Long-term-creep assessment for overhead-line conductors

J. Bradbury, Dip. TecMEng.), P. Dey, B.Sc.(Eng.), Mem.I.E.E.E., G. Orawski, B.Sc.(Eng.), Sen. Mem. I.E.E.E., C.Eng., F.I.E.E., and
K.H. Pickup, C.Eng., M.I.Mech.E.

Indexing terms: Creep, Overhead-line mechanical characteristics

Abstract

Based on the strain-hardening-material law, a method of long-term-creep prediction is proposed which takes into
account all practical line-design and operating conditions and estimates the reduction in conductor tension and
the increase in its sag due to creep with acceptable accuracy. Correlation between theory and practice is illustrated
by both laboratory and field measurements. Selected examples are given on the application of the method for
line design and for the selection of optimum sagging procedure of a line.-Areas of further research and investiga-
tions on overhead-line creep are indicated.

List of symbols
2 slight longitudinal extension of the conductors
A = cross-sectional area of the conductor, mm
E = Young's modulus, kg/mm2
R ratio of aluminium area to area of complete conductor
T = tension in conductor, kg
TllJt = ultimate tensile strength of conductor, kg
t = time.h
w = weight per unit length, kg/m
L = horizontal span length, m
a = coefficient of thermal expansion, deg C"1
e = creep strain, mm/km
6 = conductor temperature, deg C
A0e = equivalent temperature change due to creep, deg C
C,K = creep constants
T?, /?, 7, 8, <p creep indices
a.c.s.r. = aluminium conductor steel reinforced
a.c.aj. = aluminium conductor alloy reinforced
Suffixes 1 and 2 denote different values for the variable
1 Introduction
As a result of creep strain, there is an increase in length and
hence in sag of an overhead-line conductor with time, which should
be considered at the design stage. Further, the effect of intermittent
high-temperature operation of transmission lines can accelerate creep
strain.
The availability of an accurate method of long-term-creep pre-
diction will remove much of the uncertainty now faced by the line
designer as to the amount of extra ground clearance, if any, that
should be provided for the life of the line. The value of such a method
is considerably increased if it enables assessment of the effect of pre-
tensioning and overtensioning on long-term creep.
Based on the strain-hardening-material law, a method of creep
estimation is proposed which takes into account all practical line-
design and operating conditions. This method makes use of the
predictor equations, given in Section 3.1, for which laboratory-derived
creep constants are available. Correlation between predicted values
of creep and those obtained by laboratory and field tests is illustrated.
Selected examples are given on the application of the creep-estimation
method to line design and construction. The field application of this
technique to pretensioning and overtensioning may well be the subject
of further papers.*
(b) the distortion at the points of contact between the wires, allowing
(b) pure metallic creep in the wires caused by the tensile load.
Based on laboratory tests by many investigators,1"4 it is generally
accepted that, after an initial period, the relationship between creep
strain and time of an overhead-line conductor can be expressed by
the empirical equation:
= Ct" 0)
Unfortunately, the values of C and n in the above equation are unique
to the particular conductor and to the tension and temperature. Thus,
in a laboratory, where tension and temperature are artificially main-
tained constant, the above equation plotted on a log-log scale gives
a straight line. But, under field conditions, where these parameters
are constantly changing, the relationship on log-log scale is no
longer linear. Therefore, predictions of creep based on Cand n
values for an existing line, although with an identical conductor,
could introduce large errors. Moreover, the effect of changes in some
of the operating conditions on creep of a conductor, i.e. that of
tension and temperature, cannot be directly evaluated by the use of
eqn. 1.
Proposed method of creep prediction
3.1 Predictor equations
Based on a large number of laboratory creep tests at differ-
ent tensions and temperatures, Bradbury and Harvey and Larson4
have suggested the use of the following three predictor equations
which correlate tension, temperature, time and creep strain:
(2)
by Bradbury for all conductors
(3)
by Harvey and Larson for all aluminium, aluminium alloy and a.c.a.r.
conductors
e = (4)

