GENERAL

PHYSIOLOGY
THEME II
CHAPTER OUTLINE

THE JOINT SYSTEM

Articular cartilage
Development
Types of Joints
Synovial Joints

THE BONY SYSTEM

Structure
Remodeling, Growth and Development

THE MUSCLE PHYSIOLOGY

Structure
The Growth and Development of Muscle
Reproduction and Organization

THE ENERGY METABOLISM

Energy Sources
Carbohydrate
Fat
Protein
Bioenergetics

THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

Synthesis, Storage, and Secretion
Key Terms Endocrine Systems and Feedback Cycles
The Glands of the Endocrine Systems
Joint
Ligaments Biological Cycles
Skeleton
Ossification
Muscle fibers
Tendons
Energy Release
ATP
Glycolysis
Hormones
 Theme II Objectives
After the study of this theme, the reader should be
able:

To Describe

1- The Structures of the Joint System.

2- The Typical structures of synovial joints.
3- The Structures of the Bony System.
4- The remodeling, growth and development of bones.
5- The Structure and Organization of muscle fibers.
6- The Systems of Energy Release.
7- The basic mechanism of the Endocrine System.
8- The types of hormones acting on human body.

To Define

1- A typical Synovial Joint

2- Osteoblasts and Osteoclasts and their functions.
3- All the components of a muscle fiber.
4- The Energy Metabolism.
5- The mechanisms of ATP production.
6- The Endocrine System and its components.
7- The main hormones acting on human body.

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THE JOINT SYSTEM
The need for strength requires bones to be
rigid. However, movement would be almost impos-
sible if our skeletons were solid bone. Nature has
solved this problem in vertebrates, including humans,
by casting the skeleton into many bones and creating
joints where they intersect. Joints are custom-formed
to serve the functional needs of the limbs that contain
them.
They are held together by fibrous tissue (cap-
sule and ligaments) and continuously lubricated to
offset friction. In this way joints permit motions, which
grant us humans a very complex repertoire of move-
ment.
The word articulation and joint are used syn-
onymously to refer to those structural arrangements
that connect two or more bones. Although most joints
permit at least some movement between the bones
they connect, this is not essential for a connecting
structure to be called a joint. The function of some
joints is to allow the joined structures to grow until
they in turn become as solid as the bones they con-
nect.
Where joints are immovable, as in the articu-
lations between the bones of the growing skull, the
adjacent margins of the bone are separated merely
by a thin layer of fibrous tissue. Where slight move-
ment but great strength is required, the joint surfaces
are united by tough elastic fibrocartilages, as in the
joints between the vertebral bodies. In freely movable
joints, such as the shoulder or knee, the surfaces are
completely separated and the bones expanded for
greater convenience of mutual connection. They are
covered by cartilage and enveloped by fibrous tissue
capsules.
ARTICULAR CARTILAGE
Articular cartilage is of a type called hyaline
cartilage. In contrast to bone, it is easily cut. It is de-
formable under pressure, but elastic so that it quickly
recovers its shape. These properties are important
for its function under conditions of loading (bearing
weight). A membrane lines the interior of such joints.
This synovial membrane secretes a thick vis-
cous liquid that lubricates the joint. It also regulates
protein and electrolyte metabolism in the joint and re-
moves waste from the joint. Joints are strengthened
by ligaments, strong fibrous bands that connect the
bones that form the joint.
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Figure - Ligaments of the knee joint.
DEVELOPMENT
Bone and joint both develop from the middle
layer of tissue in the embryo. Circumscribed conden-
sation of cells in this mesoderm become chondrified
(turned into cartilage) and finally ossified (turned into
bone) to form the bones of the skeleton. The inter-
vening non-condensed portions of tissue develop
into joints.
As soon as the joint cavity appears during de-
velopment, it contains watery fluid. The tissue sur-
rounding the original mesodermal cellular core forms
fibrous sheaths for the developing bones, which
continues between their ends as the capsules of the
joints. Ligaments develop both in these capsules and
as derivations from tendons surrounding the joint.
After the joint cavity is established during the third
month of gestation, the muscles that move the joint
begin to contract. This movement enhances nutrition
of the articular car
tilage and prevents fusions of the apposed
joint surfaces. Early restriction of joint motion can
result in permanent loss of the joint cavity, whereas
later restriction can lead to abnormalities of the soft
tissues associated with the joint.
Because normal positioning of the fetus in the
uterus permits a fair degree of movement of the up-
per limbs but restricts the legswhich are folded and
pressed firmly against the bodythe lower limbs are
more vulnerable to congenital joint deformity. In sev-
eral of the movable joints, a portion of the mesoder-
mal tissue that originally existed between the ends
of the bones persists and forms an articular disc. An
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example of this is the menisci of the knee joint. SYNOVIAL JOINTS

Synovial joints, which allow free movement,

TYPES OF JOINTS must have their surfaces lubricated. The lubricant is
called synovial fluid. Although synovial fluid is 95%
There are various types of joints. The skull water, it enables the cartilaginous joint surfaces to
type is immovable, the vertebral type is slightly mov- move with less friction than that of ice sliding on ice.
able, and the limb type is freely movable. Joints of Synovial fluid has the unusual ability to become thick
the skull are temporary until they fuse, those of the or thin with change of pressure, a property called
vertebrae are secure, and limb type joints or synovial thixotropy.
articulations, although freely movable, are insecure.
Immovable joints are called synarthroses, slightly
movable joints are labeled amphiarthroses, and free-
ly movable joints are called diarthroses.
The greatest numbers of joints in the body
are diarthroses. Varieties of these joints have been
determined by the kind of motion each allows. Joints
permit: translatory and rotatory movements, flexion,
extension, abduction, adduction, circunduction, rota-
tions.

