An Introduction to Research Methodology: Western and

Buddhist Perspectives Professor Laksiri Fernando

Introduction

Research might be defined as systematic investigation to gain knowledge about something.

This something can be phenomenon or relationship. The word research derives from the

French word recherch, meaning to search. It is obvious that research is an activity, and

human activity for that matter. As human activity, research is bound for possible error. No

human is infallible. It is to avoid error, as much as possible, that systematic methods are used

in research. There is no one method, but several of them.

The plurality of methodology has arisen because of the diversity of matter phenomena or

relationships that we investigate. The diversity may require different methods to be used on

the same thing or a particular method selected depending on the nature of the matter that we

investigate. For example, there is a considerable difference between natural phenomena and

social phenomena. The methods of social sciences thus differ from the methods of natural

sciences, e.g. in physics or chemistry. Again the different branches of social sciences or

natural sciences differ from one to the other in terms of the methods that they employ for

research or systematic investigation. However there are increasing areas where they overlap

and interbreed each other in terms of the usage of methodology. Although both humanities

and social sciences deal with the society and behavior of the people, the former relates more

to the spiritual or subjective sphere, while the latter deals more with the material or

objective realm of the society and the people.

Research methodology is in fact a generic term to cover a host of research methods and in

addition indicating the philosophy behind the various research methods that we now-a-days

use. This introduction to research methodology focuses mainly with the second part of the

above interpretation to mean the philosophy behind various research methods.

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The rationale of the National Centre for Advanced Studies in Humanities and Social

Sciences (NCAS) preoccupation on research methodology derives from the fact that

methodology is crucial to successful research. We call it our Niche. There cannot be any

research, even bad ones, without a methodology. The methodology here denotes the use or

the process of the method. However, the selection of an appropriate methodology not any

methodology - is the key to success. The difference between bad research and good research

might depend on the researchers grasp of research methodology. The quality of research, the

knowledge outcomes of that enterprise, or the scientific applicability of the conclusions

derived would largely depend on the methodology that it pursues. Before the selection of any

particular methodology or methodologies there is a pressing need to understand the genesis

or the philosophy of research methodology in generic terms. The importance of methodology

to research is like the importance of theory to practice. If research is the practice,

methodology is the theory.

The Genesis

Many accept that systematic or structured attempt to gain knowledge on various natural and

social phenomena dates back to the Greek period. It is apparent that rudiments of these

attempts existed in many civilizations before and after. In the case of the Ancient Greece,

Plato and Aristotle were two prominent figures in seeking knowledge through investigation

and contemplation. Plato (428-347 BC) was the founder of the Academy in Athens and the

author of the Republic among many other writings. He was a brilliant writer and a thinker.

However, he cannot be considered the founder of research methodology. It was his student

Aristotle (384-322 BC) who invented the first systematic method of investigation called

Syllogism. Perhaps Plato could be considered the founder of humanities but not social

sciences. The difference between Plato and Aristotle in a way is the difference between

humanities and social sciences. Platos approach did not stick to a particular method. It was

contemplative and imaginative. He was more concerned about normative matters than the

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actual ones. In his Republic, he was investigating the parameters for an ideal state/society

and argued that until philosophers rule as kings, the cities will have no rest from evils.

Aristotle was somewhat the opposite. He did contemplate and commented on normative

matters, but his primary concern was on actual institutions and processes when he wrote

Politics among other writings. Having considered the actual workings of political societies of

his time, he considered politics to be primary of all activities based on organic nature of

things. He called politics to be the master science. Concepts and ideas were not

uncommon to Aristotle but he focused more on empirical facts and relationships. When he

said man by nature is a political animal he was not talking about the future or the ideal but

the present and the actual. But Aristotle is important to our discussion not because of his

various theories or arguments but because of his methodology.

Syllogism that Aristotle developed refers to a structured method of reasoning or investigation

from an accepted or a known premise to an unknown or a new premise. According to him,

knowledge develops from the known to the unknown. His method is mostly explained as a

linear logic as follows.

Major Premise : All humans are mortal

Minor Premise : Socrates is human

Conclusion : Socrates is mortal

It is true that the deductive reasoning even today has the above linear character which at

times may prove to be untrue, unrealistic or defy even commonsense. The following is an

example.

