CS601 Wireless Communication and Networks Unit - IV

UNIT IV WIRELESS ATM AND MOBILE NETWORK

LAYER
WATM Services-Reference Model-Handover-Location Management- Mobile QOS-Access Point Control
Protocol., Mobile IP-DHCP- Adhoc Networks.

WIRELESS ATM (WATM)

Also called as wireless, mobile ATM, wmATM

Motivation for (Why) WATM

The need for seamless integration of wireless terminals into an ATM network.
ATM networks scale well from LANs to WANs and mobility is needed in local and wide area applications.
o Strategies were needed to extend ATM for wireless access in local and global environments.
For ATM to be successful, it must offer a wireless extension.
o Otherwise it cannot participate in the rapidly growing field of mobile communications.
WATM could offer QoS for adequate support of multi-media data streams
For telecommunication service providers, it appears natural that merging of mobile wireless communication
and ATM technology leads to wireless ATM.

ATM Basics
favored by the telecommunication industry for advanced high-performance networks, e.g., B-ISDN, as
transport mechanism
statistical (asynchronous, on demand) TDM (ATDM, STDM)
cell header determines the connection the user data belongs to
mixing of different cell-rates is possible
o different bit-rates, constant or variable, feasible
interesting for data sources with varying bit-rate:
o e.g., guaranteed minimum bit-rate
o additionally bursty traffic if allowed by the network

Cell-based transmission
asynchronous, cell-based transmission as basis for ATM
continuous cell-stream
additional cells necessary for operation and maintenance (OAM) of the network
OAM cells can be inserted after fixed intervals to create a logical frame structure
if a station has no data to send it automatically inserts idle cells that can be discarded at every intermediate
system without further notice
if no synchronous frame is available for the transport of cells (e.g., SDH or Sonet) cell boundaries have to
be detected separately (e.g., via the checksum in the cell header)

MTech CSE (PT, 2011-14) SRM, Ramapuram 1 hcr:innovationcse@gg

CS601 Wireless Communication and Networks Unit - IV

B-ISDN protocol reference model

3 dimensional reference model
o three vertical planes (columns)
user plane
control plane
management plane
o three hierarchical layers
physical layer
ATM layer
ATM adaptation layer
Out-of-Band-Signaling: user data is transmitted separately
from control information

ATM layers
Physical layer, consisting of two sub-layers
o physical medium dependent sub-layer
coding
bit timing
transmission
o transmission convergence sub-layer
HEC (Header Error Correction)
sequence generation and
verification
transmission frame adaptation,
generation, and recovery
cell delineation, cell rate
decoupling
ATM layer
o cell multiplexing/demultiplexing
o VPI/VCI translation
o cell header generation and verification
o GFC (Generic Flow Control)
ATM adaptation layer (AAL)
o Provides different service classes on top of ATM based on:
o bit rate:
constant bit rate: e.g. traditional telephone line
variable bit rate: e.g. data communication, compressed video
o time constraints between sender and receiver:
with time constraints: e.g. real-time applications, interactive voice and video
without time constraints: e.g. mail, file transfer
o mode of connection:
connection oriented or connectionless
AAL consists of two sub-layers:
o Convergence Sublayer (CS): service dependent adaptation
Common Part Convergence Sublayer (CPCS)
Service Specific Convergence Sublayer (SSCS)
o Segmentation and Reassembly Sublayer (SAR)
o sub-layers can be empty

Wireless ATM working group

aimed to develop a set of specifications that extends the use of ATM technology to wireless networks
ensuring the compatibility of all new proposals with existing ATM Forum standards.
Two main groups of open issues have been identified
the extensions needed for the fixed ATM to support mobility
o Location management
To find the current access point of the terminal to the network

MTech CSE (PT, 2011-14) SRM, Ramapuram 2 hcr:innovationcse@gg

CS601 Wireless Communication and Networks Unit - IV
o Mobile routing
Each time a user moves to a new access point, the system must reroute traffic
o Handover signaling
o QoS and traffic control
o Network management
all protocols and mechanisms related to the radio access layer (RAL)
o Radio resource control
o Wireless media access
o Wireless data link control
o Handover issues
Lost cells, out of sequence cells
Re-sequenced, retransmitted

WATM services
WATM systems had to be designed for transferring voice, classical data, video (from low quality to professional
quality), multimedia data, short messages etc.
Service scenarios

