Intro Propulsion Lect 1 39

Lect-1
Introduction to Aerospace Propulsion

A course under NPTEL-II
Prof. Bhaskar Roy ; Prof. A.M.Pradeep,
1. Introduction to Propulsion (Prof B Roy)

Jet Propulsion
1.1. The making of thrust to fly science and
history of propulsion
1.2. How the jet engines make thrust :
conceptual basis
1.3. Jet engines : Turbojet, Turbofans,
Turboprop, Turboshaft
1
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
Lect-1
2. Thermodynamic basis of Propulsion
devices (Prof A M Pradeep)
2.1. Basic concepts :Scope and Method of
Thermodynamics;
2.2. System-Boundary, Surroundings; State,
Stable Equilibrium, State Co-ordinates and
parameters, Extensive and Intensive
Parameters;
2.3. Energy interactions, Work and Heat
transfers, Equilibrium, Quasistatic and
Reversible process, Non-equilibrium and
Irreversible Processes;
2
Lect-1
2.4. Zeroeth Law and Temperature, First Law
and Internal Energy; Second Law Entropy
and Absolute Temperature; Third Law and
Absolute Entropy;
2.5. Thermodynamics of simple compressible
systems, State postulate, Fundamental
Representations
2.6 Thermodynamic Potentials
2.7. Jacobean and Legender Transformations
Maxwells Equations
3
Lect-1

2.8 Derivation of thermodynamic

properties.
2.9. Applications: Closed and open systems,
Polytropic processes, Cyclic processes
2.10 Carnots cycle; Gas and vapour power
cycles;
2.11. Mixtures of gases and vapours, One-D
compressible flow, isentropic flow, flow
with friction and heat transfer, normal
shock.
4
Lect-1
3. Piston Prop Engines for Aircraft

(Prof B Roy)
3.1 The Otto cycles : Ideal, Real & Boosted

3.2 IC engines for aircraft application
3.3 Reciprocating engine performance
3.4 Supercharging and
3.5 Propeller speed control mechanism
and Gear Box
3.6 Propeller fundamentals and Blade
theory
5
Lect-1
4. Ideal Cycles for Jet Propulsion

Prof A M Pradeep
4.1. Joules Cycle

4.2. Brayton Cycle
6
Lect-1
5. Introduction to Missiles and Rockets

(Prof B Roy)
5.1 Ramjets and Pulsejets

5.2 Rockets : fundamental principle of
working of rockets and missiles
5.3 Various Space propulsive devices and
their operating principles
7
Lect-1
Text References :
1. Nag, P.K. Engineering Thermodynamics,
Tata McGraw Hill, 2008 (4th ed)
2. Emmanuel G., Advanced Classical
Thermodynamics, AIAA Ed. Series, 1987.
3. Hill Philip, Peterson Carl, Mechanics and
Thermodynamics of Propulsion, 1992,
Addison Wesly,.
4. Bhaskar Roy, Aircraft Propulsion, 2008,
Elsevier (India),
5. J.D.Mattingly, Elements of Propulsion - Gas
Turbines and Rockets, 2006, AIAA Education
series
8
Lect-1
More books shall be referenced

during the course of the lecture
series.
These will be mentioned during the

presentation of various chapters
9
Lect-1
Basic Sciences involved in Propulsion
1.Laws of Motion
2.Laws of Thermodynamics
3.Principles and Theories of Aerodynamics
4.Mechanical sciences
5.Material sciences
6.Control Theory
10
Lect-1
Basics of Continuous Motion

Before Newtons laws of motion (July,
1687 ) were codified various concepts of
creating continuous motion were tried.
Paddling of oars in boats uses the

laws of motion and has been used for
thousands of years.
11
Lect-1
Basics of Continuous Motion

Perpetual motion concept has
been debunked by the Laws of
motion.
Which means continuous force or

power is required for continuous
motion
12
Lect-1
Heros Aeolepile
(2nd BC)
William Avery
(1830)
13
Lect-1
Wan Hus Rocket (13th AD)
Multiple
Rockets
Rocket Jets
14
Lect-1
Da Vincis Chimney
Da Vinci
Jack (1500 AD)
Ornithopter
15
Lect-1
Da Vincis Flapping Wing Concept
16
Lect-1
Giovanni Brancas Jet Turbine

(1629)
Shaft
Gears
Turbine
Steam
boiler
17
Lect-1
Newtons Steam Wagon
18
Lect-1
Barbers Chain
Driven Compressor
+ Turbine for Jet
propulsion (1791)
Steam
Boilers
Pistons
19
Lect-1
Newtons Laws of Motion

Newton's first law.
An object at rest will remain at rest unless
acted on by an external force. An object in
motion continues in motion with the same
speed and in the same direction unless
acted upon by an external force.
This law is often called "the law of inertia
as it establishes the Newtonian frame of
reference.
20
Lect-1

Newton's second law
Acceleration is produced when a force acts
on a mass. The greater the mass (of the
object) being accelerated the greater the
amount of force needed to accelerate the
object.
21
Lect-1

Newton's third law
For every action there is an equal
and opposite re-action.
22
Lect-1
23
Lect-1
Newton's law I
This law states that if the vector sum of all
the forces acting on an object is zero, then
the velocity of the object is constant.
Consequently:
An object that is at rest will stay at rest
unless an unbalancing force acts upon it.
An object that is in motion will not
change its velocity (magnitude and/or
direction) unless an unbalancing force acts
upon it.
24
Lect-1
From Newtons 2nd law of motion

The second law states that the net
force on a body is equal to the time
rate of change of its linear momentum
Mt in a specified reference frame for
the inertial motion under interest:
dMt d(mV) dv
F= = =m
dt dt dt
For a constant mass system
25
Lect-1
Any mass that is gained or lost by the

system will cause a change in momentum
that is not the result of an external force.
A different equation is necessary for a
variable-mass systems
26
Lect-1
Consistent with the Law I, the time
derivative of the momentum is
non-zero when the momentum changes
direction, even if there is no change in
magnitude; such is the case with circular
motion.
The relationship implies conservation of
momentum: when the net force on the
body is zero, the momentum of the body
is constant (zero or non-zero). Net force
is equal to the rate of change of the
momentum. 27
Lect-1
The Newtons Law II is the

conceptual basis of Propulsive
Force of all flying vehicles
Newton's law II requires modification if
the effects of relativity are to be taken
into account, because at very high speeds
the approximation that momentum is the
product of rest mass and velocity is not
accurate. For all propulsive purposes
Newtonian bodies, fluids and motion are
used.
28
Lect-1
An impulse I occurs when a force F

acts over an interval of a small time
t, and it is, thus, given by
I= F.dt
This concept is useful when Rockets/
Space vehicles / Missile propulsion
are considered.
29
Lect-1
Newtons law III

The 3rd Law means that all forces are
interactions between different bodies
and thus that there is no such thing as a
unidirectional force or a force that acts
on only one body. If body A exerts a
force on body B, body B simultaneously
exerts a force of the same magnitude on
body A both forces acting along the
same line.
30
Lect-1
While the Newtons 3rd law allows us to

comprehend the mechanics of action of
the propulsive force (Thrust) acting on a
flying body, the production of thrust is
actually facilitated by the Newtons 2nd
law, active on the engine body. Hence it
is not only the jet coming out at the
exhaust that creates thrust, but the
entire body of the engine participates in
creation of thrust.
31
Lect-1
Additional References:
1. Cengel, Y.A, and Boles, M.A., (2006), Thermodynamics

An Engineering Approach, Tata McGraw Hill.
2. Sutton, G.P. and Biblarz, O, (2001), Rocket Propulsion
Elements, John Wiley & Sons.
3. Gill, P. W., Smith, J. H., and Ziurys, E. J., (1967),
Fundamentals of Internal Combustion Engines,
Oxford & IBH Publishing Co.
4. Saravanamuttoo, H.I.H, Rogers, G.F.C, and. Cohen, H.,
(2001), Gas Turbine Theory, Pearson Education.
5. Treager, I.E., (1997), Aircraft Gas Turbine Engine
Technology, Tata McGraw Hill.
32
2
1
Lect-2
Felix Du Temple de la Croix Monoplane 1857

2
Lect-2
Thrust for Flight
3
Lect-2
Unpowered airplanes
George Cayles
design (early
19th century)
Samuel P
Langleys
Airplane (late
19th century)
4
Lect-2
Langleys Airplane no Flight
5
Lect-2
Guillaumes Patent
of a Jet Engine
Lorins Patent Drawings

6
Lect-2
Wrights engine
7
Lect-2
First Flight 1903 Dec
8
Lect-2
9
Lect-2
10
Lect-2
Wrights propeller 1903 Wrights Propeller 1910
11
Lect-2
2 years, 4 months and 3 days before the successful flights of

the Wright brothers, a monoplane took to the air at early
dawn on August 14, 1901, at Bridgeport, Conn, USA carrying
the inventor, Gustave Whitehead, a distance of mile.
12
Lect-2
For the first fifty years of flight all flight

vehicles were using propellers as the only
means of propulsion through air.
After I world war a high powered
committee in USA had decided that flight
with jet propulsion was not possible.
As a result NACA (precursor to present
NASA) was entrusted in 1940s with
creating a large number of propeller
blade airfoil shapes.
13
Lect-2
Propeller Blade uses airfoil shapes
A propeller uses a type of airfoil (similar to a

wing) that turns and accelerates air. As the
blades of the propeller rotate they create lifting
forces (just as a wing does), in the horizontal
plane instead of the vertical as with the wings.
Thus, the propeller creates a propulsive action
force perpendicular to its plane of rotation, that
moves the aircraft forward in air as a reaction.
Propellers can either "pull" the aircraft from the
the front of the wings / fuselage (Tractor) , or
"push" it from behind (Pusher).
14
Lect-2
Propeller
Blade
airfoil
shapes
(NACA)
15
Lect-2
16
Lect-2
Tractor
type
propeller
Pusher Propeller
Propeller
undergoing a wind
tunnel testing
17
Lect-2
Opposed cylinder Opposed Piston

In-line
IC (piston) Engine
V X multi-cylinder
arrangements for
Aircraft Propulsion
H
Radial
18
Lect-2
Opposed
cylinder
In-line
V-type Radial
19
Lect-2
Jet Engines
1930s - 40s
Heinkel Engine
Heinkel He 178 First Jet
engine powered aircraft
20
Lect-2
P-V diagram
depicting the
cycle Frank Whittles
engine design
for patent
2 - Air Intake
3 - Rotor Disks
4,5 Axial Compressor rotors
7 - Centrifugal compressor
10 Central Shaft
11 - Combustion Chamber
15 - Axial Turbine rotor
17 Exit nozzle
21
Lect-2
Comparison of
various kinds
of Aircraft
Powerplants
22
Lect-2
Comparison of
various kinds
of Aircraft
Powerplants
Propulsive efficiency is
a measure of end usage
of available energy for
final thrust creation. It is
not same as the thermal
or overall efficiencies of
an engine
23
Lect-2
Modern aircraft powerplant designers

are using Prop-fans or Prop-jets that
enable usage of propellers for high
thrust and high efficiency at low Mach
number flights (for take-off and climb)
and then use essentially jet propulsion
for cruise at high Mach number and
high altitude
24
Lect-2
The Thurst generation
dMt d(mV)
F= = =mdv= m dv= m.dv

dt dt dt dt
High mass activation(air), m Propellers
low dV
High change of momentum, dV - Jet engines
low mass activation, m
Propellers typically operate on air mass flows
30 to 40 times more than that of a jet engine.
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay 25

Lect-2
A modern
propeller
26
Lect-2
Prop-Fan uses a basic engine
27
Lect-2
Modern Jet Engine
28
Lect-2
Abbreviation :
NACA :National Advisory Committee for

Aeronautics, USA
NASA: National Aeronautics and Space

Administration, USA
ISRO : Indian Space Research Organisation, India
HAL : Hindustan Aeronautics Limited, India
29
3
1
Lect-3
Thrust=m(V
-V
e a )
2
Lect-3
Simple Gas Turbine based Turbojet Engine
3
Lect-3
Mechanism of Creation of Thrust
4
Lect-3
The net thrust F due to change in momentum is
Intake Ram drag

Ve - Vam
F=m + Ae.(Pe- Pa)

Gross Momentum Pressure
Thrust Thrust
The propulsive efficiency p can be defined as the ratio of the useful
propulsive energy or thrust power (F.Va) to the sum of that energy
(Ve - Va )
m 2
and the unused kinetic energy of the jet , .
The latter is the kinetic energy relative to earth. 2
propulsive efficiency
m.V
a.( Ve - Va ) 2
p = =
(Ve - Va ) 1+ Ve
2
m
Va.(Ve - Va ) + V
2 a
5
Lect-3
When Ve>> Va i.e. a very large acceleration and,

so with even with low mass flow,
Thrust produced, F = very high- , but
propulsive efficiency, p= low , typical jet
engine, which produces compact thrusters
When, Ve= Va the propulsive efficiency is 100%,

but Thrust, F 0; - has given rise to turbofans,
where large part of the thrust is produced with
high mass flow, low air acceleration and high
propulsive efficiency, and only a small part of
thrust is produced with high jet effect.
6
Lect-3
The graph captures the

utility zones of various
kinds of propulsive
devices.
At low subsonic speeds
propellers are the better
thrusting devices.
At medium speeds (high
subsonic) turbofans are
the better thrusters
At high (supersonic)
speeds, there is no
alternative but to go for
pure jet engines
7
Lect-3
A single spool bypass turbojet engine
8
Lect-3
A twin-spool Turbo-prop engine
9
Lect-3
A bypass twin spool gas turbine engine
10
Lect-3
A high bypass twin spool Turbofan engine
11
Lect-3
An Ultra-high bypass twin spool geared turbofan
12
Lect-3
A three-spool turbofan bypass engine
13
Lect-3
Two spool turboshaft engine (for propeller)
14
Lect-3
Twin spool powerplant with inter-cooling
15
Lect-3
Three spool geared contra-rotating aft prop-fans
16
Lect-3
Two-spool high bypass aft-fan turbofan
17
Lect-3
Frontal
view of a
geared two
spool very
high bypass
turbofan
engine
18
Lect-3
A contra-rotating twin rotor aft fan prop-fan test
19
Lect-3
Contra-rotating twin rotor aft-prop-fan flight test
20
Lect-3
Aircraft Engine development over the

years have proceeded towards making
them more compact (light-weight, small
sized, measured in Thrust/weight ratio )
and highly fuel efficient .
Recent research and developments focus
on the following issues :
1)Energy Audit & search for new fuels
2)Chemical Pollution Audit
3)Noise Audit
4) Infra-red signature audit (for military
aircraft)
21
Lect-3
Space vehicle
being lifted by a
rocket engine
22
4
1
Lect-4
In this lecture ...

Introduction to basic thermodynamics
Understand the scope and method of
thermodynamics
Define basic terms/concepts
System, surroundings, boundary and universe
Types of systems
Property of a system
State of a system
Equilibrium
State postulate
Process, path and cycle
2
Lect-4
Basic Thermodynamics
Defined as the science of energy
Originates from Greek words therme (heat)
and dynamis (power)
Conversion of heat into power
Thermodynamics encompasses all aspects of
energy and energy conversions.
Thermodynamics provides an understanding
of the nature and degree of energy
transformations.
Thermodynamic laws are fundamental laws
of nature.
3
Lect-4
Examples:
If we would like to
heat water in a kettle.
burn some fuel in the combustion
chamber of an aero engine to propel an
aircraft.
cool our room on a hot humid day.
heat up our room on a cold winter night.
What is the smallest amount of
electricity/fuel needed for the above ?
4
Lect-4
On the other hand when we burn,

some coal/gas in a power plant to
generate electricity.
Petrol/Diesel in a car engine.
What is the largest energy we can get out
of these efforts?
Thermodynamics allows us to answer some

of these questions.
5
Lect-4
Macroscopic approach: Classical
thermodynamics
Does not require knowledge of behavior
of individual molecules
Easier and direct approach for
engineering applications
Will be followed in this course
Microscopic approach: Statistical
thermodynamics
Based on behavior of group of molecules
Complicated, Kinetic theory of gases
6
Lect-4
Continuum:
Matter is made up of atoms that are
widely spaced in the gas phase.
We disregard the atomic nature of a
substance and view it as a continuous,
homogeneous matter with no holes, that
is, a continuum.
The continuum idealization allows us to
treat properties as point functions and to
assume the properties vary continually in
space with no jump discontinuities.
7
Lect-4
O2 1 atm, 20C
3 1016 molecules/mm3
VOID
Despite the large gaps between molecules, a

substance can be treated as a continuum
because of the very large number of molecules
8
Lect-4
System and Control Volumes
System: a quantity of matter in space
chosen for study
It is a macroscopically identifiable collection of
matter on which we focus our attention
Surroundings: mass or region that
surrounds a system
Surroundings pertain to that part of the universe
that is close enough to have some perceptible
effect on the system
Boundary: real or imaginary surface that
separates a system from its surroundings
May be fixed or movable
Universe: system and its surroundings
9
Lect-4
Surroundings
System
Boundary
10
Lect-4
System
Closed system: no mass
transfer, energy transfer
possible
Open system: also
called control volume,
mass and energy
transfer possible
Isolated system: neither
energy nor mass
transfer possible
11
Lect-4
We must choose the system for each and

every problem we work on, so as to obtain
best possible information on how it behaves.
In some cases the choice of the system will
be obvious and in some cases not so obvious.
The boundaries may be real physical surfaces
or they may be imaginary for the
convenience of analysis.
The boundaries may be at rest or in motion.
12
Lect-4
A closed system with a moving boundary
13
Lect-4
Real boundary
CV
(a nozzle) Imaginary
boundary
A control volume with real and imaginary boundaries
14
Lect-4
Moving boundary
CV
Fixed boundary
A control volume with fixed and moving boundaries
15
Lect-4
An open system (a control volume) with

one inlet and one exit
16
Lect-4
Property
Property: Any characteristic of a system
Temperature, pressure, density, mass
Intensive property: independent of mass
Temperature, pressure
Extensive property: dependent on size or
mass of the system
Mass, volume, momentum
Specific properties: extensive properties per
unit mass
specific volume (v=V/m), specific energy
(e=E/m)
17
Lect-4
Properties of a system
m m m Extensive
V V V Properties
T T T
P P P Intensive
Properties
System
18
Lect-4
State of a System
State: a set of properties that completely
defines the condition of a system.
It gives a complete description of the
system.
At a given state, all the properties of a
system have fixed values.
Any operation in which one or more
properties of a system change is called a
change of state.
19
Lect-4
State of a System
m = 3 kg
m = 3 kg T1 = 25o C
T1 = 25o C V1 = 3.0 m3
V1 = 2.0 m3
(a) State 1 (b) State 2
A system at two different states
20
Lect-4
Equilibrium
Thermodynamics deals with equilibrium
states.
The word equilibrium implies a state of
balance.
In an equilibrium state there are no
unbalanced potentials (or driving forces)
within the system.
A system in equilibrium experiences no
changes when it is isolated from its
surroundings.
21
Lect-4
Equilibrium
There are many types of equilibrium.
These are mechanical equilibrium,
thermal equilibrium, chemical equilibrium
and phase equilibrium.
A system is not in thermodynamic
equilibrium unless the conditions of all
the relevant types of equilibrium are
satisfied.
A system in thermodynamic equilibrium
does not deliver any useful work.
22
Lect-4
Equilibrium
Thermal equilibrium: if the temperature is
the same throughout the system
Mechanical equilibrium: if the pressure is
the same throughout the system
Chemical equilibrium: if the chemical
composition does not change with time,
i.e., no chemical reactions occur
Phase equilibrium: when the mass of each
phase reaches an equilibrium level and
stays there
23
Lect-4
Equilibrium
20oC 26oC 30oC 30oC

31oC 30oC
38oC 30oC
33oC 30oC
40oC 30oC
(a) Before (b) After
A closed system reaching thermal equilibrium
24
Lect-4
State Postulate
The state of a system is described by its
properties.
Specifying a certain number of properties
is sufficient to fix a state.
State Postulate: The state of a simple
compressible system is completely
specified by two independent, intensive
properties.
Simple compressible system: absence of
electrical, magnetic, gravitational, surface
tension effects
25
Lect-4
State Postulate
The state of nitrogen, for
example, can be fixed by two
independent, intensive
properties.
Nitrogen Temperature and specific
T1 = 25o C
v = 0.8 m3/kg
volume are independent,
intensive properties.
But temperature and
pressure are not
independent, though are
intensive properties.
26
Lect-4

Process: Any change that a system
undergoes from one equilibrium state to
another.
Path: The series of states through which a
system passes during a process.
Cycle: If the system returns to its initial
state at the end of the process
That is, for a cycle the initial and final
states are identical.
27
Lect-4
28
Lect-4
Cycle
p 1
A
B 2
v1 v2 v
29
Lect-4
Types of processes
Usually during a process, we allow one of
the properties to remain a constant.
Isothermal process: constant temperature

Isobaric process: constant pressure
Isochoric process: constant volume
Isentropic process: constant entropy (?)
Isenthalpic process: constant enthalpy (?)
30
Lect-4
Recap of this lecture

Basic thermodynamic concepts
System, surroundings, boundary and
universe
Types of systems
Property of a system
State of a system
Equilibrium
State postulate
31
Lect-4
In the next lecture ...
Quasi-static processes
Concept of energy and its various forms
Internal energy
Enthalpy
Zeroth law of thermodynamics and
temperature
32
5
1
Lect-5
In this lecture ...
Concept of energy and its various
forms
Internal energy
Total energy
Enthalpy
temperature
2
Lect-5
When a process proceeds in such a manner

that the system remains infinitesimally
close to an equilibrium state at all times:
Quasi-static or Quasi-equilibrium process
The process proceeds slow enough to allow
the system to the system to adjust itself
internally so that properties in one part of
the system do not change any faster than
those at other parts.
3
Lect-5
4
Lect-5
Stops p
p1 1
Final state
W Weight
Piston
2
p2
Gas Initial state
p1, v1, t1
v1 v2
v
5
Lect-5
Stops p
Equilibrium states
x1
Final state
x
Weights
x
Piston x
x 2
x x x
Gas Initial state
p1, v1, t1
6
Lect-5
Engineers are interested in quasi-static

processes because
they are easy to analyse
work-producing devices deliver maximum work
when they operate on quasi-static processes
Quasi-static processes serve as standards
to which actual processes can be
compared
7
Lect-5
Energy
Energy can exist in numerous forms such as
thermal, mechanical, kinetic, potential,
electric, magnetic, chemical, and nuclear
The sum total of the above: total energy, E
e = E/m kJ/kg
Thermodynamics provides no information
about the absolute value of the total energy.
It deals only with the change of the total
energy, which is what matters in engineering
problems.
8
Lect-5
Energy
Forms of energy:
Macroscopic energy: energy that a system
possesses as a whole with respect to some
outside reference frame, eg: KE, PE
Microscopic energy: those related to the
molecular structure of a system and the
degree of the molecular activity and are
independent of outside reference frames
Sum of all microscopic forms of energy of a
system: Internal energy, U (kJ) or u (kJ/kg)
9
Lect-5
Macroscopic energy
The macroscopic energy, KE and PE, of an

object changes with velocity and elevation.
10
Lect-5
Internal energy
Sensible energy: part of the internal energy
associated with kinetic energy of molecules
Rotational KE, translational KE, vibrational KE
Latent energy: internal energy associated
with phase change of a system
Chemical energy: internal energy associated
with the atomic bonds in a molecule
Nuclear energy: tremendous amount of
energy associated with the strong bonds
within the nucleus of the atom
11
Lect-5
The various forms of microscopic

energies that make up sensible energy.
12
Lect-5
The internal energy of a

system is the sum of all
forms of the microscopic
energies.
13
Lect-5
The macroscopic kinetic energy is an organised form

of energy and more useful than the disorganised
microscopic kinetic energies of the molecules
14
Lect-5
Kinetic and Potential energies
Kinetic energy, KE, of a system:

mV 2 V2
KE = (kJ) or, ke = (kJ/kg) on a unit mass basis
2 2
Potential energy, PE, of a system:

PE = mgz (kJ) or, pe = gz (kJ/kg) on a unit mass basis
15
Lect-5
Total energy of a system

In the absence of magnetic, electric, and
surface tension effects, the total energy of a
system consists of the kinetic, potential, and
internal energies
mV 2
E = U + KE + PE = U + + mgz (kJ)
2
or, on a unit mass basis
2
V
e = u + ke + pe = u + + gz (kJ/kg)
2
16
Lect-5
Total energy of a system

Closed systems whose velocity and elevation
of the center of gravity remain constant
during a process are frequently referred to
as stationary systems.
The change in the total energy E of a

stationary system is identical to the change
in its internal energy U.
17
Lect-5
Enthalpy
The combination of internal energy u and
pv is often encountered in the analysis of
control volumes
Enthalpy is a combination property
Enthalpy, h = u + pv (kJ/kg)
H = U + PV (kJ)
Enthalpy is also often referred to as heat
content
Process in which enthalpy is constant:
isenthalpic process
18
Lect-5
Enthalpy
u1
p1 v 1
Control Volume
u2
p2 v 2
The combination u+pv is frequently

encountered in the analysis of control
volumes
19
Lect-5
Zeroth law of thermodynamics

States that if two bodies are in thermal
equilibrium with a third body, they are also
in thermal equilibrium with each other.
It serves as a basis for the validity of
temperature measurement.
By replacing the third body with a
thermometer, the zeroth law can be restated
as two bodies are in thermal equilibrium if
both have the same temperature reading
even if they are not in contact.
20
Lect-5
Let us say TA,TB and TC are
the temperatures of A,B and
A C, respectively.
A and C are in thermal

B equilibrium: TA=TC
B and C are in thermal

equilibrium: TB=TC
C
Consequence of Zeroth law:
TA=TB
21
Lect-5

It was named the zeroth law since it should
have preceded (proposed in 1931) the first
and the second laws of thermodynamics that
were defined in late 1800s.
All temperature scales based on reproducible
states: freezing point (ice point) or boiling
point of water (steam point).
On the Celsius scale, ice and steam points
were assigned 0oC and 100oC respectively.
22
Lect-5
Temperature scales
In thermodynamics, it is desirable to have a

temperature scale that is independent of any
property of a substance.
Thermodynamic temperature scale or the
Kelvin scale
The lowest temperature on this scale is 0 K.
23
Lect-5
Temperature scales
A temperature scale that turns out to be
nearly identical to the Kelvin scale: ideal gas
temperature scale
Measured using a constant volume
thermometer
Filled with hydrogen or helium
At low pressures, the temperature of a gas
is proportional to its pressure at constant
volume
24
Lect-5
Ideal gas temperature scales

The temperature of a gas of fixed volume
varies linearly with pressure at sufficiently
low pressures.
The relationship between the temperature
and the pressure of the gas in the vessel can
be expressed as
T = a + bP
where the values of the constants a and b
for a gas thermometer are determined
experimentally.
25
Lect-5
Ideal gas temperature scale

Measuring the pressures of the gas in the
vessel at two reproducible points (such as
the ice and the steam points) and assigning
suitable values to temperatures at those two
points.
These two measurements are sufficient to
determine the constants a and b
Then the unknown temperature T of a
medium corresponding to a pressure reading
P can be determined from that equation by a
simple calculation.
26
Lect-5

If the ice and steam points are assigned the
values 0C and 100C, respectively, then the
gas temperature scale will be identical to the
Celsius scale.
In this case the value of the constant a
(which corresponds to an absolute pressure
of zero) is determined to be -273.15C
regardless of the type and the amount of the
gas in the vessel of the gas thermometer.
27
Ideal gas temperature scaleLect-5
.
Measured data
Gas A
.
points
..
P
Gas B
.. .. .
.. .. .
Gas C
Extrapolation
.
Gas D
-273.15 0 T(oC)
P vs.T plots of the experimental data obtained from a constant-
volume gas thermometer using four different gases at different
(but low) pressures.
28
Lect-5

-273.15C: is the lowest temperature that
can be obtained by a gas thermometer, and
thus we can obtain an absolute gas
temperature scale by assigning a value of
zero to the constant a.
In this case, we need to specify the
temperature at only one point to define an
absolute gas temperature scale.
Standard fixed point for temperature scale:
Triple point of water: 0.010C or 273.16K
(for Celsius scale)
29
Lect-5

The absolute gas temperature scale is not a
thermodynamic temperature scale, since it
cannot be used at very low temperatures
(due to condensation) and at very high
temperatures (due to dissociation and
ionization).
However, absolute gas temperature is
identical to the thermodynamic temperature
in the temperature range in which the gas
thermometer can be used.
30
Lect-5

Concept of energy and its various
forms
Internal energy
Total energy
Enthalpy
temperature
31
Lect-5

Specific heat
At constant pressure and constant
volume
Heat transfer
Meaning of heat transfer
Types of heat transfer
Work
Thermodynamic meaning of work
Different types of work
32
6
1
Lect-6
In this lecture ...

Specific heat
volume
Heat transfer
Work
2
Lect-6
Specific heats
It takes different amounts of energy to
raise the temperature of identical masses
of different substances by one degree.
Therefore, it is desirable to have a
property that will enable us to compare
the energy storage capabilities of various
substances.
This property is the specific heat.
3
Lect-6
Specific heats
Specific heat is defined as the energy
required to raise the temperature of a
unit mass of a substance by one degree.
In general, this energy depends on how
the process is executed.
There are two kinds of specific heats:
specific heat at constant volume, cv and
specific heat at constant pressure, cp.
4
Lect-6
Specific heats
m = 1 kg
T = 1oC
Specific heat = 5 kJ/kgoC
5 kJ
Specific heat is the energy required to raise the

temperature of a unit mass of a substance by
one degree in a specified way.
5
Lect-6
Specific heat at constant volume
Consider a fixed mass in a stationary

closed system undergoing a constant-
volume process
The conservation of energy principle for
this process can be expressed in the
differential form as
ein eout = du
6
Lect-6
Specific heat at constant volume

The left-hand side of this equation
represents the net amount of energy
transferred to the system.
Thus,
cv dT = du at constant volume
u
or, cv =
T v
7
Lect-6
Specific heat at constant pressure

Similarly, an expression for the specific heat
at constant pressure, cp can be obtained by
considering a constant-pressure expansion
or compression process.
It yields,
c p dT = dh at constant pressure
h
or, c p =
T p
8
Lect-6
Specific heats
cp and cv are properties of a system.

Are valid for any processes
cp is always > cv
Because at constant pressure the system
is allowed to expand and the energy for
the expansion must also be supplied
Specific heat of a substance change with
temperature.
9
Lect-6
Specific heats
(2)
(1)
V = constant P = constant
m = 1 kg m = 1 kg
T = 1o C T = 1o C
cv = 3.12 kJ/kgoC cp = 5.19 kJ/kgoC
3.12 kJ 5.19 kJ
cp is always > cv
10
Lect-6
Specific heats
Air Air
m = 1 kg m = 1 kg
300 301 K 1000 1001 K
0.718 kJ 0.855 kJ
The specific heat of a substance

changes with temperature.
11
Lect-6
Energy transfer mechanisms

System boundary
Heat
Closed system
(m = constant)
Work
Energy can cross the system boundaries

of a closed system: heat and work
12
Lect-6
Energy transfer by heat

Heat: the form of energy that is
transferred between two systems (or a
system and its surroundings) by virtue of
a temperature difference.
Energy interaction is heat only if it takes
place by virtue of temperature difference.
Heat is energy in transition; it is
recognised only as it crosses the system
boundary.
13
Lect-6

Room air: 25oC
Heat Heat
No heat transfer 8 J/s 18 J/s
25oC 15oC 5oC
Temperature difference is the driving force for

heat transfer. The larger the temperature
difference, the higher is the rate of heat transfer.
14
Lect-6

In thermodynamics, heat refers to heat
transfer.
A process during which there is no heat
transfer is called Adiabatic process.
Heat transfer mechanisms:
Conduction
Convection
Radiation
15
Lect-6
5 kJ
thermal
Surrounding air energy
5 kJ Heat
Heat
System
boundary 5 kJ
thermal
energy
Energy is recognized as heat transfer

only as it crosses the system boundary.
16
Lect-6
Insulation
System
boundary
Qn. Is there is any heat transfer during this burning process?