Major Premise : Jackals hoot

Minor Premise : University students also hoot

Conclusion : University students are Jackals

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The reason for the erroneous conclusion in the second example is the incompatible

connection between the major premise and the minor premise. While hooting is a major

behavior of the Jackals, it is not fortunately the case of the university students! In deductive

reasoning, one cannot connect incompatible premises to deduct conclusions. Whatever the

inherent or circumstantial weaknesses of Syllogism as linear logic, as an overall

methodology it has much validity in all research. Deductive reasoning is important in

developing hypotheses or even theories. Through deductive reasoning, some tentative

conclusions or hypotheses might be attained or even theories might be built. However, those

should be further investigated, tested or verified through empirical research before making

inductive or final conclusions.

When John Locke developed his theory of Social Contract he apparently used a form of

deductive reasoning. The state of nature was his major premise. The state of civil society

(built presumably on social contract) was his minor premise. From this connection between

the major premise and the minor premise he deducted rules and norms for a system of

government. This is only one example from history of research and scholarly writings to

elaborate on the above point. Even in todays research, the deductive reasoning is much used,

for example, in literature reviews. The whole purpose of literature review is to deduct

reasoning focusing on a particular problem, area of investigation or subject matter for further

investigation. The methodology however works only when the connection between the major

premises of the literature is compatible with the minor premises that the particular research is

attempting to investigate. There is no purpose of a literature survey which is not relevant to

the subject under investigation.

The Buddhist Reasoning

It is not correct to say that all knowledge or methodology pertaining to research is of Western

origin. There are useful insights from the East and some of the philosophical propositions can

be considered useful basis for todays scientific investigation. One example is Kalama Sutta

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by the Buddha. He lived in fact before Aristotle and expressed concern over any major

premises (that Aristotle talked about) to derive knowledge without experiencing or

experimenting the truth. The sermon was delivered to Kalamas of Kesaputta while he was on

a filed voyage to that particular locality. Kalamas asked the Buddha:

Lord, some teachers come to Kesaputta, expounding and glorifying their own doctrines. But

as for the doctrine of others, they abuse them, disparage them, deprecate them, and pull them

to pieces. Other teachers, on coming to Kesaputta, do the same thing. When we listen to

them, we feel doubt and uncertainty as to which of these teachers are speaking truth and

which are lying.

Of course the question posed to the Buddha was not directly on research methodology or

scientific knowledge. Nevertheless, the research methodologies expounded by some scholars

today based on particular theories or ideologies are like the doctrines that Kalamas

confronted in the ancient times. However, the Buddhas answer to the question was based on

his theory or rather understanding of knowledge which is valid equally to research

methodology or theory of knowledge of current circumstances. The following was what the

Buddha said.

Come, Kalamas. Don't go by reports, by legend, by traditions, by scripture, by logical

conjecture, by inference, by analogies, by consistency with your own laws, by probability, or

by the thought, 'This contemplative is our teacher.'

It is not correct to say that the Buddha wholesale rejected any authority of knowledge by

report, legend, tradition, scripture, logical conjecture, analogy, inference, consistency with

law, probability or thought. What he said was to be circumspect and not to take them on the

face value. This is extremely important in research and what he asked was to re-search or

reinvestigate the existing knowledge. One even might say that this is similar to what is

pronounced as deconstruction today with a difference. The difference perhaps is that the

Buddhas advocacy of methodology was constructive and not destructive. This is clear from
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his advocacy of four noble truths with optimism of resolving the worlds most pressing

problems. What he said was: dont give final authority to what is written in books or what is

advocated by philosophers. You have to test them through your own experience and

contemplation. What he mentioned as contemplation in the context of the present day

research can be considered as empirical investigation and scientific verification of

propositions.

Scientific Method

Research methodology took a dramatic turn beginning the modern era with the invention of

inductive reasoning in the West. Francis Bacon (1561-1624), an English thinker, was the

pioneer of this venture who in fact turned Aristotles syllogism upside down. Rather than

moving from the general to the specific, Bacon argued that human knowledge better proceeds

from the specific to the general. In comparison to deductive reasoning, the inductive

reasoning can be explained as something similar to the following.