Office environments
o office can be virtually expanded to the actual location of an employee
Universities, schools, training centres
o distance learning, wireless and mobile access to databases, internet access, teaching
Industry
o Database connection, information retrieval, surveillance, but also real-time data transmission and
factory management
Hospitals
o transfer of medical images, remote access to patient records, remote monitoring of patients, remote
diagnosis of patients at home or in an ambulance, as well as tele-medicine
Home
Networked vehicles
o high-quality access to the internet, company databases, multimedia conferencing etc

WATM Generic Reference Model

A Mobile ATM (MATM) terminal uses a WATM terminal adapter to gain wireless access to a WATM RAS
(Radio Access System).
MATM terminals could be represented by, e.g., laptops using an ATM adapter for wired access plus
software for mobility.
The WATM terminal adapter enables wireless access, i.e., it includes the transceiver etc., but it does not
support mobility.
The RAS with the radio transceivers is connected to a mobility enhanced ATM switch (EMAS-E), which in
turn connects to the ATM network with mobility aware switches (EMAS-N) and other ATM switches.
Finally, a wired, non-mobility aware ATM end system may be the communication partner in this example.
The radio segment spans from the terminal and the terminal adapter to the access point, whereas the fixed
network segment spans from the access point to the fixed end system.
The fixed mobility support network, comprising all mobility aware switches EMAS-E and EMAS-N, can be
distinguished from the standard ATM network with its non-mobility aware switches and end systems

WMT (Wireless Mobile ATM Terminal)

RT (Radio Transceiver)
AP (Access Point)
EMAS-E (End-user Mobility-supporting ATM Switch - Edge)
EMAS-N (End-user Mobility-supporting ATM Switch - Network)
APCP (Access Point Control Protocol)
UNI+M (User-to-Network Interface with Mobility support)
NNI+M (Network-to-Network Interface with Mobility support)

MTech CSE (PT, 2011-14) SRM, Ramapuram 3 hcr:innovationcse@gg

CS601 Wireless Communication and Networks Unit - IV

Example of a generic WATM reference model

User & Control Plane Protocols

Additional protocols needed for the support of mobility

Mobile Connection Management Protocol
Mobile Handover Management Protocol
Mobile Location Management Protocol
Mobile Routing Protocol
Mobile Media Access Control Protocol
Mobile Data-Link Control Protocol

Functional model for the modular access scheme

Wireless mobile terminal side
Mobility Management Function (MMFT)
Call control and Connection control Function (CCFT)
Identity Management Function (IMFT)
Mobile Terminal Security Agent (MTSA)

MTech CSE (PT, 2011-14) SRM, Ramapuram 4 hcr:innovationcse@gg

CS601 Wireless Communication and Networks Unit - IV

Radio Transmission and

Reception (RTRT)
Radio Resource
Control function
(RRCT)
Association Control
Function (ACFT)
ATM Connection function
(ATMCT)
Mobility supporting network side
Access Point Control Function
(APCF)
Call control and Connection control
Function (CCF)
Network Security Agent (NSA)
Service Control Function (SCF)
Mobility Management Function (MMF)
Association Control Function (ACF)
Radio Resource Control function (RRC)
Radio Transmission and Reception function (RTR)
ATM Connection function (ATMC)

Radio Access Layer (RAL) requirements: PHY layer

Definition of cell characteristics
o frequencies, efficient re-use of frequencies, antennas, power, range
Carrier frequency, symbol rate, modulation, coding, training sequences etc.
Data and control interfaces to the radio unit
Requirements
o Bit Error Rate (BER) <= 10-4, availability 99.5 %, data rate: 25 Mbit/s
o range: indoor 30-50 m, outdoor 200-300 m, power: 100 mW

Radio Access Layer (RAL) requirements: MAC layer

Supports
o simultaneous access of several mobile terminals to the medium
o several ATM service classes (CBR, VBR, ABR, UBR) including QoS control
MAC protocol and syntax definition, MAC control algorithms
Interfaces to PHY and LLC layer
Support of user mobility
Requirements
o MAC efficiency: 60-75 % (over 90% is possible)
o data rates
peak 25 Mbit/s, sustained 6 Mbit/s, still efficient for low rates (e.g., 32 kbit/s CBR)

