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Food Chemistry 95 (2006) 541553
www.elsevier.com/locate/foodchem
a
Laboratoire de Chimie-Physique industrielle, UMR FARE, Faculte des Sciences, Universite de Reims, BP 1039, F-51687 Reims Cedex 2, France
b
Messer France SA, 26, rue des Freres Chausson F-92600, Asnieres Cedex, France
Received 9 August 2004; received in revised form 25 November 2004; accepted 25 November 2004
Abstract
The eervescence properties of carbonated drinks are subject to the concentration of carbon dioxide dissolved and its ability to be
transferred from the liquid phase to the forming bubble. We report the construction of a small laboratory scale carbonation unit
that allows the study of the solubility of carbon dioxide in various hydro-alcoholic media, diering in their compositions. This unit,
which is a model of a real industrial one, measures the instant concentration of CO2, during the carbonation process, by means of a
thermal conductivity detector. The carbonation kinetics of various samples, containing water, alcohol, sugar, proteins and free
amino-acids, were studied. While sugar diminishes CO2 solubility and, consequently, carbonation kinetics, free amino-acids and
proteins increase the concentration of carbon dioxide in the medium. A survey of the rheological properties of the samples showed
that CO2 solubility modications are not correlated with changes in the viscosity of the medium. This equipment could be helpful for
soft drink bottlers for measuring the changes that may aect eervescence and consequently the visual and gustative perception of
the beverage after modication of its composition.
2004 Elsevier
Laboratory scale carbonation
Ltd. All rights unit; Carbonation; Soft drinks; Quality control in sparkling beverage; Carbon dioxide solubility
reserved.Keywords:
0308-8146/$ - see front matter 2004 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.foodchem.2004.11.031
542 C. Descoins et al. / Food Chemistry 95 (2006) 541553
soft drinks, polysacharides or hydrocolloids are used as suring techniques for the determination of CO2 in bever-
thickeners, stabilisers and gelling agents, as well as to ages see Barker, Jeerson, and Judd (1999).
improve mouthfeel and to aid in carbonation reten- Real-time measurement of the CO2 concentration
tion due to the augmentation of the tensio-active charge during carbonation is a real challenge. This paper de-
of the liquid. Modication of the composition of the li- scribes the construction and reliability of the system
quid phase may dramatically aect the visual or taste equipped with an on-line sensor, allowing continuous
perception of eervescence of a drink (Barker et al., measurement of the concentration during carbonation
2002a, Barker, Jeerson, & Judd, 2002b). and with a venturi for better gasliquid mixing. The sen-
Carbonation can be achieved by injecting the gas into sor is a thermal conductivity electrode incorporated in
a pressure-sealed vessel as with domestic carbonation the unit. The unit built is a laboratory scale model of
units (Barker et al., 2002a, 2002b). As the system is pres- an existing carbonation unit used by a soft drink pro-
sure-sealed, gaseous injection increases the internal pres- ducer. The purpose of this paper is to gain a better
sure, and thereby the CO2 solubility. Up to 9 g/l of CO2 understanding of the solubilisation kinetics of carbon
can be dissolved, which is the limit for highly carbonated dioxide in aqueous or hydro-alcoholic beverages as a
drinks such as tonic water. The success of the domestic function of the liquid composition. In this case, we as-
system is largely dependent on its ease of use by the con- sumed that the carbon dioxide concentration available
sumer and overall cost. Depressurising the system low- for bubbling may not be aected by the way carbon
ers the CO2 concentration in the headspace, causing dioxide is dissolved in the medium (by mechanical injec-
gas desorption. Gas can be injected continuously tion or natural fermentation).