Specific Premise 1: David, Ram and Nirmala underwent NCAS training

Specific Premise 2: David, Ram and Nirmala completed PhDs in three years

Conclusion : NCAS training results timely completion of PhDs

The inductive reasoning is the preferred method obviously in natural sciences today.

However as a scientific method it has inspired social sciences as well. It appears that only the

inductive method that would allow new premises to be established and new theories to be

constructed. If we follow only the deductive reasoning, our knowledge might suffer the

defect of circularity. It would only be within the existing major premises that the knowledge

would circulate. Deductive reasoning might be useful for practical purposes in life, but not

for revolutionary changes in knowledge or society.

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Similarly, the inductive method may confront similar predicaments if it is applied in isolation

to what can be deducted from the exiting knowledge, theories or what can be called major

premises. There is no point in completely reinventing the wheel in seeking knowledge when

new knowledge can be at least partly be built on the basis of the existing knowledge. There is

a considerable unevenness in knowledge spread in the world today (between the West and

the East or the developed and the developing) due to incompatibility of conditions or

relations of power and therefore appropriate knowledge transfer may require testing and

retesting of the existing knowledge through research. Similarly important is to seek new

knowledge as necessary through fresh investigation to avoid dependency on existing

knowledge that might be inimical to local conditions or development.

However what has emerged in recent times is a synthesis of the two major strands of logical

reasoning as the acceptable scientific method. This method is a broad combination of both

deductive and inductive reasoning. One might say, more than a synthesis of the two, this

method in fact attempts to use both methods as appropriate in the process of research. The

invention of this combined method or its advocacy goes along with the name of the

American psychologist, John Dewey (1859-1962). Dewey has had many hats and many

contributions to make to society like many others who were mentioned before. However

what is important to us is what was invented as scientific method applicable to any

research, natural or social, with necessary and appropriate adjustments. He was a pragmatic

person to use what is relevant and useful in research.

Pragmatism was his philosophy. However, he undoubtedly was bias towards empirical

research and also practical or operational research that could bring change in society and

people. What he proposed was deductive reasoning to develop a theoretical framework

including hypotheses followed by an inductive methodology to support, refute or go

beyond those theoretical premises. Research methodology in this sense is not a single

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instrument or method but a process with several steps to achieve the objective of knowledge

production as follows.

A research process combining the deductive and inductive reasoning can also be illustrated

by the following figure.

Deweys scientific method is in fact reminds us what the Buddha said about the Four Noble

Truths. They are:

(1) Dukkha, meaning the existence of problems and issues, or the problem of life (suffering)

itself.

(2) Samudaya, meaning the reasons or causes of the problems.

(3) Nirodha, meaning the possibility to uncover and resolve the problems.

(4) Magga, meaning the way leading to the understanding and resolution of problems.

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Todays research methods are based on the belief in rationality and the possibility of

understanding phenomena or relationships in the most objective and scientific manner. In

Buddhism this is called Nirodha and the concept has a very clear positivist character to it.

Dukkha of course is the existence of problems, issues, dilemmas and enigmas in nature,

society and life and the clear identification and definition of these problems, in Deweys

view, is the starting point of any scientific research process. Samudaya in the Buddhist

philosophy are the causes and reasons for the existence of problems and as Dewey stipulated

they need the determination of hypothesis or tentative theory to proceed with the intended

research investigation. Magga in Buddhism perhaps is the whole process of scientific

investigation and particularly the collection and analysis of data in order that scientific

conclusions are made. This is also the process of drawing of conclusions and the application

of them into the original hypothesis or theoretical premises similar to what Dewey said and

also the possible recommendations for policy making.

Concluding Remarks

The above presentation was only a brief introduction to Research Methodology focusing on

some of the philosophical aspects. The objective was to stimulate initial ideas among the

participants of a two day workshop (6-7 May, 2008) organized on the same topic by the

NCAS and attended by young academics in Sri Lankas university system. It is only on a

chosen direction that the genesis and the development of research methodology were

discussed in this introduction. A particular attempt, however, was made to draw inspiration

from both the Western and one of the most enlightened Eastern traditions, namely Buddhism,

without counter posing one against the other. It is obvious that many of the important

landmarks or particular methods were not at all touched upon in this brief introduction and

some of these were discussed in other sessions of the workshop. Research methodology is

undoubtedly a vast subject. Coverage of all aspects of research methodology is a mammoth

task which might require a lifetime commitment. It is this commitment and further self-study

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that were required from the participating young academics to make their experience at the

workshop fruitful and perhaps memorable.

