Power System Protection Chapter 2

Relay protection of distribution networks
Eugeniusz Rosoowski
Protection and Control
of Distributed Energy Resources
Chapter 2
eugeniusz.rosolowski@pwr.edu.pl
2. Instrument Transformers 2. Relay protection of distribution networks
INSTRUMENT TRANSFORMERS
1. Voltage (Potential) Transformers (VTs, PTs) are much like small
power transformers, differing only in details of design.
2. Current Transformers (CTs) have their primary windings
connected in series with the power circuit.
MAIN TASKS OF INSTRUMENT TRANSFORMERS
1. To transform currents or voltages from a usually high value to a

value easy to collect and process for relays and instruments.
2. To insulate the metering circuit from the primary high voltage
system.
3. To provide possibilities of standardizing the instruments and
relays to a few rated currents and voltages.
In both cases the transformer can be represented by the equivalent
circuit of below figure.
np V pN np I sN
= - for VT = - for CT
ns VsN ns I pN
Main source of error: magnetizing current.
t2
For VTs: 0 V 1.2VN

= K v m dt
t1 For CTs: 0 I 150IN
VOLTAGE TRANSFORMERS
a) b)
VT for phase phase voltage (a) and for

Typical VT for use
zero-sequence voltage measurement (b);
on MV system
v0 = (va+vb+vc)/3
VOLTAGE TRANSFORMERS
1. Typical secondary voltage: 120V (phase-to-phase) or 69.3V

(phase-to-neutral).
2. For electromagnetic VT error is negligible for all practical
purposes in its entire operating range from 0 to about 120%
of its normal rating.
3. Electromagnetic transformers are frequently sources of
ferromagnetic phenomena in primary circuit.
CAPACITOR VOLTAGE TRANSFORMERS
The Capacitor Voltage Transformers (CVTs) are often more

economic for voltage V 220kV
C1, C2 stack capacitors,
CR compensating reactor,
IVT inducting step-down
transformer,
A-FSC anti-ferroresonance
suppressing circuit.
CURRENT TRANSFORMERS
Typical CT for use Typical CT for use Typical connections

on MV system, on LV system,
wound type of CTs
bushing type
CT bushing type, 110kV

CT transient errors
ip equivalent primary current;

idc decaying dc component;
CT equivalent schemes
is secondary current;
Mechanizm of CT saturation
Magnetizing characteristic
CT transient errors
i1 primary current; i2 secondary current; i magnetizing current;

CTs accuracy class

IEC60044-1 commonly define protection current transformers in
terms of composite error at an accuracy limit factor.
The classification of protection current transformers follows the
following simple formula:
10 P 10, e.g.: 600/1, 10VA, 10P10
Number before letter indicates Number after letter indicates factor

composite error achieved in of primary current up to which
percentage terms composite error will be achieved
P for Protection
Example:
5P10 - current transformer will have a ratio error of 1% and
phase error not exceeding 60 minutes; this will achieved for
current 10 times greater than nominal value.
Typical application of the flux summation current transformer for

ground-fault protection with metallic sheath conductors,
Ferranti type
CTs installed over shielded cables

Typical application of the CT for cable network

Rogowski coil for current sensing

Rogowski coil
dI 1
E=H
dt
Vout =
RC E dt
H coil sensitivity, Vs/A; Vout is proportional to I

2. Line Protection 2. Relay protection of distribution networks
Line Protection
Objects Technique
Phase fault protection Overcurrent Protection
Earth fault protection Directional Protection
Auto-Reclosing Negative-sequence Protection
Distribution Network Protection Unit Protection of Feeders
ungrounded system Distance Protection
resonant grounded system
high-resistance grounded system
effectively grounded

Overcurrent (OC) line protection
Fault F1 should be switched-off by Relay B.

