CHAPTER 3

PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS

3.1 Introduction

Petrography is the most effective way of knowing the mineralogical and

other constituents of the carbonate rocks.

3.2 Methodology

For petrographic studies, thin sections were prepared and studied under

microscope, following the procedure of Folk (1959). The first part of the rock name

refers to the allochem components and the second part to the cementing or matrix

material. Because, of the above-mentioned advantages, the Folks terminologies

were adopted in the study of the thin sections of the limestone. The volumetric

analysis of different constituents had done with the help of manual counter, for the

petrographical classification of limestone. The textural study had carried out for

Dunhams classification (Dunham 1962).

3.3 Petrography

The petrographic study from thin sections was prepared to identify and

decipher the nature of different constituents and to classify the limestone. The

constituents of limestone is grouped as follows-

33
3.3.1 Terrigenous constituents

These are the materials derived from outside of the basin of deposition by the

process of weathering, erosion and transportation, as sediments to the depositional

site. The observed terrigeneous materials are colorless anhadral quartz grains and

shows wavy extinction under crossed nicols (Table 3.1; Fig 3.14, 3.15, 3.16, 3.17,

3.18 and 3.19). Colourless sub-hadral feldspars crystals shows lamellar twining and

plagioclase feldspars are also seen, but in low amount. Iron Oxides are irregular

patches with high relief and dark in colour in both polarized light and Crossed

Nicols.

Terrigeneous constituents, of the Lakadong Limestone vary from 0.51 % to

3.84 %; Terrigeneous constituents, of the Umlatdoh Limestone vary from 0.70 % to

1.39 %; and that of the Prang Limestone vary from 0.90 % to 1.80 % (Table 3.1).

3.3.2 Allochemical constituents

The Allochemical constituents or Allochems are the dominant constituents

and are those materials which are formed within the basin of deposition by chemical

and bio-chemical precipitation, but are organized into discrete aggregated bodies

and for the most part have suffered some degree of transportation (Folk, 1959). The

allochemical constituents of the study area are as follows-

(a) Intraclast,

(b) Oolite,

(c) Fossil, and

(d) Pellet

34
 (a) Intraclasts, including pene-contemporaneously formed (early carbonate

sediments) fragments, that have been eroded or by biochemical activity from the

adjoining parts of the sea bottom and redeposited to form new sedimentary rock

(Folk, 1959). In most of the cases, they are weakly consolidated carbonate sediments

and few of them show partial microcrystalline fine-grained carbonates. In shapes,

rounded to elliptical and occasionally are irregular.

Intraclasts, of the Lakadong Limestone vary from 1.75 % to 5.17 %;

Intraclasts, of the Umlatdoh Limestone vary from 1.15 % to 4.23 %; and that of the

Prang Limestone vary from 1.58 % to 2.63 % (Table 3.1; Fig 3.14, 3.15, 3.16, 3.17,

3.18 and 3.19).

(b) Oolites, are spherical or sub-spherical accretionary bodies, less than

2mm in diameter and in thin section oolites show often concentric structures.

Superfical oolites have a large nucleus surrounded by only one layer but some

oolites are also spherulitic. Spherulites are sub-spherical bodies with radial

structures that have formed in situ. Unlike spherical oolites, superfacial oolites have

an irregular surface. For volumetric analysis, superfacial oolites and spherulites,

were considered as oolites.

The nucleus of the oolites may composed by a carbonate, but it is differ from

carbonate of the concentric layers in color and texture. The outer layer is mostly

composed of fine-grained carbonate, which envelops the microspar and low sphere

calcite. In some cases, fossils, pellets and intraclasts form the nucleus of the oolites.

The number of concentric layers, surrounding the nucleus varies widely. In some

35
other cases, merely one layer is surrounding the nucleuses (pseudo - oolites) which

in other, up to four layers.

Oolites of the Lakadong Limestone vary from 1.04% to 4.85 %; Oolites of

the Umlatdoh Limestone vary from 0.32 % to 2.94 %; and that of the Prang

Limestone varies from 1.96 % to 3.70 % (Table 3.1; Fig 3.14, 3.15, 3.16, 3.17, 3.18

and 3.19).

(c) Fossils are the broken and unbroken skeleton and trace of carbonate

secreting organisms is one of the major constituents of these three limestone

members. Fossils are study in thin sections, and are mega and micro foraminifer and

calcareous algae. Important foraminifers are Numulites, Textularia, Assilina,

Discocyclina, Alviolina and Rotalia.

Petrographic identification of the various skeletal materials are based on

internal and morphological structures. Most of the skeletal grains are broken,

angular and fragmented. The chambers of the foraminifers are occupied by micrite,

microspar and spary calcite.

Fossils, of the Lakadong Limestone vary from 42.0 % to 54.50 %; Fossils of

the Umlatdoh Limestone vary from 38.74 % to 53.80 %; and that of the Prang

Limestone vary from 50.4 % to 58.28 % (Table 3.1; Fig 3.14, 3.15, 3.16, 3.17, 3.18

and 3.19).

(d) Pellets are the homogeneous aggregate of microcrystalline calcite and

small spherical to elliptical shaped body and devoid of any internal structure. Their

size and shape is well-rounded and sorted averaging 0.03 to 0.20mm 0.03 to

36
0.15mm. Most of the pellets are tiny mud balls produced by bottom dwellers,

deposits feeding organisms that ingest the bottom sediments, digest the contained

organic matter and excretes the undigested carbonate sediments as more or less

coherent faced pellets. The Pellet is somewhat harder than surrounding mud. Pellets

distinguished from oolites by their lack of radial or concentric structure, and from

fossils by their lack of internal structures and from intraclasts by their uniformity of

size and shape.

Pellet, of the Lakadong Limestone vary from 0.0 % to 0.92 %; pellet, of the

Umlatdoh Limestone varies from 0.0 % to 1.22 %; and that of the Prang Limestone

varies from 0.0 % to 0.70 % (Table 3.1; Fig 3.14, 3.15, 3.16, 3.17, 3.18 and 3.19).

3.3.3 Orthochemical constituents

Orthochemical constituents are formed in the basin of deposition or within

the rock itself. They show little or no evidence of significant transportation. These

include (A) Microcrystalline calcite matrix (micrite) and (B) Sparry calcite (spar).

Folk (1959) used the term Micrite for microcrystalline calcite and are clay

sized carbonate materials measuring 1 to 4 micron in size.materials 5 to 10 microne

(or even 50 microne) was termed microspar. In handspecimen, micrite is a dull,

ultra-fine grained material ranging from white through grey to black. Under

petrological microscope it is sub-translucent and a fine brownish color. Grey micrite

is consider to form by rapid chemical or biochemical precipitation of the seawater,

settling to the bottom and at time suffering some later drifting by weak currents

(Folk, 1959). Microcrystalline calcite ooze also forms the matrix of poorly washed

37
limestones and pellets, intraclasts and some oolites. Micrite is the chief constituents

of present limestone.

Microcrystalline calcite matrix (micrite), of the Lakadong Limestone varies

from 11.32 % to 23.15 %; microcrystalline calcite matrix (micrite), of the Umlatdoh

Limestone varies from 19.20 % to 39.12 %; and that of the Prang Limestone varies

from 24.55 % to 34.40 % (Table 3.1; Fig 3.14, 3.15, 3.16, 3.17, 3.18 and 3.19).

Sparry calcite (spar) distinguished from micrite by its clarity as well as

coarser crystal size, which may range up to 10 micron or more and occur as pour

filling cement. Sparry calcite matrix is a clear, coarsely crystallized material

showing well-defined grain boundaries and often displays cleavage traces. Sander

and Friedman (1967) used the term spar for its relative clarity both in thin section

and hand specimens, which distinguishes it from microcrystalline calcite matrix.

Sparry calcite is commonly a Pore filling cement that fills the pores of the

framework elements i.e. ooids, fossils and pellets. The grain size or crystal size of

sparry calcite (spar), depands upon the size of the pore space and rate of

crystallization. Sometimes, it has formed by neomorphism or recrystallization of the

former carbonate grain or microcrystalline calcite matrix.

Sparry calcite (spar), of the Lakadong Limestone varies from 18.21 % to

31.5 %; sparry calcite (spar), of the Umlatdoh Limestone varies from 14.72 % to

29.36 %; and that of the Prang Limestone varies from 4.7 % to 11.10 % (Table 3.1;

Fig 3.14, 3.15, 3.16, 3.17, 3.18 and 3.19).

38
Table 3.1: Petrographical constituents (%) of the Limestones of the study area.

Petrographical constituents (%) of the Lakodong Limestone.

