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RESIDUAL STRESSES
Residual stress is the internal stress distribution locked into a
material. These stresses are present even after all external loading
forces have been removed.
They are a result of the material obtaining equilibrium after it has
undergone plastic deformation.
RESIDUAL STRESSES
Residual stresses can be sufficient to cause a metal part to suddenly
split into two or more pieces after it has been resting on a table or
floor without external load being applied. While this is not a
common occurrence, people in the metal working industry have
witnessed this phenomenon. While there may be additional factors
causing this to occur, residual stresses help explain such
occurrences.
RESIDUAL STRESSES
How does residual stress compare to applied stress?
Applied stress is generated inside a material due to an external
load. Residual stress is present inside the material regardless of
loading. The total stress experienced by the material at a given
location within a component is equal to the residual stress plus the
applied stress.
= +
RESIDUAL STRESSES
If a material with a residual stress of a -400 MPa is subjected to an
applied load of +500 MPa. The total stress experienced by the
material is the summation of the two stresses, or +100 MPa.
Therefore, knowledge of the residual stress state is important to
determine the actual loads experienced by a component.
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RESIDUAL STRESSES RESIDUAL STRESSES

What causes residual stress?
In general, compressive residual stress in the surface of a
component is beneficial. It tends to increase fatigue strength and Residual stresses are generated, upon equilibrium of material, after

fatigue life, slow crack propagation, and increases resistance to plastic deformation that is caused by applied mechanical loads,

environmentally assisted cracking such as stress corrosion cracking thermal loads or phase changes. Mechanical and thermal

and hydrogen induced cracking. processes applied to a component during service may also alter its
residual stress state.

RESIDUAL STRESSES RESIDUAL STRESSES

What causes residual stress?

Tensile residual stress in the surface of the component is generally MECHANICAL: technological process used to make a component;
undesirable as it decreases fatigue strength and fatigue life, THERMAL: Difference in solidification of the material. (i.e. in a
increases crack propagation and lowers resistance to cooling casting);
environmentally assisted cracking. PHASE CHANGE: Precipitation / Phase transformation resulting in a
volume change.
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RESIDUAL STRESSES RESIDUAL STRESSES

Mechanical cause Residual stress distribution with depth for the shot-peening process
Residual stresses may be due to the technological process used to
make a component. Manufacturing processes are the most
common causes of residual stress. Virtually all manufacturing and
fabricating processes such as casting, welding, machining,
moulding, heat treatment, plastic deformation during bending,
rolling or forging introduce residual stresses into the manufactured
object.
It is to be noted that mechanical processes induce surface residual
stresses.

RESIDUAL STRESSES RESIDUAL STRESSES

Shot Peening
Residual stress could be caused by localized yielding of the
material, because of a sharp notch or from certain surface
treatments like shot peening or surface hardening.
The maximum residual stress attainable by shot peening for steels
with tensile strength between 600 and 2 is given by the
following equation:
+ .
Heat Treatment
Among the factors that are known to cause residual stresses, one
can find deformation gradients in various sections of a piece by the
development of thermal gradients, volumetric changes arising
during solidification or from solid state trans-formations, and from
differences in the coefficient of thermal expansion in pieces made
from different materials.

RESIDUAL STRESSES
Heat Treatment
Thermal residual stresses are primarily due to differential expansion
when a metal is heated or cooled. The two factors that control this
are thermal treatment (heating or cooling) and restraint. Heat
treatment does not alter the chemical composition at the surface.
RESIDUAL STRESSES
Heat Treatment
Both the thermal treatment and restraint of the component must
be present to generate residual stresses.
When any object is formed through cold working, there is the
possibility for the development of residual stresses.
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RESIDUAL STRESSES
Heat Treatment - Quenching
Quenching is the rapid cooling of a work-piece to obtain certain
material properties. It prevents low-temperature processes, such as
phase transformations, from occurring by only providing a narrow
window of time in which the reaction is both thermodynamically
favourable and kinetically accessible.
RESIDUAL STRESSES
Heat Treatment - Quenching
For instance, it can reduce crystallinity and thereby increase
toughness of both alloys and plastics (produced through
polymerization).
It is worth noting the following simple rule regarding quenching
processes:
Whatever cools last is in tension.
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RESIDUAL STRESSES
RESIDUAL STRESSES
Advantage and Drawback of Residual Stresses Chemical Treatment - Quenching

While uncontrolled residual stresses are undesirable, some designs The principal chemical treatments used to provide components
with surface residual stress layers favourable to subsequent service
rely on them. In particular, brittle materials can be toughened by fatigue loading conditions:
including compressive residual stress, as in the case for toughened a) nitriding
b) tufftriding
glass and pre-stressed concrete. c) carburising.