Buck-up protection for Relay B is realized by Relay A.
Fault F2 should be switched-off by Relay A.
Defined Time Overcurrent Relay

Ip-u pick-up setting current;
tds defined setting time delay.
Condition for relay switching-off:
I > Ip-u for time t > tds
Instantaneous OC relay when: tds 40 ms
I Lmax < Ip-u < IF1min

Inverse Defined Minimum Time Overcurrent Relay
Values of Ip-u and tds depend on fault

current I.
STI Selective Time Interval

Tripping time characteristics

a b c R
a
t=k b
+c t=k
R
k = 0.01K10.00 I I
b
1 1
I ref I ref

time
Tripping time characteristics -
example
a
t=k b
+c
I
1
I ref

k = 0.01K10.00
current
Instantaneous Overcurrent Relay

Adding instantaneous trip units to time-overcurrent relays provides
high-speed relay operation for close-in faults and may also permit
faster settings on the relays in the adjacent section. It may be
applied under the following condition:
IF2max > (1.1 .. 1.3) IF1max
Limitations of Traditional Overcurrent Relay

1. Phase overcurrent relay must be set (pick-up current) above the
maximum load current:
Ip-u > ILoadMax
Therefore, max. load expectations limit the sensitivity and speed

of the protection.
2. Protection settings must be checked against load levels
frequently and seasonally.
3. Ground overcurrent relays must be set above the max. load
unbalance expected on the feeder.
Directional Overcurrent Relay

When there is a source at more than one of the line terminals, fault
and load current can flow in either direction. Relays protecting the
line are therefore subject to fault power and reactive flowing in
both directions.
Since directional relays operate only when fault current flows in
the specified tripping direction, they avoid a coordination problem:
relay RB1 protects only Line 1 while RB2 Line 2.
Directional Overcurrent Relay

The directional measurement is performed with voltage
polarization. The polarizing voltage is taken entirely from phase-
ground voltages (phase-ground fault loops), or phase-phase
voltages (phase-phase fault loops). The polarizing voltage VAM (for
all fault loops) is memorized voltage from the period before fault.
A fault direction is determined from the angle of fault-loop
impedance:
V AM
AngDir < angle < AngNegRes
IA
where: the setting of AngDir and AngNegRs can be set to -15 and
115 degrees respectively.
Negative-Sequence Overcurrent Protection
1. Greater sensitivity and speed for

phase faults lower pick-up level.
2. Buckup for ground faults.
3. Easy to realize in microprocessor-
based relays.
4. Easy understand, coordinate and
set.
3. Network earthing issues 2. Relay protection of distribution networks
Network System Grounding

System grounding is related to a method of system neutrals
connection to ground. The following categories can be selected:
Effectively (solidely) grounded system;
Resistance-grounded system;
Reactance grounded system;
Ungrounded (isolated) system.
Network System Grounding

The principal purposes of grounding are to minimize potential
transient overvoltages to comply with local, state, and national
codes for personnel safety requirements; and to assist in the rapid
detection and isolation of the trouble or fault areas.
HV system is usually solidely

grounded to prevent overvoltages
during phase-to-ground faults.
Ungrounded System
In ungrounded systems there are no intentionally applied
grounding. However, they are grounded by the natural capacitance
of the system to ground. They are frequently applied in industrial
supplying networks (e.g. in mine networks).
DN (MV) ungrounded network (a) and shunt capacitances (b)

Ungrounded System ph-G protection issue

Voltage provides the best indication of a ground fault because the
current is very low and, basically, does not change with the fault
location. Problem with selection of a faulty feeder at the busbar.
High-impedance grounding system

There are two types of high impedance - grounding system: high-
resistance and resonant grounding. High-resistance grounding is
widely used in generator MV networks while resonant grounding is
applied in OH, especially rural MV networks.
Zig-zag grounding transformer
Winding connection and voltage vectors for Z/d 0 transformer

What is a grounding transformer?
It is used to provide a ground path on either

an ungrounded Wye or a Delta connected
system
The relatively low impedance path to ground
maintains the system neutral at ground potential
On Ungrounded systems you can have

overvoltages of 6 to 8 times normal with
arcing faults
Arcing Ground Faults Intermittent or Re-strike

Intermittent ground fault: A re-striking ground fault can
create a high frequency oscillator (RLC circuit), independent
480V Delta Source
of L and C R fe 3 Load
values,
causing high
V V
transient over-
voltages.
Cb Cb
S fa
High-impedance grounding system