MECHANICS

Bones in a freely movable joint articulate in

pairs, each pair distinguished by its own pair of ar-
ticular surfaces. These surfaces constitute mating
pairs. Each mating pair consists of a male surface
and a female surface. Following an engineering
convention, a joint surface is called male if it is con-
vex and female if it is concave.
In all positions of a diarthrosis the articular
surfaces fit imperfectly. Such incongruence is not Figure - Typical structures of synovial joints.
great and is lessened by mutual alteration of the op-
posed parts of the surfaces. This is a consequence of
the plasticity of hyaline cartilage.
The exceptional position is called the close- FAT PADS
packed position, in which the entire articulating por-
tion of the female surface is in complete contact with Some of the larger joints contain fat pads.
the apposed male surface. Functionally, this changes The function of these structures depends on the fact
the joint from a freely movable joint to a locked one, that fat is liquid in the living body and therefore easily
and it is the position in which the joint is most stable. deformable. These fat pads contribute to the internal
Every joint has its close-packed position. A good ex- streamlining of the joint cavity, preventing eddying
ample is the wrist when the hand is fully flexed on the (whiplash motion) of the synovial fluid. Their deform-
forearm or the knee when fully extended. ability enables them to do this effectively.
The close-packed position is not assumed In addition, the fat pads keep the synovial
often or constantly because it requires special mus- fluid sufficiently thin between the neighboring parts of
cular effort. It is also dangerous because two bones the male and female surfaces.
in series are converted temporarily into a functionally
single but longer unit that is more likely to be injured
by sudden stress.

