The Effect of Quench Aging and Cyclic-

L. F. COFFIN, JR.
General Electric Research Laboratory,
Schenectady, N. Y.
Strain Aging on Low Carbon Steel
Mem. ASME
The present paper is an extension of a previous investigation, and considers the
effects of various quench aging treatments on SAE 1010 and 1111 subjected to cyclic
strain at aging temperatures. For both of these steels prior quench aging leads to much
greater cyclic strain hardening at 250 deg C than was observed from the annealed condi-
tion. The strain aging effect was found to be sensitive to the severity of the quench and
to slrain rate. Cyclic-strain softening was observed when the temperature was restored
to room temperature.
Of considerable interest is the eff'ect of these general cyclic-aging treatments on subse-
quent mechanical properties. The fracture ductility of annealed and quenched aged,
cyclic-strain aged SAE 1111 was investigated as a function of temperature for uniaxial
tension. It was found that the temperature for low ductility, cleavage-type fracture
varied considerably depending on the pretreatment. In particular, quench aging and
cyclic straining at 250 deg C raised this temperature to slightly below room temperature.
The significance of these observations to the behavior of welded joints is discussed. The
response of these metals to low-cycle fatigue is also examined.

Introduction
ONE of the more interesting ways to produce aging
effects in steels is by the application of cyclic plastic strain at
aging temperatures. It is possible by this means of deformation
to impose a very large amount of accumulated plastic strain on
the crystalline structure relative to that resulting from monotonic
deformation. The response of the structure under conditions
combining large accumulated strain and strain-induced metallur-
gical reactions is therefore of considerable interest both from
physical and mechanical viewpoints. From the physical view-
point the nature and extent of the strengthening process needs to
be examined, while from mechanical considerations, strength
levels, effects on ductility and on fatigue resistance are of prime
importance.
In a previous investigation [1J1 the cyclic-strain aging and
1 N u m b e r s in brackets designate References at end of paper.
C o n t r i b u t e d by the M e t a l s Engineering Division of THE AMERICAN
SOCIETY OP MECHANICAL ENGINEERS and presented at the
A S M E M e t a l s Engineering Conference, D e t r o i t , M i c h . , M a y 4 - 8 ,
t964. M a n u s c r i p t received at A S M E Headquarters, J a n u a r y 31,
1964. P a p e r N o . 6 4 M e t - S .
fatigue effects in annealed SAE 1111 steel were studied by sub-
jecting uniaxial specimens to push-pull loads under controlled
plastic strain. It was found that a significant increase in the re-
sistance of the steel, as determined from the stress range of the
hysteresis loop, developed in the early stages of the cyclic strain
process. Continued cycling at the same aging temperature led
to a decrease in the stress range of the hysteresis loop, until the
level of stress approached that obtained for the same conditions
but at room temperature. Lowering of the test temperature to
room temperature following cyclic straining at an aging tempera-
ture to the peak stress range led to a much more rapid decrease in
stress range with cyclinga phenomenon known as cyclic-strain
softening. It was also shown that cyclic hardening at an aging
temperature and cyclic softening at room temperature could be
repeated a number of times merely by changing the temperature
back and forth while maintaining the controlled cyclic-plastic
strain.
A W 8 -
The flow stress characteristics of this steel with various cyclic-
aging pretreatments were examined bjr means of true stress-
strain tension tests as shown in Fig. 1. Comparison of the several

