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Since the early 1990s the United States has seen a 10-fold increase
in autism diagnoses. In 2007, 1 in 150 children were diagnosed with
it, according to the Centers for Disease Control.
More than 40 percent of autistic children attending public the challenges associated with it. Though sometimes reluctant
school in 2006 spent their entire day in a special education class- to study biological and genetic disabilities, sociologistsespe-
room or attended a special school for children with disabilities, cially in Western Europe and Australiaare beginning to make
according to the U.S. Department of Education. These children important contributions to both public and medical understand-
have a disability severe enough that they probably have few ings of the conditions underlying autism and how to deal with
prospects for meaningful employment after they leave school. them most effectively.
But increasingly, many children are being identified as high- Although my own academic sociological expertise is in a
functioning autistics and are often mainstreamed, with signif- different area entirely, over the last two years Ive been observ-
icant help, into regular classrooms where they may not appear ing an autistic boy, Sam*, and have come to see that sociology
much different than their typical peers. has so much more to offer the parents, caregivers, and
Sociologists are well positioned to weigh in on what, exactly, researchers who want to understand what has been called the
autism is, whether there really are more people today with autism fastest-growing developmental disability in society today.
than just a few decades ago, how autism is diagnosed and
treated, and how families and other social institutions cope with *not his real name
40 contexts.org
some basics
At its most basic, an autism diagnosis means an individ-
ual has an impaired ability to communicate and acquire social
skills. Its usually associated with children and manifests itself
initially in early stages of social development.
The severity of autism impairment varies among children,
so its characterized as a spectrum disorder. High-function-
ing autistics and people with Aspergers syndrome are socially
awkward and have difficulty understanding common social
interactions, but they can learn to navigate the social world
reasonably well. On the other end of the spectrum, people
diagnosed with low social functioning autism may not even
be able to speak.
A characteristic associated with autism is repetitive self-stim-
Contexts, Vol. 8, No. 2, pp. 4045. ISSN 1536-5042, electronic ISSN 1537-6052. 2009 American Sociological Association.
All rights reserved. For permission to photocopy or reproduce see http://www.ucpressjournals.com/reprintinfo.asp. spring 2009 contexts 41
DOI: 10.1525/ctx.2009.8.2.40.
if we are not very, very good at something we tend to do it very stand how the interaction of genes and the social environment
poorly. Little in life comes naturallyexcept for our random, are contributing to the dramatic increase in diagnoses.
inexplicable, and often uncontrollable giftsand, even more Another well-known sociological approach that may help
than most children, we assemble our personalities unevenly, in this regard concerns the increasing medicalization of soci-
piece by piece, almost robotically, from models we admire. ety. This is primarily the idea that behaviors once considered
common are now identified as disorders that require attention
creating the autism spectrum by professionals.
In medical lexicon, autism is described as a complex syn- A reference point for much of this literature is David Rosen-
drome without a uniform etiology. In laymans terms this hans now famous experiment in which sane pseudo-patients,
means the causes of autism are diverse and unknown. after gaining admittance to psychiatric hospitals, were never
Although arguments associated with biological determin- identified as sane by professional staff at these hospitals.
ism and autismparticularly that a persons genes cause This study demonstrated the malleability of professional med-
autismtend to receive the significant attention in the popu- ical opinion when diagnosing (and creating) psychiatric disor-
lar media, most scholars who study autism believe social and envi- der. Closely associated with this perspective is the work of Peter
ronmental factors have contributed significantly to the increase Conrad on the medicalization of attention deficit/hyperactivity
in diagnoses in the United States and around the world. disorder (ADHD). More recently, Conrad and others have argued
For example, its generally accepted among clinicians that the increase in medical disorderssuch as adult ADHDis
expanded diagnostic criteria and greater screening is one rea- related to the increasing influence of Western pharmaceutical
son for the increase in diagnoses. There are also indications companies in shaping diagnosis and treatment regimes for a
that changes in obstetric medical technologies and practice whole range of physiological conditions and disorders.
may affect the increase. Still, these social factors probably dont Its likely the social creation of the autism spectrum has
account for the entire 10-fold increase. Theres a strong corre- subsumed other types of diagnoses used in past. The more
lation between the age of parents (particularly fathers) and the generic description of mental retardation was probably a
incidence of autism diagnosis among offspring. And, most common diagnosis a generation ago, for example. In this
experts assume biological predisposition accounts for the regard, one reason for the increase in autism diagnoses may sim-
ply be that the public and medical pro-
The creation of the autism spectrum has sub- fessionals are now aware of it in ways
they werent previously.
sumed other types of diagnoses used in past, like Some speech and occupational
therapists Ive met believe autism has
the more generic description mental retardation. become the diagnosis for children who
have any measurable social or academic
greater number of diagnoses among boys (although it should delay. Indeed, many therapists and medical practitioners believe
be noted girls are likely under-diagnosed for social reasons such the increase in autism diagnoses has resulted from the recently
as the fact that autism presents differently in girls than boys). created and gradually expanded criteria used to evaluate a range
Sociologists and sociological thought have clearly played a of behaviors.