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THE BONY SYSTEM
The unique tissue that is bone is found only in
vertebratesanimals with backbones.
Newborn infants have approximately 350 individual
bones. By fusion and rearrangement during growth,
they develop into their adult counterparts. The adult
skeleton (Greek: skeletos, meaning dried up) usually
contains 206 bones, although some people are born
with either an extra pair of ribs or one pair less.
STRUCTURE
Bone consists of living cells held in a hard
intercellular material. This material is composed of
collagen, a fibrous protein similar in structure and or-
ganization to ligaments, tendons, and skin. This col-
lagenous matrix is mineralized, mainly with calcium
and phosphorus.
The intimate blending of the hard and resilient
components in bone makes it almost equally resist-
ant to compression and tension. This is in contrast
to most of the structural materials that we commonly
use, which are usually better in one respect than an-
other. The two-phased materials used in bone give it
hardness, rigidity, and flexibility. This is similar to oth-
er two-phased materials, such as fibreglass or bam-
boo. Because an element of viscous flow is present,
bone is stiffer during rapid deformation than during
slow deformation.
The remaining portion of bone is composed
of collagen, the elastic protein that makes glue when
bones are boiled. Fibers of collagen studded with
crystals wind themselves around each other like
strands of rope fibers. Remove the mineral in bone
and the bone becomes so pliable that it can be tied in
a knot.
The skeleton demonstrates the use of state-
of-the-art engineering principles to provide the great-
est strength with the least material. It closely resem-
bles coral in structure, and like such meshworks it is
both sturdy and delicate.
The femur, or thigh bone, is the longest and
strongest of all human bones. It may be called on
to resist a compressive force of more than 1,000
pounds per cubic inch during walking. What is even
more remarkable is that, unlike nonliving materials
such as concrete or steel, bone remodels itself under
stress. It does this through a complex system of cel-
lular communication that is electrical in nature.
Like any well-recognized factory, bone di-
vides labour between its four major types of cells.
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Osteoblasts make bone, osteoclasts remodel bone,
osteocytes govern its metabolism, and a group of
uncharacterized basic structures termed undifferenti-
ated mesenchymal cells stand ready to evolve into
-blasts, -clasts, or -cytes if and when needed. With
the exception of dental enamel, bone is the hardest
tissue in the body. Now lets see how bone renews
itself.
REMODELING, GROWTH, AND DEVELOP-
MENT
As in any other mammal, human bones are
preformed in cartilage. This soft tissue model
is gradually converted into bone tissue by a bony
change called osteogenesis. A skeletal outline can be
seen in the human embryo at approximately the fifth
week of pregnancy. Ossification of bone continues
until almost 25 years of age, at which time the carti-
lage is completely replaced by bone, ending further
transformation. A few of the bones of our bodies are
not preformed in cartilage. These membrane bones
form in condensed fibrous tissue. They include the
bones of the skull and the clavicle (collarbone).
Long bones grow at each end through a growth
plate, or physis, as well as from a thin membrane
called the periosteum, which surrounds the shaft of
the bone. Cells from this layer begin to form bone
around the middle of a cartilage shaft and continue
this process during growth, which allows the bone to
increase in diameter as well as in length. At the ends
of bones, cartilage cells are destroyed and replaced
by bone tissue. These newly deposited cells push the
growth plate farther from the center of the shaft until
the body has attained its full height, which occurs at
approximately 18 years in men and two years earlier
in women. During our lifetime, we actually have three
skeletonsthe first one is made of cartilage, the sec-
ond of an immature fibrous type bone, and the third
of adult bone.
Numerous metabolic influences affect bone
growth. Essential monitoring and manufacturing roles
in the development of the bony skeleton are played
by the availability of minerals such as phosphorus
and calcium, vitamins A, D, and C, as well as by the
secretions of many endocrine glands, including the
thyroid, parathyroid, pituitary, adrenals, and gonads.
The tissues of the body constantly renew
themselves. This process is so rapid and so continu-
ous that you hardly have any single cell in your body
that you had three years ago. Renewal in soft tissues
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occurs largely at a molecular level. Bony change oc-
curs by replacing tissue; it is somewhat like urban
renewal in that removal of the old bone by resorption
must precede new bone deposition. Remodelling is
greatest during growth and declines until approxi-
mately age 35. After the age of 35, remodelling re-
mains essentially unchanged. After the fourth decade
of life, resorption of bone is greater than formation,
and a loss of 5 percent to 10 percent of bone mass
occurs with each passing decade. This works out to
a loss of approximately 4 grams of calcium from the
skeleton each year.
The processes of remodelling, growth, and
development are under the control of the cells of
bone. Osteoclasts secrete enzymes that dissolve
bone, and osteoblasts elaborate a protein-like sub-
stance, called osteoid, which is then mineralized. It
is thought that osteocytes, the mainstay cell of ma-
ture bone, are also metabolically active and can re-
sorb and even re-form bone on demand. To keep the
delicate mineral chemistry of the body in balance,
bone acts as the bodys major storehouse for miner-
als. Approximately half of bones volume and up to 75
percent of its weight consists of deposited minerals.
Almost 90 percent of the calcium and phosphorus in
the body is found in the bones. If spread out, the crys-
tal surface exposed to the body fluids in the walls of
the skeletal system of an average man would cover
1,500 to 5,000 square meters. This is approximately
the size of a football field and provides an enormous
surface area across which chemical exchanges of
minerals can occur.
Julius Wolff, who was a professor of ortho-
paedics in Berlin, formulated his famous law of bone
modelling late in the nineteenth century. Wolffs law
holds that the physical stresses placed on bone ini-
tiate accommodative changes in its structure and
form. It would seem that small electrical currents are
generated from pressure in bone, and these charges
stimulate resorption or production in response to the
stress imposed.
The human skeleton not only serves to store
minerals but also acts as the reservoir that controls
the equilibrium of calcium and phosphate in the
blood stream. These elements are vital for cardiac
function, muscle contractility, cell membrane integrity
and permeability, neuromuscular function, and blood
clotting. Bone governs the body concentration of cal-
cium and phosphorus through hormonal regulation
by parathyroid hormone and calcitonin.
This is controlled through feedback loops
that hormonally link the excretion of calcium and
phosphorus by the kidney with the absorption of
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these ions by the intestine. Vitamin D is required in
this metabolic scheme. Calcitonin is a body chemi-
cal that inhibits bone resorption. Renovation of bone
depends on two of these control loops with negative
feedback. Remodelling under Wolffs law may be re-
lated to the piezoelectric properties of bone crystals,
which involve the generation of electricity by crystal-
line structures under stress. Tension on a bone sets
up a negative electrical pole (anode), whereas com-
pression sets up a positive pole (cathode). This proc-
ess also plays an important role in bone healing.
A number of hormones also play significant
roles in the regulation of bone growth and metab-
olism. These include estrogens, testosterone, thy-
roid hormone, adrenal gland hormones, insulin, and
growth hormone.
THE MUSCLE PHYSIOLOGY
The number of muscle fibers in the body is
determined at birth. In this respect, muscle is similar
to nervous tissue. The number of fibers does not mul-
tiply, but individual fibers do enlarge with work. This
accounts for the size and strength of the muscles of a
weight lifter contrasted with those of an inactive desk
clerk, even though their muscles contain the same
number of fibers. Theoretically, the maximum energy
output of a man is approximately 6 hp. The highest
recorded output to date is 4.5 hp; 0.5 hp can be sus-
tained almost indefinitely.
Muscle fibers can be short or long, but their
diameter is always less than their length (most fib-
ers measure from 0.01 mm to 0.1 mm across). Many
individual fibers make up each muscle. There are ap-
proximately 650 skeletal muscles in the body (about
three times as many muscles as bones), containing
about 250,000,000 striated muscle fibers. In the eye
these fibers have a diameter of 20 microns (one mi-
cron is one millionth of a meter). The fibers of the
limbs range in size from 10 to 100 microns, being
largest in male athletes.
Each muscle obeys the same all-or-none
principle as the nerve fiber that controls iteither it
contracts or it doesnt. Muscle works by converting
chemical energy to mechanical energy. Less than
half of the potential energy available is converted,
and the remainder is lost as heat. This is why the
body temperature rises when you perform strenuous
work. Even at rest, the heat produced during the rela-
tively efficient conversion of chemical to mechanical
energy in muscle maintains body temperature in
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animals exposed to the cold.
The muscular movements associated with
shivering liberate heat so it is not wasted, as it is in
most man-made machines. Sometimes enough heat
is produced to boil a quart of water. Shivering may be
better than a heating pad or exercise when it comes
to warming
the body. In some cases of modest hypothermia, heat
from an external source may actually be counterpro-
ductive because it inhibits the shivering response.
STRUCTURE
The muscle fiber in turn is composed of small-
er elements called myofibrils. Each myofibril contains
two types of filamentous sub-units, one of which is
thick and the other thin. These interdigitate in an over-
lapping array that produces a cross-striated banding
effect, as revealed by an electron microscope. They
are arranged in a hexagonal lattice.
The structural unit of a muscle fiber is the sar-
comere, delimited by a Z-line at each end. Micro-
scopy reveals a repeating design of bands, zones,
and lines within these sarcomeres, delineating over-
lap of the thick and thin filaments and producing the
striped appearance of skeletal muscle. As we shall
see when we look at the molecular basis for muscle
contraction, the arrangement of these thick filaments
and thin filaments is of prime importance.
All muscles are held together by thick fibrous
tissue. This fibrous tissue gathers together at one
end of a muscle, where it is fixed to a bone, and at the
other end, where it forms a thick fibrous band called a
tendon, which fastens to another bone. These attach-
ments are called, respectively, the origin and inser-
tion of the muscle.
Tendons resemble ropes and, like ropes, the
thicker they are, the greater the tensile strength of
muscle and tendon. Tendons, by the way, are manu-
factured by fibroblasts (fiber-makers). These versa-
tile, mobile cells extrude fiber molecules that self-as-
semble into long strands.
The fiber that makes tendon so strong is tri-
ple-stranded collagen, twisted like a cable, white and
glistening. When these collagen strands are arrayed
in parallel, they provide maximum, strength in the di-
rection in which the muscle is pulling.
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Being fixed at both ends, shortening of the
muscle will move any joint that lies between its origin
and its insertion. Any muscle moving a joint is as-
sisted by other muscles that stabilize the extremity
and by antagonist muscles that work in an opposite
functions or as guy ropes to prevent violent and un-
controlled movements.
Tendons are slightly elastic to protect mus-
cles and ligaments from excessive strain. The origin
of a muscleusually its stationary endis firmly at-
tached to bone by a short tendon. The insertion of
a muscleusually the end that movesis attached
by a longer tendon. For example, the muscles that
move your toes are connected to your foot by long
thin tendons that run across the front and back of
your ankle. Bands of fibrous tissue (called retinacula)
are wrapped around tendons at the wrist and ankle.
They keep the tendons aligned so that they
follow the correct direction of pull as they slide. Ten-
dons are encased in sheaths (synovial sheaths) in
places where they might rub against adjacent tissues.
These contain the same membranes and lubricating
fluid found in joints. Just as the entire muscle is held
in an envelope of fibrous tissue, the individual groups
of muscle fibers are similarly contained.
The fascial covering of the muscle itself is
called the epimysium. Perimysium macroscopically
subdivides muscle into fiber bundles (fascicule),
and endomysium surrounds individual muscle fibers
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(muscle cellular units) binding them together and to The Growth and Development of Muscle
perimysium. Within this fibrous envelope the muscle
cells are bathed in a fluid that contains the chemicals Muscle develops from a group of cells called
needed for contraction and relaxation. Access from mesenchyme (middle layer). The outer membranes
the general circulatory system is through microscop- of these cells fuse at contact points during embry-
ic tubules. Blood vessels and nerves also enter this ologic development, forming a single unit enclosed
system. in a continuous membrane called a myoblast (rnyo
Tiny spindles of highly specialized muscle = muscle, blast = formative cell). This early organi-
cells served by nerves that regulate position are found zation results in a so-called myotube, which in turn
throughout postural muscles. These muscle spindles develops into an immature muscle cell that may con-
register muscular tension so that fine postural adjust- tain hundreds of nuclei, one from each of the original
ments can be made by the body where and when cells. Further growth produces a mature muscle cell,
necessary. Another type of tension regulator is the or fiber, a long cylinder that measures 1/500 of an
Golgi tendon organ receptor found in tendons, which inch in diameter and several inches in length. Disrup-
supplies the nervous system with information about tion of development at any point along this path can
muscle tension to prevent extremely forceful contrac- lead to a congenital disease of muscle.
tions that might separate tendon from bone.
In spite of variations in size and shape, all
muscles have essentially the same structure. Myofi-
brils consist of muscle filaments arranged in a repeat-
ing pattern. Each unit of this pattern is called a sar-
comere. Each sarcomere contains several types of
filamentsthick ones containing the protein myosin,
and thin ones containing the protein actin.
About 100,000 myosin molecules laid side by
side would form a ribbon 1 mm wide. Actin molecules
are half as thick. The serial alignment of sarcomeres
in adjacent myofibrils gives muscle fibers their stri-
ated (striped) appearance.