Sample Sparry Microcrystalline Fossils Oolites Pellets Intraclast Terrigenous
No. Calcite calcite Constituents
LDL1 25.56 19.3 46.61 2.53 0.42 2.35 3.23
LDL2 21.34 22.5 48.51 2.64 0.92 3.58 0.51
LDL3 23.53 17 49.32 3.27 0.51 3.13 3.24
LDL5 21.15 21.17 47.21 3.21 0.53 4.41 2.32
LDL6 18.21 21.13 50.2 3.64 0.61 3.1 3.11
LDL7 21.9 17.67 50.34 4.08 0 4.5 1.44
LDL8 19.34 17.32 52.41 3.32 0 4.41 3.2
LDL9 31.5 11.32 49.5 1.5 0 2.34 3.84
LDL10 21.35 23.15 42.62 3.66 0.8 5.17 3.25
LDL 11 28.23 12.62 54.5 1.04 0 1.75 1.86
Petrographical constituents (%) of the Umlaldoh Limestone.
UML1 17.45 31.32 41.64 2.94 1 4.23 1.42
UML2 17.23 32.65 42.56 2.45 1.13 3.57 0.41
UML3 14.73 38.72 42.23 0.6 0.4 2.15 1.17
UML4 14.72 38.73 42.23 0.6 0.4 2.18 1.14
UML5 16.73 23.3 53.6 1.42 1 3.12 0.83
UML6 20.4 19.2 53.8 1.3 0.9 3.7 0.7
UML7 15.8 37.82 42.33 0.6 0 2.04 1.39
UML8 17.93 36.5 41.68 0.56 0 2.11 1.22
UML9 16.53 39.12 40.23 1.6 0.5 1.15 0.87
UML10 20.5 31.96 41.74 1.72 0 2.45 1.63
Petrographical constituents (%) of the Prang Limestone.
PRL1 4.71 32.43 56.36 2.42 0.63 1.81 1.64
PRL2 8.4 27.2 58.28 2.72 0.4 1.6 1.4
PRL3 9.25 24.55 57.67 3.7 0.42 2.61 1.8
PRL4 11.1 33.1 50.4 1.96 0.7 1.74 1
PRL5 9.97 34.4 48.56 2.5 1.27 1.7 1.6
PRL6 5.54 31.27 57.48 2.7 0 1.58 1.43
PRL7 7.64 29.82 55.86 2.73 0.4 2.63 0.92
PRL8 7.26 27.1 57.39 2.35 2.32 2.78 0.8

39
Table 3.2: Percentage of allochems, sparry calcite and microcrystalline calcite

matrix of the limestone (recalculated value)

Sample No. Allochem Microcrystalline Sparry Calcite Total

LDL1 54.06 calcite19.84 26.1 100
LDL2 55.99 22.59 21.43 100
LDL3 58.39 17.54 24.07 100
LDL5 56.91 21.56 21.54 100
LDL6 59.62 21.65 18.73 100
LDL7 59.88 17.91 22.21 100
LDL8 62.27 17.85 19.87 100
LDL9 55.9 11.96 32.14 100
LDL10 54.42 23.69 21.89 100
LDL11 58.53 12.93 28.54 100
UML 1 50.76 31.56 17.69 100
UML 2 49.98 32.72 17.3 100
UML 3 46.16 38.92 14.93 100
UML 4 46.17 38.92 14.91 100
UML 5 59.69 23.44 16.87 100
UML 6 60.17 19.32 20.52 100
UML 7 45.9 38.05 16.05 100
UML 8 45.16 36.7 18.13 100
UML 9 44.06 39.27 16.68 100
UML 10 47 32.23 20.77 100
PRL 1 62.31 32.7 4.98 100
PRL 2 63.93 27.43 8.63 100
PRL 3 65.6 24.85 9.55 100
PRL 4 55.47 33.27 11.27 100
PRL 5 55.1 34.67 10.24 100
PRL 6 62.71 31.51 5.78 100
PRL 7 62.23 29.97 7.79 100
PRL 65.36 27.31 7.33 100

40
Table 3.3: Percentage (%) of fossil, intraclast, ooids, pellets and pellets+fossils of

the limestone.

Sample No. Fossils Intraclast Oolites Pellets Fossils+Pellets Total

LDL1 94.7 2.35 2.53 0.42 95.12 100
LDL2 92.86 3.58 2.64 0.92 93.78 100
LDL3 93.09 3.13 3.27 0.51 93.6 100
LDL5 91.85 4.41 3.21 0.53 92.38 100
LDL6 92.65 3.1 3.64 0.61 93.26 100
LDL7 91.42 4.5 4.08 0 91.42 100
LDL8 92.27 4.41 3.32 0 92.27 100
LDL9 96.16 2.34 1.5 0 96.16 100
LDL10 90.37 5.17 3.66 0.8 91.17 100
LDL 11 97.21 1.75 1.04 0 97.21 100
UML 1 96.92 2.35 0.73 0 96.92 100
UML 2 91.83 4.23 2.94 1 92.83 100
UML 3 92.85 3.57 2.45 1.13 93.98 100
UML 4 96.85 2.15 0.6 0.4 97.25 100
UML 5 96.82 2.18 0.6 0.4 97.22 100
UML 6 96.24 2.22 0.32 1.22 97.46 100
UML 7 94.46 3.12 1.42 1 95.46 100
UML 8 94.1 3.7 1.3 0.9 95 100
UML 9 96.09 2.49 1.42 0 96.09 100
UML 10 97.36 2.04 0.6 0 97.36 100
UML 11 97.33 2.11 0.56 0 97.33 100
UML 12 96.75 1.15 1.6 0.5 97.25 100
PRL 1 95.83 2.45 1.72 0 95.83 100
PRL 2 95.14 1.81 2.42 0.63 95.77 100
PRL 3 95.28 1.6 2.72 0.4 95.68 100
PRL 4 93.27 2.61 3.7 0.42 93.69 100
PRL 5 95.6 1.74 1.96 0.7 96.3 100
PRL 6 94.53 1.7 2.5 1.27 95.8 100
PRL 7 95.72 1.58 2.7 0 95.72 100
PRL 8 94.24 2.63 2.73 0.4 94.64 100

3.3.4 Fabric and microtexture:

The study of microstructure is important, because from this study we know

about the chemical activity and mode of occurrences within the carbonate sediments.

41
 Friedman (1965), coined the term Fabric and Texture for the

diagenetically altered rocks. Usually the calcite grains are subhadral and the

carbonate minerals and quartz occur as anhadral grains.

Both equigranular and inequigranular fabric, are shown by the crystal size of

the carbonate minerals; out of them equigranular fabrics of the rock is most

common. Hypidiotropic and xenotropic fabrics represent equigranular fabric.

Porphyrotropic and poikilotropic of both inequigranular and equigranular fabrics are

also observed.

The following microsedimentary structures are observed in the Lakadong

Limestone, Umlatdoh Limestone and Prang Limestone of Shella Formation.

(1) Strained calcite, (2) Veins and vugs, and (3) Microstylolite.

(1) Strained calcite crystals are turbid show undulose extinction. The

strained calcite is considered to be formed by, diagenetic neomorphism

of microcrystalline calcite matrix under stress i.e. the product of tectonic

effect on neomorphic sparry calcite grains.

(2) Veins are usually composed of microspar and sparry calcite and vary in

their shape from straight to irregular with uniform thickness thought the

sample.

Vugs or voids with irregular shape occurs between calcite crystal

boundary and with microcrystalline calcite material and, known as birds

eye (Wolf, et.al, 1967) or diapricites (Folk, 1959).

(3) Microstylolites are commonly intergranular and mark contacts between

adjacent grains of ooids, fossils and pellets. In addition, this is because,

42
 during deep burial, pressure dissolution is more than at shallow depths

and is important in reducing both porosity and permeability of the

sediments.

In the Lakadong Limestone, observed very high strained effect,

neomorphism, styllolitic structure, sparry calcitic veins of irregular shape and size

(Fig 3.14 and 3.15).

Nevertheless, in the Umlatdoh Limestone, minor strained effect and

styllolitic structures observed, but very less effect of neomorphism observed in the

Umlatdoh sediments. Sparry calcite veins observed in irregular shape and size. The

pore space between the framework grains and are filled with clay matrix and

cemented by sparry calcite and microcrystalline calcites (Fig 3.16 and Fig 3.17).

In the Prang Limestone, no strained effect, microstyllolites, neomorphism,

no veins of sparry calcite observed. Here in Prang sediments, the grain boundary or

void spaces are occupied by clay matrix and cemented by sparry calcitic cement (Fig

3.18 and Fig 3.19).

3.3.5 Depositional structures:

A sedimentary structure is deemed to be a primary depositional feature of

sediment that is large enough to be seen by the naked eye (Selley, 2000), and are

distinguished from the microscopic structural features of sediment, termed the

fabric. Sedimentary structures are arbitrarily divided into, primary (physical) and

secondary (chemical) classes. Primary structures are those generated in sediment

during or shortly after deposition. They result mainly from the physical processes

e.g., ripples, cross bedding and slumps. Secondary sedimentary structures are those

that formed sometime after sedimentation i.e., post-depositional microstructures.

43
They result from essentially chemical processes, such as those, which lead to the

diagenetic formation of concretions (Selley, 2000). The study area is basically six

(6) member sandndstone-limestone alternations and all the members represents their

modes of deposition, environments and facies of deposition, along with these they

consists of different primary (physical) and secondary (chemical) depositional

structures (Fig 3.7, 3.10, 3.11, 3.12, 3.14, 3.15, 3.16, 3.17, 3.18 and 3.19). In the

studied samples, I am trying to discuss about the post-depositional effects and

microstructures of the carbonate rocks Lakadong Limestone, Umlatdoh Limestone

and Prang Limestone

In Lakadong Limestone, observed neomorphism, styllolitic structure, sparry

calcitic cement and veins of irregular shape and size. In Umlatdoh Limestone,

styllolitic structures are observed, but minor effect of neomorphism and, sparry

calcite veins of irregular shape and size, are observed. The pore space between the

framework grains and are filled with matrix and cemented by sparry calcites and

microcrystalline calcites. In Prang Limestone, the neomorphic effects are very less;

the grain boundary or void spaces are occupied by, clay matrix and cemented by

sparry calcitic cement.