1RUE S T R E S S - STRAIN BEHAVIOR

SAE llll STEEL
A - ANNEALED

B - 3 % A f d - 2 5 0 C - 2 ' / i CYCLES
1 % A f.d - RT - I C Y C L E

C - 3 % A e d - 2 5 0 C - 2 ' / ! CYCLES

2 % A f d - RT - 10 C Y C L E S
0 - 2 % A f d - RT - 10 C Y C L E S

.20 .30 .40 .50 .60 .70 .80

in
6 = 1RUE STRAIN /in

Fig. 1

Journal of Basic Engineering JUNE 1 9 6 5 / 3 5 1

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 curves showed that a substantial strengthening effect was supersaturation depends on temperature, strain, and time in a
introduced by a pretreatment involving cyclic strain at an aging complex manner, completely controlled experiments are difficult.
temperature to the point of maximum stress range (curve B). In particular, temperature cannot be varied rapidly, such that in
The same pretreatment with the further addition of 10 cycles of performing a particular experiment involving quenching and
room temperature cyclic plastic strain to produce substantial cyclic straining at temperature, some aging is possible prior to
cyclic softening did not lower the flow stress curve in its entirety straining, simply because time is required to adjust the tempera-
but rather produced a softening in the low strain portions of the ture before straining. Although this initial aging is thought to be
curve only (curve C). small in most cases, it does add complications to the problem.
The various effects observed were explained in terms of three The substantial effects which are found in this investigation
simultaneous effects. These involved: (a) normal cj-clic strain have implication to engineering structure, particularly those sub-
hardening, a characteristic behavior of pure metals in the an- jected to monotonic or cyclic-plastic strain. This suggests that
nealed state subjected to cyclic plastic strain [2]; (6) cyclic-strain a more intensive investigation of these and related behavior be
aging, a strengthening process resulting from strain-induced reac- undertaken on a wider range of plain carbon and low alloy steel
tions occurring at aging temperatures; and (c) cyclic-strain construction materials.
softening, a mechanically activated relaxation process [3, 4].
Cyclic-strain aging is felt to be the residt of a precipitation hard-
Experimental Procedure
ening process, whereby a fine precipitate of carbides or nitrides
is formed on dislocation sites from dissolved interstitial carbon or Two steels, SAE 1010 (0.10% C, 0.34% Mil, 0.009% P, 0.016%
nitrogen [5-11], Thus both elevated temperature to increase S, 0.0025% N) and SAE 1111 (0.1% C, 0.84% Mn, 0.087% P,
diffusion rates and repeated strain to provide a continuing source 0.10% S, 0.025% Si, and 0.014% N) were used for this investiga-
of dislocation sites interact to enhance the precipitation. Evi- tion. The latter steel is generally a product of the Bessemer
dence for the existence of a fine precipitate is provided by the sub- process and contains a higher sulfur and nitrogen content than
stantially elevated flow stress curve (B) of Fig. 1. the former steel, which is a product of the open hearth. The
carbon content of both steels is the same.
Cyclic-strain softening, for lack of a more precise physical de-
The axially loaded push-pull specimen is similar to that em-
scription, is considered to be an "accommodation" process, where,
ployed in the earlier study [1] and is shown in Fig. 2. The surface
through continued application of reversed strain in the absence of
preparation which consisted of grinding and longitudinal polish-
thermally induced strengthening effects, a dislocation structure
ing, was done prior to heat-treatment. All specimens were then
developed to bypass the precipitates which otherwise impede the
heated to 750 deg C in dry hydrogen for one hour and furnace
slip process. This view is consistent with flow stress curve C
cooled. Additional treatments consisted of heating to prescribed
where, at low monotonic strains the flow stress is reduced, but
temperatures for one hour followed by quenching in water or ice
where, for larger strains, the flow stress of the aged structure is
again achieved.
The several processes described previously are considered to in-
teract to give the observed strengthening and softening effects.
Thus the resulting mechanical behavior would be expected to be
very sensitive to many factors such as temperature, strain-rate,
strain range, and the concentration of dissolved interstitial atoms.
The closely associated technological implications of these phe-
nomena suggest that further investigation of the cyclic-strain
aging be undertaken.
In the present study, the role of rapid cooling is examined. By
+.000 , c n T.000ni.
quenching from a temperature at which the solubilities of inter- .275
-.001 -.002
stitial elements, carbon and nitrogen, are considerably greater
-.000
than at room temperature, the room temperature concentrations
of these elements in solid solution are raised. The resulting
cyclic-strain aging effects should be accentuated since it is the C Y C L I C - S T R A I N FATIGUE S P E C I M E N FOR TEMP. T E S T I N G

dissolved interstitials which are believed to be responsible for Fig. 2

strain aging. The role of such treatments on the resulting me-
chanical behavior is reported here, including the low-cycle fatigue
KEY :
resistance, the subsequent flow stress, and fracture ductility.
It is instructive to consider the matter of terminology here (7 = A X I A L STRESS
Afn
since quench aging and strain aging are terms which appear often d = DIAMETRAL S T R A I N
in the literature. Quench aging is generally considered to be the
A<y- STRESS RANGE
subsequent or time dependent structural changes in steel resulting
from rapid cooling from an elevated temperature, while strain I A e r i = D I A M E T R A L S T R A I N RANGE
u
4
aging refers to the time-dependent structural changes resulting
after strain. Most commonly the subsequent aging effects are
considered as the result of time and temperature alone. This
qualification is quite restrictive, particularly when strain also is
involved during the aging process, as is the case with the present
and former [1] investigation. From the broad point-of-view,
one presumably is dealing with a single chemical process, the reac-
tion rate of which is dependent on the degree of supersaturation,
chemical composition, temperature, and strain, combined in a
highly nonlinear manner. The present method of investigation
is one of many that could be devised to study this reaction and its
consequences. In referring to it as quench aging and cyclic-strain
aging, the specific, meaning is the change resulting from a rapid
quench followed by cyclic-plastic strain at aging temperatures. HYSTERESIS LOOP FOR C O N T R O L L E D CYCLIC STRAIN
Since the aging reaction for a specific composition and degree of Fig. 3

