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Trans IChemE, Vol. 76, Part A, July 1998

VERTICAL TWO-PHASE FLOW

Part III: Pressure Drop
P. L. SPEDDING (FELLOW), G. S. WOODS (GRADUATE), R. S. RAGHUNATHAN and J. K. WATTERSON
Department of Aeronautical Engineering, The Queen’ s University of Belfast, Belfast, UK

D
ata are presented on the total two-phase pressure drop for air-water vertical ¯ ow in a
0.026 m i.d. pipe. The data exhibit a maximum value, at the end of the churn ¯ ow
regime, set between two minima at the end of the slug and annular ripple regimes
respectively. There was a noticeable diameter effect. It was possible to explain the form of the
pressure loss data qualitatively. In the slug and allied regimes the rising gas bubble carried a
pocket of liquid in its wake resulting in a reduction in the ¯ uid head.
None of the current theories of pressure loss prediction proved to be useful. However, it was
possible to predict bubble ¯ ow at low gas rates and annular droplet ¯ ow at high gas rates.
Keywords: vertical; two-phase; pressure drop; prediction; up lift pressure

INTRODUCTION speci® c model for pressure drop estimation in vertical two-

Many studies have been carried out on the pressure drop in
vertical 1 90° two-phase gas-liquid ¯ ow. Table 1 details the
major literature on the subject. Not all the data has proven to
be reliable mainly because of the inclusion of entrance and
exit effects into the measurements. Calvert and Williams5
showed the expected effect on the measurement of pressure
drop if either the design of, or the operation of, the apparatus
did not eliminate such end effects. In addition, Hewitt et
al.23,52± 54 and Woods and Spedding55 showed that the method
used to premix the phases can exacerbate the problem. Thus
there exists a need to evaluate the data (e.g. in Table 1) to
ensure that the measured pressure drop truly conformed to
the straight pipe geometry.
Spedding and Ferguson56 have shown that prediction of
pressure drop for horizontal ¯ ow was ¯ ow regime
dependent with either the Olujic57 model or the Spedding
and Hand58 model achieving reliable prediction across the
entire ¯ ow regime range. In general, gravity, can be expected
to have a more pronounced effect on pressure drop in vertical
¯ ow. It is therefore highly unlikely that one model will be
able to predict pressure drop over the whole range of vertical
¯ ows despite the fact that many workers have attempted to do
so1,7±11,13,14,17,18,25,28±31,34,36,42±44,46,48±51,59,60 . Other workers have,
by contrast, developed pressure prediction models dependent
on ¯ ow regimes2,5,7,12,16,19±24,27,32,33,35,37,39,47,58±61 . The three most
widely recommended methods of vertical pressure loss
prediction are:
(a) The general method of Hagedorn and Brown29±31 ,
recommended by Gould44 , Abdul-Majeed et al.46 and
Aggour et al.51 .
(b) The models of Beggs and Brill62 recommended by
Aggour et al.51 .
(c) The four regime dependent model or Orkiszewski35
recommended by De Gance and Atherton63 and Mata
Iturbe64 .
More recently Holt et al.65 have developed a ¯ ow pattern
phase ¯ ow using a number of theories to estimate the
component of acceleration, gravitational and frictional
pressure drop for the bubble, churn and annular ¯ ow
regimes.
RESULTS
Figure 1 gives the air-water vertical total two phase
pressure drop for the 0.026 m i.d. pipe. Also shown are data
for 0.0454 m i.d. pipe by Nguyen41 , and for 0.03818 m i.d.
pipe by the Harwell group19±24 in annular ¯ ow. Other data
[e.g. Govier et al.7±9 , Beggs37 , etc] gave general average
agreement with Figure 1, but showed a degree of scatter
which was no doubt accentuated by an unsystematic
approach to measurement of the data. In general, the total
pressure drop data presented as a maximum value set
between two minima situated at medium and low gas ¯ ow
rates. The larger diameter pipe possessed a higher and lower
value of pressure drop than the corresponding data for the
smaller diameter set at lower and medium gas rates
respectively. The cross over point (arrowed on Figure 1)
moved to lower gas ¯ ows as the liquid rate was increased
and approximately coincided with the neutral frictional
pressure drop point. Thus a signi® cant diameter effect was
in evidence which was particularly noticeable at lower gas
rates.
Figures 2 to 5 present the 0.26 m i.d. data for four liquid
rates and also show the average values for the measured
total pressure loss and the calculated head and frictional
losses. In addition, Figure 2 gives the range of the total
pressure drop.
The data were obtained by initially setting a liquid rate
and systematically increasing the gas rate, and then
reversing the process. At ® rst, the total pressure loss was
composed of a pure liquid head with a small frictional
component. The liquid or gas only data gave agreement
with single phase calculations. At very low gas ¯ ows,

628
 VERTICAL TWO-PHASE FLOW: PART III 629

Table 1. Data and Models for Vertical Two Phase Flow.