3.3 Petrographic classification of limestone

Petrographic classification is essential to microfacies analysis, interpreting

rock properties and paleo-environmental interpretations of carbonate rocks. All the

limestone classifications commonly used in facies analyses and based on textural

and compositional criteria. The classifications proposed by Dunham (1962) and Folk

44
(1962) have been followed. Modifications suggested by Embry and Klovan (1971),

Wright (1992) and Strohmenger and Wirsing (1991) are of help.

Limestone classification (Dunham, 1962):

Danhams classification (Table 3.1), is mainly based on texture i.e. grain

sizes, accordingly following are the limestone types found:

Mudstone: Mud supported, Less than 10% grains, more than 90% mud.

Original components not bound together during deposition.

Wackestone: Mud supported. More than 10% grains, less than 90% mud that

has a coarse grains floating in a matrix containing more than 10% sand size

particles. Original components not bound together during deposition

Packstone: Grain supported and less mud, original components not bound

together during deposition and have a grain-supported framework with a matrix of

mud.

Grainstone: Grain supported framework, without a matrix of mud and

original components not bound together during deposition.

Boundstone: Grain or mud supported, with or without mud, where original

components bound together during deposition.

Crystalline: Crystal supported and no grains or mud, depositional structures

are not recognizable due to recrystalization.

45
Table 3.4: Limestone classification (Dunham, 1962)
DEPOSITION TEXTURE RECOGNIZABLE DEPOSITIONAL
TEXTURE NOT
RECOGNIZABLE

Original components not bound together during deposition Original components were CRYSTALLINE
bound together during CARBONATE
Contains mud Lacks deposition as shown by
mud and is grain intergrown or limination (Subdivide according
(particles of clay and fine silt size) supported. classification
contrary to gravity,
sediment-floored cavities sediment-floored
Mud supported Grain supported
that are roofed over by cavities designed to
organic or questionable bear on physical that
Less than 10% More than 10%
organic matter and are too are roofed over texture
grains grains
large to be interstices or diagenesis)

MUDSTONE WACKSTONE PACKSTONE GRAINSTONE BOUNDSTONE

According to Dunham (1962) classification, the studied three Limestones

viz., the Lakadong Limestone, Umlatdoh Limestone and Prang Limestone are falling

within Packstone and Wackstone category.

In Lakadong Limestone the effect of neomorphism and the presence of

styllolitic structure, sparry calcitic cement and veins of irregular shape and size

along with the original components have a grain-supported framework with a matrix

of mud (11% to 24%) i.e., samples falls within Packstone category.

. In Umlatdoh Limestone is mud supported and styllolitic structures are

observed, but, very minor effect of neomorphism and irregular veins of Sparry

calcitic cement are also observed. The pores spaces between the framework grains

filled with matrix (19% to 40%), and cemented by sparry calcites and

microcrystalline calcites i.e., samples falls within Wackestone category.

In Prang Limestone is mud supported, the neomorphic effects are very less;

the grain boundary or void spaces are occupied by microcrystalline calcite matrix

46
(27% to 35%) and cemented by sparry calcitic cement i.e., samples also falls within

Wackestone category (Table 3.4).

Limestone classification (Folk 1959, 1962):

Folk (1959, 1962) Limestone classification, is mainly based on the

percentages (%) of allochemical grains, microcrystalline calcite matrix and sparry

calcitic cement. This classification distinguishes allochthonous limestones

(mudstone, wackestone, packstone, grainstone) and autochthonous limestones (here

called boundstone or biolithite).

Limestones and their components deposited as discrete grains, grouped

according to mud-support or grain-support and the abundance of grains. The

Dunham classification stresses the depositional fabric; the Folk classification is

based on texture and abundance of different constituents to evaluate hydrodynamic

conditions.

47
Fig 3.1: shows a triangular plot of limestone classification of study area (After Folk

1959 and 1962).

Table 3.5: Textural maturity classification of limestone proposed by Folk

(1962). The increasing textural maturity from left to right, dismicrite omitted in this

table.

48
 According to Folk (1959 and 1962) limestone classification of Shella

Formation are falling within the category of microcrystalline allochemical

limestone and sparry allochemical limestone, and based on allochemical grains, the

samples fall under biogenic pellet limestone or biosparite (Figs 29 to 31).

Fig 3.2: X-Y scatter plot, according to Folk (1959, 1962), classification of
Shella Limestones.

With the increasing time of deposition and diagenesis microcrystalline

calcite is decreasing from Prang Limestone via Umlatdoh Limestone to Lakadong
Limestone and vice-versa in case of sparry calcite. The allochem percentages (%)
indicates that, Prang Limestone was deposited in shallower marine environment and
Umlatdoh Limestone was also deposited in shallow marine environment and
Lakadong was deposited in comparatively deeper shallow marine environments.

49
 Fig 3.3: shows a triangular plot according to Folk (1959) and Folk (1962)

classification of three limestone unit.

From Table 3.2 and Fig 3.1 and 3.2, it is established that, the allochemical

grains (or allochems) and microcrystalline calcite (micrite) shows a positive (+ve)

coorelation and sparry calcite shows a negative (-ve) coorelation from Lakadong

Limestone, Umlatdoh Limestone to the Prang Limestone.

The highest percentage (%) of allochems in the Prang Limestone indicates a

shallower marine and near shore environment of deposition because it is suitable

environment to receive some (terrigenous materials or) allochems. About 30%

micrite and 8% spar indicates an initiation of early diagenetic activities in Prang

Limestone.

The Lowest percentage (%) of allochemical grains (or allochems) in the

Lakadong Limestone indicates away from shore-line environment of deposition, and

50
a deeper marine but shallow depositional environment. About 33% micrite and 17%

spar indicates an ongoing early diagenetic activities in Umlatdoh Limestone.

Nevertheless, in the Lakadong Limestone the allochemical grains (or

allochems) are also high and indicates a shallow marine, near shore environment of

deposition. But, decrease in micrite (19%) and increase in spar (24%) indicates an

ongoing late diagenetic activity in Lakadong Limestone, which is well supported by

post depositional structures like styllolitic structure (diagenetic fluid mobilization

structure), the effect of neomorphism, dolomitization, mineral transformations (i.e.,

aragonite to calcite), sparry calcitic cement and veins of irregular shape and size, etc.

In the Lakadong Limestone, according to Folks (1959 and 1962) limestone

classification, the samples fall within sparry allochemical limestone category, and

based on allochemical grains the samples falls under biogenic pellet limestone

(Table 3.3 and Fig 3.3).

The Umlatdoh Limestone and the Prang Limestone are purely a

microcrystalline allochemical limestone, and based on allochemical grains the

samples falls under biogenic pellet limestone (Table 3.3 and Fig 3.3).

Limestone classification (Embry and Klovan, 1971):

Original, expanded and revised of Dunham classification by Embry and

Klovan (1971) introduced the size aspect and distinguished grains smaller or larger

than 2 mm. The new categories floatstones and rudstones correspond to

wackestones, grainstones, and packstones, respectively. Other changes concern the

subdivision of the boundstone category of Dunham (1962) (Table 3.6).

51
Table 3.6: Expanded and revised Dunhams classification by Embry and Klovan,

1971

Allochthonous limestone original components not originally original bound Autochthonous limestone components
during deposition originally bound during deposition

Less than 10% >2 mm components No lime Greater than 10% >2 mm By organisms which
contains lime mud (< 0.03 mm) mud components

Mud supported Grain supported Matrix >2 mm build a rigid encrust act as
supported components framework and bind bafflers
less than greater supported
10% than 10%
grains (> grains BOUNDSTONE
0.03 mm
and< 2
mm)

Mudstone Wackstone Packstone Grainstone Floatstone Rudstone Framestone Bindstone Bafflestone

According to Embry and Klovan (1971) classification of shella carbonates,

the Lakadong Limestone is an Allochthonous limestone have a grain supported

framework with a matrix of mud i.e., samples falls within Packstone category, where

the original components not originally original bound during deposition. Umlatdoh

Limestone is a mud supported and has greater than 10% framework grains i.e.,

samples fall within Wackestone category of original components. The Prang

Limestone is also a mud supported and has greater than 10% framework grains, and

fall within the same Wackestone category.

Revised limestone classification (Wright, 1992):

Wright suggested terms describing diagenetic changes of depositional

fabrics, that the fine-grained matrix commonly called mud is not necessarily

identical with micrite, but corresponds to a matrix consisting of clay-sized and silt-

52
sized constituents. In this Table 3.7, the term mudstone is replaced by,

calcimudstone and bindstone by boundstone owing to some technical problems.

Table 3.7: Classification of Wright (1992) describing diagenetic changes of

depositional fabric.

Depositional Biological Diagenetic

Mixed supported Grain supported In situ organisms Non-obliterative bliterative

(clay and silt grains)

<10% with
> no rigid encrust rganis grain any grain most Crystals >10
grains 10% matrix matrix organi ing ms compon contacts grain m
grains sms bindin acted ent in microstyl ascontact
domin g to cement olites s are
ant organis baffle microstyl
ms olites

Calcimu wackes packsto grains frames bounds baffles cement condense fitted sparstone
dstone tone ne tone tone tone tone stone d

grainstone

Floatston Rud Crystals< 10

e stone m
ICROSPAR
Grains > 2 mm STONE

According to Classification of Wright (1992), the Lakadong Limestone is a

grain-supported framework with matrix i.e., samples fall within Packstone category.