through a venturi in the liquid ow. Mixing is thus much Studies and modelling of eervescence properties of
more ecient and higher carbonation levels can be sparkling wines are numerous in the literature (Casey,
reached. The beverage is collected in pressurized tanks 1988) but they do not focus on the chemical composition
or directly in bottles. This is the process in use by the of wines or, more especially, the possible reactions of
carbonated drinks industry. CO2 with compounds such as nucleophiles. This class
Manufacturing carbonated soft drinks requires e- of molecules can be involved in reaction with gaseous
cient monitoring of CO2 concentration in the liquid dur- carbon dioxide giving carbamates (see Fig. 1) as, e.g.,
ing the carbonation process and evaluation of the ethanolamines (Danckwerts, 1979). For example, in still
inuence of additives that could modify the absorption/ wines, the concentrations of free amino-acids, especially
desorption mechanisms. The two most common devices proline and arginine, increase with maturation time and
used for monitoring CO2 concentration are the Severing- are characteristics of some grapes. Proline is present in
haus electrode (Severinghaus & Bradley, 1958) and the large amounts in Chardonnay and arginine in Pinot
infrared detector (Munkolm, Walt, & Milanovich, Noir. Serine with a chemical structure similar to etha-
1988). The Severinghaus type CO2 electrode comprises nolamine and other free amino-acids is supposed to be
a pH electrode in contact with a thin layer of bicarbonate involved in such reactions. We attempted to measure
buer solution with the whole system encapsulated by a the inuence of various solutes, such as alcohol, sugar,
thin, gas-permeable membrane. CO2, in the sample un- amino-acids (serine, arginine, proline) and proteins
der test, diuses through the gas-permeable membrane (BSA and colloidal extract of base wine) on the absorp-
and equilibrates with the internal aqueous solution, tion kinetics of CO2 in hydroalcoholic medium.
thereby altering its pH. The change in pH is monitored Rheological properties of the solution could also
by the pH electrode. The electrode has a long response modify the rate transfer of gas from the liquid to the
time, typically 515 min. The infrared absorption detec- forming bubble, i.e. from a solvated form to a gaseous
tor produces quick response times and the results are reli- one. This will mechanically inuence the bubbling of
ably quantitative, they are bulky and expensive, and only the liquid when served. A study of the viscosities of
applicable to gaseous CO2. Other devices for CO2 mea- the samples and carbonation levels will show
surements, include gas chromatography (GC) and mass whether the variations of the carbonation levels are
spectrometry (MS). MS is capable of producing mea- due to a mechanical barrier to the diusion of gas or
surements in near real-time but its price is prohibitively whether there are other relationships between carbon
high. GC, while less expensive, requires 1020 min to dioxide and the molecules dissolved.
complete an analysis of a sample and cannot be used
for real-time measurements. Thermal conductivity detec-
tors (Hale, Stehle, & Bals, 1992) record the dierence in 2. Materials and methods
conductivity between a reference gas (N2) and CO2 after
diusion in a measurement chamber. The response time 2.1. Carbonation unit
is quite convenient for following carbonation kinetics
and the equipment can be easily mounted on liquid ducts The unit (Fig. 2), is composed of a laboratory-de-
after the mixing chamber. For a complete review of mea- signed venturi, two stainless steel tanks (one can be re-
C. Descoins et al. / Food Chemistry 95 (2006) 541553 543
COOH COOH
R R O
O
NH HN C
C
OH
O
H H
OH O O
O
H H
+ C C
H H
O O
NH2 N
H H H
Fig. 1. Equilibrium of carbon dioxide with alkyl amines and formation of carbamate. Supposed reaction mechanisms of carbon dioxide with amino
acids and mono ethanolamine.
moved from the system and used for tasting the carbon- 2.2. Chemicals
ated drink), a pump (FM 1.30, KNF Floods), a refriger-
ated bath and a sensor Model 3621 from Orbisphere Carbon dioxide, used in the carbonation experiments,
Laboratories for monitoring the dissolved CO2. All was food grade and was provided by Messer Gmbh.
gas and liquid ducts are made with Rilsan tubing (4/6 Amino-acids (serine, proline and arginine), bovine ser-
mm, Legris, France). All couplings use the Swagelok um albumin (BSA) and L -(+)-tartaric acid (purity
connection system. The maximum injection pressure is 99%) were from SigmaAldrich chemicals and were used
given as 10 bars, following the safety sheets of the without purication. Sugar, of beet origin, was commer-
equipment. cial grade. Alcohol, of agricultural origin (99.9%) was
The venturi is made of a stainless steel tube (80 mm obtained from CharbonneauxBrabant (Reims,
long, 2 mm thickness). The gas and liquid inlets are France).