role here. The few sociologists who study genetic predisposi-
tion and social life are often interested in what is commonly autism and self
referred to as gene-environment inter-play. This is the idea that Because their goal is to teach children with autism to bet-
some genes, or combinations of genes, predispose people ter understand social life and the world around them, clinicians
toward certain traits and characteristics. At the same time, expe- who treat autism draw directly (if not always consciously) upon
riencesparticularly among young children whose brains are sociological ideas. In particular, treatments for autistic children
undergoing rapid developmentplay a crucial role in how these employ George Herbert Meads insights about how we create a
behavioral predilections play out. Ultimately, its social experi- selfthat we begin to do so by making comparisons to oth-
ence that turns on and refines a persons social capacities. ers during childhood play. Children with autism are exceptions
Sociologist Peter Bearman heads one such promising in that they arent particularly interested in playing with, or eval-
research program. Funded with a $2.5 million grant from the uating behaviors, in the same manner as typical children.
National Institutes of Health, Bearman takes the interactions Autistic children have considerable difficulty establishing
between genetic predisposition and social structure seriously and joint attention. Most people, when they communicate,
investigates a wide range of social factors, including how quickly fall into sync with each other. They establish eye con-
changes in diagnostic criteria and social networks affect autism tact and focus their attention on each others faces and body
diagnosis. Bearmans research could well help us better under- language. Autistic children dont do this. Indeed, one marker
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atively mild self-stimulating behaviorshe generally paced and
repeated wordsthat he used to settle himself. The categories
and rhythms Sam used to organize, navigate, and give mean-
ing to his worldhe was fascinated by shapes and colorswere
treating autism
Treatments for autism are intense and expensive. At Sams
age, its generally assumed that at least 20 to 25 hours of direct
contact with a trained therapist, most often in one-on-one ses-
sions for at least two years, is the minimum standard required.
The specific approaches and therapies used to treat autism are
contentious, but theres a clear recordbeginning with the
James has had two-and-a-half years of ABA therapy and his
father Scott, who photographed him, said the results have applied behavioral analysis (ABA) therapies conducted by Ivar
been "amazing." Lovass in the 1980sthat treatment before age 3 can have a
profound impact on an autistics social functioning later in life.
for the disability is that many dont understand non-verbal Overall, the primary goal of all therapies, not just ABA
communication like waving hello or goodbye. When typical 2- approaches, is to teach autistics to establish joint attention. All
and 3-year-old children sit in a room during story time at the aspire to engage autistic children in the social world, and to, in
library, most will intuitively be drawn to the person at the cen- some manner or another, compel them to compare themselves
ter of the room reading the story. An autistic child, assuming to others. Often this involves teaching autistic children how to
they arent overwhelmed by the activity in the first place, may play more like typical children. Along the way, clinicians demon-
find something in the room to pay attention to, but its less strate that while social relationships can be contentious, spo-
likely to be the storyteller. radic, and random, theyre satisfying, too. The most successful
Older autistic children, when viewing scenes from popular treatments teach, often in an intellectual manner, a sense of
moviesa loud argument, a fight, a particularly passionate emotional empathy.
embracefocus far less attention on peoples faces, and par- In the best cases, school systems have programs that pro-
ticularly their eyes, than other children. They also take in the vide the bulk of this therapyin Sams case, which is not nec-
entire scenetables, windows, doors, other objects in the essarily typical, he received nearly 16 hours of therapy per week
roommore than typical people. As a result, many autistics can at school. Autism spectrum disorders, though, arent covered by
describe, sometimes in extraordinary detail, objects that appeared most health insurance providers, at least in Virginia where he
in the scene, but they miss much of the social interaction that lives, so the additional 10 hours of therapy each week was pro-
takes place between the actors. Many autistics can be taught, vided by Sams family at a cost of $8,000 annually. Tuition at
or learn on their own, how to pay greater attention to people. private schools in Virginia that provide ABA therapy to lower-
I was often alarmed when I began interacting with autistic functioning autistics with a near 1-to-1 student-therapist ratio
children at just how little self many had constructed. I have cost as much as $80,000 per academic year. (It probably does-
observed one child, Sam, for nearly two years since his diagno- nt take a sociologist to see these numbers and begin thinking
sis with high-functioning autism at age 3. His general disposition about inequalities in access to treatment that might come into
when not distressedis amicable, but also very deliberate. He play in different communities and contexts.)
