases (who, whom) we cannot put one
pronoun in place of two.
Incorrect: He met a foreigner who he knew and was a famous singer.
Correct: He met a foreigner whom he knew and who was a famous singer.
 16
8. When a pronoun follows than or as its case is decided by imagining the verb and completing the
sentence.
Incorrect: He is better placed than me in all respects.
Correct: He is better placed than I in all respects. (The completed sentence needs I am).
Compare the following two sentences:
You love me more than he.
You love me more than him.
The first sentence when completed will be you love me more than he loves me. The second
sentence when completed will be you love me more than you love him.

9. the same should not be used in place of a pronoun.

Incorrect: After finishing this novel return the same to me.
Correct: After finishing this novel return it to me.

10. Pronoun IT comes before the phrase of clause to which it refers whereas this follows the phrase or
clause it refers to.
Examples: It is clear that he is a hypocrite.
He hurled abuses at me and this was quite annoying.

11. When the following verbs are used reflexively, a reflexive pronoun must be put after them. Enjoy,
acquit, absent, avail, resign, over-reach, apply, exert, adapt, assert.
Incorrect: He enjoyed during the plane journey.
Correct: He enjoyed himself during the plane journey.

12. Reflexive pronoun is not used after the following verbs:

Make, lengthen, stop, steal, form, feed, qualify, gather hide, burst, roll, rest, turn speed, open, move,
bathe, break, keep.
Incorrect: We kept ourselves away from the controversy.
Correct: We kept away from the controversy.

13. We cannot use the reflexive pronoun in place of a noun.

Incorrect: She and myself will work together.
Correct: She and I will work together.

14. THAT is used in preference to WHO and WHICH in the following cases:

a) after adjectives in the superlative degree, e.g. This is the finest that we can have
b) after the words like all, same, nothing and only, e.g. All that glitters is not gold.
c) after interrogative pronouns, e.g. who are you that should poke your nose in my affairs?
d) after two antecedents one denoting a person and the other a thing or an animal, e.g. the horseman and
her dog that came, have gone.

15. After SUCH and SAME pronouns AS or THAT are used.

Such a threat as he has given is not good.
It is the same book that I had rejected.

16. A relative pronoun should be put as close to the noun it refers to, as is possible.
Incorrect: I went to Peerumals house who was a great painter.
Correct: I went to the house of Peerumal who was a great painter.

17. The nouns like MANNER and WAY should be followed by IN WHICH.
Incorrect: The way we tackled the situation was not desirable.
Correct: The way in which we tackled the situation was not desirable.
 17
18. A noun or pronoun in the possessive case should not be used with an abstract noun.
Incorrect: He cannot bear your separation.
Correct: He cannot bear separation from you.
In the above given example separation is an abstract noun so it should not be preceded by a
possessive pronoun your.

19. Each other is used for two and one another for more than two.
Incorrect: These seven friends love each other.
Correct: These seven friends love one another.

20. WHAT is equivalent to that which and is used without any antecedent, e.g. in the sentence What
cannot be cured must be endured there is no noun before what.

21. WHOSE should not be used for lifeless things.

Incorrect: This is the tree whose shade you enjoy.
Correct: This is the tree the shade of which you enjoy.

3.7 Adjecti ves

1. An Adjective is a word, which describes a noun. It tells us more about the noun.

Examples: Ram is a good boy.

Adjectives can be compared and there are three degrees of comparison.
Positive: sweet
Comparative: sweeter
Superlative: sweetest

For most adjectives the comparative is formed by adding er to the Positive form, the Superlative is formed
by adding est to the Positive form, as can be seen in the example of the word sweet.

2. Elder and eldest are used only on persons and usually refer to family members. Also we always say
elder to never elder than.
Older and oldest are used for both persons and people. Also we always say older than and never older
to.
Examples: He is my elder brother. He is elder to me.
The mountain is older than the tree. He is older than me.

3. Farther means distant and further means additional.

Examples: He refused to go any farther.
He made no further remarks.

4. Nearest denotes distance. Next on the other hand denotes position

Examples: He rushed to the nearest hospital.
He lives in the next house.

5. Some and Any : when the aim is to express quantity or degree we use some in affirmative sentences.
Any is used in Negative sentences.

Examples: He called some of them home.

He did not call any of them.
Did he call any of them home?
However the following sentence is incorrect.
Will any of you clean up this mess?
If the question is a request or a command then we use some. Therefore the correct sentence would be either:
Will some of you clean up this mess?
 18
Will one of you clean up this mess?

6. Each and Every

Each directs attention towards the individuals in the group whereas Every directs attention towards
the whole group.
Examples: Each of the five seats were taken up.
Every seat was taken up.
Note: The verb form is plural in the first case and singular in the second .

7. Little means not much; A little means some but not much; The little means not much but all there is.

Examples: Little is known about the Mayan Civilization. (Little - not much)
A little is known about the Mayan Civilization. (A little - some though not much)
The little that is known about the Mayan civilization is based on speculation. (The little - not much
but all that is known)
Same is the case with Few, A few, The few.

There are three degrees of comparison positive, comparative, and s uperlative, e.g. good (positive),
better (comparative), best (superlative).

1. Single-syllabled adjectives are changed into comparative degree by suffixing ER and into superlative
degree by suffixing EST. Generally, MORE and MOST are not used with them.
Incorrect: He is more wiser than his brother.
Correct: He is wiser than his brother. Exception: When two qualities of a single person or a single
thing are compared MORE is used with the first adjective even if it is a single syllabic word.
Incorrect: She is wiser than shrewd.
Correct: She is more wise than shrewd.

2. Double comparatives or superlatives are no longer used though Shakespeare used them.
Incorrect: These shoes are more preferable than those.
Correct: The shoes are preferable to those.

3. The adjectives which give absolute sense do not take MORE or MOST with them.
Incorrect: This belief is more universal than that.
Correct: This belief is universal and the other is not.
The adjective, like universal, are absolute and do not take more or most. Similarly, we cannot say
more parallel or more square.

4. The following adjectives are followed by to and not by than junior, senior, inferior, elder, prefer,
preferable, superior.

1. Incorrect: This piece of cloth is superior than that.

Correct: This piece of cloth is superior to that.
2. Incorrect: My sister is elder than me.
Correct: My sister is elder to me.

5. Similar things should be compared when we compare two things.

Incorrect: The speed of this car is greater than the old one.
Correct: The speed of this car is greater than that of the old one.

6. When comparative degree is used in the superlative sense we should

(i) use any other if we are comparing the things or persons of the same group,
(ii) use any if the comparison is with things or persons outside the group.
 19
Incorrect: Bengu is faster than any student of his class.
Correct: Bengu is faster than any other student of his class. (Comparison within the group).

7. If two qualities of a person are mentioned both should be in the same degree of comparison.

Incorrect: Phatik is the most intelligent and hard working person.

Correct: Phatik is the most intelligent and the most hard working person.

8. Article THE must be used with adjectives in the superlative form.

Incorrect: This is tallest peak.
Correct: This is the tallest peak.

9. Article THE is normally not used with the comparative degree, but when there is a parallel increase,
article THE is used.

10. If there is a gradual increase, it is genera lly expressed with two comparatives and NOT with
adjectives in the positive degree.
Incorrect: His stand became tough and tough.
Correct: His stand became tougher and tougher.

11. When two adjectives in different degrees of comparison are used in the same sentence both should be
complete in itself.