NERVE CONTROL

Although each fiber contracts in an all-or-

none type of response to nerve stimulation, rarely
are all muscle fibers activated at one time. Only the
necessary nerve impulses to meet the need of the
force required to accomplish a given task are sent,
just a few to pick up a pencil, many more to lift a bar-
bell.
This is accomplished by a complex nervous
feedback system based on the fact that muscular ac-
tion will increase with increased load, just as a trac-
tor engine is programmed to automatically speed up
when the plow hits heavier ground. Such servo (feed-
back) control is required to keep us from expending
as much energy lifting a fork as we would hoisting a
100-pound sack of concrete.

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REPRODUCTION filaments alternate. Various lines, bands, and zones
have been noted in the pattern and labelled (Z, I, A,
Muscle cells pay for their specialized con- M, H) for identification during microscopic examina-
tractile ability. One of the things they cannot do is tion.
divide in order to reproduce themselves in the con- As the muscle fibril contracts, the thin fila-
ventional manner of most cells. In humans and most ments slide between the thick filaments. Molecular
other mammals, the number of muscle cells you have arms on the thick (myosin) filament engage specific
at birth is the number you have to work with as you sites on the thin (actin) filament and by a sort of ratch-
grow. et action shorten the fiber in contraction.
Muscle mass is increased through growth
and exercise, by increasing the size of the existing
cells. However, specialized satellite cells can regen-
erate muscle cells that have been damaged through
an intricate process of assembling structures already
floating in the cell fluid. The muscle cell undergoes
necrosis (death) and the satellite cell directs regen-
eration, which includes splitting of the nucleus and
reduplication of the membrane containing the cell
(the basal lamina). Eventually, however, the normal
attrition that results from aging catches up with this
process. The weight of some muscles may decrease
by as much as 30 percent between the ages of 35
and 75.
A number of things can accelerate loss of
muscle. Stimulation to its muscle is cut off when a
nerve is destroyed, as with polio, Lou Gehrigs dis-
ease (amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, or ALS), or trau-
ma, and the muscle fiber becomes inactive, shrinks,
and eventually is replaced by fat and connective
tissue. The reverse situation results in a highly ac-
tive muscle that increases in size and power. In this
sense, muscular development can be looked upon as
a direct product of muscle use.

ORGANIZATION

A single skeletal muscle can be thought of as

a kind of living tension cable. It is packed with many
hundreds of thousands of muscle fibers that form a
pattern that is repeated down to the molecular level.
Each of the fibers consists of 1,000 to 2,000 smaller
strands called fibrils that run parallel to one another
and are the contracting elements, the parts that do
the actual work. These fibrils are about 1/25,000ths
of an inch in diameter, and the space between them
is filled with a fluid (cytoplasm).
Densely packed within each fibril are hundreds
of filaments, the smallest component of the muscle.
When the cross-section of a fibril is magnified about
250,000 times under an electron microscope, these
superfine filaments can be seen arranged in a geo-
metric pattern in which the thin filaments and thick
Figure Electron microscopic structure of muscle.
NERVE STIMULATION
The process begins with a series of electri-
cal pulses passed from the brain along various nerve
fiber tracts in the spinal cord to the peripheral nerve
that ends at the neuromuscular junction. When the
electrical pulses reach this junction, a chemical reac-
tion is initiated that releases a squirt of acetylcholine.
At the moment when the acetylcholine reaches its re-

