6

Geometric Nonlinearity:
Large Strain and
Large Deformation Problems

CE 6102
Geotechnical Analysis

6-1
 Table of Contents

1 Introduction 6-1

2 Concepts of Large Displacement (including Large Rotation) and Large Strain 6-1
2.1 Definition of Strain 6-1
2.2 Infinitesimal Strain 6-3
2.3 Pseudo Large Strain 6-4
2.4 Large Strain 6-5
2.5 Summary 6-6

3 Effect of Rotation 6-7

3.1 No or Small Rotation 6-7
3.2 Large or Finite Rotation 6-7
3.3 Green Strain 6-9
nd
3.4 2 Piola-Kirchoff Stress Tensor 6-11

4 Updated Lagrangian Formulation 6-13

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1 Introduction

In linear finite element analysis, we implicitly made two assumptions, namely that the
material is linearly elastic and that the displacements and deformations are relatively
small so that they are ignored. We have already seen how material can behave in a non-
linear fashion and how such material non-linearity can be addressed in finite element
analysis. In this part, we will see how finite displacements and finite strain can lead to
non-linearity and how such non-linearity can be addressed.

2 Concepts of Large Displacement (including Large Rotation) and Large Strain

2.1 Definition of Strain

In order to illustrate the concepts of large displacement and large strain and how it can
lead to non-linearity, we can look at the example of a cube of material being strained.
Figure 6.1 below shows an ideal block of material undergoing rigid body motion and
extension. Applying the concept that strain is the change in length normalised by the
original length leads to

dv x
x = (6.1)
dx

This is the basis of infinitesimal strain analysis.

Figure 6.1

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The above example deals only with a single step of change. Supposing we now have a
series of changes as shown in Figure 6.2 below:

Figure 6.2

In the first phase, the strain increment is given by

dv x1
x1 = (6.2)
dx

In the second phase, the strain increment is given by

dv x 2
x 2 = (6.3)
dx + dv x1

Similarly, in the 3rd phase, the strain increment would be given by

dv x 3
x 3 = (6.4)
dx + dv x1 + dv x 2

If we now total up the strain increment, then

x = x1 + x 2 + x 3 + strain increments from subsequent phases (6.5)

dv x1 dv x 2 dv x 3
= + + + KKK (6.6)
dx dx + dv x1 dx + dv x1 + dv x 2

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Supposing now that dvx1, dvx2, dvx3 , ... dvxn <<< dx, so that

dx + dvx1 + dvx2 +. + dvxn ~ dx + dvx1 + dvx2 ~ dx+ dvx1 ~ dvx (6.7)

so that Eq. 6.6 is approximately represented by

dv x1 dv x 2 dv x 3
x ~ + + + KKK (6.8)
dx dx dx

2.2 Infinitesimal Strain

Eq. 6.7 sets out the basis for the infinitesimal strain assumption, that is, the total strain
increment dvx1 + dvx2 +.+ dvxn must still be very small compared to the initial length or
dimension. In such cases, Eq. 6.8 tells us that we can simplify approximate the total
strain by adding up the strains computed by dividing each deformation increment
by the original length. In the vast majority of structural analyses, such conventional
beam and column analyses, this is the assumption which is very often made, e.g. in the
figure below, we see a simply supported beam under a uniformly distributed load W and
a point load P. We want to find the strain and deflection, say at point A in the beam
under the combined loading.

Figure 6.3

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What we do most of the time is do find the strain and deflection under the individual
loading and then add up the relevant components. When we evaluate the strain and
deflection of the beam under the point load P, do we consider the deflected shape of the
beam under the uniformly distributed load? Usually no. This is the conventional principle
of superposition and it is based on infinitesimal strain assumption.
In most finite element analyses, unless the large strain option is activated, the change in
geometry of the elements and the domain arising from the deformation is not fed back to
the geometry, i.e. geometry is not updated. In other words, the infinitesimal strain
assumption is used unless otherwise specified.