Radio Access Layer (RAL) requirements: LLC layer

Layer between ATM and MAC/PHY layers to solve specific problems of the wireless transmission
Definition of LLC protocol and syntax
o wireless header, control messages
Special functions for ATM service classes
o error control
error detection and correction, selective retransmission
o forward error correction
Requirements
o mandatory: ARQ (Automatic Repeat Request)
o optional: FEC for real-time services, meta-signaling to support handover

MTech CSE (PT, 2011-14) SRM, Ramapuram 5 hcr:innovationcse@gg

CS601 Wireless Communication and Networks Unit - IV

Handover
Procedure to hand over connection(s) from a mobile ATM terminal from one access point to another access
point
Support of an handover domain
o several access points cover a certain area
o common handover protocol and strategy
o all access points and switches belong to one administrative domain
Requirements
o multiple connection handover
o point-to-point and point-to-multipoint
o QoS support
o data integrity and security
o signaling and routing support
o high performance and low complexity

Types of handover
Hard handover
o only one connection to one access point possible
Terminal initiated
o WTM initiates HO based on, e.g., signal quality
Network initiated
o Network initiates HO based on, e.g., network load
Network initiated, terminal assisted
o WTM provides information about radio conditions
Network controlled
o HO decision always at network
Backward handover
o standard type, WMT initiates HO, everything is prepared for HO before HO takes place
Forward handover
o WMT suddenly arrives at a new AP, connection loss possible

MTech CSE (PT, 2011-14) SRM, Ramapuram 6 hcr:innovationcse@gg

CS601 Wireless Communication and Networks Unit - IV

Backward handover with multiple possible Aps

BW handover - Intra-EMAS-E/Intra-
BW handover - Intra-EMAS-E/Inter-AP
AP

FW handover - Intra-EMAS-E/Intra- FW handover - Intra-EMAS-E/Inter-AP

AP

MTech CSE (PT, 2011-14) SRM, Ramapuram 7 hcr:innovationcse@gg

CS601 Wireless Communication and Networks Unit - IV

Location Management
Requirements
o transparent for users
o privacy of location and user information
o cell and network identification
o minimum of additional signaling required
o access control, accounting
o roaming
o scalability
standardized method for registration (i.e, a new user joins the network)
mobile terminals get temporary, routable addresses
common protocol for database/registry updates
location management must cooperate with unchanged ATM routing

Registration and location update

Incoming connection setup, WMT in foreign network

Addressing
should support all formats of ATM end-system addresses (AESA)
uses a permanent, location independent address which has to correspond with a routable address from the
home network
supports the assignment of temporary, routable addresses during registration of the mobile terminal in a
foreign domain

MTech CSE (PT, 2011-14) SRM, Ramapuram 8 hcr:innovationcse@gg

CS601 Wireless Communication and Networks Unit - IV

Mobile Quality of Service (M-QoS)

Main difference to, e.g., Mobile IP
M-QoS main reason for high complexity
M-QoS parts
o Wired QoS
same as in wired ATM networks
o Wireless QoS
delay and error rates higher, multiplexing and reservation important
o Handover QoS
blocking, cell loss during handover, duration of handover
Hard handover QoS
o no QoS guarantee after handover
o disconnect if not enough resources in new cell
Soft handover QoS
o only statistical guarantees
o applications have to adapt

Access Point Control Protocol

Interface between a wireless aware segment and an unchanged segment of the ATM network
Switch protocol to control wireless access points
o reservation and release of resources
o preparation of access points for new connections
o handover support
o announcement of new mobile terminals

RM: switch resource management

CC: call control
CAC: connection admission control
MM: mobility management
RRM: radio resource management
WCAC: wireless CAC
APCM: AP connection management
APCP: AP control protocol

MTech CSE (PT, 2011-14) SRM, Ramapuram 9 hcr:innovationcse@gg

CS601 Wireless Communication and Networks Unit - IV

MOBILE IP
Topics
Motivation for Mobile IP
Mobile IP example network
IP packet delivery
Agent discovery
Registration
Tunneling and encapsulation
Optimization of packet forwarding
Reverse tunneling
Mobile IP and IPv6