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ceptors on the muscle, the fiber is akin to a charged
battery carrying an electrical charge of 0.09 volt. This
is called the resting potential of muscle.
Acetylcholine is a neurohumor (nervous sys-
tem chemical secretion) that can temporarily change
the molecular structure of the muscle membrane so
that there is a two-way flow of potassium and sodium
ions (an ion is an atom that is electrically charged)
between the muscle cell and the fluid surrounding it.
As these ions are exchanged through the
membrane, the electrical balance of the muscle
fiber changes (depolarizes) as it becomes temporar-
ily discharged. This generates an action potential, an
electrical discharge that spreads over the surface of
the cell, transmitting a message through a tubular
pathway called the T-tubules to a holding area (the
terminal cistern) within the membrane (sarcoplas-
matic reticulum, or SR) that surrounds the innermost
contracting elements, the myofibrils.
Finally, an interchange of calcium ions deep
within the fibrils initiates contraction. The total time
involved in a single muscle cell twitch, including stim-
ulation, contraction, and relaxation, is approximately
0.1 second.
Millions of muscle fibers are activated with
every body movement. Electrical interactions with
subsequent chemical changes constantly occur as
electricity flows back and forth through the cell mem-
branes and along pathways within the fibers. The
pacemakers that orchestrate this activity are the
nerve signals that release acetylcholine at multitudi-
nal neuromuscular junctions.
THE ENERGY METABOLISM
Energy Sources
Foods are composed primarily of carbon,
hydrogen, oxygen, and in the case of protein ni-
trogen. Molecular bonds in foods are relatively weak
and provide little energy when broken. Consequently,
food is not used directly for cellular operations. Rath-
er, the energy in food molecules bonds is chemically
released within our cells then stored in the form of
a high-energy compound called adenosine triphos-
phate (ATP).
At rest, the energy that your body needs is
derived almost equally from the breakdown of car-
bohydrates (CHO) and fats. Proteins are your bodys
building blocks, usually providing little energy for cel-
lular function. During mild to severe muscular effort,
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more carbohydrate is used, with less reliance on fat.
In maximal, short-duration exercise, ATP is gener-
ated almost exclusively from carbohydrate.
Carbohydrate
Your muscles dependence on carbohydrate
during exercise is related to carbohydrate availability
and your muscles well-developed system for its me-
tabolism. Carbohydrates are ultimately converted to
glucose, a monosaccharide (one-unit sugar) that is
transported via your blood to all body tissues. Under
resting conditions, ingested carbohydrate is taken up
by your muscles and liver, and then converted into a
more complex sugar molecule: glycogen.
Glycogen is stored in the cytoplasm until your
cells use it to form ATP. The glycogen stored in your
liver is converted back to glucose as needed, then
transported by your blood to active tissues, where it
is metabolized.
Liver and muscle glycogen reserves are lim-
ited and can be depleted unless the diet contains a
reasonable amount of carbohydrate. Thus, we rely
heavily on dietary sources of starches and sugars
to replenish our carbohydrate reserves, without ad-
equate carbohydrate intake, the muscles and liver
can be deprived of their primary energy source.
Fat
Fat provides a sizable amount of energy dur-
ing prolonged, less intense exercise. Body stores of
potential energy in the form of fat are substantially
larger than the reserves of carbohydrate. But fat is
less accessible for cellular metabolism because it
must first be reduced from its complex form, triglyc-
eride, to its basic components, glycerol and free fatty
acids (FFA). Only free fatty acids are used to form
ATP.
Carbohydrate stores in the liver and skeletal
muscle are limited to less than 2,000 kcal of energy,
or the equivalent of the energy needed for about 32
km (20 miles) of running. Fat stores, how-ever, gen-
erally exceed 70,000 kcal of energy also because
substantially more energy is derived from a given
quantity of fat (9 kcal/g) than from the same amount
of carbohydrate (4 kcal/g). Nonetheless, the rate of
energy release from fat is too slow to meet all of the
energy demands of intense muscular activity.
Protein
Protein can also be used as an energy source,
but it must first be converted into glucose. In the case
of severe energy depletion or starvation, protein may
 International Federation of Bodybuilding & Fitness
even be used to generate free fatty acids for cel-
lular energy. The process by which protein or fat is
converted into glucose is called gluconeogenesis.
The process of converting protein into fatty acids is
termed lipogenesis. Protein can supply up to 5% or
10% of the energy needed to sustain prolonged exer-
cise. Only the most basic units of protein the ami-
no acidscan be used for energy. A gram of protein
yields about 4.1 kcal.
Rate of Energy Release
To be useful, free energy must be released
from chemical compounds at a controlled rate. This
rate is partially determined by the choice of the pri-
mary fuel source.
Large amounts of one particular fuel can
cause cells to rely more on that source than on al-
ternatives. This influence of energy availability is
termed the mass action effect. Specific protein mol-
ecules called enzymes control the rate of free-energy
release. Many of these enzymes facilitate the break-
down (catabolism) of chemical compounds. How-
ever, many enzymes also undergo an altered struc-
ture after binding to the chemical compound. Thus,
the structure and function of enzymes may be more
complex, and the interactions between energy com-
pounds (e.g., glucose) and enzymes are important to
energy transfer within the cell. Although the enzyme
names are quite complex, a end with the suffix -ase.
For example, an important enzyme that acts on ad-
enosine triphosphate (ATP) is termed adenosine tri-
phosphatase (ATPase).
About 60% to 70% of the energy expended
by the human body is degraded to heat. The remain-
der is used for mechanical work and cellular activi-
ties.
Bioenergetics: ATP Production
An ATP molecule consists of adenosine (a
molecule of adenine joined to a molecule of ribose)
combined with three inorganic phosphate (P) groups.
When acted on by the enzyme ATPase, the last
phosphate group splits away from the ATP molecule,
rapidly releasing a large amount of energy (7.6 kcal
per mole of ATP). This reduces the ATP to adenosine
diphosphate (ADP) and P. But how was that energy
originally stored?
The process of storing energy by forming
ATP from other chemical sources is called phos-
European Bodybuilding and Fitness Federation
phorylation. Through various chemical reactions, a
phosphate group is added to a relatively low-energy
compound, adenosine diphosphate (ADP), convert-
ing it to adenosine triphosphate (ATP). When these
reactions occur without oxygen, the process is called
anaerobic metabolism. When these reactions occur
with the aid of oxygen, the overall process is called
aerobic metabolism, and the aerobic conversion of
ADP to ATP is oxidative phosphorylation