Footnotes:

1.Laksiri Fernando is Professor of Political Science and Public Policy, University of

Colombo, and Director (Acting) of the National Centre for Advanced Studies in Humanities

and Social Sciences (NCAS).

2.Ancient China, India and Mesopotamia are some examples where mathematics and

medicine were developed.

3.Jacques Derrida coined the term deconstruction in the 1960s (Of Grammatology, 1967)

and since then the term has been much misused than used.

The text of presentation made by Prof. Laksiri Fernando at the NCAS workshop on

Research Methodology held on 6-7 May, 2008. Any kind of use of contents should be duly

acknowledged.

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Research methodology in Tibetan Buddhist studies:

The Indo-Tibetan mandala as a conceptual framework and interpretive

philosophy by Layne Mayard

Abstract

The realm of Buddhist studies has expanded from textual analysis to include a wide array of

other fields. The discipline also embraces a heterogeneity of researchers. Qualitative in

nature, methodology explores the what, why and how of phenomena deemed

Buddhist. In this paper, I explore an approach to research methodology in Tibetan Buddhist

studies based on the philosophical underpinnings of the Vajrayna path. I demonstrate how

the organisational and philosophical framework of the Indo-Tibetan maala enhances

studies of Tibetan Buddhist phenomena. As an example of this approach, I apply maalic

theory to the exposition of Tibetan scripture. This presentation suggests that the maala as

structure and philosophy supports the objectivity of the researcher, fosters phenomenological

interpretation from the perspective of the researched and preserves the integrity of scholarly

investigations in Tibetan Buddhist studies.

Introduction

Along with the globalisation of Buddhist thought, the realm of Buddhist studies continues to

widen its scope. No longer confined to scriptural analysis as a measure of academic

credibility, Buddhist studies also encompasses fields such as anthropology, psychology,

medicine and art. Each discipline adopts investigative strategies appropriate to its objectives.

Qualitative in nature, the overall paradigm seeks to answer the what, why and how of

the matter.

In this paper I explore research in Buddhist studies, with specific emphasis on a Buddhist

approach. For example, if anthropologists rely on a set of philosophical paradigms and

methodological frameworks intended for the study of human cultures, then what would be

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the nature of a Buddhist study of phenomena characterised as Buddhist? Could such an

approach be applied to any aspect of this type of study? Is there a way to apply the Buddhist

worldview to the interpretation of Buddhist experience and still maintain scholarly integrity?

These are complex questions. I maintain that the scholarly exploration of a phenomenon is

well-served by an investigative approach based on the underlying philosophical paradigm of

that same phenomenon as a means to express the viewpoint of the researched. I therefore

explore a Buddhist approach to methodology based on Buddhist theory that could apply to

the investigation of a phenomenon deemed Buddhist. Buddhist thought is nuanced across its

many traditions. My approach assumes the Tibetan Buddhist worldview, also understood as

the Vajrayna path, which, because of its soteriological objective, is included within the

Mahyna path.

I first define the basic philosophical underpinnings I include from the Vajrayna as they

relate to this discussion. An important part of the Tibetan Buddhist narrative is its reliance on

the dynamics of the Indo-Tibetan maala as an organising principle in the tantric

soteriological path. I then illustrate how I implemented a maalic approach in the exposition

of a particular type of Tibetan scripture known as a Treasure text, or terma. At first glance,

the terma with which I was working seemed like a conglomeration of unrelated topics. In a

thematic organisation corresponding to the maalic levels of outer, inner, innermost and

secret, a certain logic in the madness revealed itself. The composer of the terma

demonstrated intuitive skill in presenting the organised chaos inherent to the journey to

Buddhahood. The maala methodology accentuated this creativity and the message from a

Vajrayna perspective. I conclude with a brief discussion of how the maala approach is

applicable to other areas of Buddhist Studies.