A substantial problem in ground-fault detection results from
intermittent faults which occur because of aging wiring and
connections. Intermittent faults are a growing problem in high-
impedance grounding networks.
For increasing the protection

selectivity an additional
resistance /inductance in
grounding circuit may be
switched-on for short time.
Intermittent fault
Low-impedance grounding system

The low-impedance-grounding limits line-to-ground fault currents to
approximately 50 to 600 A primary. It is used to limit the fault
current, yet permit selective protective relaying by magnitude
differences in fault current by the power system impedances.
4. Line differential protection 2. Relay protection of distribution networks
Differential protection principle

The best protection technique is that known as differential
protection (Unit Protection). That is the unit protection.
For faults outside the zone the differential current is close to zero.
During inside faults differential current is equall to the sum of both
side currents.
Differential current:
id = is1 is 2
Line differential protection

Line differential protection needs transmission of fast end
measurements to the local end.
I OP = | I s1 I s 2 | - operating current
I RT = | I s1 + I s 2 | - restraint current
I OP
= const - percentage diff. protection
I RT
Line differential protection

Alpha Plane increases sensitivity
R
k=
L
R remote current phasor

L local current phasor
5. Distance protection 2. Relay protection of distribution networks
Line distance protection
Ideal distance characteristics is related to the fault-loop complex

impedance:
Z FL =
VA
IA
(
= RFL + jX FL d RL' + jX L' )
RL, XL - line parameters, /km
Distance protection: phase-to-phase fault
Ideal distance characteristics is related to the fault-loop complex

impedance:
V A V B V AB
Z FL = = = dZ1L
'
IA IB IA IB
Distance protection: phase-to-ground fault
Distance to fault is calculated as follows:
VA VA
Z FL = = = dZ '
1L
Z 0' L Z1' L I A k0 I0
I A + I0
Z1' L
Distance protection: operation principle

The basic principle of distance protection operation is as follows:
whenever the measured impedance vector ZFL falls inside a defined
relay characteristic on R-X plane, the distance unit operates.
Distance relay characteristics originate from MHO characteristic.
MHO distance characteristic

F fault place,
ZL line characteristic.
Distance protection infeed (reactance) effect

Voltage drop on an unknown fault resistance RF influences the
correct distance to fault determination.
Fault resistance may result in

overreach or underreach decision.
Distance protection zones

Traditionally three zones of protection have been used to protect a
line section and provide backup for the remote section. Each of the
three zones uses instantaneous operating distance relays.
Zone Z1 is set to 75 90 % of Line1 impedance (instantaneous),
Zone Z2 100% of Line1 + 50% of Line2 (with delay T2 = 0.2 0.3 s);
Zone Z3 100% (Line1 + Line2) + 25% of Line3 (with delay T3= 0.5 3 s).
Protection characteristics
a) Circle characteristic
b) MHO characteristic
c) Quadrilateral
characteristic
d) Lenticular
characteristic
Sources of errors
Distance elements should measure the positive-sequence
impedance of the line section between the relay and fault. A
number of the problems cause distance relay measuring errors, e.g.:
a) Fault resistance and infeed effect;
b) Switch-onto-fault;
c) Mutual coupling in parallel lines;
d) Load and system unbalance;
e) Power swing due to electromechanical oscillations
(in transmission lines);
f) Current transformer saturation;
g) CVT transients (in EHV lines);
h) Intercircuit faults;
i)
6. Autoreclosing 2. Relay protection of distribution networks
Automatic reclosing
Automatic reclosing (autoreclosing) is a control scheme for quickly
reclosing breaker after clearing a temporary fault in order to restore
the system to normal state as quickly as possible.
It is considered here that the fault is temporary and, once reclosed,
the system will be restored to its normal condition. Adequate
outage time must be allowed for the fault path to deionize if the
scheme is to succeed.
Automatic reclosing
However, there is no way to guarantee that reclosing will