352 / J U N E 1965 Transactions of the A S M E

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 brine as indicated in the text. Subsequent to heat-treatment the
specimens were given a light longitudinal polish to remove the
oxide film produced in the prior thermal treatment.
Method of Testing
As in the earlier investigation [1] the cyclic and monotonic
straining experiments were performed on a 10,000 lb capacity
reverse-cycling Instron machine. Investigation of the effect of
strain rate was carried out by controlling the crosshead speed of
the machine, x, ranging from 0.002 to 0.2 in./min. This corre-
sponds to longitudinal strain rates of approximately 0.0015 to
0.15 in./in./min.
Strain amplitudes were measured and controlled by means of
diametral changes of the specimen under load, using a dial gage
indicator as discussed earlier. Control of strain reversal was
manual. All loads were recorded continuously during the test.
True stresses and strains were employed, both for controlling
strain and reporting results. Cyclic strains are reported in terms
of the diametral strain range Aed defined as 2 log d/dt, where do is
the initial diameter and d the instantaneous diameter.
Elevated temperature testing was performed with the aid of a
small, specially designed electrical resistance heater described
earlier [1], The heater was open at the center to permit access
for the dial gage device. Measurement and control of tempera-
ture were accomplished by means of a fine wire thermocouple
spot welded about in. off the specimen center.
The cyclic-strain procedure is shown in Fig. 3. The loading is
begun in compression until the limiting diametral compressive
strain is reached at '/ 4 cycle. The direction of load is then re-

