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Objectives:
1. To state the different hypotheses explaining the origin of the universe
2. To describe the different hypotheses explaining the origin of the solar system
3. To explain the current advancements/ discoveries on the solar system
4. To recognize the uniqueness of the earth, being the only planet in the solar system with
properties necessary to support life
5. To describe the four subsystem of the earth
6. To identify and describe the layers of the earth
Universe is an all space-time, matter and energy including the solar system, all stars
and galaxies and content of intergalactic space, regarded as a whole. There are three
various theories explaining the origin of the universe;
Steady State Theory. It states that the counting of the galaxies in our Universe is constant
and new galaxies which are forming continuously are filling the empty spaces which are
created by those heavenly bodies which have crossed the boundary lines of observable
Universe. This theory proposes that the overall structure of the universe is always the same
at any point in time and space. This structure is maintained even when certain events, such
as birth of new stars, occur. It is balanced by the death of old stars.
Pulsating Theory: In this theory it is assumed that there is continuous expansion and
contraction in universe. It proposes that the universe will keep expanding more and more
then slowly it stop. Then it will start to contract due to gravitation. This contraction will
continue until the universe become more compact and will later explode and expand again.
Big Bang Theory: It proposes that the entire universe was once condensed in a very small
and compact particle called primeval nucleus. It is estimated that about 20 billion years ago,
primeval nucleus suddenly exploded in a big bang. The force of this explosion caused
matter to scatter in any direction forming a universe.
SOLAR SYSTEM
Just a part of the vast universe is our solar system. It is located somewhere in Milky
Way Galaxy. It consists of the sun being at the center, minor and major planets and other
celestial bodies like satellites, comets, asteroids and meteoroids.
Study questions:
1. What are the major theories pertaining to the nature of expanding galaxy?
Explain each.
2. Why do some scientists believe that the universe is expanding?
3. What are the major theories about the origin of the solar system? Explain
each.
4. How is space exploration benefits mankind?
Earth is the only planet in the solar system capable of supporting life. Complex and
brilliant combination of gases, composition and structure of earth are some of the reasons why
it can sustain life.
EARTH SUBSYSTEM
Earth is a very complex place. The earth consists of four distinct yet connected spheres.
All of the processes on Earth are driven by four spheres, which we describe individually,
but are really all connected.
GEOSPHERE
The Geosphere describes all of the rocks, minerals and ground that are found on and in
Earth. This includes all of the mountains on the surface, as well as all of the liquid rock in the
mantle below us and the minerals and metals of the outer and inner cores. The continents, the
ocean floor, all of the rocks on the surface, and all of the sand in the deserts are all considered
part of the geosphere. Basically, if it looks like solid ground, it's part of the 'ground' sphere.
HYDROSPHERE
Planet Earth has been called the "Blue Planet" due to the abundant water on its surface
Over 70 percent of the surface area of the earth is covered by water. All the earths water, solid
or in liquid form, those that are contained in glaciers, rocks, soil and the air, comprise the earths
hydrosphere.
SOURCES OF WATER
Ocean. A big portion of earths water is found in ocean. The oceans cover more than 70 percent
of the Earth's surface and contain 97 percent of the Earth's water. If the ocean's total salt
content were dried, it would cover the continents to a depth of 5 feet.
Together with the atmosphere, oceans regulate global temperatures, shape weather and
climate patterns, and cycle elements through the biosphere.
INLAND WATERS
Household, commercial and agricultural water supply mainly come from inland
bodies of water. Two major inland waters are described below.
1. Rivers
A volume of a fresh flowing water across the surface of the land usually to the
sea. Rivers flow in channels.
2. Lakes
A reservoir of relatively still water that is surrounded by land. It is formed
from the accumulation of large amounts of water in natural or artificial
depressions on the surface of the land. Other inland waters include ponds,
spring, stream, wetlands, floodplains and reservoirs.
GROUNDWATER
It is the water found underground in the cracks and spaces in soil, sand and rock. It is
stored in and moves slowly through geologic formations of soil, sand and rocks called aquifers.
It results from the accumulation of water penetrating through small openings called pores in the
rocks or soil. This process is known as percolation.
Groundwater supplies drinking water, used for irrigation to grow crops and an important
component in many industrial processes.
Sun heats water causing the water to evaporate. Rising air currents take the water vapor
up in the atmosphere. The vapor rises into the air where cooler temperatures cause it
to condense into clouds.
Air currents move the cloud. Cloud particles collide, grow, and fall out of the sky
as precipitation. Most of the precipitation return to the oceans.
ATMOSPHERE
A very huge envelope of air that
surrounds the earth and pulled by the
gravitational force of the earth is called
atmosphere. The earths atmosphere is
primarily composed of 78 percent
nitrogen and 21 percent of oxygen.
Other gases like argon, carbon dioxide,
carbon monoxide, ozone, hydrogen,
helium and other inert gases make up the
remaining 1 percent.
The earths atmosphere is made up of different layers as shown in the table below.
BIOSPHERE
The biosphere is where all forms of life exist. Since life exist in the air, in water and on
the ground, its boundaries overlap other sphere because life can be found everywhere on
earth. The biosphere is sometimes thought of as one large ecosystem a complex community
of living and nonliving things functioning as a single unit.
Crust
The crust is the outermost part of the earth and is very thin compared to the other layers.
It is a part where the living organisms dwell in. It forms a very thin continuous layer that extends
underneath the ocean and continents.
2 KINDS of CRUST
1. Continental crust is mostly composed of different types of granites. Geologists often refer to
the rocks of the continental crust as sial which stands for silicate and aluminum, the most
abundant minerals in continental crust.
Cratons are the oldest and most stable part of the continental lithosphere and are found
deep in the interior of most continents.