Qn. Is there is any change in the internal energy of the system?
17
Lect-6
Energy transfer by work

Any energy interaction of a closed
system other than heat is work.
An energy interaction that is not caused
by a temperature difference between a
system and its surroundings is work.
Work is the energy transfer associated
with a force acting through a distance.
18
Lect-6
Sign conventions
Surroundings
Qout
Qin
System
Wout
Win
Heat transfer to a system and work done

by a system are positive; heat transfer
from a system and work done on a system
are negative.
19
Lect-6
Energy transfer by heat and work

Both heat and work are boundary
phenomena.
Systems possess energy, but not heat or
work.
Both are associated with a process, not a
state. Unlike properties, heat or work has
no meaning at a state.
Both are path functions (i.e., their
magnitudes depend on the path followed
during a process as well as the end states).
20
Lect-6
Path and Point functions

Path functions
Have inexact differentials, sometimes
designated by symbol, or
Eg. Q or Q and W or W instead of
dQ and dW
Point functions
Have exact differentials, designated by
symbol, d
Eg. dP, dV, dT
21
Lect-6
Path and Point functions

V=4m3; WA=10 kJ
p
V=4m3; WB=15 kJ
1
2 2
Process B
dV = V
1
2 V1 but, W W2 W1
1
2
Process A
of a property is zero
3 3
1m 5m V
Properties are point functions; but
heat and work are path functions.
22
Lect-6
Work
Work done by a system on its surroundings

during a process is defined as that
interaction whose sole effect external to
the system could be viewed as the raising
of a mass through a distance against
gravity.
23
Lect-6
Work
System Fan
boundary Motor
_ W
+
Battery
Surroundings
24
Lect-6
Work
System
boundary Motor Pulley
_
+
Weight
Battery
Surroundings
25
Lect-6
Work
Examples:
PdV: displacement work
Electrical work: heating of a resistor
Shaft work: rotation of a shaft
Paddle wheel work
Spring work
Stretching of a liquid film
26
Lect-6
Work
Shaft work: rotation of a shaft Spring work
Electrical work: heating of a resistor

Stretching of a liquid film
27
Lect-6
Displacement work
Moving boundary or displacement work
is of significant interest to engineers.
Many engineering systems generate
useful work output by this mode.
Examples: automobile engines, steam
engines, pumps etc.
28
Lect-6
Displacement work
F
A gas does a differential amount
of work Wb as it forces the
piston to move by a differential
amount ds
A ds
Wb = F ds = PA ds = P dV
P 2
Wb = PdV (kJ )
1
29
Lect-6
Displacement work
2 2
P 1
Process path
Area = A = dA = PdV
1 1
dA=P dV
2 The area under the

process curve on a P-V
V1 dV V2 V
diagram is equal, in
magnitude, to the work
done during a quasi-
equilibrium expansion or
P
compression process of
a closed system.
30
Lect-6
Displacement work
WA = 12 kJ
P
WB = 10 kJ
1 WC = 7 kJ
A
B
C 2
V1 V2 V
The boundary work done during a process

depends on the path followed as well as the
end states.
31
Lect-6
Displacement work
P
1
A
Wnet
B 2
V1 V2 V
The net work done during a cycle is the

difference between the work done by the
system and the work done on the system.
32
Lect-6
Displacement work
Displacement work during Various

processes:
Constant pressure process

Constant volume process
PV= contant
Polytropic process, PVn = constant
33
Lect-6
Constant pressure process
1 2
V2
W1-2
W1 2 = pdV = p(V
V1
2 V1 )
V1 V2 V
34
Lect-6
Constant volume process
1
P1
V2
W1 2 = pdV = p(V
V1
2 V1 ) = 0
P2 2
35
Lect-6
PVn = constant (Polytropic processes)
P 2 2
1 n=0 2
W1 2 = PdV = CV n dV
PVn =constant 1 1
( PV n = C )
n=
Now, P1V1 = P2V2 = C

n n
V2 n +1 V1 n +1 P2V2 P1V1
W1 2 =C =
V
n +1 1 n
36
Lect-6

Specific heat
volume
Heat transfer
Work
37
Lect-6
Solve problems related to calculation of

Work done (displacement work)
38
7
1
Lect-7
In this lecture ...
Solve problems related to calculation of

Work done (displacement work)
2
Lect-7
Problem 1
A hydraulic cylinder has a piston of cross

sectional area 25 cm2 and a fluid
pressure of 2 MPa. If the piston is moved
0.25 m, how much work is done?
3
Lect-7
Solution: Problem 1
A =25cm2 x=0.25m
P=2 MPa
Assumption: The above process is in quasi-equilibrium.
4
Lect-7
Solution: Problem 1
The work is a force with a displacement

and force is constant: F = PA
W = F dx = P A dx = P A x
= 2000 kPa x 25x 10-4 m 2 x 0.25 m = 1.25 kJ
Work done to move the piston = 1.25 kJ
5
Lect-7
Problem 2
A piston cylinder has 1.5 kg of air at 300 K

and 150 kPa. It is now heated up in a two
step process. First constant volume to
1000 K (state 2) then followed by a
constant pressure process to 1500 K (state
3). Find the final volume and the work in
the process.
6
Lect-7
Solution: Problem 2
P2 2 3 The two processes are:
1 2: Constant volume V2 = V1
2 3: Constant pressure P3=P2
P1 1
7
Lect-7
Solution: Problem 2
We use ideal gas approximation for air.
State 1: Since T1, P1, m (mass), R (gas

constant) are known,
V1 = mRT1/P1
= 1.5 0.287 300/150 = 0.861 m3
8
Lect-7
Solution: Problem 2
State 2: Since V2=V1
P2 = P1 (T2/T1)
= 1501000/300 = 500 kPa
State 3: P3 = P2
V3 = V2 (T3/T2)
= 0.8611500/1000 = 1.2915 m3
Hence, the final volume V3 = 1.2915 m3
9
Lect-7
Solution: Problem 2
Work done during the process, W1-3
W1-3 = W1-2 + W2-3
Work done during process 1-2, W1-2 =0 as

this is a constant volume process.
Hence W1-3=W2-3=P3(V3 - V2)=P2(V3 - V2)

=500(1.2915 - 0.861)=215.3 kJ
The work done in the process = 215.3 kJ
10
Lect-7
Problem 3
A pistoncylinder device initially contains

0.4 m3 of air at 100 kPa and 80C. The air
is now compressed to 0.1 m3 in such a way
that the temperature inside the cylinder
remains constant. Determine the work done
during this process.
11
Lect-7
Solution: Problem 3
P 2
T0=80C=const
V1=0.4 m3
P1=100 kPa
1
T0=80C=const.
0.1 0.4 V, m3
Assumptions:
The compression process is quasi-equilibrium.
At specified conditions, air can be considered to
be an ideal gas since it is at a high temperature
and low pressure relative to its critical-point values.
12
Lect-7
Solution: Problem 3
For an ideal gas at constant temperature T0
C
PV = mRT0 = C or, P = , where C is a constant.
V
2 2
C V2 V2
Work, W = PdV = dV = C ln = P1V1 ln
1 1
V V1 V1
P1V1 can be replaced by P2V2 or mRT0 .
Also, V2 / V1 can be replaced by P1 / P2 as P1V1 = P2V2
13
Lect-7
Solution: Problem 3
Substituti ng the numerical values,

0.1
W = (100 kPa)(0.4 m ) ln = - 55.5 kJ
3
0.4
The work done during the process is -55.5 KJ.

The negative sign indicates that this work is
done on the system (a work input), which is
always the case for compression processes.
14
Lect-7
Problem 4
A gas in a piston cylinder assembly

undergoes an expansion process where PV1.5
= constant. The initial pressure is 3 bar, the
initial volume is 0.1 m3 and the final volume
is 0.2 m3. Determine the work done for this
process.
15
Lect-7
Solution: Problem 4
P 1
PVn =const
V1=0.1 m3
P1=3 bar 2
0.1 0.2 V, m3
Assumptions: (a) The gas is in a closed system. (b)

The expansion is a polytropic process. (c) PdV is the
only work mode.
16
Lect-7
Solution: Problem 4
2 2
W1 2 = pdV = CV n dV
1 1
V2 n +1 V1 n +1 P2V2 P1V1
=C =
n +1 1 n
The pressure at state 2 can be found using
P2V2 = P1V1
n n
n
V1
1.5
0.1
or , P2 = P1 = (3 x105 Pa ) = 1.06 x10 Pa
5
V2 0.2
(1.06x105 Pa )(0.2m 3 ) (3x105 Pa )(0.1m 3 )
Hence, W = = +17.6 kJ
1 1.5
17
Lect-7
Solution: Problem 4
Therefore the work done during this

process: +17.6 kJ
If in the above problem, n=1.0, the net

work done comes out to be +20.79 kJ
If n=0, the work done will be + 30 kJ
18
Lect-7
Solution: Problem 4
P
1 n=0 2
PVn =constant
Wn=1.5 = +17.6 kJ
Wn=1.0 = +20.79 kJ
n=
Wn=0.0 = +30 kJ
19
Lect-7
Problem 5
A pistoncylinder device contains 0.05 m3 of a gas
initially at 200 kPa. At this state, a linear spring that
has a spring constant of 150 kN/m is touching the
piston but exerting no force on it. Now heat is
transferred to the gas, causing the piston to rise
and to compress the spring until the volume inside
the cylinder doubles. If the cross-sectional area of
the piston is 0.25 m2, determine
(a) the final pressure inside the cylinder, (b) the
total work done by the gas, and (c) the fraction of
this work done against the spring to compress it.
20
Lect-7
Solution: Problem 5
k=150 kN/m
P, kPa
300
II
A=0.25 m2 200
V1=0.05 m3
P1=200 kPa I
0.05 0.1 V, m3
Heat
Assumptions: (a) The expansion process is quasi-

equilibrium. (b) The spring is linear in the range of
interest.
21
Lect-7
Solution: problem 5
The enclosed volume at the final state is
V2 = 2V1 =2V1 = (2)(0.05 m3)=0.1 m3
Then the displacement of the piston (and of the
spring) becomes
V (0.1 0.05)m 3
x= = 2
= 0.2m
A 0.25m
The force applied by the linear spring at the final
state is
F = kx = ( 150 kN/m) ( 0.2 m) = 30 kN
22
Lect-7
Solution: problem 5
The additional pressure applied by the spring on the
gas at this state is
F 30kN
P= = 2
= 120 kPa
A 0.25m
Without the spring, the pressure of the gas would
remain constant at 200 kPa while the piston is
rising. But under the effect of the spring, the
pressure rises linearly from 200 kPa to
200 + 120 = 320 kPa at the final state.
The final pressure in the cylinder = 320 kPa
23
Lect-7
Solution: problem 5
From the P-V diagram, it is clear that the work done

during the process is the area under the process (a
trapezoid in this case).
(200 + 320)kPa
W = area = (0.1 0.05)m 3 = 13 kJ
2
The total work done by the gas is 13 kJ
24
Lect-7
Solution: problem 5
The work represented by the rectangular area
(region I) is done against the piston and the
atmosphere, and the work represented by the
triangular area (region II) is done against the
spring.
Wspring = 1 [(320 200 ) kPa ](0.05m 3 ) = 3 kJ

2
The fraction of this work done against the spring to
compress it is 3 kJ
Note : Wspring = 1 k ( x22 x12 ) = 3 kJ , where, x2 = 0.2m, x1 = 0m

2
25
Lect-7
Exercise problem # 1
A fluid contained in a horizontal cylinder is

continuously agitated using a stirrer passing
through the cylinder cover. The cylinder diameter is
0.40 m. During the stirring process lasting 10
minutes, the piston slowly moves out a distance of
0.485 m. The net work done by the fluid during the
process is 2 kJ. The speed of the electric motor
driving the stirrer is 840 rpm. Determine the torque
in the shaft and the power output of the motor.
Ans: 0.08 Nm, 6.92 W
26
Lect-7
Consider a two-part process with an expansion from

0.1 to 0.2 m3 at a constant pressure of 150 kPa
followed by an expansion from 0.2 to 0.4 m3 with a
linearly rising pressure from 150 kPa ending at 300
kPa. Show the process in a PV diagram and find the
boundary work.
Ans: 60 kJ
27
Lect-7
A piston/cylinder contains water at 500C, 3 MPa. It

is cooled in a polytropic process to 200C, 1 MPa.
Find the polytropic exponent and the specific work
in the process.
Ans: 1.919, 155.2 kJ
28
Lect-7
Consider a gas enclosed in a piston-cylinder

assembly as the system. The gas is initially at a
pressure of 500 kPa and occupies a volume of 0.2
m3. The gas is taken to the final state where the
pressure is 100 kPa by the following two different
processes. Calculate the work done by the gas in
each case:
(a) volume of the gas is inversely proportional to
pressure (Ans: 160.94 kJ)
(b) the process follows PV = Const. where, = 1.4
(Ans: 92.15 kJ)
29
Lect-7

First law of thermodynamics for closed
systems
Energy balance
Energy change for a system
First law for a cycle
First law for a system undergoing
change of state
30
8
1
Lect-8
In this lecture ...

systems
Energy balance
change of state
Perpetual motion machines of the first
kind
2
Lect-8
Joules experiment
Joules experiment (1840-1849) to
investigate the equivalence of heat and
work.
Prior to Joule, heat was considered to be a
invisible fluid known as caloric and flows
from a body of higher caloric to one with a
lower caloric.
Caloric theory of heat
Joules experiment laid the foundation of
the first law of thermodynamics.
3
Lect-8
Joules experiment
Pulley
Adiabatic
vessel
Weight
4
Lect-8
Joules experiment
Work, W1-2 done on the system can be
measured by the fall of the weight.
The system temperature rises as work is
done on the system.
Let the insulation now be removed.
The system reaches its initial state by heat
transfer across the system boundaries.
Therefore the work done is proportional to
the heat transfer.
The constant of proportionality is the Joules
equivalent.
5
Lect-8
Joules experiment
y
2
Q2-1
W1-2
x
The cycle consists of two processes, one an
adiabatic work transfer followed by heat transfer
( W )cycle = J ( Q )cycle or dW = J dQ
6
Lect-8
First law of thermodynamics

Conservation of energy principle
Energy can neither be created nor
destroyed, it can only be converted from
one form to another.
For all adiabatic processes between two
specified states of a closed system, the
net work done is the same regardless of
the nature of the closed system and the
details of the process.
7
Lect-8

m
PE = 12 kJ
KE = 0 kJ
Energy cannot be
z created or destroyed; it
can only change forms
m PE = 8 kJ
KE = 4 kJ
8
Lect-8

Qout = 5 kJ
Qin = 10 kJ
Potato E=Qnet=20 kJ
E = 10 kJ
Qin = 25 kJ
The increase in the energy of a In the absence of any work
potato in an oven is equal to the interactions, the energy change
amount of heat transferred to it. of a system is equal to the net
heat transfer.
9
Lect-8

Adiabatic Adiabatic
Win=10 kJ
E=10 kJ Win=10 kJ
E=10 kJ _ +
Battery
The work done on an adiabatic system is

equal to the increase in energy of the system.
Change in total energy during an adiabatic
process is equal to the net work done.
10
Lect-8
Energy balance
The net change (increase or decrease) in
the total energy of a system during a
process is equal to the difference
between the total energy entering and
total energy leaving the system.
Total energy Total energy Change in the total

=
entering the system leaving the system energy of the system
or, Ein Eout = Esystem
11
Lect-8
Energy change of a system
Energy change = Energy at the final

state Energy at the initial state
In the absence of electrical, magnetic or
surface tension effects,
E = U + KE + PE
Thus, for stationary systems,
E = U
12
Lect-8
Energy change of a system

Qout = 5 kJ
E= (Qin-Qout)+Win
= (25-5) + 8
= 28 kJ Win=8 kJ
Qin = 25 kJ
The energy change of a system during a process

is equal to the net work and heat transfer
between the system and its surroundings
13
Lect-8
Energy can be transferred to or from a

system by three mechanisms
Heat
Work
Mass flow
Ein -Eout = (Qin -Qout ) + (Win -Wout ) + (Emass,in Emass,out ) = Esystem
14
Lect-8

E -Eout = Esystem (kJ)
in
Net energy transfer Change in internal, kinetic
by heat, work and mass potential etc. energies
or, in the rate form, as

E
in - E out
= dEsystem / dt (kW)
Rate of net energy transfer

by heat, work and mass Rate of change in internal, kinetic
potential etc. energies
For constant rates, the total quantities during a

time interval t are related to the quantities per unit
time as

Q = Q t , W = W t , and E = (dE / dt ) t (kJ)
15
Lect-8
For a closed system undergoing a cycle,

the initial and final states are identical.
Therefore, Esystem= E2 - E1 = 0
The energy balance for a cycle simplifies to
Ein - Eout = 0 or Ein = Eout
16
Lect-8
A closed system does not involve any mass

flow across its boundaries, the energy
balance for a cycle can be expressed in
terms of heat and work interactions as

Wnet , out = Qnet , in or W net , out = Q net , in
That is, the net work output during a
cycle is equal to net heat input
17
Lect-8
Qnet = W net
For a cycle, E = 0, thus Qnet = Wnet
18
Lect-8

a change of state
In processes involving a change of state,

heat and work interactions may be unknown.
It is a usual practice to assume the direction
of heat and work interactions.
It is usually assumed that heat to be
transferred into the system (heat input) in
the amount of Q and work to be done by the
system (work output) in the amount of W.
19
Lect-8
a change of state
The energy balance would be:
Qnet , in Wnet , out = Esystem or Q W = E
where, Q = Qnet ,in = Qin Qout is the net heat input
and W = Wnet ,out = Wout Win is the net work output.
Obtaining a negative quantity for Q or W

simply means that the assumed direction
for that quantity is wrong and should be
reversed.
20
Lect-8
a change of state
Surroundings Q2
Q3
W1
W W4
System
System
Q1
Q W3
W2
Q W = E (Q1 + Q2 Q3 ) (W1 W2 + W3 + W4 ) = E
21
Lect-8
First law for closed systems
General : Q W = E
Stationary systems : Q W = U
Per unit mass : q w = e
Differential form : q w = de
22
Lect-8
First law: isolated system
An isolated system has no interaction

between the system and its surroundings
For an isolated system, Q=0 and W=0
The first law gives
dE=0
or, E=constant
The energy of an isolated system is thus,

always a constant.
23
Lect-8
First law : some observations
The first law cannot be proven

mathematically, but no process in nature
is known to have violated the first law.
First law of thermodynamics is a
fundamental physical law in itself.
From the first-law point of view, heat and
work are not different at all.
However heat and work are very different
from the second law point of view.
24
Lect-8
Perpetual Motion Machine of the
First Kind (PMM1)
Any device that violates first law is called
a perpetual-motion machine of the first
kind (PMM1).
Such a device will create energy!
Numerous ideas have been proposed over
the years, of devices that generate
energy in some way.
These devices of course violate the first
law and hence were never demonstrated.
25
Lect-8
First Kind (PMM1)
W net ,out
System boundary
Boiler
Resistance heater
Pump Turbine Generator
Pump
Condenser

Q out
26
Lect-8
First Kind (PMM1)
The device continuously

produces energy
at a rate of Q out + W net ,out without receiving
any energy.
This is a clear violation of the first law.
Converse of a PMM1: there can be no
machine which would continuously
consume work without some other form
of energy appearing simultaneously.
27
Lect-8

systems
Energy balance
change of state
Perpetual Motion Machines of the First
Kind
28
Lect-8
First law of thermodynamics for open

systems/flow processes
Flow work and the energy of a flowing
fluid
Total energy of a flowing fluid
Energy transport by mass
Energy analysis of steady-flow systems
Some steady-flow engineering devices
29
9
1
Lect-9
In this lecture ...

fluid
2
Lect-9
First law of thermodynamics for
open systems
First law process applied to flow process

System approach: Lagrangian
Control volume approach: Eulerian
Steady flow processes
Unsteady flow processes
3
Lect-9
open systems
Steady flow processes: rates of flow of
mass, energy are constant across the
system boundary
eg. Turbines, compressors, heat
exchangers etc
Unsteady flow processes: rates of mass,
energy are not constant across the system
boundary
eg. Charging and discharging process
(tanks, pipelines etc.)
4
Lect-9
Conservation of mass
Conservation of mass principle
Total mass entering the system - Total
mass leaving the system = Net change in
mass within the system
min mout = mCV

dmCV
m in m out =
dt
Total mass within the CV : mCV = dV
CV
dmCV d
Rate of change of mass within the CV :
dt
=
dt CV
dV
5
Lect-9
Flow work and the energy
of a flowing fluid
Work required to push the mass into or out
of the control volume: flow work or flow
energy.
Consider a fluid element of volume V.
Let fluid pressure be P, the cross-sectional
area be A, L is the distance through which
the imaginary piston must move.
The work done in pushing the fluid element
across the system boundary is
Wflow = FL = PAL = PV
6
Lect-9
Flow work and the energy
of a flowing fluid
F V
P
m
CV
L
Imaginary
piston
7
Lect-9

The fluid entering or leaving a control
volume possesses an additional form of
energythe flow energy, Pv
The total energy of a flowing fluid on a unit-
mass basis (denoted by ) becomes
= e + Pv= (u + ke + pe) + Pv
Since u+Pv=h,
= h + ke + pe (kJ/kg)
Therefore, enthalpy, h, takes care of the
flow work in addition to the internal energy.
8
Lect-9
Non flowing fluid :

V2
e = u + ke + pe = u + + gz
2
Flowing fluid :
2
V
= h + ke + pe = u + Pv + + gz
2
The total energy consists of three parts for a non
flowing fluid and four parts for a flowing fluid.
9
Lect-9

is total energy per unit mass, the total
energy of a flowing fluid of mass m is simply
m, for uniform properties of the mass m.
Amount of energy transport, Emass
V2
Emass = m = m h + + gz (kJ )
2

Rate of energy transport, E mass
V2
E mass = m = m h + + gz (kW )
2
10
Lect-9
Energy analysis of steady flow
systems
Several engineering devices can be
approximated to operate as steady flow
devices: turbine, compressors, nozzles etc.
During a steady-flow process, no intensive
or extensive properties within the control
volume change with time.
The boundary work is zero for steady-flow
systems (since VCV =constant).
The total mass or energy entering the
control volume must be equal to the total
mass or energy leaving it.
11
Lect-9
systems
Properties of steady flow processes
No properties within the control volume
change with time.
No properties change at the boundaries of
the CV with time.
The rates of flow of energy and mass
across the control surface is constant.
Thermodynamic property has a fixed value
at a particular location and do not change
with time.
12
Lect-9
systems

Mass in Control Control m2
volume m1 volume
h2
mCV=constant
h1 mCV=constant
ECV=constant ECV=constant
Mass out
m3
h3
Under steady-flow conditions, the fluid properties

at an inlet or exit remain constant (do not change
with time).
13
Lect-9
systems
For a steady flow system, the amount of
energy entering a control volume in all
forms (by heat, work, and mass) must be
equal to the amount of energy leaving it.
Energy balance for a steady flow system
=0
E
in - E out
= dEsystem / dt (kW)
Rate of net energy transfer

by heat, work and mass Rate of change in internal, kinetic
potential etc. energies

or Energy balance : E in
= E out
(kW)
Rate of net energy transfer Rate of net energy transfer
in by heat, work and mass out by heat, work and mass
14
Lect-9
systems
Energy balance for a steady flow system
written more explicitly,

Q in W in + m = Q out W out + m
in out
or,
V2 V2
Q in W in + m h + + gz = Q out W out + m h + + gz
in

2
out 2

for each inlet for each exit
15
Lect-9
systems
The energy equation is also written as:
V2 V2
Q W = m h + + gz m h + + gz
out

2
in

2

for each exit for each inlet

where, Q is the net heat input to the system and

W is the net work output from the system
16
Lect-9
systems
For single entry and exit devices,

V22 V12
Q W = m h2 h1 + + g ( z 2 z1 )
2
or per unit mass,
V V 2 2
q w = h2 h1 + + g ( z 2 z1 )
2 1
2
17
Lect-9
Steady flow energy equation for
common engineering devices
Some commonly used steady flow
engineering devices:
Nozzles and diffusers
Compressors and turbines
Throttling devices
Mixing chambers
Heat exchangers
18
Lect-9
A nozzle is a device that increases the

velocity of a fluid at the expense of
pressure.
A diffuser is a device that increases the
pressure of a fluid by slowing it down.
The cross-sectional area of a nozzle
decreases in the flow direction for subsonic
flows and increases for supersonic flows.
The reverse is true for diffusers.
19
Lect-9
V1 Nozzle V2>>V1 V1 Diffuser V2<<V1
Nozzles and diffusers are shaped so

that they cause large changes in fluid
velocities and thus kinetic energies.
20
Lect-9

E in = E out
V12
V2
2
m h1 + = m h2 +
2 2

(since Q 0, W = 0 and pe 0)
V22 V12
h2 = h1
2
21
Lect-9
Turbines and compressors
Pumps, compressors and fans: used to

increase the pressure of a fluid and
require work input.
Turbines generate work.
Q, KE and PE may or may not be zero.
Usually PE is negligibly small.
22
Lect-9

m Control surface
1
WT
Turbine
Insulation
2

m
23
Lect-9
For a turbine for eg., the energy equation

would be:
V12 V22
m(h1 + + gz1 ) = W out + m(h2 + + gz 2 )
2 2
If KE and PE are negligible,

W out = m(h1 h2 )
24
Lect-9
Throttling device
Throttling valves are any kind of flow-
restricting devices that cause a significant
pressure drop in the fluid.
Eg: capillary tubes, valves
Unlike turbines, they produce a pressure drop
without involving any work.
The pressure drop in the fluid is often
accompanied by a large drop in temperature.
Hence throttling devices are commonly used
in refrigeration and air-conditioning
applications.
25
Lect-9
Throttling device
An adjustable valve
A porous plug
A capillary tube
26
Lect-9
Throttling device
For throttling devices,
q 0, w = 0, pe 0, ke 0
The energy equation therefore reduces to,
h2 h1
Throttling processes are isenthalpic processes.
It follows that,
u1 + P1v1 = u 2 + P2 v2
or, Internal energy + flow energy = constant
27
Lect-9
Throttling device
If P2 v2 > P1v1 , u2 < u1

Therefore, if flow energy increases, temperature
decreases and vice - versa.
For an ideal gas, h = h(T ).
Therefore temperature has to remain constant
during a throttling process.
28
Lect-9
Throttling device
u1=87.46 kJ/kg u2=72.32 kJ/kg

P1v1= 1.1 kJ/kg P2v2= 16.24 kJ/kg
(h1 = 88.56 kJ/kg) (h2 = 88.56 kJ/kg)
During a throttling process, the enthalpy (flow

energy + internal energy) of a fluid remains
constant. But internal and flow energies inter-
convertible.
29
Lect-9
Mixing chambers
The section where the mixing process takes
place is commonly referred to as a mixing
chamber.
Eg.: mixing of hot and cold water at the T
joint of a shower.

m1 h1 + m 2 h2 = m 3 h3 (Since q 0, w 0, ke & pe 0)
Combining energy and mass balances,

m1 h1 + m 2 h2 = m1 + m 2 h3

30
Lect-9

fluid
31
Lect-9
In the next lecture...

Introduction to the second law of
thermodynamics
Thermal energy reservoirs
KelvinPlanck statement
Refrigerators and heat pumps
Clausius statement
Equivalence of the two statements
Perpetual motion machine of the second
kind (PMM2)
32
10
1
Lect-10
In this lecture...
Introduction to the second law of
thermodynamics
Heat engines
KelvinPlanck statement
Clausius statement
Perpetual motion machines of the second
kind (PMM2)
2
Lect-10
Second law of thermodynamics

Need for the second law of thermodynamics
Limitations of the first law of
thermodynamics
Directionality of a process
Quality of energy
Examples
A hot object does not get hotter in a
cooler room.
Transferring heat to a resistor will not
generate electricity.
3
Lect-10

Processes proceed in a certain direction and
not in the reverse direction.
The first law places no restriction on the
direction of a process.
This inadequacy of the first law to identify
whether a process can take place or not is
remedied by the second law of
thermodynamics.
A process cannot occur unless it satisfies
both the first and the second laws of
thermodynamics.
4
Lect-10
The first law of thermodynamics was

concerned only with the quantity of energy
and its transformations.
Second law reveals that energy has
quantity as well as quality.
Second law of thermodynamics determines
theoretical limits for feasibility of a
process.
5
Lect-10
Thermal energy reservoir

A hypothetical body with a relatively large
thermal energy (mass x specific heat).
Supply or absorb infinite amounts of heat
without any change in its temperature
Eg. Oceans, lakes, atmosphere
A reservoir that supplies energy in the
form of heat: Source
A reservoir that absorbs energy in the
form of heat: Sink
6
Lect-10
Heat engines
Work can be rather easily converted to heat.
The reverse process is not easy and
requires special devices: heat engines
Receive heat from a high-temperature
source (solar energy, oil furnace etc.).
Convert part of this heat to work
Reject the remaining waste heat to a low-
temperature sink
Operate on a cycle
7
Lect-10
Heat engines
Work No Work
Heat
Heat
Water Water
Work can be easily converted to heat,

but the reverse does not occur naturally.
8
Lect-10
Heat engines
High temperature
Source
Qin
Heat
Wnet,out
Engine
Qout
Low temperature
Sink
Heat engines convert part of Qin to Wnet,out

and reject the balance heat to the sink.
9
Lect-10
Heat engines
High temperature
Source (Furnace)
System boundary Qin
Boiler
Win Pump Turbine Wout

Pump
Condenser
Qout
Low temperature
Sink (atmosphere)
10
Lect-10
Heat engines
The net work output of the heat engine

Wnet,out = Wout Win (kJ)
The heat engine system may be
considered as a closed system and hence
U=0.
Wnet,out = Qin Qout (kJ)
11
Lect-10
Thermal efficiency
Qout: energy wasted during the process

Only part of the heat input can be
converted to useful work output.
For heat engines, thermal efficiency is
defined as
Net work output
Thermal efficiency =
Total heat input
Wnet ,out Qout
th = = 1
Qin Qin
(since Wnet,out = Qin Qout )
12
Lect-10
Thermal efficiency
High temperature
Source
Qin=100 kJ Qin=100 kJ
Heat Heat
Engine Engine
Wnet,out 25
1 Wnet,out 2
=35 kJ
th1 = = 0.25
=25 kJ 100
Qout=75 kJ Qout=65 kJ 35
Low temperature
th 2 = = 0.35
Sink
100
All heat engines do not perform the same way.

13
Lect-10
Thermal efficiency
Even the most efficient heat engines

reject a huge fraction of the input
energy.
Thermal efficiency of common heat
engines
Automobile engines: 20-25%
Aero engines: 25-30%
Gas turbine power plants: 40%
Combined cycle power plants: 60%
14
Lect-10
Kelvin-Planck statement
It is impossible for any device that

operates on a cycle to receive heat from a
single reservoir and produce a net
amount of work.
That is, a heat engine must exchange
heat with a low-temperature sink as well
as a high-temperature source to keep
operating.
No heat engine can have a thermal
efficiency of 100 percent.
15
Lect-10
Kelvin-Planck statement
The impossibility of having a 100 percent

efficient heat engine is not due to friction
or other dissipative effects.
It is a limitation that applies to both the
idealized and the actual heat engines.
Maximum value of thermal efficiency
depends on the reservoir temperatures
16
Lect-10
Heat engines
High temperature
Source
Qin
Heat
Wnet,out=Qin
Engine
Qout=0
A violation of the Kelvin-Planck statement as

there is no Qout, which means th=100%
17
Lect-10
Refrigerators and heat pumps transfer

heat from a low temperature medium to a
high temperature one.
Both of these devices operate on the
same cycle, but differ in their objectives.
Refrigerator: maintains the refrigerated
space at a low temperature by removing
heat from it.
Heat pump: maintains a heated space at
a high temperature
18
Lect-10
Refrigerator
Warm surroundings
TH>TL
QH
Required input
Refrige
Wnet,in
rator
Desired output
QL
Cold refrigerator
space at TL
Refrigerator removes heat from a cooled

space and rejects heat to the ambient.
19
Lect-10
Heat pump
Warm heated space
TH>TL
Desired output
QH
Heat
Wnet,in
pump
Required input
QL
Cold environment
at TL
Heat pump supplies heat to a heated space.

20
Lect-10
Coefficient of performance
The efficiency of a refrigerator is

expressed in terms of the coefficient of
performance, denoted by COP.
COP is expressed as:
Desired effect
COP =
Required input
Required input = Wnet ,in =Q H QL
21
Lect-10
For a refrigerator, the desired effect is QL

QL
Hence, COPR =
QH QL
Similarly, for a heat pump, the desired effect is QH
QH
COPHP =
QH QL
22
Lect-10
COPHP = COPR + 1
Hence, COPHP will be always > unity
COPR can also be > unity (but not always)
Amount of heat removed from the
refrigerated space can be greater than the
amount of work input.
23
Lect-10
Clausius statement
It is impossible to construct a device that
operates in a cycle and produces no effect
other than the transfer of heat from a lower-
temperature body to a higher-temperature
body.
Refrigerators and heat pumps do not violate
the Clausius statement as they operate with
a work input.
Both the KelvinPlanck and the Clausius
statements are negative statements, and
hence cannot be proved.
24
Lect-10
Equivalence of the Kelvin-Planck
and the Clausius statement
High temperature
reservoir at TH
QH QH+QL
Heat Refrige
Engine rator
Wnet=QH
QL
Low temperature
Reservoir at TL
A refrigerator that works using a heat

engine with th=100%
25
Lect-10
Equivalence of the Kelvin-Planck
and the Clausius statement
High temperature
reservoir at TH
QL
Refrige
rator
QL
Low temperature
Reservoir at TL
The equivalent refrigerator

26
Lect-10
Perpetual motion machines of the
second kind (PMM2)
Any device that violates the second law is

called a perpetual-motion machine of the
second kind (PMM2).
Such a device will
Either generate work by exchanging heat
with a single reservoir
Or transfer heat from a low temperature
reservoir to a higher temperature one
without any work input.
27
Lect-10
Perpetual motion machine of the

second kind (PMM2)
System boundary
Qin
Boiler
Pump Turbine Wnet,out

Pump
28
Lect-10

Introduction to the Second Law of
thermodynamics
Heat engines
KelvinPlanck Statement
Clausius statement
Perpetual motion machines of the second
kind (PMM2)
29
Lect-10

Reversible and Irreversible Processes
Irreversibilities
Internally and Externally Reversible
Processes
Entropy
Clausius theorem and inequality
Property of entropy
Temperature-entropy plots
Isentropic processes
30
11
1
Lect-11
In this lecture ...

Irreversibilities
Processes
Clausius inequality and entropy
Property of entropy
2
Lect-11
Reversible and irreversible
processes
2nd law: no heat engine can have 100%
efficiency
What is the highest efficiency that an
engine could have?
Reversible process: a process that can be
reversed without leaving any trace on the
surroundings.
The system and the surroundings are
returned to their initial states at the end of
the reverse process.
3
Lect-11
processes
Reversible process: Net heat and work
exchange between the system and
surroundings (for original + reverse
process) is zero.
Why reversible processes are of interest?
Consume least work in the case of work-
consuming devices and generate maximum
work in the case of work-producing
devices.
4
Lect-11
processes
Reversible processes serve as theoretical
limits for the corresponding irreversible
ones.
Reversible processes leads to the definition
of the second law efficiency for actual
processes, which is the degree of
approximation to the corresponding
reversible processes.
5
Lect-11
Irreversibilities
Commonly encountered causes of

irreversibilities
friction, unrestrained expansion, mixing
of two fluids, heat transfer across a
finite temperature difference, electric
resistance, inelastic deformation of
solids, and chemical reactions.
6
Lect-11
Irreversibilities
30oC 30oC
30oC 10oC
Heat Heat
10oC 5oC
Heat transfer through a finite

temperature difference is irreversible.
7
Lect-11
Irreversibilities
800 kPa 25 kPa

Fast compression
Unrestrained expansion
Fast expansion
8
Lect-11
Internally and Externally
Reversible Processes
Internally reversible process
if no irreversibilities occur within the
boundaries of the system during the
process.
the paths of the forward and reverse
processes coincide for an internally
reversible process
9
Lect-11
Externally reversible process
no irreversibilities occur outside the
system boundaries during the process.
Heat transfer between a reservoir and a
system is an externally reversible process
if the outer surface of the system is at the
temperature of the reservoir.
Totally reversible or reversible
no irreversibilities within the system or its
surroundings.
10
Lect-11
Boundary
at 35o C
35oC 35oC
Heat Heat
Thermal energy Thermal energy
reservoir at 35.000001o C reservoir at 45o C
(a) Totally reversible (b) Internally reversible
11
Lect-11
Reversible adiabatics
P
Two reversible
Reversible
isotherm
adiabatic paths
A
cannot intersect
B
Reversible Through one point,
adiabatics
only one reversible
C adiabatic can pass
Violation of Kelvin-
Planck statement
v
12
Lect-11
Reversible adiabatics
Reversible Process m-n
P adiabatics Qm-n = Un Um +Wmn
m
Process m-a-b-n
a
b Qm-a-b-n=Un Um+Wm-a-b-n
Since, Wm-a-b-n = Wmn
Reversible n
isotherm Qm-n = Qm-a-b-n
= Qm-a+ Qa-b + Qb-n
Since Qm-a = 0, Qb-n = 0
v
Qm-n = Qa-b
Reversible path can be substituted by two reversible
adiabatics and a reversible isotherm
13
Lect-11
Clausius inequality
Thermal energy
reservoir (TR)
QR
Rev.
Cyclic Wrev
device
Q
T
System Wsys
Combined system
(system and cyclic device)
14
Lect-11
Clausius inequality
Applying the energy balance to the
combined system identified by dashed lines
yields: WC = QR dEC
where WC is the total work of the
combined system (Wrev+Wsys) and dEC is
the change in the total energy of the
combined system.
Considering that the cyclic device is a
reversible one QR Q
=
TR T
15
Lect-11
Clausius inequality
From the above equations:
Q
WC = TR dEC
T
Let the system undergo a cycle while the
cyclic device undergoes an integral number
of cycles Q
WC = TR
T
Since the cyclic integral of energy is zero.
16
Lect-11
Clausius inequality
The combined system is exchanging heat
with a single thermal energy reservoir while
involving (producing or consuming) work WC
during a cycle. Hence WC cannot be a work
output, and thus it cannot be a positive
quantity.
Considering TR to be a positive quantity,
Q
T
0
This is the Clausius inequality.

