Minerals Engineering 41 (2013) 1724

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Minerals Engineering
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/mineng

On the froth transport modelling in industrial otation cells

F. Contreras, J. Yianatos , L. Vinnett
Automation and Supervision Centre for the Mining Industry, CASIM, Department of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, Santa Maria University, P.O. Box 110-V, Valparaso, Chile

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: A froth transport model for industrial otation cells characterisation has been developed in terms of oper-
Received 29 December 2011 ating variables for a three-phase system (i.e., gas, liquid and valuable/non-valuable solid). The new
Accepted 29 October 2012 approach, based on previous literature, involves three transport mechanisms: a vertical transport zone,
Available online 4 December 2012
a combined vertical and horizontal transport zone that allows the liquid and solid phases to be carried
to the concentrate stream, and a mechanism in which the gas phase is gradually removed from the
Keywords: top of the froth (bubble collapse).
Froth otation
To develop and evaluate the model, non-conventional measurements were conducted in a 130 m3 o-
Froth modelling
Froth transport
tation cell in the Cu/Mo rougher circuit at Division El Teniente, Codelo-Chile. The solid axial prole in the
Froth recovery froth, the froth recovery and the froth transport times for the three phases (measured by radioactive trac-
Froth residence time ers), are among the most important measured variables. The mean froth residence times and froth recov-
ery estimations were used as boundary conditions in the proposed model.
The aim of the froth transport model was to provide a simple and practical understanding of the froth
performance in the otation equipment. A practical description of the froth zone behaviour will allow
new designs and congurations to be evaluated for the radial and peripheral launders in mechanical cells,
improve the recovery of valuable minerals and decrease the gangue entrainment into the concentrate
stream.
2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction the valuable minerals recovered in the concentrate stream. Due

Froth transport and the effect of froth on the metallurgical per-
formance of otation equipment have been the focus of both the-
oretical and practical research in recent years. The processes that
occur in the froth zone and the impact of these processes on the
concentrate grade and on the critical transport conditions that
determine the mineral recovery, have been discussed in several
publications (Barbian et al., 2005; Yianatos et al., 2009; Hadler
and Cilliers, 2009; Yianatos and Contreras, 2010a).
Different experimental methods for evaluating froth recovery
have been proposed in the literature. Among them, the most pop-
ular methods are based on: (i) changing the froth depth, in which
the mass ow rate of the concentrate is measured at different froth
depths, and the results are extrapolated at zero froth depth to esti-
mate the froth recovery (Feteris et al., 1987; Vera et al., 2002; Sch-
warz and Grano, 2005; Tsatouhas et al., 2006; Massinaei et al.,
2009), and (ii) measuring the bubble load below the pulpfroth
interface (Dyer, 1995; Seaman et al., 2004; Yianatos et al., 2008a,
2009; Yianatos and Contreras, 2010b; Moys et al., 2010). The sec-
ond method involves the determination of the mass ow rate of
collected minerals entering the froth zone, which is related to
Corresponding author. Fax: +56 32 654478.
E-mail address: juan.yianatos@usm.cl (J. Yianatos).
to the difculties in performing the aforementioned experiments
in industrial equipment, i.e., the lack of a steady state and the dif-
culty in evaluating the different operational conditions, the
repeatability of the results obtained from these techniques remains
a concern.
1.1. Froth transport models
Theoretical models of froth transport are important for the
understanding of the phenomena that inuence the motion of
the solid, liquid and gas components in the froth zone. Moys
(1984), Murphy et al. (1996) and Neethling and Cilliers (1999,
2003) reported that the bubble motion in the froth can be mod-
elled by a two-dimensional system which can be solved using
the Laplace equation, Eq. (1), where w represents the stream func-
tion. Eq. (1) considers the gas ow (bubbles) in the froth as incom-
pressible (i.e., the variation in the internal pressure is small) and
non-rotational (having negligible shear strength).
r2 w 0 1
Fig. 1 shows the streamlines described by the gas inside the
froth zone in a bi-dimensional motion (Moys, 1984). Streamlines
of Stage 2 were dened by the stream function that satises Eq.
(1) for the gas phase.

