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StudentEngagementinSTEMMakerspaceClassrooms
ResearchProposal
AllisonBurnett,AnneCoustalin,FaeyzaMufti,KimDucharme,JocelynnMortlock
UniversityofBritishColumbia
WordCount:1982
STUDENTENGAGEMENTINSTEMMAKERSPACECLASSROOMS 2
Abstract
WhilemakerspaceprogramsarebecomingincreasinglypopularforengagingstudentsinSTEM
learning,littleresearchhasbeendonetoe xaminethenatureofthatengagement.This
mixedmethodsresearchstudyinvestigates15classesofgradefivestudentsfromfivepublic
schoolsinMetroVancouver.Itaimstoexaminelearnerengagementacrossallphasesofa
projectbasedSTEMmakerspaceprogram.Furthermore,thestudyinvestigatesthenatureofany
differencesinen gagementinstudentswithandwithouthighincidencespecialneeds
designations.C
onclusionsfromtheresearchwillempowerteacherstoproactivelydesignand
structurelessonstoengageamorediverserangeoflearners.
Keywords:makerspace,STEM,engagement,highincidencespecialneedsstudents,
inclusion,learnervariability
STUDENTENGAGEMENTINSTEMMAKERSPACECLASSROOMS 3
StudentEngagementinSTEMMakerspaceClassrooms
PurposeoftheStudy
Thepurposeofthisstudyistoexplorelearnerengagement(cognitive,emotionaland
behavioural)ofgradefivestudentswithandwithouthighincidencespecialneedsdesignations
acrossallphasesofaprojectbasedSTEM( Science,Technology,Engineering,andMath)
makerspaceprogram.Specifically,thestudywilladdressthefollowingquestions:
1. IstherevariationinlearnerengagementacrossdifferentphasesofaprojectbasedSTEM
makerspaceprogram?
2. Whatarethedifferences,ifany,inengagementacrosstheprojectphasesbetween
studentsw
ithandwithouthighincidencespecialneedsdesignations?
3. Whatisthenatureofthatdifference?
Manystudiesexploreengagementininformalmakerspaces.Thesestudiesfocuson
diversepopulationsincluding:femalestudents(Buechley,Eisenberg,Catchen,&Crockett,2008
Holbert,2016)atriskyouth(Somanathetal.,2016)andlearnerswithvisualandcognitive
disabilities(Buehleretal.,2016).Thesestudiesconcludethatinformalmakerspaceprograms
contributetowardsbuildingengagementinSTEMlearning(Buechleyetal.,2008Buehleretal.,
2016Dubriwnyetal.,2016Holbert,2016Sheridanetal.,2014Somanathetal.,2016Taylor,
2016).However,thesestudiesarenotsituatedwithinthecontextoftheformalclassroom,anddo
notfocusonallthreefacetsoflearnerengagementorhowtheyareexperiencedbystudentswith
specialneeds.Throughthisstudy,wehopetoprovideamoregranularunderstandingofwhether
andhowstudentsareengagedinthemakerspace.
STUDENTENGAGEMENTINSTEMMAKERSPACECLASSROOMS 4
TheoreticalFramework
StudentEngagement
Engagementisacriticalfirstelementandagatewaytosuccessfulstudentlearning
(Meyeretal.,2014).Whatsmore,whatengagesandmotivateslearnersvarieswidely.Thisisof
keyimportancetoeducationpractitioners,asresearchhasproventhatengagementscores
correlatewithstudentsperceptionsofschoolandstudentsacademicperformance(Fredricks,
Blumenfeld&Paris,2004).Ourresearchdesignusesathreedimensionalconceptualizationto
exploreengagementinaprojectbasedSTEMmakerspaceprogram.Thethreedimensions
(Fredricksetal.,2004Fredricks&McColskey,2010)aredefinedas:
Behavioralengagement:focusingonstudentparticipationandtimeontask
Emotionalengagement:encompassingstudentsinterestsintheclassroom,their
perceptionsofvalueofaclass,topicorself,andtheirreactionstoteachersandothers
Cognitiveengagement:emphasizingastudentsabilityandwillingnesstoselfregulate
andapplylearningstrategiestocompleteatask
Viewingengagementacrossallthreedimensionsofstudentengagementwillensurethatweare
consideringallaspectsofhowstudentsbehave,feelandthink.