Motivation for Mobile IP / Requirements

Routing
o based on IP destination address, network prefix (e.g. 129.13.42) determines physical subnet
o change of physical subnet implies change of IP address to have a topological correct
Specific routes to end-systems?
o change of all routing table entries to forward packets to the right destination
o does not scale with the number of mobile hosts and frequent changes in the location, security problems
Changing the IP-address?
o adjust the host IP address depending on the current location
o almost impossible to find a mobile system, DNS updates take to long time
o TCP connections break, security problems
Transparency
o mobile end-systems keep their IP address
o continuation of communication after interruption of link possible
o point of connection to the fixed network can be changed
Compatibility
o support of the same layer 2 protocols as IP, no changes to current end-systems and routers required
o mobile end-systems can communicate with fixed systems
Security
Efficiency and scalability
o only little additional messages to the mobile system
o world-wide support of a large number of mobile systems in the whole Internet

Mobile IP example network

Mobile node (MN), Correspondent node (CN), Foreign agent (FA), Care-of address (COA), Foreign agent
COA:, Co-located COA, Home agent (HA),

MTech CSE (PT, 2011-14) SRM, Ramapuram 10 hcr:innovationcse@gg

CS601 Wireless Communication and Networks Unit - IV

IP packet delivery
Packet delivery to and from the mobile node
Use the previous picture

Network integration
Agent Advertisement
o HA and FA periodically send advertisement messages into their physical subnets
o MN listens to these messages and detects, if it is in the home or a foreign network
o MN reads a COA from the FA advertisement messages
Registration (always limited lifetime!)
o MN signals COA to the HA via the FA, HA acknowledges via FA to MN
o these actions have to be secured by authentication
Advertisement
o HA advertises the IP address of the MN (as for fixed systems), i.e. standard routing information
o routers adjust their entries, these are stable for a longer time (HA responsible for a MN over a longer
period of time)
o packets to the MN are sent to the HA,
o independent of changes in COA/FA

Agent discovery
to find a foreign agent, how MN discover that it has moved
o two methods: agent advertisement, agent solicitation
router discovery methods plus extensions
Agent advertisement

agent advertisement messages, beacon broadcast into the subnet, Internet control message protocol (ICMP)
messages with some mobility extensions, R : Registration, B: Busy, H : Home Agent, F : FA, M &G : Method of
encapsulation, M : Minimal, G : Generic, T: reverse tunneling

Agent solicitation
If no agent advertisements are present or the inter-arrival time is too high, and an MN has not received a COA
by other means then the mobile node must send agent solicitations

MTech CSE (PT, 2011-14) SRM, Ramapuram 11 hcr:innovationcse@gg

CS601 Wireless Communication and Networks Unit - IV

Registration

mobility binding containing the mobile nodes home IP address and the current COA, UDP packets are used for
registration requests. registration reply, which is conveyed in a UDP packet, contains a type field set to 3 and a
code indicating the result of the registration request

Tunneling and encapsulation

A tunnel establishes a virtual pipe for data packets between a tunnel entry and a tunnel endpoint.
Packets entering a tunnel are forwarded inside the tunnel and leave the tunnel unchanged.
Tunneling, i.e., sending a packet through a tunnel, is achieved by using encapsulation.
Encapsulation is the mechanism of taking a packet consisting of packet header and data and putting it into
the data part of a new packet.
The reverse operation, taking a packet out of the data part of another packet, is called decapsulation

Encapsulation
IP-in-IP encapsulation

IP encapsulation

Encapsulation of one packet into another as payload

o minimal encapsulation or GRE (Generic Record Encapsulation)
IP-in-IP-encapsulation: tunnel between HA and COA
Minimal encapsulation (optional)
o avoids repetition of identical fields
o e.g. TTL, IHL, version, TOS
o only applicable for unfragmented packets, no space left for fragment identification

MTech CSE (PT, 2011-14) SRM, Ramapuram 12 hcr:innovationcse@gg

CS601 Wireless Communication and Networks Unit - IV

Optimization of packet forwarding

Triangular Routing
o sender sends all packets via HA to MN
o higher latency and network load
Solutions
o sender learns the current location of MN
o direct tunneling to this location
o HA informs a sender about the location of MN
o big security problems!
Change of FA
o packets on-the-fly during the change can be lost
o new FA informs old FA to avoid packet loss, old FA now forwards remaining packets to new FA
o this information also enables the old FA to release resources for the MN

