,ffim

Chapter 4
i@hnqii

The Loploce Tronsform

4.1 INTRODUCTION
I Several techniques used in solving engineering problems are based on
of- functions of a real variable (usually ti*" o" aisiance; by certain frequencyreplacement
the
t,
I dependent
representations, or by functions of a complex variable dependent
,po^r, fr"qu"rr"y. A
i
I

typical example is the use of Fourier series to solve certain electrieal problems.
problem consists of finding the current in some part one such
of a linear electrical network in which
the input voltage is a periodic or repeating waveform. The periodic voltage ,rruy rHl
n*
replaced by its Fourier series representation, and the current produced The.
by each term of
the series can then be determined. The total current is the sum of the :t!mI
individual currenh
(zuperposition). This technique often results in a substantial savings
effort.
in computational
don
A transformation technique relatin8 time functions to frequency dependent gmtet
of a complex variable is presented in the next few sections of tt is- chapter. rt functions
is calletl
!\" Lo'ptore transform. The application of this mathematical transformation to solving:
linear constant coefficient differential equations is discussed i"-;h;-;;;;;ing
sections"
and provides the basis for the analysis and design techniques developed
chapters.
in subsequent

4.2 THE LAPLACE TRANSFORM

Il is sr
The Laplace transform is defined in the foilowing manner: llt
t.d.
,mffrrrple 1
Definition 4.Iz Letf(t)bearealfunctionof arealvariabletdefinedfort)0. Then @esentr

4-V0l = r(s) = I,''ttl"-"tdt. : f,ir{D"-"0t,

tj..fi o<.< r SO}TI
5he La
is called the Laplace transform of f (t). s is a complex variable deflned
m*ed ad
s = o*X,, wher o afld o are real variables* and
i =r1_1. are:
. Note that the lower limit on the integral is f = e ) 0. This definition of the lower u
is sometimes useful in dealing with functions which
The La
;
erplicit use is made of this limit, it will be abbreviated f lim e 0+, as t=0. W
are discontinuous at domai
= Laplace
in the integral on the right. = shown
+o :nansfor
The real variable f always denotes time.
Tne invr
* The real part o of a complex variable s is often written as fresdo
part Re(s) (the real part of s) and tr*. lr**i"ro 'rrFgrsg
<o as Im(s) (the imaginary part of s). Parentheses u"u piu""d around s only when there is r
possibility of confusion. tbe inve
ennstant
56
 =--/ -<\

rLdP.4l
THE LAPLACE TRANSFORM
57
Mcfr.nition 4"2: It f(t) is defined and single-valued
vergent for some real number for f )0 and rv'(") is absolutely
oo, that is, con_

)ter 4
/t@
7tT
I
uo* ttoY e-oot d't *@, ,0(u(?
then f (t) is Laplace transformable
for Re(s) ) oo.
thnple 4.1.
f-he function e-r is Laplace transformable
since

f,i'"-'t e-cot dt =
^6
| e-{l+ofit 47 =
4 --ao)U
a-
or oo) -1.
JL
0' r+;; '-<r+oort/*
1
l+on - -*
Srmmple 4.2.

re replacement ihe Laplace transform of e-r is

ncy dependent
frequency. A < [r-r] = I "- 'e-st dt = -1 lo
uo* GTT e-r"+t)tfo+ = s.h for Re(s) > -1
ms. One such
work in which 4.T TEE INVERSE LAPLACE
,ltage may be TRANSFORM
each term of The Laplace transform transforms
rffie eomprex variabre a problem from the.real variable
idual currents
" d";;i;."^;;""
dnu;aed in terms o.1 s'-i,ris
time domain into
a sorution oi-tr,.-t""rrsformed probrem
computational t"t"r*"u
,o "inverti ii,i.'i*""torm in ord"" has been
to
lent functions
ffi*",T3'*;:;i::":;,"'!;,,;y";;^tion rrom ir'.^"i"*"in into the r dornainobtain the
is carred
. It is called
on to solving
ning sections,
in subsequent

0. Then

0(e(?
rle defined

e lower limi The Laplace transform is a linear

transformation between
t=0. When r domain and function. a"nnJ ir,'d;',
domain. T;;l ;, if-functions defined in the
shown I;place transforms /, (t) unA F,(s) and F,o(s) are the
'ilii;;'r,
f, ia, th;;, r,1r; + ar1r(s) i. tir" Laplace
=ansform of arf 1(t) +'ir'f ,e),
.?f
"".o"ctively,
and. a, uru u*6it"ury
constants.
The inverse Laplace transform
is a lineur transform,ation between
lres domain and functionsa"n*ji"'ilrg functions
the imaginarp "Fr-erse Laprace r a#"ir."-tir"ii*, it fr(t) and defined in
Len there is r"un:l:"ry ;;;riri;iq
q,r,,
Laprace transrorm oi'-'a,1",1r)it,;;(;";;"J"" g,f_,(t)
f,(t)are the
+.oi,f ,(t) is
"urp."]ii.rJ,, fhen
nm::r b, and b, arearbitrary
58 TIIE LAPLACE TRANSFORM ICIIA?