17
Lect-11
Clausius inequality
Clausius inequality is valid for all
thermodynamic cycles, reversible or
irreversible, including the refrigeration cycles.
If no irreversibilities occur within the system
as well as the reversible cyclic device, then
the cycle undergone by the combined system
is internally reversible.
Q
T int .rev = 0
18
Lect-11
Clausius inequality
Clausius inequality provides the criterion for
the irreversibility of a process.
Q
T = 0, the process is reversible.
Q
T < 0, the process is irreversible and possible.
Q
T > 0, the process is impossible.
19
Lect-11

The cyclic integral of work and heat are not
zero.
However, the cyclic integral of volume (or
any other property) is zero.
Conversely, a quantity whose cyclic integral
is zero depends on the state only and not
the process path, and thus it is a property
Clausius realized in 1865 that he had
discovered a new thermodynamic property,
and he chose to name this property entropy.
20
Lect-11
The property of entropy
dQ
R1R2 T = 0
P b
dQ
a
dQ
R1 T
a R2 + =0
a
R2
b
T
b a
dQ dQ
or, =
R1 T R2 T
R1 b a b
Since R2 is a reversible path,

b b
dQ dQ
R1
V
=
a
T R2 a T
21
Lect-11
The property of entropy
b
dQ
R T is independent of the reversible path
connecting a and b.
a
This property whose value at the bfinal state

minus the initial state is equal to dQ is
R T
called entropy, denoted by S. a
b
dQ
R

a
T
= Sb S a
When the two equilibrium states are

infinitesimally near,
dQR
= dS
T
22
Lect-11
Entropy
Entropy is an extensive property of a system
and sometimes is referred to as total
entropy. Entropy per unit mass, designated
s, is an intensive property and has the unit
kJ/kg K
The entropy change of a system during a
process can be determined by
Q
2
S = S 2 S1 = (kJ/kg)
1
T int . rev.
23
Lect-11
Entropy
Entropy is a property, and like all other

properties, it has fixed values at fixed
states.
Therefore, the entropy change dS between

two specified states is the same no matter
what path, reversible or irreversible.
24
Lect-11
Temperature-entropy plot
dQrev
dS =
T
If the process is reversible and adiabatic, dQrev = 0
dS = 0 or S = constant
A reversible adiabatic process is, therefore,
and isentropic process.
dQrev = TdS
or , Qrev = TdS
25
Lect-11
Temperature-entropy plot
T a
Reversible path
b
Qrev = TdS = T (Sb S a )
b a
Sa dS Sb S
The area under the reversible path on the

T-S plot represents heat transfer during
that process.
26
Lect-11
A process where, s=0
An isentropic process can serve as an
appropriate model for actual processes.
Isentropic processes enable us to define
efficiencies for processes to compare the
actual performance of these devices to the
performance under idealized conditions.
A reversible adiabatic process is necessarily
isentropic, but an isentropic process is not
necessarily a reversible adiabatic process.
27
Lect-11
In this lecture ...

Irreversibilities
Processes
Property of entropy
28
Lect-11
In the next lecture...

Increase of entropy principle
Entropy change in liquids and solids
Entropy change in ideal gases
Third law of thermodynamics
Absolute entropy
Entropy change of a system and entropy
generation
29
12
1
Lect-12
In this lecture...
generation
TdS equations
Entropy change in liquids and solids and
ideal gases
Third law of thermodynamics and
absolute entropy
Entropy and energy transfer
Entropy balance
2
Lect-12
Entropy change and entropy
generation
Consider a cycle made
y Internally reversible
process up of two processes
1
(1-2 and 2-1)
Q
2 T
0 (Clausius inequality)
Reversible or
Irreversible process 2
Q Q
1
or , +
T 2 T int .rev
0
x 1
3
Lect-12
generation
The second integral is equal to entropy
change during that process.
2
Q

1
T
+ ( S1 S 2 ) 0
2
Q Q
or, S 2 S1 which can be written as dS
1
T T
Here, the equality holds for an internally

reversible process and the inequality for
an irreversible process.
4
Lect-12
generation
The entropy change of a closed system
during an irreversible process is greater
than the integral of dQ/T evaluated for that
process.
In the limiting case of a reversible process,
these two quantities become equal.
Note: T in these relations is the
temperature at the boundary where the
differential heat dQ is transferred between
the system and the surroundings.
5
Lect-12
generation
Inequality sign: entropy change of a closed
system during an irreversible process is
always greater than the entropy transfer.
Some entropy is generated or created during
an irreversible process, and this generation
is entirely due to the irreversibilities.
This entropy generated during a process is
called entropy generation and is denoted by
Sgen.
6
Lect-12
generation
2
Q
S sys = S 2 S1 = + S gen
1
T
The entropy generation Sgen is always a
positive quantity or zero.
Its value depends on the process, and thus
it is not a property of the system.
For an isolated system (or simply an
adiabatic closed system), the heat transfer
is zero.
Sisolated 0
7
Lect-12
The entropy of an isolated system during a

process always increases or, in the limiting
case of a reversible process, remains
constant.
This is known as the increase of entropy
principle.
In the absence of any heat transfer, entropy
change is due to irreversibilities only, and
their effect is always to increase entropy.
8
Lect-12
The entropy of the universe is continuously

increasing.
No entropy is generated during reversible
processes.
The increase of entropy principle does not
imply that the entropy of a system cannot
decrease.
The entropy change of a system can be
negative during a process, but entropy
generation cannot.
9
Lect-12
> 0 Irreversible process

S gen = 0 Reversible process
< 0 Impossible process
A system and its surroundings form an

isolated system.
S gen = Stotal = S system + S surroundings 0
10
Lect-12

Processes can occur in a certain direction
only, not in any direction.
A process must proceed in the direction that
complies with the increase of entropy
principle, that is, Sgen 0.
Entropy is a non-conserved property, and
there is no such thing as the conservation of
entropy principle.
Entropy is conserved during the idealized
reversible processes only and increases
during all actual processes.
11
Lect-12
2
4 N
3 ...
5
The entropy change of an isolated system is the

sum of the entropy changes of its components,
and is always greater than zero.
N
Stotal = Si > 0
i =1
12
Lect-12
TdS equations
From the first law for an internally

reversible process, we know that
Qint rev Wint rev ,out = dU
Since, Qint rev = TdS and Wint rev ,out = PdV
TdS = dU + PdV or , Tds = du + Pdv
This is known as the first TdS equation.
13
Lect-12
TdS equations
From the definition of enthalpy, we know

that, h = u + Pv
or, dh = du + Pdv + vdP
since, Tds = du + Pdv,
Tds = dh vdP
This is known as the second TdS equation.
14
Lect-12
TdS equations
Since the TdS equations are property

relations, they are therefore independent
of the type of the processes.
The Tds relations are hence, valid for both
reversible and irreversible processes and
for both closed and open systems.
15
Lect-12
Entropy change of liquids and
solids
Liquids and solids can be approximated as
incompressible substances since their
specific volumes remain nearly constant
during a process.
Thus, dv = 0 for liquids and solids.
du c dT
ds = = ( c p = cv = c and du = cdT )
T T
2
dT T2
s2 s1 = c(T ) cavg ln (kJ/kg. K)
1
T T1
16
Lect-12
Entropy change of ideal gases

For ideal gases we know that,
du = cv dT , P = RT / v
From the TdS relations,
dT dv
ds = cv +R
T v
The entropy change for a process,
2
dT v2
s2 s1 = cv (T ) + R ln
1
T v1
17
Lect-12
Entropy change of ideal gases
If we use these relations,

dh = c p dT , v = RT / P
Then, from the TdS relations,
2
dT P2
s2 s1 = c p (T ) R ln
1
T P1
Usually, we assume average values of cp
and cv in the above equations and thus can
replace cp(T) with cp,av and cv(T) with cv,av.
18
Lect-12

Entropy can be viewed as a measure of
molecular disorder, or molecular
randomness.
As a system becomes more disordered, the
positions of the molecules become less
predictable and the entropy increases.
The entropy of a system is related to the
total number of possible microscopic states
of that system, called thermodynamic
probability p, by the Boltzmann relation.
19
Lect-12
Boltzmann relation is expressed as

S=k lnp
Where, k = 1.3806 x 10-23 J/K is the
Boltzmann constant.
From a microscopic point of view, the
entropy of a system increases whenever the
molecular randomness or uncertainty (i.e.,
molecular probability) of a system
increases.
20
Lect-12
The entropy of a pure crystalline substance

at absolute zero temperature is zero since
there is no uncertainty about the state of
the molecules at that instant: the third law
of thermodynamics.
The entropy determined relative to this
point is called absolute entropy.
A pure crystalline substance at absolute
zero temperature is in perfect order, and its
entropy is zero.
21
Lect-12

An organized form of energy like work is
free of disorder or randomness and thus
free of entropy.
There is no entropy transfer associated
with energy transfer as work.
The quantity of energy is always preserved
during an actual process (the 1st law), but
the quality is bound to decrease (the 2nd
law).
22
Lect-12

Wsh
Gas Wsh
Raising of a weight by a rotating The work done on a gas

shaft does not generate entropy, increases the entropy of the
and so energy is not degraded gas, and thus energy is
during this process (if we assume degraded during this process.
frictional effects can be neglected).
23
Lect-12
This decrease in quality is always

accompanied by an increase in entropy.
Heat is a form of disorganized energy, and
hence, there is increase in entropy with
heat.
Processes can occur only in the direction of
increased overall entropy or molecular
disorder.
That is, the entire universe is getting more
and more chaotic every day.
24
Lect-12
Hot body Cold body

Heat
Entropy Entropy
decreases increases
During a heat transfer process, the net

entropy increases.
This is because, the increase in the entropy
of the cold body is more than the decrease in
the entropy of the hot body.
25
Lect-12

Work is entropy-free, and no entropy is
transferred by work.
Closed systems
Energy is transferred by both heat and work,
whereas entropy is transferred only by heat
(closed systems).
Only energy is exchanged during work
interaction whereas both energy and entropy
are exchanged during heat transfer.
Open systems
Entropy transfer in open systems: heat and
mass flow.
26
Lect-12
Entropy balance
Entropy balance for any system undergoing
any process is:
Sin S out + S gen = S system

Net entropy transfer Entropy Change in
by heat and mass generation entropy
This can also be expressed in the rate form as,

S in S out + S =
gen
S
system

Rate of net entropy Rate of entropy Rate of change
transfer by heat and mass generation in entropy
27
Lect-12
In this lecture...
generation
TdS equations
Entropy change in liquids and solids and
ideal gases
Third law of thermodynamics and
absolute entropy
Entropy balance
28
Lect-12
Solve problems related to

closed and open systems
Heat engines
29
13
1
Lect-13
In this lecture ...
Solve problems related to

closed and open systems
Heat engines
2
Lect-13
Problem 1
A 50 kg iron block at 80C is dropped into

an insulated tank that contains 0.5 m3 of
liquid water at 25C. Determine the
temperature when thermal equilibrium is
reached.
Specific heat iron: 0.45 kJ/kgoC, specific
heat of water: 4.184 kJ/kgoC
3
Lect-13
Solution: Problem 1
Water
25oC
0.5 m3
Iron
m=50 kg
80oC
4
Lect-13
Solution: Problem 1
Assumptions:
Both water and the iron block are incompressible
substances.
Constant specific heats at room temperature can
be used for water and the iron.
The system is stationary and thus the kinetic and
potential energy changes are zero, KE, PE=0
and E= U.
There are no electrical, shaft, or other forms of
work involved.
The system is well-insulated and thus there is no
heat transfer.
5
Lect-13
Solution: Problem 1
The energy balance can be expressed as:
Ein -Eout = Esystem (kJ)

Net energy transfer Change in internal, kinetic
by heat, work and mass potential etc. energies
0 = U
Usystem = Uiron + Uwater =0
[mc(T2-T1)]iron + [mc(T2-T1)]water=0
Mass of water, m=V/v=0.5 m3/0.001 m3/kg

= 500 kg
6
Lect-13
Solution: Problem 1
Substituting the above values,
(50kg)(0.45 kJ/kg oC)(T2 - 80oC) + (500 kg)(4.18

kJ/kg oC)(T2 - 25oC) =0
Therefore, T2 = 25.6oC
This will be the temperature of water and iron after
the system attains thermal equilibrium.
Note: The marginal change in the temperature of
water. Why is this so?
7
Lect-13
Problem 2
A stationary mass of gas is compressed

without friction from an initial state of 0.3
m3 and 0.105 MPa to a final state of 0.15 m3
and 0.105 MPa. There is a transfer of 37.6
kJ of heat from the gas during the process.
What is the change in internal energy of the
gas during this process?
8
Lect-13
Solution: Problem 2
From the first law for a stationary system,

Q=U + W
In this example, the process is a constant
pressure process. The work done during
such a process is
W=PdV=P(V2-V1)
=0.105(0.15-0.30) = -15.75 kJ
9
Lect-13
Solution: Problem 2
It is given that the heat transfer from the

system is Q = -37.6 kJ
Therefore, -37.6 = U 15.75
or, U = -21.85 kJ
The change in internal energy of the gas is

-21.85 kJ (decrease in internal energy
during the process)
10
Lect-13
Problem 3
Air at a temperature of 15oC passes through a
heat exchanger at a velocity of 30 m/s where its
temperature is raised to 800oC. It then passes
through a turbine with the same velocity of 30
m/s and expands until the temperature falls to
650oC. On leaving the turbine, the air is taken at
a velocity of 60 m/s to a nozzle where it expands
until its temperature has fallen to 500oC. If the
air flow rate is 2 kg/s, find (a) rate of heat
transfer from the heat exchanger (b) the power
output from the turbine (c) velocity at nozzle exit
assuming no heat loss
Assume cp= 1.005 kJ/kg K
11
Lect-13
Solution: Problem 3
Q Heat exchanger
1 2
WT
Turbine
T1=15oC, T2=800oC
V1=30m/s, V2=30m/s
T3=650oC, V3=60m/s 3 4
T4=500oC Nozzle
12
Lect-13
Solution: Problem 3
Applying the energy equation across 1-2 (heat
exchanger)
V22 V12
Q W = m h2 h1 + + g ( z 2 z1 )
2
For a heat exchanger, this reduces to,

Q1 2 = m(h2 h1 ) = m c p (T2 T1 )
= 2 1.005 (1073.16 288.16) = 1580 kJ/s
The rate of heat exchanger to the air in the heat
exchanger is 1580 kJ/s
13
Lect-13
Solution: Problem 3
The energy equation the turbine 2-3
V22 V32
W = m h2 h3 +
2

W = 2 1005 (1073.16 923.16 ) +
30 2 60 2 ( )

2
= 298.8 kW
The power output from the turbine is 298.8 kW
14
Lect-13
Solution: Problem 3
For the nozzle (3-4)
V32 V42
+ h3 = + h4
2 2
2 2
60 V4
+ 1.005 (923.16) = + 1.005 (773.16)
2 2
V4 = 554 m / s
The velocity at the exit from the nozzle is 554 m/s.
15
Lect-13
Problem 4
Heat is transferred to a heat engine from

a heat source at a rate of 80 MW. If the
rate of waste heat rejection to sink is 50
MW, determine the net power output and
the thermal efficiency for this heat engine.
16
Lect-13
Solution: Problem 4
High temperature
Source
QH=80 MW
Heat
Wnet,out
Engine
QL=50 MW
Low temperature
Sink
17
Lect-13
Solution: Problem 4
We know that the net power output is the
difference between the heat input and the
heat rejected (cyclic device)
Wnet,out =QH + QL
= 80 50 MW= 30 MW
The net work output is 30 mW.
The thermal efficiency is the ratio of the
net work output and the heat input.
th = Wnet,out/QH =30/80 = 0.375
The thermal efficiency is 0.375 or 37.5 %
18
Lect-13
Problem 5
The food compartment of a refrigerator is

maintained at 4C by removing heat from it
at a rate of 360 kJ/min. If the required
power input to the refrigerator is 2 kW,
determine (a) the coefficient of performance
of the refrigerator and (b) the rate of heat
rejection to the room that houses the
refrigerator.
19
Lect-13
Solution: Problem 5
Warm surroundings
QH
Refrige
Wnet,in=2 kW
rator
QL=360 kJ/min
Food compartment
at 4oC
20
Lect-13
Problem 5
COP of the refrigerator,

COPR=Desired effect/work input=QL/Wnet,in
=(360/60 kJ/s)/2 = 3
The COP of the refrigerator is 3 (3 kJ of heat
is removed per kJ of work supplied).
The rate of heat rejection can be obtained
by applying the first law of thermodynamics
QH=QL+Wnet,in =6 kW + 2 KW = 8 kW
21
Lect-13
Problem 6
A heat engine is used to drive a heat

pump. The heat transfers from the heat
engine and the heat pump are rejected to
the same sink. The efficiency of the heat
engine is 27% and the COP of the heat
pump is 4. Determine the ratio of the total
heat rejection rate to the heat transfer to
the heat engine.
22
Lect-13
Solution: Problem 6
T1 T3
Q1 Q3
W
Heat Heat
Engine Pump
Q2 Q4
T2
23
Lect-13
Solution: Problem 6
The efficiency of the heat engine,

= Net work output/heat input = W/Q1
W = 0.27Q1
COPHP = desired effect/work input
= Q4/W = 4 or, W = Q4/4
Therefore, 0.27Q1 = Q4/4

or, Q4/Q1= 1.08
24
Lect-13
Solution: Problem 6
We know that = 1-Q2/Q1 = 0.27

Or, Q2/Q1 = 0.73
Hence, (Q2+Q4)/Q1= 1.08 + 0.73 = 1.81

The ratio of the total heat rejection rate
(Q2+Q4) to the heat transfer to the heat
engine (Q1) is 1.81.
25
Lect-13
Exercise Problem 1
A mass of 8 kg gas expands within a

flexible container as per pv1.2 = constant.
The initial pressure is 1000 kPa and the
initial volume is 1 m3. The final pressure is
5 kPa. If the specific internal energy of the
gas decreases by 40 kJ/kg, find the heat
transfer in magnitude and direction.
Ans: +2615 kJ
26
Lect-13
Exercise Problem 2
Air at 10C and 80 kPa enters the diffuser

of a jet engine steadily with a velocity of
200 m/s. The inlet area of the diffuser is
0.4 m2. The air leaves the diffuser with a
velocity that is very small compared with
the inlet velocity.
Determine (a) the mass flow rate of the
air and (b) the temperature of the air
leaving the diffuser.
Ans: 78.8 kg/s, 303K
27
Lect-13
Exercise Problem 3
A refrigerator is maintained at a
temperature of 2oC. Each time the door is
opened, 420 kJ of heat is introduced
inside the refrigerator, without changing
the temperature of the refrigerator. The
door is opened 20 times a day and the
refrigerator operates at 15% of the ideal
COP. The cost of work is Rs. 2.50 kWh.
Determine the monthly bill for this
refrigerator if the atmosphere is at 30oC.
Ans: Rs. 118.80
28
Lect-13
Exercise Problem 4
An automobile engine consumes fuel at

a rate of 28 L/h and delivers 60 kW of
power to the wheels. If the fuel has a
heating value of 44,000 kJ/kg and a
density of 0.8 g/cm3, determine the
efficiency of this engine.
Ans: 21.9%
29
Lect-13
The Carnot cycle

The reversed Carnot cycle
The Carnot principles
The thermodynamic temperature scale
Carnot heat engine
Quality of energy
Carnot refrigerator and heat pump
30
14
1
Lect-14
In this lecture ...
The Carnot cycle

Carnot heat engine
Quality of energy
2
Lect-14
The Carnot cycle
The cycle efficiency can be maximised by
using reversible processes.
Reversible cycles cannot be achieved in
practice because the irreversibilities.
Reversible cycles provide upper limits on the
performance of real cycles.
The Carnot cycle, proposed in 1824 by Sadi
Carnot, is a reversible cycle.
The theoretical heat engine that operates on
the Carnot cycle is called the Carnot heat
engine.
3
Lect-14
The Carnot cycle
The Carnot cycle consists of four reversible
processes
Two reversible adiabatic processes
Two reversible isothermal processes
It can be executed in a closed system or a
steady flow mode.
We shall consider a closed system
consisting of a piston-cylinder arrangement.
Friction and other irreversibilities are
assumed to be absent.
4
Lect-14
The Carnot cycle
Reversible isothermal
expansion (1-2)
TH = constant Gas allowed to expand
slowly.
Energy Infinitesimal heat
source QH transfer to keep TH
at TH
constant.
Since temperature
1 2 differential never
exceeds dT, reversible
Process 1-2 isothermal process.
Total heat transfer: QH
5
Lect-14
The Carnot cycle
Reversible adiabatic
expansion (2-3)
TH
Insulation at the
cylinder head
TL Temperature drops from
TH to TL
2 3
Insulation Gas expands and does
work
Process 2-3 Process is therefore
reversible and adiabatic.
6
Lect-14
The Carnot cycle
Reversible isothermal
TL = constant compression (3-4)
Insulation removed
Energy TL is constant
sink QL
at TL Infinitesimal heat
transfer to the sink at TL
Temperature differential
4 3
never exceeds dT,
reversible isothermal
Process 3-4
process
Total heat transfer: QL
7
Lect-14
The Carnot cycle
Reversible adiabatic
compression (4-1)
TH Temperature rises
from TL to TH
TL Insulation put back
The gas is
Insulation
1 4 compressed in a
reversible manner.
Process 4-1 The temperature
rises from TL to TH
8
Lect-14
The Carnot cycle
1-2: A reversible isothermal process
Q1=U2-U1 +W1-2
2-3: A reversible adiabatic process
0=U3-U2+W2-3
3-4: Reversible isothermal process
Q2=U4-U3-W3-4
4-1: Reversible adiabatic process
0=U1-U4-W4-1
Q1-Q2=W1-2+W2-3-(W3-4+W4-1)
Qnet= Wnet for the cycle
9
Lect-14
The Carnot cycle
QH
P QH T TH=constant
1
1 2
2
TH=constant
Wnet,out
4 4 3
TL=constant TL=constant
QL QL
3
V S
P-V diagram of Carnot cycle T-S diagram of Carnot cycle
10
Lect-14
The Reversed Carnot cycle
The Carnot cycle comprises of reversible
processes.
So all the processes can be reversed.
This is like a Carnot Refrigeration cycle.
The cycle remains same, but the directions
of heat and work interactions are reversed.
QL : heat absorbed from the low
temperature reservoir
QH : heat rejected to the high temperature
reservoir
Wnet,in: Net work input required
11
Lect-14
The Reversed Carnot cycle
QH
P QH T TH=constant
1
1 4
4
TH=constant
Wnet,in
2 3
2 TL=constant
TL=constant QL
QL 3
V S
P-V diagram of Reversed T-S diagram of Reversed

Carnot cycle Carnot cycle
12
Lect-14
There are theoretical limits to the
operation of all cyclic devices (2nd law of
thermodynamics).
Carnot principles:
Efficiency of an irreversible heat engine
is always less than that of a reversible
engine operating between the same
reservoirs.
Efficiencies of all reversible heat engines
operating between the same reservoirs
are the same.
13
Lect-14
High temperature
Source
th,1 < th,2

HE 1 HE 2 HE 3
Irrever Revers Revers
ible
th,1 < th,3
sible ible
th,2 = th,3
Low temperature
Sink
14
Lect-14
Proof of the Carnot principles
High temperature
Source, TH
QH,1 QH,2
HE 1 HE 3
Irrever Revers
sible ible
Wnet,1 Wnet,2
QL,1 QL,2
Low temperature
Sink, TL
15
Lect-14
High temperature
Source, TH
QH,1 QH,2
HE 1 HE 3
Irrever Revers
sible ible
Wnet,1 Wnet,2
QL,1 QL,2
Low temperature
Sink, TL
16
Lect-14
QH,1 =QH QH,2 =QH
HE 1 HE 3
Irrever Revers
sible ible
QL,1 Wnet,1-Wnet,2 QL,2
Low temperature
Sink, TL
The combined heat engine cycle generates a net

work output while interacting with a single reservoir,
violating the Kelvin-Planck statement.
17
Lect-14
The thermodynamic temperature
scale
A temperature scale that is independent of
the properties of the substances that are
used to measure temperature.
2nd Carnot principle: all reversible heat
engines have the same thermal efficiency
when operating between the same two
reservoirs.
The efficiency of a reversible engine is
independent of the working fluid employed
and its properties, or the type of reversible
engine used.
18
Lect-14
scale
A temperature scale that is independent of
the properties of the substances that are
used to measure temperature.
th ,rev = f (TH , TL )
QH
Since th = 1 QL / QH , = f (TH , TL )
QL
We shall consider three reversible engines
to derive an expression for f(TH,TL).
19
Lect-14
scale
High temperature
Source, T1
Q1 Q1
WA
HE A
WC
T2 Q2 HE C
WB
HE B
Q3 Q3
Low temperature
Sink, T3
20
Lect-14
scale
Consider three reversible heat engines : A, B and C
Q1 Q2 Q1
= f (T1 , T2 ), = f (T2 , T3 ), = f (T1 , T3 )
Q2 Q3 Q3
Q1 Q1 Q2
Since, = ,
Q3 Q2 Q3
Therefore, f (T1 , T3 ) = f (T1 , T2 ) f (T2 , T3 )
Since the LHS of the above equation depends only

on T1 and T3, the RHS must be independent of T2
21
Lect-14
scale
For this to be true,
(T1 ) (T2 )
f (T1 , T2 ) = , f (T2 , T3 ) =
(T2 ) (T3 )
Q1 (T1 )
Hence, = f (T1 , T3 ) =
Q3 (T3 )
In general, for a reversible engine,

QH (TH )
=
QL (TL )
22
Lect-14
scale
Lord Kelvin proposed (T ) = T to define a
thermodynamic scale as
QH TH
=
QL rev TL
This is called the Kelvin scale and the
temperatures on this scale are called
absolute temperatures.
For reversible cycles, the heat transfer
ratio can be replaced by the absolute
temperature ratio.
23
Lect-14
scale
On the Kelvin scale, the triple point of
water was assigned a value of 273.16 K.
Therefore the magnitude of Kevin is
defined 1/273.16 K of the interval between
absolute zero and the triple point of water.
Since reversible engines are not practical,
other methods like constant volume ideal
gas thermometers are used for defining
temperature scales.
24
Lect-14
The Carnot heat engine
A hypothetical engine that operates on the
Carnot cycle.
QL
We know that th = 1 Q
H
Since the Carnot heat engine is reversible,
TL
th = 1
TH
This is known as the Carnot efficiency and
is the highest efficiency that a heat engine
can have while operating between TH and
TL (the temperatures are in Kelvin).
25
Lect-14
High temperature th<th,rev

Source, 1000 K
Irreversible heat
engine
HE 1 HE 2 HE 3
Revers Irrever Impos th=th,rev
ible sible ssible Reversible heat
engine
th=75% =55% th=80%
th
th>th,rev
Low temperature Impossible heat
Sink, 250 K
engine
26
Lect-14
The efficiency of a Carnot heat engine

increases as TH is increased, or as TL is
decreased.
The thermal efficiency of actual heat
engines can be maximized by supplying
heat to the engine at the highest possible
temperature and rejecting heat from the
engine at the lowest possible temperature.
27
Lect-14
Quality of energy
High temperature
Source, TH
TH, K th, %
QH
1000 70
Revers 700 57.1
ible HE 500 40
Wnet
400 25
QL
350 14.3
Low temperature
Sink, TL=300 K
28
Lect-14
Quality of energy
Energy has quality as well as quantity.

More of the high-temperature thermal
energy can be converted to work.
The higher the temperature, the higher the
quality of the energy.
Work is a high quality form of energy than
heat since 100 percent of work can be
converted to heat, but only a fraction of
heat can be converted to work.
29
Lect-14

Operates on a reversed Carnot cycle.
The coefficients of performance are:
1 1
COPR = COPHP =
QH / QL 1 1 QL / QH
1 1
or , COPR = COPHP =
TH / TL 1 1 TL / TH
These are the highest coefficients of
performance that a refrigerator or a heat
pump operating between the temperature
limits of TL and TH can have.
30
Lect-14
< COPR / HP , reversible Irreversible

COPR / HP = COPR / HP , reversible Reversible

> COPR / HP , reversible Impossible
31
Lect-14
In this lecture ...
The Carnot cycle

Carnot heat engine
Quality of energy
32
Lect-14
Exergy: A Measure of Work Potential

Reversible Work and Irreversibility
Second-Law Efficiency
Exergy Change of a System
The Decrease of Exergy Principle and
Exergy Destruction
Exergy Balance
33
22
1
Lect-22
In this lecture ...

One dimensional compressible flows
Stagnation properties
Speed of sound and Mach number
One-dimensional isentropic flow
Variation of fluid velocity with flow area
Isentropic flow through nozzles
Converging nozzles
Convergingdiverging nozzles
2
Lect-22
One dimensional compressible
flows
Most of the analysis we considered so far
neglected density variations.
Flows that involve significant density
variations: compressible flows.
We shall consider one-dimensional
compressible flows for an ideal gas with
constant specific heats.
Are frequently encountered in devices
that involve the flow of gases at very high
velocities.
3
Lect-22
Enthalpy represents the total energy of a
fluid in the absence of potential and
kinetic energies.
For high speed flows, though potential
energy may be negligible, but not kinetic
energy.
Combination of enthalpy and KE is called
stagnation enthalpy (or total enthalpy)
h0 = h + V2/2 (kJ/kg)
Stagnation enthalpy Static enthalpy Kinetic energy
4
Lect-22
Consider a steady flow through a duct
(no shaft work, heat transfer etc).
The steady flow energy equation for this
is: h1 + V12/2 = h2 + V22/2
or, h01=h02
That is in the absence of any heat and

work interactions, the stagnation
enthalpy remains a constant during a
steady flow process.
5
Lect-22
If the fluid were brought to rest at state2,
h1 + V12/2 = h2 =h02
The stagnation enthalpy represents the
enthalpy of a fluid when it is brought to
rest adiabatically.
During a stagnation process, the kinetic
energy of a fluid is converted to enthalpy
(internal energy flow energy), which
results in an increase in the fluid
temperature and pressure.
6
Lect-22
When the fluid is approximated as an ideal
gas with constant specific heats,
cpT0 = cpT +V2/2
or, T0 = T +V2/2cp
T0 is called the stagnation temperature and
represents the temperature an ideal gas
attains when it is brought to rest
adiabatically.
The term V2/2cp corresponds to the
temperature rise during such a process
and is called the dynamic temperature.
7
Lect-22
The pressure a fluid attains when brought
to rest isentropically is called the
stagnation pressure, P0.
For ideal gases, from isentropic relations,
/( 1)
P0 T0
=
P T
Similarly, for density we have,
1 /( 1)
0 T0
=
T
8
Lect-22
Isentropic
stagnation P0
h state P0,actual
h0
Actual
stagnation
state
V2/2
P
h
Actual state
s
The actual state, actual stagnation state,
and isentropic stagnation state of a fluid on
an h-s diagram.
9
Lect-22
Speed of sound is the speed at which an
infinitesimally small pressure wave travels
through a medium.
For an ideal gas, speed of sound, c, can be
shown to be the following:
c = RT
Speed of sound is therefore a function of
temperature.
10
Lect-22
Mach number is the ratio of actual velocity
of the object/fluid to the speed of sound
Mach number, M = V/c
Mach number is a function of the ambient
temperature. So two objects moving at
same speeds may have different Mach
numbers depending upon the ambient
temperature.
M=1: Sonic flow, M>1: Supersonic flow;
M<1 Subsonic flow; M>>1 Hypersonic
flow; M1: Transonic flow
11
Lect-22
Variation of fluid velocity with
flow area
Consider mass balance for a steady flow
process:
m = AV = constant
Differentiating and dividing the resultant equation by
the mass flow rate,
d dA dV
+ + =0
A V
Steady flow energy equation assuming W, Q, KE, PE o
V2
h+ = 0 or, dh + VdV = 0
2
12
Lect-22
flow area
Also, Tds = dh vdP
For isentropic flows, dh = vdP = dP /
dP
Hence, + VdV = 0

Combining this and the earlier equations,
dA dP 1 d
= 2
A V dP
Since it is known that, ( / P )s = 1 / c 2 , rearranging,
dA dP
=
A V 2
1 M 2
( )
13
Lect-22
flow area
The above equation can also be written as :
dA
A
=
dV
V
1 M 2 ( )
This equation governs the shape of a nozzle
or a diffuser in subsonic or supersonic
isentropic flow. Since A and V are positive
quantities, it follows that,
For subsonic flows (M<1), dA/dV < 0

For supersonic flows (M>1), dA/dV > 0
For sonic flows (M=1), dA/dV = 0
14
Lect-22
flow area
To accelerate a fluid, a converging nozzle
is required at subsonic velocities and a
diverging nozzle at supersonic velocities.
The highest velocity that can be achieved
in a converging nozzle is the sonic velocity.
To accelerate to supersonic velocities, a
diverging section after the converging
section is required: Converging-diverging
nozzle.
15
Lect-22
flow area
M=1
P0, T0 (sonic)
M<1
(subsonic)
P0, T0
M=1
(sonic)
Sonic velocity will occur at the exit of the converging

extension, instead of the exit of the original nozzle, and the
mass flow rate through the nozzle will decrease because of
the reduced exit area.
16
Lect-22
flow area
M<1 P, T decreases M<1 P, T increases

V, M increases V, M decreases
Subsonic nozzle Subsonic diffuser
M>1 P, T decreases M>1 P, T increases

V, M increases V, M decreases
Supersonic nozzle Supersonic diffuser
17
Lect-22
Property relations for isentropic
flow of ideal gases
We know that:
V2 T0 V2
T0 = T + or, = 1+
2c p T 2c p T
R
Since, c p = , c 2 = RT and M = V/c,
1
V2 V2 1 V 1 2
2
= = 2 = M
2c pT 2[R /( 1)]T 2 c 2
Substituti ng in the above equation,
T0 1 2
= 1+ M
T 2
18
Lect-22
flow of ideal gases
Similarly for pressure and density:
/( 1)
P0 1 2
= 1 + M
P 2
1 /( 1)
0 1 2
= 1 + M
2
The above equations relate the stagnation

properties with the corresponding static
properties through the Mach number.
19
Lect-22
flow of ideal gases
Properties at a location where the Mach
number is unity are called critical
properties.
Setting M=1 in the equations,
T 2
=
T0 + 1
/( 1)
P 2
=
P0 + 1
1 /( 1)

2
=
0 + 1
20
Lect-22
Isentropic flow through
converging nozzles
Converging nozzle in a subsonic flow will
have decreasing area along the flow
direction.
We shall consider the effect of back
pressure on the exit velocity, mass flow
rate and pressure distribution along the
nozzle.
We assume flow enters the nozzle from a
reservoir so that inlet velocity is zero.
Stagnation temperature and pressure
remains unchanged in the nozzle.
21
Lect-22
converging nozzles
Pe
Reservoir
P0, T0 Pb: back pressure
x
P/P0
1 P =P
1 b 0
2 P > P*
b
P*/P0 3 P = P* Choked flow

b
4 Pb < P*
0 5 Pb = 0
x
22
Lect-22
converging nozzles

m
5 4 3
m max
2
1
P*/P0 1.0 Pb/P0
Pe/P0
1
1.0
2
The effect of back pressure
P*/P0 5 4 3
Pb on the mass flow rate and
the exit pressure Pe.
P*/P0 1.0 Pb/P0
23
Lect-22
converging nozzles
From the above figure,
Pb for Pb P
Pe =
P for Pb < P
For all back pressures lower that the critical
pressure, exit pressure = critical pressure,
Mach number is unity and the mass flow
rate is maximum (choked flow).
A back pressure lower than the critical
pressure cannot be sensed in the nozzle
upstream flow and does not affect the flow
rate.
24
Lect-22
converging-diverging nozzles
Maximum Mach number achievable in a
converging nozzle is unity.
For supersonic Mach numbers, a diverging
section after the throat is required.
However, a diverging section alone would
not guarantee a supersonic flow.
The Mach number at the exit of the
converging-diverging nozzle depends
upon the back pressure.
25
Lect-22
Pe
Throat
P0
Pb
P
Pb
A P
P0 B PA Subsonic flow at nozzle exit
B
C No shock
PC
P* D Subsonic flow at nozzle exit
PD Shock in nozzle
PE
Supersonic flow at nozzle exit
Sonic flow PF
No shock in nozzle
at throat PG
Inlet Throat Exit x
Shock in nozzle
M
Supersonic flow at nozzle exit
No shock in nozzle
1.0
D Subsonic flow at nozzle exit
C Shock in nozzle
Subsonic flow at nozzle exit
B
A No shock
x
26
Lect-22
In this lecture ...

