TRIBOLOGY BASICS.

SLIDING BEARINGS
(Fundamente de tribologie. Lagre cu alunecare)

1. Tribology Basics

Tribology is an interdisciplinary branch of science, dealing with study of friction, wear and
lubrication phenomena.

1.1. Friction

The friction is defined as the interaction of a moving object with another object or with the
environment, getting to energy development. The friction force is the resistance appearing in the
friction joint, opposing to the movement or even to the tendency of movement. The mechanical work
of the friction force turns, mostly, into heat, a small part being involved in the wear process of the
friction surfaces, by pulling out particles from surfaces.
As a technical phenomenon, friction appears both as a desired phenomenon (walking, vehicle
traction, brakes, clutches etc.) but mainly as an undesired phenomenon, getting to: decrease of the
mechanical efficiency; local heating and thermal dilatation; wear of surfaces etc.
Friction can be classified according to several criteria:
motion conditions
static friction: there is only a movement tendency;
kinetic friction: there is a relative movement between the parts.
Static friction forces are higher (even double) than the kinetic friction forces.
type of the relative motion
sliding motion
rolling motion
lubricating conditions
absolute dry friction (frecare riguros uscat)
technical dry friction (frecare tehnic uscat)
boundary friction (frecare limit sau semiuscat)
fluid friction (frecare fluid)
semifluid friction (frecare mixt).
Absolute dry friction can be achieved only in vacuum conditions, without any lubricating
environment (not even air) on the friction surfaces. Can
be achieved only in laboratory environment, vacuum
devices or interplanetary space equipments.
Technical dry friction is relative frequent in
nature and technique, when the friction surfaces are not
lubricated. This type of friction allows the presence of air
or other gaseous environment. The irregularities of the
surfaces are mating together creating points of molecular
adhesion (welding points) (fig. 1). The friction forces are
given by the shearing strength of the welding points. Due
to this fact, technical dry friction is characterized by high Fig.1
friction coefficients and also important abrasive wear. In
the case of the technical dry friction, the dry friction laws are applied (friction force is proportional
with the normal force; friction coefficient , only depends
of the two materials involved and doesnt depend on the
size of the friction surfaces).
Boundary friction is performed when a thin
lubricating layer is strongly staying on the friction surfaces.
The lubricating layer (boundary layer), with a thickness of
10-3 to 10-2 m, restrains the developing of molecular
adhesion points between the friction surfaces (fig. 2).
The dry friction laws are applied, too. Friction
forces are diminishing 23 times in comparison with the
Fig. 2
dry friction forces and the abrasive wear drops hundreds or
even thousands times. This can be explained by the fact that
the shearing strength of the boundary layer is much smaller
than the shearing strength of the materials of the dry friction
joint.
Fluid friction happens when a lubricating film,
thicker than the roughness of the friction surfaces, is
interposed between the friction surfaces (fig. 3). This is the
ideal working regime of a sliding bearing. The contact
between the lubricating film and the two surfaces is Fig. 3
continuous and the friction forces are based on the tangential
stress from the lubricant. The fluid friction gives very small
wear and friction forces due to very low tangential strength of
the lubricating film. It is studied based on the theory of fluid
mechanics. The friction coefficient has a conventional meaning
being calculated as
u
,
pm h
where is the dynamic viscosity of the lubricant; u relative
velocity; pm medium pressure; h thickness of the lubricating Fig. 4
film.
Semifluid friction appears when different areas of the friction surfaces have different
lubricating conditions (fig. 4). This is the case of very thin lubricant films or very high roughness of
the surfaces. The friction forces are determined same as for dry friction case.

1.2. Wear (uzarea)

Wear is a process of
continuous loose of material. It
happens at the interaction between
the friction surfaces. There is a
strong conditionality between wear
and friction. Wear is a consequence
of friction, and the surface
condition (as a result of wear) is a
very important parameter for
friction.
Wear can be a desired
process (machining etc.) but mainly
Fig. 5
-2-
an undesired one. The development of wear (U volume of material lost by wear from the friction
surfaces) is presented in fig. 5, with the following meaning:
t1 lapping time (perioada de rodaj), with a strong development of wear (I wear
intensity); the friction surfaces are self adjusted (roughness is dropping);
t2 normal wear (perioada de exploatare); wear has a very slow development.
After a period of time, due to important dimensional modifications, the working conditions
become bad and wear has a rapid development getting to the failure of the machine element, in very
short time.
The main kinds of wear are: adhesion wear - seizing (uzarea de adeziune - griparea); fatigue
wear - pitting; abrasive wear (uzarea abraziv) etc.