3. The Laplace transform of the d'eri'uatiue ctf /d't af a function /(t) whose Laplace tran'
form is F(s) is
{.vlf /d,t1 = sr(s) - l(0+)
where l(0+) is the initial value of /(t), evaluatecl as the one-sided limit of /(f) as '

approaches zero from positive values.

A. The Laplace transform of the i,ntegral rfts f{,)U, of a function l(t) whose Lapla''
it""ti"t* is F(s) is
<[J'rt'lo'] : ry
The initial value l(0+) of the function /(t) rvhose Laplace transform is F(s) is
l(0*) = t,tU fiil : lim sr'(s) t > 0
This relation is called the Initi'al Value Thearem'

b. The final value l("o1 of the function /(f) whose Laplace transform is F(s) is
/(*) : lim /(t) = lim s F(.s)
it ]g l(f) exists. This relation is called Lhe Finit'I VaLwe TheaTe'm.

7. The Laplace transforrn of a functian f (tla) (Ti'me Scali'ng) is

Alf(t/a)) = aF(as)
where F(s) = {tl(f)1.
The inverse Laplace transfornn of the function F(s/u) (Frequency Scali'ng) is
"t*1[F(sic')] = af(at\
where "(-'[F(s)] = l(f).

9. The Laplaee transform of the function f(t-ry {Tima Delag) where T>0 a:i i,,,llti;.n I r l-!.

f(t-T) = 0 for t<T, is

{ [/(f - r)] = ,-"r P'(.e)
-"vhere F(s) : {tf(r)1.
ttttl;'":l -=j j

!,,,,,,i;ii.* : a

10. The Laplace transform of the function e-* f (t) is given by ui

4le-*f{t)) = F(s+o) , rllili'

where F(s) = 4 tl(41. (Compter Translati'onJ

The Laplaee transforrn of the prod,uct of two funct'ions lr(t) and lr(t)
is given bJ :lr
11.
complen conu oluti.on i'nteg ral
{ [/,(4'1,(01 = * [""r,:** F,(') F,(s - u'] d'u'
where F,(s) = "C [/,(t)], F2(s) = { llr(,)1.
Fr(s) and F
'!o The inverse Laplace transforrn of the prad,ztct of ihe two tra'nsforms
i

is given by the conaoltttion i'ntegrals

tr-, ir,(s).F,(s)l = {- t,,', l,(t*,) d", = r,'* r,r, f,(t- ")
d''
 IcIIA. THE LAPLACE TRANSFORM 59

r Laplace ira:., :ere "(-'[f',(s)] = fr(t), "(-'[F'r(s)] : fr(t).

mit of l(f) a.
'= Laplace transforms of the functions e-t and e-2t are .(Le-'l =;+l , "(.le-zt1= +r. rhen

3 1 2s*5
{.lBe-t - n-,tl = 3"( l-l - {-le*zt1 = s*1 st2 s2*3s*2
whose Lapia
.; :.:: :. = 1.{,
I -- .nverse Laplace transforms of the functio"* und -l= ar"
fr
--' [#] = -'I, *-'[rt. r] = s-Bt
F(s) is ' : .' Property 2,

,-,f , -+=f
d\ = r*-,[-rl_ A{-tt_+l
'{ -Ls+1_.1 - e<'1"+"_, = ze-t_Ae-Bt
ls+1 s+B_.1
l.;.::. :.. 1,5,
1". Laplace transform of
ftrc-'| can be determined by application of Property 3. Since { le-t) :
f(s) is
lim e-t = 1,
e:d t*0 then
fa,..l = lr \
{[artr-'i1 -1
=,+1
"(r+17-t
..-:= J.6.
l-.= Laplace transform of f" e-'a, can be determined by application of Property 4. Since
1 ., ''/o
t___l--;, then
= 5-rl

"U,'"-.0,1
= :("+-) : ,G+T
iiiig) is :.,;"n:,e {.7.
l:= Laplace transform of e-st is 4.le-tt1 = The initial value of e-lt ean be determined
#=.
' :, initial Value Theorem as jim fi- , 1-l-\
l+0 "-r, - s+@ \s+3/
= f .