1. The nature of a Buddhist study of a Buddhist phenomenon

Fernando (2008: 1) points out, the plurality of methodology has arisen because of the

diversity of matter phenomena or relationships that we investigate. The diversity may

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require different methods to be used on the same thing or a particular method selected

depending on the nature of the matter that we investigate. In qualitative research, this

paradigm encompasses an ontology and epistemology appropriate to the study. For the

investigation of an entirely Buddhist phenomenon, I propose a methodological perspective

based on the Buddhist worldview. In this instance I condense this paradigm to that of the

Vajrayna.

Tibetan Buddhist ontology is founded on the theory of the Two Truths. Reality is

understood as extant phenomena, and is divided into impermanent and permanent

phenomena. The distinction between these two forms has to do with momentary change. The

first of the Two Truths addresses impermanent phenomena, which are said to arise from

causes and conditions, are affected by other phenomena, change from moment to moment

and produce results. The second truth addresses static phenomena, or ultimate truths, which

function differently in that they do not arise from causes and conditions, are not affected by

other phenomena, do not change from moment to moment and produce no effects (Berzin

2001: 1). Ultimate truth is in effect nyat, which is the lack of any inherent existence in

impermanent phenomena. All phenomena fall into one of these two categories (Tashi and

McDougall 2001: 47). The Two Truths constitute the duality of all knowable phenomena.

Buddhist epistemology is based on descriptions of the mind and its functions. This theory of

mind describes the knowing power of the mind, its composition and processes of

apprehension. The mind is an entity whose nature is that of experience. It is a non-material

knowing agent with coarse and subtle characteristics. Cognitive events can know because

of the fundamental clarity underlying them. In Tibetan Buddhism, this is also known as the

clear light nature of mind (Gyatso, Goleman and Thurman 1991: 21).

One may logically understand that impermanent or compounded phenomena do not exist as a

single, unchanging unit; however, it is ignorance or more precisely, the inability to

experientially recognise this characteristic that distorts human perception (Tashi and

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McDougall 2001: 47). The result of adjusting perception towards an accurate understanding

of all knowable phenomena is omniscience, also known as the complete enlightenment of a

samyaksambuddha.

2. Mandalic theory

The implications of a Tibetan Buddhist ontology and epistemology become particularly

evident in the transformative capacity of the Indo-Tibetan maala. The maala represented

an organising principle in ancient India and Tibet, and remains an interpretive tool of the

Buddhist soteriological path (Raghu and Lokesh 1995: 9; Simmer-Brown 2001: 117). In

Indo- Tibetan iconography, the maala is usually portrayed as a sphere enclosing

increasingly concentrated versions of circles and squares.

As Huber (1999: 26) states, the maala is one of the most important Indo-Tibetan

organising principles. As a tantric Buddhist icon, the maala represents the realm of a

particular deity who serves as the focus of a certain set of practices, with the featured tantric

personality situated at the very centre of the design.

The maala also provides the practitioner an overview and guide to mental transformation,

proceeding from the coarsest mode of subjective experience to the subtlest view of

emptiness. The outermost elements symbolise manifest objects of awareness. Progressing

through the stages of outer, inner and innermost, the practitioner ultimately arrives at the

most profound, secret level. The maalas basic principle is that reality has its own

structure different from the ordinary, unenlightened minds vision thereof. This reality is not

something fixed or unchanging; rather it exists as spontaneous fluidity, with the central deity

representing the state of awakening towards which one is striving. The surrounding retinue

symbolises concepts relevant to the meditators worldview as well as strategies to adjust

awareness of the pervasive transience of phenomena. The centre and its environs are

considered interdependent and therefore empty of any inherent existence. The practitioner

recognises that all facets of perception and existence are in fact intricately interconnected
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(Simmer-Brown 2001: 119). In this way, the maala functions as an interdependent totality

so that physical surroundings, practices and perception become part of the entire experience

of the enlightenment journey.

3. A mandalic exposition of Tibetan scripture

Tweed (2011: 21) subsumes his definition of religion to the analogy of a flowing together of

currents. The structure and theory behind maala accentuates the currents of impermanence

and interdependence, solidity and fluidity, the density of ignorance and the expansiveness of

realisation. I apply this method to the organisation and exposition of a Tibetan Buddhist text

entitled Self-liberation upon hearing: A guidebook to the joyful Pemak (Dorj c. 1615-

1672).