1.3. Lubricants
The lubricant is, generally, the third element of the friction joint placed between the friction
surfaces. It can be naturally placed (air, moisture, oxides etc.) or, mostly, artificialy, in order to
diminish the friction.
Lubricants have different state of aggregation, mostly used being mineral oils (uleiurile
minerale) and lubricating greases cosmolines (unsorile consistente vaseline).
Mineral oils are made through refining lubricating parts of petrol, adding 220% additives in
order to improve the quality.
The main properties of the mineral lubricating oils are:
dynamic viscosity is the property that defines the value of the internal frictions between
the layers of lubricant; measured in Pa.s (Pascal.secund).
kinematic viscosity is determined with relation , where is the oil density;
measured in cSt (centiStokes), or m2/s = 10-6 cSt
relative viscosity is the ratio between the viscosity of the fluid and the viscosity of a
reference fluid (usually, 20C water); measured in E (grade Engler) can be determined as a
ratio between the return times flowing times (timpii de scurgere) of the same quantity of
oil and 20C water.
Viscosity of mineral oils drops very fast with the temperature and has a slow rise with the
pressure. In order to keep the mineral oil viscosity in a certain range, special additives are used.
unctuosity lubricating capacity (onctuozitatea) is the property of the lubricants to develop
boundary layers (absorption or chemisorption layers) strongly staying (ancorate) on the
friction surfaces, allowing a boundary friction even when the lubricant is removed.
detergency (detergena) is the capacity of the lubricant to clean the lubricated surfaces.
Lubricating greases are dispersions of metallic soaps in mineral or syntetic oils. Soaps are
mainly developed from grease acids and metals (calcium, natrium, litium). The lubricating grease is
characterized by a flowing point (prag de curgere) value of the tangential stress at which the grease
starts to flow. For smaller values of the tangential stress, the lubricating grease has a solid state giving
the possibility to create areas of static lubricating grease. Thanks to that quality, lubricating grease are
used not only for diminishing friction but also to give corrosion protection to surfaces and for sealing.

2. Sliding Bearings (Lagre cu alunecare)

Sliding bearings are machine elements used for sustaining or guiding axles or shafts, taking
radial and/or axial forces through sliding surfaces.
The classification of sliding bearing is based on several criteria:
Considering the friction regime:
dry friction bearings (lagre cu frecare uscat);
boundary friction bearings (lagre cu frecare limit);

-3-
 semifluid friction bearings (lagre cu frecare mixt);
fluid friction bearings (lagre cu frecare fluid);
Considering the force direction:
radial bearings;
axial bearings;
radialaxial bearings;
axialradial bearings;
Considering the shape of the sliding surface:
cylindrical bearings;
planar bearings;
conical bearings;
spherical bearings;
Considering the type of the rotational movement:
bearings with full rotation (lagre cu micare de rotaie complet);
bearings with half rotation (lagre cu micare oscilant).
Chair
The parts of a sliding bearing are the bearing sleeve or chair Crosshead
(cuzinetul radial sau axial) and the
journal for radial bearings, respective the crosshead (patina) for axial bearings (fig. 6).
Bearing sleeve

Journal

Fig. 6

The bearing sleeve is usually part of the hub, being blocked against rotation and axial shifting.
The crosshead (patina) looks like a shoulder and is part of the shaft.

2.1. Materials And Technology

Journals (crossheads) are made, mostly, from the same material as the shaft or axle they are
part, cementation or mending (mbuntire) steels being used. Next to the usual conditions imposed to
shaft or axle materials, there is also imposed: high wear resistance, special machining of the surfaces.
There is a recommendation that the journal hardness must be 35 times higher than the
hardness of the sleeve, insuring good working conditions even when lubrication is poor. If the sleeve
hardness is less than 300 HB, hardening of the journal is no longer needed. The special unhardened
journals need special vibrating finishing (vibronetezire) and the hardened journals are rectified.