tubes of 8/10 mm. They end in a nozzle with a 2 mm
diameter. As the carbon dioxide pressure increases in 2.3. Wines
the system, a spray is formed, ensuring an intimate mix-
ing of the gas/liquid phases. Still wines were furnished by a Champagne winery. It
The intermediary tank (3 in Fig. 2) is made with a is a blend of dierent wines from Pinot Noir, Pinot
stainless steel tube of 95 mm (diameter), 250 mm Meunier and Chardonay grapes in equal proportions.
(height) with 3 mm thickness walls. It is equipped with Base wines were centrifuged, earth-ltered on Kieselg-
two inlets of 6/8 mm and a control valve in the upper hur and sulphated after malo-lactic fermentation (Oeno-
part to allow a depressurisation of the system, providing coccus oeni) was completed. All wines were racked in
a variable gas stream in the venturi. individual bottles until opened. Composition was: alco-
This removable tank (5) has the same dimensions as hol (11.06), sugars (1.2 g/l), SO2 (42 mg/l), total acidity
the previous one. It is equipped with two inlets of 6/8 (4.6 g eq. H2SO4/l). Typically, for all these wines, pH is
mm, each one tted with a valve and a Swagelok around 3.2 and ionic strength is 0.02 M.
quick-connecting system. The outlet has a bottle-neck
form which can be closed by a capsule, as used in the 2.4. Colloids from base wine
Champagne region for wine making. An electropolish-
ing (40 lm metal removal) was done inside and outside Wine colloids were prepared from 60 l of still wine.
the tank to ensure removal of all the crevices that could They were ultraltered on a molecular weight cut o
initiate nucleation. membrane at 10 kDa. The retentate was freeze-dried.
544 C. Descoins et al. / Food Chemistry 95 (2006) 541553
Fig. 2. Overall view of the carbonation unit: (1) CO2 delivery; (2) venturi; (3) intermediary tank with gas outlet; (4) dissolved CO2 sensor; (5)
removable tank; (6) pump; (7) refrigerated bath.
Evaluation of the protein concentration was done by ing 10 min. Each curve presented is the average of four
measurement of the nitrogen content. experiments.
2.5. Sample preparation and carbonation 2.6. Measurement of the carbon dioxide concentration
ARES employs a dynamic actuator to apply a deform- (7, 15, 30 g/min) (Fig. 4). When the gas ow is increased,
ing strain to the sample and a separate transducer to the time needed to reach saturation is decreased. In fur-
measure the resultant stress developed within the sam- ther experiments, the ow will be set at 15 g/min, which
ple. This system provides a wider frequency range at is a good mean between gas consumption and carbon-
high sensitivity, and achieves smaller dynamic strains ation kinetics.
than does a controlled stress rheometer. All measure-
ments were done using the cone/plate modulus (cone an- 3.3. Inuence of pH on carbonation monitoring
gle: 0.04 rad; plate diameter: 50 mm; spacing: 0.5 mm).