Incorrect: He is as good if not better than his brother.

Correct: He is as good as if not better than his brother.
In the above incorrect sentence, the two adjectives in two different degrees of compariso n are good
(positive degree) and better (comparative degree). The positive degree will be complete if we write
AS GOOD AS and comparative degree as BETTER THAN. Otherwise the sentence would imply as
good than and this is wrong.

12. Comparative degree should be used while comparing two and superlative degree when we compare
more than two.
Incorrect: Among the three who is more hard working.
Correct: Among the three who is the most hard working.

13. When THAN or AS is used the verb is repeated after each pronoun or noun..
Incorrect: Ghagru is not as clever as his brother.
Correct: Ghagru is not as clever as his brother is.

Us age o f P re di c at ive Ad je c tive

Predicative adjectives are those used in place of a predicate but like other adjectives modifie s nouns or
pronouns, e.g. Sheenus father looked sad (in this sentence sad is a predicative adjective).

1. In a sentence if we want to modify a noun or a pronoun we must use an adjective and not an adverb.
1. Incorrect: Please do not feel badly about it.
Correct: Please do not feel bad about it.
2. Incorrect: The pudding smells sweetly.
Correct: The pudding smells sweet.

2. DUE TO and PRIOR TO should be used as predicative adjectives, but when prepositional functions
are to be performed because of in place of due to and before in place of prior to should be used.
1. Incorrect: He was delayed due to heavy rush.
Correct: He was delayed because of heavy rush.
2. Incorrect: The delay was because of rains.
 20
Correct: The delay was due to rains.
3. Incorrect: The meet was fixed prior to 15th July.
Correct: The meet was fixed before 15 th of July.

3. Verbs of sensation are followed by a predicative adjective, which modifies the noun or pronoun.
Incorrect: The mangoes taste bitterly.
Correct: The mangoes taste bitter.

3.8 Prepositions

Examine the following sentences

1. There is a cow in the field.

2. He is fond of tea.
3. The mouse jumped off the chair.

In sentence 1 the word in shows the relation between two nouns - cow and field.
In sentence 2 the word of shows the relation between the adjective - fond and the noun - tea.
In sentence 3, the word off shows the relation between the verb jumped and the noun chair.
The words in, of, off are used as prepositions. A Preposition is a word placed before a noun or a pronoun to
show the relation between the noun and some other noun, adjective or verb.

Very often the error in a grammar question is the incorrect use of a preposition since we tend to misuse them
so often.

1. A preposition is usually placed before its object but sometimes it may follow.

Examples
Here is the watch you were looking for.
That is the boy I was speaking of.
What are you looking at?

2. The prepositions for, from, in, on are often omitted before nouns of place or time.

Examples
We did it last week. I cannot walk a yard. Wait a minute.

3. There are three type of Prepositions

a. Simple prepositions: at, by, for, from, in, off, of, on, out, through, till. with, to, up.
b. Compound Prepositions: about, above, across, along, amidst, among, amongst, around, before,
behind, below, beneath, beside, between, beyond, inside, outside, underneath, within, without.
c. Phrase Prepositions: these have to be used in the standard form that has been expressed below. Errors
are typically made by using the incorrect phraseology.

according to in place of in accordance with

agreeable to in reference to in addition to
along with in regard to on behalf of
away from in spite of in case of
because of instead of in comparison to

by dint of in the event of in compliance with

by means of on account of in consequence of
by reason of owing to in course of
by virtue of with a view to in favour of
 21
by way of with an eye to in front of
conformably to with reference to in lieu of
for the sake of with regard to in order to

Barring, concerning, considering, during, notwithstanding, pending, regarding, respecting, touching

and a few other words are used without any noun or pronoun attached to them.

Examples
Barring rainfall, we should be able to play the match tomorrow.
Concerning yesterdays meeting, there are many rumours in the office.
Pending further orders, you will remain confined to your bedroom.

P re pos it io ns re q ui ri ng s pe ci al atte n tio n

1. In is used with the name of countries and large cities; at is used when speaking of local places and
small cities.
They live at Andheri in Mumbai.
2. In and at are used in speaking of things at rest, to and into are used in speaking of things in motion
He is in bed. He is at the top of his class.
He ran to school. He jumped into the river. The snake crawled into its hole.
3. On is often used for things at rest; upon the things in motion.
He sat on the table. The cat jumped upon the table.
4. Till is used of time and to of place.
I slept till eight oclock. He walked to the end of the street.
5. With denotes the instrument and by the agent
He was killed with a knife. He was killed by the police.
6. Since is used before a noun or phrase denoting some point of time, and is preceded by a verb in the
perfect tense whereas from is used with the non perfect tense. For is used with a period of time.
I have eaten nothing since yesterday. He has been ill since Monday last.
I commenced work from 1st January. He will join college from tomorrow.
He has been ill for five days. He lived in Bombay for ten years.
7. In before a noun denoting a period of time means at the end of ; within means before the end of.
I shall return in an hour. I shall return within an hour.
8. Beside means at the side of, while besides in addition to.
Beside the ungathered rice he lay. Besides being fined, he was also jailed.

Ru le s fo r Us age o f P re pos i tio ns

A. Prepositions of Time

On: It is used for the exact time, e.g., on Monday, on 16th of September.
In: is used for seasons, months, years and some parts of the day (except noon and midnight)
By: implies upto, e.g. I will finish this work by evening. (upto evening)
For: is used for the duration of action; it is generally used with perfect continuous tense, e.g. He has been
working for four years.
Since: is used for point of time, e.g. He has been visiting this place since Monday.
From: is used for the starting point of an action, e.g. Today I worked from 10 a.m. to 5 p.m.

B. Prepositions of Position

At: As a preposition of position it is used for small towns and villages, e.g. He was born at Naraina
village.
 22
In: is used when refer to big cities and countries, e.g. He was born in England.
Between: is used when we refer to person, e.g. What happened between these two I do not know.
Among : is used when we refer to more than two, e.g. Among all the five brothers he is the best.
Over, Above : Above means higher than but over means vertically above.
Incorrect: This ceiling fan is above the study table.
Correct: This ceiling fan is over the study table.
Below, Under: Below means lower than whereas under means vertically below.
Incorrect: He is sitting under the shade of the tree.
Correct: He is sitting in the shade of the tree
There can be nothing vertically below the shade of the tree. But we can say He is sitting under the tree.
Beneath: means lower position; it is used figuratively generally, e.g. it is beneath my dignity to request you.

C. Prepositions of Direction

To: is used for exact destination, e.g. I am going to my office.

Towards: is used when we refer to direction, e.g. I am going towards the station. It means in the direction
of
Into: refers to the movement towards the interior, e.g. She jumped into the river. (not in the river)
At: is used when we want to say face to face with, e.g.
(i) He was sitting at the table (not on the table)
(ii) My servant stood at the ticket window (not on the ticket window)
(iii) I was looking at his photograph (not on his photograph)

For: Sometimes for also denotes directions, e.g. he is leaving for Delhi today.
Against: means pressing against, e.g. He was standing against the wall when I saw him.
Off: is used when two things are separated, e.g. The aeroplane took off at 4 p.m.
From: is used for the point of departure, e.g. He has come from the club.

3.9 Rules for Usage of Conjunctions

Conjunction is a word that connects sentences, clauses of words.