The Umlatdoh Limestone has a mud-supported, has greater than 10% framework

grains, and fall within the same Wackestone category. Prang Limestone is a mud

supported and has greater than 10% framework grains of clay and silt (evidenced

from the presence of glauconite (Fig 3.8), a green mineral in the upper part of Prang)

i.e. samples fall within Wackestone category.

53
3.4 Compositional maturity:

Compositional maturity, as defined for carbonates, is the extent to which a

sediment approaches the constituent end-member (intraclasts, ooids, fossils, peloids,

micrite matrix, and terrigenous minerals) to which it is driven by the environmental

processes operating upon it (Smosna, 1987). Immature lime sediment produced in an

environment where many biological, physical, and chemical processes are operating

simultaneously and results mixture sediment of the six major constituents above. As

the number of competing processes decreases in an environment, the sediment

progresses through advanced stages of compositional maturity. Super mature

sediment produced in an environment where a single formative process has operated

to completion; consequently, only one constituent dominates the sediment (Smosna,

1987).

In the present study, in three limestone units, the varying proportions of

carbonate constituents identified by following the terminology of Folk (1959) are

intraclast, oolits, fossil, pellets, cement/sparite or sparry calcite and micrite/matrix or

microcrystalline calcite (Table 3.1 and 3.2). The fossils and micrite matrix are more

in model composition of the three limestone units of the study area, and they may be

termed as compositionally mature. The biological processes seems to have operated

consistently in the limestone deposition and it is found that fossil contents are more

more than 54 % in Lakadong Limestone and Umlatdoh Limestone and in Prang

Limestone more than 65% fossils as framework grains (Table 3.1 and Table 3.2).

54
3.5 Chemical staining methods for the identification of carbonate minerals-

ferron calcite, non-ferron calcite and dolomite:

In carbonate rocks, formed either by chemical or mechanical deposition;

these minerals constitute the main rock-forming components. Sometimes, they are

also found in great abundance in pelitic, psammitic and psephitic rocks. According

to their crystallographic characteristics, carbonate minerals subdivided into two

main groups-

1) Calcite group

2) Aragonite group

Of the calcite group of minerals, calcite (CaCO3) and dolomite [CaMg

(CO3)2] are the two minerals which are dominantly found in sediments. Depending

on its purity, or iron and magnesium content, calcite is found as pure calcite, ferro-

calcite and magnesium calcite. Similarly, according to the iron content, dolomite

may also be regarded as pure dolomite and ferrous dolomite, in varying proportions.

The other calcite group minerals are ankerite [CaFe(CO3)2], magnesite (MgCO3),

siderite (FeCO3), smithsonite (ZnCO3), rhodochrosite (MnCO3) and spherocobaltite

(CoCO3).

The most important mineral of the aragonite group is aragonite (CaCO3); the

others, in decreasing order, are witherite (BaCO3), strontianite (SrCO3), cerussite

(PbCO3) and alstonite [(Ba,Ca)CO3]. Apart from their refractive indexes (R.I.), the

optical and crystallographic characteristics of carbonate minerals are almost similar

to each other. Therefore, identification of carbonates on hand specimens or even in

55
thin sections is rather difficult. The determination of the R.I.'s can be carried out by,

oil-immersion method. The identification and discrimination of carbonate minerals

in hand specimens or thin sections, are made easier by the use of simple chemical

staining methods.

Procedures of Sample preparation for staining:

Samples must be clean and dry before stain is applied. Stain boundaries are

identified by, polishing the sample with 1000 grit and on a felt lap with stannic

oxide.

Samples containing a high density of pores < 0.5 mm in diameter do not

stain well because the solution soaks in; coating the walls of the pore with stain, and

pore differentiation becomes difficult. However, these types of rock are best stained

if impregnated with plastic first. In this case, the matrix is stained and the pore space

is become void of stain. If sample does not take a good stain with the first

application, repeat the procedure for sample preparation.

Staining methods:

For discrimination between Ferron calcite-Nonferron calcite and dolomite,

different tests are there, different workers-follow the following tests,

(1) Alizarin red test, (2) Potassium ferricyanide test, and (3) Alizarin red and

potassium ferricyanide composite test.

The outlines of Alizarin red and potassium ferricyanide composite test is

given below-

56
 This test is use for discriminating between four different types of carbonates

(Calcite, ferrocalcite, dolomite and ferrodolomite) in a single series of operation.

According to Dickson (1965), two solutions are prepared separately: (a)

Alizarin red solution: This solution is obtaine by dissolving 0.2 gr of alizarin red in

100 cc of 1.5% hydrochloric acid (98.5cc distilled water +1.5cc concentrated HC1).

(b) Potassium ferricyanide solution: two grams of potassium ferricyanide is

dissolving in 100 cc 1.5 % HC1. (c) The mixed solutions is use in the test, is

prepared by mixing three parts of alizarin red solution and two parts of potassium

ferricyanide solution. The specimen soaked in cold solution for Dickson a period of

30-45 seconds is adequate. After the test, specimens should carefully wash and

dried.

Dickson (1965) observed the following results for different calcites and dolomites:

Nonferron-calcite: between very pale pink and red. (The tone of the color

depends on the optical orientation of the crystal. Stained surfaces parallel to c-axis

are darker than those are, which are at right angles to the axis); Ferron-calcite:

between lilac (pinkish purple)-scarlet and royal blue, derived from the mixture of

very light pink-red group and pale blue-dark blue group; Dolomite: shows no

coloring; Ferro-dolomite: Light to dark turquoise. Tone of the color depends on the

ferrous iron content.

57
Fig 3.4 (P-Prang Limestone, U-Umlatdoh Limestone and L-Lakadong Limestone):

Shows the three limestones stained section (of Alizarin red and potassium

ferricyanide composite test) according to stratigraphic order. White portion is the

unstained dolomite, red to purple portion is non-ferron calcite, and black portion is

ferron calcite, 10x.

58
Table 3.8: showing the volumetric percentage (%) of non-ferron calcite, ferron

calcite, aragonite and dolomite in Lakadong Limestone, Umlatdoh Limestone and

Prang Limestone unit.

Sl.No. Formations Sample Nonferron-calcite Ferron-calcite Aragonite Dolomite

1 PRL 1 95.26 4.4 0 0.34
2 No.
PRL 2 (%)
93.68 (%)
5.09 (%)
0.1 (%)
1.13
3 PRL 3 96.23 2.71 0 1.06
4 Prang Limestone PRL 4 93.97 6.03 0 0
5 PRL 5 77.21 19.75 0.63 2.41
6 PRL 6 92.69 6.08 0.11 1.12
7 PRL 7 97.32 2.45 0 0.23
8 PRL 8 89.75 8.99 0 1.26
9 UML 1 85.21 13 0.08 1.71
10 UML 2 90.03 9.97 0 0
11 UML 3 76.24 22.52 0.07 1.17
12 Umlatdoh UML 4 83.72 14.85 0.19 1.24
13 UML 5 77.25 21.46 0.23 1.06
14 Limestone UML 6 82.61 17.33 0.06 0
15 UML 7 91.39 8.61 0 0
16 UML 8 79.72 18.32 1.35 0.61
17 UML 9 85.6 10.59 2.41 1.4
18 UML 10 83.61 13.91 1.36 1.12
19 UML 11 73.26 25.37 0 1.37
20 LDL 1 88.59 10.59 0 0.82
21 LDL 2 95.22 0.5 2.03 2.25
22 LDL 3 98.36 0.47 0.05 1.12
23 Lakadong LDL 4 87.52 10.54 0.88 1.06
24 Limestone LDL 5 72.35 24.63 2.13 0.89
25 LDL 6 90.32 7.62 1.13 0.93
26 LDL 7 86.87 12.11 0 1.02
27 LDL 8 91.95 5.13 2.13 0.79
28 LDL 9 77.29 19.27 2.46 0.98
29 LDL 10 73.68 24.79 0.91 0.62

In these three limestones viz., Lakadong Limestone, Umlatdoh Limestone

and Prang Limestone, the volumetric percentage (%) of non-ferron calcite, ferron

calcite, aragonite and dolomite are calculated.

Non-ferron calcite of the Lakadong Limestone varies from 72.35 % to 98.36

%, non-ferron calcite of the Umlaldoh Limestone varies from 73.26 % to 91.39 %

and non-ferron calcite of the Prang Limestone varies from 77.21 % to 97.32 %

(Table 3.8).

Ferron calcite of the Lakadong Limestone varies from 0.47 % to 24.79 %,

ferron calcite of the Umlaldoh Limestone varies from 8.61 % to 25.37 % and ferron

calcite of the Prang Limestone varies from 0.47 % to 24.79 % (Table 3.8).

59
 Aragonite, of the Lakadong Limestone varies from 0.00 % to 2.46 %,

aragonite of the Umlaldoh Limestone varies from 0.00 % to 2.41 % and aragonite of

the Prang Limestone varies from 0.00 % to 0.63 % (Table 3.8)

Dolomite, of the Lakadong Limestone varies from 0.62 % to 2.25 %,

dolomite of the Umlaldoh Limestone varies from 0.00 % to 1.71 % and dolomite of

the Prang Limestone varies from 0.00 % to 0.41 % (Table 3.8).

The non-ferron calcite is more abundant than the ferron calcites and other

carbonate minerals as evidenced from the staining of the thin sections. The

aragonites are low in the limestone as it is very unstable and changed to calcite.