2 Creep of an overhead-line conductor by Harvey and Larson for a.cs.r. conductors.

Creep, also occasionally referred to as nonelastic elongation, Some typical values of constants and indices for the above
of stranded conductors in service on a line consists of at least three equations are given in Section. 3.4.
parts:
(a) a general settling down of the wires which continues for several
hundred hours after mechanical loading of the conductors 3.2 Application of strain-hardening-material law
For conditions of varying temperature and tension, it has
* Major parts of the theoretical and experimental work were carried out prior
to the introduction of SI units. Owing to the time and cost involved in been found that the strain-hardening-material law5 gives a reasonable
changing the equations, the computer programs and the test results to SI prediction of creep strain. (See Fig. 1.) This law states that the creep
units, the technical metric units, in which the original investigations were carried strain rate depends only upon the existing tension, temperature and
out, have been retained.
creep strain.
By partially differentiating eqns. 2^4 using the strain-hardening-
Paper 7520 P, first received 25th February and in final form 18th June 1975
material law, eqns. 5-7 are obtained:
Mr. Bradbury and Mr. Dey are with BICC Research & Engineering L td., From eqn. 2,
London, England, Mr. Pickup is with the Rod & Wire Mills of BICC Metals Ltd.,
Prescot, Lanes., England, and Mr. Orawski is with the Power Transmission
Division of Balfour Beatty Power Construction Ltd., Croydon, Surrey, England.
Mr. Bradbury was formerly with the Central Electricity Research Laboratories,
de ye
(5)
Leatherhead, Surrey, England dt T8\

1146 PROC. IEE, Vol. 122, No. 10. OCTOBER 1975

From eqn. 3, 3.4 Creep constants

3e = [K fTY J * Eqn. 2 has been proved by extensive laboratory tests on

Je (6) Zebra-a.c.s.r. conductors having the construction of 54/3-18 mm
bt [e \A
Al + 7/3-18 mm steel. The statistically fitted values of the creep
From eqn. 4, constants for eqn. 2, applicable only to Zebra a.cs.r., are given in
Table 1. A comprehensive programme of laboratory creep tests is
K(T x being undertaken with different types of conductors to establish
(7)
dr 'lilt their creep constants.

Table 1
VALUES OF CREEP CONSTANTS FOR ZEBRA A.CS.R. CONDUCTOR
5 OO HAVING 54/7 STRANDING IN EQN. 2
Type of aluminium
400 rod
k 0 7 5
E 6
Extruded 238 x 10" 1-42 00174 10-6 0-455
Iboo Hot rolled 609 x 10"6 1-98 0-0238 2-95 0-313

200 The creep constants for eqns. 3 and 4 were derived by Harvey and
Larson4 on the basis of laboratory creep tests in the temperature
100 range 25-100C, and these values are given in Table 2.

3.5 Effect of manufacturing variables on creep

o 24 100 200,. . 300 4OO 5OO
time.h Variations in the manufacturing methods of the base material
Fig. 1 , and wires and the differences in the type of stranding equipment used
Comparison between theoretically predicted creep and that obtained can give rise to variations in the creep performance of conductors of
by laboratory tests on Zebra a.cs.r. conductor the same size and constructions. This is illustrated, in the case of the
predicted creep Weybridge experiments, in Fig. 2. The conductors made from hot-
actual creep rolled aluminium material have a significantly higher creep rate
AB S440 kg constant tension
BC 3630 kg constant tension (Fig. 2a) than those made from extruded aluminium material (Fig. 2b).
Obviously, the values of the creep constants will also be different
In addition to the above equations, it is necessary to use the general for conductors made with different processes. Examples of such vari-
change-of-state equation for an overhead line for creep prediction ations are shown in Tables 1 and 2.
which is given by:

