MAJOR DIVISIONS OF THE BRAIN

A. FOREBRAIN
Also known as the PROSENCEPHALON
The forebrain is split into 2 divisions, namely the telencephalon and diencephalon
Highest form of mental activity is found in the prefrontal lobe
CEREBRUM
Largest part of the brain
LONGITUDINAL FISSURE: divides cerebrum into left and right hemispheres
CORPUS CALLOSUM: connection between the left and right hemispheres

HEMISPHERES
Most conspicuous features on the surface of each hemisphere:
o GYRI: numerous folds which greatly increase the surface area of the cortex
o SULCI: intervening grooves
Left hemisphere controls right side of the body
o Math, analytic, and speech
Wernickes area: parietal lobe; comprehension/where words are heard and processed
Broncas area: frontal lobe; speech/where words are formulated
Right hemisphere controls left side of body
o Music, art, and abstract ideas

TELENCEPHALON
Contains the left and right cerebral hemisphere
A major component of the telencephalon is the cerebral cortex, which is further divided into four lobes
a. Frontal voluntary motor functions, motivation, aggression, mood, and olfactory perception
b. Parietal principal center for receiving and consciously perceiving most sensory information (touch, pain,
temperature, and balance)
CENTRAL SULCUS: or FISSURE OF ROLANDO; separates the frontal and parietal lobes
c. Occipital visual input; not distinctly separate from other lobes
d. Temporal olfactory and auditory sensations, memory
Psychic cortex: anterior and inferior portions of the temporal lobe that are associated with
functions such as abstract thought and judgement
LATERAL FISSURE: separates the temporal lobes from the rest of the cerebrum
o LATERAL SULCUS: or SYLVIAN FISSURE; separates the frontal and parietal lobes
superiorly from the temporal lobe inferiorly
INSULA/FIFTH LOBE: found deep within the lateral fissure; for visceral sensation

DIENCEPHALON
The part of the brain between the brainstem and the cerebrum, therefore this is also known as the
INTERBRAIN
Contains the THALAMUS, HYPOTHALAMUS, and EPITHALAMUS

a. Thalamus
- Largest part of the diencephalon
- Consists of a cluster of nuclei and is shaped like a yo-yo
- INTERTHALAMIC ADHESION: is found in the center of the yo-yo and connects these 2 lateral
parts
- Influences mood and registers and unlocalized, uncomfortable perception of pain

PATHWAY OF THE PROCESSES OF THE THALAMUS

1. Sensory input ascends through the spinal cord and brainstem and projects to the thalamus
2. Ascending neurons will then synapse with thalamic neurons
3. Thalamic neurons will send their axons to the cerebral cortex
4. Cerebral cortex will then process the sensory input

b. Hypothalamus
- Most inferior part of the diencephalon
- Contains several small nuclei maintains homeostasis
 - Involved in the control of body temperature, hunger, thirst, and the secretion of hormones from the
pituitary gland
- Sensations (sexual pleasure, rage, fear, relaxation after a meal) and emotional responses are
related to hypothalamic functions
- INFUNDIBULUM: a funnel-shaped stalk that extends from the floor of the hypothalamus to the
pituitary gland
- MAMILLARY BODIES: form externally visible swellings on the posterior portion of the
hypothalamus and are involved in emotional responses to odors and in memory

c. Epithalamus
- Small area superior and posterior to the thalamus
- Consists of a few small nuclei
- Involved in the emotion and visceral response to odor, and the pineal gland
- PINEAL GLAND: endocrine gland that may influence the onset of puberty and may play a role in
controlling some long-term cycles that are influenced by the light-dark cycle

B. MIDBRAIN
Also known as the MESENCEPHALON
Smallest region of the brainstem
Contains involved in coordinating eye movements and controlling pupil diameter and lens shape
The rest of the midbrain consists of ascending tracts from the spinal cord to the cerebrum and descending tracts
from the cerebrum to the spinal cord or cerebellum
Is divided into anterior and posterior parts

CEREBRAL PEDUNCLES
Anterior part

CORPORA QUADRIGEMINA
also known as COLLICULI four mounds (quadri- = four)
a. 2 SUPERIOR COLLICULI: vision
b. 2 INFERIOR COLLICULI: auditory

SUBSTANTIA NIGRA: a black nuclear mass which is part of the basal nuclei and is involved in regulating
general body movements