The almost absence of aragonite in most of the cases may be attributed to its

removal by solution (leaching). Leaching of aragonite materials takes place under

subaerial condition in the early stage of diagenesis.

Dolomite is only restricted to Lakadong limestone (dolomite is less than 2.25

%), and well visible in alizarin red and potassium ferricyanide composite test. In

Umlatdoh Limestone (dolomite is less than 1.71 %), and Prang Limestone (dolomite

is less than 0.41 %), which is visible in scattered manner under petrological

microscope (Fig 3.4).

3.6 DIAGENESIS:

Diagenesis encompasses all the processes, which affect the sediments after

deposition. It includes processes such cementation to produce limestone and

dissolution to form cave systems but it also include processes such as the

development of micro porosity and changes in the trace elements.

60
 Changes that the sediments undergo between deposition and lithification

under normal P-T conditions are termed as diagenesis. They differentiated between

primary porosity, developed before and during deposition, and secondary porosity,

developed after deposition i.e. postdepositional porosity evolution. Choquette and

Pray (1970) recognized three zones (eogenetic, mesogenetic and telogenetic) in

which post-depositional porosity modification and evolution occur, and some

diagenetic processes and products responsible for the porosity development and

evolution in carbonate rock sequences after deposition.

The chemical characteristics of carbonate pore fluids, the rate of flux through

the pore system, and the temperature and pressure regimes under which the resulting

rock-water interactions are effected and control the diagenetic processes that affect

and modify carbonate porosity through dissolution of existing carbonate phases

and/or the precipitation of new phases.

Shallow-water carbonate-rich sediments are largely confined to the

subtropical and tropical climatic zones. Their occurrence is strongly influenced by,

factors such as water temperature and terrigenous input. These sediments are

generally dominated by aragonite, followed by calcites rich in magnesium (.4 mol

%). Dolomite occurs only in special environments, and even then, it is generally not

a major component of the sediment. Shallow-water carbonates are primarily produce

by the disintegration of the skeletons of benthic organisms, such as corals,

echinoids, mollusks, foraminifera, and coralline algae.

Under the high pressure and temperature regimens of the subsurface,

pressure solution is an important porosity destruction process that is often aided by

61
cement precipitation in adjacent pore spaces due to the general supersaturation of the

pore fluids. Finally, local areas of undersaturation related to thermal degradation of

hydrocarbons may result in secondary porosity generation by dissolution. Most

diagenetic processes operate slowly in the subsurface because of the relatively slow

movement of fluids under conditions of deep burial (Choquette and James, 1987,

1990)

Fig 3.5 (Left hand side figure): Morphology of calcite crystals as controlled by

selective Mg-poisoning (Folk, 1974). If as is shown in A, an Mg ion is added to the

end of a growing crystal it can easily be overstepped by the next succeeding CO3,

layer without harm to the crystal growth. If however, as in B, the small Mg ion is

added to the side of the crystal, the adjacent CO3, sheets are distorted to

accommodate it in the lattice, hampering further sideward growth, and resulting in

the growth of small, fibrous crystals (After Folk, 1974). Fig 3.6 (Right hand side

figure): Calcite crystal growth habit as a function of Mg/Ca ratio (After Folk, 1974).

62
Fig 3.7 (P, U and L): Shows some diagenetic process involves the change in the

mineralogy or fabric of the carbonate members of Shella Formation from bottom to

top.

63
 Fossils in the three limestones i.e., Lakadong, Umlatdoh and Prang

Limestone show a variable vertical distribution and their abundance is confined to

the lower and middle part of the Lakadong limestone while rare at the top sandy part

of the unit (Gogoi et.al., 2009). This may be attributing to the prevalence of

favorable marine conditions during the deposition in the initial stage. The increasing

supply of clastic material to the basin towards the end deposition of the Lakadong

Limestone inhibited the thriving of benthic foraminifers. Presence of mud free water

in basin of deposition and predominance of larger foraminifera and calcareous algae

in the Lakadong Limestone assemblage are indicative of low energy warm shallow

water environment of deposition. The Lakadong Limestone larger foraminiferal

assemblage is associated with assemblage of calcareous algae. In recent seas, this

kind of assemblage is common in shallow water tropical environment of carbonate

deposition. The allochemical process or dolomitization is only restricted to the lower

most unit (Lakadong limestone) of the area.

Different diagenetic processes occur within the different units of carbonate

rocks, the basic petrographic and diagenetic difference in between these three

members of shella formation is that,the Lakadong Limestone contains less skeletal

grains and inorganic precipitates like ooids, and needle muds than Prang Limestone,

but late diagenetic processes is prevailed here, which is well established by the

presence of sparite, microstylolites, and sparry calcitic veins. The Umlatdoh

Limestone also contains less skeletal grains and inorganic precipitates like ooids,

and needle muds in comparisons to the other two members of shella formation. Late

diagenetic process is just begins which is supported by the presence of microsparite

64
and pseudosparites in the studied samples. But, Prang Limestone contains

characteristic high amount of skeletal grains along with the inorganic precipitates of

oolites, cements, and needle muds. Early diagenetic process is only evidenced in

prang Limestone and no late diagenetic process is started in the present PT

conditions.

Fig. 3.8: shows the occurance of glauconite in top of Prang Limestone established

special shallow marine early diagenetic process, which probably at the interface

between reducing and oxidizing zones in the muddy sediments.

The occurance of glauconite in top of Prang Limestone established shallow

marine early diagenetic process (Fig 3.8), which probably at the interface between

reducing and oxidizing zones in the muddy sediments. Glauconite has been

synthesized at low temperatures (about 20oC), at sea water pH (8.5) by precipitation

of Fe-hydroxides from Si, Fe, Al, and K containing solutions in pore spaces under

slightly reducing conditions (Harder H, 1980). Shallow sediments under conditions

of low sedimentation rate may produce glauconitic minerals.

65
 Porrenga (1967) and Odin (1988) have described the occurrence of

glauconitic and berthierine facies minerals in present-day and recent sediments.

There is a much more moderate change in iron oxidation state in the

glauconitic and an addition of potassium. The evolution of glauconitic is towards a

potassic, ferric clay mineral. Hence, one can deduce that the reducing power of the

environment on the sedimentary peloid materials is very important. In the absence of

a strong reducing agent, the iron in the peletal material remains essentially ferric,

accumulates potassium to form glauconitic, and thus formed in different

geochemical sedimentary environments, temperature of formation is low, near that

of the ocean shelf. During glauconitic formation the system is largely oxidizing, and

tends to become more alkali rich in the system (Fig 3.8); during glauconite

formation potassium enters the system (Velde and Odin, 1975).

According to Folk (1959) and Folk (1962) classification of limestone, all the

samples of Prang Limestone falls within Microcrystalline allochemical limestone

category and contains high microcrystalline magnesium calcite (Fig 3.1) are

components of shallow marine sediments. They are derived from the skeleton of

organisms, such as benthic foraminifers, and by direct precipitation of marine

cements. The solubility is strongly influence by their magnesium content. Pellets are

formed by the ingestion of sediment by marine organisms and excretion of algal

material.

66
Cementation:

Cements represent an important record of the diagenetic history of carbonate

rocks. Cementation comprises the processes that leading to the precipitation of

minerals in primary or secondary pores and requires the super-saturation of pore

fluids with respect to the mineral. Cementation is one of the major processes that

take place simultaneously to lithification in either early or late diagenetic stage

depositing minerals such as calcite, quartz, clay, chlorite, glauconitic and iron

minerals etc. as inter-granular material.

Dissolution-precipitation that accompanies cementation, which differs only

in degree from that accompanies the growth of neomorphic spar. Carbonate Cement

or Sparry calcitic cement is the only dominant cement in the studied limestone. Of

the three limestone members of the study area, the Lower part of Lakadong

Limestone is dolomitic.

There are two distinct types of sparry calcite cement viz., non-ferron and

ferron calcite are present in the carbonate sequence of the area after combined

carbonate staining method of Aligerin Red S and potassium ferricyanide (Dickson,

1966), where non-ferron calcites shows pink to reddish brown color and ferron

calcites shows mauve to blue color.

Non-ferron calcites are observed as internal constituent of fossils,

intergranular constituents and outer rim of some fossils as micritic envelop (Fig 3.4)

and are first to be deposited during early diagenesis of the sediments. Sometimes

fiberous calcite found around seems to be precipitate before the sparite. The dog-

67
tooth calcites are commonly non-ferron calcite and generally show undulose

extinction indicating some stain effect at the time of their formation, which was

formed before, or was concomitant to effective compaction and lithification. Non-

ferron calcite occurs as crust around some grains and solution cavities, which is only

possible if aragonite dissolution occurs during the deposition of non-ferron calcite

(Talbot, 1971). The isolated strip of micrite envelope or very thin bands of fine

dusty particles that once covered the shell surface indicate that aragonite dissolution

must have preceded compaction, and deposition of the granular cement in Lakadong

and Umlatdoh Limestone.

Ferron calcites, typically forms a mosaic of more or less equant grains

having no apparent crystal orientation and mostly found in fractures, veins, and

sometimes within the fossils (Fig. 3.4).

In cavity filling, cement the crystals in cavity walls serves as nuclei. As a

cement mosaic develops, the more favorably oriented crystals survive and sink the

less favorable ones with the result that crystal size tends to increase towards the

centre of the cavity filling (Fig 3.4). Large voide spaces, such as body cavities of

mega fossils (Molluska) or algal nodules, and the larger opening sometimes filled in

sequential episodes with a lower layer of mud (micrite) that infiltrated and settled

down on the floor of the cavity and the upper portion is fill by sparry calciteic

cement. The contact between the two-calcite surfaces marks the bedding plane and

the structure known as geopetal structure and found in Umlatdoh Limestone.