Self-liberation upon hearing is a Tibetan Buddhist Treasure text, or terma. In the Tibetan

Buddhist narrative, terma are teachings first composed by the Indian guru Padmasambhava in

the 8th century. These texts were then hidden in the natural environment or in the minds of

his contemporaries, and in accordance with his predictions, revealed hundreds of years later

by future adepts. The said purpose of this entire process was to provide direct guidance to

practitioners in subsequent degenerate times.

Hundreds of terma have been discovered over the years. The first Treasure revealer, or

tertn, was Sangye Lama, who is thought to have lived at some point between 990 and 1070

C.E. (Dudjom and Gyurme 1991: 751). Self-liberation upon hearing was revealed by the

tertn Rigdzin Ddl Dorj (16151672), believed to be the rebirth of Drokben Khyeuchung

Lotsawa (750?), one of the twenty-five original disciples of Padmasambhava (Mandelbaum

2007: 1). Structurally, the text commences with the traditional introductory homage to

primordial Buddhist figures and a promise to explain. In the colophon, after sealing the

revelation by dedicating his efforts to the happiness of all sentient beings, Ddl Dorj

divulges his name as the revealer. The main body of Selfliberation upon hearing then

introduces a wide variety of seemingly arbitrary discussions about the Pemak rendering it
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quite difficult to extract any meaning from the text. I therefore organised the contents

thematically in accordance with a maalic structure. Tangible objects of perception in the

Pemak were classified as outer; inner and innermost levels related to less easily perceived

objects and events, and designation as secret pertained to phenomena in the text that were so

subtle as to be unknowable by an ordinary mind.

In the outer category, I included textual depictions of the Pemaks geographical layout; it

was portrayed as a lotus flower. The text indicated regions surrounding its outstretched

petals, the land areas that its petals represent and the innermost geography of its core. Self-

liberation upon hearing also emphasised the regions dramatic topography, particularly the

mountains. Traditionally, mountains act as focal points of pilgrimage and represent the abode

of a deity, known as a n. The text also describes the regions plant life for its qualities that

may accelerate the quest for enlightenment, or at the very least sustain one with its bounty.

The terma mentions esoteric beings that inhabit the region. Because of their subtle form and

religious symbolism, I categorised these as inner phenomena. Himalayan Buddhist cultures

identify geographical locations with different types of otherworldly creatures (Allison 2009:

169). The Tibetan categorisation of these entities roughly corresponds to dwellers located

above, at the level of and below the earth (Diemberger 1998: 108). In Self-liberation upon

hearing, the Pemak is deemed an extraordinary location because of the benevolent power of

many of the resident deities, and the menace of those deities with destructive intentions

(Thinley and Dudjoms 2006: 275). Most importantly is the mention of the kin. Often at

the centre of maala structures as a representation of a Buddhas wisdom, she symbolises

the final goal of tantric practice (261). She also embodies the tantric practitioners inner

wisdom. A yogis encounter with the kin is the experience of the ultimate nature of the

mind, as well as the means through which that nature is realised (Simmer-Brown 2001: 42).

The philosophical purpose of the maalic framework is to guide a practitioner through the

stages on the path to enlightenment, which includes specific meditative processes. I qualify

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the innermost level of the terma to be its descriptions of Buddhist practice. There are various

mentions of Buddhist training in Self-liberation upon hearing. When pristine cognition is

understood to be the highest tenet, the text describes the methods to realise this as thekchd,

or Cutting Through, and thgl, Direct Crossing Over. The objective of thekchd is to see

through the false appearances generated by the deluded aspect of mind in order to perceive

its primordially pure aspect. In thgl, meditative exploration facilitates the understanding of

spontaneous self-perfection of all phenomena. (Powers 2007: 386387).

Finally, the most secret and subtle aspects of Selfliberation upon hearing are its reference to

the resultant characteristics of liberation. In the tantric tradition, there are three phases of

meditative training which reinforce each other: the basis, which is the correct view, is the

understanding that all compounded phenomena lack an inherent existence. The second phase

is called path, where the practitioner focuses on cultivation of the unity of compassion and

wisdom. The last phase is fruition, which is the result of this cultivation and the goal of

meditative practice. According to Self-liberation upon hearing, this is possible even through

mere association with the Pemak. It is said that the basic, infinite nature of mind is that

which is pure, clear and knowing; any experience is like an ocean ripple on its surface.