Engagement&ProjectbasedLearning
Makerspaceeducationisbasedonaconstructivistpedagogy,wherestudentsareactively
learningbycompletingauthentictasksi.e.realworldprojectsthatrequirethemtobuildon
theirpastexperiences(Barron,2008Ford&Lott,2009).Thisresearchstudyusesprojectbased
learningasaconstructivistframeworkforexploringmakerspaceeducation.Theliterature
indicatesthatSTEMisacommonfocusinmakerspaces,andarecurringthemeinresearchon
STUDENTENGAGEMENTINSTEMMAKERSPACECLASSROOMS 5
makerspacesineducation(Dubriwny,Pritchett,H
ardesty&
Hellman,2016Sheridanetal.,
2014).Studiespointtopositivestudentengagementoutcomeswithaninquirybasedapproachin
theclassroomandinSTEMbasedprojectsspecifically.Forexample,RenzulliandReis(2012)
notethatauthentic,problembasedassignmentscreatemoremeaningfullearningopportunities
andresultinenhancedstudentengagement.OtherresearchfocusingonSTEMcurriculumina
makerenvironmentfoundthatresultsdogivereasontobelieveintheeffectivenessofa
handsonapproachtoSTEMeducation,particularlyinregardtoincreasingselfefficacyand
changingattitudestowardstechnologyandengineering(Dubriwnyetal.,2016,p.23).
DescriptionofMethods
Thisstudyemploysamixedmethodsexplanatorysequentialmethodology.Accordingto
Creswell(2012),inthistwostagemodelthequantitativedataandresultsprovideageneral
pictureoftheresearchproblemmoreanalysis,specificallythroughqualitativedatacollection,is
neededtorefine,extend,orexplainthegeneralpicture(p.542).
Instageone,quantitativedataiscollectedfromallstudentsattheendofthesixeach
distinctphasesofaSTEMmakerspaceproject.Thesephasesareunderstoodtocorrespondtothe
BCgradefivesciencecurricularcompetenciesasoutlinedbytheBritishColumbiaMinistryof
Education(2016).Thedatawillservetoanswerthefirsttworesearchquestionsinthestudy,
whichrelatetodifferencesinengagementacrossprojectphasesandbetweenpopulations.The
resultsoftheanalysiswillguidetheresearchteamin[determiningthe]questionstoaskinthis
followupphasethatbuildsontheinitialquantitativephase(Creswell,2012,p.543).
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Stagetwooccursuponcompletionofthedataanalysisfromstageone.Stagetwois
qualitative,andservestoanswerresearchquestionthree,whichexploresthenatureofthe
differenceinengagementbetweenpopulationsacrossprojectphases.
Population
Thepopulationforthestudyisgradefivestudentsattendingpublicschoolswithinthe12
schooldistrictsintheMetroVancouverarea.Theselectionofthisgeographicareaaffordsa
varietyofurbanschoolswithadiversedemographicfromwhichtodrawtheresearchsample.
Thedistrictswillbecontactedtoidentifyschoolsthathavehadamakerspaceprograminplace
forintermediatestudentsforaminimumofonefullyear.Thisservestopreventconfounding
variablesrelatedtonoveltyandinexperienceonthepartsofteachersandstudents.
Clustersamplingwillbeusedtorandomlyselectfiveschools(approximatenumberof
gradefivestudentsparticipatinginourstudy:n=5schools*3classes*30=450students)from
thelist.Schooladministrationwillbecontactedand,basedonteacherwillingnesstoparticipate
inthestudy,STEMmakerspaceprojectswillbedevelopedusingBCsnewcurricular
competencies.Eachclasswillconductoneprojectbasedmakerspaceprojectduringthestudy.
Researcherswillcollectandanalyzedatafromstudentswithandwithouthighincidence
specialneedsdesignations.Thedesignationsselectedforstudyinclude:mildintellectual
disability,gifted,learningdisability,mildtomoderatebehaviourormentalillness.(Forafull
descriptionofthesedesignations,seeAppendixA.)ThesestudentsareidentifiedbytheBC
MinistryofEducationasrequiringonlymildtomoderateinterventionsinadditiontoan
IndividualEducationPlan(IEP).Lowincidencespecialneedsareconsideredoutofscopeforthe
purposeofthisstudy.