1. Than: The conjunction than is used in the following causes
(i) Adverbs or adjectives in the Comparative degree are followed by than e.g. This building is taller than
that.
(ii) The phrase no other is followed by than. e.g. He has no other work than cheating others.
(iii) The phrase No sooner must be followed by than because sooner is in the comparative degree. e.g.
No sooner did he leave the room than his friend entered.

2. That: The conjunction that is NOT used before (a) a sentence in direct narration (b) an interrogative
adverb or interrogative pronoun in the indirection narration.
Incorrect : He said that I am quite happy today.
Correct : He said, I am quite happy today.
Incorrect : I asked him that how old he was.
Correct : I asked him how old he was.

3. Since:
(i) It is used in the sense of before and after when the sentence is in the Perfect or Perfect Continuous
tense. In the second case it must be followed by past tense. e.g. I have been waiting for you since
morning. Or No colleague met me since I left the job (Not since I had left).
(ii) Since is also used in the sense of because e.g. Since you are educated I like you.

4. Unless, if: Both are used to signify condition but unless means if not. e.g. Unless you work I cannot
recommend you for promotion.

5. Until, Till: Both refer to time. Until means till not. e.g. I will wait until you come.
 23
6. Lest: means that not. Lest implies negative so not is not used with it. Moreover it should be
followed by should
Incorrect : Work lest you may not fail. Correct : Work lest you should fail.

7. Like, As Like is placed before a noun or a pronoun to establish similarity. As is used when the
noun or pronoun is followed by a verb. Study the following two sentences:
I worked as a slave.
I worked like a slave.
The first implies that I was a slave whereas the second means that I worked hard and I was not a
slave.

Co-relative Conjunctions
These conjunctions go in pairs. Each member of the pair is followed by the same or similar part of
speech or having the same function value.

8. As As: This pair is used in affirmative sentences only.

Incorrect: She is not as wise as her brother is. Correct: She is as wise as her brother is.

9. So As: This pair is used only in negative sentences, e.g. This is not so costly as the othe r is.

10. Although yet: Although goes with yet or a comma (,) in the other clause e.g. Although he is poor
yet he is honest.

11. Nothing else but: Nothing else should be followed by but and not by than. e.g. It is nothing else but
hypocrisy.

12. Whether or not: Whether in the first clause must be followed by or not in the second clause. e.g. I
do not know whether he will come or not.

13. Indeed but: These co-relative conjunctions are used to emphasize the contrast between the first and
the second part of the statement.

Incorrect: He was indeed a popular leader but he could win elections.

Correct: He was indeed a popular leader but he could not win the elections.
In the first sentence there is no contrast so the use of indeed and but is incorrect.

14. Hardly when; Scarcely when: If hardly or scarcely is used in one clause when must be used
in the second clause. e.g. Hardly had he entered the room when the bell rang or Scarcely had he
stepped out when it started raining.

15. Such as; Such that: When such is used for comparison it should be followed by as and when
it is used for emphasis it should be followed by that.
1. Incorrect: It is such an article that I cannot reject.
Correct: It is such an article as I cannot reject.
2. Incorrect: It is such a beautiful dream as I cannot forget.
Correct: It is such a beautiful dream that I cannot forget.

16. Not only but also: While using not only but also three things are to be kept in mind
(i) Verb must agree with the noun or pronoun mentioned second in the sentence.
(ii) Both not only and but also should come before the noun or pronoun they are to modify.
(iii) The part which is to be emphasized must come after but also.
1. Incorrect: Not only I but also he am to resign.
Correct: Not only I but also he is to resign.
2. Incorrect: He is not only known for bravery but also for kindness.
Correct: He is known for not only bravery but also for kindness.
 24

Chapter 4 Rules of Grammar - II

4.1 Rules for Usage of Articles

I. Articles of indefiniteness:

The articles of indefiniteness are used

1. in exclamatory sentences before singular and countable nouns e.g. what a fine picture!
2. if we want to say something about speed or price. e.g. Five rupees a kilo. Fifty miles an hour.
3. with the words LITTLE and FEW when they mean some about and a small number e.g. A few
books were in the library.
4. with (a) singular noun (b) noun complement e.g. An elephant ran amuck. He was a great man.

The articles of indefiniteness are NOT used -

1. with the names of the meals

a) if these are not preceded by an adjective or
b) if we are not referring to a particular meal. e.g. we take breakfast daily (no article is used). It was
a nice dinner (meal preceded by the adjective nice). A dinner is hosted by my friend.
2. With abstract nouns like confidence, honesty etc.
Incorrect: A fear of death haunts him.
Correct: Fear of death haunts him.
3. With materials like stone, wine, wood, iron etc. but they take an article of indefiniteness when they
refer to one e.g.
a) Paper is costly these days (no article used).
b) This tumbler is made of glass (no article with glass) but it is correct to say A glass of water costs
10 Paise.

II. Articles of definiteness:

An article of definiteness is used:

1. With the things which are only one is this world. e.g. the earth, the sun, the moon.
2. When we refer to a specific person, thing or space. e.g.
a) This is the person who instigated the agitation. (particular man)
b) This is the book I need. (particular book)
3. With adjectives in the superlative degree. e.g. This is the best book in the market.
4. With ONLY when it is used as an adjective. e.g. The only thing I fear is defeat.
5. With the name of the (a) mountains (b) seas (c) rivers e.g. 1. The Ganga is a sacred river. (b) The Alps
is one of the highest mountains.
6. With musical instruments. e.g. the sitar, the harmonium.
7. With the titles when they are followed by a name e.g. The lord but not The Lord Byron , The
Duke of Wellington etc.
8. With proper nouns when they stand for some quality e.g. it is correct to say Kalidas is the
Shakespeare of India.
9. With adjectives when these are used for the whole class e.g. The rich, The virtuous.
10. With the different departments or ministries. e.g. The Defence Ministry; The department of English.
11. With ENGLISH, FRENCH, GERMAN etc. when we use THE for the English, French or German
people. If article is not used they means langua ges.
12. With U.S.S.R, U.S.A., C.I.S. etc. As these are general names and can be used for Russia and America
when the is added.
 25
The Articles of definiteness are NOT used -

1. With towns, countries and proper names unless they have general names. So we cannot say The
Bombay, The Delhi, The India.
2. With parts of the body. e.g. It is correct to say You should do work with right hand (not the right
hand)
3. Whenever an indefinite plural is used in general sense e.g. Children are the future nation. (not The
Children).
4. With SCHOOL when it means studying. He goes to school (has started studying). He goes to the
school (to a particular school).
5. With HOME when it is preceded by a possessive noun or pronoun . e.g. I would like to go ho me.
(correct) (b) We went to the home of a friend. (correct).

4.2 Parti ci ples

There are two types of participles

A) Present Participle which formed by adding ING to the first form of the verb. It is used either as a
verb or as an adjective. Gerund which is formed in this manner is used as a noun only.

B) Past Participle is the third form of the verb. It is also use as on adjective or verb.

1. A participle cannot be left loose; it must be connected with the subject.

Incorrect: Crossing the road a car hit me. Correct: While I was crossing the road, a car hit me.
Crossing in the incorrect sentence is a loose participle. We do not know who was crossing the road.

Exceptions: Some participles like Considering, Judging, Regarding, Concerning take on ly an object and not a
subject.
e.g. Regarding your claims I have nothing to say.
Considering your proposal I have said so.