Diameter VSL VSG

System cm ms2 1 ms2 1 Comment Reference

diesel-air 0.21, 0.15 0±0.64 0.06±38.5 data correlation [1]

kero-air 0.21, 0.15 0±0.19 0.07±35.7
oil-gas 5.07, 5.18, 6.20, 6.27, 0.05±0.73 0.10±2.75 data correlation [2]
7.42, 7.60, 7.67, 7.79
water-air 1.32, 5.08 0±0.54 0.74±16.0 data [3]
water-steam 5.94 0.79±0.98 x = 0.315±0.0448 data [4]
20±80 atm (a)
water-air 2.54, 2.82, 5.03 0±0.13 2±68.9 data, theory [5]
water-steam 2.21 0.42±0.93 x = 0.004±0.043 data [6]
water-air 1.6, 2.6, 3.81, 6.35 0.02±2.24 0±27.82 data correlation [7±9]
water-air 0.09, 1.95 0.09±0.66 0.16±20.3 data correlation [10±11]
aq. soln-air 2.77
water-N2 0.53±0.70 0.05±1.20 4.3±215 data [12]
aq soln-N2
water-steam 0.50 0.23±1.45 370±815
water-air 2.70 0.2±3.0 0.3±64 data correlation [13±14]
water-steam 2.21 0.30±0.90 2.75±30.2 data [15]
water-air 1.08 0.65±13.7 2±64 data, theory [16]
water-air 2.66 0.02±0.75 0.6±31 data correlation [17]
water-air 1.27, 1.91, 2.54 0.08±1.0 0.07±1.1 data, theory [18]
water-air 3.18, 3.45 0.±0.2 20±90 data correlation [19±20]
water-air 3.18 0.01±0.96 25.6±64.0 data correlation [21±24]
water-steam 2.54, 3.81 VT = 0.91±2.13 data correlation [25]
water-Argon 2.50 0±2.4 7.4±1324 data [26]
aq. soln-Argon 2.50 0±1.2 23.5±565
oil-gas 5.96 0.05±0.62 0.01±4.52 data correlation [27]
water-air 2.66 0.02±0.73 0±32.7 data correlation [28]
oil-air 2.66 0.03±0.85 0±32.7
aq. soln-air 2.66 0.02±0.70 0±31.8
water-gas 2.66, 3.51 0.01±3.20 5.8±67.8 data correlation [29±31]
oil-gas 4.09, 5.25
water-air 1.59, 3.18 0±0.6 16.3±136.1 data correlation [32]
water-air 1.28, 2.23 0.02±0.01 0±28.6 data correlation [33]
water-air 1.3±3.8 0.02±3.64 0.01±105 data [34]
oil-gas 1.27, 1.91, 2.54, 7.62, 0±1.0 0±2.75 data correlation [35]
20.32
water-steam 0.5, 0.8, 0.92 0.2±2.58 0.52±26 data correlation [36]
water-Argon 2.5 0.25±2.40 0.01±22
water-N2 2.5 0.22±1.38 0.01±22
EtOH-Argon 1.5 0.28±2.58 0.01±23
water-air 2.66, 4.09 0.02±2.53 1.21±95.9 data correlation [37]
water-air 3.81 0.03±0.32 0.01±0.03 data [38]
water-air 3.18 0.01±0.64 13.39±72.21 data [39]
HCl-air 3.18 0.02±0.17 14.91±58.28
water-air 2.54 0.01±2.06 0±45.8 data [40]
aq. soln-air
water-air 4.54 0.01±1.05 0.08±60.2 data [41]
water-steam 0.5±1.0 1±13.75 74±4833 data correlation [42]
1.5, 2.5 3.5±4.9 40±8444
0.5±1.5 0.6±12.0 37±13370
1.2, 1.7 0.76±1.60 46±1852
water-N2 2.5, 5.08 0.1±3.0 2.4±2195
water-N2 7.79±10.5 0±0.96 0.65±175 data correlation [43]
water-steam 19.88 0.08±2 1.8±8 data correlation [44]
water-air 1.17 0.31±10.6 0.07±96.0 data [45]
water-He 0.31±10.6 0.13±148