Converging nozzles
27
Lect-22

Shock Waves and Expansion
Normal Shocks
Oblique Shocks
PrandtlMeyer Expansion Waves
Duct Flow with Heat Transfer and
Negligible Friction (Rayleigh Flow)
Property Relations for Rayleigh Flow
Duct flow with friction without heat
transfer (Fanno flow)
28
15
1
Lect-15
In this lecture ...

Exergy Destruction
Exergy Balance
2
Lect-15
Exergy
Exergy: a property that determines the
useful work potential of a given amount of
energy at some specified state.
Also known as availability or available
energy.
The work potential of the energy contained
in a system at a specified state is the
maximum useful work that can be obtained
from the system.
Work = f (initial state, process path, final
state)
3
Lect-15
Exergy
Work output is maximized when the
process between two specified states is
executed in a reversible manner.
The system must be in the dead state at
the end of the process to maximize the
work output.
A system that is in equilibrium with its
environment is said to be at the dead
state.
At the dead state, the useful work potential
(exergy) of a system is zero.
4
Lect-15
Exergy
Exergy does not represent the amount of
work that a work-producing device will
actually deliver upon installation.
It represents the upper limit on the amount
of work a device can deliver without
violating any thermodynamic laws.
There will always be a difference between
exergy and the actual work delivered by a
device.
This difference represents the room
engineers have for improvement.
5
Lect-15
Exergy
Exergy is a property of the system
environment combination and not of the
system alone.
Altering the environment is another way of
increasing exergy, but not easy
The atmosphere contains a tremendous
amount of energy, but no exergy.
Unavailable energy is the portion of energy
that cannot be converted to work by even
a reversible heat engine.
6
Lect-15
Reversible work and irreversibility

The evaluation of exergy alone is not
sufficient for studying engineering devices
operating between two fixed states.
The final state is always assumed to be the
dead state; not the case in actual
applications.
Surroundings work: the work done by or
against the surroundings during a process.
Useful work: The difference between the
actual work W and the surroundings work
Wsurr.
7
Lect-15
Atmosphere Atmosphere
P0
P0
V2
V1
Surroundings work, Wsurr= P0(V2-V1)

Useful work, Wu=W-Wsurr= W- P0(V2-V1)
8
Lect-15

Wsurr represents a loss during expansion
process and gain during compression.
The work done by or against the
atmospheric pressure has significance only
for systems that involve moving boundary
work.
It has no significance for cyclic devices and
systems whose boundaries remain fixed
during a process such as rigid tanks and
steady-flow devices.
9
Lect-15
Reversible work, Wrev: the maximum

amount of useful work that can be produced
as a system undergoes a process between
the specified initial and final states.
When the final state is the dead state, the
reversible work equals exergy.
For processes that require work, reversible
work represents the minimum amount of
work necessary to carry out that process.
10
Lect-15

Difference between the reversible work,
Wrev, and the useful work, Wu, is due to
the irreversibilities: Irreversibility, I
The irreversibility is equivalent to the
exergy destroyed.
For a totally reversible process, the actual
and reversible work terms are identical,
and thus the irreversibility is zero.
Irreversibility represents the energy that
could have been converted to work but
was not.
11
Lect-15
Y Actual process Wu<Wrev

Initial state
Final state
Reversible process Wrev
X
Irreversibility= Reversible work Useful work
I = Wrev Wu
12
Lect-15
Second law efficiency
Thermal efficiency, COPR/HP based on the

first law: first law efficiency
Makes no reference to the best possible
performance.
The ratio of the actual thermal efficiency
to the maximum possible (reversible)
thermal efficiency under the same
conditions: Second law efficiency, II
13
Lect-15

The second law efficiency is expressed in
different forms depending upon the type of
device under consideration.
th
For heat engines, II =
th ,rev
Wu
For work producing devices, II =
Wrev
Wrev
For work consuming devices, II =
Wu
COP
For refrigerators and heat pumps, II =
COPrev
14
Lect-15
In general,
II= Exergy recovered/Exergy supplied
= 1- Exergy destroyed/Exergy supplied
Second-law efficiency is a measure of the
performance of a device relative to its
performance under reversible conditions.
Hence, second-law efficiency of all reversible
devices is 100 percent.
15
Lect-15
For a heat engine,

The exergy supplied is the decrease in the
exergy of the heat transferred to the
engine, which is the difference between the
exergy of the heat supplied and the exergy
of the heat rejected.
The exergy of the heat rejected at the
temperature of the surroundings is zero.
The net work output is the recovered
exergy.
16
Lect-15
Source Source
750 K 1200 K th,1 =25 %
HE 1 th,rev=60 %
II,1 =25/60
=0.417
HE 1 HE 2
Wnet Wnet
th,2 =25 %
HE 2 th,rev=75 %
II,2 =25/75
Sink, 300 K =0.333
17
Lect-15
Exergy change of a system
The value of exergy (unlike energy)

depends on the state of the environment as
well as the state of the system.
The exergy of a system that is in
equilibrium with its surroundings is zero.
This state of the system is referred to as a
dead state.
18
Lect-15
Exergy of a closed system
To derive an expression for exergy change of

a closed system, we consider a piston-
cylinder assembly.
The system undergoes a differential change
of state.
Heat transfer from the system occurs
through a reversible heat engine (to avoid
any irreversibilities).
The total work done = Work done (PdV) +
the work done by the reversible heat engine.
19
Lect-15
P0
P
P0
T
T0 Wb,useful From the first law for the system,
Q Q W = dU
Rev. Here, W = PdV
Heat WHE
engine = ( P P0 )dV + P0 dV
= Wb ,useful + P0 dV
T0
20
Lect-15

For the reversible heat engine,
dS = Q / T and th = 1 T0 / T
T0 T0
Therefore, WHE = 1 Q = Q Q
T T
= Q (T0 dS )
or , Q = WHE T0 dS
Wtotal ,useful = WHE + Wb ,useful = dU P0 dV + T0 dS
Integrating from given state to the dead state (0),
W total ,useful= (U U 0 ) + P0 (V V0 ) T0 ( S S 0 )
21
Lect-15
A closed system may possess KE and PE.

Therefore the exergy of a closed system is
V2
X = (U U 0 ) + P0 (V V0 ) T0 ( S S 0 ) + m + mgz
2
(Since KE and PE are themselves forms of exergy)
For unit mass,
V2
= (u u0 ) + P0 (v v0 ) T0 ( s s0 ) + + gz
2
22
Lect-15
Exergy change of a closed system
Exergy change of a system is the difference between the

initial and final exergies of the system.
X = X 2 X 1 = m(2 1 )
V22 V12
= (U 2 U1 ) + P0 (V2 V1 ) T0 ( S 2 S1 ) + m + mg ( z 2 z1 )
2
Or, per unit mass,
V22 V12
= (u2 u1 ) + P0 (v2 v1 ) T0 ( s2 s1 ) + + g ( z 2 z1 )
2
23
Lect-15
Exergy of a flow system

Exergy change of a flow system will consist of
enthalpy (h = u + pv)
x flowing fluid = xnon flowing fluid + x flow
V2
= (u u0 ) + P0 (v v0 ) T0 ( s s0 ) + + gz + ( P P0 )v
2
V2
= (u + Pv) (u0 + P0 v0 ) T0 ( s s0 ) + + gz
2
V2
= (h h0 ) T0 ( s s0 ) + + gz
2
This is known as the flow exergy, or (per unit mass)
24
Lect-15
Exergy change of a flow system
Flow exergy change,

V22 V12
= ( H 2 H1 ) + T0 ( S 2 S1 ) + m + mg ( z 2 z1 )
2
Flow exergy change per unit mass,
V22 V12
= (h2 h1 ) + T0 ( s2 s1 ) + + g ( z 2 z1 )
2
How do the exergy equations compare with the

energy equations for closed systems and flow
systems?
25
Lect-15
Decrease of exergy principle
The exergy of an isolated system during a

process always decreases or, in the limiting
case of a reversible process, remains
constant.
Exergy never increases and exergy is
destroyed during an actual process.
From the energy and entropy balances, we
can show that: -T0Sgen =X2-X10
Since T0Sgen 0, it follows that for an isolated
system (X2-X1)0
26
Lect-15
Exergy destruction
Irreversibilities always cause increase in
entropy.
Increase in entropy leads to destruction of
exergy.
Exergy destroyed is proportional to entropy
generated.
For actual processes, exergy destroyed is
always a positive quantity.
Exergy destroyed represents the lost work
potential and is also called the irreversibility
or lost work.
27
Lect-15
Exergy destruction
Xdestroyed=T0Sgen 0
> 0 Irreversible process

X destroyed = 0 Reversible process
< 0 Impossible process

28
Lect-15
Exergy balance
The exergy change of a system during a
process is equal to the difference between the
net exergy transfer through the system
boundary and the exergy destroyed within the
system boundaries as a result of
irreversibilities.
X in X out X destroyed = X system

Net exergy transfer Exergy Change in
by heat and mass generation exergy
This can also be expressed in the rate form as,

in X out
X
=
Xdestroyed
Xsystem

Rate of net exergy Rate of exergy Rate of change
transfer by heat and mass generation in exergy
29
Lect-15
In this lecture ...

Exergy Destruction
Exergy Balance
30
Lect-15
Solve problems from

Entropy
Carnot cycle
Exergy
31
16
1
Lect-16
Solve problems from

Entropy
Carnot cycle
Exergy
2
Lect-16
Problem 1
A heat engine receives reversibly 420

kJ/cycle of heat from a source at 327oC
and rejects heat reversibly to a sink at
27oC. There are no other heat transfers.
Consider three different rates of heat
rejection (a) 210 kJ (b) 105 kJ and (c)
315 kJ. For each of these cases show
which cycle is reversible, irreversible and
impossible.
3
Lect-16
Solution: Problem 1
High temperature
Source, TH=327+273=600 K
QH=420 kJ QH=420 kJ QH=420 kJ
HE 1 HE 2 HE 3
QL=210 kJ QL=105 kJ QL=315 kJ
Low temperature
Sink, TL=27+273=300 K
4
Lect-16
Solution: Problem 1
From the Clausius inequality, we have
Q
T
0
For heat engine 1,

Q QH QL 420 210
T
= =
TH TL 600 300
=0
Heat engine 1 operates on a reversible cycle.
5
Lect-16
Solution: Problem 1
We now look at heat engine 2.
For heat engine 2,

Q QH QL 420 105
T
= =
TH TL 600 300
= 0.35
Q
Since T
> 0, the cycle is impossible.
6
Lect-16
Solution: Problem 1
Heat engine 3
For heat engine 3,

Q QH QL 420 315
T
= =
TH TL 600 300
= 0.35
Q
Since T
< 0, the cycle is irreversible and possible.
7
Lect-16
Problem 2
A block of iron weighing 100 kg and having

a temperature of 100oC is immersed in 50
kg of water at a temperature of 20oC. What
will be the change in entropy of the
combined system of iron and water?
Specific heats of iron and water are 0.45
kJ/kg K and 4.18 kJ/kg K, respectively.
8
Lect-16
Problem 2
Water
20oC
50 kg
Iron
m=100 kg
100oC
9
Lect-16
Solution: Problem 2
Let Tf be the final temperature of the

system after it reaches thermal
equilibrium.
From energy balance, we know that,
{m x cp x (T-Tf )}iron={m x cp x (Tf-T)}water
100x0.45x103(373-Tf )=50x4.18x103(Tf -293)
Tf =307.3 K
10
Lect-16
Solution: Problem 2
Stotal=Siron +Swater
We know that for solids and liquids, dV=0
S = m x c x lnTf/T
Siron = 100 x 0.45x103 ln(307.3/373)
= -8.7189 kJ/K (Why is this negative?)
Swater= 50 x 4.18x103 ln(307.3/293)
= 9.9592 kJ/K
Stotal = -8.7189 + 9.9592=1.2403 kJ/K
11
Lect-16
Problem 3
An inventor claims to have developed a

power cycle capable of delivering a net
work output of 415 kJ for an energy input
by heat transfer of 1000 kJ. The system
undergoing the cycle receives heat from a
source of 500 K and rejects heat to a sink
of 300 K. Determine if this is a valid claim.
12
Lect-16
Solution: Problem 3
QH=1000 kJ
TH=500 K
W net=410 kJ
TL=300 K
13
Lect-16
Solution: Problem 3
We know that efficiency of the cycle
th = Wnet/QH
= 415/1000=0.415 or 41.5%
The maximum efficiency that any cycle can
have while operating between TH = 500 K
and TL = 300 K is given by the Carnot
efficiency.
max = 1-TL/TH = 1-300/500
=0.40 or 40%
Since th >max, the claim is not feasible.
14
Lect-16
Problem 4
A heat pump is to be used to heat a house

during the winter. The house is to be
maintained at 21C at all times. The house
is estimated to be losing heat at a rate of
120,000 kJ/h when the outside
temperature drops to -7C. Determine the
minimum power required to drive this heat
pump.
15
Lect-16
Solution: Problem 4
120,000 kJ/h
House
TH = 21oC
QH
Heat
Wnet,in
pump
QL
Cold outside air

TL=-7oC
16
Lect-16
Solution: Problem 4
The heat pump must supply heat to the
house at a rate of
QH = 120,000 kJ/h
= 120,000/3600 kJ/s =33.3 kW
The power required will be minimum when
the heat pump operates on a reversible
cycle.
The COP for such a cycle is
1
COPHP =
1 TL / TH
17
Lect-16
Solution: Problem 4
The COP for such a cycle is
1 1
COPHP = = = 10.5
1 TL / TH 1 (7 + 273) /( 21 + 273)
The minimum required power,

Wnet,in = QH /COPHP = 33.3/10.5
= 3.17 kW
18
Lect-16
Problem 5
Air flows through an adiabatic compressor

at 2 kg/s. The inlet conditions are 1 bar and
310 K and the exit conditions are 7 bar and
560 K. Determine the net rate of exergy
transfer and the irreversibility. The ambient
temperature can be taken as 298 K, the
specific heat at constant pressure for air is
1.005 kJ/kgK and the gas constant for air is
0.287 kJ/kgK.
19
Lect-16
Solution: Problem 5
Exergy change per unit mass is
= (h2 h1 ) T0 ( s2 s1 ) (Assuming KE, PE 0)

T2 P2
= c p (T2 T1 ) T0 (c p ln R ln )
T1 P1
560 7
= 1.005(560 310) 298(1.005 ln 0.287 ln )
310 1
= 240.58 kJ/kg
20
Lect-16
Solution: Problem 5

= m = 2 240.58 kJ/kg = 481.16kW
Net rate of exergy change is 418.16 kW

The actual work required is

Wact = m(h2 h1 ) = m c p (T2 T1 )
= 2 1.005 (560 310) = 502.5 kW
21
Lect-16
Solution: Problem 5
Therefore Irreversibility,
I =Wact-Exergy
= 502.5 481.2
=21.3 kW
Why is actual work higher than exergy?
22
Lect-16
Problem 6
A pipe carries a stream of a liquid with a

mass flow rate of 5 kg/s. Because of poor
insulation the liquid temperature increases
from 250 K at the pipe inlet to 253 K at the
exit. Neglecting pressure losses, calculate
the irreversibility rate associated with the
heat leakage. Take T0 as 293 K and specific
heat for the liquid as 2.85 kJ/kg K.
23
Lect-16
Solution: Problem 6
5 kg/s
T1=250 K T2=253 K
24
Lect-16
Problem 6
Rate of heat transfer to the liquid:

Q = m c (T2 T1 )
= 5 2.85 (253 250)
= 42.75 kW
Rate of entropy

increase of the liquid:
T2
S sys = m c ln
T1
253
= 5 2.85 ln = 0.17 kW / K
250
25
Lect-16
Problem 6
Rate of entropy decrease of the
surroundings:
Q 42.75
S surr = = = 0.1459 kW / K
T0 293
Hence, rate of entropy increase of the
universe:

S univ = S sys + S surr
= 0.17 0.1459 = 0.0241 kW / K
26
Lect-16
Problem 6
Therefore Irreversibility, I

I = T0 S univ
= 293 0.0241 = 7.06 kW
The irreversibility associated with this
process is 7.06 kW.
27
Lect-16
Exercise Problem 1
Air is compressed steadily by a 5 kW

compressor from 100 kPa and 17C to 600
kPa and 167C at a rate of 1.6 kg/min.
During this process, some heat transfer
takes place between the compressor and the
surrounding medium at 17C. Determine the
rate of entropy change of air during this
process.
Ans: 0.0025 kW/K
28
Lect-16
Exercise Problem 2
An adiabatic vessel contains 3 kg of water at

25oC. By paddle wheel work transfer, the
temperature of water is increased to 30oC. If
the specific heat of water is 4.18 kJ/kgK, find
the entropy change of the universe.
Ans: 0.139 kJ/K
29
Lect-16
Exercise Problem 3
An inventor claims to have developed an

engine that takes in 105 MJ at a temperature
of 400 K, rejects 42 MJ at a temperature of
200 K and delivers 15 kWh of mechanical
work. Is this a feasible engine?
Ans: No as th>rev
30
Lect-16
Exercise Problem 4
Air enters a nozzle steadily at 300 kPa and

87C with a velocity of 50 m/s and exits at
95 kPa and 300 m/s. The heat loss from the
nozzle to the surrounding medium at 17C is
estimated to be 4 kJ/kg. Determine (a) the
exit temperature and (b) the exergy
destroyed during this process.
Ans: (a) 39.5C, (b) 58.4 kJ/kg
31
Lect-16
Exercise Problem 5
An iron block of unknown mass at 85C is
dropped into an insulated tank that contains
100 L of water at 20C. At the same time, a
paddle wheel driven by a 200-W motor is
activated to stir the water. It is observed that
thermal equilibrium is established after 20
min with a final temperature of 24C.
Assuming the surroundings to be at 20C,
determine (a) the mass of the iron block and
(b) the exergy destroyed during this process.
Ans: (a) 52.0 kg, (b) 375 kJ
32
Lect-16
Exercise Problem 6
An adiabatic turbine receives gas (cp=1.09
kJ/kg K and cv=0.838 kJ/kgK) at 7 bar and
1000oC and discharges at 1.5 bar and 665oC.
Determine the second law efficiency of the
turbine assuming T0=298 K.
Ans: 0.879
33
Lect-16

Gas power cycles
The Carnot cycle and its significance
Air-standard assumptions
An overview of reciprocating engines
Otto cycle: the ideal cycle for spark-
ignition engines
Diesel cycle: the ideal cycle for
compression-ignition engines
Dual cycles
34
17
1
Lect-17
In this lecture ...

Gas power cycles
ignition engines
Dual cycles
2
Lect-17
Gas power cycles

Study of power cycles of immense
importance in engineering.
Actual cycles: irreversibilities (like friction
etc.),not in thermodynamic equilibrium,
non-quasi static processes etc.
For thermodynamic analysis we assume
none of the above effects present: ideal
cycles
Ideal cycle analysis starting point of in-
depth analysis.
3
Lect-17
Gas power cycles

The ideal cycles are internally reversible,
but, unlike the Carnot cycle, they are not
necessarily externally reversible.
Hence, the thermal efficiency of an ideal
cycle, in general, is less than that of a
totally reversible cycle operating between
the same temperature limits.
But, the thermal efficiency is ideal cycles
is higher than that of actual cycles.
4
Lect-17
Gas power cycles

Gas power cycles are usually represented
on P-v and T-s diagrams.
On these diagrams the area enclosed by
the process curves represent the net work
done by the cycle.
For a cyclic process this is also equal to
the net heat transferred during the cycle.
In an ideal power cycle, the only effect
that can change the entropy of the
working fluid during a process is heat
transfer.
5
Lect-17
Gas power cycles

On a T-s diagram, Qin proceeds in the
direction of increasing entropy and Qout
proceeds in the direction of decreasing
entropy.
The difference between areas under Qin
and Qout is the net heat transfer, and
hence the net work of the cycle.
The ratio of the area enclosed by the
cyclic curve to the area under the heat-
addition process curve represents the
thermal efficiency of the cycle.
6
Lect-17
Gas power cycles
T
2 Net heat input,
QH
QH = area under curve 2-3
3 Net work output,

Wnet,out Wnet = (area under curve 2-
3) (area under curve 1-4)
1 4
QL Hence, thermal efficiency,
S th = Wnet/QH
7
Lect-17
The Carnot cycle and its
significance
The Carnot cycle consists of four reversible
processes: two reversible adiabatics and
two reversible isotherms.
Carnot efficiency is a function of the source
and sink temperatures.
TL
th = 1
TH
The efficiency of a Carnot heat engine
increases as TH is increased, or as TL is
decreased.
8
Lect-17
The Carnot cycle and its
significance
The Carnot cycle serves as a standard
against which actual cycle performance can
be compared.
In practice the source and sink
temperatures are also limited.
Source temperature limited by the
materials that are used in these devices.
Sink temperature limited by the
temperature of the medium to which heat is
rejected like atmosphere, lake, oceans etc.
9
Lect-17
Air standard assumptions

To simplify analysis, the following
assumptions are made:
1. The working fluid is air, which continuously
circulates in a closed loop and always behaves
as an ideal gas.
2. All the processes that make up the cycle are
internally reversible.
3. The combustion process is replaced by a heat-
addition process from an external source.
4. The exhaust process is replaced by a heat-
rejection process that restores the working
fluid to its initial state.
10
Lect-17
Air standard assumptions
Air
Combustion Combustion
chamber products
Fuel
Actual process
Heat addition
Air Air
Heating section
Ideal process
11
Lect-17
Overview of reciprocating engines
Reciprocating engines are one of the most

commonly used power generating devices.
These engines can operate on a variety of
thermodynamic cycles.
Piston and cylinder form the basic
components of reciprocating engines,
besides valves, connecting rods, flywheels
and several other components.
12
Lect-17

Intake Exhaust
valve valve
TDC TDC
Bore
BDC
BDC
TDC: Top Dead Centre Displacement

BDC: Bottom Dead Centre
Clearance
volume volume
Nomenclature for reciprocating engines
13
Lect-17

The minimum volume formed in the
cylinder when the piston is at TDC is called
the clearance volume.
The volume displaced by the piston as it
moves between TDC and BDC is called the
displacement volume.
The ratio of the maximum volume formed
in the cylinder to the minimum (clearance)
volume is called the compression ratio, r of
the engine: Vmax VBDC
r= =
Vmin VTDC
14
Lect-17

Mean Effective Pressure (MEP): is a
fictitious pressure that, if it acted on the
piston during the entire power stroke,
would produce the same amount of net
work as that produced during the actual
cycle.
Wnet = MEP x Piston area x Stroke
= MEP x Displacement volume
Wnet wnet
MEP = =
Vmax Vmin vmax vmin
15
Lect-17

P
Wnet Wnet = MEP x (Vmax-Vmin)
MEP
The net work output of
a cycle is equivalent to
Vmin Vmax V the product of the mean
TDC BDC effective pressure and
the displacement
volume.
16
Lect-17
Two types of reciprocating engines: Spark

Ignition (SI) engines and Compression
Ignition (CI) engines
SI engines: the combustion of the airfuel
mixture is initiated by a spark plug.
CI engines, the airfuel mixture is self-
ignited as a result of compressing the
mixture above its self-ignition temperature.
17
Lect-17
Otto cycle
Otto cycle is the ideal cycle for spark-
ignition reciprocating engines.
Named after Nikolaus A. Otto, who built a
successful four-stroke engine in 1876 in
Germany.
Can be executed in two or four strokes.
Four stroke: Intake, compression, power
and exhaust stroke
Two stroke: Compression and power
strokes.
18
Lect-17
Otto cycle
Otto cycle consists of four processes:
Isentropic compression (1-2)
Isochoric (constant volume) heat addition (2-3)
Isentropic expansion (3-4)
Isochoric (constant volume) heat rejection (4-1)
All the processes are internally reversible.
Currently we shall analyse the ideal Otto
cycle.
Practical implementation and the actual
cycle will be discussed in later chapters.
19
Lect-17
Otto cycle
Isochoric 3
P 3 T qin
Isentropic
qin
2 4
2 4 qout
qout
1
1
TDC BDC v s
Ideal Otto cycle on P-v and T-s diagrams

20
Lect-17
Otto cycle
Applying energy balance and assuming KE
and PE to be zero:
(qin qout ) + ( win wout ) = u
The heat transfer to and from the working fluid
can be written as :
qin = u3 u2 = cv (T3 T2 )
qout = u4 u1 = cv (T4 T1 )
21
Lect-17
Otto cycle
The thermal efficiency of the ideal Otto
cycle under the cold air standard
assumptions becomes:
wnet qout T4 T1 T1 (T4 / T1 1)
th ,Otto = = 1 = 1 = 1
qin qin T3 T2 T2 (T3 / T2 1)
Processes 1 - 2 and 3 - 4 are isentropic and
v2 = v3 and v4 = v1.
1 1
T1 v2 v3 T4
Therefore, = = =
T2 v1 v4 T3
22
Lect-17
Otto cycle
Substituting these equations into the
thermal efficiency relation and simplifying:
1
th ,Otto = 1
r 1
Vmax V1 v1
where, r = = = is the compression ratio.
Vmin V2 v2
And is the ratio of specific heats c p / cv .
23
Lect-17
Diesel cycle
The Diesel cycle is the ideal cycle for CI
reciprocating engines proposed by Rudolph
Diesel in the 1890s.
In SI, the airfuel mixture is compressed to a
temperature that is below the autoignition
temperature of the fuel, and the combustion
process is initiated by firing a spark plug.
In CI engines, the air is compressed to a
temperature that is above the autoignition
temperature of the fuel, and combustion
starts on contact as the fuel is injected into
this hot air.
24
Lect-17
Diesel cycle
P=constant 3
P qin T qin
2 3
Isentropic
2 4
4 qout
qout
1
v=constant
1
v s
Ideal Diesel cycle on P-v and T-s diagrams

25
Lect-17
Diesel cycle
Diesel cycle consists of four processes:
Isentropic compression (1-2)
Isobaric (constant pressure) heat addition (2-3)
Isentropic expansion (3-4)
Isochoric (constant volume) heat rejection (4-1)
All the processes are internally reversible.
Thermodynamically the Otto and Diesel
cycles differ only in the second process (2-
3).
For Otto cycle, 2-3: constant volume and
for Diesel cycle, 2-3: constant pressure.
26
Lect-17
Diesel cycle
Applying energy balance and assuming KE
and PE to be zero:
(qin qout ) + ( win wout ) = u

can be written as :
qin = P2 (v3 v2 ) + (u3 u2 ) = h3 h2 = c p (T3 T2 )
qout = u4 u1 = cv (T4 T1 )
27
Lect-17
Diesel cycle
The thermal efficiency of the ideal Diesel
wnet qout T4 T1
th ,Otto = = 1 = 1
qin qin (T3 T2 )
T1 (T4 / T1 1)
= 1
T2 (T3 / T2 1)
The cutoff ratio rc, as the ratio of the
cylinder volumes after and before the
combustion process: rc =v3/v2
28
Lect-17
Diesel cycle
1 rc 1

th , Diesel = 1 1
r (rc 1)
Vmax
Where, r , is the compression ratio =
Vmin
The quantity in the brackets is always >0
and therefore th,Diesel > th,Otto for the same
compression ratios.
29
Lect-17
Dual cycle
Approximating heat addition by a constant
pressure or constant volume process is too
simplistic.
Modelling the heat addition process by a
combination of constant pressure and
constant volume processes: dual cycle.
The relative amounts of heat added during
the two processes can be appropriately
adjusted.
Both Otto and Diesel cycle can be obtained
as a special case of the dual cycle.
30
Lect-17
Dual cycle
P
3
Isentropic
What will this cycle look
qin
like on T-s diagram?
2 4
qout What is the thermal
efficiency of such a
1 cycle?
v
Ideal dual cycle on P-v diagram
31
Lect-17
In this lecture ...

Gas power cycles
ignition engines
Dual cycles
32
Lect-17
Stirling and Ericsson Cycles

Brayton Cycle: The Ideal Cycle for Gas-
Turbine Engines
The Brayton Cycle with Regeneration
The Brayton Cycle with Intercooling,
Reheating, and Regeneration
Rankine Cycle: The Ideal Cycle for Vapor
Power Cycles
33
18
1
Lect-18
In this lecture ...