In aqueous solutions, carbon dioxide concentration,
as solvated CO2, is modied by the pH of the solution
3. Results and discussion and the dissociation equilibrium involved in reaction
of CO2 with water (Scarano & Calcagno, 1975)
3.1. Operating range CO2 gas $ CO2 aq
Carbonation of tap water was repeated at various CO2 aq H2 O $ H2 CO3 K 1:6 103
temperatures and pressures (from 1 to 6 bars) and par-
tial pressure of carbon dioxide was recorded and con- H2 CO3 aq H2 O $ HCO
3 aq H3 O aq
verted to concentration (g/l) using the Henrys law
pK a 6:35
coecient. As temperature decreased from 27 to 7 C,
the concentration of dissolved CO2 increased. Results
HCO 2
3 aq H2 O ! CO3 H3 O
pKa 10:33
were compared with a compilation of data from the lit-
erature (Sanders, 1999) and are plotted in Fig. 3. The Carbonations of tap water were repeated three times
correlation with data from the literature is quite good. under the same conditions (temperature, carbonation
By combination of temperature and pressure settings, pressure and gas ow rate). CO2 partial pressure values
we can reach saturation levels (from 2 to 15 g/l of dis- were recorded during carbonation until equilibrium was
solved carbon dioxide) covering a wide range of spar- reached at various pH values. Results are presented in
kling beverages from tonic water to sparkling wines Fig. 5. As the sensor measures the amount of carbon
(Champagne wines contain 12 g/l of dissolved carbon dioxide passing through the selective membrane during
dioxide). a short period of time, the precision of the measure-
ments is inuenced by the quantity of free CO2 in the li-
3.2. Carbonation time quid and, consequently its pH. Better results are
obtained for acid solutions where carbon dioxide is
The carbonation unit is equipped with an exhaust mainly in its solvated form. For pH > 7, the formation
valve in the intermediary tank. Modications in the set- of carbonates modies the reliability of the measure-
ting allow increases of gas ow in the system and com- ments. In our studies, pH was set at approximately
mencement carbonation. We have recorded various 3.1. This is the value observed for sparkling wines and
carbonation kinetics of tap water using various gas ows for some soda.
18.0
CO2 in g/l
12.0
6 bars
9.0
3 bars
6.0
2 bars
3.0
1 bar
0.0
280 285 290 295 300
Temperature (K)
Fig. 3. System range: carbonation of water at various pressures (bars) and temperatures (K). pH is set to 7. Values measured by the sensor are
compared with literature data. Each point is the meaning of four experiments.
546 C. Descoins et al. / Food Chemistry 95 (2006) 541553
3.5
Flow = 7 g/min
1.5
Flow = 15 g/min
1 Flow = 30 g/min
0.5
0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600
Time (s)
Fig. 4. Carbonation kinetics of tap water recorded at various gas stream and for a CO2 pressure of 3 bars and at pH 3.1. Each curve is the meaning of
four experiments. Carbonation time is shortened as gas ow increases.
3.4. Carbonation of hydro-alcoholic samples the other carbonation kinetics are obvious. As addition
of sugar decreases the solubility of carbon dioxide, free
3.4.1. General amino-acids added to the medium produce a slight in-
Alcohol, sugar, free amino-acids and proteins are the crease in the amount of carbon dioxide dissolved. They
major constituents of wines. Initially, we have measured facilitate the solubilisation of the gas and the polar ami-
the eects of alcoholic degree and sugar concentration no-acids (serine or proline) have a greater eect than
on carbonation, by comparison with pure water. Then, arginine.
using a liquid containing 10 g/l of sugar and 11% alco-
hol, we recorded the carbonation kinetics in the presence 3.4.5. Eect of proteins
of free amino-acids, proteins (BSA and casein) and col- Two standard proteins (BSA and b-casein at a con-
loids from base wine (see Table 1). centration of 50 mg/l) were used in this test and were dis-
solved in the standard hydro-alcoholic medium (11)
3.4.2. Eect of alcohol containing 10 g/l of sugar. The carbonation kinetic is
Fig. 6 shows the carbonation of two samples contain- very dierent (Fig. 9) from that observed for the refer-
ing dierent amount of alcohol (11% or 40%). An aver- ence medium. As for free amino-acids, absorption of
age value 11, observed for the alcoholic degree in wines carbon dioxide is faster in the presence of proteins but
before the second fermentation takes place in bottles in there is no dierence between the two molecules.
the champenoise method. The same conditions were
used for the two samples and there is no dierence in 3.4.6. Eect of a colloidal extract from base wine
the absorption kinetics of carbon dioxide in the liquid. A colloidal extract from Champagne base wine (13%
eq. protein) was added to the reference medium at a con-
3.4.3. Eect of sugar centration of 100 mg/l and carbonated under the usual
Fig. 7 shows the results obtained with two dierent conditions (Fig. 10). As for free amino-acids and pro-
samples of the same alcoholic degree (11) but diering teins, the carbonation kinetics were faster in the pres-
in their sugar contents (10 or 40 g/l). Carbonation kinet- ence of the colloids. This was then compared with a
ics dier between the samples. Increasing concentration carbonation of a sample containing the same amount
of sugar yields a decrease of the average level of dis- of protein (10 mg of BSA). The kinetics showed the
solved carbon dioxide. same prole, and solubilisation of carbon dioxide was
faster than in the reference medium.