2. The Verbs of sensation (some of them are given below) are followed by a noun or a pronoun + present
participle.

Hear, Liste n, Look, observe, perceive, see, smell, feel etc.

a) I saw him falling.
Verb of sensation Pronoun Participle
b) I observed him laughing.
3. The following verbs are followed by a pronoun + past participle.

Feel, make, like, prefer, want, wish etc.

a) I found the house abandoned. b) I want him arrested.

4. When the words GET and HAVE mean cause something done these are followed by a noun or
pronoun + past participle
a) I got him arrested. b) I have him freed.

5. The following verbs are also followed by pronoun + present participle: Find, keep, leave, catch, start
etc.
a) I kept him waiting. b) I left him weeping c) I caught him stealing.
 26
4.3 Rul es for Usage o f G erunds

This is also called verbal noun because it is formed by adding ING to the first form of the verb. It is always
used as a noun. e.g. smoking is a bad habit. (smoking is a gerund)

1. The following verbs are followed by a gerund: Avoid, help (when used in the sense of avoid), stop,
enjoy, mind, prevent, dislike, no good, no use, keep (when used for continue), detest, risk etc.
a) We do not mind speaking to him.
b) Stop muttering
c) No use waiting for him.

2. Gerund is used when an action is being considered in a general sense. e.g. Saving is better than
spending

3. Gerund is used for short prohibitions. e.g. Parking is not allowed.

4. Phrases like is used, looking forward to, accustomed to, habituated to, tired of, tired with, fed up
with are followed by a gerund, e.g.
a) I am looking forward to visiting you.
b) He is used to telling lies.
c) I am tired of helping him.

5. Gerunds showing physical activity may be put immediately after COME and GO. e.g. Come
shopping with me is a correct sentence and means Come for shopp ing with me.

4.4 Rul es for Usage o f Infi ni ti ves

Infinitive is = to + first form of the verb.

Examples: to go, to come, to be, to have, to do etc.

1. The following verbs are followed by the infinitive. The verbs are
Learn, remember, forget, promise, swear, consent, agree, neglect, refuse, propose, regret, try,
endeavor, attempt, fall, care, hope, hesitate, prepare, decide, determine, undertake, manage,
arrange, cease, seen.

We promise to do it soon.
We learn to get good marks.
We endeavor to help every one.
We hesitate to invite such persons.

2. There are certain words which are followed by object + infinitive. The verbs are Tell, order, invite,
oblige, compel, allow, permit, teach, instruct, warn, urge, advise, tempt, encourage, request, forbid,
show, remind.
He told us to come there.
The commander ordered them to go.
She showed them how to play on the harmonium.

3. There are verbs or expressions which are followed by infinitives without to.
a) Will, shall, can do, must, may, let.
Incorrect: Let it to be done. Correct: Let it be done.
Incorrect: Must we to go. Correct: Must we go.

b) Expressions would rather, would sooner, rather than, sooner than, had better, are followed by
infinitive without to.
 27
You had better tell him.
I would do rather than suffer.

c) NEED and DARE except when they are conjugated with DO, will take infinitive without to.
You need not say anything.
He dares not do it.

d) Verbs of sensation: help, watch, prepositions but, except, make and bid (except in passive form)
take infinitive without to.
There was nothing to do but wait.
He will say anything except abuse you.
He helped me meet the officer. (to can also be used)

4. a) the infinitive is used to express purpose.

He went to Delhi to learn.

b) For + gerund is used to express general purpose of things.

This machine is meant for cutting.

Exceptions: generally no infinitive is put after the imperative go and come. See can be used with
infinitive or without it.
Go and finish this work.
Go to see him (infinitive)
Go and see him (without infinitive).

5. Infinitive can be used after the first, the second and the last, but only to replace a relative clause.
He is an honest worker.
He is the first to come. (the first w ho comes)
He is the only one to be interrogated. (the only one who was interrogated)

6. Infinitive is used when the construction of a sentence follows the pattern.

It is (or was) + adjective + of you (or him etc.)

1. It is good of you to inform me.
2. It was clever of him to evade arrest.
3. It is brave of him to remain firm.

7. The infinitive is used after adjectives expressing emotions like - delighted, angry, glad, astonished,
surprised, horrified, disappointed etc.

1. He was glad to meet me.

2. I was astonished to find him at the wine ship.
3. I was horrified to see the scene.

8. The infinitive follows the sentences pattern; adjective (or adverb) + enough + infinitive.
1. He is old enough to understand.
2. He is clever enough to cheat you.

9. An infinitive may be represented only by to. This is done after verbs like want, hate, hope, try and
also auxiliaries like have, ought, need.
1. You may go or not but I want to.
2. You may not do but I will have to.
 28

Chapter 5 Punctuation

Punctuation can make an enormous difference in the meaning of whatever it is youre writing.

Consider the following classic examples of the change in meaning that punctuation can communicate:

eats shoots and leaves Lets eat, Grandma! Woman, without her man, is nothing.
eats, shoots, and leaves Lets eat Grandma! Woman! Without her, man is nothing.

Lets face it: proper punctuation can make or break the impact of an otherwise well-constructed sentence.
These basic rules can strengthen your sentences with the punctuation they deserve, so that the quality of your
ideas is communicated with precision and clarity

Relevance in the Tests:

Errors of punctuation are frequently asked in SNAP , CET. Approx 2 -3 questions may be given from this area.

5.1 Punctuation Rules

1. Comma-
A. Use commas to separate independent clauses in a sentence.
The game was over, but the crowd refused to leave.
Yesterday was her brothers birthday, so she took him out to dinner.
B. Use commas after introductory words, phrases, or clauses that come before the main clause:
While I was eating, the cat scratched at the door.
If you are ill, you ought to see a doctor.
D. Oxford comma when dealing with lists. It is also known as the Serial Comma or the Harvard Comma.
When using the Oxford comma, all items in a list of three or more items are separated.
I love apples, pears, and oranges.

2. Colon- A colon should be used after a complete statement in order to introduce one or more directly
related ideas, such as a series of directions, a list, or a quotation or other comment illustrating or
explaining the statement.
The daily newspaper contains four sections: news, sports, entertainment, and classified ads.
The strategies of corporatist industrial unionism have proven ineffective: compromises and
concessions have left labor in a weakened position in the new flexible economy.

3. Semicolon-A semicolon to join related independe nt clauses in compound sentences.

Jim worked hard to earn his degree; consequently, he was certain to achieve a distinction.
Jane overslept by three hours; she was going to be late for work again.
The semicolon is also used to separate items in a series if the elements of the series already include
commas.
Members of the band include Harold Rostein, clarinetist; Tony Aluppo, tuba player; and Lee
Jefferson, trumpeter.

4. Parentheses-Parentheses are occasionally and sparingly used for extra, nonessential material included
in a sentence. For example, dates, sources, or ideas that are subordinate or tangential to the rest of the
 29
sentence are set apart in parentheses. Parentheses always appear in pairs. Before arriving at the
station, the old train (someone said it was a relic of frontier days) caught fire.

5. Dash or Hyphen-
Dash- Use the dash to emphasize a point or to set off an explanatory comment
To some of you, my proposals may seem radicaleven revolutionary.

Hyphen: Use a hyphen to join two or more words serving as a single adjective before a noun: chocolate-
covered peanuts. Dont use the hyphen when the noun comes first:
The peanuts are chocolate covered
Use a hyphen with compound numbers: Forty-five. Use a hyphen with the prefixes ex- (meaning former), self,
all-; with the suffix -elect; between a prefix and a capitalized word; and with figures or letters:

1. ex-husband
2. self-assured
3. mid-September
4. all-inclusive
5. T-shirt

Sample Questions (SNAP)

1. Here is my list oranges, garbage bags and a tooth brush. After the world list identify which one of
the following is required.