Radiaxial fibrous calcite (Fig 3.7) is generally found as space filler as in

Lakadong Limestone showing special fabrics, undulose extinction, convergent optic

68
axis, sub crystals curved twinned planes and inclusions. Bathrust (1959) suggested

them to be the recrystallization product of aragonite. Some crystals of calcite cement

shows zoned appearance indicating change in pore water chemistry from which

calcite was precipitated. The other types of cement is micrite which is distributed as

lining cavity walls or forming asymmetric fringes, together with a vague pelleted

texture, but is quite difficult to distinguish from clay matrix. There is two

generations of calcite cement precipitation established from staining viz., the early

cement (formed by dissolution of aragonite) generation is composed of non-ferron

calcite and the main cement phase is a ferron calcite, during which sediments

suffered compaction, fracture and breaking of grains.

The presence of only granular ferron calcite (Fig 3.4), in contrast to two

ferron calcite (fiberous and granular) that fill majority of the primary and secondary

voids explain that the cavity filling was late diagenetic. This was happen where the

cavity fill is related to a phase of calcite veining and cross cut the constituent grains

but merge with any granular ferron calcite grain they encounter (Fig 3.4). In

Lakadong limestone, large equant grains of calcite (blue stained) is present showing

a cross relation with all textural elements (Fig 3.4), however, the vein filling was of

both dogtooth and granular ferron calcite type. In Prang Limestone, a large equant

grain of calcite (blue stained) is also present and showing a cross relation with all

textural elements but, the veins were filled with granular ferron calcite with some

calcite overgrowth on them (Fig 3.4). This post-lithification ferron calcite was may

be deposited from ground water that dissolved iron from various sources and then

circulated through cracks, pores and solution openings by precipitation and

69
replacement process at depth. The absence of fibrous ferron calcite explains that

dissolution may have taken place too late for fibrous calcite to deposit.

Neomorphism:

Neomorphism (Folk, 1965), is the term use to include all transformations

between one mineral and itself or a polymorphic inversion or recrystallization.

Diagenesis includes the transformation of one phase to another, i.e.,

"recrystallization" by the processes of micro-solution and precipitation. Replacement

involves gross chemical changes between the reactant and product phases, like

calcite to dolomite. Neomorphism, refers to transformations involving polymorphs

or members of solid solutions, for example, aragonite to calcite. Recrystallization,

occurs when the reactant and product phase remain nearly the same compositionally

and structurally, but grain growth occurs, when of small carbonate grains to larger

grains (Morse and Casey, 1988).

Land (1986, 1989) characterizes all stabilization processes as proceeding by

replacement. These transformations generally take place in the presence of a fluid;

i.e., marine interstitial water, meteoric water, connate water, or subsurface brine.

In some cases, pressures and temperatures are elevated above depositional

pressures and temperatures; in other cases, transformation takes place under near

Earth surface conditions of pressures and temperatures. Fluids, move through the

carbonate sediment package transporting dissolved reactant and product

constituents centimeters to hundreds or thousands of kilometers, or in some

carbonate sequences lack of long distance movement, that is responsible for

70
significant mass transfer of carbonate components regionally, or locally, during

diagenesis. Carbonate diagenesis also involves processes in which new minerals

precipitate in original or secondary pore space, and carbonate minerals are leached

from the sediment mass, Thus, the authigenesis or neoformation of mineral phases,

as well as recrystallization, can lead to changes in a sediment's ability to transmit

fluids because of changes in porosity and permeability during diagenesis.

Thin section study of the carbonates form the present area shows that they

were exposed to varying degrees of biochemical and/or allochemical diagenetic

processes. Cementation and neomorphism are the most dominant isochemical

process in diagenesis. Formation of stylolite because of pressure solution is also a

common diagenetic phenomenon observed in the limestones (Figs 3.10, 3.11, 3.12).

The predominance of fossils in the member of Shella Formation follows an

increasing stratigraphic trend (from older i.e., Lakadong Limestone to younger i.e.,

Prang Limestone) in the members and appears to be inversed association with the

degree of neomorphism (Figs 3.10, 3.11, 3.12). A coarsening of grains from Prang

Limestone (mostly micritic), Umlatdoh Limestone (micritic and microsparitic) to

Lakadong Limestone (microsparitic on top coarse-grained sparry calcite and

dolomite at bottom) well observed.

Two types of neomorphic transformations are observed in the samples i.e.,

wet polymorphic transformations from aragonite to calcite, and wet recrystalization

of calcite to calcite in the later stages of aggrading neomorphism, i.e., neomorphism

embraces two types of alterations viz., inversion and recrystallization. The limestone

units of the study area underwent aggrading type of neomorphism, which includes-

71
 Coarsening of grains (microspar to spar) from Prang to Lakadong Limestone,

Calcitization of aragonite minerals, and

Replacement of acicular cement by fibrous calcite.

The microcrystalline calcite materials partially altered to coarser calcite

(microspar and rarely pseudospar). Aggrading neomorphism i.e., coarsening of

grains is recognized from the following observations-

1. Irregular or curved intercrystalline boundary,

2. Patchy development of coarse mosaic,

3. Precence of floating skeletal grains in the coarse spar.

Among the aggrading neomorphism, both pervasive and selective

neomorphism are observed. Skeletal grains composed of aragonite have mostly been

replaced by drusy sparite through the solution of the aragonite and later

precipitation, in some cases by calcite with no intervening void phase i.e.,

calcitization.

Foraminifers, calcareous algae and some rarely preserved molluscan shells

are the dominant allochems. Single foraminiferal tests are composed of radial or

concentric cryptocrystalline aragonite (Sanders and Friedman, 1967) and granular

calcite, and are bimineralic nature because both cryptocrystalline aragonite (radial

hyaline) and sparry calcite (granular hyaline) are observed. Association of aragonite

with granular calcite within a single allochem indicates selective neomorphism

(Goswami et. al., 1971). Foraminifera with hyaline calcareous perforate wall often

composed of small prism of calcite having their principal axis perpendicular to the

72
surface of the shell resulting a black cross and colored ring under plane polarized

light (Figs 3.10, 3.11, 3.12). In a few smaller forms, most of the chambers are

invariably filled up with calcite mosaic and microspar.

In Lakadong and Umlatdoh limestone the shell of some fossils manifest a

thick coating (micritic envelop) that helps in preserving fossil fragment during

diagenesis, most of the aragonite shell has been completely dissolved and the mould

outlined by a thin micrite envelop was then filled by sparry calcite cement. This

indicates pervasive neomorphism of aragonite during early diagenesis and

lithification (Sarma, 2005). Micrite envelop is more frequent among the small

miliolids and abundant in the Lakadong limestone and Umlatdoh limestone beds.

The Prang Limestone is shallow water sediments and are skeletal in nature,

but commonly contains inorganic precipitates of ooids, cements, and needle muds.

In the early stage of accumulation, very soluble phases dissolved, and cements of

aragonite and magnesian calcite precipitated in the pores of the Prang sediments.

These processes modify carbonate sediment composition and result in the loss of

information concerning original sediments chemistry, mineralogy, and biotic

composition. Sediments characteristic such as porosity, permeability and fabric

changed during these early diagenetic stages. These modifications will continue to

occur during further diagenetic pathways. The development of secondary porosity is

not observed in Prang Limestone.

The carbonate secreting algae, coralline algae in particular constitute one of

the most dominant fossil grains with its characteristic reticulate appearance

preserved because of the conversion of original high Mg-calcite composition to

73
calcite (Friedman, 1964). The green algae (Halimeda) are poorly preserve probably

because of their chemical composition (aragonite) which generally dissolved and the

original texture is replaced by clear calcite.

Fig 3.9: A. shows a Basel section of two small prism of calcite, having their

principal axis perpendicular to the surface results a black cross and colored ring

under plane polarized light. A1. Association of aragonite with granular calcite

within a single allochem indicates selective neomorphism (Goswami et. al., 1971)

with sparry calcitic vein.

The three carbonate members of Shella Formation viz., Lakadong, Umlatdoh

and Prang Limestone and showing the effect of neomorphism on fossils and

bioclasts.

74
Fig 3.10: shows the characteristic high amount of skletal grains and inorganic

precipitates of ooids, cements, and needle muds and early diagenetic process is

prevailed in prang Limestone in the field (A) and under microscope (A1).

Fig 3.11: shows less skletal grains and inorganic precipitates like ooids, and needle

muds. Late diagenetic process is observed in Umlatdoh Limestone which is well

established by the presence of microsparite and pseudosparites in the field (B) and

under microscope (B1).

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Fig 3.12: show a less skletal grains and inorganic precipitates like ooids, and needle

muds. Late diagenetic process is prevailed in Lakadong Limestone which is well

established by the presence of sparite, microstylolites, and sparry calcitic veins in

the field (C) and under microscope (C1).

Figs (3.10, 3.11 and 3.12): are the field photographs & microphotographs showing

three Carbonate Rocks of Shella Formation, A. highly fossiliferous Prang

Limestone, B. less fossiliferous Umlatdoh Limestone and C. Fossiliferous Lakadong

Limestone. A1, B1 and C1 show the degree of Neomorphism from Lakadong

Limestone to Prang Limestone.