Cells generate ATP by three methods:
1. The ATP-PCr system
2. The glycolytic system
3. The oxidative system
ATP-PCr System: The simplest of the energy
systems is the ATP-PCr system. In addition to ATP, the
cells have another high-energy phosphate molecule
that stores energy. This molecule is called phospho-
creatine, or PCr (also called creatine phosphate).
Unlike ATP, energy released by the break-down of
PCr is not used directly to accomplish cellular work.
Instead, it rebuilds ATP to maintain a relatively con-
stant supply.
The release of energy from PCr is facilitated by
the enzyme creatine kinase (CK), which acts on PCr
to separate P from creatine. The energy released can
then be used to couple P to an ADP molecule, form-
ing ATP. With this system, as energy is released from
ATP by the splitting of a phosphate group, the cells
can prevent ATP depletion by reducing PCr, providing
energy to form more ATP. This process is rapid and
can be accomplished without any special structures
within the cell. Although it can occur in the presence
of oxygen, this process does not require oxygen, so
the ATP-PCr system is said to be anaerobic.
During the first few seconds of intense muscular ac-
tiv ity, such as sprinting, ATP is maintained at a
relatively constant level, but the PCr level declines
steadily as it is used to replenish the depleted ATP.
At exhaustion, however, both ATP and PCr levels are
quite low and are unable to provide the energy for
further contractions and relaxations.
Thus, the capacity to maintain ATP levels
with the energy from PCr is limited. The ATP and PCr
stores can sustain the muscles energy needs for only
3 to 15 seconds during an all-out sprint. Beyond that
point, the muscles must rely on other processes for
ATP formation: the glycolytic and oxidative combus-
tion of fuels.
The Glycolytic System: Another method of ATP pro-
duction involves the liberation of energy through the
10 International Federation of Bodybuilding & Fitness
breakdown (lysis) of glucose. This system is called
the glycolytic system because it involves glycolysis,
which is the breakdown of glucose via special glyco-
lytic enzymes. Glucose accounts for about 99% of all
sugars circulating in the blood. Blood glucose comes
from the digestion of carbohydrate and the break-
down of liver glycogen. Glycogen is synthesized from
glucose by a process called glycogenesis. Glycogen
is stored in the liver or in muscle until needed. At that
time, the glycogen is broken down to glucose-1-phos-
phate through the process of glycogenolysis.
Before either glucose or glycogen can be
used to generate energy, it must be converted to a
compound called glucose-6-phosphate. Conversion
of a molecule of glucose requires one molecule of
ATP. In the conversion of glycogen, glucose-6-phos-
phate is formed from glucose- 1-phosphate without
this energy expenditure. Glycolysis begins once the
glucose-6-phos-phate is formed.
Glycolysis ultimately produces pyruvic acid.
This process doesnt require oxygen, but the use
of oxygen determines the fate of the pyruvic acid
formed by glycolysis. In the case of the anaerobic
glycolysis, without the need for oxygen, the pyruvic
acid is converted to lactic acid.
Glycolysis, which is far more complex than the
ATP-PCr system, requires 12 enzymatic re-actions
for the breakdown of glycogen to lactic acid. All these
enzymes operate within the cells cytoplasm. The net
gain from this process is 3 moles (mol) of ATP formed
for each mole of glycogen broken down. If glucose
is used instead of glycogen, the gain is only 2 mol
of ATP because 1 mol is used for the conversion of
glucose to glucose-6-phosphate.
This energy system does not produce large
amounts of ATP. Despite this limitation, the combined
actions of the ATP-PCr and glycolytic systems allow
the muscles to generate force even when the oxygen
supply is limited. These two systems predominate
during the early minutes of high-intensity exercise.
Another major limitation of anaerobic glycoly-
sis is that it causes an accumulation of lactic acid in
the muscles and body fluids. In all-out sprint events
lasting 1 or 2 min, the demands on the glycolytic sys-
tem are high, and muscle lactic acid levels can in-
crease from a resting value of about 1 mmol/kg of
muscle to more than 25 mmol/kg. This acidification
of muscle fibers inhibits further glycogen breakdown
because it impairs glycolytic enzyme function. In ad-
dition, the acid decreases the fibers calcium-binding
capacity and thus may impede muscle contraction.
Lactic acid and lactate is not the same
compound. Lactic acid is an acid with the chemical
European Bodybuilding and Fitness Federation
formula C3H6O3. Lactate is any salt of lactic acid.
When lactic acid releases H+, the remaining com-
pound joins with Na+ or K+ to form a salt. Anaerobic
glycolysis produces lactic acid, but it quickly dissoci-
ates, and the salt lactate is formed. For this reason,
the terms are often used interchangeably.
A muscle fibers rate of energy use during
exercise can be 200 times greater than at rest. The
ATP-PCr and glycolytic systems alone cannot supply
all the needed energy. Without another energy sys-
tem, the exercise capacity might be limited to only a
few minutes. Then, a third energy system, the oxi-
dative system, can provide the necessary energy to
continue any muscular effort from this point on.
The Oxidative System: The final system of
cellular energy production is the oxidative system.
This is the most complex of the three energy systems.
The process by which the body disassembles fuels
with the aid of oxygen to generate energy is called
cellular respiration. Because oxygen is used, this is
an aerobic process. This oxidative production of ATP
occurs within special cell organelles: the mitochon-
dria. In muscles, these are adjacent to the myofibrils
and are also scattered throughout the sarcoplasm.
Muscles need a steady supply of energy to
continuously produce the force needed during long-
term activity. Unlike anaerobic ATP production, the
oxidative system has a tremendous energy-yielding
capacity, so aerobic metabolism is the primary meth-
od of energy production during endurance events.
This places considerable demands on the bodys
ability to deliver oxygen to the active muscles.
Oxidation of Carbohydrates
In carbohydrate metabolism, glycolysis plays
a role in both anaerobic and aerobic ATP production.
The process of glycolysis is the same whether or not
oxygen is present. Presence of oxygen determines
only the fate of the end product, pyruvic acid. Re-
call that anaerobic glycolysis produces lactic acid
and only 3 mol of ATP per mole of glycogen. In the
presence of oxygen, however, the pyruvic acid is
converted into a compound called acetyl coenzyme
A (acetyl CoA). Once formed, acetyl CoA enters the
Krebs cycle (citric acid cycle), a complex series of
chemical reactions that permit the complete oxida-
tion of acetyl CoA. At the end of the Krebs cycle, 2
mol of ATP have been formed, and the substrate (the
compound upon which the enzymes act, in this case,
the original carbohydrate) has been broken down into
carbon dioxide and hydrogen.
11 International Federation of Bodybuilding & Fitness
 Energy Yield from Carbohydrates: The oxi-
dative system of energy production can generate up
to 39 molecules of ATP from one molecule of glyco-
gen. If the process begins with glucose, the net gain