be successfully, even though statistic show that a high
percentage of faults are temporary and are successfully
cleared by opening the line and then reclosing after a time
delay for deionization of the arcing fault.
Autoreclosing
Reclosing to a permanent fault is called an unsuccessful reclosing.
Important lines, especially tie lines that connect important
generating stations, often require autoreclosing in order to maintain
system stability for a given desired operating condition.
Autoreclosing at distribution networks is useful in order to limit the
outage time of the consumers.
If reclosing is used in the network with distributed generation it may
have to be dalayed to give the small generating units time to switch
off prior to reclosing.
Autoreclosing scheme should detect a fault type to introduce
reclosing only faulty phases.
Transient fault
Autoreclosing cycles
successful reclosing
Single-shot Reclosing
cycle
unsuccessful reclosing
7. Transformer Protection 2. Relay protection of distribution networks
Transformer Protection
Transformers are a critical and

expensive component of the
power system.
Transformer Protection
Due to the long lead time for

repair of and replacement of
transformers, a major goal of
transformer protection is
limiting the damage to
a faulted transformer.
Introduction
Transformer failures are expensive and also may be dengerous for
personnel. The cost of energy not delivered because of transformer
unavailability and additional costs may be very high.
Transformer protection scheme should disconnect the transformer
before extensive damage occurs in the transformer and the system.
Main transformer abnormal conditions are as follows:
internal faults (interturn, phase-to-phase, phase-to-ground),
overload,
overexcitation causing saturation the transformer core,
sudden gas pressure,
tap changer failures (if a tap changing mechanism is installed)
and others.
Classification of protection means

The methods of protection of a power transformer depend on its
kVA rating and its importance for the power system operation. It is
obvious that large units would be protected by relays that utilize
more reliable operating principles with more redundancy in back-up
relays. Main types of transformer protection are as follows:
1. Internal fault protection (usually differential current protection);

2. Overcurrent protection;
3. Ground fault protection;
4. Overexcitation (overfluxing) (V/Hz) protection;
5. Overheating (thermal) protection;
6. Overpressure.
Transformer abnormal conditions

Main transformer abnormal conditions are as follows:
internal faults (interturn, phase-to-phase, phase-to-ground),
overload,
overexcitation causing saturation the transformer core,
sudden gas pressure,
tap changer failures (if a tap changing mechanism is installed).
Transformer internal faults

Transformer differential protection

Main idea:
I OP = | I s1 I s 2 | | IW 1 IW 2 | - operating current
I RT = | I s1 + I s 2 | | IW 1 + IW 2 | - restraint current
IW 1 , IW 2 - compensated phasor currents measured by the relay.

Windings and CTs connection
CTR1 ,CTR2 - CTs rated current.

Windings and CTs connection
- operating current
CTR1 ,CTR2 - CTs rated current.

Earth fault protection
Restricted earth fault Tank earth fault

protection protection


Operating conditions for power transformer relays, do not make
differential protection task easy. A number of factors contribute to
this. The most critical include:
saturation of Current Transformers (CTs) during both internal

and external faults;
not perfect match between the ratios of the CTs and the
protected transformer, especially if an on-load tap changer is
installed;
magnetizing inrush currents and stationary overexcitation of the
transformer core;
extremely wide range of internal fault currents.
Magnetizing Inrush A Brief Analysis

Magnetizing inrush current in transformers results from any abrupt
change of the magnetizing voltage. Although usually considered a
result of energizing a transformer, the magnetizing inrush may be
also caused by:
occurrence of an external fault;

voltage recovery after clearing an external fault;
change of the character of a fault (for example when a
phase-to-ground fault evolves into a phase-to-phase-to-
ground fault);
out-of-phase synchronizing of a connected generator.
Magnetizing Inrush A Brief Analysis
(t ) = vm (t )dt + (0)
(0) remanent flux.