Dolomitization:

Dolomitization does not usually retain much of the original microstructures

in the replacement product, preservation is usually poor in many carbonate

sequences and, allochems have been preserved by the dolomitization process. All

biogenic allochems of all ages are known to be susceptible to dolomite replacement.

Biogenic calcium carbonates seem to be replaced by dolomite. It has been difficult

to design experiments to test mechanisms and rates of diagenetic processes affecting

76
carbonate sediments, and the difference in the chemical composition between

calcite/aragonite and dolomite is the incorporation of Mg to form CaMg(CO3)2. To

this studied rocks, in contrast to microstructural features, exoskeletal or shell

morphology is usually well maintained during the replacement process.

In Lakadong and Umlatdoh Limestone the shell of some fossils manifests a

thick coating (micritic envelop) that helps in preserving fossil fragment during

diagenesis. Most of the aragonite shell has been completely dissolved and the mould

outlined by a thin micrite envelop was then filled by sparry calcite cement. This

indicates pervasive neomorphism of aragonite during early diagenesis and

lithification (Sarma, 2005). Micrite envelop is more frequent among the small

miliolids and abundant in the Lakadang and Umlatdoh Limestones.

The uppermost Prang Limestone is shallow water sediments and are skeletal

in nature, but commonly contains inorganic precipitates of ooids, cements,and

needle muds. In the early stage of accumulation, very soluble phases may be

dissolved, and cements of aragonite and magnesian calcite precipitated in the pore of

the Prang sediments. These processes modify carbonate sediment composition and

result in the loss of information concerning the original sediments, chemistry,

mineralogy and biotic composition. In addition, sediments characteristics such as

porosity, permeability and fabric have changed during these early diagenetic stages.

These modifications will continue to occur during further diagenetic pathways. The

development of secondary porosity is not observed in Prang Limestone.

The carbonate secreting algae, coralline algae in particular constitute one of

the most dominant fossil grains with its characteristics reticulate appearance

77
preserved, because of the general replacement of biogenic carbonate allochems can

be represented by the following reactions-

2CaCO3 + Mg2+ (Fe2+) = CaMg(CO3)2 + Ca2+

Where, variable amounts of Fe may substitute into the dolomite lattice

depending on the source availability and redox of the diagenetic system.

When carbonates are absent from the original sediments, the pore waters

supply the necessary Ca2+, Mg2+ and CO32- for trace amounts of dolomite formation:

Ca2+ + Mg2+ + 4HCO3- = CaMg(CO3)2 + 2CO2 + 2H2O

If CaCO3 is present, dolomitization may occur by the following mechanism:

CaCO3 + Mg2+ + 2HCO3- = CaMg(CO3)2 + CO2 + H2O

And if, the sediment is very rich in a carbonate mineral precursor,

2CaCO3 + Mg2+ = CaMg(CO3)2 + Ca2+

In the first case, Ca2+ and some CO32- is supplied by dissolution of CaCO3

and Mg2+ , with additional CO32-, is derived from the pore water. In the second case,

most of the components of the diagenetic dolomite come from precursor carbonate

(Isaacs, 1984; Baker and Bums, 1985; Compton and Siever, 1984, 1986; Burns and

Baker, 1987; Compton, 1988). To obtain information on the equilibrium state of the

carbonate rock system and the direction in which diagenesis was prevailed, it is

necessary to know the chemical mechanisms and the rates of dissolution,

precipitation and recrystallization reactions (Berner, 1986).

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 Interpretation of diagenetic pathways in deeply buried carbonate sediments is

more difficult than for shallowly buried carbonate materials. The geologic history of

the carbonate sediment becomes an important variable. Temporal changes in the

burial parameters of pressure and temperature, and of geothermal gradient,

interstitial fluid composition, and migration paths, and tectonic movement, must also

evaluated to decipher diagenetic pathways.

The process may take place soon after the deposition (early diagenetic) or

long after the deposition (late diagenetic, Tucker, 1981) and may be pervasive or

selective. Dolomites may also be formed by seepage refluxion (Adoms et.al., 1960).

In thin section among the three limestone members of the study area, only the lower

part of the Lakadong Limestone found to be coarsely crystalline dolomites of

secondary origin with micritic cement, and developed an intercrystalline porosity,

accompanied by dissolution of non-replaced limestone.

Different workers in the neighboring districts have reported the occurrence

of dolomites in the base of Lakadong Limestone. Sarma (2005) reported the

occurrence of coarse-grained crystalline dolomite with scattered dolomitic rhombs

in South Jaintia Hills district of Meghalaya. Das and Borthakur (2009), reported a

restricted occurance of negligible dolomite contents is less than 2% and denies its

primary origin in and around Mawsynram area, Meghalaya.

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3.6.4 Compaction and pressure solution

Compaction and pressure solution (stylolitization) refer to mechanical and

chemical processes, triggered by the increasing overburden of sediments during

burial and increasing temperature and pressure conditions. So, compaction is the

processes that decreases the bulk volume of a single grain or packing of grains

(reorientation) and pressure solution, which decreases the volume of grains and of

cement minerals (Flugel, 1982, 2004). Compaction, is brought out by the weight of

the overlying column of deposited material and if the intensity of the compaction is

very high, this may lead to the deformation of sedimentary structure and fabrics and

may cause recrystallisation. The two principal mechanisms for porosity destruction

are cementation and compaction.

Compaction includes mechanical compaction, dewatering, and chemical

compaction, as exemplified by pressure solution along stylolites and between grains.

Compaction can change the original depositional structure by the development of

calcite veins and stylolites. The stylolites represent structural discontinuities caused

by pressure solution, dissolution of limestone Fossils or other grains often partly

may not be seen (Figs 3.14 to 3.19) adjacent to stylolites. They are thin seams of

clay and insoluble residue material and mostly run parallel to the bedding and

contain minor quartz glauconite (Fig 3.8) crystallized during the diagenesis process

very common in diagenetically modified limestones. Porosity destruction by

compaction dominates those sedimentary sequences buried with marine pore fluids,

such as pelagic oozes, rapidly subsiding shelf-margin sequences, and, in some cases,

mud-dominated shelf-lagoon complexes (Choquette and James, 1987). Chemical

80
compaction believed to be a significant source for later, porosity-occluding,

subsurface cements.

In the studied limestones, the effect of various compactions is not so

significant because of the uniform horizontal bedded natures of the limestone

indicate that the tectonic environment in the basin of deposition was stable one. The

preservation of early diagenetic sedimentary structure suggests that there was no

strong compaction effect in the carbonate sediments. Presence of few microstylolitic

contacts and broken allochems suggests an in significant role of compaction effect

during early diagenesis.

The study of the stained thin section of limestone revealed that a very small

amount of aragonite occurs within the fossil allochem, but generally absent in many

fossil allochems. The absence of aragonite in most cases may be attributing to its

removal by leaching or solution. Leaching of aragonite material takes place under

subaerial condition in the early stage of diagenesis (Friedman, 1964). Moreover, the

aragonite that occurs within the fossil allochem also shows selective neomorphic

inversion into calcite (Fig 3.14, 3.15, 3.16, 3.17, 3.18 and 3.19). The removal by

leaching and selective neomorphism of aragonite may be cause for the lack of

aragonite in the limestones and one of the indications of early diagenetic change.

Friedman (1964) observed the replacement of aragonite by calcite in shells of

organisms occur early in the lithification process before most of the interstitial pore

spaces is filled. Majority of the fossil allochems in the Lakadong limestone are

preserve as calcite cast and the boundaries between these fossil allochems and the

surrounding sparry calcite mosaic are usually sharp. Sometimes, a dark

81
microcrystalline rims around the grains, forming micrite envelops are also observed

as grain coating consists of unoriented cryptocrystalline aragonite and formed by

accretion (Friedman, 1964)

In the present study area, the size of the stylolites varies from few

micrometers to few centimeters. The large-scale stylolites, of a few centimeter

amplitude are frequently encountered in the Prang Limestone, which indicates

compaction of sediments during diagenesis (Fig 3.14, 3.15, 3.16, 3.17, 3.18 and

3.19). However, microstylolites are also present in Umlatdoh Limestone and

Lakadong Limestone and are supposed to be one of the sources of CaCO3 for

limestone concentration specifically in the late diagenetic stage.

3.6.5 Silicification:

Silicification or chertification is another diagenetic replacement process

common in carbonate allochems of all ages (Maliva and Siever, 1988) and can takes

place during early or late diagenesis. Replacement by silica is highly allochem

selective while generally leaving the host rock material unaffected. This process

probably proceeds before or after carbonate-controlled diagenetic processes and is

highly dependent on chemical-crystal growth conditions of the replacement

microenvironment. Silicification of biogenic carbonate allochems may occur at any

time in their geologic and diagenetic history. Evidence is mounting that silicification

of carbonate allochems occurs prior to extensive cementation of the host sediment,

and either before, during or after the aragonite-calcite and high-Mg calcite-calcite

transformations (Choquette, 1955). Euhedral quartz crystals and microcrystalline

quartz are diagenetic silica that present in the studied samples. The euhedral silica

82
crystal had found, in few sections of Prang Limestone and Umlatdoh limestone. In

Lakadong Limestone, very small grains of quartz with Iron leaching have seen in

some microstylolites (Fig 3.14, 3.15, 3.16, 3.17, 3.18 and 3.19).