Trans IChemE, Vol 76, Part A, July 1998

630 SPEDDING et al.

Table 1. Continued

Diameter VSL VSG

System cm ms2 1 ms2 1 Comment Reference

water-Freon 12 0.31±4.2 0.16±36.0 data [45]

oil-gas 2.54±16.5 0±2.50 0.02±77.7 data correlation [46]
water-air 1, 1.6, 2.6 0.006±0.1 20±60 data correlation [47]
water-steam [26], [36], [42], [43] [26], [36], [42], [43] [26], [36], [42], [43] correlation [48]
water-air 7.6 0.01±227 0.01±6.00 correlation [49]
aq. cmc-air 1.9 0.3±1.0 0.17±1.62 data correlation [50]
oil-gas 5.07, 16.17 0.03±144 0.05±2.71 data [51]

homogeneous conditions prevailed in the bubble regime. In such as to effectively reduce the apparent head loss of the
this region the total pressure loss fell rapidly and could be two-phase liquid to below that expected from the actual
calculated from the two phase density. These conditions two-phase density. Thus the calculated negative friction was
were shown to prevail until QG /QL = 0.1. Again in this due to the upward lifting of the liquid in the wake of the
region, the frictional component was a minor element in the rising gas Taylor bubble. Indeed, it has been shown69 that
total pressure drop. As the gas rate was increased, the total the annular ring of liquid ¯ owing downward around the
pressure drop continued to fall rapidly along with the two- rising bubble was supercritical and therefore would enwrap
phase density, but the bubbles grew in size and formed a cap a pocket of liquid below the Taylor bubble to a depth
or slug of gas over the whole cross section of the pipe. In this prescribed by the onset of the hydraulic jump which
region, the Nicklin et al.66 model gave an accurate occurred when the Fr in the annular liquid ® lm passed
prediction of holdup right up until the onset of annular below unity. The calculation of the frictional pressure drop
¯ ow. The limit of the bubble region was shown to follow the by subtracting the two-phase head from the total pressure
Taitel et al.67 criterion. drop would be incorrect, as the rise effect in the Taylor
bubble wake liquid has been ignored. Two things were of
g(rL 2
1/4
rG )j
V SL = 3.0 V SG 2 1.15 2
(1) importance. Initially, frictional pressure loss was insignif-
r
L icant and the ® rst minimum in the calculated friction
In both the large bubble and slug regimes the calculated pressure loss in Figures 2 to 5 corresponded to the transition
frictional pressure drop became negative in magnitude. The from slug to churn ¯ ow. With the onset of churn ¯ ow, the
normal explanation for the effect has been that the liquid
¯ ows downward in an annular ring between the inside of the
pipe wall and the rising gas Taylor bubble resulting in a
negative frictional region. However, while the downward
liquid annulus ¯ ow can explain the wide ¯ uctuations
observed in the total pressure drop, it cannot explain the
negative value of the overall average value of frictional
pressure drop.
Guedes de Carvalho et al.68 have shown that a rising
Taylor bubble of gas carried a pocket of liquid in its wake

Figure 2. Total two phase pressure drop for air-water vertical ¯ ow in a

0.026 m i.d. pipe for GSL = 10.97 kg m2 2 s2 1 . The bars indicate the
Figure 1. Total two phase pressure drop for air-water vertical ¯ ow in two ¯ uctuations in the measured two phase pressure. Also shown is the head,
pipes of different diameters. frictional and up lift pressure.

Trans IChemE, Vol 76, Part A, July 1998

 VERTICAL TWO-PHASE FLOW: PART III
Figure 3. Total two phase pressure drop for air-water vertical ¯ ow in
0.026 m i.d. pipe for GSL = 62.67 kg m2 2 s2 1 . Also shown is the head,
frictional and up lift pressures.
frictional component started to become signi® cant while the
uplifting component steadily reduced until at the onset of
annular ¯ ow, the destruction took place of the liquid wake
following the gas slug. The onset of churn ¯ ow reduced the
uplift component and increased the frictional component,
thus giving a minimum in the total pressure drop curve
where the churn ¯ ow regime passed into the semi-annular
Figure 4. Total two phase pressure drop for air-water vertical ¯ ow in a
0.026 m i.d. pipe for GSL = 261.00 kg m2 2 s2 1 . Also shown is the head,
frictional and up lift pressures.
Trans IChemE, Vol 76, Part A, July 1998
631
Figure 5. Total two phase pressure drop for air-water vertical ¯ ow in
0.026 m i.d. pipe for GSL = 376.00 kg m2 2 s2 1 . Also shown is the head,
frictional and up lift pressures.
pattern. In this and the subsequent regimes the chaotic
nature of the ¯ ow experienced in the churn regime was
steadily reduced along with the liquid holdup. The total
pressure drop was reduced as the gravitational, the
interfacial and the ® lm activity were also reduced as the
® lm passed successively from annular roll wave to the
annular ripple regime. However, the pressure drop com-
menced to rise again with increased gas ¯ ow at the onset of
the annular droplet regime. The momentum exchange
between the gas and liquid phases increased and, as droplets
were increasingly being formed, the energy necessary was
extracted from the gas phase giving a substantial increase in
the frictional component of pressure drop. These competing
effects resulted in a second minimum being formed in the
pressure drop characteristic with increasing gas rate.
Thus the formation of different ¯ ow patterns provided a
coherent explanation of the two-phase pressure drop
characteristics for vertical upward ¯ ow. The different
general behaviour observed for the two sets of pressure
drop curves given in Figures 2 and 3 and Figures 4 and 5
resulted from the super® cial liquid velocity being respec-
tively below and above the rise velocity of the gas Taylor
bubble for this system. For the latter case, the trailing liquid
slug was not held securely behind the rising gas bubble due
to disturbance of the enclosing liquid down ¯ ow.
It is clear from the discussion that it is not possible to
reliably predict pressure drop using one model alone.
Various prediction models were tested, using data for
various diameters, Nguyen41 , Hewitt et al.52,53 , Woods55 .
The prediction methods tested by Spedding and Ferguson56
632 SPEDDING et al.