(a) colon (b) quotation marks (c) semicolon (d) none of these

2. The following sentence has a missing punctuation mark

My mother who is from the village is very superstitious.

(a) Brackets (b) Comma (c) Semicolon (d) Apostrophe

Fill in the blanks and choose the correct definition for the punctuation.

3. _________ is used to indicate possession.

(a) Hyphen (b) Apostrophe (c) Semi Colon (d) Period

4. _________ is used to mark the end of declarative and imperative sentences.

(a) Semicolon (b) Comma (c) Dash (d) Period

5. When a subordinate clause is followed by the main clause, _________ is required.

(a) Dash (b) Semi-colon (c) Comma (d) Colon

6. When no connecting word is used to connect two independent clauses, one should use

(a) Comma (b) Semi-colon (c) Period (d) Colon

 30
Answer Key

1 2 3 4 5 6
a b b d c b

5.2 Practise Exercise

Use appropriate punctuation marks in the following sentences.

1. The men in question Harold Keene, Jim Peterson, and Gerald Greene deserve awards.
2. Several countries participated in the airlift Italy, Belgium, France, and Luxembourg.
3. Only one course was open to us surrender, said the ex-major, and we did.
4. Judge Carswell later to be nominated for the Supreme Court had ruled against civil rights.
5. In last week's New Yorker, one of my favorite magazines, I enjoyed reading Leland's article How Not
to Go Camping.
6. Yes, Jim said, I'll be home by ten.
7. There was only one thing to do study till dawn.
8. Montaigne wrote the following A wise man never loses anything, if he has himself.
9. The following are the primary colors red, blue, and yellow.
10. Arriving on the 8 10 plane were Liz Brooks, my old roommate her husban d and Tim, their son.
11. When the teacher commented that her spelling was poor, Lynn replied All the members of my family
are poor spellers. Why not me?
12. He used the phrase you know so often that I finally said No, I don't know.
13. The automobile dealer handled three makes of cars Volkswagens, Porsches, and Mercedes Benz.
14. Though Phil said he would arrive on the 9 19 flight, he came instead on the 10 36 flight.
15. Whoever thought said Helen that Jack would be elected class president?
16. In baseball, a show boat is a man who shows off.
17. The minister quoted Isaiah 5 21 in last Sunday's sermon.
18. There was a very interesting article entitled The New Rage for Folk Singing in last Sunday's New
York Times newspaper.
19. Whoever is elected secretary of the club Ashley, or Chandra, or A isha must be prepared to do a great
deal of work, said Jumita, the previous secretary.
20. Darwin's On the Origin of Species 1859 caused a great controversy when it appeared
 31
Answer Key

1. The men in question (Harold Keene, Jim Peterson, and Gerald Greene) deserve awards.
2. Several countries participated in the airlift: Italy, Belgium, France, and Luxembourg.
3. "Only one course was open to us : surrender," said the ex-major, "and we did."
4. Judge Carswell--later to be nominated for the Supreme Court--had ruled against civil rights.
5. In last week's New Yorker, one of my favorite magazines, I enjoyed reading Leland's article "How
Not to Go Camping. "
6. "Yes, "Jim said, "I'll be home by ten. "
7. There was only one thing to do--study till dawn.
8. Montaigne wrote the following: "A wise man never loses anything, if he has himself. "
9. The following are the primary colors : red, blue, and yellow.
10. Arriving on the 8:10 plane were Liz Brooks, my old roommate; her husband; and Tim, their son.
11. When the teacher commented that her spelling was poor, Lynn replied, "All the members of my
family are poor spellers. Why not me? "
12. He used the phrase "you know" so often that I finally said, "No, I don't know."
13. The automobile dealer handled three makes of cars: Volkswagens, Porsches, and Mercedes Benz.
14. Though Phil said he would arrive on the 9:19 flight, he came instead on the 10:36 flight.
15. "Whoever thought," said Helen, "that Jack would be elected class president? "
16. In baseball, a "show boat" is a man who shows off.
17. The minister quoted Isaiah 5:21 in last Sunday's sermon.
18. There was a very interesting article entitled "The New Rage for Folk Singing" in last Sunday's New
York Times newspaper.
19. "Whoever is elected secretary of the club--Ashley, or Chandra, or Aisha--must be prepared to do a
great deal of work," said Jumita, the previous secretary.
20. Darwin's On the Origin of Species (1859) caused a great controversy when it appeared.
 32

Chapter 6 Figures of Speech

A figure of speech is a word or phrase that has a meaning other than the literal meaning. There are
many different types of figures of speech in the English language. We will give you examples of
some of the most commonly used types here.

Relevance: 2-3 questions on figures are generally asked in SNAP test. Once in a while we do see in
XAT and other tests.
Sometimes the words pun, irony, metaphor are also used to describe authors tone in the passage.
Hence a quick reading with examples on this topic will help you.

6.1 Examples of Figures of Speech- In this section we shall cover few important figures of
speech.

Alliteration

Alliteration is the repetition of the beginning sounds of neighbouring words.

Examples are:

She sells seashells.

Walter wondered where Winnie was.
Blue baby bonnets
Nick needed new notebooks.
Fred fried frogs.

Anaphora (Repetition)

Anaphora is a technique where several phrases (or verses in a poem) begin with the same word or words.

Examples are:

I came, I saw, I conquered - Julius Caesar

Mad world! Mad kings! Mad composition! - King John II, William Shakespeare
It was the best of times, it was the worst of times, it was the age of wisdom, it was the age of
foolishness - A Tale of Two Cities, Charles Dickens
With malice toward none; with charity for all; with firmness in the right - Abraham Lincoln
We shall not flag or fail. We shall go on to the end... we shall never surrender - Winston Churchill

Euphemism

Euphemism is a mild, indirect, or vague term substituting for a harsh, blunt, or offensive term.

Examples are:

'A little thin on top' instead of 'going bald'

'Homeless' instead of 'bum'
'Letting him go' instead of 'firing him'
'Passed away' instead of 'died'
'Economical with the truth' instead of 'liar'
 33
Hyperbole

Hyperbole uses exaggeration for emphasis or effect.

Examples are:

Ive told you a hundred times

It cost a billion dollars
I could do this forever
She is older than dirt
Everybody knows that

Irony

Irony is when there is a contrast between what is said and what is meant, or between apearance and reality.

Examples are:

How nice! she said, when I told her I had to work all weekend. (Verbal irony)
A traffic cop gets suspended for not paying his parking tickets. (Situational irony)
The Titanic was said to be unsinkable but sank on its first voyage. (Situational irony)
The audience knows the killer is hiding in a closet in a scary movie but the actors do not. (Dramatic
irony)
One of the identical twins says to the other, "You're ugly!"
I saw a fish drowning.
Many things can be preserved in alcohol. Dignity is not one of them.
Never argue with a fool. People might not know the difference.
Marriage is the leading cause of divorce
I have been down so long, it looks like up to me.

Metaphor

Metaphor compares two unlike things or ideas.

Examples are:

He was a lion in the fight, it is Metaphor.