C. HINDBRAIN
Also known as the RHOMBENCEPHALON
Contains the cerebellum, pons, and medulla oblongata
Assists in the regulation of autonomic functions, maintaining balance and equilibrium, movement coordination,
and the relay of sensory information
CEREBELLUM
little brain
Second largest part of the brain
Responsible for movement and balance
CEREBELLAR PEDUNCLES: large connections that attach cerebellum to the brainstem; provides routes
of communication between cerebellum and other parts of the CNS
o The gyri of the cerebellum is much smaller compared that of the cerebrum

PONS
Immediately superior to the medulla oblongata
Contains ascending and descending nerve tracts as well as several nuclei
Serves as a functional bridge between the cerebrum and cerebellum (resembles an arched footbridge)
Controls the intensity of breathing
a. APNEUSTIC RESPIRATION inspiration
b. PNEUMOTAXIC RESPIRATION expiration
Swallowing, balancing, chewing, and salivation
MEDULLA OBLONGATA
Most inferior portion of the brainstem; continuous with the spinal cord
Most posterior part of the hindbrain
 Extends from the foramen magnum to the pons
Contains discrete nuclei with specific functions (regulation of heart rate and blood vessel diameter, breathing,
swallowing, vomiting, coughing, sneezing, balance, and coordination)
PYRAMIDS: two prominent enlargements on the anterior surface extend the length of the medulla oblongata
o Consist of descending nerve tracts transmits action potentials from the brain to motor neurons of the
spinal cord
o Involved in the conscious control of skeletal muscles
Centers found in the medulla oblongata are play a role in vitality
a. VASOMOTOR CENTER: dilation of blood vessels/regulate blood vessel diameter
b. CARDIAC CENTER: regulates heart rate and strength of contraction
c. RESPIRATORY CENTER: rate of respiration (works with pons); also have centers for coughing,
sneezing, salivating, swallowing, gagging, and vomiting

BRAINSTEM
Connects spinal cord to the remainder of the brain
Contains several nuclei involved in vital body functions
Damage to small areas of the brainstem can cause death, but damage to large areas of the cerebrum and cerebellum
do not
Nuclei for all but the first two cranial nerves (olfactory and optic nerve) are located in the brainstem

A. MEDULLA OBLONGATA
B. PONS
C. MIDBRAIN
D. RETICULAR FORMATION
Scattered throughout the brainstem
Function: regulation of cyclical motor functions (respiration, walking, and chewing)
RETICULAR ACTIVATING SYSTEM: arouses and maintains consciousness and in regulating the sleep-wake
cycle

SENSORY FUNCTIONS
A. ASCENDING TRACTS
Pathways that transmit information via action potentials from the periphery to various parts of the brain
1 tract = 1 type of sensory input (pain, temperature, touch, position, or pressure)
o each tract contains axons from specific sensory receptors specialized to detect a particular type of
stimulus
Sensory tracts cross from one side of the body in the spinal cord or brainstem to the other side of the body
o Left brain receives sensory input from the right side of the body, and vice versa
SPINOTHALAMIC TRACT: transmits action potentials dealing with pain and temperature
o begins in the spinal cord and terminates in the thalamus
o spino-: indicates that the tract begins at the spinal cord
DORSAL COLUMN: transmits action potentials dealing with touch, position, and pressure
SPINOCEREBELLAR TRACTS: transmit information about the body position to the cerebellum

PROCESS IN THE ASCENDING TRACTS

1. Two or three neurons are found in the periphery of the brain
2. Neurons relaying information to the cerebrum terminate in the thalamus
3. Another neuron relays the information from the thalamus to the cerebral cortex
4. Ascending tracts terminate in the brainstem or cerebellum

B. SENSORY AREAS OF THE CEREBRAL CORTEX

PRIMARY SENSORY AREAS: specific regions of the cerebral cortex where the ascending tracts project to;
where sensations are perceived
PRIMARY SOMATIC SENSORY CORTEX: or general sensory area; located in the parietal lobe posterior to
the central sulcus

PROCESS OF SOMATIC SENSORY CORTEX

1. Sensory fibers carrying general sensory input (touch, pain, etc.) synapse in the thalamus
2. Thalamic neurons relay the information to the primary somatic sensory cortex
 TYPES OF PRIMARY SENSORY AREAS
1. VISUAL CORTEX: occipital lobe
2. PRIMARY AUDITORY CORTEX: temporal lobe
3. TASTE AREA: insula

C. ASSOCIATION AREAS
Cortical areas immediately adjacent to the primary sensory areas
Involved in the process of recognition