Reverse tunneling
Router accept often only topological correct addresses (firewall!)
o a packet from the MN encapsulated by the FA is now topological correct
o furthermore multicast and TTL problems solved (TTL in the home network correct, but MN is to far
away from the receiver)
Reverse tunneling does not solve
o problems with firewalls, the reverse tunnel can be abused to circumvent security mechanisms (tunnel
hijacking)
o optimization of data paths, i.e. packets will be forwarded through the tunnel via the HA to a sender
(double triangular routing)
The new standard is backwards compatible
o the extensions can be implemented easily and cooperate with current implementations without these
extensions

Mobile IP and IPv6

Mobile IP was developed for IPv4, but IPv6 simplifies the protocols
security is integrated and not an add-on, authentication of registration is included
COA can be assigned via auto-configuration (DHCPv6 is one candidate), every node has address
autoconfiguration
no need for a separate FA, all routers perform router advertisement which can be used instead of the
special agent advertisement
MN can signal a sender directly the COA, sending via HA not needed in this case (automatic path
optimization)
soft hand-over, i.e. without packet loss, between two subnets is supported
o MN sends the new COA to its old router
o the old router encapsulates all incoming packets for the MN and forwards them to the new COA
o authentication is always granted
Problems with mobile IP
Security
o authentication with FA problematic, for the FA typically belongs to another organization
o no protocol for key management and key distribution has been standardized in the Internet
o patent and export restrictions
Firewalls
o cannot be used together with firewalls, special set-ups are needed (such as reverse tunneling)
QoS
o many new reservations in case of RSVP
o tunneling makes it hard to give a flow of packets a special treatment needed for the QoS

MTech CSE (PT, 2011-14) SRM, Ramapuram 13 hcr:innovationcse@gg

CS601 Wireless Communication and Networks Unit - IV
Security in Mobile IP
Integrity: any changes to data between sender and receiver can be detected by the receiver
Authentication : sender address and all data received is really address and data sent by this sender
Confidentiality: only sender and receiver can read the data
Non-Repudiation: sender cannot deny sending of data
Traffic Analysis: creation of traffic and user profiles should not be possible
Replay Protection: receivers can detect replay of messages
IP security architecture
Two or more partners have to negotiate security mechanisms to setup a security association
o typically, all partners choose the same parameters and mechanisms
Two headers have been defined for securing IP packets:
o Authentication-Header
guarantees integrity and authenticity of IP packets
if asymmetric encryption schemes are used, non-repudiation can also be guaranteed

o Encapsulation Security Payload

protects confidentiality between communication partners

Mobile Security Association for registrations

o parameters for the mobile host (MH), home agent (HA), and foreign agent (FA)
Extensions of the IP security architecture
o extended authentication of registration

prevention of replays of registrations

o time stamps: 32 bit time stamps + 32 bit random number
o nonces: 32 bit random number (MH) + 32 bit random number (HA)
Key distribution
foreign agent has a security association with the home agent
mobile host registers a new binding at the home agent
home agent answers with a new session key for foreign agent
and mobile node

MTech CSE (PT, 2011-14) SRM, Ramapuram 14 hcr:innovationcse@gg

CS601 Wireless Communication and Networks Unit - IV

DHCP
Application / Uses
o simplification of installation and maintenance of networked computers
o supplies systems with all necessary information, such as IP address, DNS server address, domain
name, subnet mask, default router etc.
o enables automatic integration of systems into an Intranet or the Internet, can be used to acquire a COA
for Mobile IP
Client/Server-Model
o the client sends via a MAC broadcast a request to the DHCP server (might be via a DHCP relay)

Basic DHCP configuration

A DHCP relay might be needed to forward requests across inter-working units to a DHCP server

DHCP - protocol mechanisms / Client initialization via DHCP

DHCP Characteristics
Server
o several servers can be configured for DHCP, coordination not yet standardized
Renewal of configurations
o IP addresses have to be requested periodically, simplified protocol
Options
o available for routers, subnet mask, NTP (network time protocol) timeserver, SLP (service location
protocol) directory, DNS (domain name system)
Big security problems!
o no authentication of DHCP information specified