2. Oceanic crust is mostly composed of different types of basalts. Rocks of the oceanic crust
are referred to as sima which stands for silicate and magnesium, the most abundant minerals
in oceanic crust.
The Mantle
It is the mostly-solid bulk of Earths interior. The mantle lies between Earths dense,
super heated core and its thin outer layer, the crust. It is made up of silicates, magnesium oxide,
iron, aluminum, calcium, sodium, and potassium. The mantle is divided into two layers: the
upper mantle and the lower mantle.
Mantle Plumes
A mantle plume is an upwelling of superheated rock from the mantle. Mantle plumes are
the likely cause of hot spots, volcanic regions not created by plate tectonics.
The Core
It is the dense center and hottest part of earth. The core is made almost entirely of iron
and nickel.
The Gutenberg discontinuity is the boundary between the core and the mantle.
The core is made of two layers:
a) Outer Core - borders the mantle. Bullen discontinuity is the hottest part of the
core.
b) Inner Core- is a hot, dense ball of iron. The temperature of the inner core is
far above the melting point of iron.
Bullen discontinuity is the boundary separating these two layers.
Earths Magnetic Field
Earths magnetic field protects the planet from the charged particles of the solar wind.
Without the shield of the magnetic field, the solar wind would strip Earths atmosphere of
the ozone layer that protects life from harmful ultraviolet radiation.
CHAPTER TEST:
Read each questions carefully. Write the letter of the correct answer in the blank.
__1. In what sphere of the earth are the rocks and minerals found?
a. Atmosphere c. Hydrosphere
b. Biosphere d. Geosphere
__2 What parts of the earth make up the hydrosphere?
a. Glaciers c. seawater and inland water
b. Groundwater d. All of the above
__3. What part of Earth's spheres is composed of a mixture of gases?
a. Atmosphere c. Geosphere
b. Biosphere d. Hydrosphere
__4. Why only few lives exist below bathypelagic zone?
a. No sunlight penetrates on this zone
b. Water is very cold
c. Water pressure is very high
d. All of these
__5. When is the accumulated pile of snow become glaciers?
a. When it undergo cementation and compaction
b. Upon reaching a certain mass and acted upon by gravity
c. When it piled up in huge amount and solidify
d. When the temperature dropped very low
__6. Earths atmosphere is consists mostly of what gas?
a. CO2 b. He c. N2 d. O2
__7. In the troposphere, as the altitude rise, what happen to the temperature?
a. decreases b. increases c. constant d. extremely hot
__8. In what layer of the atmosphere, many satellites orbit?
a. exosphere b. troposphere c. mesosphere d. stratosphere
__9. What is the largest part of the earth?
a. Biosphere b. Geosphere c. Atmosphere d. Hydrosphere
__10. What is the importance of magnetic field?
a. It protects the earth from the solar wind.
b. It keeps our planet in orbit.
c. It protects us from harmful UV rays.
d. It gives us many minerals.
Objectives:
1. To identify common rock-forming minerals using their physical and chemical
properties
2. To classify rocks into igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic
Rocks
Rock or stone is a naturally occurring solid aggregate of one or more minerals.
The Earth's outer solid layer, the lithosphere, is made of rock.
The types and abundance of minerals in a rock are deter-mined by the manner in which the
rock was formed. Many rocks contain silica (SiO2); a compound of silicon and oxygen that forms
74.3% of the Earth's crust. This material forms crystals with other compounds in the rock.
2. Metamorphic: Metamorphic rocks form when existing rocks are subjected to intense
heat and pressure, usually deep below the earth's surface. These conditions change
the original minerals of the rock into new minerals.
3. Sedimentary:
Sedimentary rocks are either detrital or chemical.
a. Detrital rocks are formed by the compaction of separate particles, or
sediments, into a rock.
b. Chemical sedimentary rocks form from minerals that have been
dissolved in water and precipitate out, forming a solid rock.
Geologists describe sedimentary rocks according to the size and shape of the particles
in them or their mineral composition (in the case of chemical
sedimentary rocks).
Rock Cycle
The rocks of earth's crust are constantly being
recycled and changed into new forms through geologic
processes. This continual transformation of rocks from one
type to another is called the rock cycle.
Rock Cycle
How rock type can be changed? Oxygen (O) 46.6%
Rock can be changed through the
Silicon (Si) 27.7%
processes of weathering, heating, melting,
cooling, and compaction. Any one rock type can Aluminum (Al) 8.1%
be changed into a different rock type as its Iron (Fe) 5.0%
chemical composition and physical characteristics Calcium (Ca) 3.6%
are transformed. Sodium (Na) 2.8%
The minerals and metals found in rocks Potassium (K) 2.6%
have been essential to human civilization. Magnesium (Mg) 2.1%
Minerals
Minerals are the fundamental components of rocks.
They are naturally occurring inorganic substances with a specific chemical
composition and an orderly repeating atomic structure that defines a crystal
structure.
Silicate minerals are the most abundant components of rocks on the Earth's surface,
making up over 90% by mass of the Earth's crust.
The common non-silicate minerals, which constitute less than 10% of the Earth's
crust, include carbonates, oxides, sulfides, phosphates and salts. A few elements
may occur in pure form. These include gold, silver, copper, bismuth, arsenic, lead,
tellurium and carbon.
Although 92 naturally occurring elements exist in nature, only eight of these are common
in the rocks of the Earth's crust. Together, these eight elements make up more than 98%
of the crust (Table 1).
Study Questions:
1. What are the physical properties of minerals ?
2. How are rocks classified ?
3. Describe how the following rocks are formed.
a. igneous rock
b. sedimentary rock
c. metamorphic rock