280,000

260,000

240,000

220,000 INTERMITTENT TEMPERATURE

STRAIN CYCLING
SAE l l l l S T E E L
ISO - 6 7 5 ' C
200,000 o o ANNEALED

180,000

160,000 -

140,000

120,000
200 300 400 500

TESTING TEMPERATURE - ' C

Fig. 4

240,000

INTERMITTENT TEMPERATURE
STRAIN CYCLING
220,000 SAE 1010 STEEL

IBQ- 675C

200,000 ANNEALED

180,000

TP, 160,000
a.
uj
es
| 140,000
CO
cn
LLJ

U 120,000

100,000

80,000

100 200 300 400 500

60,000
TESTING TEMPERATURE C

Fig. 5

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 versed until the limiting diametral tensile strain is obtained (N
= 3 /i cycle) at which point the direction of load is again re-
versed. The procedure is repeated until the required number of
cycles has been achieved. The stress range AS determined at
any given cycle N is the sum of the absolute value of the stress
at N + l/i cycles and N l/i cycles, calculated from the loads
at these points and the corresponding instantaneous areas.
Results
(a) Investigation of Incremental Temperature Strain Cycling. Prior to
a detailed examination of specific effects introduced by cyclic-
strain aging, a cursory exploration for possible cyclic strain-aging
interactions was undertaken by determining incremental tem-
perature effects. This was accomplished with a single test speci-
men and a single strain range, generally Aeg = 0.02, by cycling
at a specific temperature for five complete strain cycles, then
changing the temperature incrementally to higher or lower levels.
Thus by starting at room temperature and raising the tempera-
ture in 50 deg increments, the cyclic-strain-aging spectrum can
be determined over the broad temperature range of interest, and
the temperature for maximum cyclic-strain-aging effects is quickly
and simply determined.
The procedure gives results similar to that employed by Glen
[12] who plotted isostrain lines of stress versus temperature for
various steels. From data obtained from true stress-strain tests
at constant temperature and strain rate he was able to show
clearly where monotonic strain-induced reactions were occurring
in the various steels as a function of temperature. His results
also indicate that allojdng elements other than carbon and nitro-
gen, particularly manganese and molybdenum, cause strain-in-
duced reactions.
Figs. 4 and 5 show the results of incremental temperature strain
cycling for the two steels studied, both in the annealed and
quenched state. The pronounced increase in the stress range
occurring at 250-300 deg C is observed in all cases. Further,
quenching greatly accentuates the cyclic-strain-aging effects at
these temperatures, as indicated both bj' the absolute magnitude
of the stress range and by its magnitude relative to the room tem-
perature stress range. Note also the higher strength level
achieved for the SAE 1111 steel at its peak.
260
675-IBQ
240
625-IBQ
220
525-IBQ
575-IBO
200
ANNEALED
<b
180
160
140
120
CYCLES OF S T R A I N - A
Fig. 6
354 / JU N E 19 6 5
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(b) The Effect of Quenching Conditions. I f t h e d e g r e e of super-
saturation of carbon and nitrogen at room temperature ac-
centuates the cyclic-strain-aging reaction at elevated temperature,
then significant differences in results would be expected with
different quenching conditions. The quenching temperature is
important, for example, since the solubility of carbon and nitrogen
in a-iron increases sharply with increasing temperature [13],
The quenching rate is also important in determining the amount
of these elements retained in solution after the quench. Hence it
is useful to investigate the influence of various quenching condi-
tions on the cyclic-strain aging of these steels.
SAE 1111 only was considered here. Several different quench-
ing temperatures were selected and held for one hour followed by
an ice-brine quench. Comparison was made based on the cyclic-
strain aging-response as determined by the stress range for 10
cycles of strain at 250 deg C with Aed 0.02. With reference
to Fig. 6 it will be observed that the most pronounced cyclic-
aging effect is developed at the highest quench age temperature
chosen below the eutectoid temperature. Quenching into water
gives less pronounced an effect than quencliing into ice brine,
while quenching above the eutectoid temperature is less effective
than quenching from a high a-iron temperature.
For the remaining experiments, quenching was carried out by
heating and holding at 675 deg C for one hour, followed by ice-
brine quenching.
(c) Comparative Cyclic-Strain-Aging Response of SAE 1010 and 1111
Steels. The significantly higher nitrogen content of the 1111 steel
should be reflected in the cyclic-strain-aging response of this steel
as compared in the 1010 steel having lower nitrogen but similar
carbon content. With reference to Fig. 7, comparative stress
range versus cycles of strain curves are shown for the two steels
in the annealed and quenched conditions, and subjected to 10
cycles of a 2 percent diametral strain range at a crosshead speed
of 0.02 in./min at 250 deg C. The greater cyclic-aging response
of the SAE 1111 steel is evident in each ease.
(d) Isothermal Cyclic-Strain Aging. T h e a p p e a r a n c e of Figs. 6 and
7 suggests a saturation in stress range of the annealed SAE 1111,
and a continued cyclic strengthening of the ice-brine-quenched
steel beyond 10 cycles. The complete hardening curves obtained
by cycling to failure both for the annealed and the quenched steel
EFFECT OF QUENCH AGE TREATMENT
S A E llll
Acd = .02 675-1B0
2 5 0 C
CYCLES OF S T R A I N -
Transactions of the A S M E
 at several temperatures were therefore determined and are shown
in Figs. 8 and 9. While a rather regular family of curves is ob-
tained for the annealed steel, reflecting the cyclic-hardening effects
at aging temperatures, the shapes of quench-aged curves are
much more complex, revealing the existence of several competing
processes. The wide variation in fracture resistance with tem-
perature is also noted, as well as the pronounced strengthening,
without saturation, of the quenched steel cycled at aging tem-
peratures.
(e) The Effect of Strain Rate. T h e pronounced cyclic-strain-aging
effects exhibited by the two steels would indicate a significant in-
fluence of the strain rate. The sensitivity of the two steels in the
annealed and in the quenched condition was examined at 250 deg
C for 10 cycles at a strain range Aed of 2 percent for three dif-
ferent crossliead speeds as indicated. The results are shown in
Fig. 10. As expected, a strain rate effect was indeed noted,
particularly for the 1010 steel. There was surprisingly little effect
found for the quenched 1111 steel, at least in the first ten cycles,
but the divergence of the curves suggests a greater spread beyond
this number of cycles.
(f) Subsequent Room Temperature Cycling. A s i n d i c a t e d earlier [1],
room temperature cyclic strain applied to annealed SAE 1111
steel following strain cycling at an aging temperature produced
a rapid cyclic softening, approaching the stress range achieved by
repeated cycling at the same strain range at room temperature
only. In the present study, tests were conducted on both 1010
and 1111 steel, first quenched and cycled at 250 cleg C for ten
cycles at 2 percent Aed, and then cycled at room temperature with

COMPARISON OF SAE 1010 AND Mil STEEL

A - ANNEALED
280 x 10'
B- ICE BRINE QUENCH FROM 675C
A d = .02 X = 0.02/min.
T = 2 50C
240

200

<b

160

120

80

SCALE A SCALE B

40 _L
10 .1

CYCLES OF S T R A I N

Fig. 7

200x10

b
<

EFFECT OF TEST TEMPERATURE

ON S T R E S S RANGE
SAE llll
ANNEALED
A, =.02 X = 0.2/min.

CYCLES OF STRAIN

Fig. 8

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 240x10 | -
300 "C

b
<1

EFFECT OF TEST TEMPERATURE

ON STRESS RANGE
SAE llll
ICE BRINE QUENCH FROM 675"C *
A s = .02 X =0.2 "/min.

100 1000
CYCLES OF STRAIN
Fig. 9

200xl0: |260xl0
EFFECT OF STRAIN RATE bo.ozf
ON 0.002
180 CYCLIC STRAIN AGING
240
X =0.02 j A - SAE 1010 IB0
B - S A E llll
A f d = .02 T= 250C
160 220
SCALE
SCALE A B