) < r r
By assuming that, for a small increment of time, the temperature
remains constant, and by partially differentiating eqn. 8 with respect
to t, we obtain

(9)
dt

Eqn. 9 shows that the rate of change of tension is dependent on the

rate of change of creep strain in an overhead-line conductor. time.h x IO

4OO
3.3 Computing procedure
35O
A computer program has been written to facilitate the creep 3OO
estimation. The procedure used is as follows: 25O
(a) At the start of a computation run, a number of time intervals are
defined in each of which the temperature is assumed to remain I5O
constant. The temperature can vary between one time interval IOO
and another. 5O
(b) If the tension remains reasonably constant throughout an interval, O
as could be the case during running out and pretension of a con- 2 3 4 5 7 8 9
ductor, the creep at the end of that interval is obtained directly b time.h x 10
from the relevant creep equation 2, 3 or 4. Fig. 2
(c) When the tension is allowed to vary, the time interval is divided Results of creep tests on Zebra a.cs.r. conductors at Weybridge
by the program into a number of increments, and the creep strain
is progressively determined by using eqns. 5, 6 or 7. a Creep curves for conductors made from rolled aluminium rod
b Creep curves for conductors made from extruded aluminium rod
After calculating the creep strain for a time increment, the A 258 m span 166 m span
change in tension during the increment is calculated from eqn. 9. 197 m span 105 m span
The procedure is repeated until the creep strain which has occurred
during the time interval has been calculated. 3.6 Limitations of the proposed method
The rates of change of tension and of creep strain during each Eqns. 3 and 4 predict zero creep at 0C and negative creep
increment are derived from values of tension and creep strain at below this temperature, a condition that will not occur in practice.
the start of the increment. This results in a slight overestimation These predictor equations were derived by Harvey and Larson4 based
of the creep strain in the conductor. on creep tests in the temperature range 25-100C. However, allowing
(d)U, in any time interval, the temperature is different from that in for some extrapolation of the creep data to lower values, and on the
the previous interval, the tension is recalculated using eqn. 8 to basis of a large number of theoretical computations, the authors have
allow for this change. found that these equations can be used with confidence for 15C
The program can accommodate conditions that may occur during and higher temperatures.
the life of the conductor, such as pretensioning before sagging, Also, the strain-hardening-material law does not predict creep
temperature changes due to line uprating, the effect of restringing recovery, a phenomenon which was observed during the Weybrigde
after an interval of a few years in service etc. experiments (see Section 4.1). Over the relatively long service life of

PROC. IEE, Vol. 122, No. 10, OCTOBER 1975 1147

Table 2
VALUES OF CREEP CONSTANTS FOR EQNS. 3 AND 4
A.C.A.R.
Number of wires All-aluminium- (mixture of
Conductor All-aluminium aluminium &
in conductor alloy conductor A.C.S.R.
constant conductor (6201 alloy) aluminium-alloy
wires)
More than
7-5% steel of Less than
Hot Properzi total area 7-5% steel of
rolled rod total area
Hot-
rolled Properzi
rod rod
K 7 23 x 10"* 14 x 10"* 12 x 10"* (3 + 19R)x 10"* 2-4 1-4 0-24
19 22x 10"* 14X 10"*
37 21 x 10~* 13 x 10"*
61 20 x 10"* 12 X 10"*
1-3 1-3 1-3 1-3 1-3 1-3 10
<t> 1-4 1-4 1-4 1-4 00 00 10
7 016 016 0-16 016 016 016 016

a line, however, creep recovery has a negligible effect on the final
value of creep.
The authors are of the opinion that, taking into account the limi-
tations enumerated above, the accuracy of the creep predictions by
the proposed method is reasonable,-and it can be used with confidence
for most overhead-line designs.
4 Correlation between theory and experimental results
tests for the remaining three conductors. The opportunity, however,
was taken to predict the creep performance for these conductors with
the help of eqn. 4 and using the creep constants in Table 2 (a.c.s.r,
Properzi rod). It was found that a better correlation between the best-
fit field curve and the predicted curve was obtained by using slightly
different values of the constant |3 than the value of 1 -3 given in Table
2. The values of |3 actually used for predictions were: Grosbeak 1-36,
Lynx 1-42 and Gull 1-39.