0892-6875/$ - see front matter 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.mineng.2012.10.016
18 F. Contreras et al. / Minerals Engineering 41 (2013) 1724

the bubbles was modelled assuming a homogeneous froth-rising

Fig. 1. Three-zone model (Moys, 1984).
ow per surface unit, d, in a cylindrical otation cell.
A new approach based on these models is proposed in this
work. The new model involves a gradual froth break-up during
the froth transport towards the concentrate stream. This approach
takes into account the effect of the gas motion on the valuable so-
lid, liquid and gangue recoveries. To evaluate the froth model,
empirical data, including the froth recovery of each component
(gas, liquid and solid), the froth surface velocity and the mean froth
residence time, are necessary to obtain the froth transport proles
for the gas, liquid and solid components.

Three stages inside the froth were dened with a common 2. Froth transport model
height h. Stage 1 corresponds to a stagnant zone of length x0, where
the mass ow rate entering the froth, gf(x) = g0, is the same as the Based on Moys and Zheng models, a new approach was devel-
one exiting from the top of froth, gb(x) = g0. In Stage 2 (with length oped to describe and t data obtained at industrial scale. This mod-
L0  x0), the velocity has a vertical and a horizontal component, and el represents the three-phase behaviour of gas, liquid and solid
the entering ow rate, gf(x) = g 00 , is not completely recovered at the (valuable and gangue) in the froth using a simple approach that in-
top of the froth, gb(x), because of the froth stability. Fig. 1 shows cludes a small number of assumptions. The analysis was conducted
that a fraction (1  a) of the gas entering the froth zone exits in a bi-dimensional system, where the froth zone was represented
through the top of the froth. The a fraction corresponds to the by a rectangular section located between the pulpfroth interface
mass ow rate reported to the concentrate stream. The concentrate and the top of the froth.
stream denes the amount of gas transferred to Stage 3, where no
vertical mass ow rate is present. This zone represents the conti-
2.1. Froth transport zones and otation cell diagram
nuity of the stream function, where the term (L  L0 ) corresponds
to a tting parameter. This parameter is used to adjust the froth
A schematic of the froth model diagram is shown in Fig. 3, in
mean residence time, which only considers the horizontal trans-
which two froth zones are observed.
port of bubbles recovered from Stage 2 at a constant velocity.
The aforementioned model (Fig. 1) was validated for a gasli-
 Vertical transport zone: This zone is dened similar to the model
quid system in a 5 L pilot cell. However, this model and other sim-
proposed by Zheng et al. (2004). The vertical zone affects all the
ilar models (Murphy et al., 1996; Neethling and Cilliers, 2003) have
components (solid, liquid and gas). The height of the vertical
not been validated at industrial scale due to the complexity in esti-
transport zone, Hf, goes from the pulpfroth interface to the
mating the parameters. Also, the cited models only deal with the
launder lip level.
trajectory and velocity of the froth and no other sub-processes
 Combined transport zone (vertical and horizontal): The height of
occurring in the froth.
the combined transport zone is hf, Fig. 3. In this zone, the solid
Another froth transport model was proposed by Zheng et al.
and liquid components are transported to the concentrate
(2004), who dened three transport zones: a stagnant zone, a ver-
stream. At the same time, gas gradually exits from the top of
tical transport zone and a horizontal transport zone (Fig. 2).
the froth. Considering the local gas recovery as the gas fraction
As shown in Fig. 2, a fraction of uniformly distributed gas ow
that enters the froth at location x and that is transported to the
(Vin) enters the vertical transport zone and reaches the horizontal
concentrate stream, a minimum local gas recovery is dened at
zone, while the remainder of the gas ow enters the stagnant zone.
a distance far from the lauder (x = 0) and a maximum local gas
The stagnant zone corresponds to a region where the froth phase
recovery is dened near the lip (x = L).
and the pulp are at equilibrium with negligible mass transfer to
the other zones. Only a fraction of the gas ow rate entering the
To evaluate the froth transport model, a cylindrical cell with
horizontal transport zone is reported to the concentrate stream
internal radial launders was considered (Fig. 4). In this gure, d
due to the bubbles bursting on the froth surface. The break-up of
is the mean transport length in the cross-section area dened by
points ABCD, in which the concentrate is carried to the internal
launders. The mean distance, d, was selected to describe the aver-

age mineral transport to the concentrate, i.e., minerals that reach
the internal launder. Thus, L = d is taken as the distance from the