0 . 2 - 200
<b 110

U /o <**ao2

120 / VANNEALED _ 180

U j 0.002
100 160

/ B
140

SCALE
60 1 / 1 120
1.0 10
CYCLES OF STRAIN

Fig. 10

the same strain range. As seen in Fig. 11, similar results were
noted as for the annealed SAE 1111 steel, namely room tempera-
ture cycling of the quenched and cyclic aged steels causes pro-
nounced cyclic softening. The same effect has also been observed
in the 1010 steel.
(g) The Effect of Cyclic Strain on Cyclic-Strain Aging. A s a p a r t of
an investigation on fatigue resistance, quenched SAE 1111 was
strain cycled at 150 deg and 250 deg C at diametrical strain
ranges of 0.015, 0.020, and 0.025, with a crosshead speed of 0.2
in./min. The results are shown in Fig. 12. Aside from the large
influence of temperature on fracture, it is also observed that the
different strain ranges have comparatively small effect on the
stress range achieved at fracture. Further, at 250 deg C where
cyclic-strain aging is most pronounced, the effect of decreasing
the diametral strain range from 0.025 to 0.015 delays the cyclic-
age-strengthening process, such that more cycles are required
to achieve the same stress range, while the rate of cyclic hardening
defined as dAcr/d log N appears to be independent of the strain
range.
(h) The Effect of Temperature on Fatigue Fracture. I n t h e earlier i n -
vestigation, the low-cycle fatigue resistance of annealed SAE 1111
wTas investigated at room temperature and 200 deg C. Compar-
ing the results in a plot of plastic strain range versus cycles to
failure, a straight line of slope '/ gave the best fit for both
temperatures. Further, the two curves closely coincided. Since
the response of the ice-brine-quenched steel was so different when
strain cycled at an aging temperature, an examination of the
fatigue resistance as a function of temperature was of interest.
For this purpose a strain range Ati = 0.02 and a crosshead speed
of 0.2 in./min were selected. Results are shown in Fig. 13 for

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 CYCLES OF STRAIN

Fig. 11

280x10
EFFECT OF S T R A I N RANGE ON I S O T H E R M A L
CYCLIC S T R A I N R E S P O N S E
260 SAE llll IBQ X=.2

240

a 220

200

180

160

140

120

100
10 100 1000

CYCLES OF STRAIN

Fig. 12

annealed and ice-brine-quenched SAE 1111 steel. The very
striking influence of temperature for both heat-treatments is
noted, and in particular the decrease in life by a factor in excess
of eight between 150 C and 250 deg C for the ice-brine-quenched
steel can be seen. A minimum in fatigue life is found at 250 deg C
for both thermal treatments.
Fracture occurred suddenly without a progressive drop in load
for all quenched specimens. On the other hand, the annealed
specimens showed signs of fatigue crack propagation prior to
fracture. It was also observed that below 150 deg C the quenched
specimens failed by 100 percent cleavage, while at 150 deg C the
fracture surface consisted of about 50 percent cleavage facets.
There was no evidence of cleavage above 150 deg C. The drop off
in fatigue resistance of the quenched steel at room temperature
was attributed to the influence of the transition tempera-
ture phenomenon, a subject of later discussion.
The cycles-to-failure results can also be presented as a function
of the plastic strain range. The three levels of the diametral
strain range, Aej, namely, 0.015, 0.020, and 0.025 were employed
at 150 C and 250 deg C for the ice-brine-quenched SAE 1111 steel.

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 These results are shown in Fig. 14 together with the more com-
plete results for the annealed steel at room temperature and 200
cleg C obtained earlier [1], Comparison with these more ex-
tensive tests reveals the quenched steel tested at 150 deg C to
TEMPERATURE C shows that the fracture ductility (true strain at fracture) can be
Fig. 13
have a greater resistance and the 250 deg C tests to be considera-
bly poorer than the annealed steel,
0 ) Influence of Cyclic-Strain Aging on Subsequent Flow Stress Curves.
From the examination of the room temperature true stress-strain
curves obtained following various thermal and mechanical treat-
ments of annealed SAE 1111 steel, Fig. 1, it was ascertained that
the cyclic-strain-aging effects were the result of a fine precipitate,
as discussed earlier [1], The effects on the flow stress curves of
the enhanced aging caused by quenching from below the eutectoid
temperature and strain cycling at 250 deg C are of interest. Ex-
periments along these lines therefore were conducted and the
results for both the SAE 1010 and 1111 steels are shown in Fig.
15. Four curves are presented for each steel, (a) in the annealed
state (A), (6) after quenching from 675 deg into ice brine, (B),
(c) after the same treatment as (6) plus cyclic-straining at aging
temperatures, (C), and (d), the same treatment as (c) plus ten
cycles of a diametral strain range of 0.02 at room temperature,
(D). The cyclic-strain aging treatments to produce curves C for
the two steels differed; the 1010 steel was subjected to 13 cj'cles
of 0.02 Aed, at 250 deg C with x = 0.02, while the 1111 steel was
subjected to this strain range first at 150 deg C, then at 200 deg C
and finally at. 250 deg C for 10 cycles at each temperature with
x = 0.02. Shown on each curve is the fracture point indicated
by a short vertical line, and the point where necking occurs, as in-
dicated by a vertical arrow. Note that the curves have the same
general strain-hardening characterist ics, but that the flow stress at
any strain is dependent on the mechanical and thermal treatment.
The combination of quenching from 675 deg C and cyclic-strain
aging has the greatest effect on raising the yield stress and subse-
quent flow stress. The elevated yield stresses of curves C are
accompanied by greatly reduced strain to necking. The addition
of subsequent room temperature cyclic strain significantly lowers
the yield stress and increases the strain to necking, but otherwise
does not lower the flow stress.
(j) A n Investigation of Fracture Ductility. In addition to the fore-
going, tension tests were conducted on the two steels at various
temperatures with various thermal and mechanical pretreat-
ments. These were done for two specific purposes. The first was
to determine if the fracture ductility could be utilized to predict
the marked influence of temperature on the fatigue resistance as
shown in Fig. 13. There is considerable information [14] which
utilized to predict the low-cycle fatigue curve for many metals.