4.1 Weybridge experiments

5OO
The correlation was checked by the CEGB during the period 4OO
December 1964 to December 1965 on a specially constructed, fully 3OO
instrumented field rig. This rig consisted of five level span lengths on 3OO
each of which three 'Zebra' a.c.s.r. conductors were installed. After 2OO
allowing for the erection period, the creep strain at the end of the
test period, calculated by using predictor eqn. 2, agreed with the
measured creep strain within 5% on all the conductors and on all the
spans.
With the exception of some creep recovery, particularly noticeable
in the 105 m span, during the summer, the correlation can be con-
sidered to be very good. The test results are shown in Fig. 2. Owing
to the large number of readings, approximately 800, it has not been
possible to show the points on the figure, but the scatter was about 2O0
20 mm/km. It is interesting to note that the Weybridge experiments
were carried out about seven years before the publication of the paper e
by Harvey and Larson.4
1 7O
5" 4OO
4.2 Clyde's MilHMewarthill line creep tests
u 3OO
A 2-span section of the above mentioned nonenergised
redundant line was made available by the South of Scotland Electricity 2OO
Board for creep tests. The experiments were planned with two object-
ives in mind:
(a) to obtain first-hand field measurements of creep strain for a range
of a.c.s.r. conductors installed on an actual line which did not
permit the use of sophisticated techniques of measurements
(b) to check whether a correlation existed between the measured
creep of the conductors and that estimated by the method des-
cribed in Section 3, using two types of predictor equations 2OO
developed independently by two different organisations.
The tests* commenced in May 1971 and were terminated after IOO year 2 years IO years
two years in June 1973 when the line was dismantled. The test con- _L_ A
ductors were run out and sagged by a field gang as in routine over- SOO I COO iOOOO IOOOOO
head-line construction. Periodical measurements of temperature, sag d
and end movements of the conductors were made, and from these time, h
Fig. 3
the creep strains were calculated.
In Fig. 3, the predicted and the measured creep strain for the test Results of creep tests at Newarthill
conductors are shown. The measured values during the test showed a a Zebra a.c.s.r. 54/7/3-18 stranding
higher scatter than during the Weybridge test because the accurate b Grosbeak a.c.s.r. 26/3-97 + 7/3-00 stranding
c Lynx a.c.s.r. 30/7/2-79 stranding
measuring techniques used in the latter could not be employed on a d Gull a.c.s.r. 54/7/2-82 stranding
commercial line. However, a comparison between the best-fit curve best-fit curve from field measurements
derived by a curve-fitting program and the predicted curve of creep predicted creep. Predictor eqn. 2 used for Zebra and eqn. 4 used for
remaining conductors
strain shows reasonable agreement between the predicted and measured
results, particularly for the Grosbeak a.c.s.r.
4.3 Long-term-creep assessment
For Zebra a.c.s.r., the creep constants for extruded aluminium rod
given in Table 1 were already available, and these were used with The authors have found reasonable correlation between creep
eqn. 2 to derive the predicted creep performance. estimated by their proposed method and measured creep on actual
Time did not permit the derivation of creep constants by laboratory lines for periods up to two years. There is a scarcity of accurate data