Horizontal
hf Transport Zone 0 x L

Stagnant Fout
Zone

Hf Vertical
Transport Zone

Vin
0 R

Fig. 2. Froth transport model (Zheng et al., 2004). Fig. 3. Froth transport zones.
 F. Contreras et al. / Minerals Engineering 41 (2013) 1724 19

typically above 9095%, when no wash water is added. Under these

conditions the assumption of constant gas holdup does not change
the mean gas rate estimation along the froth signicantly.
Under cell design or operational problems, mass ow rates of
gas, liquid or solid across the ow section can present unbalances.
In this case, the model results might be unreliable to represent the
average froth transport condition.
The assumption that the froth velocity proles are dened by
the gas motion is reasonable because the valuable solid is carried
to the concentrate stream by true otation (solid attached to the
bubble surface), whereas liquid is entrained by the rising bubbles.
Also, non-valuable solid (mainly ne gangue) is entrained to the
concentrate stream by the liquid motion.

Fig. 4. Flotation cell section with radial and internal launders. 2.3. Froth transport

In the vertical transport zone, the gas ow rate was considered

back of the bi-dimensional froth to the launder lip, according to homogeneous with uniform distribution along the horizontal axis.
Fig. 3. Thus, the analysis was focused on the horizontal transport, simi-
larly to the approach reported by Zheng et al. (2004).
2.2. Assumptions Fig. 5 shows a schematic of the ows entering and exiting the
combined transport zone, where the increase in horizontal trans-
The following assumptions were used to develop the froth port is highlighted. Notice that the horizontal transport increases
transport model: when the distance to the launder decreases.
Based on the assumptions and the proposed model structure,
 The valuable mineral (true otation), gangue (entrainment) and the gas transport into the froth is dened by mass balance
water entering the froth zone across section ABCD (Fig. 4) are (Fig. 5), considering a unitary thickness (Zheng et al., 2004).
carried into the concentrate stream only through the closer
internal launder (line AD), whereas the solids (valuable and V in x  V out x Hx  H0 2
non-valuable) and liquid entering the froth zone in cross-sec- where Vin(x) corresponds to the gas ow arriving from the vertical
tion DCG will overow through the peripheral cylindrical laun- transport zone and entering the combined (vertical and horizontal)
der DEG. transport zone between 0 and x. This ow is the same as the ow
 Each of these regions was dened to obtain a similar surface across the pulpfroth interface and can be obtained from Eq. (3):
ux across the pulp/froth interface level. Also, the mass contri-
bution from each region to the concentrate stream was consid- JG
V in x x 3
ered to be similar. In addition, the mean distance L = d eG
represents the average froth transport length.
where JG is the supercial gas rate at the pulpfroth interface level,
 The gas hold-up was considered constant through the froth
eG is the gas hold-up, which is considered uniform throughout the
zone, assuming that a sharp change in gas holdup occurs very
froth (except close to the pulpfroth interface, where the maximum
close to the pulpfroth interface.
eG change occurs), and x is the position on the horizontal axis.
 The mass ow rates of gas, liquid and solid (gangue and valu-
Furthermore, Vout(x) corresponds to the gas ow rate that leaves
able) at the pulp/froth interface (material passing across the
the froth on the froth surface. Vout(x) can be estimated using Eq. (4),
interface from the pulp zone to the froth zone) were considered
where Vout(x) depends on Vin(x) and the gas fraction which was not
homogeneous in the entire cross section.
recovered up to position x.
 The velocity prole is uniquely dened by the gas motion in the
froth, which depends on the gas ow rate, the froth section in V out x V in x  1  far x 4
the vertical transport zone and the cumulative gas recovery in
where far(x) is the cumulative air recovery function, i.e., the fraction
the combined transport zone. The liquid and the solids (gangue
of the incoming air ow rate between 0 and x that is recovered to
and valuable) follow the gas motion (Fig. 3).
the concentrate, and ows through the transversal section with
height hf at position x. To represent far(x), an S-shaped model was
This approach considers that the froth can be adequately repre-
employed with the following boundary constraints:
sented by a rectangular section with a unique average distance
L = d from the centre to the closer launder lip, which simplies
the mathematical analysis. However, this assumption can present
limitations when strong nonlinearities exist in the froth behaviour Vout(x)
0 x
as a function of the discharge distance.
The assumption of constant gas holdup in the froth is relevant
for estimating the mean gas rate in the froth. It must be noticed
H0 H(x) hf
that gas holdup signicantly changes across the pulp/froth inter-
face, varying from 10% to 15% in the pulp zone to around 7075%
in the rst layers of the froth zone, which can be estimated from
hydrodynamics, assuming a pseudo-equilibrium condition. How- Vin(x)
ever, a signicant increase in gas holdup rapidly occurs in the froth
near the interface because of the strong liquid drainage by gravity,
due to the sudden deceleration of the bubbles motion. Conse- Fig. 5. Input and output ow in the combined (vertical and horizontal) transport
quently, the mean gas holdup observed in otation froths is zone.
20 F. Contreras et al. / Minerals Engineering 41 (2013) 1724