Stirling and Ericsson cycles
Brayton cycle: The ideal cycle for gas-
turbine engines
The Brayton cycle with regeneration
The Brayton cycle with intercooling,
reheating and regeneration
Rankine cycle: The ideal cycle for vapour
power cycles
2
Lect-18

The ideal Otto and Diesel cycles are
internally reversible, but not totally
reversible.
Hence their efficiencies will always be less
than that of Carnot efficiency.
For a cycle to approach a Carnot cycle,
heat addition and heat rejection must
take place isothermally.
Stirling and Ericsson cycles comprise of
isothermal heat addition and heat
rejection.
3
Lect-18
Regeneration
Working fluid Both these cycles also have
a regeneration process.
Regeneration, a process
during which heat is
Energy
transferred to a thermal
energy storage device
Energy
(called a regenerator)
during one part of the cycle
and is transferred back to
Concept of a regenerator
the working fluid during
another part of the cycle.
4
Lect-18
Stirling cycle
Consists of four totally reversible processes:
1-2 T = constant, expansion (heat addition
from the external source)
2-3 v = constant, regeneration (internal heat
transfer from the working fluid to the
regenerator)
3-4 T= constant, compression (heat rejection
to the external sink)
4-1 v = constant, regeneration (internal heat
transfer from the regenerator back to the
working fluid)
5
Lect-17
Stirling cycle
P 1 T Regeneration qin
qin
Isothermal 1 2
Isochoric
4 2
4 3
qout
qout 3
v s
Stirling cycle on P-v and T-s diagrams

6
Lect-18
Ericsson cycle
Consists of four totally reversible processes:
1-2 T = constant, expansion (heat addition
from the external source)
2-3 P = constant, regeneration (internal heat
transfer from the working fluid to the
regenerator)
3-4 T= constant, compression (heat rejection
to the external sink)
4-1 P = constant, regeneration (internal heat
transfer from the regenerator back to the
working fluid)
7
Lect-17
Ericsson cycle
P Isothermal
4 1 T Regeneration qin
1 2
qin
Isobaric
qout
4 3
3 2
qout
Regeneration
v s
Ericsson cycle on P-v and T-s diagrams

8
Lect-18

Since both these engines are totally
reversible cycles, their efficiencies equal the
Carnot efficiency between same
temperature limits.
These cycles are difficult to realise
practically, but offer great potential.
Regeneration increases efficiency.
This fact is used in many modern day cycles
to improve efficiency.
9
Lect-18
Brayton cycle
The Brayton cycle was proposed by George
Brayton in 1870 for use in reciprocating
engines.
Modern day gas turbines operate on Brayton
cycle and work with rotating machinery.
Gas turbines operate in open-cycle mode, but
can be modelled as closed cycle using air-
standard assumptions.
Combustion and exhaust replaced by constant
pressure heat addition and rejection.
10
Lect-18
Brayton cycle
The Brayton cycle consists of four internally
reversible processes:
1-2 Isentropic compression (in a
compressor)
2-3 Constant-pressure heat addition
3-4 Isentropic expansion (in a turbine)
4-1 Constant-pressure heat rejection
11
Lect-18
Brayton cycle
qin Isobaric 3
P Isentropic
2 3 T qin
2 4
qout
1 4 1
qout
v s
Brayton cycle on P-v and T-s diagrams

12
Lect-18
Brayton cycle
The energy balance for a steady-flow
process can be expressed as:
(qin qout ) + ( win wout ) = h

can be written as :
qin = h3 h2 = c p (T3 T2 )
qout = h4 h1 = c p (T4 T1 )
13
Lect-18
Brayton cycle
The thermal efficiency of the ideal Brayton
wnet qout T4 T1 T1 (T4 / T1 1)
th , Brayton = = 1 = 1 = 1
qin qin T3 T2 T2 (T3 / T2 1)
Processes 1 - 2 and 3 - 4 are isentropic and
P2 = P3 and P4 = P1.
( 1) / ( 1) /
T1 P2 P3 T3
Therefore, = = =
T2 P1 P4 T4
14
Lect-18
Brayton cycle
1
th , Brayton = 1 ( 1) /
rp
P2
where, rp = is the pressure ratio.
P1
The thermal efficiency of a Brayton cycle is

therefore a function of the cycle pressure
ratio and the ratio of specific heats.
15
Lect-18
Brayton cycle with regeneration

Regeneration can be carried out by using the
hot air exhausting from the turbine to heat up
the compressor exit flow.
The thermal efficiency of the Brayton cycle
increases as a part of the heat rejected is re-
used.
Regeneration decreases the heat input (thus
fuel) requirements for the same net work
output.
16
Lect-18

3
qin
T
qregen 5 4
5
Regeneration
2
6 qsaved=qregen
1 qout
s
T-s diagram of a Brayton cycle with regeneration
17
Lect-18

The highest temperature occurring within
the regenerator is T4.
Air normally leaves the regenerator at a
lower temperature, T5.
In the limiting (ideal) case, the air exits the
regenerator at the inlet temperature of the
exhaust gases T4.
The actual and maximum heat transfers are:
qregen,act = h5 - h2 and qregen,max = h5- h2 = h4 - h2
18
Lect-18

The extent to which a regenerator approaches
an ideal regenerator is called the
effectiveness, and is defined as
= qregen,act / qregen,max = (h5 - h2)/(h4 - h2)
Under the cold-air-standard assumptions, the
thermal efficiency of an ideal Brayton cycle
with regeneration is:
T1
th ,regen = 1 (rp ) ( 1) /
T3
The thermal efficiency depends upon the
temperature as well as the pressure ratio.
19
Lect-18
Brayton cycle with intercooling,
The net work of a gas-turbine cycle is the
difference between the turbine work output
and the compressor work input.
It can be increased by either decreasing the
compressor work or increasing the turbine
work, or both.
The work required to compress a gas between
two specified pressures can be decreased by
carrying out the compression process in stages
and cooling the gas in between: multi-stage
compression with intercooling.
20
Lect-18
Similarly the work output of a turbine can be
increased by: multi-stage expansion with
reheating.
As the number of stages of compression and
expansion are increased, the process
approaches an isothermal process.
A combination of intercooling and reheating
can increase the net work output of a
Brayton cycle significantly.
21
Lect-18
Polytropic
process paths
P
D C Work saved as
a result of
intercooling
B A
Intercooling
Isothermal
process path 1
v
Work inputs to a single-stage compressor
(process: 1AC) and a two-stage compressor
with intercooling (process: 1ABD).
22
Lect-18
6 8
qin
T
qregen 5 9
7
4 2
10
qsaved=qregen
3 1 qout
s
T-s diagram of an ideal gas-turbine cycle with

intercooling, reheating, and regeneration
23
Lect-18
The net work output of a gas-turbine cycle
improves as a result of intercooling and
reheating.
However, intercooling and reheating
decreases the thermal efficiency unless
they are accompanied by regeneration.
This is because intercooling decreases the
average temperature at which heat is
added, and reheating increases the average
temperature at which heat is rejected.
24
Lect-18
T
TH,avg
P=const
TL,avg
s
As the number of compression and expansion stages
increases, the Brayton cycle with intercooling, reheating, and
regeneration approaches the Ericsson cycle.
25
Lect-18
Rankine cycle
Rankine cycle is the ideal cycle for vapour
power cycles.
The ideal Rankine cycle does not involve any
internal irreversibilities.
The ideal cycle consists of the following:
1-2 Isentropic compression in a pump
2-3 Constant pressure heat addition in a boiler
3-4 Isentropic expansion in a turbine
4-1 Constant pressure heat rejection in a
condenser
26
Lect-18
Rankine cycle
T 3
qin Wturb,out
1W 4
pump,in
qout
The ideal Rankine cycle
27
Lect-18
Rankine cycle
All the components are steady flow systems.
The energy balance for each sub-system can
be expressed as:
(qin qout ) + ( win wout ) = h
Pump : w pump ,in = h2 h1 = v( P2 P1 )
Boiler : qin = h3 h2
Condensor : qout = h4 h1
Turbine : wout = h3 h4
28
Lect-18
Rankine cycle
The thermal efficiency of the ideal Rankine

wnet qout
th , Brayton = = 1
qin qin
where, wnet = qin qout = wturb ,out w pump ,in
29
Lect-18
Rankine cycle
Rankine cycles can also be operated with
reheat and regeneration.
The average temperature during the reheat
process can be increased by increasing the
number of expansion and reheat stages.
A Rankine cycle with reheat and
regeneration offer substantially higher
efficiencies as compared to a simple Rankine
cycle.
30
Lect-18
In this lecture ...

Brayton cycle: The ideal cycle for gas-
turbine engines
The Brayton cycle with regeneration
The Brayton cycle with intercooling,
Rankine cycle: The ideal cycle for vapour
power cycles
31
Lect-18
Helmholtz and Gibbs functions

Legendre transformations
Thermodynamic potentials
The Maxwell relations
The ideal gas equation of state
Compressibility factor
Other equations of state
Joule-Thomson coefficient
32
19
1
Lect-19
In this lecture ...

2
Lect-19

We have already discussed about a
combination property, enthalpy, h.
We now introduce two new combination
properties, Helmholtz function, a and the
Gibbs function, g.
Helmholtz function, a: indicates the
maximum work that can be obtained from
a system. It is expressed as:
a = u Ts
3
Lect-19
It can be seen that this is less than the

internal energy, u, and the product Ts is a
measure of the unavailable energy.
Gibbs function, g: indicates the maximum
useful work that can be obtained from a
system. It is expressed as:
g = h Ts
This is less than the enthalpy.
4
Lect-19

Two of the Gibbs equations that were
derived earlier (Tds relations) are:
du = Tds Pdv
dh = Tds + vdP
The other two Gibbs equations are:
a = u Ts
g = h Ts
Differentiating,
da = du Tds sdT
dg = dh Tds sdT
5
Lect-19
A simple compressible system is characterized
completely by its energy, u (or entropy, s) and
volume, v:
u = u ( s, v) du = Tds Pdv
u u
such that T = P =
s v v s
Alternatively, in the entropy representation,
s = s (u , v) Tds = du + Pdv
1 s P s
such that = =
T u v T v u
6
Lect-19
Any fundamental relation must be expressed
in terms of its proper variables to be
complete.
Thus, the energy features entropy, rather
than temperature, as one of its proper
variables.
However, entropy is not a convenient variable
to measure experimentally.
Therefore, it is convenient to construct other
related quantities in which entropy is a
dependent instead of an independent variable.
7
Lect-19
For example, we define the Helmholtz free
energy as, a = u Ts, so that for a simple
compressible system we obtain a complete
differential of the form
a = u Ts da = sdT Pdv
a a
Such that s = P =
T v v T
This state function is clearly much more
amenable to experimental manipulation than
the internal energy.
8
Lect-19
State functions obtained by means of
Legendre transformation of a fundamental
relation are called thermodynamic
potentials. Eg. h, s, a and g.
This is because the roles they play in
thermodynamics are analogous to the role of
the potential energy in mechanics.
Each of these potentials provides a complete
and equivalent description of the equilibrium
states of the system because they are all
derived from a fundamental relation.
9
Lect-19
Using the Legendre transformations discussed
above, we can summarize the following
thermodynamic potentials and the corresponding
state variables.
State Thermodynamic potentials

Variables
(u, v) Entropy, s
(T, v) Helmholtz function, a = u Ts
(T, P) Gibbs function, g = h Ts
(s, P) Enthalpy, h = u + Pv
10
Lect-19

The Maxwell relations: equations that
relate the partial derivatives of properties
P, v, T, and s of a simple compressible
system to each other.
These equations are derived by using the
exactness of the differentials of the
thermodynamic properties.
Maxwell relations can be obtained by
applying the Legendre transformations for
the four Gibbs equations.
11
Lect-19

The Gibbs equations (for a and g) reduce
to da = sdT Pdv
dg = sdT +vdP
The four equations discussed above are of
the form: dz = Mdx + Ndy
M N
where, =
y x x y
Since, u, h, a, and g are properties and
they have exact differentials.
12
Lect-19

Applying the above to the Gibbs equations,
T P
=
v s s v
T v
=
P s s P
s P
=
v T T v
s v The Maxwell relations.
=
P T T P
13
Lect-19

The Maxwell relations are valuable
thermodynamic relations as they provide
a means of measuring changes in entropy
using P, v and T.
The Maxwell relations given above are
limited to simple compressible systems.
Similar relations can be written just as
easily for non-simple systems such as
those involving electrical, magnetic, and
other effects.
14
Lect-19

Any equation that relates the pressure,
temperature, and specific volume of a
substance is called an equation of state.
The simplest and best-known equation of
state for substances in the gas phase is
the ideal-gas equation of state, which is
Pv = RT
Where P is the absolute pressure, T is the
absolute temperature, v is the specific
volume, and R is the gas constant.
15
Lect-19
Real gases deviate substantially from the
ideal gas behaviour depending upon the
pressure and temperature.
This can be accounted for by using a factor
known as the Compressibility factor, Z:
Z = Pv/RT
For ideal gases, Z=1, whereas for real
gases Z may be > or < 1.
The farther away Z is from unity, the more
the gas deviates from ideal-gas behaviour.
16
Lect-19
Gases behave differently at different

pressures and temperatures.
But when normalised with respect to the
critical pressure and temperature, their
behaviour is the same.
Therefore normalising,
PR = P/Pcr and TR = T/Tcr
where, PR is the reduced pressure and TR is
the reduced temperature.
17
Lect-19
The Z factor is approximately the same for

all gases at the same reduced temperature
and pressure.
This is called the principle of corresponding
states.
From experimental data there are
generalised compressibility charts available
that can be used for all gases.
18
Lect-19
19
Lect-19
The following observations can be made
from the generalized compressibility chart:
At very low pressures (PR1), gases behave
as an ideal gas regardless of temperature.
At high temperatures (TR>2), ideal-gas
behaviour can be assumed with good
accuracy regardless of pressure (except
when PR1).
The deviation of a gas from ideal-gas
behaviour is greatest in the vicinity of the
critical point.
20
Lect-19

Though the ideal gas equation is simple, its
applicability is often limited.
It is therefore desirable to have an equation
that can be used without too many limitations.
Many such equations have been formulated,
most of which are much more complicated
than the ideal gas equation.
The van der Waals equation is one of the
earliest, Beattie-Bridgeman equation is the
most popular and Benedict-Webb-Rubin
equation is the most recent and accurate
equation.
21
Lect-19

van der Waals equation: included two of
the effects not considered in the ideal-gas
model, the intermolecular attraction forces,
a/v2 and the volume occupied by the
molecules themselves, b.
a
p + 2 (v b ) = RT
v
The constants a and b can be determined
for any substance from the critical point
data alone.
22
Lect-19

The Beattie-Bridgeman equation, is an
equation of state based on five
experimentally determined constants. It is
expressed as:
RuT c
P = 2 1 3 v + B 2
A
( )
v vT v
a b
Where, A = A0 1 and B = B0 1
v v
23
Lect-19

The equation of state can be in general
expressed in a series as:
RT a (T ) b(T ) c(T ) d (T )
P= + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 + ...
v v v v v
This and similar equations are called the
virial equations of state.
The coefficients a(T), b(T), c(T), and so on,
that are functions of temperature alone are
called virial coefficients.
24
Lect-19
These coefficients can be determined

experimentally or theoretically from
statistical mechanics.
As the pressure approaches zero, all the
virial coefficients will vanish and the
equation will reduce to the ideal-gas
equation of state.
25
Lect-19
The Joule Thomson coefficient
There is a pressure drop associated with

flow through a restriction like valves,
capillary tube, porous plug etc.
The enthalpy of the fluid remains a
constant.
The temperature of a fluid may increase,
decrease, or remain constant during a
throttling process.
The behaviour of fluids in such flows is
described by the Joule-Thomson coefficient.
26
Lect-19
The Joule-Thomson coefficient is defined

as: T
=
P h
The Joule-Thomson coefficient is a measure
of the change in temperature with pressure
during a constant-enthalpy process.
< 0 temperature increases

= 0 temperature remains constant
> 0 temperature decreases

27
Lect-19

P2, T2 P1, T1
(Varied) (Fixed)
T
Exit
States
Inlet
State
h= constant
P1 P
The development of an h = constant line

on a P-T diagram
28
Lect-19

Some h= constant lines on the T-P diagram
pass through a point of zero slope or zero
Joule-Thomson coefficient.
The line that passes through these points is
called the inversion line, and the temperature
at a point where a constant-enthalpy line
intersects the inversion line is called the
inversion temperature.
The slopes of the h=constant lines are
negative (<0) at states to the right of the
inversion line and positive (>0) to the left of
the inversion line.
29
Lect-19
T Maximum inversion temperature
>0 <0 < 0 temperature increases

= 0 temperature remains constant
h=const. > 0 temperature decreases
Inversion line

Constant enthalpy lines on a T-P diagram

30
Lect-19
In this lecture ...

31
Lect-19
Solve numerical problems

Gas power cycles: Otto, Diesel, dual cycles
Gas power cycles: Brayton cycle, variants
of Brayton cycle
Vapour power cycle: Rankine cycle
Thermodynamic property relations
32
20
1
Lect-20
In this lecture ...
Solve numerical problems

Gas power cycles: Otto, Diesel, dual cycles
Gas power cycles: Brayton cycle, variants
of Brayton cycle
Thermodynamic property relations
2
Lect-20
Problem 1
In an air standard Otto cycle, the
compression ratio is 7 and the
compression begins at 35oC and 0.1
MPa. The maximum temperature of the
cycle is 1100oC. Find (a) the
temperature and the pressure at various
points in the cycle, (b) the heat supplied
per kg of air, (c) work done per kg of air,
(d) the cycle efficiency and (e) the MEP
of the cycle.
3
Lect-20
Solution: Problem 1
P 3
Isentropic
qin
T1=35oC=308 K
P1=0.1 Mpa
2 4
T3=1100oC=1373 K
qout r=v1/v2=7
1
v
4
Lect-20
Solution: Problem 1
Since process, 1-2 is isentropic,

P2 v1
= = 71.4 = 15.24
P1 v2
Hence, P2=1524 kPa

1
T2 v1
= = 71.41 = 2.178
T1 v2
Hence, T2=670.8 K
5
Lect-20
Solution: Problem 1
For process, 2-3,
P2 v2 P3v3 T3 1373
= , P3 = P2 = 1524 = 3119.34
T2 T3 T2 607.8
P3=3119.34 kPa.
Process 3-4 is again isentropic,
1
T3 v4
= = 71.41 = 2.178
T4 v3
1373
T4 = = 630.39 K
2.178
Hence, T2=630.39 K
6
Lect-20
Solution: Problem 1
Heat input,
Qin=cv(T3-T2)
=0.718(1373670.8)
=504.18 kJ/kg
Heat rejected,
Qout=cv(T4-T1)
=0.718(630.34308)
=231.44 kJ/kg
The net work output, Wnet=Qin-Qout
7
Lect-20
Solution: Problem 1
The net work output,
Wnet=Qin-Qout
=272.74 kJ/kg
Thermal efficiency, th,otto=Wnet/Qin
=0.54
=54 %
Otto cycle thermal efficiency,
th,otto =1-1/r-1 = 1-1/70.4
= 0.54 or 54 %
8
Lect-20
Solution: Problem 1
v1=RT1/P1
=0.287x308/100=0.844 m3/kg
MEP = Wnet/(v1v2) = 272.74/v1 (1-1/r)

=272.74/0.844(1-1/7)
=360 kPa
9
Lect-20
Problem 2
In a Diesel cycle, the compression ratio
is 15. Compression begins at 0.1 Mpa,
40oC. The heat added is 1.675 MJ/kg.
Find (a) the maximum temperature in
the cycle, (b) work done per kg of air
(c) the cycle efficiency (d) the
temperature at the end of the isentropic
expansion (e) the cut-off ratio and (f)
the MEP of the cycle.
10
Lect-20
Solution: Problem 2
P qin
2 3
Isentropic
T1=40oC=313 K
P1=0.1 Mpa
4
Qin=1675 MJ/kg
qout
r=v1/v2=15
1
v
11
Lect-20
Solution: Problem 2
RT1 0.287 313

v1 = = = 0.898 m 3 /kg
P1 100
v2 = v1 / 15 = 0.898 / 15 = 0.06 m 3 /kg
It is given that Qin = 1675 MJ/kg
Qin = c p (T3 T2 )
1
T2 v1
= = 150.4 = 2.954
T1 v2
T2 = 313 2.954 = 924.66 K
12
Lect-20
Solution: Problem 2
Qin = 1675 = 1.005(T3 924.66)

T3 = 2591.33 K = Tmax
Hence, the maximum temperature is 2591.33 K

P2 v1
= = 151.4 = 44.31
P1 v2
P2 = 4431 kPa
P2 v2 P3v3 T3 2591.33
= v3 = v2 = 0.06 = 0.168 m 3 /kg
T2 T3 T2 924.66
13
Lect-20
Solution: Problem 2
v3 0.168
rc = = = 2.8
v2 0.06
The cut-off ratio is 2.8.
1
v3
0.4
0.168
T4 = T3 = 2591.33
v4 0.898
= 1325.37 K
Q out = cv (T4 T1 ) = 0.718(1325.4 313) = 726.88 kJ/kg
Net work done, Wnet = Qin Qout = 1675 726.88
=948.12 kJ/kg
14
Lect-20
Solution: Problem 2
Therefore, thermal efficiency,

th=Wnet/Qin
=948.12/1675=0.566 or 56.6%
The cycle efficiency can also be calculated using
the Diesel cycle efficiency determined earlier.
Wnet 948.12
MEP = = = 1131.4 kPa
v1 v2 0.898 0.06
The mean effective pressure is 1131. 4 Kpa.
15
Lect-20
Problem 3
An air-standard Ericsson cycle has an

ideal regenerator. Heat is supplied at
1000C and heat is rejected at 20C. If
the heat added is 600 kJ/kg, find the
compressor work, the turbine work, and
the cycle efficiency.
16
Lect-20
Solution: Problem 3
T
Regeneration qin
1 2
Isobaric
T1=T2=1000C=1273.15 K
4 3
T3=T4=20C=293.15 K
qout
17
Lect-20
Solution: Problem 3
Since the regenerator is given as ideal,

-Q2-3 = Q1-4
Also in an Ericsson cycle, the heat is
input during the isothermal expansion
process, which is the turbine part of the
cycle. Hence the turbine work is 600
kJ/kg.
18
Lect-20
Solution: Problem 3
Thermal efficiency of an Ericsson cycle is
equal to the Carnot efficiency.
th=th, Carnot=1-TL/TH
=1-293.15/1273.15
=0.7697
Therefore the net work output is equal
to:
wnet= thQH
= 0.7697600=461.82 kJ/kg
19
Lect-20
Solution: Problem 3
The compressor work is equal to the
difference between the turbine work and
the net work output:
wc=wt-wnet
=600-461.82 =138.2 kJ/kg
In the Ericsson cycle the heat is rejected

isothermally during the compression
process. Therefore this compressor work
is also equal to the heat rejected during
the cycle.
20
Lect-20
Problem 4
In a Brayton cycle based power plant,

the air at the inlet is at 27oC, 0.1 MPa.
The pressure ratio is 6.25 and the
maximum temperature is 800oC. Find
(a) the compressor work per kg of air
(b) the turbine work per kg or air (c)
the heat supplied per kg of air, and (d)
the cycle efficiency.
21
Lect-20
Solution: Problem 4
Isobaric 3
T qin
T1 = 27C = 300 K
P1 = 100 kPa
2 4 rp = 6.25
qout T3 = 800C = 1073 K
1
22
Lect-20
Solution: Problem 4
Since process, 1-2 is isentropic,
T2 ( 1) /
= rp = 6.25(1.41) /1.4 = 1.689
T1
T2 = 506.69 K
Wcomp = c p (T2 T1 ) = 1.005(506.69 300)
= 207.72 kJ/kg
The compressor work per unit kg of air

is 207.72 kJ/kg
23
Lect-20
Solution: Problem 4
Process 3-4 is also isentropic,
T3 ( 1) /
= rp = 6.25(1.41) /1.4 = 1.689
T4
T4 = 635.29 K
Wturb = c p (T3 T4 ) = 1.005(1073 635.29)
= 439.89 kJ/kg
The turbine work per unit kg of air is
439.89 kJ/kg
24
Lect-20
Solution: Problem 3
Heat input, Qin,
Qin = c p (T3 T2 ) = 1.005(1073 506.69)
= 569.14 kJ/kg
Heat input per kg of air is 569.14 kJ/kg
Cycle efficiency,
th=(Wturb-Wcomp)/Qin
=(439.89-207.72)/569.14
=0.408 or 40.8%
25
Lect-20
Problem 5
Solve Problem 3 if a regenerator of 75%

effectiveness is added to the plant.
26
Lect-20
Solution: Problem 5
3
qin
T
qregen 5 4
5
Regeneration
2
qsaved=qregen
1 qout
s
27
Lect-20
Solution: Problem 5
T5 T2
= = 0.75
T4 T2
T5 506.69
or , = 0.75
635.29 506.69
T5 = 603.14 K
T4, Wcomp, Wturb remain unchanged
The new heat input, Qin=cp(T3-T5)
=472.2 kJ/kg
Therefore th=(Wturb-Wcomp)/Qin
=(439.89-207.72)/472.2
=0.492 or 49.2 %
28
Lect-20
Exercise Problem 1
A gasoline engine receives air at 10oC,
100 kPa, having a compression ratio of
9:1 by volume. The heat addition by
combustion gives the highest
temperature as 2500 K. use cold air
properties to find the highest cycle
pressure, the specific energy added by
combustion, and the mean effective
pressure.
Ans: 7946.3 kPa, 1303.6 kJ/kg, 0.5847,
1055 kPa
29
Lect-20
Exercise Problem 2
A diesel engine has a compression ratio

of 20:1 with an inlet of 95 kPa, 290 K,
with volume 0.5 L. The maximum cycle
temperature is 1800 K. Find the
maximum pressure, the net specific work
and the thermal efficiency.
Ans: 6298 kPa , 550.5 kJ/kg, 0.653
30
Lect-20
Exercise Problem 3
Consider an ideal Stirling-cycle engine in

which the state at the beginning of the
isothermal compression process is 100
kPa, 25C, the compression ratio is 6,
and the maximum temperature in the
cycle is 1100C. Calculate the maximum
cycle pressure and the thermal efficiency
of the cycle with and without
regenerators.
Ans: 2763 kPa, 0.374, 0.783
31
Lect-20
Exercise Problem 4
A large stationary Brayton cycle gas-turbine
power plant delivers a power output of 100 MW
to an electric generator. The minimum
temperature in the cycle is 300 K, and the
maximum temperature is 1600 K. The minimum
pressure in the cycle is 100 kPa, and the
compressor pressure ratio is 14 to 1. Calculate
the power output of the turbine. What fraction of
the turbine output is required to drive the
compressor? What is the thermal efficiency of
the cycle?
Ans: 166.32 MW, 0.399, 0.530
32
Lect-20

Properties of pure substances
Compressed liquid, saturated liquid,
saturated vapour, superheated vapour
Saturation temperature and pressure
Property diagrams of pure substances
Property tables
Composition of a gas mixture
P-v-T behaviour of gas mixtures
Ideal gas and real gas mixtures
Properties of gas mixtures
33
21
1
Lect-21
In this lecture ...

Property tables
2
Lect-21

A substance that has a fixed chemical
composition throughout is called a pure
substance. Eg. Water, nitrogen, helium
etc.
A mixture of two or more phases of a
pure substance is still a pure substance
as long as the chemical composition of all
phases is the same. Eg. Mixture of ice
and water.
Properties of water (and its different
phases) important part of analysis.
3
Lect-21

When water (or any other liquid) exists in
a state when it is not about to vapourize:
compressed liquid or subcooled liquid. Eg.
water at 20oC, 1atm.
A liquid that is about to vaporize is called
a saturated liquid.
A vapour that is about to condense is
called a saturated vapour.
A vapour that is not about to condense
(i.e., not a saturated vapour) is called a
superheated vapour.
4
Lect-21
STATE 1 STATE 2 STATE 3

Saturated
vapour
Saturated
P = 1 atm P = 1 atm P = 1 atm
liquid
T = 20C T = 100C T = 100C
Saturated
Compressed liquid Saturated liquid
liquidvapour mixture
Different states of water
5
Lect-21

STATE 5
STATE 4
P = 1 atm
P = 1 atm T = 300C
T = 100C
Saturated vapour Superheated vapour
Different states of water
6
Lect-21
T, oC Superheated
vapour
300 5
Saturated
mixture
2 3
100
4
20 1 Compressed
liquid
T-v diagram for the heating process of

water at constant pressure (P=1atm.)
7
Lect-21

The temperature at which water starts
boiling depends on the pressure;
therefore, if the pressure is fixed, so is
the boiling temperature.
At a given pressure, the temperature at
which a pure substance changes phase is
called the saturation temperature, Tsat.
Likewise, at a given temperature, the
pressure at which a pure substance
changes phase is called the saturation
pressure, Psat.
8
Lect-21
Critical
T point
P2=const. >P1
Compressed
liquid Superheated vapour
P1=const.
Saturated liquid line Saturated vapour line
Saturated liquidvapour
T-v diagram of a pure substance

9
Lect-21
Tcr Critical
point
Phase
change
vcr v
At supercritical pressures (P > Pcr), there is no

distinct phase-change (boiling) process.
10
Lect-21
P Substances that Substances that

expand on freezing contract on freezing
Liquid Critical
point
Solid
Triple point
Vapour
P-T diagram of pure substances

11
Lect-21
Property tables
The relationships among thermodynamic
properties are too complex to be expressed
by simple equations.
Properties are frequently presented in the
form of tables.
The subscript, f, denotes properties of a
saturated liquid, and the subscript, g,
denotes the properties of saturated vapour.
fg, denotes the difference between the
saturated vapour and saturated liquid
values of the same property.
12
Lect-21
Property tables
For eg.:
hf=specific enthalpy of saturated liquid
hg=specific enthalpy of saturated vapour
hfg=hg hf Enthalpy of vapourisation or
latent heat of vapourisation
Quality, x, is defined as the ratio of the
mass of vapour to the total mass.
Quality has a value ranging between 0 and
1.
13
Lect-21
Property tables
x=0 saturated liquid, x=1 saturated
vapour
It can be shown that in general,
yavg = yf + x yfg
where, y can be: v, u, s or h
For eg: havg = hf + x hfg
Usually, the subscript avg is dropped for
simplicity.
Also, yf yavg yg
14
Lect-21
Superheated vapour
Region to the right of the saturated vapour
line and at temperatures above the critical
point temperature.
In the superheated region (single phase),
pressure and temperature are no longer
dependant properties.
Compared to saturated vapour,
superheated vapour is characterised by:
Lower pressures (P < Psat at a given T)
Higher temperatures (T > Tsat at a given P)
Higher specific volume/enthalpy/internal energy
(v>vg, h>hg, u>ug at a given P or T)
15
Lect-21
Critical
T point
P2=const. >P1
Compressed
liquid Superheated vapour
P1=const.
Saturated liquid line Saturated vapour line
Saturated liquidvapour
T-v diagram of a pure substance

16
Lect-21

Consider a gas mixture of k components.
Let mm is the mass of the mixture and Nm is
sum of the mole numbers.
k k
mm = mi and N m = N i
i =1 i =1
Mass fraction, mf, is the ratio of the mass of
a component to the mass of the mixture
Mole fraction, Y, is the ratio of the mole
number of a component to the mole number
of the mixture.
mf i = mi / mm and yi = N i / N m
17
Lect-21

The mass of a substance of mole number N
and molar mass M is m = NM
The average molar mass and gas constant:
mm mi N i M i k
Mm = = = = yi M i
Nm Nm Nm i =1
Ru
Rm =
Mm
Mass and mole fractions of a mixture are
related by m NM M
mf i = i
= i i
= yi i
mm NmM m Mm
18
Lect-21

Ideal gas equation of state with
compressibility factor for real gases.
The prediction of the P-v-T behaviour of gas
mixtures based on two laws: Daltons law of
additive pressures and the Amagats law of
additive volumes.
Daltons law of additive pressures: The
pressure of a gas mixture is equal to the
sum of the pressures each gas would exert
if it existed alone at the mixture
temperature and volume.
19
Lect-21

Amagats law of additive volumes: The
volume of a gas mixture is equal to the
sum of the volumes each gas would occupy
Daltons and Amagats laws hold exactly for
ideal-gas mixtures, but only approximately
for real-gas mixtures.
For ideal gases, these two laws are
identical and give identical results.
20
Lect-21

Amagats law of additive volumes: The
volume of a gas mixture is equal to the
sum of the volumes each gas would occupy
Daltons and Amagats laws hold exactly for
ideal-gas mixtures, but only approximately
for real-gas mixtures.
For ideal gases, these two laws are
identical and give identical results.
21
Lect-21

Daltons and Amagats laws can be
expressed as follows:
k
Dalton' s law : Pm = Pi (Tm , Vm )
i =1
k
Amagat' s law : Vm = Vi (Tm , Vm )
i =1
The above are exact for ideal gases, but

approximate for real gases.
Pi is called the component pressure and Vi is
called the component volume.
22
Lect-21
Ideal gas mixtures

For ideal gases, Pi and Vi can be related to
the mole fraction yi by:
Pi (Tm , Vm ) N i RuTm / Vm Ni
= = = yi
Pm N m RuTm / Vm N m
Vi (Tm , Vm ) N i RuTm / Vm Ni
= = = yi
Vm N m RuTm / Vm N m
Pi Vi Ni
Therefore, = = = yi
Pm Vm N m
23
Lect-21
Ideal gas mixtures
The quantity yiPm is called the partial

pressure and the quantity yiVm is called
the partial volume.
For an ideal-gas mixture, the mole
fraction, the pressure fraction, and the
volume fraction of a component are
identical.
24
Lect-21
Real gas mixtures
Daltons law of additive pressures and

Amagats law of additive volumes can also
be used for real gases, with some
approximations.
We either use some of the advanced
equations of state (like the Beattie
Bridgeman, BenedictWebbRubin etc.)
The other way is to use the compressibility
factor: PV = ZNRuT
25
Lect-21
Real gas mixtures
The compressibility factor of the mixture,

Zm, can be expressed in terms of that of
the constituents:
k
Z m = yi Z i
i =1
Here, Zi can be determined either at Tm

and Vm (Daltons law) or at Tm and Pm
(Amagats law) for each individual gas.
It is however not necessary that both
these methods give the same result.
26
Lect-21

To evaluate the extensive properties of a
non-reacting ideal or real gas mixture, we
add the contributions of each component.
The internal energy, enthalpy and entropy
can be expressed as:
k k
U m = U i = mi ui
i =1 i =1
k k
H m = H i = mi hi
i =1 i =1
k k
S m = Si = mi si
i =1 i =1
27
Lect-21

The internal energy, enthalpy, and entropy
of a mixture per unit mass of the mixture
can be determined by dividing the
equations above by the mass of the
mixture:
k k
u m = mf i ui and hm = mf i hi in (kJ/kg)
i =1 i =1
k
sm = mf i si (kJ/kg.K)
i =1
k k
Also, cv ,m = mf i cv ,i (kJ/kg.K) and c p ,m = mf i c p ,i
i =1 i =1
28
Lect-21

Similarly, the changes in internal energy,
enthalpy, and entropy of a gas mixture
during a process can be expressed:
k k
U m = U i = mi ui
i =1 i =1
k k
H m = H i = mi hi
i =1 i =1
k k
S m = Si = mi si
i =1 i =1
29
Lect-21
In this lecture ...