1148 PROC. IEE, Vol. 122, No. 10, OCTOBER 1975

on creep of lines, for longer-periods, but in Table'1 of,ReferenceJ,
information is given on the value of creep which occurred on a line
with Dingo a.c.s.r. for a period of nine years. Assuming that this con-
ductor was manufactured from hot-rolled aluminium rod and had a
span of 130 m, the value of creep estimated by the proposed method
was between 14 and 16C as compared with 27F (15C) actually
measured on the line.
5 Application of method to line design and sagging
procedure
5.1 Estimated increase in sag at end of service life of conductor
The above type of estimation is required frequently in over-
head-line design and operation. The data in the computer input sheet
are filled in with special attention to two stages of operation.:
(a) The treatment the conductor receives before final sagging and
landing should be given as accurately as possible. This should in-
clude the time and tension during running out, the pretensioning
time and tension and, lastly, the tension and temperature at the
time of landing. Landing is normally assumed to take place at the
average ambient temperature along the line route.
(b) The subsequent performance of the conductor. During service,
the conductor temperature will be a function of the ambient con-
ditions and the temperature rise caused by the load current. If it
is possible to obtain the hourly conductor-temperature records,
the input form can then be filled in with such data. Over a 20 year
period, the volume of such input data, however, will be too large,
and they will not, in any case, be available at the time of design of
the line. Based on a number of theoretical investigations, it is pos-
tulated that the hourly conductor temperatures in the input form
over a period can be replaced by the mean ambient temperature
of the line plus a few degrees rise to allow for heating due to the
load current over the same period. For southern England, for
example, the annual mean temperature is 15-6C, and, for a typi-
cal transmission line having an annual load factor of, say, 20%, the
allowance for load current can be, say, 2C. The conductor tem-
perature for such a line will be entered as 17-6C in the input
form. It should be emphasised here that the actual conductor
temperature at any instant can be above or below this tempera-
ture.
Fig. 4 illustrates the computer-derived data between predicted creep,
tension and sag for a Zebra cpnductor with a 366 m span for 20 years
IS ISOOO IOOO
E
creep mm/I
tension, kg
i s 3OOO
IO IOOOO IOO
5OOO IO -
time
Fig. 4
Predicted creep, tension and sag for Zebra a.c.s.r. 366 m span
AB conductor run out at 2650 kg tension for 0*5 h
CD conductor pretensioned at 8070 kg for 3 h
E conductor sagged to 3017 kg at 3-S h and 15'6C and made off. Subsequent
operational temperature assumed to be 17-6 C
erected under typical running-out and pretensioning conditions.
After sagging, the average conductor temperature during the whole
of the 20 year period was assumed to be 17-6C.
The effect of fault currents has not been considered in the above
PROG IEE, Vol. 122, No. 10, OCTOBER 1975
example. Withmodem protective gear,*the faults would-be of such
short duration that they would be unlikely to affect the conductor
creep properties.
5.2 Influence of pretension and overtension on final sag
The selection of optimum pretension and time and the de-
termination of the effect or otherwise of overtension on the final sag
of a conductor due to conductor creep are of considerable import-
ance in the design and installation of a line. Pretension means the
load at which the conductor is held, ideally at constant tension,
before final sagging and making off. Overtension means the higher
value of tension above the design tension at which the conductor is
finally landed.
The main purpose of the pretensioning regime is to reduce the rate
of creep strain during sagging and the magnitude of creep strain after
sagging. The purpose of overtensioning is simply to adopt a slightly
higher sagging tension than the design one so that, during the working
life of the conductor, creep can occur without the maximum sag
exceeding the design value.
In the general change-of-state equation, eqn. 8, the influence of
creep strain and temperature are both linear. It is therefore possible
to express creep strain by an equivalent temperature change, i.e.
e = aA6e. This concept is often used when compensation for creep
is made with the help of sag and tension charts. A typical example for
a Zebra conductor is given below. Let us say that, for a particular
condition, at the end of 10 years (87 600 h), the creep strain
e = 616 mm/km and A0e = 32C (approximately), then
(a) maximum design temperature of conductor 0 = 50C say
(b) equivalent temperature corresponding to
creep at time f(87 600 h) A0e = 32C
(c) temperature for calculating the sag at time
t and corresponding to the maximum design
temperature of the conductor, when no
pretension or overtension regimes have been
applied 0 + A0e = 82C.
Similarly, as overtension causes a change in length, it can also be ex-
pressed by an equivalent temperature change, and it is becoming
customary to do so. For example, in the case of a Zebra conductor,
Fig. 5 illustrates a typical tension/span/temperature chart. It can be
35OO
25OO
34O 35O 366 37O J8O 39O 4OO
span,m
Fig. 5
Span/tension/temperature chart for Zebra a.c.s.r. Selection of
overtension
seen that for a span of 366 m, if the temperature from an initial
value of + 16C falls to 16C, the tension, from an initial value of
2645 kg, rises to 3017 kg. This means that an overtension correspond-
ing to 32C (A0e) would require a sagging tension of the order of
3017 kg, when no further allowance would be required for creep
compensation.
In Fig. 6 the predicted value of conductor tension at its assumed
design temperature of 17-6C is shown against different combi-
nations of pretension time and overtension for an a.c.a.r. 300 mm2
conductor, 12/4-75 mm Al + 6/475 mm alloy + 1/4-75 mm Al
stranding, 183 mm span, 33 kV line. The influence of pretensioning
and overtensioning is clearly seen in the Figure. Although the actual
values will be different for different conductors and line parameters,
the creep performance of any overhead-line conductor will follow a
pattern similar to that above.
1149
5.3 Effect of overtension on the factor of safety
In some designs, the adoption of an overtension factor can
cause the tension in the conductor to exceed the specified maximum
be the possibility of the conductor exceeding it's design m.w.t. during
wind and ice conditions. A prior knowledge of the time required for
the m.w.t. to be reduced to the permissible value should help in the
construction planning to minimise subjecting the line to climatic
overloads.