for the horizontal condition did not prove to be useful. This

included the Olujic57 and Spedding and Hand58 models
which were successful for the horizontal case. The general
method of Hagedorn and Brown29±31 gave predictions well
in excess of data. The reason was that the system studied by
Hagedorn and Brown29±31 was a gas lift operation where a
head of liquid was imposed at the base of the ¯ ow rig. In
addition, no consideration was given to possible changes of
¯ ow regime up the column and there was no assurance that
the column was indeed vertical. By contrast, the models of
Beggs and Brill62 and Orkisewski35 made provision for
different types of ¯ ow regimes. However, neither model
proved useful, with the Beggs and Brill method62 tending to
underpredict the data, while the Orkisewski35 method
showed a wide scatter around the data. The method of
Holt et al. 65 while allowing for prediction over the whole
range of ¯ ow regimes, tended to overpredict the data.
Prediction has been achieved for low gas ¯ ow rate under
QG /QL = 0.1 in the homogeneous regime. For the slug ¯ ow
regime the amount of liquid holdup which was uplifted by
the gas slug RLU was:
RLU d
= 2.34 ´ 102 4
2 2.34 ´ 102 4
ReSG
RL dc
d
2 1.638 1 1.638 (2)
dc
The critical diameter dc = 0.05 m above which RLU = 0,
and was a region where the hydraulic jump of the annular Figure 6. Frictional factor f values used in equation (2) for prediction of
liquid ® lm could not enclose and uplift liquid in the gas slug total two phase pressure drop for vertical air-water annular droplet ¯ ow.
tail. Equation (2) only applies for the condition that V SL was
less than the Taylor bubble rise velocity. When V SL was in and semi-annular regimes. This was physically unrealistic
excess of the bubble rise velocity, RLU was small. Equation and resulted from ignoring the pocket of liquid rising in the
(2) predicted the slug data for 0.026 and 0.0454 m i.d. pipe wake of the Taylor gas bubble.
to within an average of 1% (2 10.2% to 1 4.3% range). None of the theories for predicting pressure loss proved
The annular regimes at high gas ¯ ow rates ReSG > 8 ´ 104 effective. This was particularly true of those models based
followed the relation on air-lift operation. It was possible to predict the total
DP pressure drop at very low gas rates (QG /QL # 0.1) in the
= 1.5457 ´ 102 14
Re3.5683
SL Re(2SG0.6315 log ReSL 1 3.1909)
bubble regime and a high gas rates (GG > 30 kg m2 2 s2 1 ) in
Dz TP
the annular droplet regime.
3
0.0317
´f (3)
d NOMENCLATURE
within 6 14%. Values of f are presented in Figure 6. The D diameter, m
rationale underlying the model was that total two-phase g gravitational constant, m s2 2

pressure drop was mainly caused by friction in the annular p pressure, kg m2 1 s2 2

Q ¯ ow rate, m3 s2 1
¯ ow regime and that it varied approximately as 1/d 3 , the Re Reynolds Number
same as with single phase ¯ ow. V velocity, ms2 1
Predictions in the intermediate gas ¯ ow region are
Greek letters
possible but will be the subject of future work. r density, kg m2 3
f factor equation (3)

CONCLUSIONS Subscripts
c critical
The total pressure drop for vertical ¯ ow against gas rate G gas
presented as a maximum value at the end of the churn ¯ ow L liquid
regime, set between two minima situated at low and S super® cial
T total
medium gas ¯ ow rates. There was a noticeable effect of U uplift
diameter on the pressure drop. It was not possible to predict
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Trans IChemE, Vol 76, Part A, July 1998

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ADDRESS
Correspondence concerning this paper should be addressed to Professor
P. L. Spedding, Department of Aeronautical Engineering, The Queen’ s
University of Belfast, David Keir Buildings, Stranmillis Road, Belfast
BT9 5AG, UK.
The manuscript was received 4 August 1997 and accepted for publication
after revision 3 February 1998.
Trans IChemE, Vol 76, Part A, July 1998