2.3 Pseudo Large Strain

Suppose we now increase the strain level so that dvx1, dvx2, ., dvxn are individually
small compared to dx but when they are accumulated, they are large compared to dx, i.e.
dvx1 + dvx2 +.dvxn is large compared to dx. This is not uncommon in geotechnical
engineering, wherein a full analysis involving complicated construction sequences can
have a few hundred increments. Thus the individual strain increments can still be
defined by Eqs. 6.2 to 6.4, i.e.

dv x1
x1 = (6.2)
dx
dv x 2
x 2 = (6.3)
dx + dv x1

dv x 3
x 3 = (6.4)
dx + dv x1 + dv x 2

Similarly, we can still total up the strain increment by

x = x1 + x 2 + x 3 + strain increments from subsequent phases (6.5)

dv x1 dv x 2 dv x 3
= + + + KKK (6.6)
dx dx + dv x1 dx + dv x1 + dv x 2

However, dx + dvx1 + dvx2 +. + dvxn is not nearly equal to dvx, so that Eq. 6.8

6-4
 dv x1 dv x 2 dv x 3
x ~ + + + KKK (6.8)
dx dx dx

cannot be applied. We need to apply Eq. 6.6 directly. This will mean that, in each
increment, the strain needs to be evaluated by normalizing the extension (or deformation)
by the new length (or geometry). In finite element terminology, the strain is related to the
nodal displacement via the shape function derivative matrix [B],

i.e. di = [B] dvi (6.9)

in which di is the strain increment vector and dvi is the nodal increment vector. In this
case, the appropriate method to take account of the new geometry is to
i. Update the nodal co-ordinates by adding the nodal displacement to the current
co-ordinates, and
ii. Re-calculating the shape function derivative [B] using the updated nodal co-
ordinates.

2.4 Large Strain

Really large strain problems refer to those in which dvx1, dvx2, ., dvxn are individually
large compared to dx. In these problems, the individual strain increments can no longer
be defined by Eqs. 6.2 to 6.4, i.e.

dv x1
x1 = (6.2)
dx
dv x 2
x 2 = (6.3)
dx + dv x1

dv x 3
x 3 = (6.4)
dx + dv x1 + dv x 2

The reason why this is so can be seen when we consider the individual strain
increments, which are also large. Consider say, dx = w and dvx1 = wx which can be
taken to be made up of numerous infinitesimal increments dwx1, dwx2 ,.., dwxn, so that

6-5
 n
dv x1 = w x1 = dw xn (6.10)
1

In order to find the strain dx1, we need to add up all the individual strain increments
arising from the infinitesimal increments, i.e.

n
dw xn
d x1 = (6.11)
1 w

In the limit when n , the summation becomes an integral so that

w + w
dw w + w w
d x1 =
w
w
= ln
w
= ln1 +


w
(6.12)

Thus, in an increment of loading where the strain is large, the definition of strain is not
given by the extension normalized by the original length, but by the natural logarithm of
the new length normalized by the original length. This definition of strain is known as the
logarithmic strain definition. It is strictly the correct definition since it works for both large
strain and small strain. The linear strain definition given by Eq. 6.2 is only usable for
small strain.

2.5 Summary

Three scenarios are described above:

i. Where the cumulative strain is small compared to the original dimensions, use
the linear strain definition, without co-ordinate updating.
ii. Where the cumulative strain is large compared to the original dimensions, but the
incremental strain is small, then use the linear strain definition, with co-ordinate
updating.
iii. Where the incremental and cumulative strains are both large compared to the
original dimension, then use the logarithmic strain definition.

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Most softwares in geotechnical engineering use the linear strain definition. The only
software which is known to use the logarithmic strain definition is ABAQUS.
The above discussion has not taken into account change of direction arising from
rotation. This will be dealt with below.