Defilements or afflictions are adventitious, and can therefore be removed through cultivation

of the path. At the final level of practice, as reflected in thekchd and thgl, the meditator

experientially understands that all phenomena are simply emanations of mind (Powers 2007:

291).

The text ties this essence neatly to its innermost, inner and outer elements in reliance on

maalic theory, interdependence, impermanence and emptiness. Practitioners transform

ordinary topographical features into the sacred geography of the maala, which is actually a

transformation of both perception and landscape. Perception is a purely subjective experience

whereby the landscape itself is seen to reveal this inner essence. By doing so, the relationship

between the practitioners inner microcosm and the outer macrocosm becomes evident. The

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environment and all that inhabits it are regarded as pure, along with the mental continuum

that perceives them. All have always been and remain in a state of awakening and pristine

awareness (Kongtrul 2005: 319). Presented as a maala, the exposition of Self-liberation

upon hearing reflects the essence of Tibetan Buddhist sacred geography and their spiritual

purpose as a physical depiction of the salvation process.

4. Implications of a mandalic approach to the study of Tibetan Buddhist

phenomena

Cabezn (1995: 254) reminds Buddhist scholars that true research . . . is creative. I propose

that the means to express this creativity should also be practical. Accordingly, I have

presented the Indo-Tibetan maala as a means to organise and interpret the dynamics of a

Tibetan Buddhist phenomenon. As an organisational framework, it acts as a heuristic device

for the variety of themes a scholar may encounter in a single study. As a philosophical

paradigm, maalic theory illustrates the progressive stages of the tantric enlightenment

process.

In Tibetan Buddhist studies, this approach is useful because of its portrayal of the researched

phenomenon, or object of observation, from the viewpoint of the researched whilst

integrating scholarly rigour. For example, from the Vajrayna perspective, tantric theory is

embedded within any Tibetan Buddhist artistic creation. A depiction of a wrathful deity, such

as Hayagrva, is more than an expression of design, method or material. A Tibetan Buddhist

painting reflects the culture, society and history that gave rise to the idea being replicated on

the canvas. What differentiates the depiction of Hayagrva from its non-Buddhist or Buddhist

counterparts is the philosophical, ritualistic and soteriological symbolism. It is a

manifestation of many complex ideas, which to the initial observer unfamiliar with the theory

behind this deity, can be confusing. Using a maala approach that progressively

differentiates the overt from the discrete, it is possible to present a complex depiction of

tantric theory in a conventionally logical manner.

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This offers the scholar in Tibetan Buddhist studies an avenue through which to form

hypotheses about the object of research, organise the approach to its analysis according to

Tibetan Buddhist theory, iteratively establish working theories against the background of

research findings, interpret these through the Tibetan Buddhist paradigm and then present

these findings in a manner that honours the viewpoint of the ideas that the phenomenon

represents.

I also maintain, however, that maalic theory as I have defined in this paper, is flexible

enough to be applied to studies in other Buddhist traditions. Each path has as its

soteriological aim the arrival at, revelation or experience of the innate nature of mind. This

process is substantiated by the mechanism of cause and effect, dependent arising,

impermanence, interdependence and nyat. The maalic format can act as a means to

explore and analyse Buddhist ritual, artistry, meditation, social interaction and language. It

offers the researcher a technique through which to articulate a deeper understanding of the

subtle connections between Buddhist theory, practice and realisation.

Conclusion

The maala principle represents a type of orderly chaos: it is orderly, because it comes in a

pattern; it is chaos, because it is confusing to work with that particular pattern (Trungpa and

Chdzin 1991: 15). This circular reality illustrates objectivity and connectivity between the

central and circumambient elements; it functions as a visual synopsis of their

interdependence as a totality in relation to their most secret essence of emptiness.

A maalic approach also supports academic integrity by promoting objectivity, employing

the theory behind the object of research and integrating its perspective. Similar to the realm

of Buddhist studies, there are so many different aspects to consider within any type of

maalic organisation be it internal or external to a person harmonisation with that

scenario is potentially a bewildering undertaking. I therefore maintain that the maala as

19
organisational framework and interpretive philosophy is also applicable to other traditions of

Buddhism.

A maala for the exposition of the Tibetan Buddhist Treasure Text Self-liberation upon

hearing: A guidebook to the joyful Pemak

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