Under the most unfavorable
combination of the voltage phase and
the sign of the remanent flux shown in
Figure, higher remanent flux results in
higher inrush currents.
Differential protection magnetizing inrush
Harmonic restraint:
Blocking if:
Id2 > k2 Id1
with: k2 0.2
Differential protection
Typical bias characteristic Example: internal fault 5% inter-

turn fault at winding of phase C
Buchholz protection
conservator
tank
Buchholz relay is used to protect against faults involving severe

arcing causes a very rapid release of large volumes of gas and oil
vapour.
The Buchholz relay is contained in a cast housing which is
connected in the pipe to the conservator.
Typical scheme for medium size transformer

Typical scheme for large power transformer

8. Generator Protection 2. Relay protection of distribution networks
Introduction
Generation is the core of an electric power system. Generators

based on steam, gas, water or wind turbines and reciprocating
combustion engines are all in use. Majority of used generators are
synchronous generators. In the wind farms there are applied also
induction (asynchronous) generators.
Power plants represent approximately half of the investment in
an electric power system and that is why proper (secure)
generators protection is very important task.
Introduction
Generator circuits
Introduction
More important abnormal conditions that must be dealt with

are:
1. Winding Faults:
a) Stator phase and ground
b) Rotor
2. Overload
3. Overspeed
4. Abnormal voltage and frequency
5. Underexcitation and start-up
6. Loss-of field
7. Current unbalance
Stator windings Differential Protection
a) Fault outside zone b) Fault in zone

Stator Fault Protection
Protection scheme for high-resistance-grounded generator

with differential protection
Stator Fault Protection
Differential Protection
scheme for split-phase
windings type of
generator:
two sets of differential
relays in each phase.
Generator Split-Phase Protection
Turn-to-turn fault in a Simplified equivalent circuit

two-winding machine for a turn-to-turn fault in a
machine
Protection scheme with A single protection scheme

dedicated stator phase-winding combining stator phase-
differential and split-phase winding differential and split-
protection elements. phase protection.
Problems with Differential Protection
Unequal saturation of the CTs

in a split-phase protection
scheme resulting in a fictitious
differential current.
N B
87Q
Negative-sequence protection scheme that can be applied

to detect turn-to-turn faults.
Stator Ground Fault Protection
1. Single phase-to-ground fault is not hazardous (for isolated or

high-impedance grounded system).
2. A second ground fault at the machine terminal, however, causes
a line-to-ground fault that is not limited by any neutral
impedance.
3. This fault current magnitude will quite likely exceed the current
magnitude for which the machine is designed.
4. Machine destruction may result. Early detection, then, is
imperative.
5. Typical solution compares the third harmonic voltage present
between the machine neutral and ground with that at the line
terminals.
Third harmonic voltage comparator for high-impedance grounded stator

Ground fault protection for low-impedance grounding system

REF Restricted Earth Fault (protection)
Protection against unbalanced external faults
1
(
I 1 = I A + aI B + a2I C
3
)
1
(
I 2 = I A + a 2 I B + aI C
3
)
a = e j 2 / 3
Protection against unbalanced external faults criterion based on

increasing of negative sequence current
9. Bus bar Protection 2. Relay protection of distribution networks
The Protection of Busbars

Busbars are vital elements of power systems because they link
incoming circuits connected to sources, to outgoing circuits
which feed loads.
When a bus fault occurs, all branches supplying current to that
node must be opened to clear the fault. Such disconnection
clearly causes considerable disruption and the greater of the
operating voltage and current levels of a busbar, the greater will
be the loss of supply resulting from a fault.
The most common protection schemes are based on Kirchhoffs
current low: all branch currents into a node sum to zero.
9. Bus Protection 2. Relay protection of distribution networks
The Protection of Busbars
Busbar arrangement. Inside and outside faults shown.

Percentage Differential Protection
I OP = I 1 + I 2 + L + I n I RT = k ( I 1 + I 2 + L + I n )
k scaling factor
Special problem with fault at F1 incorrectly opening of the section
Problem with Unprotected Zone
a) Current transformers
mounted on both sides of
breaker - no unprotected
region.
b) Current transformers
mounted on circuit side
only of breaker - fault
shown not cleared by
circuit protection.
Protected zones
Bus-section CB closed, Bus-couplers - opened

Protected zones
Bus-section CB opened, Bus-couplers - closed

Protected zones
10. Breaker Failure Protection 2. Relay protection of distribution networks
Local Backup and Breaker Failure Protection