MOTOR FUNCTIONS
A. MOTOR SYSTEM OF THE BRAIN AND SPINAL CORD
Responsible for posture, balance, movement of the body, and communication (facial and speech)

REFLEXES: responsible for some body movements

1. INVOLUNTARY MOVEMENTS: occur without conscious thought
2. VOLUNTARY MOVEMENTS: activated to achieve a specific goal (i.e. walking or typing)
o Consciously activated, but details of movement occur automatically
o Result from the stimulation of upper and lower motor neurons
UPPER MOTOR NEURONS: have cell bodies in the cerebral cortex; axons form descending
tracts that connect to lower motor neurons
LOWER MOTOR NEURONS: have cell bodies in the anterior horn of the spinal cord gray
matter or in cranial nerve nuclei (axons leave CNS spinal or cranial nerves skeletal
muscles)
B. DESCENDING TRACTS

ORIGIN AND TERMINATION OF DESCENDING TRACTS

a. DIRECT: extend directly from upper motor neurons in the cerebral cortex to lower motor neurons in the
spinal cord (a similar direct tract extends to lower motor neurons in the brainstem)
CORTICOSPINAL TRACT: transmits action potentials dealing with pain and temperature
o begins in the cerebral cortex and terminate in the spinal cord
b. INDIRECT: no direct connection exists between the cortical and spinal neurons
o originate in the brainstem, but these tracts are indirectly controlled by the cerebral cortex, basal
nuclei, and cerebellum

CONTROL OF DIFFERENT TYPES OF MOVEMENTS

a. Tracts in the Lateral Columns
o Important in controlling goal-directed limb movements, such as reaching and manipulating
LATERAL CORTICOSPINAL TRACTS: controlling the speed and precision of skilled
movements of the hands
b. Tracts in the Ventral Columns
o Maintaining posture, balance, and limb position through the control of neck, trunk, and proximal limb
muscles
RETICULOSPINAL TRACT

PROCESS IN THE DESCENDING TRACTS

1. It begins in the cerebral cortex and descends into the brainstem
2. At the inferior end of the pyramids of the medulla oblongata, the axons cross over to the
opposite side of the body and continue into the spinal cord
Crossover of axons in the brainstem or spinal cord to the opposite side of the body is
typical of descending pathways
Left side: controls ride side :: Right side: controls left side
3. Upper motor neuron synapses with interneurons
4. Interneurons then synapse with lower motor neurons in the brainstem or spinal cord
5. The axon of the lower motor neuron extends to the skeletal muscle fiber

C. MOTOR AREAS OF THE CEREBRAL CORTEX

PREMOTOR AREA: found in the frontal lobe; where the motor functions are organized before they are actually
initiated in the primary motor cortex
PRIMARY MOTOR CORTEX: located in the posterior portion of the frontal lobe, directly anterior to the central
sulcus; action potentials initiated in this region control voluntary movements of skeletal muscles
PREFRONTAL AREA: anterior portion of the frontal lobes where motivation and foresight to plan and initiate
movements occur
 oThis region of association cortex is well developed only in primates
oInvolved in motivation and regulation of emotional behavior and mood
oThe large size of this area in humans may account for the emotional complexity, relatively well-
developed capacity to think ahead, and motivation
D. BASAL NUCLEI
Group of functionally related nuclei

2 PRIMARY NUCLEI
1. CORPUS STRIATUM cerebrum
2. SUBSTANTIA NIGRA a group of darkly pigmented cells in the midbrain

Planning, organizing, and coordinating motor movements and posture

Complex neural circuits link the basal nuclei with each other, the thalamus, and the cerebral cortex; these
connections then form several feedback loops

FEEDBACK LOOPS
1. STIMULATORY CIRCUITS facilitate muscle activity, especially at the beginning of a voluntary movement
2. INHIBITORY CIRCUITS facilitate the actions of the stimulatory circuits by inhibiting muscle activity in
antagonist muscles
Inhibitory circuits inhibit random movements of the trunk and limbs
Also decrease muscle tone when the body, limbs, and head are at rest

BASAL NUCLEI DISORDERS

1. Parkinson disease
2. Huntington disease
3. Cerebral palsy
People with basal nuclei disorders exhibit increased muscle tone and exaggerated, uncontrolled
movements when they are at rest
RESTING TREMOR slight shaking of the hands when a person is not performing a task