1.0|

PLASTIC STRAIN RANGE

vs
CYCLES TO FAILURE
SAE llll
VARIOUS T E M P E R A T U R E S
A N N E A L E D AND ICE BRINE QUENCH

RT 8 200C
ANNEALED

150-IBQ
v

2 5 0 " - IBQ

10 100 1000

CYCLES TO F A I L U R E

Fig. 14

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 The performance of the present steels would put this observation
to a severe test. A further interest in fracture ductility is as a
means of determining the effect of the several thermal and
mechanical treatments on the subsequent low temperature duc-
tility. Since strain aging and quench aging are known to
produce deleterious effects on the brittle-ductile transition tem-
perature of steels, the effects of cyclic-strain aging on this phe-
nomenon are of interest. While the standard Charpy notched bar
is the commonly accepted means by which this behavior is in-
vestigated, that specimen shape did not lend itself to the present
method of cyclic-strain aging. Instead, the fracture ductility of
the simple tension test was used. The low temperature tests
were conducted in a variety of liquid-baths, ranging through
liquid nitrogen, liquid freon, and dry ice and alcohol.
Figs. 16 and 17 show the relationship between fracture duc-
tility and temperature for annealed and ice brine quenched SAE
1111 over the range of 100 to 500 deg C for two different strain
rates. Shown also for comparison purposes are ductility values
computed from the fatigue results of Fig. 13. This is done by
means of the relationship [ 14]
N^Ae p = -J (1)
by substitution of the appropriate plastic strain range and cycles
to failure in (1). The correspondence of the ductility values de-
termined in these two separate ways will be discussed later.
The tensile transition temperature behavior of the two steels
with various thermal and mechanical pretreatments is shown in

FLOW STRESS CURVES FOLLOWING

VARIOUS CYCLIC AGING TREATMENTS
160 * 10

Fig. 15

1.0

TRUE S T R A I N - I n ^ TRUE STRAIN - In ^

FRACTURE DUCTILITY
vs
TEMPERATURE
S A E Mil ANNEALED
o X = .02 (e =.015)
X = .0002 ( e = . 0 0 0 1 5 )
A STEEL C

Fig. 16

0 L_ I I I I I L_
-100 0 100 200 300 400 500
T E S T T E M P E R A T U R E C

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 Fig. 18 wherein the annealed and quenched, then cyclic-strain-
aged conditions are compared. In addition, the effect of ice-brine
quenching is shown for SAE 1111. For the case of cyclic-strain
aging, a strain range of 0.02 diametral strain at 250 deg C for 10
cycles was employed. Subsequently ten mils of specimen surface
was removed by grinding prior to tension testing to eliminate the
possible influence of surface cracking. An increase in the tensile
transition temperature in excess of 100 deg C was obtained by
the quenched and cyclic-strain aged pretreatment for both steels.
Notched bar and nil ductility transition temperatures well in
excess of room temperature would be expected for the steels in
the quenched and cyclic-strain-aged condition.
(k) Microstrucfural Examination. An optical and electron micro-
scopic examination of the ice-brine-quenched SAE 1111 steel was
made to determine if any observable microstructural changes
could be discerned as a result of the mechanical and thermal
treatment. A region of a specimen subjected to 10 cycles of a 2
percent diametral strain range first at 150 deg C, then 200 deg C,
and finally at 250 cleg C, a treatment similar to that producing
curve C of Fig. 15, together with a portion of the same specimen
in an unstrained region were compared as shown in Fig. 19. These
electron micrographs were obtained by a replication technique
and, in the original, are viewed at 7500X. The unstrained struc-

F R A C T U R E D U C T I L I T Y vs T E M P E R A T U R E
SAE llll I C E BRINE QUENCH
X = .2"/min.
X = .02"/ min.
COMPUTED FROM FATIGUE DATA