3.7 Porosity in carbonate sediments:

Porosity is a prerequisite for the course of diagenesis. Porosity studies of

carbonate rocks are crucial in understanding diagenetic processes and highly

significant in evaluating reservoir rocks (Moore 2001). Porosity is the percentage of

the bulk volume of a rock that has occupied by interstices, whether isolated or

connected. This definition describes the total porosity, which must be separated

from the effective porosity i.e., the percentage of the total rock volume that consists

of interconnected pores. Many carbonate rocks no longer exhibit open pores, but

former interstices, which have been filled with, cement. An estimation of this

porosity, representing the sum of pre-cementation porosity and expressed by the

total of pore-filling cement percentage of the bulk volume, is necessary for

understanding and describing porosity evolution during time. The porosity is

generally very high at the time of deposition that is lost or reduced or modified

through compaction, cementation and pressure solution, and again developed

through solution, dolomitization and tectonic fracturing (Murray, 1960).

The porosity of sedimentary rocks falls into two major groups viz., Primary

and secondary porosity. Primary porosity, forms during the predepositional stage

(e.g., intragranular pores in foraminifers, corals, or ooids) and during the

depositional stage (depositional porosity), e.g. intergranular porosity, framework

83
growth porosity. Moreover, Secondary porosity has formed during diagenesis at any

time after deposition.

Choquette and Pray (1970) list the classification and the terms used to

describe carbonate porosity in thin sections (Fig 3.13). The following text

concentrates on the basic terminology and the practical pore type classification in

thin sections.

Fabric-selective porosity:

Fabric-selective porosity is controlled by primary or secondary fabrics.

Primary depositional fabrics include interparticle, intraparticle, growth framework,

fenestral, and shelter pores. Fabric-selective secondary porosity is formed by

intercrystalline and moldic pores.

Non-fabric selective porosity:

Non-fabric selective pores is independent of depositional fabrics and

includes fracture, channel, vug and cavern pores. And-

Fabric-selective porosity or non-fabric selective pore types:

Breccia, boring, burrow, and shrinkage pores may be fabric-selective or not.

These qualitative criteria can be substantiated by the additional use of genetic, size

and abundance modifiers.

84
Fig 3.13: A Pore types and porosity classification (after Choquette and Pray, 1970).

Porosity in limestones, change with increasing age and/or burial depth of the

sediment (Scholle and Halley 1985). Mechanical compaction can be responsible for

about one third of porosity in micritic limestones. The total porosity of many

limestones is often less than 10% where by grain-supported limestones often exhibit

higher porosities than mud-supported limestones. Common porosities of

wackestones formed in inner shelf and lagoonal environments are < 3%. The

preservation of primary pores requires that postdepositional diagenesis be limited in

its pore-destroying effects, that compaction kept at a minimum, and those

fluctuations between exposure and submergence create a balance between the

formation of solution pores and the destruction of porosity by shallow burial

85
cementation. A preservation of porosity in shallow burial environments is a

consequence of minimal burial, reduced burial stress, and increased framework

rigidity, exclusion of pore water, low-calcite mineralogy, permeability barriers, and

pore resurrection. Porosity in mud-supported limestone affected by a prolonged

burial diagenesis, is commonly strongly reduced.

In the studied samples, porosity in many dolomites has higher average

porosities than limestones, because of differences in the size, shape and arrangement

of crystals. Porosity tends to increase slightly in the initial stages of dolomitization

of limestone, but increases abruptly with higher amounts of dolomite. Common pore

types in carbonate rocks are Interparticle, vugy, intercrystalline, and framework

pores are common in limestones.

In the present study carbonates shows development of secondary porosity

viz., i) Mulds, Vugs and solution of grains and rock, ii) intercrystalline porosity

produced through dolomitization (Fig 3.9) and iii) fracture porosity. The

development of porosity was not so high in the present carbonates except some vugs

in the lowermost limestone and intercrystalline porosity among the dolomite rhombs

in the same (Fig 3.13).

3.8 Depositional environment of carbonate rocks of the study area:

The diagenetic fabric of the carbonates provides useful information to the

environment of deposition of these sediments. The three limestone units of the study

area shows dominance of non-ferron calcite followed by purple to blue stained

calcite indicating the presence of ferrous iron. The non-ferron calcites have a

restricted distribution in space and time and were always the first calcite has

86
deposited. Their presence also indicates cementation during the early diagenetic

stage of the apparently unlithified sediments. The non-ferron calcites are probably

deposited under sub-aerial exposure in emergent well-oxygenated marine condition.

The dominance of micrite and conversion of microspar to pseudospar also suggested

precipitation in surficial condition. The petrological and fossil features enable to

reconstruct a diagenetic history for the deposition of the three limestone members of

the study area.

Cementation in Lakadong Limestone perhaps took place before compaction

in oxidizing environment under emergent marine condition, which later on

submerged and underwent compaction great enough to cause fracture and the

precipitation of second-generation cement under reducing condition along the

fracture and voids (Evamy, 1969). The presence of glauconite within some

foraminifers also indicates reducing condition and normal salinity of seawater.

The stylolites present in this unit also show some indication of compaction in

the late stage of diagenesis. The occurrence of oolites in the upper part of the same

unit is indicative of very shallow water condition may be due to negative change in

sea level. The abundance of pellets in some sections indicates deposition in

protected environment

The thin dolomite bend at bottom part of Lakadong Limestone might be of

late diagenetic replacement origin.

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3.9 Observations:

The modal volumetric analysis (vol %) of constituent grains (from both

stained and unstained sections) shows that the limestones are fossiliferous with

fossil ranging from 42.0 % to 54.50 % in Lakadong Limestone, 38.74 % to 53.80 %

Umlatdoh Limestone and 50.4 % to 58.28 % Prang Limestone. The oolites are very

common constituents in the limestones, oolites of the Lakadong Limestone varies

from 1.04% to 4.85 %, in Umlatdoh Limestone 0.32 % to 2.94 % in Prang

Limestone varies from 1.96 % to 3.70 %. The pellets and intraclasts also occur in

very negligible proportions in the studied carbonates. The constituent grains mostly

occur in a groundmass of microcrystalline calcite matrix neomorphosed to microspar

in places. The sparry crystalline calcite cements are mostly non-ferron calcite of

pink to reddish brown stained, followed by purple to blue stained calcite cement

indicating the presence of ferrous iron. Microcrystalline calcite matrix (micrite), of

the Lakadong Limestone varies from 11.32 % to 23.15 %, in Umlatdoh Limestone

varies from 19.20 % to 39.12 % and that of Prang Limestone varies from 24.55 % to

34.40 %. Petrographically, the limestones of the study area are of biomicrite,

biosparite, oomicrite and bio-pelsparite type (after Folk, 1959) and compositionally

matured.

The carbonate petrography and diagenesis provide useful information to the

environment of deposition of these sediments. The non-ferron calcite formed during

the early diagenetic stage of the apparently unlithified sediments under subaerial

exposure in emergent well-oxygenated marine condition. The dominance of micrite

88
and conversion of microspar to pseudospar also suggest precipitation in surfacial

condition.

Different diagenetic processes may occur within the different units of

carbonate rocks, the basic petrographic and diagenetic difference in between these

three members of shella formation. From petrographical studies, it can be inferred

that, Lakadong limestone is dolomitic in bottom part, pure limestone in middle part

and sandy in upper part. The diagenetic fabric of the Lakadong limestone, indicate

that cementation took place before compaction in oxidizing environment under

emergent marine condition, which later on submerged and underwent compaction

great enough to cause fracture and the precipitation of second-generation cement

under reducing condition along the fractures and voids. The thin dolomitic unit at

the bottom part of this unit may be of late diagenetic replacement origin. The

Umlatdoh Limestone is also highly fossiliferous and has undergone early diagenetic

modifications, at very shallow depths, both under influence of marine and meteoric

water.

The Lakadong Limestone contains less skeletal grains and inorganic

precipitates like ooids, and needle muds than Prang Limestone, but late diagenetic

processes is prevailed here, which is well established by the presence of sparite,

microstylolites, and sparry calcitic veins. The Umlatdoh Limestone also contains

less skeletal grains and inorganic precipitates like ooids, and needle muds in

comparisons to the other two members of shella formation. Late diagenetic process

is supported by the presence of microsparite and pseudosparites in the studied

samples. But, Prang Limestone contains characteristic high amount of skelital grains

89
along with the inorganic precipitates of ooids, cements, and needle muds. Early

diagenetic process is only evidenced in Prang Limestone and no late diagenetic

process was observed.

The occurance of glauconite in top of Prang Limestone established shallow

marine early diagenetic process (Fig 3.8), which probably at the interface between

reducing and oxidizing zones in the muddy sediments. Glauconite has been

synthesized at low temperatures (about 20oC), at sea water pH (8.5) by precipitation

of Fe-hydroxides from Si, Fe,Al,and K containing solutions in pore spaces under

slightly reducing conditions. Shallow sediments under conditions of low

sedimentation rate can produced glauconitic minerals, and are more often, found in

shelf areas of lower sedimentation rate.

90
Fig 3.14: Photomicrographs of Lakadong Limestone.

91
Fig 3.15: Photomicrographs of Lakadong Limestone.

92
Fig 3.16: Photomicrographs of Umlatdoh Limestone.

93
Fig 3.17: Photomicrographs of Umlatdoh Limestone.

94
Fig 3.18: Photomicrographs of Prang Limestone.

95
Fig 3.19: Photomicrographs of Prang Limestone.

96