E. CEREBELLUM
Attached by cerebellar peduncles to the brainstem
Gyri of cerebellum is smaller than cerebrum
Internally: gray nuclei and white nerve tracts
COMPARATOR: a sensing device that compares the data from two sources (motor cortex and peripheral
structures)
COLLATERAL BRANCHES: sent from the motor cortex to the cerebellum, giving information representing the
intended movement
PROPRIOCEPTIVE NEURONS: innervate joints, tendons, and muscles and provide information about the
position of the body parts
Initiation of voluntary movements: action potentials from the cerebral motor cortex descend into the spinal cord
Participates with the cerebrum in learning motor skills (i.e. playing the piano)
o Once the cerebrum and cerebellum learn these skills, the specialized movements can be accomplished
smoothly and automatically

PROCESS OF CREATING SMOOTH COORDINATED MOVEMENTS

1. The cerebellum compares info about the intended movement from the motor cortex to sensory
information from moving structures
2. If a difference is detected, the cerebellum sends action potentials to motor neurons in the motor
cortex and the spinal cord to correct the discrepancy

OTHER BRAIN FUNCTIONS

A. COMMUNICATION BETWEEN THE RIGHT AND LEFT HEMISHPHERES
COMMISURES: between the two hemispheres; serves as a connection between the two hemispheres so
sensory information is received by one another
CORPUS CALLOSUM: largest commissure; a broad band of nerve tracts at the base of the longitudinal fissure
B. SPEECH
Found in the left cerebral cortex
Wernicke area (understanding) and Broca area (speech)
APHASIA: damage to Wernicke or Broca = absent or defective speech (i.e. during stroke)
C. BRAIN WAVES AND CONSCIOUSNESS
 ELECTROENCEPHALOGRAM: records the brains electrical activity; detects simultaneous action potentials in
large numbers of neurons
BRAIN WAVES: wavelike EEG patterns; irregular
Neurologists use these patterns to diagnose and determine treatment for disorders
1. ALPHA WAVES: awake, resting state, eyes closed
2. BETA WAVES: higher frequency than alpha waves; occur during intense mental activity
3. DELTA WAVES: deep sleep
4. THETA WAVES: found in children, or in adults who are experiencing frustration or who have certain brain
disorders
D. MEMORY
1. WORKING MEMORY: frontal cortex; task-associated memory (few seconds to minutes)
2. SHORT-TERM MEMORY: stored by a mechanism involving increased synaptic transmission; susceptible to
brain trauma (few minutes to few days)
3. LONG-TERM MEMORY: few minutes or permanent
CONSOLIDATION: a gradual process involving the formation of new and strong synaptic
connections
DECLARATIVE MEMORY: or explicit memory; retention of facts and emotion
PROCEDURAL MEMORY: or reflexive memory; motor skills
MEMORY ENGRAMS: or memory traces; a whole series of neurons involved in the long-term
retention of a given piece of information
E. LIMBIC SYSTEM AND EMOTIONS
LIMBIC SYSTEM: influences long-term declarative memory, emotions, visceral responses to emotions, motivation,
and mood
olfactory nerves are the major source
the limbic system responds to olfactory stimulation by initiating responses necessary for survival (i.e. hunger,
thirst)
the limbic system is connected to the hypothalamus
1. Olfactory cortex
2. Certain deep cortical regions
3. diencephalon

MENINGES, VENTRICLES, AND CSF

A. MENINGES
- Protective wrapping around brain and spinal cord
Types of Meninges:
o DURA MATER (Lt. tough mother) superficial, thickest layer
o ARACHNOID (spiderlike) MATTER 2nd layer; very thin, wispy
o PIA MATER (Lt. affectionate mother) 3rd layer; very tightly bound to the surface of the brain and
spinal cord
- MENINGITIS infection, bacterial or viral, of meninges
- SUBARACHNOID SPACE a potential space containing a very small amount of serous fluid
- EPIDURAL SPACE injection site for epidural anesthesia; in vertebral column between dura and vertebra
B. VENTRICLES
- Cavities in CNS containing fluid
- LATERAL VENTRICLE - a cavity contained in each cerebral hemisphere
- 4TH VENTRICLE base of cerebellum; continuous with central canal of spinal cord
- CEREBRAL AQUEDUCT a narrow canal that connects the third and fourth ventricles
C. CEREBROSPINAL FLUID
- Fluid that bathes the brain and spinal cord
- Provides a protective cushion around the CNS
- Produced in CHOROID PLEXUS of brain
- ARACHNOID GRANULATIONS masses of arachnoid tissue that penetrate the superior sagittal sinus
- HYRDOCEPHALUS accumulation of CSF in the ventricles