5.4 Effect of normal and intermittent high temperature

operation
Occasionally, it becomes necessary to determine whether a
curves A line can be operated at a high temperature for intermittent periods
without infringing the ground clearance. This condition was theor-
S etically investigated for a 400 kV line with Zebra conductors, 366 m
|iooo span, under UK conditions. The progressive differences in sag and
creep between assumed normal and intermittent high-temperature
operations are illustrated in Fig. 8. There are many variations which

13-8
13-6
13-4
13-2
o E I3O
5 900 S 12-8
o
12 6
124
12 2
85O I2O
IO 20 3O 4O 5O 60
pretension,/o u.t.s. of conductor

Fig. 6
a.c.a.r. 300 mm2 conductor 183 m span. Tension after 20 years for 4O
various sagging regimes
- nominal design tension 942 kg at 17-6C 3O
Curves A 22C overtension
Curves B1 3C overtension
Curves C 0C overtension
Pretension times of 3, 1-5 and 0-7S h used with each set of curves 2O

working tension (m.w.t.) for a certain length of time. IO

The creep-prediction program has been designed so that the con-
ductor tension corresponding to the input data on temperature is
printed for each time interval. By calculating the m.w.t. correspond- mO""O
ing to the printout tension, and by plotting the former against time,
the period during which the tension could exceed the specified m.w.t. time
Fig. 8
is determined. Fig. 7 shows an example for a Zebra a.c.s.r. with Sag/ temperature I time relationship for Zebra a.c.s.r. conductors
366mspan
6500 h conductor A assumed intermittent high-temperature operation
conductor B assumed normal mean-temperature operation at 17-6 C