Property tables
30
Lect-21

Converging nozzles
31
23
1
Lect-23
Piston-Prop Powerplants :
Ideal and Real Otto Cycles

for basic Piston Engines
(Internal Combustion)
2
Lect-23
All heat engines are conceptually based on

one thermodynamic cycle or the other.
They all are made up of a number of legs or
processes that combine together to make a
cycle
The concept of cycle allows re-use or re-cycle
of the same working medium air freely
available in the atmosphere. All aircraft engines
are air-breathing engines
The cycles are made of processes (or legs)
each of which has a path and all of them have
to conform to all the thermodynamic laws
3
Lect-23
Ideal Otto Cycle

The cycle consists 6 processes
1. a-b Intake of air
2. b-c Compression
3. c-d Combustion
4. d-e Power stroke
5. e-b Heat Rejection
6. b-a exhaust of air
A stroke is the displacement

of the piston from Top dead
center (TDC) to Bottom dead
center (BDC).
4
Lect-23
1. a-b Constant Pressure

Intake of air (+fuel)
2. b-c Isentropic Compression
3. c-d Constant Volume
Combustion (of Fuel)
4. d-e Isentropic Power
stroke of the piston
5. e-b Constant Volume Heat
Rejection (from gas)
6. b-a Constant Pressure
exhaust of burnt gas
A stroke is the displacement
of the piston from Top dead
center (TDC) to Bottom dead
center (BDC).
5
Lect-23
The engine designer has to design a thermodynamic

cycle first. In designing it the nett area of the p-v
diagram is sought to be increased for maximising the
power output.
The power output would depend thus on the change
of specific volume and / or on the increase of pressure
/ temperature through the cycle
Large change in volume shall require large sized
engines
Large change in specific volume shall also require
large change in pressure requiring large change in
volume
Large change in temperature shall require large input
of fuel or fuel of high heat release capacity
6
Lect-23
Ideal Otto Cycle Analysis

Q1 Energy exchanges are :
Heat input, Q1= cv(T3T2)
Heat Rejected, Q2= cv(T4T1)
Power stroke converts Heat of
energy release by fuel burning)
Q2 and Pressure (built up by
compression stroke) to
Mechanical motion
Nett Work Done = Q1- Q2
= Work done by power stroke
work done by compression
stroke
= Area bcde
7
Lect-23

The characteristics of the cycle are :
Compression ratio : = vb /vc
Pressure Ratio : = pd /pc
Temperature Ratio: = Td / Tb
Every thermodynamic cycle is

sensitive to these ratios as they
decide the work capacity and the
efficiency with which the work is
done

Lect-23

As the compression and expansion
processes are isentropic in the
ideal cycle, we use the isentropic
laws.
And as the combustion and heat
rejection are isochoric (constant
volume), use the thermodynamic
laws
to obtain the cycle efficiency :
1
Th = 1
k 1
cp
where, k =
cv
9
Lect-23

Th at k = 1.35 Th at k = 1.40
3 32 36
4 38 43
5 42.5 47.5
6 46.5 51.5
7 49.4 55
8 51.7 57
10 55.2 61.5
10
Lect-23
T-s Diagram of Otto cycle

Q1 1) Efficiency of the cycle (12341)
Q1
may be written down as :
Q1 Q2 area 6235 - area 6145
Th
= =
Q1 area 6235
area 1234
Th =
Q2 area 6235
Q2
2) For two cycles with same nett
areas i.e area1234 = area 1789, the
2nd cycle 17891 has a higher
Work exchanges are : efficiency as area61910<area6145
Q1= cv(T3T2)<cv(T8T7) and area67810<area6235.
Q2= cv(T4T1)<cv(T9T1) Both Q1 and Q2 for the 2nd cycle are
lesser, but the cycle efficiency is
higher than the 1st cycle
11
Lect-23
Ideal and Real cycle Comparison

d
The arrowheads indicate

the direction of
piston/process path
The real cycle
(123456a) differs from
c
e the ideal cycle
(abcdefa)as shown in the
Fig
a b, f Due to loss of energy
actual paths differ from
the ideal
The work done is less
than the ideal
12
Lect-23
Ideal and Real cycle comparison
1)The Intake of fresh air often

happens at a pressure (1-2)
lower than that of ideal cycle (a-
b)
2)Exhaust often happens at a
pressure (5-6) higher than that of
ideal cycle (b-a).
13
Lect-23
3) Compression starts at a
pressure lower than the ideal
value and proceeds along a path
(2-3) lower than the ideal
compression path (b-c). As a
result the work done for the
compression is less than that of
the ideal work (area under the
curve 2-3)
14
Lect-23
4) Combustion (3-4) starts

before the compression stroke
is completed (3-e). Thus
compression end and part of
the combustion occur together
when the piston reaches TDC
15
Lect-23
5) Expansion or Power stroke

actually starts before the
combustion is completed
6) The power stroke often starts

at a pressure (4) lower than the
ideal pressure (d)
16
Lect-23
7) The power stroke (expansion

process / path) often occur
along a pressure line (4-5)
lower than the ideal cycle
pressures line (d-e). The
diagram shows that a loss of
work done by power stroke will
occur
17
Lect-23
8) The heat rejection process

(5) (at the end of the power
stroke) is in reality short and
the gas exhaust starts as soon
as the power stroke is
completed and the piston
reaches BDC (5). The exhaust
is completed when the process
reaches 6.
18
Lect-23
2-stroke engine
Intake + Power stroke

Piston going down
Combustion piston at TDC
Compression + Exhaust
piston going up
All Modern aircraft

engines use four stroke
engines
19
Lect-23
4-stroke engine
Intake - Piston going down

Compression piston going up
Combustion- piston at TDC
Power piston going down
Exhaust piston going up
20
Lect-23
In the next lecture we will look at

various types of piston engines
used in aircraft powerplants
21
24
1
Lect-24
Aircraft Engine Development from

Fundamental Considerations:
Thermodynamic and Mechanical
2
Lect-24
Ideal Cycles 8
3
Q1 W1 Q1 W1
7
2
W2 4
W2
9 Q2
Q2 10
5
6 1
Heat exchanges are :

Q1~ cv(T3T2)>cv(T8T7)
Q2~ cv(T4T1)>cv(T9T1)
Th-12341<Th-17891 For both cases, Q1 Q2 = W1 W2
3
Lect-24
Configuration of Aircraft Engines
In designing an engine for aircraft the size

and weight of the engine are severely
restricted.
Size restriction means that the piston

length is limited and the cylinder volume is
restricted. That means the work done per
cylinder is limited.
4
Lect-24
This prompted use of a large number of

cylinders to create requisite amount of
aggregate power. Most aircraft engines
have 6 or more cylinders. The power of a
reciprocating engine is proportional to the
volume of the combined pistons'
displacement.
Weight restriction on aircraft prompted the

development of high strength aluminum
alloys that met the requirements of aircraft
engine body e.g. the cylinder, the piston
etc.
5
Lect-24
In-line A number of pistons are

often arranged in a
multi-cylinder engine.
Even number of cylinders
V-type X-type are arranged in-line,
V-type , opposed ,
X-type, H-type.
Odd number of
cylinders (5 or above)
are arranged radially.
H - type
Radial
6
Lect-24
Although each cylinder operates

on the same thermodynamic cycle
the processes in the cycles are time
staggered in engine operation.
The pistons in these cylinders

operate in a time staggered manner
so that the main shaft is almost
always receiving a power stroke
7
n
Power = Peff L p A p
2
Lect-24
n
Power = Peff L p A p
2
Where Peff is the mean effective pressure (MEP) or
average pressure on the piston during its strokes
n= rpm, and hence, n/2 = power strokes per minute
Ideal work n n
done by engine IHP=Peff L p A P N c = Peff Vx 2
2
Nc = number of cylinders, Vx is the total cylinder volume
IHP is the indicated horsepower as also determined,
from the p-v (Pressure-volume) indicator diagram
8
Lect-24
For a piston engine, increase in mass flow implies

that either the rpm or the size of the engine or both
should increase and all of them are undesirable for
aircraft engines.
Suppose the rpm is increased to have large mass

flow rate, it will result in high sliding friction and
consequently less efficiency.
Increased engine size implies more drag and less

combustion efficiency, more weight etc.
9
Lect-24
All the work shown in IHP (from p-

v diagram) or from the piston
Power (work in power stroke) in
slide 9, is not realizable.
The actual working involves loss
of energy in following manner:
1)Incomplete combustion of fuel in
the process 3-4 (Refer to real
diagram)
2)Non-uniform combustion of fuel
inside the cylinder (process 3-4)
3)Friction loss between the piston
and the cylinder both in the
power stroke and in the
compression stroke
10
Lect-24
4) Larger the cylinder size (length

or dia) higher are these losses
5) Larger the cylinder size more
are the heat loss through its
surfaces
6) Cycle efficiency is directly
influenced by (i) compression
ratio, (ii) Pressure ratio, and (iii)
Temperature ratio.
7) More the compression ratio or
pressure ratio, the cylinders would
need to be built of heavier
material.
8) All the above are prohibitive in
an aircraft engine
11
Lect-24
Off-design operation
The power input to the
propeller from the main
(crank) shaft is the engine
brake horsepower (after the
gear box)
The work done and heat
transaction of the engine
changes with fuel flow into
the cylinder.
Ideal amount of fuel flow is
dictated by the Stoichiometric
(chemically correct) fuel/air
ratio (f/a) .
A safe f/a zone is identified
12
Lect-24
Less than the ideal (lean f/a

ratio) would result in reduced
power, till lean blow out.
More than the ideal (rich f/a)
would create more power till it
reaches rich blow out.
An engine is always operates
at lean or rich f/a ratio.
By design it operates longer
at lean f/a ratio
Actual working cycle changes
with the f/a ratio.
An engine essentially operates
with variable cycle during a
flight.
13
Lect-24
propeller efficiency is
propeller thrust power
p =
engine shaft brake horsepower
Not all the power developed in the engine cylinder
(ideal power, IHP) appears as available power (brake
horsepower, BHP) for the propeller. There are inevitable
losses to friction that are mainly dissipated as heat.
Mechanical efficiency, then, may be defined as
BHP
m =
IHP
Some amount of Energy would be lost in the Gear box
14
Lect-24
A typical piston-
cylinder arrangement
The cylinder may be
assumed to have,
say, 6 equal volumes
More the volume
more the work
capacity
15
Lect-24
Four Cylinder Arrangement
The arrangement of the engines are such that they

operate in a time staggered manner. For example,
when cylinder-1 is undergoing a air-intake stroke,
Cylinder-2 is undergoing a compression stroke,
cylinder-3 is undergoing a power stroke and
cylinder-4 is undergoing the exhaust stroke.
16
Lect-24
Radial engine powered small aircraft
17
Lect-24
A Diesel-engine (SI) powered Piston-Prop -

Uses gasoline and made of light alloys
18
Lect-24
Design of a
4-cylinder
opposed IC
engine
19
Lect-24
4-bladed propeller piston-prop
20
Lect-24
Spitfire military aircraft piston-prop
21
Lect-24
More power
requirement
finally brought in
the turbo-props
these are
sleeker and more
efficient than -
a 18 cylinder
radial engine
piston-prop
22
Lect-25
Aircraft Piston Engine

Operation Principles and
Theory
1
Lect-25
How an IC engine operates-1
Each piston is inside a cylinder,

into which a gas is created --
heated inside the cylinder by
ignition of a fuel air mixture at
high pressure (internal
combustion engine).
The hot, high pressure gases

expand, pushing the piston to
the bottom of the cylinder (BDC)
creating Power stroke.
2
Lect-25
The piston is returned to the

cylinder top (Top Dead Centre)
either by a flywheel or the
power from other pistons
connected to the same shaft.
In most types the "exhausted"
gases are removed from the
cylinder by this stroke.
This completes the four strokes
of a 4-stroke engine also
representing 4 legs of a cycle
3
Lect-25
The linear motion of the piston is

converted to a rotational motion via
a connecting rod and a crankshaft.
A flywheel is used to ensure
continued smooth rotation (i.e.
when there is no power stroke).
Multiple cylinder power strokes act
as a flywheel.
4
Lect-25
The more cylinders a reciprocating

engine has, generally, the more
vibration-free (smoothly) it can
operate.
The aggregate power of a
reciprocating engine is proportional
to the volume of the combined
pistons' displacement.
5
Lect-25
Reciprocating Engine Performance
Power delivered to the engine by one cylinder is

n
Power = Peff L p A p Peff P4
2
Where Ap = area of piston head
Lp = length of the piston stroke between TDC and BDC
n/2 = power strokes per minute, n = rpm
n
For Nc = number of cylinders, IHP=Peff L p A P Nc
2
n
Total displaced volume, Vx =Ap.Lp.Nc IHP= Peff Vx
2
6
Lect-25
Some of the power developed in the piston-cylinder

is lost in the friction of the piston with the inner
surface of the cylinder. This is often referred to as
frictional horse power (FHP).
The actual power available at the end of the main

shaft may be called Brake Horse power (BHP).
Thus, BHP= IHP - FHP.
BHP= 2 RPM torque
BHP = mech .IHP= mech .Peff Vx RPM = Peff
Brake
Vx RPM
Brake
Peff Is the brake mean effective pressure (BMEP)
7
Lect-25
BHP
BMEP, P Brake
= .(P =)
Vx n
eff mech eff
The BMEP is not a physically active pressure, but is

theoretically computed and is an average or mean
gas load, through all the strokes and events, on the
piston. It has become a widely used index of the
engine performance, and is used in setting the
allowable limits for gas pressure.
8
Lect-25
Since the entire objective of an aircraft engine is

conversion of chemical energy of fuel into propulsive
thrust force, the over-all efficiency thus achieved is of
primary importance. An engine fed with m f kg/hr has
an equivalent thermal input of m f.Qf kJ/hr.
The BHP, normally expressed in kW, may also be
expressed in units of kJ/hr. (Qf = Heating value of
fuel, kJ/kg).
The ratio of these two quantities is defined as the
brake thermal efficiency
This the
so that th =
brake BHP
=
1
efficiency of
m f Q m f Q the engine
BHP
9
Lect-25
Now, if we define a parameter called BSFC (brake

specific fuel consumption)
=m f / BHP kg /(kW-Hr)
Brake Specific Fuel Consumption is conceptually based
on BHP. For a selected fuel, BSFC is a good measure
of the engine efficiency.
The overall efficiency of a piston-prop engine is
overall = brake
th .p
Where, p is the propeller efficiency
At typical cruise conditions, th~30% and p~85%,

gives an overall engine efficiency of overall ~ 25.5%.
10
Lect-25
Aircraft reciprocating (piston) engines are typically

designed to run on aviation gasoline (petrol), which
has a higher octane rating as compared to
automotive gasoline (petrol), allowing the use of
higher compression ratios, increasing power output
and efficiency at higher altitudes. The most common
fuel for aircraft engines has a octane rating of 100
octane and low lead content.
Aviation fuel is blended with tetra-ethyl lead (TEL) to

achieve these high octane ratings, a practice no
longer permitted with road vehicles for pollution.
11
Lect-25
Augmentation of Power for Aircraft Engines

Fig. indicates that the exhaust
starts (after 5) while the pressure
in the cylinder is well above
atmospheric. The exhaust stroke
ends at near-atmospheric pressure
(by virtue of the inertia of piston).
The internal energy that remains

in the burnt exhaust gases, may
be utilized for running a device
such as supercharger, which is
then used to hike up the entry gas
energy in to the system.
12
Lect-25
When the burnt gases inside the cylinder is not fully

exhausted, a small amount remains to get mixed with
the fresh incoming air/charge. Thus the measure of
the piston capacity by volume as discussed earlier
becomes erroneous. This error is attempted to be
quantified by volumetric efficiency,v.
Volumteric efficiency is affected by : (i) Density of
the fresh charge at the cylinder intake, (ii) The
pressure and the temperature of the outgoing burnt
gas, (iii) Design of the intake and exhaust manifolds,
(iv) The timing of the opening and closing of the
intake and exhaust valves. Piston engine designers
have to pay sufficient attention to these factors to
achieve a high efficiency engine.
13
Lect-25
Volumetric Efficiency :
m charge
vol =
theoretical
m
The actual charge mass is a measured quantity and

the theoretical mass is estimated from the geometry
of the cylinder and number of cylinders, speed of the
engine and charge inlet density produced by the
operating condition
14
Lect-25
Losses in a piston engine

1) Losses due to cooling of the
cylinder body to enhance its life
2) Friction losses due to motion of the
piston inside the cylinder
3) Loss due to energy carried by the
exhaust gas on its way out
4) Loss due to radiation of heat
5) Losses due to improper inlet and
exhaust valve operation
Useful work is done with the

remainder of the energy available.
This goes down with the speed of
operation of the engine. Thus, at
high speed more work is possible
but at lower efficiency
15
Lect-25
Analysis done with Air

as working medium
(Air cycle) and that with hot
burnt gas after the
combustion as working
(Gas cycle) medium makes a lot of
difference, and is
considered as the
fundamental reason
for the difference
between ideal and real
cycle.
Kair = 1.40, Kgas = 1.33
17
Lect-25
Piston Engine Performance

characteristics curves AirConsumption
per cycle peaks
at a lower speed,
approx along
with torque
Air consumption
per unit time
(sec or min)
peaks along with
IHP , when the
engine is at full
throttle.
18
Lect-25
Maximum
torque of the
engine occurs
at a lower
speed
BHP starts
levelling out
due to rise in
FHP
19
Lect-25
Minimum
BSFC occurs
at lower
operating
speeds.
Fuel
consumption
(per unit
time)
increases
with speed
20
Lect-25
Maximum Torque
Maximum BHP and
Minimum BSFC
occur at different
speeds
21
Lect-25
Max Matching of
Cruise
Engine with
Aircraft
requirements
Or Climb of A/C
22
Lect-25
Next Lecture :
1) Operational Reasons for loss of

engine Power
2) Part-load Performances
3) Supercharging of Aircraft Engines
22
Lect-26
Part-Load Performances
and
Augmentation of Power for
Aircraft Engines
1
Lect-26
volumetric efficiency,v is affected by :
(i) Density of the fresh charge at the cylinder

intake,
(ii)The pressure and the temperature of the
outgoing burnt gas,
(iii)Design of the intake and exhaust manifolds,
(iv)The timing of the opening and closing of the
intake and exhaust valves.
Piston engine designers have to pay

sufficient attention to these factors to
achieve a high efficiency engine.
2
Lect-26
3
Lect-26
5
Lect-26
Delayed
Ignition
results in
large loss of
work done
by the
power
stroke
5
Lect-26
Late opening or
poorly designed
Exhaust Valve
creats :
1)Loss of piston
work
2)Increase of
intake work
3)A small gain
in work
7
Lect-26
Poor
Intake
design
creates :
More work
in Intake
operation
8
Lect-26
Important performance factors are (a) heat release

per unit mass of air and (b) quantity of charge (air
+ fuel mixture) per stroke.
a)Heat release per unit mass of air (Heating value)

depends upon both fuel chemical compostion and
the working fuel-air ratio.
b)Quantity of charge per stroke introduced into the
cylinder directly controls the quantity of heat
released and work done per cycle.
8
Lect-26
If a supercharger (a booster) is used,

before the charge enters the cylinder, the
cylinder is filled above ambient pressure and
density, hence the weight or mass of air
introduced per cycle is greater than in the
unsupercharged case. The volume of
operation remains same. So that with a
volumetric efficiency applied (typically<1),
the nett work done would be higher than that
of a naturally aspirated engine.
9
Lect-26
Compression pressure
maximum pressure, and net
area of the work diagram of
the supercharged cycle have
higher values than the
corresponding items in the
unsupercharged cycle. The
fuel used is same and in the
same manner.
11
Lect-26
Fig. shows
the effect of
super-
charging at
sea level
and at
altitude.
Super-charging
creates higher
Inlet
Manifold
Absolute
Pressure (MAP)
11
Lect-26
Supercharging.
Additional work may be extracted from the
exhaust gases by expanding them to atmospheric
pressure through a turbine.
The work output of the turbine goes to drive a
centrifugal blower, called supercharger.
As aircraft goes to altitude the atmospheric
pressure is reduced, thereby increased
supercharging is required to hold a design manifold
pressure.
In turbo supercharging the supercharger +turbine
RPM is varied by adjusting the turbine discharge
nozzle to produce the pressure ratio
12
Lect-26
The supercharger delivery pressure is given by:

pressure at turbo supercharger exit
supercharger =
ram pressure in outside air scoop
This arrangement is can maintain constant engine

BHP from sea level to a very high altitude. The
operating altitude is determined by the maximum
allowable RPM of the supercharger-turbine.
13
Lect-26
Supercharging Cycle p-v diagram

The Compression and Turbine work are shown separately
as they use separate working medium
1) A-B Intake to compressor system.

2) The compression line - BC,
3) The work required to compress is
represented by the area ABCD.
4) The source of this work is, the turbine,
which extracts energy from the outgoing
mass of burned gas that has passed
through the engine.
5) The turbine work (per unit mass of
exhaust gas) is represented by the
shaded area WXYZ.
14
Lect-26
Supercharging Cycle p-v diagram

7) Exhaust gas enters the turbine along line
WX, expanding along line XY, and being
pushed out of the turbine along the path
YZ.
8) If the turbine is used only to drive the
compressor, areas ABCD (compressor
work) and WXYZ (turbine work) must be
equal, otherwise the turbo-compressor
will speed up or slow down.
9) If the turbine work be excessive, the
turbine discharge nozzle may be
throttled, raising line YZ until area WXYZ
again equals area ABCD
15
Lect-26
BHP of an
aircraft engine
continuously
goes down with
the altitude.
Supercharging
restores power
output
High
supercharging is
used only for
climb
17
Lect-26
Turbo-Supercharger with Inter-cooler
18
Lect-26
Superchargers may be :
1) Single stage supercharger

2) Two stage supercharger
3) Variable speed supercharger
( Atleast two speeds for high and medium
supercharging)
4) Centrifugal flow machine (most used)
5) Axial Flow compressor
18
Lect-26
The next class :
Tutorial on IC Engines
19
Lect-27
Tutorial on IC Engines
for
Aircraft

1) For an ideal cycle of a reciprocating IC engine , in
which heat is added to the working medium, air, at
constant volume, the following working conditions are
given : Pa= 1 bar, Ta=320K, Compression ratio =4.0, gas
constant of air, R=287 J/kg.deg; Pressure ratio= 4.0
adiabatic exponent, k = 1.4.
For 1 kg of working medium find out :
a)Amounts of heat added and heat rejected
b)Thermal efficiency of a Carnot cycle for the given
working conditions
c) Thermal efficiency of the cycle
d)The Indicated mean effective pressure (IMEP)

Compression ratio : = vb /vc=4
Pressure Ratio : = pd /pc =4
Temperature Ratio: = Td/Tb= ?
vb=R.Tb/Pb=287x320/105
=0.92 m3/kg
vc=vb/ =0.92/4.0
=0.23 m3/kg
pc=pb. =1x41.4=7.38 bar

1 bar, 320K
Tc=pc.vc /R
=7.38x105x0.23/287
= 592 K
Parameters at point d shall be computed from :
vd=vc=0.23 m3/kg; & pd=pcx=7.38 x 4 =29.6 bar
At constant vol., Td=Tc x = 592 x 4 = 2368 K
Parameters at point e may be found :

k -1 k -1
Te v d vb 1
7.38 bar using = = = k 1
592 K Td v e vc
0.23 m3/kg
Te = Td/1 = 2368/40.4 = 1340 K
ve = vb = 0.92 m3/kg
1 bar, 320K, 0.92 m 3/kg Pe = RTe/ve
= 287x1340/0.92x105
= 4.17 bar

29.6 bar, 2368 K
0.23 m3/kg The power stroke work is given as :
1

Wpower = (p d v d - p e v e )
k -1
10 5
= (29.6x 0.23 - 4.17 x 0.92 )
0.4
7.38 bar = 742.0 kJ/kg
The compression work is :
592 K 4.17 bar, 1340 K
0.23 m3/kg 0.92 m3/kg
1

Wcompr = (pb v b - p c v c )
k -1
10 5
1 bar, 320K, 0.92 m 3/kg = (1x 0.92 - 7.38 x 0.23 )

0.4
= 195 kJ/kg

29.6 bar, 2368 K
0.23 m3/kg
Useful work is thus :
Wnet = 743-195 = 547 kJ/kg
Quantity of heat added is :
Qadd = Cv(Td - Tc)
742 kJ/kg = 0.72(2368 592)
7.38 bar
= 1280 kJ/kg
592 K 4.17 bar, 1340 K
0.23 m3/kg 0.92 m3/kg Quantity of heat rejected
195 kJ/kg Qrej = Cv(Te - Tf )
= 0.72 (1340 320)
1 bar, 320K, 0.92 m 3/kg
= 737 kJ/kg
Heat utilised: 1280 737

Qnet= 543 kJ/kg

29.6 bar, 2368 K
0.23 m3/kg
The thermal efficiency of the
cycle is :
th= Qnet /Qadd
1280
kJ/kg = 543 /1280
742 kJ/kg
7.38 bar
= 0.425
592 K 4.17 bar, 1340 K
0.23 m3/kg 0.92 m3/kg Thermodynamically ,
thermal eff.
195 kJ/kg 737
1 1
kJ/kg
th = 1
= 1 0.4
1 bar, 320K, 0.92 m 3/kg
k 1
4
= 0.426

29.6 bar, 2368 K
Carnot cycle efficiency is :
0.23 m3/kg
carnot =1- Tb /Td
= 1 320/2368
1280 = 0.865 or 86.5%
kJ/kg
742 kJ/kg
The mean effective
7.38 bar
592 K 4.17 bar, 1340 K pressure is :
0.23 m3/kg 0.92 m3/kg
195 kJ/kg 737

MEP= Wnet / (vbvc)
kJ/kg
=547,000/69000
1 bar, 320K, 0.92 m 3/kg
= 7.9 bar

8
29.6 bar, 2368 K
0.23 m3/kg Answers
carnot = 86.5%
1280
kJ/kg MEP = 7.9 bar
742 kJ/kg
7.38 bar th = 0.425

592 K 4.17 bar, 1340 K
0.23 m3/kg 0.92 m3/kg
195 kJ/kg 737

kJ/kg
1 bar, 320K, 0.92 m 3/kg

2) For an ideal IC engine operating with combustion at
constant pressure, given that it is operating with pa= 1
bar, Ta=350 K, compression ratio = 20, isobaric
expansion ratio = 2.0. The working medium is air
(k=1.4 and R = 287 kJ/kg). For 1 kg of air calculate :
(i) Pressure and temperature at all cycle points
(ii) Work done under various cycle legs
(iii) Heat added or rejected during various cycle legs
(iv) Carnot cycle efficiency
(v) Indicated mean effective pressure

Compression ratio : = vb /vc=20
Expansion Ratio (c-d): = vd /vc =2
Temperature Ratio: = Td/Tb= ?
vb=R.Tb/Pb=287x350/105
=1.0 m3/kg
vc=vb/ =1.0/20.0
=0.05 m3/kg
pc=pb. k =1x201.4=66.2 bar
Tc =pc.vc /R
=66.2x105x0.05/287
= 1155 K
12
Parameters at point d shall be computed from :
pd=pc=66.2 bar; & vd=vcx=0.05 x 2 =0.1 m3/kg
At Td=Tc x = 1155 x 2 = 2310 K
Now,
ve = vb = 1.0 m3/kg
k -1
Te v d
using =
Td v e
Te = 920 K
Pe = R.Te / ve
= 287 x 927 / 1x105
= 2.64 bar
13
1

Wpower =p c ( v d v c ) + (p d v d - p e v e )
k -1
10 5
= 66.2(0.1 0.05) + (66.2x 0.01 - 2.64 x 1.0)
0.4
= 1326 kJ/kg
Compression work
1

Wcompr = (pb v b - p c v c )
k -1
10 5
= (1 - 66.2 x 0.05 )
0.4
= 578 kJ/kg
Net work output = 1326 578 = 748 kJ/kg

Quantity of heat added is :
q1 = Cp(Td - Tc)
= 1.005(2310 1155)
= 1162 kJ/kg
Quantity of heat rejected

q2 = Cv(Te - Tb)
= 0.72 (920 350)
= 410 kJ/kg
Heat utilised: 1162 410

Qnet= 752 kJ/kg

The thermal efficiency of the
engine is :
th= Qnet /Qadd
= 752 /1162
= 0.648
Cycle efficiency is:
k -1
th = 1 ( 1)
k. k 1
21.4 - 1
= 1
This is derived for 1.4x20 0.4
ideal diesel cycle = 0.65

1162 kJ/kg Answers
Indicated mean effective pressure
66.2
66.2 2310 IMEP= Wnet / (vbvc)
1162 0.1
0.05 =748,000/95,000
1326 kJ/kg
= 7.88 bar
2.64, 920 , 1 th = 0.648

410 kJ/kg
578 kJ/kg
1 bar, 350 K, 1 m3/kg
carnot =1- 350/2310= 0.85

Quiz questions - I
1) Which is more important : (i) Air charge per cycle ,
or (ii) Air charge per minute - for engine power
performance estimation ?
2) Does Volumetric efficiency matter any more once
supercharging is used in aircraft engines?
3) If High torque production coincides with high
BMEP, what is the other operational requirements?
4) In IC engine parlance - what is the difference
between (i) compression ratio, and (ii) pressure ratio?
5) Does a turbosupercharger provide higher efficiency
of the engine, or that it only provides a continuous
control mechanism for the supercharger ?

Quiz questions - II
6) Is very high supercharging beneficial at low altitude flying
of aircraft ?
7) Is there is any limit to the degree of supercharging that
can be applied to aircraft engines?
8) When does the intake and exhaust valve operation
overlap? Does the design and timing of operation of these
valve operations affect the engine performance ?
9) When should the engine produce (i) more Power (BHP),
and (ii) more Torque during an aircraft flight ?
10) For typical aircraft engines which fundamental
parameter is kept high (design) for maximum power output?

Questions
1) A four-stroke engine produces an output of 420 kW

when operating with mechanical efficiency of 87.5%.
The fuel consumption is given as 164 kg/hr, when the
air consumption is 2780 kg/hr, when the fuel heating
value is prescribed as 44200 kJ/kg. Calculate :
(i) IHP; (ii) FHP; (iii) air/fuel ratio;
(iv) Indicated thermal efficiency
(v) Brake thermal efficiency
[Ans : 600 HP; 75 HP; 15.2 ; 30% ; 26.2% ]
20
Questions
2) An aircraft engine , equipped with a single stage
supercharged engine, is flying at 7.0 km altitude (where
ambient pressure is - 41.1. kn/m2 ; and the ambient
temperature is T = 241 K). The carburetor delivery
condition is given as pressure = 75 mm H2O, and the
temperature = -24.40 C . Assuming ideal air (k=1.4) as
working medium and no friction loss or heat loss in the
supercharging, Calculate :
(i) The Supercharging pressure ratio
(ii) Corresponding Cylinder intake temperature
[Ans : 2.7 ; 73o C]
21
Questions
3) A four-stroke aircraft engine is running at 3600
rpm during the aircraft ground operation. The inlet air
temperature is 15.60 C and the pressure is 1 bar. The
engine has a total displaced volume of 4065.6 cc. The
air/fuel ratio is 14:1. The bsfc is 0.377 kg/kW-hr for a
power output of 83.5 kW.
Calculate the volumetric efficiency of the engine.
[Ans. 84.5%]

Next Class :
Propeller fundamentals

28
1
Lect-28
Propeller Fundamentals
A propeller is an interface between

an engine and an aircraft.
It creates thrust for flying an aircraft.
2
Lect-28
Propeller blade
4-bladed propeller 3-bladed propeller
3
Lect-28
All propulsors moving in air produce

propulsive force, called thrust, by effecting
a net change in momentum to a propulsive
fluid in the direction of motion.
Propellers create thrust by introducing a
small change in velocity to a relatively large
mass of air, compared to those of various
jet propulsion devices.
Tnet = m .(Ve Va )
4
Lect-28
Propeller blades for Thrust
Propellers have 2 or
more exactly similar
blades, each of which
is built up by stacking
of airfoil sections
radially from the root
to the tip
5
Lect-28
Basic shape (symmetrical) of

typical propeller airfoils
6
Lect-28
Propeller
Airfoil
Data
7
Lect-28
The blade shaping gives a radial twist which

gives a local air angle of attack for each
blade section at the design operation. The
final blade shape and blade setting are
optimized between the design point ,
various off-design points, and an aircrafts
flight schedule.
8
Lect-28
The performance of a propeller is dependant

on the local aerodynamics on the blade
elements, integrated over the blade length.
For efficient operation each blade element

should be at an Angle of Attack, , optimized
to a value near the maximum elemental lift to
drag (L/D) ratio.
9
Lect-28
Propeller blade --- sectional

geometry and local flow details
Geometric Pitch , p = 2r.tan
10
Lect-28
The AoA () is a function of the blade
element geometric pitch (blade setting)
angle, and effective pitch angle (flow
angle) .
The rotational speed, (U = .r) of each
blade element is different, but as the
forward speed, Va, is same, the pitch
setting needs to be varied from hub to tip
so as to maintain the best AoA for each
blade element.
11
Lect-28
The blade section in fig shows that the

section makes an angle with the rotational
direction, is known as pitch angle (blade
setting angle) , defined with respect to either
(i) zero lift line, or (ii) chord line, or (ii) the
flat undersurface of the blade section.
The pitch refers to the forward movement

of the propeller for one revolution of the blade
(section).
12
Lect-28
Theoretically, each section of the propeller

may have its own pitch value.
However, since all the blades sections of
each blade of a propeller are assembled
into one solid body, all the sections must
move forward by the same amount per
revolution of the propeller.
Thus, a difference between the geometric
pitch, p , for a blade section, and the actual
pitch, for the same section (when the body
of the propeller moves forward) arises.
13
Lect-28
The lift and the drag of a blade element

are perpendicular and parallel respectively
to the relative wind direction coming on the
blade element.
These may be projected to the forces :

Tangential force (for Torque) and axial
force (Thrust), in the planes normal and
parallel respectively to the axis of rotation
of the propeller.
14
Lect-28
Blade section geometry , local flow details and aerodynamic forces created
L - Lift
D Drag
T Thrust
Q Torque
V Forward
velocity
VR Relative
velocity
r radius
- angle of
attack
15
Lect-28
There are three Pitch setting arrangements:
A fixed pitch propeller, in which the

geometric pitch cannot be varied, must be
matched to the various operating conditions
of the engine and of the aircraft.
A variable pitch propeller, either variable
manually, or through hydro-mechanical
control system, usually offer at least two or
more blade settings, one fine and the other
coarse, to maximize the propeller efficiency,
during take-off and during cruise respectively.
16
Lect-28
The third Pitch setting arrangement is:
A constant speed propeller --- automatically

changes propeller pitch according to a built in
control law (floating pitch) so as to maintain
proper torque such that the speed of the
propeller shaft is maintained constant with
the help of a governor and a electro-hydro-
mechanical control system. Most modern
propellers are constant speed propellers.
17
Lect-28
Propeller performance parameters

The Advance ratio, J is defined as:
J = V / (n.D)
where, V- Forward speed (of aircraft) m/s,
n - Rotational speed, rps; and
D - Propeller diameter, m.
It effectively captures the forward motion
per unit rotational speed.
This goes with the general perception that a
propeller executes a screw motion through
the working medium and is often referred
to as an airscrew.
18
Lect-28

The main performance parameters thrust T,,
torque, Q and power, P may be defined as
follows,
T = .n2.D4 .CT
Q = .n2.D5 .CQ
P = .n3.D5 . CP
where, CT , CQ , CP are the thrust, torque and
power coefficients of the propeller, and are
the characteristics of the propeller. These are
derived using dynamic similarity theories (Pi
theorem), much the same way as lift and drag
coefficients of an aerofoil are defined.
19
Lect-28
The propeller efficiency is given by the

usual output power to input power ratio,
P = (T.V)/P = (T.V)/(2..n.Q)
Thus, P = J.CT / CP
Where, CP = 2..CQ
20
Lect-28

The propeller tip speed is given by,
Vtip, helical =({ nD}2+V2)
At high tip speeds, compressibility and
shocks come in to effect; the shock losses
reduce lift and increase drag for the blade
elements, unless they are designed for it.
Metal propellers are limited to Mtip of 0.85,
and wooden ones are limited to Mtip of 0.75.
Propellers made of carbon composites
have crossed the sonic barrier (Mtip >1.0)
at the tip, with transonic airfoil profiles.
21
Lect-28
Next
Propeller Theories
22
29
1
Lect 29
Propeller Theories
1) Momentum Theory
2) Blade Element Theory
The first one does not use the blade shape
for design or analysis at all.
The second set of theories use the propeller
blade shapes made up of stacked airfoils.
Both the theories are used, to design and
predict the propeller performance, using the
fundamental parameters defined earlier.
2
Lect 29
Momentum Theory for Propeller

(or Actuator Disk Theory)
3
Lect 29
Assumptions for conceptual modeling of a

propeller (Fig.)
1) The propeller is assumed to be replaced
by an actuator disk, a flow energizer.
2) The disk is assumed to be of very small
thickness and is a continuous and 100%
porous body of no mass, with a projected
frontal area A (swept area) equal to the
annulus of the rotating propeller blades.
3) There is no resistance (i.e. drag) of the
air passing through the actuator disk, (since
there are no propeller blades)
4
Lect 29
Assumptions for modeling of a propeller
4) The axial velocity, V1 through the disk is

uniform over the actuation area and is
considered to be smooth across the disk i.e.
no abrupt changes are experienced.
5) The received energy manifests itself in

the working medium (i.e. air) finally in the
form of differential pressure (p2 p1), a
jump change across the actuator disk,
uniformly distributed across the disk surface.
5
Lect 29
Assumptions for modeling of a propeller
6) The fluid medium, air, is a assumed to be a

perfect incompressible fluid. Flow is assumed
irrotational in front of and behind the disk,
but not through it.
and
7) The static pressures far from the disk, i.e.
far upstream and far downstream, are both
assumed equal to the atmospheric pressure.
The corresponding velocities are independent
values, to be determined separately.
6
Lect 29