3 Effect of Rotation

3.1 No or Small Rotation

l dl

Figure 6.4

Consider a one-dimensional element AB (Figure 6.4 above) of initial length l being

subjected to a pure extension (without any rotation), so that final length of the extended
element AB is l + dl. Then the extensional strain is simply given by

dl dx
= = (6.13)
l l

3.2 Large or Finite Rotation

Figure 6.5

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Consider now the same element undergoing an extension and a finite rotation through
angle (as shown on Figure 6.5 above), then the extension strain is given

=
(l + dx )sec l (6.14)
l

If the rotation is cumulatively large but incrementally small, then updating coordinates is
sufficient to account for the cumulative rotation. However, because rotation is a
displacement quantity, it tends to increase at a faster rate than strain (since it is obtained
by accumulating or integrating strain over the geometry). Thus, in some problems,
strains can be incrementally small but rotation is incrementally still large. To deal with
this problem, we make use of an updated Lagrangian approach making use of
conventional strain definition.
In fact, Eq. 6.14 is not often used the sec term involves square root. A more widely
used definition is as follows (following Figure 6.6):

Figure 6.6

Ex =
(l + dx ) + dy 2 l 2
2
(6.15)
2l 2

l ' 2 l 2 l ' l l '+ l

= = (6.16)
2l 2 l 2l

in which l is the new length. When the strain is small, l ~ l and

6-8
 l ' l dl
Ex ~ ~ (6.17)
l l

which is the same as the definition for small strain (Eq. 6.13).

An important difference to note is that we are now using dl instead of dx as the

deformation. This accounts for the fact that if dy (or ) is large, it can have an important
effect on l. This is a subtle but important change of philosophy which reflects the
recognition that the original line AB could now have been rotated out of the X-direction.
Thus, in plain terms, the normal strain in the x-direction is now defined as the
change in length (total length, not just x-component) of a line which was originally
aligned in the x-direction (but may no longer be aligned along the x-direction post-
deformation). The second important thing to note is that the strain is defined as
the change in length normalized by the ORIGINAL length, not the FINAL length.
This is consistent with the Lagrangian approach which is based on tracking
material co-ordinate, rather than spatial co-ordinate. This definition of strain (i.e.
Eq. 6.15 and 6.16) is known as the Green or Lagrangian Strain. The infinitesimal
strain given by Eq. 6.17 is also known as the Cauchy strain.

This means that we can also alternatively define another strain by normalizing the
extension by the current length l, this leads to

l ' 2 l 2
Ex = (6.18)
2l ' 2

which is known as the Almansi or Eulerian Strain. In solid mechanics (including

geotechnical engineering), we usually adopt a Lagrangian approach which tracks the
material deformation instead of setting up a control volume in space. For this reason, the
Green Strain is much more commonly used for finite deformation than the Almansi Strain.

3.3 Green Strain

We can derive the Green Strain in the x-direction in a more formal way using the
following framework:

6-9
 Figure 6.7

In this framework, the line segment AB was moved, rotated and stretched to become
AB. Using this figure,

l ' 2 = dx 12 + dy 12 (6.19)

l 2
= dx 02 (6.20)

We note that
dx 1 = dx 0 + u + du u = dx 0 + du (6.21)

and dy 1 = dv (6.22)

Substituting Eqs. 6.21 and 6.22 into Eq. 6.19 leads to

l ' 2 = dx 02 + 2 dx 0 du + du 2 + dv 2 (6.23)
so that

l ' 2 - l 2 = 2 dx 0 du + du 2 + dv 2 (6.24)

Substituting Eq. 6.24 into Eq. 6.16 leads to

6-10
 du 1 du 2 dv 2
Ex = + + (6.25)
dx 0 2 dx 02 dx 02

or in partial derivative form,

u 1 u 2 v 2
Ex = + + (6.26)
x 0 2 x 02 x 02

In tensor notation, the Green strain tensor is defined by

1 u i u j u k u k
E ij = + + (6.27)
2 a j a i a i a j

in which ai = x0, y0, z0 for i = 1, 2, 3, and ui = u, v, w for i = 1, 2, 3,

and the summation convention applies, i.e.

uk u k u1 u1 u 2 u 2 u 3 u 3
= + + (6.28)
a i a j a i a j a i a j a i a j

3.4 2nd Piola-Kirchoff Stress Tensor

In the above, we have seen how a finite strain tensor, i.e. the Green Strain tensor, can
be defined. In conjunction with the Green Strain tensor, we also need to define a
corresponding stress tensor, which is work-conjugate. That is, the dot product of the
stress tensor with the Green Strain tensor should be equal to the work done. The usual
stress tensor which we use with the infinitesimal strain tensor is the Cauchy stress
tensor. The appropriate stress tensor to use with the Green strain tensor is known as the
2nd Piola-Kirchoff Stress tensor Sjr.