MTech CSE (PT, 2011-14) SRM, Ramapuram 15 hcr:innovationcse@gg

CS601 Wireless Communication and Networks Unit - IV

MOBILE AD-HOC NETWORKS

Uses
MANET
Routing
Destination sequence distance vector
Dynamic source routing
Alternative metrics
Overview of ad-hoc routing protocols

Uses
Instant infrastructure
o Unplanned meetings
o spontaneous interpersonal Communications
Disaster relief
o Infrastructures typically break down in disaster areas.
o Emergency teams can only rely on an infrastructure they can set up themselves.
o No forward planning can be done, and the set-up must be extremely fast and reliable
o military activities
Remote areas
o Sometimes too expensive to set up an infrastructure in sparsely populated areas
Effectiveness
o Services provided by existing infrastructures might be too expensive for certain applications
o only connection oriented cellular networks exist, but an application sends only a small status
information every other minute
o a cheaper ad-hoc packet-oriented network might be a better solution

MANET
working group at the IETF that is focusing on mobile ad-hoc networking
responsible for developing protocols and components to enable ad-hoc networking between mobile devices
MANETs and mobile IP

Routing
no default router available
each node must be able to forward data for other nodes
Example ad-hoc network
Links do not necessarily have the same characteristics in both directions due to
o different antenna characteristics
o transmit power.

MTech CSE (PT, 2011-14) SRM, Ramapuram 16 hcr:innovationcse@gg

CS601 Wireless Communication and Networks Unit - IV

Fundamental differences between wired networks and ad-hoc wireless networks related to routing
Asymmetric links
o Routing information collected for one direction is of almost no use for the other direction.
o However, many routing algorithms for wired networks rely on a symmetric scenario
Redundant links
o nobody controls redundancy
o high redundancy can cause a large computational overhead for routing table updates
Interference
o one transmission might interfere with another
o nodes might overhear the transmissions of other nodes
o might also help routing
Dynamic topology
o mobile nodes might move or medium characteristics might change
o snapshots are valid only for a very short period of time
Concerns specific to ad-hoc routing
Traditional routing algorithms known from wired networks will not work Efficiently or fail completely
cannot rely on layer three knowledge alone
Centralized approaches will not really work due to dynamic topology
Many nodes need routing capabilities
The notion of a connection with certain characteristics cannot work properly
Flooding approach is very inefficient with high load

Destination Sequence Distance Vector (DSDV)

enhancement to distance vector routing
ad-hoc on-demand distance vector (AODV) protocols
count-to-infinity problem
might create loops or unreachable regions within the network.
DSDV now adds two things to the distance vector algorithm:
Sequence numbers
o Each routing advertisement comes with a sequence number.
o Sequence numbers help to apply the advertisements in correct order.
o This avoids the loops that are likely with the unchanged distance vector algorithm.
Damping
o Transient changes in topology that are of short duration should not destabilize the routing mechanisms
o store time between first and best announcement of a path
o A node waits with dissemination if these changes are probably unstable.
o Waiting time depends on the time between the first and the best announcement of a path to a certain
destination.

MTech CSE (PT, 2011-14) SRM, Ramapuram 17 hcr:innovationcse@gg

CS601 Wireless Communication and Networks Unit - IV

Dynamic Source Routing (DSR)

DSDV or one of the traditional distance vector or link state algorithms
causes unnecessary traffic and prevents nodes from saving battery power
Dynamic source routing (DSR), therefore, divides the task of routing into two separate problems
o Route Discovery
o Route Maintenance
Eliminates all periodic routing updates

Route Discovery
A node only tries to discover a route to a destination if it has to send something to this destination and there
is currently no known route.
Method
broadcast a packet with destination address and unique ID
if a station receives a broadcast packet
o if the station is the receiver (i.e., has the correct destination address) then return the packet to the
sender (path was collected in the packet)
o if the packet has already been received earlier (identified via ID) then discard the packet
o otherwise, append own address and broadcast packet
sender receives packet with the current path (address list)
Optimizations
Each route request could contain a counter to avoid too many broadcasts
A node can cache path fragments from recent requests
A node can also update this cache from packet headers while forwarding other packets.
If a node overhears transmissions from other nodes, it can also use this information for shortening routes

Route Maintenance
If a node is continuously sending packets via a route, it has to make sure that the route is held upright.
As soon as a node detects problems with the current route, it has to find an alternative
Depending on layer two mechanisms, different approaches can be taken
If the link layer uses an acknowledgement the node can interpret this acknowledgement as an intact route.
If possible, the node could also listen to the next node forwarding the packet, so getting a passive
acknowledgement.
A node could request an explicit acknowledgement

Alternative Metrics
Least Interference Routing (LIR)
takes possible interference into account
To calculate the possible interference of a path each node calculates its possible interference
interference is defined as the number of neighbors that can overhear a transmission
Every node only needs local information to compute its interference
Routing can take several metrics into account at the same time and weigh them.
Metrics could be
o the number of hops h,
o interference i,
o reliability r,
o error rate e etc.