far 0 0 5  Mass ow rate at the pulpfroth interface, for component j (uni-
far L a 6
Eq. (5) indicates that the air recovery is nil at the farthest dis-
tance to the launder lip, therefore:
H0 0 7 M IN;j
Eq. (6) shows that the cumulative air recovery function evalu-
ated at the concentrate launder lip corresponds to the overall air
recovery (a).
The S-shaped model for far was chosen based on the bubble mo-
tion through the froth observed in a bi-dimensional prototype cell
(Leiva, 2011). The experimental results obtained in this cell
showed that bubble bursting on top of froth depends on the bubble
residence time in the froth, which is related to the distance to the
launder lip.
Substituting Eqs. (3), (4), and (7) in Eq. (2) gives Eq. (8), which
describes the effective horizontal gas ow rate, H(x), passing
through the combined transport zone at x:
JG
Hx  x  far x 8
eG
Knowing the gas ow rate in both the vertical and combined
transport zones, it is possible to estimate the froth velocity prole.
Assuming the gas ow rate in the vertical zone is uniform, the gas
rising velocity in this zone, uV, which does not change with height,
can be obtained from Eq. (9) (Zheng et al., 2004):
JG
uV 9
eG
The horizontal air ow rate in the combined transport zone is
not uniform, and it depends on the air recovery prole along the
x axis. Considering the air ow is transported through a cross sec-
tion with height hf and unitary thickness, the horizontal transport
velocity uH(x) can be obtained from Eq. (8):
JG
uH x  x  far x 10
eG  hf
Based on the model assumptions, the liquid and solid (valuable
and gangue) components are transported into the froth by the mo-
tion of the gas bubbles. Thus, the mean residence time of each
component can be estimated from Eqs. (9) and (10).
The mean residence time in the vertical zone tV, can be deter-
mined using the rising distance Hf over the rising velocity uV:
Hf
tV 11
uV
The time tH, for the froth horizontal transport from a distance x
to the launder lip (x = L) in a otation cell, is calculated by Eq. (12).
Z L
1
t H x dz 12
x uH z
To calculate the mean residence time for each component, the
froth recovery must be determined as function of the distance to
the launder lip. For this purpose, a specic recovery function SRFj(x)
was dened, which indicates the mass fraction of component j (li-
quid, valuable or solid gangue) entering the froth zone at a distance
x that is recovered in the concentrate stream. In the proposed mod-
el, this fraction only depends on the incoming position on the x-axis
at the interface level, where a homogeneous mass ow rate of each
component was assumed.
For each component (j = liquid, valuable solid and gangue), the
following parameters are dened:
form and constant):
M IN;j 13
 Fractional mass ow rate of component j entering the froth
between x and x + Dx at the pulp/froth interface (constant):
Dx 14
L
 Fractional mass ow rate of component j entering the froth
between x and x + Dx at the pulp/froth interface and recovered
into
 the concentrate
 stream:
MIN;j
SRF j x  Dx 15
L
where SRFj(x) is the specic recovery function.
 Mass ow rate in the concentrate stream for component j:
Z L
M IN;j
 SRF j xdx 16
L 0
The froth recovery RF,j for each component j (solid and liquid)
can be obtained by the ratio between Eqs. (16) and (13) giving
Eq. (17), which uniquely depends on the specic recovery function
SRFj(x). Thus, the integration of SRFj(x) over the horizontal trajec-
tory, that the froth travels to reach the launder lip, allows for esti-
mating the froth recovery of component j. Notice that SRFj(x)
corresponds to a density function.
Z L
1
RF;j SRF j xdx 17
L 0
Considering that the transport time for each fraction of material
recovered to the concentrate can be obtained by adding the vertical
and horizontal times given by Eqs. (11) and (12), the mean froth
residence time (MFRTj) is:
RL
SRF j x  t H xdx
0
MFRT j t V RL 18
0
SRF j xdx
The second term of Eq. (18) is the weighted sum of the horizon-
tal residence time, in which the weights correspond to the specic
recovery function (mass fraction recovered to the concentrate).
3. Froth transport model evaluation
To evaluate and validate the froth transport model, experimen-
tal otation data from a 130 m3 cell of the rougher otation circuit
at El Teniente, Codelco-Chile, were used. Axial copper grade pro-
les, froth discharge velocity and froth residence times were mea-
sured in the cross-section area ABCD of the industrial otation cell,
Fig. 4. Froth residence times were measured using the radioactive
tracer technique. For this purpose, Br82 in solution was used as li-
quid tracer, while mineral gangue was used as non-oatable irradi-
ated solid tracer. The solid tracer was also tested at three size
classes (coarse: +150, intermediate: 150 + 45 and, ne 45 lm)
in order to evaluate solids residence time along the froth. Floatable
irradiated solid tracer was used to evaluate the froth residence
time of oatable minerals recovered into the concentrate (Yianatos
et al., 2008b).
Some process variables were directly measured at the plant, and
others were estimated either from theoretical relationships or from
data reported in literature. Table 1 shows the dimensions dened
in Fig. 4 for a mechanical cell of 130 m3, based on the technical
specications.
The characteristic length L = d = 0.6 m, as shown in Fig. 3, repre-
sents the mean transport distance in the froth zone of the cell. In
addition, the mean froth residence time (determined by radioactive
tracers), the axial grade proles in the froth, the supercial gas rate
 F. Contreras et al. / Minerals Engineering 41 (2013) 1724 21