Fig. 17

ce .6-

100 200 300 400

T E S T T E M P E R A T U R E C

E F F E C T OF T E M P E R A T U R E ON DUCTILITY
o ANNEALED a IBQ- 675C
a IB0- 675C+10 CYCLES-250"C-Aed

Fig. 18

-200 -150 -100 -50 0 .50 -200 -150 -100 -50

T E S T T E M P E R A T U R E - 1010 S T E E L TEST TEMPERATURE-I

360 / JU N E 19 6 5 Transactions of the A S M E

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 ture exhibits an obvious precipitate, the cycled one shows none.
The results, which, on the surface, appear to be in opposition to
what one might have expected, are in fact consistent with the
findings of others. The coarse precipitate is typically the result
of quench aging, as thoroughly documented by Andrew and
Trent [15]. On the other hand, the large amount of cyclic
plastic strain introduced is believed to so increase the dislocation
density and, correspondingly, the nucleating sites for the pre-
cipitate that it is too fine to observe as this magnification.
Andrew and Treat report that quenched samples of mild steel
subjected to a hardness indentation prior to aging reveal after
aging to 200-300 deg C no precipitate in the vicinity of the im-
pression, but a pronounced precipitate remote from the hardness
impression. This result is quite similar to the present finding.
Discussion
Prior to discussing the specific results and the interpretation,
it is desirable to consider the significance of the cyclic-strain-aging
phenomenon to engineering structures. While only two steels
have been examined in detail, it might be expected that plain
carbon and low-allov steels, as a broad class, would show suscepti-
bility to cyclic-strain aging in varying degrees. Admittedly,
there are many unanswered questions regarding this phenomenon,
particularly with respect to alloy composition, grain size, and
pouring practice (rimmed, semikilled, or fully killed ingots).
The controllable variables are cyclic plastic strain, temperature,
and prior thermal treatment. The occurrence of the first of
these is a matter of design and operation. Many engineering
structures are purposely designed to withstand a limited number
of cycles of plastic strain at elevated temperature [16] and hence
some cyclic-strain aging can be expected in plain carbon and low
alloy steel components. The thermal treatment assumes con-
siderable importance, as has been shown in the present report,
since any thermal process which leads to supersaturation of alloy-
ing elements, particularly carbon and nitrogen, appears to en-
hance the degree of cyclic-strain aging. Thus welded structures
require particular consideration since the high temperatures
reached during the welding operation and subsequent rapid cool-
ing without postheating are likely to produce supersaturation and
aging.
There are two consequences of cyclic-strain aging that appear
to have a direct bearing on the use of this class of steels in engineer-
ing structures. The first, is the influence of the aging phenomenon
on low cycle fatigue. Here it has been shown that both tempera-
ture and prior thermal treatment have a pronounced effect on
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fatigue resistance as indicated by Figs. 13 and 14. Rapid cooling
to produce supersaturation of carbon and nitrogen leads to wide
variations in fatigue resistance with temperature. In all cases
minimum fatigue resistance to cyclic plastic strain is encountered
at 250 deg C, and a maximum at 150 deg C. A second conse-
quence of cyclic-strain aging is the large shift in tensile transition
temperature caused by subjecting the rapidly cooled steels to
elevated temperature cyclic plastic strain as seen in Fig. 18. The
occurrence of cleavage facets in the fracture surface of the
quenched and cyclic strained 1111 steel at 150 deg C and the
sudden fracture after strain cycling at temperatures as high as
350 deg C attests to the susceptibility of this steel to low energy
fracture as a consequence of the mechanical and thermal condi-
tions imposed on it.
The significant difference in the response of the quenched 1111
steel to cyclic plastic strain at 150 and 250 deg C both with regard
to stress range and to cycles to failure is shown in Fig. 12. The
evidence of pronounced cyclic softening at 150 deg C, in contrast
to the continued cyclic hardening at 250 deg can be presented as
a partial explanation of the behavior. It should be noted that at
250 cleg the stress amplitude reached at failure approaches the
fracture stress reached in monotonic tension (Fig. 15). Cycling
at this stress level could be expected to introduce structural
damage of a type similar to that causing tensile failure, such that
failure by fatigue under such circumstances is largely stress
limited. In contrast, the cyclic softening obtained at 150 deg C
necessitates some different mode of failure. A convincing theory
for explaining the fatigue behavior shown in Figs. 12 and 13 is
not available: however, the large effect obtained merely by chang-
ing the temperature by 100 cleg C suggests that a more detailed
study under these particular conditions might yield significant in-
formation as to the nature of fatigue failure.
Objections have been raised to the use of the fracture ductility
as a significant property in predicting low cycle fatigue resistance
[17]. Figs. 16 and 17 are therefore of particular interest, since
one can compare the true strain at fracture, as determined from
the tension test, to the "ductility" as computed from equation
(1). Fig. 16, for annealed 1111 steel, is particularly interesting
in this connection. The tensile ductility results show the typical
ductility minimum at 250 deg C, sometimes called the "blue-
brittle temperature." The aging phenomenon, being thermal!}'
activated, produces a strain rate sensitivity such that the mini-
mum ductility point is shifted upward in temperature with in-
creasing strain rate [18], A parametric representation of the