'rere T>0 e: -*.r:-e 1.8.

1
l:.= Laplace transform of the function (1 -e-t1 is The final value of this function can be
,r,,:::-..-*.ed from the Final Value Theorem as lim(1 "1raX. lim,j..
,+6 -e-t)= s+0 s(s + l) =1.
i,::r:le 4.9.
l:--. Laplace transform of e-t i. j-.
s+r of e-ht can be determined by
The Laplace transform
: .;:-on of Property ? (Time Scaling), where o=*: {.le-st1 = +[--1:1 : -+-.
Lt*"+r11 s*3'
r,.;r

1.10.
;t is given bY '-: | inverse transform is e-t. The inverse transform
"f +*F 1 can be determined by
:.=
"f #
:rn of Property 8 (Frequency Scaling): "(-1 = gs-Bt
LF+l
1.11.

=] . .
Laplace transform of the functi on e-t ir The Laplace transform of the function d.efined as

is F,(s) ancl F. l"-tt-zt t>z

fft) :
L o t42
t-) d', rL: ,,. ietermined by Property 9, with ?=2: {ti(D] = 6*2s. <1"-tJ =
#.
 THE LAPLACE TRANSFORM fcHAr

Exarnple 4.12.
t ir s-+r., . The Laplace transform of
The Lapiace transform of cos e-zt cos t can be determir.
=* s*2 * s*2
fromPropertyl0witha=2: 4le-ztcost] -- (s+Z;211 s2*4s*5'
iNiu

Example 4.13.

The Laplace transform of the product e-2t cos t can be determined by application of Propert-v
(Complex Convolution). That
+" and { lcos rl : p+ 1, then
- /'c+,*( s*2
4 [e-zr cos 11 = J. I " \,1 1 \r,., ** :
Zoj J,,;* \"2 -l- 1/\s - a * 2rt s2 * 4s * 5

The details of this contour integration are not carried out here because they are too complicated is.;
for example, Reference l5]) and unnecessaxy. The Laplace transform of e-2t cos f was very sim;
fletermined in Example 4.12 using Property 10. There are, however, many instances in nlore advanc.
treatments of automatic control in which complex convolution can be used effectively.

Example 4.14"

The inverse Laplace transform of the function F(s) = GT|G4T can be determined by ap!
cation of Property 12. Since --'[#] = e-t and J : cos i, then
"-'[o-t.
*uu .l

ll:1"
,-, [/ 1 \/ ' \l
o-l\i*t/\i:+t/_l f' o-,,-,,cosr
= Jo*' dr ft e, cosr dr :
= n-,Jo+ f(cos t * sin f - e-r)

4.5 SHORT TABI,E OF LAPLACE TRANSFORMS

The following is a short table of Laplace transforms. It is not complete, but wh.:
used in conjunction with the properties of the Laplace transform described in Section i +

and the partial fraction expansion techniques described in Section 4.7, it is adequate :
handle all of the problerns in this book. A more compleie table of Laplace transform pa-:i
is found in the ApPendix.

TABTE 4.I

Time Function Laplace Transform

Unit Irnpulse 3(r) 't

Unit Step u'(t\ 1/s

Unit Ramp t llsz

Polynomial tn n!/8n+t
1
Exponential e-at
"+" ,., :_:
o
Sine Wave sin rol T+,r,
Cosine Wave cos ol ;t+ d,
6
Damped Sine Wave e-ot sin ot
C+8 + ",
s*o
Damped Cosine Wave e-ot cos of
G+aP +.F
 , CI{AF. I :

DNJ

Appendix
n Exanlpl.

SOME TAPTACE TRANSFORNA PAIRS USEFUL

FOR CONTROT SYSTEMS ANATYSIS

y?- r r)-
/
= r(s) f(t) ,>0
1 6 (r) unit impulse

e-T" 6(' - ?) delayed impulse

OS"VK_1 1
e- at
s*o
1
tn-r e-a' n = 1,2,3,
(s * o)a itJil .