There are various reasons for a circuit breaker to fail to interrupt
or trip but breakers are almost never redundant because of their
high cost.
Unlike remote line protection, local backup is applied at the local
station. If the local breaker fails, either the primary or backup
relays will initiate the breaker-failure protection to trip other
breakers adjacent to the failed breaker.
Breaker failure protection is a high speed protection scheme that
will trip surrounding breakers in the event that a circuit breaker
fails to clear a fault.
A breaker will be considered to have failed if, after the trip signal has
been generated, the breaker has:
not started opening within a preset time frame (determined by
switches internal to the breaker),
the breaker has not fully opened within a preset time frame
(determined by switches internal to the breaker), or
if the current has not been broken by the breaker within a preset
time (determined by current measurement devices).
Distributed RF protection scheme

11. Motor Bus Transfer 2. Relay protection of distribution networks
Bus Transfer Technique

A transfer switch is an electrical switch that reconnects
electric power source from its primary source to a standby
source.
Transfer switches transfer electrical power back and forth
between two or more power systems or buses such as a
utility power line and a backup generator. They are used in
applications that require a backup power source where
loss of power could cause problems.
Some transfer switches allow switching from a primary to
a secondary, or even a tertiary power source. Others are
used to switch from a regular power source to a
temporary generator.
Motor Bus Transfer Technique (MBT)

Required to maintain continuity of critical processes in
a generating or industrial plant during the following periods
Planned transfers
Maintenance or startup/shutdown
Emergency transfers
Loss of present source due to a fault
A poor transfer can result in a significant angle between
the new source and the motor bus at the instant of
closing.
This results in very high transient torque and current.
Damage can be immediate or cumulative.
Motor Bus Transfer Scheme
TB open, fault at F
Motor Bus Transfer Characteristic

Motor Bus Transfer Characteristic:

Phase angle, [rad]
spin-down phase angle

Power System Protection Chapter 2

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Relay protection of distribution networks

MAIN TASKS OF INSTRUMENT TRANSFORMERS

1. To transform currents or voltages from a usually high value to a

For VTs: 0 V 1.2VN

VT for phase phase voltage (a) and for

1. Typical secondary voltage: 120V (phase-to-phase) or 69.3V

CAPACITOR VOLTAGE TRANSFORMERS

The Capacitor Voltage Transformers (CVTs) are often more

Typical CT for use Typical CT for use Typical connections

CT bushing type, 110kV

ip equivalent primary current;

i1 primary current; i2 secondary current; i magnetizing current;

CTs accuracy class

Number before letter indicates Number after letter indicates factor

Typical application of the flux summation current transformer for

CTs installed over shielded cables

Typical application of the CT for cable network

Rogowski coil for current sensing

H coil sensitivity, Vs/A; Vout is proportional to I

Overcurrent (OC) line protection

Fault F1 should be switched-off by Relay B.

Defined Time Overcurrent Relay

I Lmax < Ip-u < IF1min

Inverse Defined Minimum Time Overcurrent Relay

Values of Ip-u and tds depend on fault

STI Selective Time Interval

Tripping time characteristics

Instantaneous Overcurrent Relay

Limitations of Traditional Overcurrent Relay

Ip-u > ILoadMax

Therefore, max. load expectations limit the sensitivity and speed

Directional Overcurrent Relay

Directional Overcurrent Relay

Negative-Sequence Overcurrent Protection

1. Greater sensitivity and speed for

Network System Grounding

Network System Grounding

HV system is usually solidely

DN (MV) ungrounded network (a) and shunt capacitances (b)

Ungrounded System ph-G protection issue

High-impedance grounding system

Zig-zag grounding transformer

Winding connection and voltage vectors for Z/d 0 transformer

What is a grounding transformer?

It is used to provide a ground path on either

On Ungrounded systems you can have

Arcing Ground Faults Intermittent or Re-strike

High-impedance grounding system

For increasing the protection

Low-impedance grounding system

Differential protection principle

Line differential protection

Line differential protection

R remote current phasor

Line distance protection

Ideal distance characteristics is related to the fault-loop complex

Distance protection: phase-to-phase fault

Ideal distance characteristics is related to the fault-loop complex

Distance protection: phase-to-ground fault

Distance to fault is calculated as follows:

Distance protection: operation principle

MHO distance characteristic

Distance protection infeed (reactance) effect