The cost of a path could then be determined as

MTech CSE (PT, 2011-14) SRM, Ramapuram 18 hcr:innovationcse@gg

CS601 Wireless Communication and Networks Unit - IV

C1 = cost(S1, N3, N4, R1) = 16,

C2 = cost(S1, N3, N2, R1) = 15,
C3 = cost(S1, N1, N2, R1) = 12.
All three paths have the same number of hops, but the last path has the lowest cost due to interference.

Overview of ad-hoc routing protocols

Three categories
Flat routing
Hierarchical routing
Geographic-position-assisted routing

Flat Routing
All nodes in this approach play an equal role in routing.
The addressing scheme is flat
Two subcategories:
o Proactive protocols
o Reactive protocols.
Proactive Protocols
set up tables required for routing regardless of any traffic that would require routing functionality
based on a link-state algorithm
o Fisheye State Routing (FSR)
o Fuzzy Sighted Link-State (FSLS)
Other link-state protocols that try to reduce the traffic caused by link-state information dissemination are
o Topology Broadcast based on Reverse Path Forwarding (TBRPF)
o Optimized Link State Routing (OLSR)
Advantages
o can give QoS guarantees related to connection set-up, latency or other realtime requirements
o routing tables with a certain precision.
o Known propagation characteristics (delay, bandwidth etc.)
Disadvantage
o overheads in lightly loaded networks
o the algorithm continuously updates the routing tables
o This generates a lot of unnecessary traffic and drains the batteries of mobile devices.
Reactive Protocols
setting up a path between sender and receiver only if a communication is waiting.
dynamic source routing (DSR)
ad-hoc on-demand distance vector (AODV)
o on-demand version of DSDV

MTech CSE (PT, 2011-14) SRM, Ramapuram 19 hcr:innovationcse@gg

CS601 Wireless Communication and Networks Unit - IV

Advantage
o Scalability, longer low-power periods
Disadvantages
o initial search latency may degrade the performance
o quality of a path is not known a priori

Hierarchical Ad-hoc Routing

For larger networks, clustering of nodes and using different routing algorithms between and within clusters
can be a scalable and efficient solution
Clusters can be combined to form super clusters etc., building up a larger hierarchy
one or more nodes can act as clusterheads, representing a router for all traffic to/from the cluster
Building hierarchies in ad-hoc networks

Clusterhead-Gateway Switch Routing (CGSR)

o based on distance vector (DV) routing
o hierarchy helps to reduce routing tables tremendously
Hierarchical state routing (HSR)
o based on the link-state (LS) principle
o principle of clustering recursively, creating multiple levels of clusters and clusters of clusters etc
Zone Routing Protocol (ZRP)
o hybrid hierarchical routing protocol
o Each node using ZRP has a predefined zone with the node as the center.
o The zone comprises all other nodes within a certain hop-limit.
o Proactive routing is applied within the zone,
o On-demand routing is used outside the zone

Geographic-position-assisted routing
If mobile nodes know their geographical position this can be used for routing purposes
improves the overall performance of routing algorithms
acquire position information is via the global positioning system (GPS)
GeoCast
o allows messages to be sent to all nodes in a specific region.
Location Aided Routing protocol (LAR)
o similar to DSR, but limits route discovery to certain geographical regions
Greedy Perimeter Stateless Routing (GPSR)
o uses only the location information of
o Packets are always forwarded to the neighbor that is geographically closest to the destination
o Additional mechanisms are applied if a dead end is reached
Comments & Feedback

Thanks to my family members who supported me while I spent hours and hours to prepare this.
Your feedback is welcome at GHCRajan@gmail.com

MTech CSE (PT, 2011-14) SRM, Ramapuram 20 hcr:innovationcse@gg