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Procedures
TheresearchproposalwillfollowtheproceduresrequiredbytheUniversityofBritish
ColumbiaOfficeofResearchEthics.Uponapproval,theresearchteamwill:identifyandcontact
theschoolsfromwhichthesamplepopulationwillbedrawnmeetwiththeteachersparticipating
inthestudyworkwithteacherstoidentifymakerspaceprojectsthatwillbesuitableforstudy
andsendassentformstothefamiliesofthestudentsparticipatinginthestudy.
Onceinformedassenthasbeenobtained,researcherswillapplytotheschool
administrationforaccesstospecialneedsdesignationsofparticipatingstudents.Thisinformation
willbecodedbytheschooladministrationtoensurestudentanonymity.Theparticipantdata,and
theirspecialneedsdesignationswillremainconfidentialthroughouttheresearchandresults
dissemination.
Priortothecommencementofthestudy,thestudentselfreportsurveyinstrumentwillbe
pilottestedwithagradefiveclassnotinvolvedinthestudybutthatfitsthecriteriaforschool
selection.Resultsandfeedbackfromthestudentsinthepilottestwillbeusedtorefinethe
surveyinstrument.
Forstageone,quantitativedatawillbecollectedfromallstudentsintheselectedclasses
viaselfreportsurveysadministeredbyteachersattheendofeachdiscretephaseoftheproject.
Thisstagewilllast812weeks.(SeeAppendixBfortheselfreportsurvey.)
Inthesecondstage,studentswillbepurposefullyselectedtoparticipateinoneoffive
focusgroups(oneperschool)ofuptosixstudentseach.Theresearchteamwillensurethatallof
thefivehighincidencespecialneedsdesignationsstudiedarewellrepresented.Eachfocusgroup
willlastapproximately60minutes.Focusgroupshavebeenselectedforthestudyover
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oneononeinterviewsbecauseinteractionsamongthefocusgroupparticipantsmaybe
extremelyinformativeduetopeoplestendencytofeedoffotherscomments(Mertler,2015,p.
206).
DescriptionofDatasources
Anoriginalpaperbasedcrosssectionalstudentselfreportsurveywillbeadministeredat
theendofeachprojectphase.Toensurereliability,thesamequestionwillbeaskedintwo
differentwaysforeachfacetofengagement.
Toenhancestudentunderstandingofhowtotransfertheirengagementlevelstoa
Likerttypescale,ascriptmodelwillbecreatedforpracticepriortothedistributionoftheactual
survey.Theengagementquestionnairewillprovidenumericaldataforeachquestiononascale
of1to4,where1standsforThisisnotmeatalland4standsforThisiscompletelyme.
(SeeAppendixBforthesurvey).ThesurveyhasbeenadaptedfromHartetal.(2011).
Surveydatawilldescribelearnerengagementacrossthedifferentphasesofa
STEMbasedprojectwithinamakerspace,structureduponBCssciencecurricularcompetencies
forgradefive:questioningandpredicting,planningandconducting,processingandanalyzing
dataandinformation,evaluating,applyingandinnovating,andcommunicating.Statistical
analysisofthequantitativedatawillguidethecreationofquestionsforthequalitativephaseof
thestudy.
Thequalitativedatawillbecollectedviastudentfocusgroups.Studentsinthefocus
groupswillrespondtowrittenreflectionandquestionpromptsoneatatimebeforesharingwith
thegroupaftereachquestion.Thispromotessafetyandmaximizeresponsesforstudentswith
andwithouthighincidencespecialneedsdesignations,accommodatingasnecessaryforlearning
STUDENTENGAGEMENTINSTEMMAKERSPACECLASSROOMS 9
differences.Ifneeded,semistructuredinterviewswiththeteachersandspecialistswillbe
conducted.Thequalitativeinterviewdatawillbedescriptiveandnarrativeinnature,and
analyzedinductively.
ResultsandConclusions
Thefindingsshouldbegintoshedsignificantlightonvariationsacrossthemultiple
phasesofSTEMbasedmakerspaceprojects.Quantitativedatawillilluminateengagement
patternsacrossthephasesforstudentswithandwithouthighincidencespecialneeds.Qualitative
focusgroupdatawillfillinadditionaldetailsregardingthenatureofthevariations.