Table 1 similar to that observed when measuring the axial grade proles
Industrial cell dimensions (Fig. 4). and the mean froth residence times (Yianatos et al., 2008b). Table
Dimensions Length (m) 2 shows the operational parameters measured directly at indus-
BE 2.95 trial scale.
CD 0.95 To obtain the model solution and relate the corresponding vari-
AB 0.36 ables, the froth transport model must satisfy the following
d 0.60 assumptions:

 The cumulative air recovery function far(x) is represented by an

S-shaped curve, which must satisfy the total air recovery (a, Eq.
Table 2
Model parameters. (6)) and the froth surface velocity (uH) near the launder lip (Eq.
(10)); both parameters are based on experimental data.
Hf (cm) 14
 The specic recovery function SRFj(x) must simultaneously sat-
hf (cm) 4
HF (cm) 18 isfy Eqs. (17) and (18) for each component j (liquid, valuable
L (cm) 60 solid and ne gangue) and considering the RF,j and MFRTj values
Supercial gas rate JG (interface) (cm/s) 1.2 estimated directly from the experimental data. Similar to the
Gas hold-up eG (%) 90 cumulative air recovery function, far(x), the specic recovery
Froth surface velocity uH(L) (cm/s) 810
function SRFj(x) for each component j was modelled by an S-
shaped curve.