can occur in service, and each case will need to be examined separ-
ately.
6OOO
6 Economic aspects
The effect of creep is an increase in sag, which has a direct
55OO bearing on the height of towers and on the cost of a line. Alterna-
tively, resagging may be required. Fig. 9 gives an indication of the
percentage cost increase for a quad Zebra 400 kV line with 366 m
Span, if higher towers are used to maintain statutory clearance when
IO 2O sag increases due to creep.
5OOO
10 IO IO 2 I03 IO4 IO5 In the case of new projects, it would be possible to compare the
time.h increase in sag for different types of conductor materials and con-
Fig. 7 structions, and the selection of the optimum type of conductor can
Effect of pretensioning and overtensioning on maximum working be made on the basis of lowest cost. For example, it is known that
tension in time for a Zebra a.c.s.r. conductor 366 m span the increase in creep is less for a.c.s.r. conductors with higher steel
content. The economics of line design is outside the scope of this
A design nominal m.w.t. paper, but the ease with which the increase in sag due to creep strain
B 14% pretension and31-6C overtension
C Zero pretension and 31 -6C overtension can be determined by the proposed creep prediction method makes it
D 14% pretension and zero overtension a useful tool for such studies.
E Zero pretension and zero overtension

366 m span length and under UK loading conditions, pretensioned
for 1 hour at 14% u.t.s. and then sagged to 31-6C overtension.
For comparison, the variation in m.w.t. of Zebra conductors, with
various combinations of pretensioning and overtensioning, is shown
also in Fig. 7.
If an overtensioned line is erected just before winter, there could
7 Conclusions
(a) A versatile method of creep prediction, making use ot available
predictor equations, has been developed, which makes it possible
to estimate more accurately the reduction in tension and the
increase in sag due to creep of a conductor than using techniques
currently available.

1150 PROC. IEE, Vol. 122, No. 10, OCTOBER 1975

(b) The optimum sagging procedure for a line can be determined for (d) Determination of creep constants by further laboratory tests
specific conditions of application, taking into account various should be undertaken to improve the accuracy of predictions and
combinations of conductor pretension and overtension. to determine the effect of manufacturing processes on the creep
performance of conductors.
(e) More investigations should be carried out to establish the relation-
ship between the mean temperature and the temperature cycle
t>l 0 that a conductor is subjected to in service.
E
sag

8 8 Acknowledgment
60 16 Acknowledgment is made to the UK Central Electricity
Generating Board for permission to use the data and information on
creep investigations carried out by the Central Electricity Research
50 IS Laboratories at Leatherhead. Acknowledgment is due to the Director
of Engineering, South of Scotland Electricity Board for providing
4O 14
facilities for creep trials on the Newarthill-Clyde's Mill 132 kV line
and for the participation of the Board's personnel in the trials.
Acknowledgment is also due to the Southern Electricity Board for
3O 13 their participation on certain aspects of optimising sagging procedure
for their 11 kV and 33 kV lines. Finally, acknowledgment is made to
the management of B1CC and Balfour Beatty for their permission to
2O 12
/ publish the paper.

IO II 9 References
/
1 'A practical method of conductor creep determination', report prepared by
CIGRE Study Committee 22, Working Group 05, Electro, 1972, (24), pp.
O 10 /
O 5O IOO 105-13.7, and Erratum, ibid., 1973, (29), pp. 64-65
equivalent creep temperature, degC 2 BRADBURY, J., and VAUGHAN, D.W.: 'Creep of steel-cored aluminium
conductors' in 'Progress in overhead lines and cables for 220 kV and above'.
Fig. 9 IEEConf. Publ. 44, 1968, pp. 78-82
Increase in sag and cost of 400 k V quad Zebra a.c.s.r. conductor line 3 PHILLIPS, G.H.: 'How to gauge effect of creep', Electr. World, 9th March
with creep. Maximum conductor temperature 50 C and span of 366 m 1959,pp. 56-58
4 HARVEY, J.R., and LARSON, R.E.: 'Creep equations of conductors for
cost increase, - sag sag-tension calculations'. Proceedings of the IEEE Winter Meeting, 1972,
pp. 1-9
5 FINNIE, I., and HELL1ER, W.R.: 'Creep of engineering materials'
(c) By the application of this method, greater reliability is obtained in (McGraw-Hill)
the assessment of prospective line designs, the permissible current 6 PICKUP.K.H.: 'Final report of creep tests on South of Scotland
loadings and the maintenance of statutory limits on ground clear- Electricity Board's Clyde's Mill-Newarthill 132 kV line'. BICC, WMD
ance and factors of safety. Report WM/F/576, Feb. 1974