Factorsthatmayaffectthegeneralizabilityofthestudyincludedifferencesinteaching
stylesandvariationinthemakerspacesateachschool.Teachersmayalsobeworkingon
differentunitsfromthesciencecurriculum,whichcouldaccountforvariabilityinengagement
basedonperceivedinterestofthematerial.B
ecausethereissignificantvariationintheneedsand
challengesofstudentswithineachofthesegroups,ahighdegreeofnuanceisnotpossiblewithin
theconfinesofthestudy.T
akenasawhole,however,thenumberofgroupsselected,thesizeof
eachgroup,andthemultilessonapproachshouldaffordsufficientdatatoprovideameaningful
analysis.
EducationalResearchSignificance
Makerspaceeducationresearchisstillinitsearlystages.Todate,therehasbeenvirtually
noresearchdoneonengagementwithinthecontextofmakerspaceeducation,norrelatingto
learnerswithspecialneeds.Thisresearchwillbegintobuildanimportantbodyofknowledgeby
investigatingengagementlevels:withinthecontextoftheformalclassroomacrossthephasesof
projectbasedlearningandinrelationtohighincidencespecialneeds.Thiswilladdtothe
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understandingofthecontextualfactorsacrossdifferentphasesofprojectbasedlearningina
makerspace,whichcanbetargetedandadaptedtoimprovestudentengagementforadiverse
rangeoflearners.Finally,thisstudywillprovideresearcherswithafoundationfromwhichto
basefurtherinvestigationsintothelevelofengagementforallstudentsinamakerspaceprogram.
STUDENTENGAGEMENTINSTEMMAKERSPACECLASSROOMS 11
References
BritishColumbiaMinistryofEducation.(2016).BCCurriculumGradeFiveScience.Retrieved
fromBCsNewCurriculumwebsite:https://curriculum.gov.bc.ca/curriculum/science/5
BritishColumbiaMinistryofSpecialEducation.(2016).SpecialEducationServices:AManual
ofPolicies,ProceduresandGuidelines.RetrievedfromtheBCMinistryofSpecial
Educationwebsite:https://www.bced.gov.bc.ca/specialed/special_ed_policy_manual.pdf
Buechley,L.,Eisenberg,M.,Catchen,J.,&Crockett,A.(2008,April).TheLilyPadArduino:
usingcomputationaltextilestoinvestigateengagement,aesthetics,anddiversityin
computerscienceeducation.InProceedingsoftheSIGCHIConferenceonHuman
FactorsinComputingSystems( pp.423432).ACM.
Buehler,E.,Comrie,N.,Hofmann,M.,McDonald,S.,&Hurst,A.(2016).Investigatingthe
Implicationsof3DPrintinginSpecialEducation.A
CMTransactionsonAccessible
Creswell,J.W.(2012).EducationalResearch:Planning,Conducting,andEvaluating
QuantitativeandQualitativeResearch.PearsonHigherEd.
Dubriwny,N.,Pritchett,N.,Hardesty,M.,&Hellman,C.M.(2016).ImpactofFabLabTulsaon
StudentSelfEfficacytowardSTEMEducation.J ournalOfSTEMEducation:
InnovationsandResearch,17(2),2125.
Fredricks,J.A.,Blumenfeld,P.C.andParis,A.H.2004.Schoolengagement:Potentialofthe
concept,stateoftheevidence.ReviewofEducationalResearch,74:59109.
Fredricks,J.A.,&McColskey,W.(2012).Themeasurementofstudentengagement:A
comparativeanalysisofvariousmethodsandstudentselfreportinstruments.In
STUDENTENGAGEMENTINSTEMMAKERSPACECLASSROOMS 12
HandbookofResearchonStudentEngagement( pp.763782).SpringerUS.
Hart,S.R.,Stewart,K.,&Jimerson,S.R.(2011).TheStudentEngagementinSchools
Questionnaire(SESQ)andtheTeacherEngagementReportFormNew(TERFN):
ExaminingthePreliminaryEvidence.C
ontemporarySchoolPsychology,15,6779.
Holbert,N.(2016).Leveragingculturalvaluesandwaysofknowingtoincreasediversityin
makeractivities.InternationalJournalofChildComputerInteraction,9,3339.
Mertler,C.A.(2015).I ntroductiontoEducationalResearch.S
agePublications.