The camel is the ship of the desert.
Life is a dream.
The news was a dragger to his heart.
Revenge is a kind of wild justice.
Heart of stone
Time is money
The world is a stage
She is a night owl
He is an ogre

Onomatopoeia

Onomatopoeia is a word that sounds like what it is describing.

Examples are:

Whoosh
Splat
 34
Buzz
Click
Oink

Antithesis

In Antithesis, a striking opposition or contrast of words or sentiments is made in the same sentence. It is
employed to secure emphasis.

Examples are:

Man proposes, but God disposes.

Not that I loved Caesar less, but I loved Rome more.
Speech is silver, but Silence is Gold.
Many are called, but few are chosen.
To err is human, but to forgive on divine.

Oxymoron

Oxymoron is special type of Antithesis, whereby two contradictory qualities are predicted at once of the same
thing.

Examples are:

So innocent arch, so cunningly simple.

Peace force
Jumbo shrimp
Small crowd
Free market
She accepted it as the kind cruelty of surgeons knife.
His honor rooted in dishonor stood.
Faith unfaithful kept him falsely true.

Personification

Personification is giving human qualities to non-living things or ideas. In Personification, inanimate objects
and abstract notions are spoken of as having life and intelligence.

Examples are:

Time flies
The flowers nodded
Snowflakes danced
Thunder grumbled
Fog crept in
The wind howled
Death lays its icy hands on King.
Pride goes forth on horseback, grand and gay.
Laughter is holding her both sides.

Simile

Simile is a comparison between two unlike things using the words "like" or "as."

Examples are:
 35
As slippery as an eel
Like peas in a pod
As blind as a bat
Eats like a pig
As wise as an owl

Apostrophe

An Apostrophe is a direct address to the dead, to the absent, or to a personified object or idea. This figure is a
special form of Personification.

Examples are:

Milton! You should not be living at this hour.

Friend! I know not which way I must look for comfort.
Roll on! Thou deep and dark blue Ocean, roll.
Death! Where is thy sting? O Grave! Where is thy victory?
Using Synecdoche

Understatement

Understatement is when something is said to make something appear less important or less serious.

Examples are

It's just a scratch - referring to a large dent

It's a litttle dry and sandy - referring to the driest desert in the world
The weather is a little cooler today - referring to sub-zero temperatures
It was interesting - referring to a bad or difficult experience
It stings a bit - referring to a serious wound or injury

Epigram:

An Epigram is a brief pointed saying frequently introducing antithetical ideas which excite surprise and arrest
attention.

Examples are:

In the midst of life, we are in death.

Art lies in concealing art.

He makes no friend who never made a foe.
A man cannot be too careful in the choice of his enemies.
The child is the father of the man.
Fools rush in where angels fear to tread.

Pun

A pun, also called paronomasia, involves a word play which suggests two or more meanings, by exploiting
multiple meanings of words, or of similar-sounding words, for an intended humorous or rhetorical effect. Puns
are constructions used in jokes and idioms whose usage and meaning are entirely local to a particular language
and its culture. To be understood, puns require a large vocabulary.

Examples are:
 36
The math teacher was an exponent of his own powers.
I work as a baker because I knead the dough.
A dog gave birth to puppies near the road and was cited for littering.
Our social studies teacher says that her globe means the world to her.
Do hotel managers get board with their jobs?
I met a man who loves eating couches. I think he has a suite tooth.
Dieting is a matter of life and breadth.
Without geometry, life is pointless.
The best way to communicate with a fish is to drop them a line.
I wondered why the baseball kept getting bigger.

6.2 Practi se Exerci se

Identify the figures of speech in the following sentences:

1. As proud as a peacock. (SNAP- based on memory)

(a) Metaphor (b) Simile (c) Apostrophe (d) Epigram

2. Death lays his icy hand on kings. (SNAP- based on memory)

(a) Personification (b) Exclamation (c) Simile (d) Anticlimax

3. Turn off your television sets. Turn them off now! Turn them off right now! Turn them off and leave
them off. Turn them off right in the middle of this sentence I'm speaking to you now.

(a) antithesis (b) litotes (c) anaphora (d) understatement

4. Substituting the word euthanasia for mercy killing" or "killing the terminally ill"

(a) hyperbole (b) euphemism (c) assonance (d) oxymoron

5. I had so much homework last night that I needed a pickup truck to carry all my books home!

(a) synechdoche (b) onomatopoeia (c) pun (d) hyperbole

6. The chug-a, chug-a, chug-a of the train echoed down the hill, while a cloud of smoke rose up to the
blue western sky.

(a) simile (b) metonymy (c) anaphora (d) onomatopoeia

7. But the prisoner would not answer, he only lay with wide, dark, bright, eyes, like a bound animal.

(a) oxymoron (b) euphemism (c) anaphora (d) personification

8. Pitching pennies with the Pittsburgh P irates in a pitter-patter of rain outside the Pitti Palace.

(a) chiasmus (b) alliteration (c) pun (d) oxymoron

 37
9. O! Western wind, when wilt thou blow

That the small rain down can rain?

Christ, that my love were in my arms,
And I in my bed again!

(a) litote (b) paradox (c) apostrophe (d) anaphora

10. The earth laughs beneath my heavy feet

At the blasphemy in my old jangly walk

(a) euphemism (b) simile (c) antithesis (d) personification

Answer key
1. b
2. a
3. c
4. b
5. d
6. d
7. a
8. b
9. c
10. d
 38

List of Grammar Terms

I. Units of Meaning ( Big to Small)

Sentence - A sentence is the basic unit that constitutes a declarative or interrogative statement. With the
exception of single-word imperatives (such as Look!) a sentence contains at least two words and consists of a
subject and a predicate. A simple sentence contains a single clause. A compound sentence contains more than
one clause.

Clause - A clause is a group of words that contains a subject and a predicate. We can distinguish main
clauses, which can stand as sentences in their own right, and subordinate clauses which cannot. Examples:
Free-standing main clause: My brother likes fast cars.
Two coordinated main clauses: My brother likes fast cars, but he drives badly.
A main clause and a subordinate clause: He likes cars which can go fast.

Phrase - A phrase is a group of words which form a single unit of meaning. Examples:
The man in the red shirt is a phrase, but so is the red shirt on its own.

Nonrestrictive Phrase -- A subordinate clause that is not essential to the meaning of the sentence but adds a
relevant detail.

Restrictive Phrase -- A subordinate clause that is essential in specifying something about the thing it
modifies.
Nonrestrictive Phrase example: I gave a few coins to the street musician, who gave me a smile back.
Restrictive Phrase example: I gave a few coins to the street musician who played the sweetest song.

Word - a word is the smallest complete free-standing unit of meaning in a language. Words come into several
different categories which we call "parts of speech". These are detailed below.

II. Structural elements of a sentence

Subject : The subject is the main actor or the main topic of a sentence. In a basic declarative sentence, the
subject comes before the verb. The subject may be just a single pronoun or noun, such as He or The cat ; but
in many sentences it is may be quite a bit more, including adjectives, prepositional phrases, relative clauses or
more. In this example, all the words in red make up the subject
Example: The old man in the red shirt who's talking too loudly is my uncle.

Verb : See Parts of speech chapter

Predicate : Everything in a sentence that is not the subject. The predicate includes the verb, or verbs, plus
any other elements that may be present, notably objects or adverb phrases

Direct Object : The direct object is the entity (person, thing, process) that is directly concerned by the action
expressed through the verb, or is the entity that explains the action or process. It is the complement of a
transitive verb. It can be a pronoun, a noun, a noun phrase, or more than one of these.