Table 3 Table 3 shows the RF,j and the MFRTj values employed to t the
Froth recovery data and froth transport times. froth transport model.
Valuable mineral Liquid Gangue (45 lm) Gas
The froth recovery of valuable minerals (RF,VAL) was 59% from
(true otation) entrainment experimental testing using the bubble load method for a total froth
RF,j (%) 59 11.7a 1.1d 46b
depth HF of 15 1 cm (Yianatos et al., 2008a). It was supposed that
MFRTj (s) 35 23 14 1112c differences in the froth depth from 15 to 18 cm have a minor effect
a
in the froth recovery of valuable minerals.
Estimated using Eq. (19) and the overall water balance.
b
Reported by Hadler and Cilliers (2009).
The froth recovery of liquid was estimated from the experimen-
c
Estimated by a theoretical relationship (Zheng et al., 2004). tal data shown in Table 4 along with water mass balances and the-
d
Estimated by a theoretical relationship (Yianatos and Contreras, 2010a). oretical relationships. The liquid ow rate ILF (ton/h) entering the
froth was obtained from Eq. (19) considering a packed bubble bed,
with gas hold-up eG,IN = 74%, near the pulp/froth interface (Neeth-
ling et al., 2003).
Table 4
Operating conditions in the 130-m3 rougher otation cell.  
1  eG;IN %sol
Feed tonnage (tph) 870 ILF  JG  AC  qSL  1  19
Feed solid percentage (%) 35.5
eG;IN 100
Feed copper grade (%) 0.83
Concentrate solid percentage (%) 46.6 where AC and qSL correspond to the cross-sectional area of the cell at
Concentrate copper grade (%) 21.6 the interface level (21 m2) and the slurry density, respectively.
C/F ratio (%) 2.63 The liquid ow rate in the concentrate stream was calculated
Overall water recovery Rw (%) 1.66
using the overall mass balance in the mechanical cell with the data
Froth depth (cm) 1820
from Table 4, obtaining a liquid froth recovery RF,LIQUID of 11.7%.
The overall gangue recovery was estimated by the method re-
ported by Yianatos and Contreras (2010a) using the experimental
Solid percentage per size class, % data shown in Table 4 along with theoretical relationships. Only
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 ne gangue particles (45 lm) are considered to be transported
0 by entrainment with the liquid motion at the interface level.
Measurements of axial solid percentage were conducted at the
10 centre of the region limited by the launders and the froth crowder
Pulp/Froth Interface
using a variable speed peristaltic pump and a suction tube of var-
20 iable length. The samples were subjected to chemical assays and
Cell depth, cm

physical tests to estimate the mineral (copper) grade and solid

30 mass fractions (Morales et al., 2009). The results of the axial solid
prole per size class are presented in Fig. 6. The solid percentage
+ 150 um
40 at the pulp/froth interface, the ILF value and the gangue ow rate
+75 -150 um
in the concentrate stream were used to obtain the gangue froth
+45 -75 um
50
-45 um recovery, RF,GANGUE  1.1%.
Overall For air recovery, experimental data reported by Hadler and Cil-
60 liers (2009) for a single industrial otation cell of 70 m3 were em-
ployed. The a values in the range of 3457%, were determined
Fig. 6. Axial solid prole.
using supercial gas rate JG of 0.71.4 cm/s and froth depth of
HF = 24 cm. Based on the operating conditions shown in Table 2
and the froth surface velocity were determined. A portable Visio- (JG = 1.2 cm/s), the air recovery a was 46% (estimated by non-linear
froth system was used to obtain the discharge velocity, uH(L). interpolation) in the proposed model. Again, for illustration pur-
Both froth depths Hf = 14 cm and hf = 4 cm were considered pose it was assumed that differences in the froth depth from 18
when evaluating the froth transport model. The froth depth was to 24 cm had a minor effect on the air recovery.
22 F. Contreras et al. / Minerals Engineering 41 (2013) 1724