Meyer,A.,Rose,D.H.,&Gordon,D.(2014).U
niversaldesignforlearning:Theoryand
practice.Wakefield,MA:CASTProfessionalPublishing.
SchoolDistrictNo.27(n.d.).SpecialNeedsCategories.RetrievedfromSchoolDistrictNo.27
website:
http://www.sd27.bc.ca/studentsupportservices/individualeducationplans/specialneeds
categories
Sheridan,K.M.,Halverson,E.R.,Litts,B.K.,Brahms,L.,JacobsPriebe,L.,&Owens,T.
(2014).Learninginthemaking:Acomparativecasestudyofthreemakerspaces.Harvard
EducationalReview,84(4),505.
Somanath,S.,Morrison,L.,Hughes,J.,Sharlin,E.,&Sousa,M.C.(2016,February).Engaging
'AtRisk'StudentsthroughMakerCultureActivities.InP
roceedingsoftheTEI'16:Tenth
InternationalConferenceonTangible,Embedded,andEmbodiedInteraction(pp.
150158).ACM.
Renzulli,J.&Reis,S.(2012).Avirtuallearningapplicationoftheschoolwideenrichmentmodel
andhighendlearningtheory.GiftedEducationInternational.Vol28,No1,pgs.1940.
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Retrievedfrom:
http://gei.sagepub.com.ezproxy.library.ubc.ca/content/28/1/19.full.pdf+html
Taylor,B.(2016).EvaluatingthebenefitofthemakermovementinK12STEMeducation.
ElectronicInternationalJournalofEducation,Arts,andScience(EIJEAS),122.
STUDENTENGAGEMENTINSTEMMAKERSPACECLASSROOMS 14
AppendixA
HighIncidenceSpecialNeedsCategoriesIncludedintheStudy
AccordingtoSchoolDistrictNo.27(n.d.),thefollowingisthedescriptionofthe
highincidencespecialneedcategories:
CodeKMildIntellectualDisability
Studentswithintellectuallyfunctioningbetween2and3standarddeviationsbelowthe
norm,asperClevelintellectualfunctioningassessment,delayedadaptivebehaviourand
functioningofsimilardegreeaswellaspossiblegrossandfinemotor,communication,social
reasoning,memory,problemsolvingandconceptualskillacquisition.
CodePGifted
Studentwhopossessdemonstratedorpotentialabilitiesofanexceptionallyhigh
capabilitywithrespecttointellect,creativity,orskillsassociatedwithspecificdisciplines.
Studentswhoaregiftedoftendemonstrateoutstandingabilitiesinmorethanonearea.They
demonstrateextraordinaryintensityoffocusintheirareaoftalentorinterest.
CodeQLearningDisabilities
Learningdisabilitiesvaryconsiderablyintheirseverityandimpactonlearning.Students
requireaneducationalplanthatbuildsonstrengthswhileremediatingorcompensatingfortheir
disabilitiesthroughintensedirectinstructionand/orinstructioninlearningandcompensatory
strategies.Studentswithlearningdisabilitiesmeetthefollowingcriteria:persistentdifficultiesin
acquisitionofpreacademicskillsand/oracquisitionofreading,writingand/ornumeracyskills
and/orasignificantdiscrepancybetweenestimatedlearningpotentialandacademicachievement
STUDENTENGAGEMENTINSTEMMAKERSPACECLASSROOMS 15
asmeasuredbynormreferencedinstrumentsinGr.412significantweaknessinoneormore
cognitiveprocesses(perceptionmemory,attention,receptiveorexpressivelanguageabilities,
visualspatialabilities)relativetooverallcognitivefunctioningnottheresultofotherdisabling
conditions.
CodeRMildtoModerateBehaviourSupport/MentalIllness
Studentsinthemoderatebehaviourcategorymayexhibitoneormoreofthefollowing:
aggression,negativeorundesirableinternalizedpsychologicalstate(anxiety,stress,depression)
behavioursrelatedtosocialproblems(delinquency,substanceabuse,childabuseorneglect)
behavioursrelatedtootherdisablingconditionslikethoughtdisorder,neurologicalor
physiologicalconditions.Theseverityandfrequencyofthebehaviouroveranextendedperiodof
timehaveaverydisruptiveeffectonclassroomlearning,socialrelationsorpersonaladjustment.