-4-
 Bearing sleeves (chairs). The materials for sleeves must accomplish antifriction quality. Few
constructions are used:
bearing sleeve integrated with the hub, all made of antifriction material;
bearing sleeve integrated with the hub, the antifriction material being casting to the hub;
antifriction bearing sleeve assembled on the hub;
multi-layer sleeve casting or plated (turnate sau placate) one being the support and the
other being the antifriction material;
journal covered with antifriction material rarely used.
Antifriction materials must accomplish few conditions:
high wear resistance;
small friction coefficient, in order to decrease friction loss;
must allow local plastic deformations (conformabilitate);
high pitting strength;
seising (gripare) strength;
high heat conductivity;
small thermal dilatation coefficient;
adhesion with the lubricant;
corrosion strength.
The main antifriction materials are presented as follows.
Metalic materials include ferrous materials, non-ferrous materials and sintered (sinterizate)
materials.
The most used ferrous materials are cast irons (fonte) gray (cenuie) Fc, nodular (cu grafit
nodular) Fgn, malleable white (maleabil alb) Fma, charcoal (manganoase) Fmn used for sleeves
made of one part or multilayered, as the support. Cast iron sleeves are made from castings.
Non-ferrous materials are bronzes CuSn, CuPbSn, CuPb, AlSn, AlPb, AlCuPb alloys used
for one part or multilayered sleeves. Cupper (Cu) alloys are used as antifriction casting layer for
multilayered sleeves and alluminium (Al) alloys are used as antifriction plated layer for multilayered
sleeves.
Sintered materials can be mild (moi) or hard (dure). Mild sintered materials based on FeCu,
CuPb, AlCuPb alloys are used for massive porous sleeves and also for multilayered self lubricated
sleeves. Hard sintered materials are based on metallic carbides (carburi metalice) with Li, Ca, Fe,
Mg, Si are used for gaseous bearings.
Non-metallic materials used for bearing sleeves are:
wood oak (stejar) pressed and impregnated;
plastic materials with self lubricating quality, for massive sleeves;
rubber;
mineral carbon (grafit);
fine ceramics (ceramic fin) for massive sleeves;
precious stones for fine mechanics;
Composite materials: metallic support from steel strip (band de oel) and antifriction sintered
layer made of bronze and solid lubricant (mineral carbon).

2.2. Radial Hydro-Dynamic Bearing Construction

Radial hydro-dynamic bearings are consisted of bearing body, sleeve, and journal.

-5-
 Bearing body
Bearing body can be made as a single part, screw assembled on a bed frame (batiu), or can be
part of the bed frame. There are solutions with mobile bsdearing body - case of connecting rods
(biele).
Considering the number of parts of the body, two constructions detached:
Cap bearing (lagr cu capac) (fig. 7)

Fig. 7

The cap bearing is sectioned with a diametral plane separating the body from the cap. For a
good positioning of the two parts, the contact surface has a shoulder or centering pins are used. These
elements discherge the bolts from transversal loads. The advantages of this construction are: easy
mounting, possibility of clearance adjustment. The main disadvantages are: constructive complexity
and lower rigidity. The sleeve is usually made of two parts. A cap bearing with a one part sleeve is
shown in fig. 8.

Fig. 8
One part bearing
One part bearing is much simpler and has a higher rigidity. Mounting process is a little difficult,
because it must be done from axial direction. The sleeve is always a one part sleeve.

-6-
 Bearing sleeves
Bearing sleeve constructions are different considering the number of parts (one part single, or
two parts (semicuzinei)), the location of the oil groove (canalul pentru ungere) and hub fixing. In
order to bring the lubricant from the exterior of the sleeve (from the oil drain (priza de lubrifiant) from
the body) to the interior, there is a transversal hole (oil hole) in the sleeve. In order to spread the
lubricant along the sleeve, an axial socket (buzunra) is placed at the interior of the sleeve.
In the case of one part sleeves (tip buc) the socket is placed on the oil hole, usually placed at
the oil drain on the upper side of the bearing (fig. 9).
In the case of two part sleeves (fig. 10), the socket is placed at the separating plane of the
sleeve. There are several solution for bringing the lubricant at the interior of the sleeve:
Exterior recess (groove) when the oil hole is placed in the separating plane;
Interior recess (groove) when the oil hole is placed at the oil drain from the body.
In order to fix the sleeves on the hub, shoulders (praguri), cams (pinteni) or fixing pins can be used.