was far more serious than other toddlers. At 3 he didnt wave Sam was largely taught to focus on people by sitting at a
or say hello or goodbye. He didnt point at objects he table across from a therapist who demanded that he pay atten-
wanted. He rarely, unlike other children his age, imitated behav- tion to her. She used snacks, toys, and other reinforcers to help
ior. He didnt know how to ask a question, so he solved prob- the process along. Once he gained this skill he was largely
lems by using extraordinary complex methods of inductive and released from the table-work and, with the help of aides,
deductive reasoning. He had a reasonable vocabulary for his age, practiced interacting with other children his age. Over time he
but he didnt understand the word yes. He always referred to was slowly immersed into a Head Start classroom where, with
himself in the third-person. In short, he had significant delays in the help of aides, he learned to play with others and use the
his acquisition of symbolic language. social skills he was being taught. Hes still shadowed by aides,
Moreover, the world and the people in it, particularly when but he spends more time in the typical classroom than the spe-
he was visiting a new place or meeting new people, often over- cial ed classroom. He also took part in a coordinated battery of
whelmed him. When this happened he had a repertoire of rel- other group activitiesplay groups, youth soccer, gymnastics,
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Activism like this gives rise to a whole range of questions lic places, and crowds, otherwise simple excursionsa holi-
medical and organizational sociologists are well-positioned to day vacation that requires air travelcan result in uneasy con-
take up: who determines which treatments children receive in frontations with security personnel. As a result, its increasingly
the absence of health care coverage? How we do deal with common that law enforcement officials are trained in how to
basic inequalities in access to treatment? And perhaps even handle disturbances created by autistics in public places.
more provocatively, why is it that some parents embrace the Sociological thinking about identity underlies a great deal
diagnosis of autism while others resist or even fight the label? of autism diagnosis and treatment. Sociologists are beginning
Autism raises broader questions about fundamental assump- to make important contributions to autism research by situat-
tions concerning whats different and whats normal, about whats ing it in broader social contexts, including the institutions that
genius and whats deviance. A common
and particularly provocative debate among
people with Aspergers and autism, for
Autism raises broader questions about fundamental
example, concerns the degree to which they assumptions of whats different and whats normal,
should be forced to conform to social norms
established by the neuro-typical. about whats genius and whats deviance.
Many with high-functioning autism
and Aspergers, while recognizing their differences compared to do (or do not) assist those with the condition and the inequal-
the neuro-typical, resent the specific labels associated with their ities that may come with access to treatment.
conditions and argue against the characterization that they have Still, the most basic questions about autism and the broader
a disability. Some individuals who self-identify as neurologically implications they raise are the most intriguing to sociological
non-typical are becoming outspoken advocates against the use readers and researchers. And here, more than anything, is an
of genetic testing on fetuses on the assumption that screening opportunity to have a greater understanding of interactions
for autism and Aspergerslike the current screening for Down between socialization and genetic heritability. Perhaps as soci-
syndromecould become commonplace in the future. Others ologists spend more time watching how children with autism
argue prominent scientists and innovatorsAlbert Einstein or Bill are taught to navigate the social world theyll find interesting
Gates, for examplewould likely be on the autism spectrum, examples that show how socializationdespite disabilitystill
and insist autistic reasoning is, in some ways, superior to typical determines much of who we become.
reasoning.
Here its also interesting to point out that clinicians who recommended resources
treat autistic children sometimes spend time navigating the crim- Simon Baron-Cohen. Mindblindness: An Essay on Autism and
inal justice system because of the idiosyncrasies and compul- Theory of the Mind (MIT Press, 1997). An accessible book by a
psychologist that explains why autism is important to understand-
sions many autistics have. For example, some are fanatical ing human psychology.
collectors and when they see something they wantin a Peter S. Bearman, Molly A. Martin, and Sara Shostak, eds. Genes
store, in a neighbors yardits hard to resist adding it to their and Social Structure, American Journal of Sociology (2008) 114
collection. Autistics are also easy marks for criminals and are (1): 1316. A collection of studies that demonstrate approaches used
by sociologists who study gene-environment interplay.
sometimes unwitting accomplices to crime due to their social
naivet. Autistics are bullied more oftena neighbor of mine Temple Grandin. Thinking In Pictures and Other Reports from My
Life with Autism (Vintage Press, 1996). The first popular autobiog-
who once worked with autistic children received routine calls raphy written by a person diagnosed with autism as a child.
about a young man, usually mild in disposition and temperament, David Gray. Ten Years On: A Longitudinal Study of Families of
being constantly provoked on his bus ride home from school. Children with Autism, Journal of Intellectual & Developmental
When this happened he inevitably grew agitated, would scream Disability (2002) 27 (3): 215222. A study that investigates how
living with autistic children affects family life over time.
profanities at his bus driver, and then literally force himhe
grabbed the steering wheel more than onceto stop the bus. Roy Richard Grinker. Unstrange Minds: Remapping the World of
Autism (Basic Books, 2007). A broad overview, written by an anthro-
He was often miles from his house, but he would disembark pologist with a distinctive sociological bent.
and walk along the roadside while screaming profanities until Ami Klin, Warren Jones, Robert Schultz, Fred Volkmar, and Donald
someone he knew came and picked him up. Cohen. Visual Fixation Patterns During Viewing of Naturalistic
Was this young man deviant? Were his actions violent? Social Situations as Predictors of Social Competence in Individuals
with Autism, Archives of General Psychiatry (2002) 59: 809816.
Its often these types of scenariosgenerally an autistics
A study that demonstrates autistics have difficulty reading faces
increasing distress accompanied by an escalation of inappro- and understanding peoples emotional states.
priate behavior like throwing objects, hitting themselves, or
screamingoccurring in a public place that cause some to end Stephen Poulson is in the sociology department at James Madison University. He
up in the courts. Given that many are sensitive to noise, pub- studies social movements.