50 empirical froth recovery and froth residence times, Table 3. Notice

Cumulative air recovery,

that the mean froth residence time, Eq. (18), depends on the hori-
40
far (x) zontal transport time, Eq. (12), which is a function of the horizontal
30 transport velocity, uH(x), and therefore a function of far(x).
%

20
4. Results and discussion
10
(a)
0 Fig. 7 shows the results of the froth transport model based on
experimental data. Fig. 7a and b shows the cumulative air recovery
10
function far(x) and the horizontal transport velocity uH(x), respec-
Horizontal transport

8
velocity, cm/s

uH ( x)
tively. Both functions are related to Eq. (10) taking into account
6 the boundary condition, uH(L), which was measured by using the
4 Visiofroth system. These variables were dened for satisfying the
froth surface velocity at the overow level uH(L) = 9 cm/s, (launder
2
0
(b) lip, x = L = 60 cm) and the air recovery value (a = far(L)) of 46%, as
shown in Tables 2 and 3, respectively.
Fig. 7c shows the specic recovery function, SRFj(x), for the valu-
Specific recovery function, %

100
Valuable -True flotation able mineral, liquid and ne gangue, which simultaneously satisfy
80 Liquid Eqs. (17) and (18) and the experimental values of RF,j and MFRTj

60
Gangue -Entrainment
40
20
0
0 10
Fig. 7. Froth transport model results.
3.1. Model tting
Firstly, the cumulative air recovery function, far(x), and the hor-
izontal transport velocity, uH(x), must be determined. The bound-
ary conditions for far(x) are dened by Eqs. (5) and (6), while
uH(L) must match the measured froth surface velocity (VisioFroth)
near the launder lip.
The specic recovery functions, SRFj(x), must be obtained in or-
der to satisfy Eqs. (17) and (18). For each jth component (liquid and
valuable and non-valuable solid), the SRFj(x) must match the
(c) shown in Table 3.
The model results are consistent with the experimental data of
axial grade prole measured in two locations of a 130 m3 industrial
otation cell. Location 1 corresponds to the central position of the
region limited by the froth crowder and the overow lip, whereas
location 2 corresponds to a position close to one of the internal
launder, as shown in Fig. 8. The experimental results showed that,
20 30 40 50 60
at location 1, which is the farthest position from the internal laun-
Distance, cm
der lip, a higher copper grade (approximately 5%) was observed
with respect to location 2 at different froth depths. This phenome-
non is related to the bubbles bursting in the froth surface, which
promotes water drainage and ne particles (entrained gangue) to
drop back to the pulp zone. Similarly, Fig. 7c shows that the SRF(x)
function for ne gangue is almost negligible far from the overow
lip. Also, it is expected that lower water drainage near the overow
lip results in lower copper grades because of the higher entrain-
ment of ne particles (the SRF(x) function of entrained gangue is
higher near the discharge).
Fig. 9 shows the ne solid percentage as function of the froth
depth, which was measured in the centre of the region limited
by the froth crowder and the launders of the otation cell. It was
observed that the fraction (%) of ne particles decreases while

18
% Cu Profile (Location1)

% Cu Profile (Location 2)
15
Distance above the interface, cm

12

0
0 10 20 30 40
Cu grade, %

Fig. 8. Axial Cu grade prole in the froth.