To define the 2nd Piola-Kirchoff Stress tensor Sjr, we need to first define a matrix of
deformation gradient, which is given by

6-11
 x 1 x 1 x 1

x 0 y 0 z 0
y y 1 y 1
Fij = 1 (6.29)
x 0 y 0 z 0
z z 1 z1
1
x 0 y 0 z 0

We note that

x x 1 x 1
dx 0 1 dx 0 dx 1
x 0 y 0 z 0
y y 1 y 1
Fij dy 0 = 1 dy 0
= dy 1
(6.29)
x 0 y 0 z 0

dz 0 z1 z1 z1
dz 0 dz 1
x 0 y 0 z 0

dx 0

Thus Fij maps the original shape vector dy 0 onto the deformed (new) shape vector

dz 0

dx 1
dy . Similarly, its inverse i.e. F -1 maps the deformed (new) shape vector back onto
1 ij

dz 1

the original (undeformed) shape vector.

The 2nd Piola-Kirchoff Stress tensor is defined by

Sjr = Fij-1 ik J Frk-1 (6.30)

in which ik is the Cauchy stress tensor and J = det Fij

Physically, the 2nd Piola-Kirchoff Stress tensor is the force mapped to the undeformed
configuration normalized over the undeformed area, i.e. everything relates back to the
original configuration.

6-12
4 Updated Lagrangian Formulation

The basic difference between small deformation analysis and large deformation analysis
is that the latter has to consider changes in the volume of the body over which the virtual
work is going to be integrated. The static virtual work requirement can be expressed as

t + t t + t
ij ij dV t + t = t + t (6.31)
t + t

in which is the virtual displacement, ijt+t is the infinitesimal or Cauchy strain tensor at
time t+t, ijt+t is the Cauchy stress tensor at time t+t, dVt+t denotes integral over
volume at t+t and t+t is the external virtual work at time t+t. Eq. 6.25 cannot be
evaluated directly since the configuration of the body at time t+t is unknown. To solve
this problem, the virtual work equation has to be integrated over a previous known
configuration, say, the initial configuration V0 or the configuration at time t Vt. In small
deformation, Vt+t Vt V0 and all configurations can be used interchangeably. In large
deformation analysis, Vt+t Vt V0. If we integrate over the initial configuration, the
virtual work equation will look like

t + t
0 E ijt + t 0 s ijt + t d 0 Vij = t + t (6.32)
t + t

in which 0Eijt+t, 0sijt+t and 0Vijt+t denote the Green strain tensor, the 2nd Piola-Kirchoff
stress tensor and the volume, all evaluated at time t = 0. The left subscript 0 indicates
that the parameter is evaluated over the configuration at time t = 0. Eq. 6.32 is the basis
of the total Lagrangian (TL) formulation.

On the other hand, if we integrate over the configuration at time t (which we have
already evaluated), then

t + t
t E ijt + t t s ijt + t d t Vij = t + t (6.33)
t + t

6-13
in which tEijt+t, tsijt+t and tVijt+t denote the Green strain tensor, the 2nd Piola-Kirchoff
stress tensor and the volume, all evaluated at time t. The left subscript t indicates that
the parameter is evaluated over the configuration at time t. Eq. 6.33 is the basis of the
updated Lagrangian (UL) formulation. In geomechanics, the updated Lagrangian
formulation is more widely used. The final formulation is quite complex and is not shown
here, but the main difference between large deformation and small deformation is that
the Cauchy stress tensor may not be evaluated directly from the displacement increment.
Instead, the following procedure is often used:
i. Evaluate the increment in Green strain for the configuration at time t.
ii. Pre-multiply the Green strain by the stress-strain rule at time t to obtain the
increment in the 2nd Piola-Kirchoff stress tensor at time t.
iii. Evaluate the 2nd Piola-Kirchoff stress tensor at t+t from its increment based on
the configuration at time t.
iv. Evaluate the Cauchy stress tensor at t+t from the 2nd Piola-Kirchoff stress tensor
at t+t.

6-14