Examples: I like chocolate / I like them / I like people who are friendly /
I like people who are friendly and don't smoke cigarettes, including you.
 39
Indirect object : The indirect object is the person or entity that is the recipient of the action, or for whom the
action is done. When the indirect object follows the direct object, it is introduced with the preposition to; but
if it precedes the direct object, to is omitted.
Examples: I gave a bone to the dog
I gave the dog a bone / I gave it a bone.

Main clause : The main clause is the principal clause in a sentence. There can be one main clause or more in a
sentence; if this is the case, the main clauses will be separated by a semli-colon (;), or by a coordinating
conjunction such as and, but or yet.

Subordinate clause: A subordinate or dependent clause cannot exist without a main clause. It is normally
introduced by a subordinating conjunction, such as since, if, because or as, or by a relative pronoun such as
who or that.
Examples: You can go home now if you've finished your project.
As I said, there are no tickets left for the concert.
When he reached Manchester, he looked for a hotel.

III. Other grammatical terms A-Z

Apposition : Normally a direct sequence of two nouns, with no intervening preposition, which both refer to
the same entity :
Examples: Prince William / The car, a Jaguar, ..
The painting, a work by Rembrandt,....
In English, except in titles (such as Doctor Jekyll ), the second or "apposed" noun requires a determiner,
normally an article. Apposition should not be confused with compound nouns, in which two nouns placed
next to each other refer to different things; for example The shop window

Aspect : In English, verbs can be expressed in two aspects, the simple aspect (such as I drink) or the
progressive aspect (such as I am drinking).

Auxiliary : A verb that comes before a main verb to designate a tense, a modality or the passive voice. The
basic auxiliaries are be and have: modal auxiliaries are will, shall, may, might, must, can, be able to and their
other forms.

Consecutive verbs: Verbs that can be followed directly by a second verb, with no intervening noun or
pronoun (as in I like playing football).

Complement : the main element of the predicate after the verb. See object above.

Conjunctive adverb : A type of connector, a type of sentence adverb used to express a particular relationship
between a first clause and a second clause that follows. Examples: Therefore, however, similarly.

Connector : a word that links two similar items (words, phrases, clauses) . Connectors are either
conjunctions or conjunctive adverbs.

Declarative : A declarative sentence is a normal sentence, which is neither an interrogative sentence

(question), nor an exclamation, nor an imperative . A declarative sentence can be affirmative or negative.
 40
Examples: The man is sitting on a chair, and The man is not sitting on a chair are both declarative
statements.

Determiner : Determiners are used at the start of a noun phrase. The most common determiners are articles;
but determiners also include de monstratives, numerals, or possessive determiners. All nouns or noun phrases
require a determiner unless they are used as generalisations.
Examples: The man is eating his dinner, and That man is eating chips.

Gerund : a Gerund is a type of -ing word. To distinguish gerunds from present participles, see

Imperative : the form of the verb that we use when we give an order or a command.

Indicative : In English, almost all verbs are used in the indicative mood. The subjunctive, the other principal
mood, is rare

Intensifier : a type of adverb that is used to give extra force to the meaning of an adjective. Examples: very
/ extremely / most / highly

Modal verb : Modal verbs, or modal auxiliaries, such as can or must, are used to express possibility,
obligation, probability or futurity.

Modify : in grammar, the word modify most commonly means to give a specific meaning to a noun or verb.
Modifiers include adjectives, adverbs and prepositional phrases

Mood : In English there are two moods, the indicative and the subjunctive. The subjunctive is very rarely
used.

Participle : participles are nonfinite forms of verbs. This means that they cannot by themselves function as
the verb of a sentence, but must be coupled to an auxiliary. English has tw o participles, the present participle
ending in -ing, and the past participle most commonly ending in -ed.

Predicate : one of the two essential constituents of a sentence, the other one being the subject. The predicate
is made up of everything in the sentence that is not contained in the subject. In a normal affirmative sentence,
it follows the subject. It must contain a verb.

Punctuation : an aspect of syntax, punctuation consists of a small number of symbols that are used to delimit,
when necessary, words, phrases or sentences.

Quantifier : A quantifier expresses an imprecise or undefined quantity; it can be contrasted with a number
that expresses a precise quantity. Quantifiers include words such as some, many, a few, several.

Relative : A relative clause is a clause introduced by a relative pronoun such as who, which, whose etc.

Subject : the actor or topic of a sentence. In a simple sentence, the subject comes first, before the predicate.

Style : the manner in which ideas are expressed as words. Style can be anything from formal to informal, or
oral to written.
 41
Superlative : the highest degree of an adjective or adverb. Superlatives are formed either by adding -est to a
the adjective or adverb

Syntax : an aspect of grammar, syntax deals with the way in which words are organised and ordered. It
includes word order and punctuation.

Tense : tenses are specific forms of verbs which are used to situate an action in time.

Transitive : Verbs are either transitive or intransitive. Some verbs are always one or the other, some verbs
can be either depending on their use. A transitive verb is a verb that must have a direct object.
Example: The dog was barking / The dog was eating a bone
In the first example, barking is intransitive. It cannot take an object. In the second example, eating is used
transitively, because there is an object bone. The verb eat can also be used intransitively, i.e. with no object,
as in : The dog was eating.

Voice : A key factor describing the way in which a verb is used. There are two voices, the active and the
passive.

Active Voice -- A sentence style in which the subject performs the action. Usually preferable to passive voice
unless the passive is specifically called for.

Passive Voice -- a sentence style in which the action is performed on the subject. Usually inferior to the active
voice unless specifically called for.

Active Voice example: Lightning struck the tree.

Passive Voice example: The tree was struck by lightning.
 42

Grammar Practice - 01

DO AS DIRECTED:

(A) Write out the following sentences, the nouns in brackets into the Plural Number :

1. The (negro) were not fond of (tomato)-, they preferred (potato).

2. The (buffalo) were stung by (mosquito).
3. The (hero) rode in their (pony).
4. They paid (tax) on the (cargo).
5. The (wolf) attacked the (calf) but were driven by a group of (dwarf).

(B) Which of the two words given in brackets is correct? Strike out the wrong word:-

6. The (scenery /.sceneries) of Kashmir delight us.

7. The Negroes have grisly (hair / hairs).
8. The news (is / are) good.
9. Do you like Miltons (poetry / poetries)?

(C) Choose the correct form of the verbs given in brackets:-

10. The wages of sin (is/are) death.

11. Evil (is/was) the news we heard.
12. The tidings (is/ are) false.
13. Mathematics (is / are) his favourite study.
 43

Grammar Practice - 02

DIRECTIONS for questions 1-20: in the sentences given below, there is some error in the use of nouns.
Correct the sentences

1. He gave/ us some /good advices.

2. My circumstance is bad.

3. I like vegetable.

4. The sceneries of Kashmir are very charming.

5. She had sold all her furnitures.

6. These news are good.

7. I am learning a new poetry.

8. The riches should help the poor.

9. Her hairs are black.

10. The cattles are grazing.

11. He turned a deaf ear to the advices of his teacher

12. The sceneries of Kashmir delight us.

13. His hairs have turned grey

14. He has many grey hair on his head.

15. Second-hand furnitures were put to auction

16. Will you please tell me the reason of an earthquake?

17. You have a good cause for fighting.

18. The boys are walking in the centre of the road

19. His hat was blown off by the strong air.

20. This house is built of stones.

 44

Grammar Practice - 03

DO AS DIRECTED:

(A) Out of the five answers (A, B, C, D and E) choose the one that is correct.