 F. Contreras et al. / Minerals Engineering 41 (2013) 1724 23

80 In this example, it was assumed that the velocity prole is de-

ned by the parameters of the gas component, as given by Eqs.
75 (9) and (10), and the specic recovery functions are not strongly
modied when the mean transport lengths change. This simpli-
70 ed approach considers that the component recoveries (liquid
% fine solid, (-45m)

and solid) are mainly dependent of the froth residence time. In

65
practice, other effects might inuence the SRF curve such as the
new cell geometry and other sub-processes that occur in the
60
froth.
55 Table 5 shows the froth recovery results for valuable solid, li-
quid and ne gangue components, obtained when the mean trans-
50 Axial profile port distance was modied in the froth model. The froth recovery
Concentrate results were obtained by changing the integration limits in Eq.
45 Top of froth (17).
The results from Table 5 show that reducing the mean froth
40 transport distance, L, increases the froth recovery of valuable min-
0 4 8 12 16 20
eral, water and ne gangue, signicantly. Furthermore, the froth
Froth depth, cm
recovery ratio (gangue/valuable) increased when the mean trans-
Fig. 9. Fine solid percentage versus froth depth. port distance decreased. The same effect was observed for the
water/valuable froth recovery ratio. This condition may require
the downstream processing capacity to be increased in the clean-
ing stages.
100 The valuable minerals, as particlebubble aggregate, showed
the highest froth zone recovery, especially in the region near the
80 Valuable
Specific recovery function, %

Liquid overow lip. Therefore, a good compromise in terms of cell design

Gangue and operation will consider the decreasing of the mean transport
60
distance in order to increase the valuable minerals recovery, while
40 manipulating the froth depth and gas rate to reach the target con-
centrate grade.
20

0 5. Conclusions
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Distance, cm A froth transport model based on previous literature was devel-
Case 1 Case 2 Case 3 oped and evaluated using experimental data from a 130 m3 rough-
er otation cell.
Fig. 10. Effect of the mean transport length. The model was calibrated using experimental data obtained in
this study and data from axial solid grade proles, size distribution
proles in the froth zone, froth mean transport times, froth surface
velocity, supercial gas rate, and froth recovery of gas, water and
Table 5 solid (valuable and gangue), previously reported.
Recovery results varying the mean transport distance.
The froth model results showed that the liquid and gangue
Case 1 Case 2 Case 3 recovered in the concentrate originate preferentially from the zone
L = 60 cm L = 30 cm L = 10 cm near the overow lip, whereas the transport of valuable minerals
RF,VALUABLE (%) 59.1 89.3 99.4 was more distributed throughout the entire froth.
RF,LIQUID (%) 11.7 20.0 35.7 A sensitivity analysis showed that froth recoveries of valuable
RF,GANGUE (%) 1.0 2.0 4.6
mineral near 100% could be achieved by decreasing the mean
RF,GANGUE/RF,VALUABLE 1.8 2.2 4.6
(%) transport distance. However, a signicant increase in water and
RF,LIQUID/RF,VALUABLE (%) 19.9 22.4 36.0 gangue recovery (by entrainment) was also observed. This effect
decreases the concentrate grade and increases the concentrate
ow rate, which eventually requires the downstream processing
capacity to be increased.
moving upwards inside the froth due to water drainage. In addi- Equipment designed with lower froth transport distances and
tion, the percentage of ne particles on top of froth (far from the larger overowing lip length is expected to improve metallurgical
launder) was lower than in concentrate, which is mainly due to performance. For this purpose, a proper manipulation of the froth
ne gangue entrainment near the overow lip. depth and gas rate is required to keep the concentrate grade and
owrate in the range of operation.
4.1. Sensitivity
Acknowledgments
The effect of froth transport near the launder lip was evaluated
by decreasing the effective distance for horizontal transport into The authors are grateful to El Teniente Division CODELCO-Chile
the froth overow. This condition simulates an industrial applica- for providing access to their plant and for their valuable assistance
tion in which internal launders in the froth zone might be added. in the experimental work. Funding for process modelling and
Using the proposed froth transport model, three cases were consid- control research is provided by CONICYT, Project Fondecyt
ered: L = 60 cm (case 1), L = 30 cm (case 2) and L = 10 cm (case 3), 1100854, NEIM, ICM-MINECON, and Santa Maria University,
as shown in Fig. 10. Project 271068.
24 F. Contreras et al. / Minerals Engineering 41 (2013) 1724

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