3.4.4. Eect of free amino-acids
Three amino-acids (proline, serine and arginine) were 3.5. Carbonation of natural wines
dissolved at a concentration of 200 mg/l in a hydro-alco-
holic medium (11) containing 10 g/l of sugar. The car- Fig. 11 shows the carbonation kinetics of a natural
bonation kinetics are shown Fig. 8. The dierences from wine sample. The prole obtained is similar to that
C. Descoins et al. / Food Chemistry 95 (2006) 541553 547
6 6
5 5
4 4
3 3
Water pH=3.1 Water pH=7.2
2 2
1 1
0 0
0 200 400 600 0 200 400 600
Time (s) Time (s)
Water pH=9
6
CO 2 partial pressure (Atm)
4
Water pH=9
3
0
0 200 400 600
Time (s)
Fig. 5. Carbonation of water at dierent pH values. Gas ow is set at 15 g/l and CO2 pressure at 6 bars. Precision of the measurements is due to the
equilibrium involved in the solubilisation of carbon dioxide in water.
obtained with the reference medium. An ultraltration 3.6. Rheology of the samples
(>10 kDa) was done on this wine and the ltrate was dis-
solved in 500 ml of natural wine and carbonated. The We rst determined the viscoelastic properties of
prole obtained was similar to the kinetics recorded with samples of Champagne still wine which diers in sugar
548 C. Descoins et al. / Food Chemistry 95 (2006) 541553
5
CO2 partial pressure(Atm)
0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600
Time (s)
Fig. 6. Eect of the alcoholic degree: carbonation under 6 atm and 15 g/l of CO2 of two samples of 11% and 40% alcohol. pH is set at 3.1. The full
line indicates the carbonation kinetic of pure water.
5
CO2 partial pressure (Atm)
Water pH=3.1
1
Water alcohol (11 ) sugar (40g/l) pH=3.1
0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600
Time (s)
Fig. 7. Eect of the sugar concentration. Carbonation under 6 atm of two samples containing 10 or 40 g/l of sugar. pH is set at 3.1. The full line
indicates the carbonation kinetic of pure water.
concentrations at dierent temperatures (Fig. 13). Stor- noticeable elasticity values. On the other hand, the vis-
age modulus did not seem to change as temperature, or cous modulus, G00 , greatly depended on these two
sugar concentration were varied, which is consistent parameters. The variation of sample viscosity was
with the negligible amount of wine constituents having mainly due to this modulus.
C. Descoins et al. / Food Chemistry 95 (2006) 541553 549
5
CO2 partial pressure (Atm)
0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600
Time (s)
Fig. 8. Eect of free amino-acids: carbonation under 6 atm of three samples containing dierent amino-acids: serine, arginine and proline at 200 mg/
l. Concentration of sugar is 10 g/l and pH is set at 3.1 for all the samples. The full line indicates the carbonation kinetic of the reference sample: water,
alcohol (11) and sugar (10 g/l).
6
CO2 partial pressure CO2 (Atm)
0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600
Time (s)
Fig. 9. Eect of proteins: Carbonation under 6 atm of two samples containing 50 mg/l of standard proteins (BSA and b-casein) at a concentration of
50 mg/l. The full line indicates the carbonation kinetic of the reference sample: water, alcohol (11) and sugar (10 g/l).
550 C. Descoins et al. / Food Chemistry 95 (2006) 541553
2
Water, alcohol, sugar & colloidal extract (100 mg/l)
5
CO2 partial pressure (Atm)
0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600
Time (s)
Fig. 11. Carbonation under 6 atm of a wine sample (vintage 2001) and a concentrate obtained by ultraltration of the same base wine and compared
to the carbonation kinetic of the reference sample plus 100 mg of lyophylizated colloidal extract. The full line indicates the reference sample: water,
alcohol (11) and sugar (10 g/l).