is 38 ATP molecules (recall that one ATP molecule is
used for conversion to glucose-6-phosphate before
glycolysis begins).
Oxidation of Fat
As noted earlier, fat also contributes lo mus-
cles energy needs. Muscle and liver glycogen stores
may be able to provide only 1,200 lo 2,000 kcal of
energy, but the fat stored inside muscle fibers and
in fat cells can supply at least 70,000 to 75,000 kcal,
even in a lean adult.
Although many chemical compounds (such
as triglycerides. phospholipids, and cholesterol) are
classified as fats, only triglycerides are major energy
sources. Triglycerides are stored in fat cells and be-
tween and within skeletal muscle fibers to be used
for energy, a triglyceride must be broken down to its
basic units: one molecule of glycerol and three mol-
ecules of free fatty acids (FFA). This process is called
lipolysis, and it is carried out by enzymes known as
lipases. The FFA is the primary energy source. Once
freed from glycerol, FFA can enter the blood and be
transported throughout the body, entering muscle fib-
ers by diffusion. Their rate of entry into the muscle
fibers depends on the concentration gradient. In-
creasing the FFA concentration in the blood drives
them into the muscle fibers.
Oxidation
Although the various FFA in the body differ
structurally, their metabolism is essentially the same.
On entering the muscle fiber, FFA are enzymatically
activated with energy from ATP, preparing them for
catabolism (breakdown) within the mitochondria. generally ignore protein metabolism.
This enzymatic catabolism of fat by the mito-
chondria is termed (beta) oxidation.
From this point on, fat metabolism follows the same
path as carbohydrate metabolism. Acetyl CoA formed
by oxidation enters the Krebs cycle. As in glucose
metabolism, the by-products of FFA oxidation are ATP
H2O, and CO2. However, the complete combustion
of an FFA molecule requires more Oxygen because
an FFA molecule contains considerably more carbon
than a glucose molecule.
Although fat provides more kilocalories of
energy per gram than carbohydrate, fat oxidation re-
quires more oxygen than carbohydrate oxidation. The
energy yield from fat is 5.6 ATP molecules per O2
molecule used, compared with carbohydrates yield
of 6.3 ATP per O2 molecule. Oxygen delivery is lim-
European Bodybuilding and Fitness Federation
ited by the oxygen transport system, so carbohydrate
is the preferred fuel during high-intensity exercise.
The advantage of having more carbon in FFA than in
glucose is that more acetyl CoA is formed from the
metabolism of a given amount of fat, so more acetyl
CoA enters the Krebs cycle and more electrons are
sent to the electron transport chain. This is why fat
metabolism can generate so much more energy than
glucose metabolism.
Protein Metabolism
As noted earlier, carbohydrates and fatty ac-
ids are the bodies preferred fuels. But proteins, or
rather the amino acids that form them, are also used.
Some amino acids can be converted into
glucose (by gluconeogenesis). Alternatively, some
can be converted into various intermediates of oxida-
tive metabolism (such as pyruvate or acetyl CoA) to
enter the oxidative process.
Proteins energy yield is not as easily deter-
mined as that of carbohydrate or fat because pro-
tein also contains nitrogen. When amino acids are
catabolized, some of the released nitrogen is used
to form new amino acids, but the remaining nitro-
gen cannot be oxidized by the body. Instead it is
converted into urea and then excreted, primarily in
the urine. This conversion requires the use of ATP, so
some energy is spent in this process.
To accurately assess the rate of protein
metabolism, the amount of nitrogen being eliminat-
ed from the body must be determined. These meas-
urements require urine collection for 12-to 24-h pe-
riods, clearly a time-consuming process. Because
the healthy body uses little protein during rest and
exercise (usually far less than 5% to 10% of total
energy expended), estimates of energy expenditure
THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
The endocrine system works in parallel with
the nervous system to control growth and maturation
along with homeostasis. It is a collection of glands
that secrete chemical messages we call hormones.
These signals are passed through the blood
to arrive at a target organ, which has cells possess-
ing the appropriate receptor.
Exocrine glands (not part of the endocrine
system) secrete products that are passed outside the
body. Sweat glands, salivary glands, and digestive
12 International Federation of Bodybuilding & Fitness
glands are examples of exocrine glands.
Figures - The roles of hormones in selecting target cells
and delivering the hormonal message
Hormones are grouped into three classes
based on their structure:
1. steroids
2. peptides
3. amines
Steroids: are lipids derived from cholesterol.
Testosterone is the male sex hormone. Estradiol,
similar in structure to testosterone, is responsible for
many female sex characteristics. Steroid hormones
are secreted by the gonads, adrenal cortex, and pla-
centa.
Peptides and Amines: are short chains of
amino acids; most hormones are peptides. They are
secreted by the pituitary, parathyroid, heart, stom-
ach, liver, and kidneys. Amines are derived from the
amino acid tyrosine and are secreted from the thyroid
and the adrenal medulla. Solubility of the various hor-
mone classes varies.
Synthesis, Storage, and Secretion
Steroid hormones are derived from cholesterol by a
biochemical reaction series. Defects along this se-
European Bodybuilding and Fitness Federation
ries often lead to hormonal imbalances with serious
consequences. Once synthesized, steroid hormones
pass into the bloodstream; they are not stored by
cells, and the rate of synthesis controls them. Pep-
tide hormones are synthesized as precursor mol-
ecules and processed by the endoplasmic reticulum
and Golgi where they are stored in secretor granules.
When needed, the granules are dumped into the
bloodstream. Different hormones can often be made
from the same precursor molecule by cleaving it with
a different enzyme. Amine hormones (notably epine-
phrine) are stored as granules in the cytoplasm until
needed.
Endocrine Systems and Feedback Cycles
The endocrine system uses cycles and nega-
tive feedback to regulate physiological functions.
Negative feedback regulates the secretion of almost
every hormone. Cycles of secretion maintain physi-
ological and homeostatic control and can range from
hours to months in duration.
Mechanisms of Hormone Action
The endocrine system acts by releasing hor-
mones that in turn trigger actions in specific target
cells. Receptors on target cell membranes bind only
to one type of hormone. More than fifty human hor-
mones have been identified; all act by binding to re-
ceptor molecules. The binding hormone changes the
shape of the receptor causing the response to the
hormone.
There are two mechanisms of hormone ac-
tion on all target cells.
Nonsteroid hormones (water soluble) do
not enter the cell but bind to plasma membrane re-
ceptors, generating a chemical signal (second mes-
senger) inside the target cell. Second messengers
activate other intracellular chemicals to produce the
target cell response.
13 International Federation of Bodybuilding & Fitness
 The Glands of the Endocrine Systems