RESIDUAL STRESSES RESIDUAL STRESSES

Advantage and Drawback of Residual Stresses Measuring methods
A number of different methods can be used to evaluate the re-
Residual stress may be desirable or undesirable. For example, laser sidual stresses prevailing in a mechanical component.
peening imparts deep beneficial compressive residual stresses into a) X-ray diffraction;
b) ultrasonic methods;
metal components such as turbine engine fan blades, and it is used c) magnetic methods;
in toughened glass to allow for large, thin, crack- and scratch- d) Electronic Speckle Pattern Interferometry;
e) Hole drilling and strain gage technique;
resistant glass displays on smartphones. However, unintended f) Core Hole drilling and strain gage technique.
residual stress in a designed structure may cause it to fail
One of the most popular and accurate methods of measuring
prematurely. residual stresses is the Hole-Drilling-Strain-Gage method.
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RESIDUAL STRESSES - Elastoplastic Materials Plastic Deformations

Previous analyses based on assumption of linear stress-strain
relationship, i.e., stresses below the yield stress. A Elastic deformation while maximum
P ave A max
K stress is less than yield stress
Assumption is good for brittle material which rupture without
yielding. Maximum stress is equal to the yield
A
PY Y stress at the maximum elastic
K
If the yield stress of ductile materials is exceeded, then plastic loading
deformations occur.
At loadings above the maximum
elastic load, a region of plastic
Analysis of plastic deformations is simplified by deformations develop near the hole
assuming an idealized elastoplastic material
As the loading increases, the plastic
PU Y A region expands until the section is at
Deformations of an elastoplastic material are
K PY a uniform stress equal to the yield
divided into elastic and plastic ranges
stress
Permanent deformations result from loading beyond
the yield stress 2 - 23

RESIDUAL STRESSES Plastic Deformations

If an axially loaded member or group of such members forms
a system that can support both
tensile and compressive loads, then excessive external
loadings, which cause yielding of the material, will create
in the members when the loads are
removed.
The reason for this has to do with the
the material that occurs during unloading.
When a single structural element is loaded uniformly beyond its yield
stress and then unloaded, it is but all
. This is not the general result.
will remain in a structure after loading and
unloading if only part of the structure undergoes plastic deformation
different parts of the structure undergo different plastic deformations.
As already mentioned, residual stresses also result from the uneven
of heating or cooling of structures or structural elements.
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RESIDUAL STRESSES
If an axial load produces a stress in the material and a corresponding
plastic strain then when the load is removed, the material will respond
and follow the line CD in order to recover some of the plastic
strain.

RESIDUAL STRESSES
If the member is statically indeterminate, however, removal of the
external load will cause the support forces to respond to the elastic
recovery CD. Since these forces will constrain the member from full
recovery, they will induce in the member.
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. ( , )

A rod of length = 500 and cross-sectional area = is

made of an elastoplastic material having a modulus of elasticity =
in its elastic range and a yield point = . The rod is
subjected to an axial load until it is stretched and the load is then
removed. What is the resulting permanent set?
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. ( , )

Bar AB has a cross-sectional area of and is made of a steel

that is assumed to be elastoplastic with = and =
. Knowing that the force F increases from and
then decreases to zero, determine (a) the permanent deflection of point C,
(b) the residual stress in the bar.

. ( , )

Rod AB consists of two cylindrical portions AC and BC, each with a

cross-sectional area of 1750 mm2. Portion AC is made of a mild
steel with E = 200 GPa and Y = 250 MPa, and portion CB is made
of a high-strength steel with E = 200 GPa and Y = 345 MPa. A load
P is applied at C as shown. Assuming both steels to be
elastoplastic, determine (a) the maximum deflection of C if P is
gradually increased from zero to 975 kN and then reduced back to
zero, (b) the maximum stress in each portion of the rod, (c) the
permanent deflection of C.
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. ( , )

The steel rod ACB is attached to rigid supports and is unstressed at a

temperature of . The steel is assumed elastoplastic, with =
and = . The temperature of both portions of the rod is
then raised to 120 . Knowing that = . / , determine:
(a) the stress in portion AC;
(b) (b) the deflection of point C.
The temperature of the rod is now returned to .

Determine:
(c) the stress in portion AC;
(d) the deflection of point C.

( , )

The rigid beam is supported by three 25-mm diameter A-36 steel rods. If the
force of = 230 is applied on the beam and removed, determine the
residual stresses in each rod. Consider the steel to be an elastic perfectly-
plastic material.