1
G+ dG+-tt fno-* - e-bt)
s
ts+o)is+b) ;\(ae-at - be-at)
I value of
slz qe-at1
G + f;f" - ale-at - (z -
"FTT'
1 e-ot _L e-bt e-"t_
(s*a)(s*b)(s*c) (b-al(c-a\' - _ __ _
(c-bXc-b)' (a- cl(b- c't
damping
t optimalt
s*z (z - a)e-at (z::9t-"r*
G+ (b-al(c-a\ + + (a- c)(b -- c\
")G+T)(8TA
6
sr+o, sin cuf

a
;t+ c,t
cos rot

s*z t.2rJ
sr+6, (of * o) 6 = 1a1-t (o/z)
{:*sin
he point
s sin O +_o cos O
s2*o2 sin (<ot * o)

1 1
(s*o)2arz e-ot sin orl

361
362 APPENDIX

f(t') t>0
!-s-lont sin oraf ,o = tn\/TlP

tT;- aY + ",
e-aa gin (ot* 6) /=tan-l /')
!O \a - a/

]tt - r-t"1 u(tl - u(t- T)

1. Zadeh
McGr
I /. be-at ae-bt\
ob\- b-a'b-"/
Hartli
( the Li
+
ao\ " -
b(z - a)e-at -L
o(z - A)e-bs \
b-a b-o /
Bliss,
Soc. A

Reiehr
1Vq6t (o,t * c) p :- tan-r (olz) (Germ
!-7-.ot
McLa<
11 e- ront sin (oat* Unive:
-z- - 1-i.
1
6)
sls, + 2f"; +;il ,
% .nn@d

,a= rnlTip g = cos-rf Churc.

New I
hrr- e-at - ate-at)
7. Desoer
on Cir
iV - ze"at * a.(a- z)te-atl
8. Spiege

unit ramp o Krall,

Soeietl
pp. 64,
$ur-t* e-at)

10. Elgerd
.,,
n = 1,2,8,
#h o!= Zero L
actions
8.2 TABLE OF Z-TRANSFORMS
f(s) is the Laplace transform of /(t) and F(z) is the z-transform of f (nT). Unless otherwise noted, f (t):
0,,<0andtheregionofcon*rerglnceoff(z)isoutsideacircler<lzlsuchthatallpolesofF(z)areinside
r.

Table B.2
N,r*b"" ,tG) f@T) F(t)
1- 1, n:0; 0n I 0 1

2- !,n:ki0nlk z-k
z
1
3- I(nr)
s
I "-1Tz
4" s'
nT
GT*L)
Tz z(z
5" 1
Ltn.r\'
2l' T(;8*
T3 z(22 4z + r)
6- 1

.94
lrr,.r)t
DI \ a-l;ry-
.. (-l)*-1 a*-1
1 .. (-1;--t u--' -anT z
7- cm J'* -,-- aot'*le JIt 1t" - ry aa'"-;- -n
1
z
..---.-.-----=
8- s*o "-anT z - e-ot
Tze-oT
o- 1

(s * o)'
ny"-anT
T;;aV
72
.----=
1 I 1ry1z"-onr ^z(z+e-"r\
10 (s * a)" 2' 2" (z-e-"r12
1 (-1)--t o*-' ,^-anT\ 1_11m-t 5n-L z
11 Ln A6"'-t\e )
(rn-1)! \a*-rz-e-oT
(s * o)m 0"
a z(! - e-"'1:)
12 1 - "-anT l- - 1 'r/ : - F-oj
- s/.s -.- al

Number F(") f @f) F(z\

134 I zl(aT - I + e-ar)z + (I - e-"r - afe-"r)l
t4
s2(s f
b-a
o) ;(anT-l+e-ant)
(e-"nr - u-bnT:,
(e-"r _ e-br)z
W
GlaG]D G_tfrW_"_q
s e-"r (t +
l5 (I - anT)e-""r z[z - aT)]
G +;P
t Q - e-ar1z
a-
16 t- (I * anT) z[z(l - e-"7 - aTe-"T) + - e-oT + aTe-"l't
;G+;F "-anr "-2aT
T7

1ga
- a)s
GTAGTE
s2+a2
(b
6"-bnT _ O"-anT

sinanT
w
z[z(b

7=0"*6,
- a)

z sinaT
- (6s-"r - o"-u')]

+r
19 -+--
s-+a. cosanT z(z
- cosaT)
z2-(2cosaT)zIl
20 s*a z(z - e-"T cosbT)
e-onT cosbnT
(s+a)2+b2 t2 - 2"-aT (cosbT)z -'t,
2r e-"nTsinbnT ze-"T sinbT "-2aT
(s+a)2+b2 z2 - 2e-aT (cosbT)z 1 s-2aT
a2 +b2
22 1 - "-anr (cosbnT + f sin Anr)
z(Az + B)
s((s+a)2+b2) (z - 1)(22 - ,"-a7: (cosbT)z +
"-zar)
A : L -e-o?cos U, - e-orsinbT
;
3 - r-2oT' 9 r-or ri, bT - e-or cosbT