The pituitary gland is located in a small bony

cavity at the base of the brain. A stalk links the pitui-
tary to the hypothalamus, which controls release of
pituitary hormones.

Steroid Hormones pass through the plasma

membrane and act in a two step process. Steroid
hormones bind, once inside the cell, to the nuclear
membrane receptors, producing an activated hor-
mone-receptor complex. The activated hormone-re-
ceptor complex binds to DNA and activates specific
genes, increasing production of proteins.

Figure - The action of steroid hormones.

The hypothalamus contains neurons that

control releases from the anterior pituitary. Seven
hypothalamic hormones are released into a portal

European Bodybuilding and Fitness Federation 14 International Federation of Bodybuilding & Fitness
system connecting the hypothalamus and pituitary, Prolactin is secreted near the end of pregnancy and
and cause targets in the pituitary to release eight hor- prepares the breasts for milk production.
mones.

The Posterior Pituitary

The posterior pituitary stores and releases

hormones into the blood. Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
and oxytocin are produced in the hypothalamus and
transported by axons to the posterior pituitary where
they are dumped into the blood. ADH controls water
balance in the body and blood pressure. Oxytocin is
a small peptide hormone that stimulates uterine con-
tractions during childbirth.
The Adrenal Glands: Each kidney has an
adrenal gland located above it. The adrenal gland
is divided into an inner medulla and an outer cortex.
The medulla synthesizes amine hormones, the cor-
tex secretes steroid hormones. The adrenal medulla
consists of modified neurons that secrete two hor-
mones: epinephrine and norepinephrine.
Figure - The location and roles of the hypothalamus and
Stimulation of the cortex by the sympathet-
pituitary glands.
ic nervous system causes release of hormones into
the blood to initiate the fight or flight response. The
Growth hormone (GH) is a peptide anterior
adrenal cortex produces several steroid hormones
pituitary hormone essential for growth. GH-releasing
in three classes: mineralocorticoids, glucocorticoids,
hormone stimulates release of GH. GH-inhibiting hor-
and sex hormones. Mineralocorticoids maintain elec-
mone suppresses the release of GH. The hypothala-
trolyte balance. Glucocorticoids produce a long-term,
mus maintains homeostatic levels of GH. Cells un-
slow response to stress by raising blood glucose lev-
der the action of GH increase in size (hypertrophy)
els through the breakdown of fats and proteins; they
and number (hyperplasia). GH also causes increase
also suppress the immune response and inhibit the
in bone length and thickness by deposition of carti-
inflammatory response.
lage at the ends of bones. During adolescence, sex
hormones cause replacement of cartilage by bone,
halting further bone growth even though GH is still
present. Too little or two much GH can cause dwarf-
ism or gigantism, respectively.

Hypothalamus receptors monitor blood lev-

els of thyroid hormones. Low blood levels of Thy-
roid-stimulating hormone (TSH) cause the release
of TSH-releasing hormone from the hypothalamus,
which in turn causes the release of TSH from the an-
terior pituitary. TSH travels to the thyroid where it pro-
motes production of thyroid hormones, which in turn
regulate metabolic rates and body temperatures.

Gonadotropins and prolactin are also se-

creted by the anterior pituitary. Gonadotropins (which
Figure - the structure of the kidney as relates to hor-
include follicle-stimulating hormone, FSH, and lutein-
mones
izing hormone, LH) affect the gonads by stimulating
gamete formation and production of sex hormones.

European Bodybuilding and Fitness Federation 15 International Federation of Bodybuilding & Fitness
 The Thyroid Gland is located in the neck.
Follicles in the thyroid secrete thyroglobulin, a stor-
age form of thyroid hormone. Thyroid stimulating
hormone (TSH) from the anterior pituitary causes
conversion of thyroglobulin into thyroid hormones T4
and T3. Almost all body cells are targets of thyroid
hormones. Thyroid hormone increases the overall
metabolic rate, regulates growth and development as
well as the onset of sexual maturity. Calcitonin is also
secreted by large cells in the thyroid; it plays a role in
regulation of calcium.
ture and many other physiological processes.
Rhythms or cycles that show cyclic changes
on a daily (or even a few hours) bases are known as
circadian rhythms. Many hormones, such as ACTH-
cortisol, TSH, and GH show circadian rhythms. The
menstrual cycle is controlled by a number of hor-
mones secreted in a cyclical fashion. Thyroid secre-
tion is usually higher in winter than in summer. Inter-
nal cycles of hormone production are controlled by
the hypothalamus.

The Pancreas contains exocrine cells that se-

crete digestive enzymes into the small intestine and
clusters of endocrine cells (the pancreatic islets). The
islets secrete the hormones insulin and glucagon,
which regulate blood glucose levels. After a meal,
blood glucose levels rise, prompting the release of
insulin, which causes cells to take up glucose, and
liver and skeletal muscle cells to form the carbohy-
drate glycogen.
As glucose levels in the blood fall, further in-
sulin production is inhibited. Glucagon causes the
breakdown of glycogen into glucose, which in turn
is released into the blood to maintain glucose levels
within a homeostatic range. Glucagon production is
stimulated when blood glucose levels fall, and inhib-
ited when they rise.

Biological Cycles

Biological cycles ranging from minutes to
years occur throughout the animal kingdom. Cycles
involve hibernation, mating behaviour, body tempera-

European Bodybuilding and Fitness Federation 16 International Federation of Bodybuilding & Fitness
 STUDY QUESTIONS

1- Describe the development of the bone and joint.

2- What are the functions of Osteoblasts and Osteoclasts on bone formation?

3- Describe the basic structure of the muscle fiber.

4- What are the highly specialized muscle cells that are found throughout postural

muscles?

5- List and define the basic components of the sarcomere.

6- List and define the Energy Sources used to produce muscle contraction.

7- How is the process of ATP production?

8- How Hormones are grouped? Describe each class.

9- Describe briefly the mechanism of hormone action.

10- Explain what is Biological Cycles.

European Bodybuilding and Fitness Federation 17 International Federation of Bodybuilding & Fitness