Correspondence
CHOKE- CAPACITOR HYBRID AS A FLUORESCENT- Prototype unit
LAMP BALLAST To obtain an approximate design, the fluorescent tube was
assumed to act as a resistor. A 1 -5 m, 65/80 W tube consumed 0-48 A
Indexing terms: Capacitors, Coils, Fluorescent lamps, Starting at 110 V r.m.s. in its normal circuit: It was therefore assumed to have
a resistance of 126 2. To obtain the required 110 V output voltage
Abstract from the hybrid with this load resistance, the formula Vo/Vj =
R/2OJ0L (from the hybrid theory) was used. V-, and CJ0 are specified
A single component can replace the choke, capacitor and starter by the 240 V, 50 Hz mains supply. The single-plate inductance L was
device conventionally used to control a fluorescent-lamp tube. thus 0-35 H. To ensure phase correction of the mains current, the
Recent findings with an experimental hybrid ballast unit are hybrid was designed to resonate at the mains frequency using the
reported and discussed. Possible ways to substantially reduce formula w 0 = l/y/(LC). Thus the hybrid capacitance was 25 juF.
the cost of the tube control equipment are suggested in the light Fig. 1 shows a unit constructed. The winding used aluminium capaci-
of the theory of the unit. tor foil and polypropylene dielectric film. It was heat shrunk in an
oven to minimise the amount of air trapped in the windings.
Using an oscilloscope, it was found that at the start of each tube
Introduction current cycle the output voltage of the hybrid (i.e. the tube voltage)
begins to form an amplified sine wave, but, when the striking voltage
In a common conventional fluorescent-lamp circuit, a ballast of the lamp is reached, the voltage falls. The tube and supply currents
choke in series with the tube limits the current flowing, a capacitor show peaks as the capacitance discharges. The mains current is very
across the supply corrects the phase of the current drawn and a starter roughly sinusoidal and its harmonic content appears to be no greater
unit connected across the tube helps initiate the gas discharge when than in the case of a conventional circuit. Also, a reasonable degree of
the light is switched on by causing cathode filaments to heat. Stickley1 phase correction is obtained.
patented the idea of manufacturing the choke and capacitor as one
unit, stating that this does not affect the action of the starter. This Discussion of unit constructed
idea has been re-examined by the author and it was found that the
unit not only ballasts the lamp with phase correction, but also causes The unit of Fig. 1 weighs 2-6 kg, while a typical conventional
it to ignite, thus eliminating the starter component. choke weighs 1 -9 kg. However, the hybrid design procedure used gives
The unit described by Stickley is not, in fact, simply a multisection the required L and C values only to a first approximation, and these
(two components wound in one process), but is a hybrid, whose parameters are not achieved in the most efficient way by the proto-
properties are determined by capacitive and inductive mechanisms type construction used.
acting at once. The hybrid has been analysed and it is hoped that A more efficient design would require a mathematical model of the
details will be published shortly. It has a self-resonant frequency, at fluorescent tube, or, alternatively, could be approached experi-
which it has a load-dependent voltage gain. If the tube is not ignited, mentally.
the gain is high, and high voltage is applied which starts the gas dis- The life of the popular hot-cathode type of tube is likely to be
charge. The gain then drops to a value consistent with the new load. shortened by the application of a striking voltage every halfcycle.
The hybrid thus performs all the functions of a control circuit. For However, the voltage peak varied considerably with two different
conventional circuits, see Elenbaas.2 prototype designs, and might not occur at all with some designs. The

PROC. IEE, Vol. 122, No. 10, OCTOBER 1975 1151