Fig. 9

-7-
 Fig. 11

Fig. 12

Fig. 10

2.3. Lifting Power of a Hydro-Dynamic Bearing (Portana lagrelor hidrodinamice)

Hydro-dynamic bearings are characterized by the presence of a lifting lubricant film between
the bearing elements on relative motion.
The lifting film (hydro-dynamic) is created by the relative motion between the friction surfaces,
the shape of the clearance and the quality of the lubricant.
Considering the direction of relative movement there are two possible solutions: with siding
effect (cu efect de pan) or with ejection effect (cu efect de expulzare).
The siding effect lifting film (fig. 11) is mostly encountered. There are few conditions to
accomplish in order to have this effect:
a convergent shape of the clearance;
-8-
 relative movement toward the convergence of the clearance;
enough lubricant.
The ejection effect lifting film (fig. 12) is created by the resistance of the lubricant against
ejection. There is a need of permanent, fast, periodic movement of the mobile surface.
Sometimes the two effects are composed, a good example being the case of the bearings from
the internal combustion engine, bearings charged with variable amplitude and direction load.

2.4. Development Of The Siding Effect Lifting Film At Hydro-Dynamic Bearings

(Formarea penei de lubrifiant la lagre radiale hidrodinamice)

The clearance between the journal and the sleeve is determined by the tolerances of their
diameters (fig. 13). A permanent lubricant flow Q enters the bearing space.

Fig. 13

The lubricant layer in contact with the sleeve is resting, while the lubricant layer in contact with
the journal has its peripheral velocity.
On the lower side of the bearing, the lubricant is forced to move from the large space (with low
pressure) to the tight space (with high pressure) creating the lifting power of the journal. On the upper
side of the bearing, the journal is carrying an amount of lubricant from the tight space (with high
pressure) to the large space (with low pressure), continuously supplying the bearing with the Qr flow.
The journal has an eccentric position toward the sleeve, creating a convergent shape of the
clearance. There is a minimum thickness of lubricant hm, and the pressure has a maximum near the
point of minimum thickness.
On the axial plane, pressure distribution is parabolic due to lubricant leaking Q at the
extremities of the bearing.

2.5. Working Regimes Of Radial Hydro-Dynamic Bearings

The working period of radial hydro-dynamic bearings is consisted of several stages (working
regimes), featured by different lubricating conditions.

-9-
 Resting (fig. 14, a). The journal lays on the sleeve, the lubricant being removed between
the contact surfaces.
Dry starting-up (demaraj uscat) (fig. 14, b). The journal is rolling, with dry friction, over
the sleeve, having the tendency of climbing it. This stage is very short, because the
lubricant is very soon taking his place between the friction surfaces. This stage is
characterized by the most important wear.
Semifluid or fluid friction working regime (funcionare cu frecare mixt sau fluid) (fig. 14,
c and d). The lubricant films develops between the journal and the sleeve, its thickness
depending of the rotational speed of the bearing. Fluid friction working regime is the ideal
regime of the hydro-dynamic bearings, being characterized by almost no wear.
At extremely high rotational speed (fig. 14, e), a self aligning (autocentrare) of the journal
toward the sleeve is produced. This is a theoretical regime.

a b c

d e
Fig. 14
The working regimes of radial
hydro-dynamic bearings can be studied
upon the Stribeck diagram (fig. 15). This
is showing the dependency of the
friction coefficient to the rotational
speed of the journal (n).

- 10 -

Fig. 15
 Curve 1 is showing the variation of the friction coefficient for a radial bearing, working with
dry friction during starting-up stage and then passing to the boundary, semifluid and fluid regime.
u
Curve 2 shows the theoretical variation of the conventional fluid friction coefficient .
pm h
Curve 2 shows the variation of the friction coefficient for a mixed bearing (lagr hibrid) using,
for starting-up a hydro-static lubricant film, and then turning to the hydro-dynamic regime.
The increase of the friction coefficient, with the rotational speed is not important. This is why
the hydro-dynamic bearings have better working conditions at very high speed, speed limitation being
imposed by the fatigue resistance of the shaft. Figure 16 shows a diagram used for choosing the type
of bearing (rolling friction bearing or sliding bearing) depending on the load and the rotational speed.