StudentsinrehabilitationprogramsjointlyfundedbytheMinistryforChildrenandFamiliesare
includedinthisfundingcategorywhentheymeettheabovecriteria.
Formoreinformationonspecialneedscategories,seeS pecialEducationServices:A
ManualofPolicies,ProceduresandGuidelines(B
ritishColumbiaMinistryofSpecialEducation,
2016).
STUDENTENGAGEMENTINSTEMMAKERSPACECLASSROOMS 16
AppendixB
StudentSelfReportQuestionnaireDRAFT
Note:Inthefollowingsixquestionnaires,questionsrelatedtoeachfacetofengagementhave
beentaggedusingabbreviations:[B]forbehavioralengagement,[E]foremotionalengagement
and[C]forcognitiveengagement.Thesetagswillberemovedinthefinalquestionnaire.The
orderofthequestionswillalsoberandomized.
Phase1:Questioningandpredicting
Pleaseanswerthefollowingquestions:
[B]1.Mycuriosityhelpsmethinkoflotsofquestionsandpredictions.
[B]2.Iusuallycan'tthinkofmorethanonequestiontoaskaboutourinvestigation.
[E]3.Imgoodatcomingupwithquestionsaboutourinvestigation.
[E]4.Imnotoftencuriousaboutthesciencetopicswerelearning.
[C]5.Ihavestrategiesforgeneratingquestions.
[C]6.Imlostwhenitcomestoknowinghowtoaskquestions.
STUDENTENGAGEMENTINSTEMMAKERSPACECLASSROOMS 17
Phase2:Planningandconducting
Pleaseanswerthefollowingquestions:
[B]1.Whenweplan,Itryhardtoparticipateandcontributeideas.
[B]2.Iletsomeoneelsedotheplanning.
[E]3.Whenweplan,andfeelmyideasarevaluedandlistenedto.
[E]4.Idon'tusuallyhavegoodideasabouthowtodesignourproject.
[C]5.Ihaveeffectivewaystoorganizemyplanning.
[C]6.Ieasilygetofftrackandmixedupwhenplanning.
Phase3:Processingandanalyzingdataandinformation
Pleaseanswerthefollowingquestions:
[B]1.Itryhardtointerpretandmakesenseofourprojectresults.
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[B]2.Ithinkfiguringoutwhatourdatameansissomeoneelse'sjob.
[E]3.Ifindprocessingandanalyzingdataandinformationenjoyable.
[E]4.IworrythatIwon'tbeabletomakesenseofourdataresults.
[C]5.Ihavestrategiesforanalyzingandexplainingourprojectresults.
[C]6.Ioftendontknowhowtomakesenseofourprojectresults.
Phase4:Evaluating
Pleaseanswerthefollowingquestions:
[B]1.Ioftensuggestimprovementstoourinvestigationmethods.
[B]2.Iworkhardtofigureouthowourinvestigationcouldbeimproved.
[E]3.Ifeelourprojecthasvalue.
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[E]4.Thisprojectwasawasteoftime.
[C]5.WhenwhatImmakingdoesntsucceed,Itryitadifferentway.
[C]6.Iknowhowtoevaluatemyprojectandsuggestimprovements.
Phase5:ApplyingandInnovating
Pleaseanswerthefollowingquestions:
[B]1.Iwasveryinvolvedindesigningourgroupproject.
[B]2.Iplayedabigpartinwhatourgroupmade.
[E]3.Ilearnbetterwhenlearningthroughmaking.
[E]4.Ifeelourprojecthasvalue.
[C]5.Whenmyexperimentorprojectfails,itsokaybecauseIlearnfromitandthishelps
STUDENTENGAGEMENTINSTEMMAKERSPACECLASSROOMS 20
meknowwhattodonext.
[C]6.Whenmyexperimentorprojectfails,Idontknowwhattodonext.
Phase6:Communicating
Pleaseanswerthefollowingquestions:
[B]1.Itryhardtoexpressmyideasandexplanationsinavarietyofways.
[B]2.Becauseitshardformetoexpressmyideasandexplanations,Idontusuallytry.
[E]3.Workingtogetherandcommunicatingmyideasandexplanationsinagroupisfun.
[E]4.Igetnervouswhenitstimetoshare.
[C]5.Ihavewaystoexpressmyideasandexplanations.
[C]6.Myideasremainstuckinsidemyhead.
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