The mass flow through the disk from continuity,
is m = .A.V
The thrust produced by the disk from Newtons
II and III laws (change in momentum in air )
resulting in reaction force, thrust.
T =m .V = .A.V.(Ve V)
From simple fluid statics, thrust is produced by
the differential static pressure on either side of
the disk ,multiplied by its surface area (swept
area)
T = A (P2 P1)
7
Lect 29

Applying Bernoullis equation on either side
of the disk, but not through it, gives
[note : Bernoullis theory is not valid if any
energy is added within the flow domain.]
P + V 2 = P1 + V12 --upstream
P2+ V2 2 = P + Ve2 --downstream
Using, V1= V2 = constant through the disk,
P2 P1 = . . (Ve2 - V2)
From above equations V1= . (Ve + V)
8
Lect 29
This simple analysis shows that the air flow

velocity through the actuator disk is the
mean of the velocities far upstream and far
downstream of the propeller.
This simple conclusion drawn out of the
simplified flow model permits design,
analysis, and even experimental verification
of the propeller performance rather quickly.
Thus, thrust T = . .(Ve2 - V2).A
9
Lect 29
The velocity at the disk comes out to be the

free stream axial velocity, V plus induced
(axial) velocity (v), whereas, the far
downstream velocity is equal to the free
stream velocity plus two times the induced
velocity, v.
V1 = V + v ; and Ve = V + 2.v
Therefore , T = A (V + v) 2.v = 2. m ..v
10
Lect 29
From the equation the induced velocity, v,

can be found as,
[- V + {V2 - (2T / . A)}]
v =
2
For a static thrust, where the propeller is not
in forward motion (at take off), V = zero,
T
v=
2 .A
11
Lect 29
So, power input needed for static thrust

production (at Take off),
Power at T.O. in
P = T 3/ 2
2 A
Where A is the swept area of the propeller

And, is the air density
12
Lect 29

The ideal efficiency can be calculated by
using classical definition of efficiency ,
p =Pout / Pin.
Power output needs to be equal to thrust
generated by the disk multiplied by velocity
of the actuator disk through the air medium
(i.e. flight velocity of the aircraft). The power
input is the thrust generated by the disk
multiplied by the airflow velocity through the
disk at the disk plane,
Pout = T V and Pin = T V1
13
Lect 29
Therefore, i = Pout / Pin

= T.V / T.V1
= V / [(V + Ve)]
= 2V / (Ve + V)
Therefore, i = 1/ [1 + (v / V )]
14
Lect 29
The efficiency estimated using momentum

theory is referred to as induced efficiency.
The induced efficiency is zero for zero

forward velocity and approaches 1.0 as
induced velocity, v, tends towards zero.
The induced efficiency reaches a maxima

but does not show any fall with increasing J
15
Lect 29
Efficiency i
16
Lect 29
Propeller Characteristics
Max Efficiency
Max Thrust
Max Power
17
Lect 29

Induced efficiency cannot be realized as the
energy lost in the rotational motion acquired
by the flow in passing through the propeller.
Losses due to non uniform thrust loading
over the blade length.
Blade interference losses due the interaction
of flows over the neighbouring blades.
Propeller profile drag losses, incurred over
all the blade surfaces , and
Changes in flow properties due to effect of
compressibility, which are not accounted for.
18
Lect 29
Propeller thrust and power distribution in the disk
19
Lect 29
Next .
Propeller Blade element Theory
20
30
1
Lect 30
Propeller theories
Blade element theory

The blade elements are assumed to be made up
of airfoil shapes of known lift, Cl and drag, Cd
characteristics.
In practice a large number of different airfoils are
used to make up one propeller blade.
Each of these elements shall have its own lift, Cl
and drag, Cd coefficient characteristics.
2
Lect 30
The thrust, dT created by an element

of elemental radial length dr is created
with contributions from the airfoil with
lift, dL and drag, dD
3
Lect 30
Using the blade elemental

lift and drag characteristics
the working capacity of the
blade element may be
found as :
Thrust produced,
dT = dL .cos dD .sin
= . .VR2 .c.dr. (Cl cos Cd sin )
Torque to be supplied ,
dQ = (dL .sin + dD .cos ). r
= ..VR2 .c.dr.(Cl .sin + Cd .cos )
4
Lect 30
Substituting for
Resultant inflow velocity
Incident and aligned to
the blade element,
VR = V /Sin ,
and for
Incoming flow Dynamic
head based on forward
velocity of the element
q = V2
5
Lect 30
The elemental thrust is :

q.c.dr
dT = (Cl cos - Cd sin )
sin
2
and
The elemental torque is :
q.c.r.dr
dQ = ( Cl sin + Cd cos )
sin
2
6
Lect 30
Propeller thrust and torque are now computed

by integrating from the root to the tip of the
blade and for number of blades, B
R
c.dr
T = q.B. 2 (Cl cos - Cd sin )
0 sin
R
c.r.dr
Q = q.B (Cl sin + Cd cos )
0 sin
2
7
Lect 30
Thus, the net thrust and the torque are

seen to be directly proportional to the
number of blades, B and the chord, c.
This is not quite true in practice, as more
is the number of blades and wider the
blade chord - it shall result in more
surface area, more flow blockage and
higher consequent aerodynamic losses.
The optimum number of blades need to
be found separately and not from the
blade element theory.
8
Lect 30
The blade element efficiency,
el = Thrust power produced

Torque power supplied
In terms of elemental airfoil characteristics
Cl and Cd , blade efficiency is :
v.dT V Cl cos - Cd sin Cl cos - Cd sin
el = . = .tan
2 n.dQ 2 nr Cl sin + Cd cos Cl sin + Cd cos
9
Lect 30
Applying maxima condition it can be shown

that maximum efficiency, el-max occurs at

Cd
=
4 2.Cl
for a blade element airfoil characterized
by its Cd & Cl
The estimations from blade element theory is

within 10% of the actually obtained results.
10
Lect 30
If the
elemental
performances
are plotted in
the form of
dCT /dX and
dCQ /dX
variation in X,
the span-wise
direction of a
blade (root to
tip)
11
Lect 30
Low speed aircraft propeller

Characteristics
Cruise Point
Courtesy:
Theodorsen, 1948
12
Lect 30
High speed aircraft propeller

characteristics
Cruise Point
Courtesy:
Dommasch et al.,
1967
13
Lect 30
Efficiency
of
Propeller
Variable Pitch Propeller

Thrust
Cruise Point
selection Co-efficient
of Propeller
Courtesy:
NACA, USA
14
Lect 30
Typical
Power
Propeller
Thrust-Power
Characteristics
using NACA
Cruise Point airfoils
selection
Variable Pitch Propeller
Courtesy:
NACA, USA
15
Lect 30
Cs, the speed power coefficient, defined by,

Cs = (.V5/P.n2)1/5
Is often used for design / selection of propeller
If coeff of power, Cp as a function of J, is

known, Cs can be obtained from
Cs = J/Cp1/5
The usefulness of Cs is in the process of
defining it -- diameter was eliminated. Thus the
propeller design or selection related flow
parameters may be estimated even before the
propeller size is fixed.
16
Lect 30
Propeller
Cs
Characteristics
17
Lect 30
Transonic Swept bladed propellers

(a) Tractor ; (b) counter-rotating Pusher
18
Lect 30
In an aircraft application:
Propeller Power, Pprop = PEngine.shaft.prop
Propeller Torque, Qprop = Qengine
Typically,
at Take off,
Qprop is low, is low, PE is High, rpm is high
at Cruise ,
Qprop is high, is high, PE is low, rpm is low
19
Lect 30
Next
Propeller Tutorial
20
31
1
Lect-31
Propeller blade shapes
and
Propeller Tutorials
2
Lect-31
Typical Propeller Blade Shape
3
Lect-31
Flight M. No.
Transonic Propeller Airfoil
4
Lect-31
Modern
8-bladed
propeller
with
transonic
airfoils
near the
tip and
swept
blade
shapes
5
Lect-31
Solved Example
An aircraft cruises at 644 km/hr speed at
seal level, is powered by a 3-bladed
propeller (connected to the engine, which
rotates at 2600 rpm, through a 1:2 gear
box) and is supplied 1491.5 kW of power.
The propeller is designed with blades of
NACA blade sections. Compute the propeller
diameter and the efficiency of the propeller
at this operating condition. If the propeller is
a variable pitch propeller what would be its
efficiency at 161 km/hr.
6
Lect-31
Density of the air at this sea level operating

condition,
air = 1.22 kg/m3.
where the flight speed as given is,
V = 644 km/hr = 178.88 m/s, and
It is using power,
P = 1491.5 kW = 1491500 J/s ,
while the propeller rotates at the engine

rpm i.e. at 1300 rpm i.e. 21.666 rps.
7
Lect-31
The speed-power coefficient may be

calculated from its definition,
.V 5
=Cs 5=
2
3.175
P.n
Use the speed power coefficient as the figure
of merit. Then use graph of Cs to arrive at
the blade setting angle from the maximum
efficiency consideration. The problem may
be solved at the propeller design reference
radius 0.75 R.
8
Lect-31
0.86 %
460
460
460
2.25
3.175
9
Lect-31
From the graph using a tangential

extrapolation of the maximum efficiency
locus, which takes the best match point
slightly outside the graphical curves.
Hence an extrapolated blade angle line
of 460 is also drawn
Best blade angle = 460, and

Best efficiency , prop = 86%. and
Matched advance ratio, J = V/nD = 2.25
10
Lect-31
From these one can compute the diameter ,

D = V/(2.25.n) = 3.667 m.
Thus at prescribed flying speed of

V = 161 km/hr = 27.777 m/s.
We get
J = 0.562 (using the propeller dia.)
At which Cs = 0.793.
11
Lect-31
12
Lect-31
Again, from the Cs graph,
Blade angle required is 290

and
Efficiency, = 50%.
13
Lect-31
It can be seen that at this value of J = 0.562

if a blade angle 150 could be set then an
efficiency of 80% could be achieved. This
would have give a speed power coefficient of
1.1. At that value the propeller would go on a
over speeding to absorb the power supplied.
Thus, even if variable pitch mechanism is
used, constant speed operation results in low
efficiencies at low speed. The solution would
be to reduce the power setting to operate the
blade with 150 setting and Cs = 1.1 to achieve
an efficiency of 80%.
14
Lect-31
Tutorial Problems
1) A propeller of diameter d that develops
thrust T when operating with advance ratio J
and rpm N ---- is to be replaced by a pair of
equal propellers of the same shape, operating
at the same velocity V and advance ratio J
and producing together the same thrust T.
Find out the diameter d and the rotational
speed N of the two new propellers. Prove
that the total power required by the two
propellers equals the original propeller power.
15
Lect-31
2) An aircraft flying at 592 km/hr is powered

by a propeller rotating at 1800 rpm. The
propeller is of 3.05 m diameter and uses
NACA 0015 airfoil section. At the reference
blade section at 0.9144 m from the root,
where the blade angle is 47.70 compute the
local flow angle at the station.
Ans:[43.70 ]
16
Lect-31
3) An aircraft is propelled by a 4.572 m

diameter propeller, which produces 35.6 kN
of thrust. The aircraft is flying at an altitude
where the atmospheric conditions are such
that the density of air is 1.03 kg/3. Using
momentum theory compute : (i) the
induced velocity through the disk, (ii) the
final velocity of the flow in the far wake.
[Ans: (i) 5.516 m/s; (ii)189.9 m/s)]
17
Lect-31
4) Compute the diameter of the flow

field in the far wake of a propeller of
diameter 3.05 m, which produces a
propulsive thrust of 8.9 kN of thrust
while flying at a speed of 322 km/hr.
[Ans : 2.95m]
18
Lect-31
5) A 907.2 kg helicopter is powered by a

9.144 m diameter rotor. When the helicopter
is landing it descends at an uniform rate
under sea level conditions, and the induced
velocity is the rate of descent of the
helicopter. Compute the velocity at which
the helicopter is descending.
[Hint : Rotor upward thrust = Helicopter
weight = 2.A.(V - v).v ]
[Ans : 15.82 m/s]
19
Lect-31
6) An aircraft while cruising at 724 km/hr is

expected to encounter 5927 N of drag. The
propeller flying this aircraft is of diameter
3.657 m and is designed with NACA 5868-9
3-bladed propeller blades. The engine
delivers 1491.4 kW while the propeller runs
at 1300 rpm. Check if the aircraft propeller
matching for cruise flight is achieved.
Compute any extra power or power shortfall
that may be found.
[Cruise flight is possible; 82 kW extra
power available.]
20
Lect-31
Next
Jet Engine Ideal Cycle Analysis
21
32
1
Lect-32
In this lecture ...

Ideal gas turbine cycles
Thrust and efficiency
The thrust equation
Other engine performance parameters
Ideal cycle for jet engines
Turbojet engine
Turbojet engine with afterburning
2
Lect-32
Gas turbine cycles

Gas turbine engines operate on Brayton
cycles.
Ideal Brayton cycle is a closed cycle,
whereas gas turbines operate in the open
cycle mode.
Ideal cycle assumes that there are no
irreversibilities in the processes, air
behaves like an ideal gas with constant
specific heats, and that there are no
frictional losses.
3
Lect-32

We will now derive expressions for thrust
and efficiency of air-breathing engines
from the momentum and energy
equations.
We shall consider a generalized thrust
producing device with a single inlet and
single exhaust.
We assume that the thrust and
conditions at all points within the control
volume do not change with time.
4
Lect-32
The thrust equation
m f
Control surface (Reaction)
u
Ai Ae
ue
u, Pa m a
m e
Ae, Pe
Thrust producer u
y
1 2
m s
x
5
Lect-32
The thrust equation

The reaction to the thrust, , is transmitted
to the support. The engine thrust is thus
the vector summation of all forces on the
internal and external surfaces of the
engine.

Therefore, F = u (u .n )dA
CS
Considering the components of force and

the momentum flux in the x-direction only,

Fx = u x (u.n )dA
CS
6
Lect-32
The thrust equation
The pressure and velocity can be
assumed to be constant over the entire
control surface, except over the exhaust
area, Ae.
The net pressure force acting on this
control volume is (PaPe)Ae.
The only other force acting on the control
volume is the reaction to the thrust,.
Adding up the forces in the x-direction,
F x = ( Pa Pe ) Ae +
7
Lect-32
The thrust equation
The mass flow that enters the capture area,
Ai, is m a = uAi
Similarly, the mass flow crossing the exhaust
area Ae, is, m e = eue Ae
Also, m e = m i + m f
Or, m f = eue Ae uAi
Continuity equation for the CV gives,
eue Ae + u ( A Ae ) + m s m f uA = 0
Rearranging, m s = m f + uAe eue Ae
Which is, m s = u ( Ae Ai )
8
Lect-32
The thrust equation
m f
Control surface (Reaction)
u
Ai Ae
ue
u, Pa m a
m e
Ae, Pe
Thrust producer u
y
1 2
m s
x
9
Lect-32
The thrust equation
From the momentum balance across the CV,

u x (u.n )dA = m eue + m su + u ( A Ae )u m au u ( A Ai )u
CS
This is the net outward flux of x-momentum.

This equation reduces to

u x (u.n )dA = m eue m au
CS
From the force balance equation, we have,
= m eue m a u + ( Pe Pa ) Ae
10
Lect-32
The thrust equation
If we define fuel-air ratio, f = m f / m a
= m a [(1 + f )ue u ] + ( Pe Pa ) Ae
This is the generalised thrust equation for
air-breathing engines.
The term (PePa)Ae is not zero only if the
exhaust jet is supersonic and the nozzle does
not expand the exhaust jet to ambient
pressure.
However if Pa Pe, it can be substantial
contribution.
11
Lect-32
Engine performance parameters
The engine performance is described by
different efficiency definitions, thrust and the
fuel consumption.
The efficiency definitions that we shall now
be discussing are applicable to an engine
with a single propellant stream (turbojets or
ramjets).
For other types of jet engines (turbofan,
turboprop) the equations need to be
appropriately modified.
12
Lect-32
Propulsion efficiency: The ratio of thrust
power to the rate of production of propellant
kinetic energy.
u
P =
[
m a (1 + f )(ue2 / 2) u 2 / 2 ]
If we assume that f1 and the pressure
thrust term is negligible,
(ue u )u 2u / ue
P = 2 =
ue / 2 u / 2 1 + u / ue
2
13
Lect-32
Thermal efficiency: The ratio of the rate of
production of propellant kinetic energy to the
total energy consumption rate
th =
[
m a (1 + f )(ue2 / 2) u 2 / 2
=
] [
(1 + f )(ue2 / 2) u 2 / 2 ]
m f QR fQR
where, QR , is the heat of reaction of the fuel.
For a turboprop or turboshaft engine, the

output is largely shaft power. In this case,
Ps
th = where, Ps , is the shaft power output of the engine.
m f QR
14
Lect-32
Overall efficiency: The product of thermal
efficiency and propulsion efficiency.
o = pth
In the case of aircraft that generate thrust

using propellers,
o = prth
Where, pr is the propeller efficiency.
15
Lect-32
Thrust specific fuel consumption, TSFC
m f m f
TSFC =
m a [(1 + f )ue u ]
For turbine engines that produce shaft power,
brake specific fuel consumption, BSFC
m f
BSFC =
Ps
For engine (like turboprop) that produce both,
equivalent brake specific fuel consumption,
m f m f
EBSFC = =
Pes Ps + u
16
Lect-32
All air-breathing jet engines operate on the
Brayton cycle (open cycle mode).
The most basic form of a jet engine is a
turbojet engine.
Some of the parameters of a jet engine cycle
are usually design parameters and hence
often fixed a priori: eg. compressor pressure
ratio, turbine inlet temperature etc.
Cycle analysis involves determining the
performance parameters of the cycle with the
known design parameters.
17
Lect-32
Combustion chamber/burner
Diffuser Compressor Turbine Nozzle
a 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Afterburner
Schematic of a turbojet engine and

station numbering scheme
18
Lect-32
The different processes in a turbojet cycle are
the following:
a-1: Air from far upstream is brought to the
air intake (diffuser) with some
acceleration/deceleration
1-2: Air is decelerated as is passes through
the diffuser
2-3: Air is compressed in a compressor (axial
or centrifugal)
3-4 The air is heated using a combustion
chamber/burner
19
Lect-32
4-5: The air is expanded in a turbine to obtain

power to drive the compressor
5-6: The air may or may not be further
heated in an afterburner by adding further
fuel
6-7: The air is accelerated and exhausted
through the nozzle.
20
Lect-32
4
T
5
3
7
2
a
Ideal turbojet cycle (without afterburning)

on a T-s diagram
21
Lect-32
For cycle analysis we shall take up each
component and determine the exit conditions
based on known inlet parameters.
Intake: Ambient pressure, temperature and
Mach number are known, Pa, Ta and M
Intake exit stagnation temperature and
pressure are determined from the isentropic
relations: 1 2
T02 = Ta 1 + M
2
/( 1)
T02
P02 = Pa
Ta
22
Lect-32
Compressor: Let the known compressor
pressure ratio be denoted as c
P03 = c P02
T03 = T02 ( c )
( 1) /
Combustion chamber: From energy balance,

h04 = h03 + fQR
T04 / T03 1
or , f =
QR / c pT03 T04 / T03
Hence, we can determine the fuel-air ratio.
23
Lect-32
Turbine: Since the turbine produces work to
drive the compressor, Wturbine = Wcompressor
m t c p (T04 T05 ) = m a c p (T03 T02 )
or , (1 + f )(T04 T05 ) = (T03 T02 )
T05 = T04 (T03 T02 ) /(1 + f )
/( 1)
T05
Hence, P05 = P04
T04
For an ideal combustion chamber, P04 = P03
24
Lect-32
Nozzle: With no afterburner, T06=T05, P06=P05
Therefore, the nozzle exit kinetic energy,
ue2
= h07 h7
2
Since, h07 = h06
[
ue = 2c pT06 1 (Pa / P06 )
( 1) /
]
Thrust, TSFC and efficiencies can now be
determined using the formulae derived earlier.
25
Lect-32
Thrust, = m
a [(1 + f )ue u ] + ( Pe Pa ) Ae
If ( Pe Pa ) Ae is negligible,
= m a [(1 + f )ue u ]
m f m f
TSFC =
m a [(1 + f )ue u ]
u
Propulsion efficiency, P =
[
m a (1 + f )(ue2 / 2) u 2 / 2 ]
Thermal efficiency, th =
[(1 + f )(u 2
e/ 2) u 2 / 2 ]
fQR
26
Lect-32
6a
T
7a
5, 6
2
a
s
Ideal turbojet cycle with afterburning on a
T-s diagram
27
Lect-32
Afterburning: used when the aircraft needs a
substantial increment in thrust. For eg. to
accelerate to and cruise at supersonic speeds.
Since the air-fuel ratio in gas turbine engines
are much greater than the stoichiometric
values, there is sufficient amount of air
available for combustion at the turbine exit.
There are no rotating components like a
turbine in the afterburner, the temperatures
can be taken to much higher values than that
at turbine entry.
28
Lect-32
For calculating the fuel flow rate required to
achieve a temperature of T6a, we carry out an
energy balance,
h06 a = h05 + f 2QR
T06 a / T05 1
or , f 2 =
QR / c pT05 T06 / T05
Where, f = f1 + f 2 , f is the total fuel
flow ratio, f1 is the fuel flow ratio
in the main combustor.
29
Lect-32
In this lecture ...

Ideal gas turbine cycles
The thrust equation
Other engine performance parameters
Turbojet engine
Turbojet engine with afterburning
30
Lect-32

Turbofan engine
Different configurations of turbofan
engines
Turboprop engines
Turboshaft engines
Ramjets
31
33
1
Lect-33
In this lecture ...

Turbofan engine
engines
Turboprop and Turboshaft engines
Ramjets
2
Lect-33
Turbofan engine
Propulsion efficiency is a function of the
exhaust velocity to flight speed ratio.
This can be increased by reducing the effective
exhaust velocity.
In a turbofan engine, a fan of a larger
diameter than the compressor is used to
generate a mass flow higher than the core
mass flow.
This ratio (m
cold / m hot ) is called the bypass ratio.
Turbofan engines have a higher propulsion
efficiency as compared with turbojet engines
operating in the same speed range.
3
Lect-33
Ideal turbofan engine
2 3 Secondary 7
Diffuser nozzle
Fan Combustion chamber/burner

Compressor Turbine
Primary nozzle
a 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Schematic of an unmixed turbofan

engine and station numbering scheme
4
Lect-33
Diffuser
2 3 7 Nozzle

Compressor Turbine
a 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Schematic of a mixed turbofan engine

and station numbering scheme
5
Lect-33
The different processes in an unmixed
turbofan cycle are the following:
a-1: Air from far upstream is brought to the
air intake (diffuser) with some
acceleration/deceleration
1-2: Air is decelerated as is passes through
the diffuser
2-3: Air is compressed in a fan
2-3: Air is compressed in a compressor (axial
or centrifugal)
6
Lect-33
3-4 The air is heated using a combustion
chamber/burner
4-5: The air is expanded in a turbine to obtain
power to drive the compressor
5-6: The air may or may not be further
heated in an afterburner by adding further
fuel
6-7: The air is accelerated and exhausted
through the primary nozzle.
3-7: The air in the bypass duct is accelerated
and expanded through the secondary nozzle.
7
Lect-33
A turbofan engine can have different
configurations: Twin-spool, three-spool, and
geared turbofan. These may be either
unmixed or mixed.
Cycle analysis of a turbofan can hence be
slightly different depending upon the
configuration of the engine.
We shall now carry out an ideal cycle analysis
of an unmixed twin-spool turbofan engine.
Subsequently we shall also discuss the mixed
version of the engine.
8
Lect-33
Intake: Ambient pressure, temperature and
Mach number are known, Pa, Ta and M
Intake exit stagnation temperature and
pressure are determined from the isentropic
relations: 1 2
T02 ' = Ta 1 + M
2
/( 1)
T02
P02 ' = Pa
Ta
Fan: Fan pressure ratio is known, f = P03' / P02 '
P03' = f P02 '
T03' = T02 ' ( f )
( 1) /
9
Lect-33
Compressor: Let the known compressor
pressure ratio be denoted as c
P03 = c P02
T03 = T02 ( c )
( 1) /

h04 = h03 + fQR
T04 / T03 1
or , f =
QR / c pT03 T04 / T03
Hence, we can determine the fuel-air ratio.
10
Lect-33
Ideal turbofan engines
Turbine: There are several configurations
possible for a turbofan.
Let us assume that the engine has two spools.
The fan driven by the low pressure turbine
(LPT).
The compressor is driven by the high pressure
turbine (HPT).
The work done by the LPT should be equal to
the fan work and the work done by the HPT
should be equal to the compressor work.
11
Lect-33
High pressure turbine:
m t c p (T04 T05' ) = m aH c p (T03 T02 )
Here, T05' is the temperature at the HPT exit.
(1 + f )(T04 T05' ) = (T03 T02 )
T05' = T04 (T03 T02 ) /(1 + f )
/( 1)
T05'
Hence, P05' = P04
T04
For an ideal combustion chamber, P04 = P03
12
Lect-33
Low pressure turbine:
m t c p (T05' T05 ) = m aC c p (T03' T02 ' )

Here, T05' is the temperature at the HPT exit/LPT inlet.
m aC
(1 + f )(T05' T05 ) = (T03' T02 ' ), where, =
m aH
T05 = T05' (T03' T02 ' ) /(1 + f )
/( 1)
T05
And, P05 = P05'
T05'
13
Lect-33
Primary nozzle: With no afterburner, T06=T05,
P06=P05
Therefore, the nozzle exit kinetic energy,
2
u e
= h07 h7
2
Since, h07 = h06
[
ue = 2c pT06 1 (Pa / P06 )
( 1) /
]
This is similar to what we had derived for a
pure turbojet.
14
Lect-33
Secondary nozzle:
The secondary nozzle exit kinetic energy,
uef2
= h07 ' h7 '
2
Since, h07 ' = h03'
[
uef = 2c pT03' 1 (Pa / P03' )
( 1) /
]
The thrust and other parameters can now be
calculated.
15
Lect-33
Thrust,
= m aH [(1 + f )ue u ] + m aH (uef u )
assuming ( Pe Pa ) Ae to be negligible.
SFC, TSFC, efficiencies can be calculated the
same way as done for the turbojet case.
If the turbofan is of a mixed configuration,

then, we will have to calculate the
temperature at the nozzle entry from enthalpy
balance of the two streams.
16
Lect-33
The cycle analysis procedure will need to be
slightly modified depending upon the turbofan
engine configuration.
The differences in the various configuration
arise because of the number of spools and
turbine-compressor/fan arrangements as well
as mixed and unmixed exhausts.
Exercise: Carry out the ideal cycle analysis for a
turbofan with three spool configuration with LPT
driving the fan, Intermediate pressure turbine
(IPT) driving the LPC and the HPT driving the
HPC for mixed and unmixed configurations.
17
Lect-33
Ideal turboprop and turboshaft
engines
Turboprop engines generate a substantial shaft
power in addition to nozzle thrust.
Turboshaft engines, generate only shaft power.
These engines are used in helicopters. The
shaft power is used to drive the main rotor
blade.
In a turboprop engine, the advantages and
limitations are those of the propeller.
Both turboprops and turboshafts have
applications at relatively lower speeds.
18
Lect-33
engines
Propeller
Nozzle
Compressor Combustion chamber/burner
Propeller
pitch
control
Gear box Compressor- Power turbine

turbine
Schematic of typical turboprop engine

19
Lect-33
engines
Turboprops and turboshafts usually have a
free-turbine or power turbine to drive the
propeller or the main rotor blade (turboshafts).
Stress limitations require that the large
diameter propeller rotate at a much lower rate
and hence a speed reducer is required.
Turboprops may also have a thrust component
due to the jet exhaust in addition to the
propeller thrust.
In turboshafts, however, there is no thrust
component due to the nozzle.
20
Lect-33
engines
Cycle analysis for a turboshaft is similar to
what was discussed for turbojets. The
power output is only the shaft power and
there is no thrust generated by the nozzle.
In turboprops, thrust consists of two
components, the propeller thrust and the
nozzle thrust.
The total thrust of a propeller is equal to
the sum of the nozzle thrust and the
propeller thrust.
21
Lect-33
engines
6
5 P05
7 h
05
P06
h
h 06
Pa
Enthalpy-entropy diagram for power turbine-

exhaust nozzle analysis
22
Lect-33
engines
h is the enthalpy drop in an ideal
isentropic power turbine and exhaust
nozzle.
is the fraction of h that would be used
by an isentropic turbine.
The propeller thrust power, pr u, is
h m
pr u = h m or, pr =
u
23
Lect-33
engines
The exhaust nozzle thrust, n ,
n = m (ue u ), where, ue = 2(1 )h
Thus, the total thrust is given by,

h m
= pr + n = + m ( 2(1 )h u )
u
24
Lect-33
Ideal ramjet engines

Ramjet is the simplest of all the airbreathing
engines.
It consists of a diffuser, combustion chamber
and a nozzle.
Ramjets are most efficient when operated at
supersonic speeds.
When air is decelerated from a high Mach
number to a low subsonic Mach number, it
results in substantial increase in pressure and
temperature.
Hence Ramjets do not need compressors and
consequently no turbines as well.
25
Lect-33

Diffuser Combustion chamber Nozzle
Flame holders
Supersonic Subsonic
compression compression
Schematic of typical ramjet engine

26
Lect-32
4
T a-2: isentropic
compression in the intake
2-4: combustion at
constant pressure
2
7 4-7: Isentropic expansion
through the nozzle
a
Ideal ramjet cycle on a T-s diagram
27
Lect-33

The ideal cycle analysis for a ramjet can be
carried out in a manner that was discussed for
turbojet engines.
In a ramjet, there are no compressors and
turbines and hence the analysis is simpler.
Since ramjets depend upon the ram
compression without the use of compressors,
ramjets cannot generate static thrust.
Therefore ramjets have to be taken to a
sufficiently high speed at which ramjets can
start generating thrust of its own.
28
Lect-33
In this lecture ...

Turbofan engine
engines
Turboprop and Turboshaft engines
Ramjets
29
Lect-33
Solve problems
Ideal cycle analysis of air breathing
engines
30
34
1
Lect-34
In this lecture ...
Solve problems
Ideal cycle analysis of air breathing
engines
2
Lect-34
Problem # 1
The following data apply to a turbojet
flying at an altitude where the ambient
conditions are 0.458 bar and 248 K.
Speed of the aircraft: 805 km/h
Compressor pressure ratio: 4:1
Turbine inlet temperature: 1100 K
Nozzle outlet area 0.0935 m2
Heat of reaction of the fuel: 43 MJ/kg
Find the thrust and TSFC assuming cp as
1.005 kJ/kgK and as 1.4
3
Lect-34
Combustion chamber/burner
Diffuser Compressor Turbine Nozzle
a 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Afterburner
Schematic of a turbojet engine and

station numbering scheme
4
Lect-34
4
T
5
3
7
2
a
Ideal turbojet cycle (without afterburning)

on a T-s diagram
5
Lect-34
Solution: Problem # 1
Speed of the aircraft =
805x1000/3600=223.6 m/s
Mach number = 223.6/(RT)
= 223.6/ (1.4x287x248)
= 0.708
Intake:
1 2 1.4 1
T02 = Ta 1 + M = 2481 + 0.7082 = 272.86 K
2 2
/( 1)
T02
P02 = Pa = 0.458(272.86 / 248)1.4 /(1.41) = 0.639 bar
Ta
6
Lect-34
Compressor:
P03 = c P02 = 4 0.639 = 2.556 bar
T03 = T02 ( c )
( 1) /
= 272.86(4) (1.41) /1.4 = 405.63 K

h04 = h03 + fQR
T04 / T03 1
or , f =
QR / c pT03 T04 / T03
1100 / 405.63 1
= = 0.017
(43 10 / 1005 405.63) 1100 / 405.63
6
7
Lect-34
Turbine: Since the turbine produces work to
drive the compressor, Wturbine = Wcompressor
m t c p (T04 T05 ) = m a c p (T03 T02 )

T05 = T04 (T03 T02 ) /(1 + f )
= 1100 (405.63 272.86) /(1 + 0.017) = 969.45 K
/( 1)
T05
Hence, P05 = P04 = 2.556(969.45 / 1100)1.4 /(1.41)
T04
= 1.642 bar
8
Lect-34
Nozzle: we first check for choking of the
nozzle.
The nozzle pressure ratio is
P05/Pa=1.642/0.458=3.58
The critical pressure ratio is
/( 1) 1.4 /(1.4 1)
P05 + 1 1.4 + 1
= = = 1.893
2 2
*
P
Therefore the nozzle is choking.