A. who B. which C. that

D. as E. what

1. This is the beggar _________ stole my purse.

2. I am your king, __________ will lead you.
3. This is the dress __________ needs to be changed
4. He is as intelligent ___________ his brother.
5. This is the horse ________ won the race.

(B) Fill up the blanks with I or me:-

6. He is taller than____________.
7. Ali and _________were invited.
8. He invited Hari and__________ to tea.

(C) Fill up the blanks with 'we or 'us ;-

9. All of________were present.
10. Do they know better than_________?
11. They are stronger than_________.

(D) Fill up the blanks with 'he' or 'him'-

12. I am older than__________
13. Who is talking? It is _________.
14. I sent for you and__________.

(E) In each of the following questions there are eight answers marked A, B, C, D, E, F, G and H.
Only one of these answers is correct. Choose the correct answer:-

(A) myself (B) ourselves (C) yourself (D) yourselves

(E). itself (F) himself (G) herself (H) themselves

15. Rama has hurt __________.

16. I __________ saw her singing and dancing.
17. The boys hid __________.
18. The prisoner hanged __________.
 45
The following sentences carry some errors. Identify the errors and correct the sentences:-

19. This is the best of the two books on this subject.

20. Solomon was wiser than all the Jewish Kings.
21. Who is tallest, you or I?
22. It is more hotter today than yesterday.
23. Death is more preferable than dishonor.
24. I am junior than you by two years.
25. I have given you a most complete account of my travels in Italy.
26. Her command over the English is the most excellent.
27. he has not some money with him.
28. I gave him a few books I had.

Fill in the blanks with 'Much' or 'Many':- '

29. I saw..........birds on the tree.
30. She spent.........money on her daughter's marriage-
31. men were not present there.

Fill in the blanks with 'Farther' or Further:-

32. I have nothing..........to say:"
33. Delhi is.........from Mumbai than Surat.
34. Untilorders, you act as Headmaster of the school.

Fill in the blanks with 'Nearest, nearer' or Next:-

35. The thief was taken to the police station.
36. Mohan's house is..to mine.
37. My house isto the mall than to the cinema house..

Fill in the blanks with 'Little', or 'The little :

38. .drops of water make a mighty ocean
39. He has a hope.
40. He takes.interest in me.
41. .money that he had with him was spent on medicines
 46

Grammar Practice - 04

(A) Fill in the blanks with the Past and Past Participle of the Verbs enclosed brackets : -

1. Beautiful flowers ______very where. Bikaner has ________into a large and beautiful city, (grow)
2. Rome was not _________in a day. They _________a new mosque. (build)
3. They_________ the clothes on a rope to dry. The murderer was_______(hang)
4. She_________ beneath the tree. She has __________down to rest, (lie)
5. He__________ five litres of milk at a time. The driver was_________(drink)

(B) Select the correct word or phrase from the alternatives given in brackets in the following
sentences and mark () against the corresponding letter on the right hand side.

6. I shall not ..to pass. (hope/ fear)

7. He ..to help me. (denied / refused)
8. He is sure to .in his business.( succeed/ rise)
9. The hen has ..three eggs to-day( lain/ Laid)
10. She ..awake the whole night. (lay, lain)

(C) Tell which word from the following list is appropriate in 11-15:
(I) very (II) much (III) too

11. It is ________ hot today.

12. I was _________ pleased when I heard this.
13. The patient is ___________ better today.
14. I was given _________ respect.
15. He is ________ smart and needs .coaxing to spill the beans.

(D) Insert one of the Adverbs 'Much', 'Very', 'Too' or 'Quite', in each of the following sentences:-

16. I was _____________ sorry to hear of your illness.

17. This news is ___________ good to be true.
18. She is now ____________ better than before.
19. I was __________ exhausted when I reached home.
20. This picture is _____________ more attractive than that.

(E) Common Errors in the use of Adverbs. Make a careful note of the following errors in the use of
Adverbs.

21. It is bitter cold today.

22. I am feeling so lonely.
23. He is a much learned man.
 47
24. He is very poorer than all of his friends.
25. He is rather very tired.
26. His son is working very hardly
27. This hardly won liberty is to be defended at all costs.
28. He is presently at Chandigarh.
29. Last night you returned lately.
30. He went directly to his house.

DO AS DIRECTED:

(F) Fill in the blanks with 'Few', A few' or The few':-

31. ..were the words she spoke

32. ..books she had were all burnt
33. He has read only..books
34. .men can resist the temptation of gold

(G) Fill in the blanks with 'Each', 'Every, Either 'or ' Neither':-

35. ..of the two boys was fined.

36. ..seat in the hall was occupied
37. .he admits it or faces the charges
38. girl was trained individually.
 48

Answer keys

Practice 01 Practice 02 Practice 03

1. Negroes, tomatoes, 1. He gave us some good advice, 1. who
potatoes (a piece of good advice)
2. Buffaloes, 2. My circumstances are bad 2. Who
mosquitoes
3. Heroes, ponies 3. I like vegetables. 3. That
4. Taxes, cargoes 4. The scenery of Kashmir is very 4. As
charming.
5. Wolves, calves, 5. She has sold all her furniture. 5. which
dwarfs
6. scenery 6. This news is good. 6. I
7. Hair 7. I am learning a new poem. 7. I
8. Is, 8. The rich should help the poor. 8. Me
9. poetry 9. Her hair is black. 9. Us
10. is 10. The cattle are grazing. 10. We
11. Is 11. He turned a deaf ear to the advice of 11. We
his teacher
12. Is, are 12. The scenery of Kashmir delights us. 12. He
13. is 13. His hair has turned grey 13. He
14. He has many grey hairs on his head. 14. Him
15. Second-hand furniture was put to 15. Himself
auction
16. Will you please tell me the cause of 16. Myself
an earthquake?
17. You have a good reason for fighting. 17. Themselves
18. The boys are walking in the middle 18. Himself
of the road.
19. His hat was blown off by the strong 19. This is the better of two books on this
wind. subject.
20. This house is built of stone 20. Solomon was wiser than the other
Jewish kings.
21. Who is taller, you or I?
22. It is hotter today than yesterday.
23. Death is preferable to dishonor.
24. I am junior to you by two years.
25. I have given you a complete account
of my travels in Italy.
26. Her command over the English
language is excellent.
27. He has not any money with him.
28. I gave him the few books I had.
29. Many
30. Much
31. Many
32. Further
33. Farther
34. Further
35. Nearest
36. Next
37. Nearer
38. Little
39. Little
40. Little
41. The Little
 49

Practice 04
1. Grew, grown
2. Built, built
3. Hung, hanged
4. Lay, lain
5. Drank, drunk
6. Hope
7. Refused
8. Succeed
9. Laid
10. lay
11. I
12. II
13. II
14. II
15. III, II
16. Very
17. Too
18. Much
19. Quite
20. Much
21. It is bitterly cold today
22. I am feeling very lonely
23. He is a very learned man.
24. He is much poorer than all of his
friends.
25. He is very tired.
26. His son is working very hard.
27. This hard won liberty is to be defended
at all costs.
28. He is at Chandigarh at present.
29. Last night you returned late.
30. He went direct to his house.
31. Few
32. The few
33. A few
34. few
35. Neither
36. Every
37. Either
38. Each