C. Descoins et al. / Food Chemistry 95 (2006) 541553 551
5.6
5.4
CO2 partial pressure (Atm)
5.2
4.8
4.6
4.4
4.2
4
)
er 0 l) l) F) l) l) l) ) l)
at
4 g/ g/ (R g/
l) g/ g/ g/ W ) g/
W or 10 40 m m m (N KD m
1 r( r( iu
m
00
m
00 00 (5
0
in
e 10 00
(1 a ga (2 (2 (2 (> (1
l
ug ed A l w s
ho s su m e ne ne BS ra te id
co + + ce rin ol
i ni tu ra llo
al se pr gi + a nt
+ ren + + ar N c e c o
f e + on +
Re +c RF
NW
Fig. 12. Partial pressures of carbon dioxide in samples during carbonation (t = 300 s) in the following conditions: pH 3.1; gas ow = 15 g/l and
carbonation pressure is 6 bars. Reference medium is water, alcohol (11) and sugar (10 g/l).
A survey of the viscoelastic values of the dierent media are not related. The solubility of carbon dioxide seems
was done at 11 C and the values measured are shown in to be more sensitive to the change in mass concentration
Fig. 14. Addition of sugar or alcohol increased the vis- of solution constituents than to their physical properties.
cosity of the sample. The modication of the rheological
properties, due to the addition of alcohol, was greater
than that obtained with sugar (almost no change for su-
gar concentration between 10 and 40 g/l). 4. Conclusion
Addition of proteins to the reference medium (water,
alcohol (11) and sugar at 10 g/l) increases the viscosity. The versatility of our laboratory unit allows carbon-
Addition of amino-acids modied the rheological prop- ation of various samples, ranging from soda to alcoholic
erties of the samples by lowering viscosity. beverages. The use of a venturi provides a better mixing
Viscosity of natural wine is similar to the sample ref- of the gas with the liquid than is achieved by dissolving
erence containing water, alcohol and sugar at 10 g/l. The the gas in a pressurized vessel. The system can be used,
retentate from the ultraltrated base wine had a viscos- either for producing a carbonated drink and collecting it
ity similar to a reference sample containing 50 mg/l of in the removable tank for sensory evaluation purposes
BSA or b-casein and the ltrate, which contains sugar or for studying the carbonation kinetics. The TCD de-
and other small molecules, had a viscosity similar to vice, thanks to its conception, can record small dier-
the reference medium. ences in carbonation kinetics that are due to
We attempted to establish relationships between the modications in the composition of the medium.
rheological properties of the samples and the ability of Eects of alcohol, sugar, free amino-acids and pro-
the liquid to trap carbon dioxide. For the sugar-contain- teins on the carbonation of a hydro-alcoholic medium
ing samples, viscosity increased with sugar concentra- were investigated and the results compared with the dy-
tion while the concentration of carbon dioxide in the namic viscosity data. Addition of increasing amounts of
solution was decreased. Surprisingly, alcohol which is sugar (1040 g/l) to a hydro-alcoholic medium modies
a compound that greatly modies the viscosity of the the viscosity of the sample and lowers the amount of
samples, had no eect on carbonation level. When the carbon dioxide dissolved. Changing the concentration
reference medium (water, alcohol (11) and sugar at 10 of alcohol (11% or 40%) greatly modies the viscosity
g/l) contained free amino-acids, viscosity was not greatly but the solvation of carbon dioxide is not aected. If
modied but there was an increase in the carbon dioxide the sample contains proteins or free amino-acids, an in-
concentration, as for addition of proteins. Viscosity of crease in carbon dioxide concentration is observed de-
the sample and its ability to dissolve carbon dioxide spite modication of the rheological properties of the
552 C. Descoins et al. / Food Chemistry 95 (2006) 541553
0.25
+ 40 g/l
+ 20 g/l
0.2 + 10 g/l
wine
G"
0.15
G' and G" (Pa)
0.1
G'
0.05
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Temperature (C)
Fig. 13. Loss and storage modules measured at dierent temperatures on samples of Champagne wines diering by their sugar content (cone/plate
module).