The nozzle exit conditions will be determined
by the critical properties.
9
Lect-34
2 2
T7 = T =
*
T05 = 969.5 = 807.92 K
+1 1.4 + 1
1 1.642
P7 = P = P05
*
=
*
= 0.867
P04 / P 1.893
7 = P7 / RT7 = 0.867 105 /( 287 807.92) = 0.374 kg/m 3
Therefore, u e = RT7 = 1.4 287 807.92 = 569.75 m/s
The mass flow rate is, m = 7 A7ue = 19.92 kg/s
10
Lect-34
[(1 + f)u e u ] + A7 ( P * Pa )
The thrust developed is = m
= 19.92[(1 + 0.017)569.75 223.6]
+ 0.0935(0.867 0.458) 105
= 10.912 kN
Fuel flow rate, m f = f m a = 0.017 19.92 = 0.3387 kg/s
Therefore, TSFC = m f / = 3.1 10 5 kg/Ns = 0.111 kg/N h
11
Lect-34
Problem # 2
The following data apply to a twin spool turbofan
engine, with the fan driven by the LP turbine and
the compressor by the HP turbine. Separate hot
and cold nozzles are used.
Overall pressure ratio: 19.0
Fan pressure ratio: 1.65
Bypass ratio: 3.0
Turbine inlet temperature: 1300 K
Air mass flow: 115 kg/s
Find the sea level static thrust and TSFC if the
ambient pressure and temperature are 1 bar and
288 K. Heat of reaction of the fuel: 43 MJ/kg
12
Lect-34
2 3 Secondary 7
Diffuser nozzle

Compressor Turbine
Primary nozzle
a 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Schematic of an unmixed turbofan

engine and station numbering scheme
13
Lect-34
Since we are required to find the static
thrust, the Mach number is zero.
Intake: 1
T02 ' = Ta 1 + M 2 = 288 K
2
/( 1)
T02 '
P02 ' = Pa = 1 bar
Ta
Fan: Fan pressure ratio is known: f = P03' / P02'
P03' = f P02 ' = 1.65 bar
T03' = T02 ' ( f )
( 1) /
= 288(1.65) (1.41) /1.4 = 332.35 K
14
Lect-34
Compressor:
c = Overall pressure ratio/1.65 = 19 / 1.65 = 11.515
P03 = c P02 = 11.51511.65 = 19.0 bar
T03 = T02 ( c )
( 1) /
= 332.35 (11.515) (1.41) /1.4 = 668.53 K
T04 / T03 1
f =
QR / c pT03 T04 / T03
1300 / 668.53 1
= = 0.01522
(43 10 / 1005 668.53) 1300 / 668.53
6
15
Lect-34
High pressure turbine:
m t c p (T04 T05' ) = m aH c p (T03 T02 )

Here, T05' is the temperature at the HPT exit.
T05' = T04 (T03 T02 ) /(1 + f )
= 1300 (668.53 332.53) /(1 + 0.01522) = 969.04 K
/( 1) 1.4 /(1.4 1)
T05' 969.04
Hence, P05' = P04 = 19 = 6.79 bar
T04 1300
16
Lect-34
Low pressure turbine:
m t c p (T05' T05 ) = m aC c p (T03' T02 ' )
Here, T05' is the temperature at the HPT exit/LPT inlet.
m aC
T05 = T05' (T03' T02 ' ) /(1 + f ), where, =
m aH
= 969.04 3 (332.35 288) /(1 + 0.01522) = 837.98 K
/( 1) 1.4 /(1.4 1)
T05 837.98
And, P05 = P05' = 6.79 = 4.08 bar
T05' 969.04
17
Lect-34
Primary nozzle: we first check for choking of
the nozzle.
P05/Pa=4.08/1=4.08 bar
/( 1) 1.4 /(1.4 1)
P05 + 1 1.4 + 1
= = = 1.893
2 2
*
P
Therefore the nozzle is choking.

The nozzle exit conditions will be determined
by the critical properties.
18
Lect-34
2 2
T7 = T =
*
T05 = 837.98 = 698.32 K
+1 1.4 + 1
1 4.08
P7 = P = P05
*
=
*
= 2.155 bar
P05 / P 1.893
Therefore, u e = RT7 = 1.4 287 698.32 = 529.7 m/s
19
Lect-34
Secondary nozzle:
P03/Pa=1.65/1=1.65 bar
/( 1) 1.4 /(1.4 1)
P05 + 1 1.4 + 1
= = = 1.893
2 2
*
P
Therefore the nozzle is not choking.

[
uef = 2c pT03' 1 (Pa / P03' )
( 1) /
]
[
= 2 1005 332.35 1 (1 / 1.65) (1.41) /1.4 = 298.52 ]
20
Lect-34
Thrust,
= m aH [(1 + f )ue u ] + m aH (uef u )
assuming ( Pe Pa ) Ae to be negligible.
m aC / m aH = 3.0, m aH + m aC = 115 kg/s
m aH = 115 / 4 = 28.75 kg/s
= 28.75[(1 + 0.01522) 529.7 0]
+ 3 28.75(298.52 0)
= 40.74 kN
21
Lect-34
Exercise: calculate the thrust by factoring the
pressure thrust term as well. Hint: you can
calculate the exit area from mass flow, density
and exhaust velocity.
TSFC,
Fuel flow rate, m f = f m a = 0.01522 28.75 = 0.4376 kg/s
Therefore, TSFC = m f / = 1.075 10 5 kg/Ns = 0.0388 kg/N h
22
Lect-34
Problem # 3
A helicopter using a turboshaft engine is
flying at 300 km/h at an altitude where the
ambient temperature is 5oC. Determine the
specific power output and thermal
efficiency. The specifications of the engine
are: compressor pressure ratio=9.0,
turbine inlet temperature = 800oC.
23
Lect-34
Problem # 3
For a turboshaft engine, there is no nozzle thrust.
u=300x1000/3600= 83.33 m/s
Ta=278 K
Therefore, Mach number
M=83.33/(1.4x287x278) =0.25
Intake:
1 2 1.4 - 1
T02 = Ta 1 + M = 2781 + 0.252 = 281.48 K
2 2
/( 1) 1.4 /(1.4 1)
T02 281.48
P02 = Pa = 0.8 = 0.835 bar
Ta 278
24
Lect-34
Problem # 3
Compressor:
P03 = c P02 = 9.0 0.835 = 7.52 bar
T03 = T02 ( c )
( 1) /
= 281.48 (9.0) (1.41) /1.4 = 527.67 K
Specific work required to drive the compressor,
Wc = c p (T03 T02 ) = 1.005(527.67 281.48) = 247.42 kJ/kg
Combustor:
T04 / T03 1
f =
QR / c pT03 T04 / T03
1073 / 527.67 1
= = 0.013
(43 10 / 1005 527.67) 1073 / 527.67
6
25
Lect-34
Problem # 3
Turbine:
P04 P03 P03 P02 0.835

= = = 9 = 9.394
P05 Pa P02 Pa 0.8
( 1) /
T04 P04
= = 9.394(1.41) /1.4 = 1.897
T05 P05
T05 = 565.63K
Work done by the turbine, Wt = (1 + f )c p (T04 T05 )
= (1 + 0.013) 1.005 (1073 565.63)
= 516.54 kJ/kg
26
Lect-34
Problem # 3
Specific work output, Wnet =Wt Wc

=516.54-247.42
=269.12 kJ/kg
Thermal efficiency: Wnet/Qin

Qin=cp(T04-T03)= 1.005(1073-527.67)
=548.05 kJ/kg
Therefore, thermal efficiency =269.12/548.05
=0.49 or 49%
27
Lect-34
Exercise Problem # 1
A turbojet engine inducts 51 kg of air per
second and propels an aircraft with a
uniform flight speed of 912 km/h. The
enthalpy change for the nozzle is 200
kJ/kg. The fuel-air ratio is 0.0119 and the
heating value of the fuel is 42 MJ/kg.
Determine the thermal efficiency, TSFC,
propulsive power.
Ans: 0.34, 0.1034 kg/Nh, 8012 kW.
28
Lect-34
A twin spool mixed turbofan engine
operates with an overall pressure ratio of
18. The fan operates with a pressure ratio
is 1.5 and the bypass ratio is 5.0. The
turbine inlet temperature is 1200 K. If the
engine is operating at a Mach number of
0.75 at an altitude where the ambient
temperature and pressure are 240 K and
0.5 bar.
Determine the thrust and the SFC.
Ans: 74 kN, 0.027 kg/N h
29
Lect-34
An aircraft using a turboprop engine is
flying at 800 km/h at an altitude where the
ambient conditions are 0.567 bar and -
20oC. Compressor pressure ratio is 8.0 and
the turbine inlet temperature is 1100 K.
Assuming that the turboprop does not
generate any nozzle thrust, determine the
specific power output and the thermal
efficiency.
Ans: 311 kJ/kg, 0.44
30
35
1
Lect 35
Ramjets
and
Pulsejets
2
Lect 35
Ramjet Schematic
3
Lect 35
The ramjet engine produces power by

increasing the momentum of the working
fluid, i.e. air.
In contrast to the other air-breathing
engines, the working cycle is done without
compressor and turbine, and also without
any need for enclosed combustion.
Ramjet engine is mechanically the least
complicated air-breathing jet engine for
thrust production --- for flying vehicles.
4
Lect 35
Ramjets apply compression to the air by

ram compression at very high speeds
(M>2.0).
All the compression is done in the
diffusing (ram) process.
This restricts the use of ramjet to only
supersonic speeds. No Take off, Landing
possible.
At very high Mach numbers (>5.0) the
shocks in the intake produce large losses
that restricts the actual performance of
the engine.
5
Lect 35
After the diffusion in Intake, fuel is injected

into the stream in the combustion zone.
The high temperature and high pressure gas
is expanded through a nozzle, - to a
supersonic flow at the exit.
The mixture of air and burned fuel is
exhausted through a convergent-divergent
(C-D) nozzle.
Exit pressure (Pe) is same as or nearly same
as the ambient pressure. Thus the chocking
pressure (Pc) at the throat is higher than the
ambient pressure (Pa).
6
Lect 35
Isp = Specific Impulse
Cruise Range
7
Lect 35
Ramjet Cycle Diagram
8
Lect 35
The ideal ramjet operates on a Jule-Brayton

cycle.
The actual cycle, has strong irreversibilities
in the form of large pressure losses,
practically at every step of the flow
processes. (Fig.).
As shown in the diagram the diffusion
process is adiabatic but irreversible (large
total pressure losses).
The heat addition in the combustion
chamber is accompanied (total) pressure
loss.
9
Lect 35
Through a multiplication of (total)

pressure losses the exhaust nozzle entry
pressure reached is substantially lower
than that of an ideal engine
As a result the pressure ratio (i.e. total-

to-static) available across the nozzle, is
significantly reduced compared to an ideal
engine. Additional losses occur inside the
exit nozzle.
10
Lect 35
The general thrust equation can be written to include

fuel addition. And by substituting the mass flow term
from continuity condition, Thrust of the engine is :
pe
F = .Va . A1 (m .Ve Va ) + Ae . pa . 1
pa
where, m = 1 + f , and f=fuel/air ratio, and A1, Ae = Area of flow
enttry and exit, and pa , pe are the ambient and the exit pressures
Hence, specific thrust
F Ve Ae pa pe
CF = = Va . m 1 + . . 1
m Va A1 aVa pa
11
Lect 35
For a reasonable value of specific thrust to
be achieved, Ve>>Va i.e. substantial
acceleration across the engine, or pe>>pa
i.e. a substantial pressure (static)
increment inside the engine are required to
be achieved.
Specific fuel consumption : The efficiency of
an engine is often defined by its specific fuel
consumption, which is defined under a
specific operating condition, as :
m f f f
= =
sfc =
F F / m a CF
12
Lect 35
Efficiency : The thermal efficiency of an

engine represents the fraction of heat
released in the combustion process that is
converted to work (in this case thrust work),
and is a useful parameter for comparing
various engine designs under standard
operating conditions.
T .Va
=
f .m a .Q f
where , Q f = heating value of fuel, kJ/kg
13
Lect 35
14
Lect 35
At flight Mach 5 and above the unit

becomes a Supersonic Combustion
Ramjet (SCRAMJET) in which the
combustion is done in supersonic flow.
An isolator is inserted before the combustor
to diffuse further through a shock train,
producing a low supersonic flow in to the
scramjet combustors.
Scramjet produces useful thrust at higher
flight Mach numbers
15
Lect 35
Scramjet Engine
16
Lect 35
Pulsejets
17
Lect 35
Pulsejets - operation
1) A spark plug initiates the combustion

process inside the combustion chamber
when the inlet valves are closed
2) Combustion occurs in an enclosed
chamber and is approximately a constant
volume process
3) Combustion is nearly an explosion in that
enclosed volume and raises the pressure
and temperature to high values
18
Lect 35
4) The high pressure and temperature

forces the gases to flow out of the tail pipe
and nozzle
5) Evacuation of the combustion chamber
results in pressure drop that opens the
spring loaded inlet valve and air comes in
from the intake
6) The spring loaded inlet valves are
normally closed and open only when the
pressure difference across it is attained.
19
Lect 35

air 1 2
1
air
P01 = P0 a = Pa .1 + .M a
2
air 1 2
T01 = T0 a = Ta .1 + .M a = T02
2

air 1 2 1
P02 = Pa .1 + I . .M a
air
2
P03= P02(T03/T02)
a .c p-air .T02 + m
m f .Q f .cc = (m
a +m
f ).c gas .T03
whereby, f =
(c gas .T03 c p-air .T02 )
(cc .Q f ) (cgas .T03 )
20
Lect 35

1 1

T 04 P04 gas
Pa gas

= ; and, Ve = 2.cp gas .T04 1

T4 Pe P 03

In a real cycle Pe Pa ; in an ideal cycle, Pe = Pa
Thrust, F = m a .(1 + f).Ve m a .V a+(Pe Pa ).Ae
Specific F 1
= (1 + f).Ve Va + (Pe Pa ).Ae
Thrust m a m
Thrust Specific fuel consumption may be
written as f
m f
=
TSFC: F F
ma
21
Next
Rocket Propulsion

36
1
Lect 36
Rockets,
Missiles,
and
Spacecrafts
2
Lect 36
Chinese used rockets in the 12th century AD

against the Mongol attacks.
In India Tipu Sultan used rockets against
the British army in the 18th century.
The modern rocket scientists, : Contantin
Tsiolkovosky of Russia,, Hans Oberth and
Fritz Opel of Germany, and Robert Goddard
and Werner Von Braun of USA.
They and many others help develop the
fundamental scientific principles of rockets,
including multi-stage rockets, for launching
satellites and space vehicles.
3
Lect 36
The operation of a rocket is not dependent on

atmosphere or forward speed.
This is an advantage as the rocket is the method of
propelling vehicles beyond earths atmosphere.
And a disadvantage, as both the fuel and the
oxidizer must be carried in the body of the rocket.
The basic rocket devise is a thermal rocket motor,
which is a heat engine.
It converts chemical energy into heat by burning of
propellant and oxidizer
The heat creates high energy of the burnt gases
which is accelerated through a shaped nozzle.
The large momentum of the exhaust gas creates
the reaction force, by Newtons laws of motion, and
acts as Thrust for propelling it forward.
4
Lect 36
GSLV
PSLV
Indian
GSLV-VIII Satellite
Launch
Vehicles
SLV ASLV
5
Lect 36
PSLV
launch
from
Sriharikota
Launch
base
6
Lect 36
Proton Rocket - Apollo Spacecraft for Moon

Russia mission USA (Saturn Rocket)
7
Lect 36
Space Shuttle Columbia launch
8
Lect 36
Types of missiles
Conventional guided missiles (targetted)
Air-to-air missile
Air-to-surface missile
Anti-ballistic missile
Anti-satellite weapon
Anti-ship missile
Land-attack missile
Anti-tank guided missile
Surface-to-air missile (list)
Surface-to-surface missile
Wire-guided missile
9
Lect 36
Types of missiles
Cruise missiles (has a long cruise flight)
Ballistic missiles (Aim and Shoot)
Tactical ballistic missile
Short-range ballistic missile
Theatre Ballistic Missiles
Medium-range ballistic missile
Intermediate-range ballistic missile
Intercontinental ballistic missile
Submarine-launched ballistic missile
Air-launched ballistic missile
10
Lect 36
German V-2 Missile
11
Lect 36
Pressure distributions contributing to thrust
Net thrust created, p.dA

Fnet =
12
Lect 36
As heat engine the rocket works the same way as the

other heat engines do. However, since it does not use
the atmospheric air it does not complete a cycle.
Heat engine as a (a) Jet Engines, (b) Rocket
13
Lect 36
There are two basic kinds of fuel and oxidizer

used in rocket engines.
One in which the fuel and the oxidizer are
both liquid and are separately pumped into
the rocket motor combustion chamber.
In the other variety the fuel and the oxidizer
are both solids, often in mixtures, are
already positioned inside the combustion
chamber in suitable shapes and sizes.
In both the cases the burnt mixture of
gases is released through nozzles for thrust
creation.
14
Lect 36
Schematic of Liquid and Solid Propellant

Rocket Engines
15
Lect 36
Basic Rocket Science :

Thrust generation
An equation for rocket thrust is obtained from
simple momentum analysis. If the mass of the
rocket at time t + dt is m and dm is expended in
time dt, accompanied by a velocity change dV,
then conservation of momentum requires that
( m + dm )V = m (V + dV ) + dm (V - Ve-max )
Where, Ve-max is the velocity of the exhaust gas relative

to the rocket after full expansion to the atmosphere
16
Lect 36
From which, we can derive that

0 = m dV - Ve-max dm
differentiating with respect to time
mdv dm
= Ve-max
dt dt
mdv
is the propulsive force or thrust, Fj and
dt
dm
is the mass flux of fuel and oxidizer together,
dt
17
Lect 36
Hence the jet thrust may be written as :

dm
Fj = Ve max
dt
The exhaust velocity Ve-max depends on the
design of the exhaust nozzle and on the local
ambient conditions of flight.
In a well designed convergent-divergent nozzle,
the exhaust velocity is known approx. for flights
within the atmosphere.
The value of is determined by the internal
temperature and chemical composition of the
exhaust, and is normally less than the value for
ordinary air.
18
Lect 36
2. .(T0cc Te )
Ve = 2.c p .(T0cc Te ) =
1
2. .Tcc .(1 Te /T0cc ) The ideal exhaust
=
1 velocity is obtained -
1

P
2. .T0cc .1 a
P
0cc
=
1 T0cc Comb. Chamber temp
Te - Exhaust face temp.
2. .T0cc .cycle Pa - Atm. Pressure
= P0cc - Comb Chamber Pr.
1
cycle - Ideal Cycle efficiency
2. .T0cc
= Ve max (for limiting case - vaccuum)
1
19
Lect 36
The Thrust Specific Fuel (Propellant) g .m g

Consumption (TSFC) of a rocket is :
=
F Vex
The reciprocal of Thrust per unit fuel weight and is
used as a measure of propulsive efficiency, and is
called specific impulse.
Fj
Specific impulse = Isp =

g.m
The specific impulse values at sea level and at
altitude are not the same (for same propellant and
nozzle), in terms of the measured thrust.
------- To be continued
20
37
1
Lect 37
Rockets, Missiles --- continued
In the last lecture fundamental parameters

were introduced :
FJ
Ve-max
Isp
Another parameter is weight flow = m.
W g
2
Lect 37
rocket thrust in the atmosphere.
If the exit area is Aex, the exit pressure pex , and the
altitude ambient pressure pa (pSL-a at sea level), then
the altitude thrust is less than the thrust in a vacuum
by the amount pa .
sea level thrust of
the rocket, F =m V + A (p p )
SL J ex ex ex SL a
at altitude, ex +A ex ( p ex - p a )
Fj =mV
Thus, thrust at any altitude
Fj = FSL j + A ex (pSL a p a ) = FSL j + pSL a .A ex .(1 )
Where, = pa Pr. drop with altitude
pSL a
3
Lect 37
Thrust in vacuum is :
F j = m .Vex + Pex . Aex

W
or, Fj = .Vex + Pex .A ex
g
From these equations the specific impulse (at S.L.)
is given as
FSL j + pSL a (A ex )(1 ) Where,
I sp = .
g.m = p a p 0a
In vacuum this becomes

Vex
Isp =
g
4
Lect 37
The characteristics of a rocket is also signified by a

parameter called characteristics velocity,
V* = Ve /CF
where, CF is the Thrust coefficient = Fj / pcAt
pc is combustion chamber pressure and
At nozzle throat area
Now, if weight flow rate of propellant is given as

one can define a specific propellant consumption
rate as
=W
W /F = 1/I = g/I
sp sp sp
and a weight flow coefficient as C w= W

/ p A
c t
5
Lect 37
Thus, based on the above definitions one

can write characteristic velocity
g .I g
g g . pc . At
V = = = =
*

W .C C F Cw W
sp F
The combustion chamber pressure pc is

dependant on the chemical and the ignition
properties of the propellants.
These characteristics parameters vary with
the propellant used.
6
Lect 37
The ideal characteristic velocity may also

be written as :
ac
V =*
2

2 2 k
2
k 1
k + 1 k + 1

ac is the acoustic velocity of the gas in the
combustion chamber and is decided by the
thermodynamic state of the gas as specified
in the value of specific heat ratio k ,
prevalent there. Thus V* is dependant only
on the two parameters.
7
Lect 37
Liquid Rocket Motor
8
Lect 37
A liquid rocket combustion chamber is

designed to accommodate and allow sufficient
resident time for the following job :
Injection, atomization, vaporization and

even mixing of liquid fuel and liquid oxidiser
Thermal decomposition of the oxidizer to

enable chemical reaction with fuel
Ignition, flame stabilization and combustion

of fuel, oxidizer mixture
9
Lect 37
Even dispersion of combustion products

towards the exhaust nozzle
The volume, length and shape of the
combustion chamber needs to be selected
to complete all the above steps. Various
fuel-oxidizer combination provides for
various characteristics length, L* for rocket.
L* = CC Volume/Throat Area= Vcc /At
The values of L* are found experimentally.
10
Lect 37
Some of the common liquid propellant fuel and oxidizer

combinations are as follows:
Oxidiser Fuels
Liquid Oxygen (O2) Liquid Hydrogen; Kerosene,
Fluorine, Hydrazine, Ethanol,
Methanol, Liquid ammonia,
Nitric Acid (HNO3) Hydrazine, Kerosene , Liquid

Ammonia, Aniline, Turpentine
Hydrogen Peroxide Ethanol, Methanol, Hydrazine,

(H2O2) Kerosene, Ethylene Diamine
11
Lect 37
The highest specific impulse values are obtained

by using hydrogen as a fuel and burning it either
with oxygen or fluorine. At sea level, using a
combustion chamber operating as 35 kN/m2
absolute pressure, one can achieve
Hydrogen + Fluorine = 375 seconds;

Hydrogen + Oxygen = 362 seconds.
12
Lect 37
Desirable properties of liquid propellants:
Low Freezing point

High specific gravity
Good chemical stability during storage
High specific heat, High thermal conductivity,
and high decomposition temperatures
Pumping properties flowability (under
Cryogenic condition)
Temperature stability of physical properties
e.g. viscosity, vapor pressure etc.(e.g. under
cryogenic conditions)
13
Lect 37
Solid Propellant Rockets

The solid rocket motor are pre-fitted with
the propellants inside them.
Total absence of pumps, valves, pipelines,
injectors and the control system makes solid
rockets simpler devices.
The shape and the size of the combustion
chamber is decided by the shape and the
size of the propellant.
Which in turn is decided by its burning
characteristics and the desired combustion
characteristics, required thrust and specific
impulse.
14
Lect 37
Various grain sizes shown in fig. are the

designed for controlled burning in a desired
manner to achieve required specific impulse.
The fabrication, handling, storage and fitting
inside the rocket motor of these grains are
engineering problem, often quite expensive.
Due to the shape / sizes of the propellants
(Fig.) some of the propellants are designed
for restricted burning, - others undergo
unrestricted burning.
Once the propellant is ignited it should burn
smoothly along its exposed surfaces without
detonations.
15
Lect 37
Designs (a) (b), (d) and (e) are restricted burning
types; (c) (f) and (g) are unrestricted burning types
16
Lect 37
17
Lect 37
A solid propellant usually includes two or

more of the following components :
Oxidizer
Fuel
Chemical compound as binder
Additives to control burning and
facilitate fabrication
Inhibiters
The fuel and the oxidizer are both solids

and need to be mixed in correct proportion
to get the best burning behavior.
18
Lect 37
By their chemical composition / fabrication

method solid propellants are of 3 types :
(a) Double base propellants,
(b) Composite propellants,
(c) Multiple base propellant (4 to 8 chemicals).
Double base propellants have been used for

many years in artillery rockets, missiles up to
weight of about 10,000 kg and can produce
specific impulse up to about 250 s.
However most of the bigger rocket propellants
are made of composite propellants.
19
Lect 37
Desirable Properties for Solid Rockets
High release of chemical energy

Lower molecule weight
No deterioration of mechanical and
chemical properties during storage
High density
Relatively unaffected by atmospheric
conditions
High Temperature and Pressure for
combustion initiation
--- Rockets and Nozzles---- to be Continued

20
38
1
Lect-38
Rocket Theories
---------------------- Continued
and
Nozzle theory fundamentals
2
Lect-38
Various Liquid Propellants and

their typical Characteristics
_____________________________________________________________
Prop Ox/F Thrust Isp Pc CF V*
ratio Vac SL Vac SL
Vac
(kN) (kN) s s bar m/s
Lox/LH2 5.2 1075 813 431 310 105 1.87 2380 small
Lox/LH2 6.0 2323 1853 455 363 204 1.91 2410 big
Lox/Ker 2.77 7893 6880 358 265 70 1.82 1810 big

Lox/Ker 2.25 1043 934 295 263 48 1.60 1820 small
3
Lect-38
Solid Rocket Performance Parameters

Propellant weight flow rate,
W = AG .br .G
where, AG = Area of grain burning surface
br = Burning rate (linear) ; G= Density of the grain
Burning rate of a propellant grain may be given as
br = a. pcc n br is in cm/sec
where pcc= Combustion chamber pressure, and, a and n

are burn or combustion indexes for the grain
alternately br = x + y. pccn X and Y are burn
constants
0.2<n<0.8, always n<1.0
4
Lect-38
Now :
Propeller mass burnt =
mass increase in the comb. chamber + gas flow in nozzle
g +1
g 2 g 1
W = AG .br .G = ( cc .vcc ) + At .Pcc .
d

dt R.Tcc g + 1
where At is the nozzle throat area
Now if mass variation inside the combustion chamber is
considered zero then,
d
( cc .vcc ) =0
dt
5
Lect-38
Hence,
g +1 g +1
AG Pcc g 2 Pcc1 n g 1
g 2 g 1
= . .
At G.r R.Tcc g + 1 G .a R.Tcc g + 1
1
AG 1 n AG 1 n
Simplified expression = Pcc or, Pcc =
At At
This expression means that if n is large, variation of
burning surface AG will have large effects on the
chamber pressure and on the propellant burning
rate. Thus, n should be low.
6
Lect-38
Burning rate and Erosion :

Simplified reduced order model r b = a.P n
cc and is not
fully representative of various physical factors.
Burning Rate = f (Chemical composition, geometrical
shape, initial temperature, fabrication process,
radiation, gas velocity on the surfaces, burning time)
The combined effect of all these factors involving
physical and chemical interactions need to be taken
into account.
Erosive burning is the term used to indicate that the
burning rate of a solid propellant is affected by the
flow of high velocity gases parallel to the burning
surface. It is more pronounced at the beginning.
7
Lect-38
Following general points are relevant to the solid

propellant grain design and rocket performance:
The combustion pressure is not uniform along the

length of the chamber with the fastest burning rate
near the front end.
Because of various pressure losses, actual
chamber pressure at the nozzle entry is less than
the theoretically computed value.
The pressure and burning rate at any of one
station will vary with time of burning as cross-
sectional area increases.
8
Lect-38
Burning characteristics of Solid Grain

Regressive burning : During Progressive burning : During
which, thrust, CC pressure and this Thrust, CC pressure and
surface area decrease most of Burning surface area increase
the time most of the time
or Thrust
Pressure
Neutral Burning : Thrust,

Neutral CC Pressure and Burning
surface area remain
approx constant
Time
9
Lect-38
Solid Propellant grains
10
Lect-38
Rocket Nozzles
Most rocket nozzles operate with pressure ratios
above 25 or 30, or upto 100, and hence, all are
convergentdivergent types
Thus the condition at the nozzle throat is critical
at all times of the operation of the nozzle.
Since this criticality decides the mass flow through
the nozzle and hence the thrust produced, the
geometry of the nozzle must be such as to promote
required amount of mass flow through the nozzle at
all operating conditions.
The nozzles are generally fixed geometry type.
There are some nozzles which can be swiveled to
produce change in direction of the thrust produced
11
Lect-38
Typical nozzle
flow
characteristics
12
Lect-38
Rocket Nozzles
The effect of underexpansion is reduction in the

exhaust velocity and therefore lowering of exit
kinetic energy and lowering of thrust production.
Overexpansion produces separation inside the
nozzle, as the flow completes the expansion
process when it is still inside the nozzle, and
often experiences a separation thereafter
The direction of thrust produced is not altered
by the flow separation in the nozzle, if the flow
separates symmetrically over the cross section
around the nozzle surface.
Separation occurs when the ambient pressure is
2.5 to 3.5 times the nozzle inside wall pressure.
13
Lect-38
Rocket Nozzles
A nozzle, is often designed for full expansion at

a high altitude, and is likely to give higher than
the ideal thrust at sea level (where ambient
pressure is high).
The characteristic velocity V* of the rocket,
(lect-37), is independent of the nozzle shape and
is dependant on the fuel and oxidizer
characteristics, combustion chamber design and
the thermodynamic parameters after
combustion.
However, the definition implicitly assumes fully
expanded ideal nozzle flow.
14
Lect-38
Rocket Nozzles
Most nozzles are of circular cross section, but of

various shapes .
Diameter of the subsonic part of nozzle is governed
by (i) volume for combustion (liquid rocket), (ii) size
of the grain (solid propellant rocket), (iii) size and
arrangements of injectors (liquid propellant).
The slope of the convergent nozzle is not important
The length and the shape of the nozzle is primarily
decided by the throat area and the exit area and the
velocity variation within it.
Thus the design of a rocket nozzle essentially
means determining the length and shape of the
divergent part of the nozzle.
15
Lect-38
Rocket Nozzles
The selection of a suitable divergence shape

(configuration and angle of divergence) is
made with following criteria:
i) Large divergence angles make the nozzle

short hence give low friction loss.
ii) Small exit diameter gives low aerodynamic
drag of the vehicle, but increases nozzle
length & surface area and hence weight of
the rocket.
16
Lect-38
Rocket Nozzles
iii) Large divergence angle near the nozzle exit

produces radial component of the flow , which
is a not a thrust producing flow component
and is, thus, a loss.
iv) Large divergence may also produce
separation and related loses near the exit.
v) Long nozzle (with low divergence angle) is
difficult to incorporate in the rocket body
17
Lect-38
Rocket Nozzles
From Isentropic flow 3 t x e

equations :

Pressure ratio across pt 2 1
the convergent part =
of the nozzle is p1 + 1
Temperature ratio across 2
the convergent part of =
the nozzle +1
18
Lect-38
Rocket Nozzles
Velocity anywhere in the
convergent nozzle
2. .R.(T03 Tx ) 2
Vx = 2.c p .(T03 Tx ) + V1 = + V1
2
1
1

Px
2. .R.T03 .1
P03
= +V 2
1
1
19
Lect-38
Rocket Nozzles
Velocity at 2
the throat Vt = .R.Tt = .R.Tcc
+1
+1
2 1

+1
Mass Flow, m = At .V t. t = At . pcc . .
.R.Tcc
20
Lect-38
Rocket Nozzles
In the divergent part of the nozzle

Area Ratio
1
1 1

At Vx . t + 1 +1 px + 1 p2
= = . . 1
Ax Vt . x 2 pt + 1 p1

1

Vx + 1 px
Velocity ratio= . 1
Vt 1 pt

21
Lect-38
Rocket Nozzles
Thrust F = At .Vt . t .Ve + ( pe pa ). Ae

+1

2 2 2 1 pe + ( p p ). A
1 1
F = At . pcc .
1 +1 pcc e a e

Thrust Co-efficient

+1

2 2 2 1 pe + pe pa . Ae
1 1
CF =
1 +1 pcc pcc At

22
Lect-38
Rocket Nozzles
23
Lect-38
Saturn
Rocket
Launch
24
39
Lect 39
A glimpse into the future

of
Aerospace Propulsion

Lect 39
A Diesel engine powered propeller for aircraft

Diesel engines
are CI engines
and are too heavy
for aircraft. But,
modern light &
strong materials
are used for
developing new
aircraftworthy
diesel engines

Lect 39
Small
Gas turbine
powered
propeller
engines
Turbo-props

Lect 39
Prop-Fans or Unducted Fans
Size In between
a Big Fan and a
Propeller
Bypass Ratio 20
to 30

Lect 39
Counter Rotating Prop-Fans
Prop-Fans are
designed using
both the
propeller theory
and the
compressor
blade design
methods

Lect 39
All civil aircraft engines will need to

conform to
Energy Audit
Environment Audit

Lect 39
Ramjet Wrapped around a Turbojet
Mainly
Turbojet
Mainly
Ramjet

Lect 39

Lect 39
RAM SCRAMJET schematic

Lect 39
Missile
configuration

Lect 39
PSLV Launch
used for
Chandrayan-I
The PSLV has four stages
using solid and liquid
propulsion systems
alternately.
The first stage is one of

the largest solid-fuel
rocket boosters in the
world

Lect 39
GSLV-D3 -to be
used for
Chandrayan-II
1) The GSLV uses four
liquid strap-on boosters,
which are loaded with
hypergolic propellants
(UDMH & N2O4)
2) 1st Stage is of solid fuels
3) 2nd Stage with liquid
UDMH as fuel and
nitrogen tetroxide (N2O4)
as oxidizer
4) The 3rd stage is
propelled by a cryogenic
rocket engine (LoX+LH)

Lect 39
This closes the course on
Introduction
to
Aerospace Propulsion

Intro Propulsion Lect 1 39

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Lect-1

Introduction to Aerospace Propulsion

1. Introduction to Propulsion (Prof B Roy)

2. Thermodynamic basis of Propulsion

2.8 Derivation of thermodynamic

3. Piston Prop Engines for Aircraft

3.1 The Otto cycles : Ideal, Real & Boosted

4. Ideal Cycles for Jet Propulsion

4.1. Joules Cycle

5. Introduction to Missiles and Rockets

5.1 Ramjets and Pulsejets

More books shall be referenced

These will be mentioned during the

Basic Sciences involved in Propulsion

Basics of Continuous Motion

Paddling of oars in boats uses the

Basics of Continuous Motion

Which means continuous force or

Wan Hus Rocket (13th AD)

Da Vincis Flapping Wing Concept

Giovanni Brancas Jet Turbine

Newtons Steam Wagon

Newtons Laws of Motion

Newtons Laws of Motion

Newtons Laws of Motion

From Newtons 2nd law of motion

Any mass that is gained or lost by the

The Newtons Law II is the

An impulse I occurs when a force F

Newtons law III

While the Newtons 3rd law allows us to

1. Cengel, Y.A, and Boles, M.A., (2006), Thermodynamics

Felix Du Temple de la Croix Monoplane 1857

Thrust for Flight

Langleys Airplane no Flight

Lorins Patent Drawings

First Flight 1903 Dec

Wrights propeller 1903 Wrights Propeller 1910

2 years, 4 months and 3 days before the successful flights of

For the first fifty years of flight all flight

Propeller Blade uses airfoil shapes

A propeller uses a type of airfoil (similar to a

Opposed cylinder Opposed Piston

Modern aircraft powerplant designers

The Thurst generation

Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay 25

Prop-Fan uses a basic engine

Modern Jet Engine

NACA :National Advisory Committee for

NASA: National Aeronautics and Space

ISRO : Indian Space Research Organisation, India

HAL : Hindustan Aeronautics Limited, India

Simple Gas Turbine based Turbojet Engine

Mechanism of Creation of Thrust

When Ve>> Va i.e. a very large acceleration and,

When, Ve= Va the propulsive efficiency is 100%,

The graph captures the

A single spool bypass turbojet engine

A twin-spool Turbo-prop engine

A bypass twin spool gas turbine engine

A high bypass twin spool Turbofan engine

An Ultra-high bypass twin spool geared turbofan

A three-spool turbofan bypass engine