Fig. 16

2.6. Constructions of Axial Hydro-Dynamic Bearings (Lagre axiale

hidrodinamice. Elemente constructive)

- 11 -
 Fig. 17
In order to develop the conditions for hydro-dynamic lubrication, the most used solution is the
subdivision (sectorizare) of the friction surface of the chair (different shape sectors - fig. 17, e) and
creating the lifting effect by:
sectors embossing (profilarea sectoarelor), fig. 17, b;
mobility of the sectors floating (oscilante) (fig. 17, c) or with elastic support (fig. 17, d).
Constructive solutions are also presented in fig. 18.

Fig. 18
Figure 19 shows the construction of an axial hydro-dynamic bearing taking the axial forces in
both directions.

- 12 -
 Fig. 19
In order to prevent the rotation of the
chair, the solution presented in fig. 19 uses
fixing pins and the solution from fig. 20 uses a
blocking cam (pinten de blocare). The
subdividing of the friction surface is made with
the oiling grooves.

2.7. Dry, Boundary and Semifluid

Friction Bearings (Lagre cu frecare
uscat, limit sau mixt)

2.7.1. Construction
Dry, boundary and semifluid friction
bearings mostly used due to their specific Fig. 20
advantages:
reduced lubricant consumption;
simplified sealing;
relatively low costs.
Self lubrication need the presence of small lubricant inside the sleeve or near the friction
surfaces. For good spreading of the lubricant over the friction surface, the most used solution is an
arrangement of cuttings (small deposits of lubricant) over the friction surface (fig. 21). In the case of
bearing sleeves (bushings), the lubricant deposits are punched holes over the friction surface, the
sleeve being completely made of antifriction material.

- 13 -
 Fig. 21
A special solution is using sleeves made of plastic materials with mineral carbon (grafit)
insertion reinforcements (elemente de armare) (glass fiber, fabric cloth (esturi textile) etc.).

2.7.2. Calculus Elements

The following assumptions are used for calculation:
the pressure between journal and sleeve is uniformly distributed (clearances and
manufacturing errors are not considered);
the friction coefficient is constant (dry friction laws are followed);
the heat is completely exhausted through bearing body (not through journal or lubricant).
Three kind of calculations are performed:
contact pressure calculus;
wear calculus (durability calculus);
thermal calculus.

Contact pressure calculus (Calculul la presiunea de contact). Calculus diagram is presented

in fig. 22.

d
Fig. 22

- 14 -
 Checking is performed with relation
F
pm r pa ,
BD
where: pm is the medium pressure; Fr radial force; B width of the bearing; D bearing diameter; pa
admissible pressure. The admissible pressure is chosen depending on the material of the sleeve. From
durability reasons, the admissible pressure is quickly dropping with increased rotational speed.
Dimensioning is performed with relation
Fr
B ,
D pa

pursuing the limitation of the ratio B 1,2 , because the increase of the width B is increasing the
D
non-uniformity of pressure distribution.
Wear calculus (Calculul la uzare (la durabilitate)) starts from the calculus relation of the
volume of material loss by wear
Vu K Fr l ,
where K is a proportionality coefficient and l is the running space in relative motion between journal
and sleeve, established with relation l uLh (u relative velocity; Lh running time). Introducing
relation Fr B D p m , the volume of material loss by wear is
Vu K B D p m u Lh K * p m u ,
where K * K B D Lh .
For an acceptable wear Vu and a certain imposed running time Lh an admissible value of the
product ( p m u ) is imposed, wear (durability) checking being performed with relation
pm u ( pm u) a .
The admissible value ( p m u ) a depends on the material of the sleeve and the importance of the
bearing.
Thermal calculus (Calculul termic) is starting fron the global equation of conservation of
energy
PF = PQ,
where:
power loss by friction PF F fr u Fr u (Ffr friction force, friction coefficient);
heat flow through the bearing PQ k A (t t 0 ) (k global heat conductivity coefficient, A
area of the bearing body through which the heat transfer is made, t bearing temperature,
t0 environment temperature).
The thermal calculus is consisted of the determination of the bearing temperature that must be
limited to the admissible temperature ta depending on the sleeve material
F u
t t0 r ta .
kA
Sometimes, wear calculus is equivalent with the thermal calculus because the product ( p m u )
includes the power loss by friction, which will be limited to maximum admissible values.

- 15 -