0.02
0.016
Eta (Pa/s)
0.012
0.008
0.004
0
l)
l)
)
l)
)
l)
er
e
)
l)
l)
e
1
g/
g/
D
R
g/
g/
40
at
in
g/
g/
at
(1
m
m
K
m
m
ltr
w
(
W
10
40
10
ol
00
00
ol
00
Fi
0
al
r(
r(
oh
(5
oh
(2
(2
(2
ur
(>
ga
ga
S
oc
oc
at
ne
e
e
e
A
in
in
su
su
at
al
al
ni
ol
r
tr
se
gi
+
+
+
pr
en
ar
F
)
+
1
nc
+
11
+
(1
F
R
co
l(
F
R
ol
R
ho
+
oh
co
W
oc
N
o
al
al
+
Fig. 14. Viscosity values of studied samples. RF is reference medium: water, alcohol (11) and sugar (10 g/l).
liquid. There is no correlation between the viscosity of With this study, we have underlined the importance of
the solution (i.e. its physical properties) and its ability proteins and free amino acids in the solubilisation of car-
to dissolve carbon dioxide. bon dioxide. Proteins, by their tertiary structure, form
C. Descoins et al. / Food Chemistry 95 (2006) 541553 553
cavities that could trap carbon dioxide and facilitate its Barker, G. S., Jeerson, B., & Judd, S. J. (2002a). The control of
solvation. Amino-acids, with their polarity, can be in- bubble size in carbonated beverages. Chemical Engineering Science,
57, 565573.
volved in weak interaction with carbon dioxide. Checking Barker, G. S., Jeerson, B., & Judd, S. J. (2002b). Domestic
the formation of pseudo-carbamate (as is reported for carbonation process optimisation. Journal of Food Engineering,
ethanolamine) will be the next step in our studies. 52, 405412.
In carbonated beverage, the transfer rate of dissolved Casey, J. A. (1988). Bubble size, bubble frequency and rate of gas loss
carbon dioxide from the liquid phase to the gas pocket in sparkling wines. The Australian Grapegrower and Winemaker,
295, 1922.
acts directly on the visual aspect of the beverage through Danckwerts, P. V. (1979). The reaction of CO2 with ethanol amines.
bubble trains. It depends on the gas solubility and also Chemical Engineering Science, 34, 443446.
on the concentration of surface-active molecules (pro- Dessirier, J.-M., Simons, C., Carstens, M.-I., OMahony, M., &
teins, sugar) adsorbed on the bubble wall, making it Carstens, E. (2000). Psychophysical and neurobiological evidence
grow slower or faster. Wines, during elaboration pro- that the oral sensation elicited by carbonated water is of chemo-
genic origin. Chemical Senses, 25, 277284.
cesses, are subject to various enological treatments, such Hale, J., Stehle, G., & Bals, I. (1992). Gas analysis using a thermal
as precipitation of proteins or ltration on membranes, conductivity method. Sensors and Actuators B, 7, 665671.
that clarify the wine but diminish the concentration of Jones, S. F., Evans, G. M., & Galvin, K. P. (1999). The cycle of bubble
colloidal material. Our equipment could be a helpful production from a gas cavity in a supersaturated solution.
tool for studying the modications of sparkling and Advances in Colloid and Interface Science, 80, 5184.
Lubetkin, S., & Blackwell, M. (1988). The nucleation of bubbles in
foaming behaviour of wines after such treatments. supersaturated solutions. Journal of Colloid and Interface Science,
26, 610615.
Munkolm, C., Walt, D. R., & Milanovich, F. P. (1988). A ber
Acknowledgements optic sensor for CO2 measurement. Analytical Chemistry, 35,
109112.
Odake, S. (2001). Sweetness intensity in low-carbonated beverages.
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