temperature-strain rate interaction on ductility is possible, given
JUNE 1 9 6 5 / 3 6 1
 sufficient data. Noting that the shape of the "ductility"-tem-
perature curve for the cyclic strain tests is nearly the same as the
tensile ductility results, although shifted upward in temperature,
it would appear that it, too, could be included in the parametric
representation, provided a suitable means were found for relating
this quite different form of testing to the tension test. Some
possible equivalences include total time of test, strain rate, or a
combination of the two. As is seen by the single ductility point
at equivalent strain rates (x = 0.02 in./min) and temperature
(150 deg C), strain rate together with temperature, do not appear
to be too good a basis for establishing such a parameter.
The close shape resemblance of the tension and cyclic strain
determined fracture ductility provides a useful guide for predicting
the high-temperature low-cycle fatigue behavior of steels gen-
erally. Glen [12] has presented fracture ductility curves in a
systematic study of several iron-manganese-molybdenum alloys.
A comparison study of the corresponding low cycle fatigue re-
sistance of these alloys would be extremely worthwhile. Current
experiments [19] by the author on a 0.1% C, 2.0% Mo alloy
show that close agreement in ductility measured in tensile tests
and computed from fatigue tests does exist provided total time
of test and temperature are both employed in making the
comparison.
Comparative ductilities for the quenched SAE 1111 steel do
not give such favorable results, as seen in Fig. 17. In particular,
a large difference in ductility is encountered in the range of 100
to 200 cleg C. This is the region where pronounced cyclic strain
softening prevails, both for the annealed and quenched steels
(Figs. 8 and 9) and the consequences of this may have special
significance to the fatigue phenomenon.
With respect to the effect of quenching on cyclic-strain aging,
the results clearly show that supersaturation of carbon and nitro-
gen by quenching from below the eutectoid temperature has a
significant effect on the degree of cyclic strengthening at aging
temperatures. The extent of the aging is best seen in Figs. 7
and 12. The effect is marked by the continued cyclic hardening
at 250 deg C, without the characteristic saturation, or "dynamic
recovery," observed for more metallurgically stable structures,
until stress levels comparable to static fracture strengths are
reached. Thus cycling at this temperature to an extent greater
than that employed to produce the flow-stress curves (C) of Fig.
15 or the fracture ductility in Fig. IS should lead to even greater
embrittlement.
The complexity of the stress response (cyclic hardening or
softening) to controlled cyclic plastic strain at various tempera-
tures is evident in Fig. 9. The results tend to support a model
for hardening or softening based on competing processes of cyclic
hardening, cyclic softening, and cyclic-strain aging as discussed
in the earlier paper [1], Temperature would play an important
role primarily as it influences the contribution of the cyclic-strain-
aging process.
Evidence that a precipitate is formed as a consequence of
cyclic plastic strain at aging temperatures following quenching is
supported primarily by the result of Fig. 15, wherein the flow
stress is substantially raised over that for the annealed steel.
Cyclic straining at room temperature, where the cyclic softening
process dominates, is again shown to have a substantial influence
on the shape of the flow stress curve in the early stages, but not at
large strains, supporting the position taken earlier [1] that an
accommodation process is occurring to bypass the resistance to
flow produced by the precipitate.
Summary
SAE 1010 and 1111 steels, either annealed or quenched from
below the eutectoid temperature, were investigated as to their
response to controlled cyclic plastic strain at various aging tem-
peratures up to 350 deg C. Included in the study were the cyclic
stress response during straining at temperature, the subsequent
cyclic-stress response at room temperature, the low-cycle fatigue
362 / JUN E 19 6 5
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resistance, subsequent room temperature flow stress behavior, and
fracture ductility over a broad range of temperature.
The cyclic stress response to controlled cyclic plastic strain was
found to be strongly sensitive to temperature. At 250 deg C, fol-
lowing quenching, cyclic strain hardening was sustained until
fracture without the usual saturation, the stress reached at frac-
ture approximating the fracture stress in a static tension test,
while at 150 deg C pronounced cyclic softening was evident.
There was a marked difference in the low-cycle fatigue resistance
at these two temperatures for both the annealed and quenched
1111 steel. Comparison of the fracture ductility as a function of
temperature with ductility computed from t'; = 2iV// ! Ae p , a low
cycle fatigue relationship, indicated that the two curves had a
strikingly similar shape, suggesting that a parametric relationship
incorporating temperature and time might be employed to im-
prove the effectiveness of the use of fracture ductility in fatigue
when deformation is influenced by thermally activated processes.
Evidence that a precipitate was responsible for the cyclic
hardening effects found at 250 deg C following quenching was
provided by examination of subsequent room temperature flow
stress curves. A substantial shift in the ductile-brittle transition
temperature, as determined by the tensile ductility, was found
for the quenched and cyclic-strain-aged steels as compared to
these steels in the annealed state.
Acknowledgments
The author acknowledges the assistance of Mark H. Rajmiond
and Joseph Muscara in the performance of the numerous experi-
ments of this investigation.
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