Surge and

Swab Pressures

SURGE pressures are associated with

fluid flow, caused by running equipment into a liquid filled bore-hole. Swab
pressures are associated with fluid flow, caused by pulling equipment out
of a liquid filled bore-hole. Procedures used for estimating the magnitude
of these pressures are similar to estimating the pressure losses in conven-
tional fluid circulation. To reduce problems of calculation, the swab pres-
sure is estimated by calculating the surge pressure and assuming that this
is equal to the swab pressure for the same rate of pipe movement.
The magnitude of surge and swab pressures are important to the op-
erator for the following reasons:
1. More than 25 per cent of the blowouts result from pressure reduc-
tions in the bore-hole due directly to swabbing when pulling pipe .
2. Excessive surge pressures have initiated lost circulation problems
both during the drilling operation and during the running of casing
into the hole.
3. Pressure changes caused by alternating between surge and swab
pressures due to pipe movements, such as those made on connec -
tions cause hole sloughing and generally promote other unstable
hole conditions such as solids bridges and solids fill on bottom.
4 . Swab pressure reductions may result in contamination of the mud
by the entry of formation fluids. This may result in expensive mud
treating costs and cause other hole problems.
The adverse effects of surge and swab pressures were recognized very
early in rotary drilling. Cannon 1 in 1934 became concerned with blowouts
that were occurring in normal pressure wells. The mud weights being used
were substantially in excess of measured formation pore pressures, yet
241

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242 DRILLING PR ACT I CE S MAN U AL

blowouts were occurrin g. To investigate the problem , Cannon initiated a

series of tests to measure the actual sur ge and swab pressures , table 1
shows the results from one series of his tests .
These series of tests were run at different depths and hole sizes , with
mud thicknesses measured as a function of gel strength . At that time it was
difficult to obtain any type of quantitative evaluation of mud thickness . The
magnitude of the pressure surges was surprising. At 7,000 feet , with a gel
strength of 36 , the surge pressure in the 7-inch hole using 3 inch drill
pipe was 462 psi . This is comparable to an increase in mud wei ght of about

TABLE 9-1

Depth , Gel Pressure

Annulus Size Ft. Strength Surge

103/ 4 inch casing :

4'/, inch drill pipe 7 ,000 36 275
7,000 12 125
3 ,000 36 125
3,000 12 62
7 inch cas ing :
3'/, inch drill pipe 7,000 60 487
7,000 36 462
7,000 6 362
3,000 60 212
3,000 36 200
3,000 6 160

1.3 ppg and if considered when pulling pipe easily shows the potential
hazard of a blowout .
Under these conditions , a normal weight mud of 10.0 ppg would not be
sufficient to control normal formation pore pressures of 9.0 ppg, which are
common in the coastal areas . These tests also show that the surge pres -
sures are directly proportional to depth . For example , it is noted that the
surge pressure in the 7-inch cased hole was 200 psi at 3 ,000 feet , as com-
pared with 462 psi at 7,000 feet for a ~el strength of 36. This would be ex-
pected because the surge pressure is simply the pressure required to over-
come friction at the displacement rate of the fluid.
In 1951, Goins, Weichert , Burba, Dawson and Teplitz 2 related the prob-
lems of lost circulation in coastal area wells directly to surge pressures as-
sociated with pipe movement. They also noted that the surge pressures
often exceeded equivalent mud weights of 1.0 ppg . They noted that surge
pressures could be reduced significantly by reducing the pipe running
speed.
In 1953 , Cardwell3 presented information on surge pressures and pull-
ing suction and provided a chart for estimating the magnitude of these
pressure changes. This chart was related to hole and pipe geometry and
pipe running speed . He assumed an equivalent viscosity of 300 centipoise
for the mud . The chart is not included because subsequent work has shown

2016. Society of Petroleum Engineers Copyright transferred to SPE by Larry Moore on behalf of Preston L. Moore.
 Surge and Swab Pressur es 243

+ 500

+ 400 A

+ 300
('
a. + 200
I '
I
,,-

~
~
~
~
~QI
ct + 100
v
0
r
' I

-100
\
~ \
A C
-200

0 Time ...

FIG . 9-1. Typi cal pressure su rge pat tern m easured as a jo int
of casin g was lowered into well bore

2016. Society of Petroleum Engineers Copyright transferred to SPE by Larry Moore on behalf of Preston L. Moore.
244 DRILLING PRACTICES MANUAL

7 __ .,. B' 6

,, ...,l
,,"" '
'
5

4 ,' ,, L Velocity '\..._ 4

/
, ,, ''
\
3

~ 2 / \
2
u
/ \ u
~ ~
2 2
c'
0
0 '~---------
Acceleration
I'-
' 0
-1
i-
c;
~ 0
qi -2 ai
aiu -2 >
u A
-<(

-4 C

-6
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18

Time, sec

FIG . 9-2. Typical pipe velocities and accelerations measured as a joint of casing was low-
ered into well bore

that fluid properties in some instances may be even more important than
running speed.
In 1956, Clark 4 further emphasized the effect of surge pressures on
problems oflost circulation and presented a good review on factors that con-
tributed to surge pressures. He also presented a comprehensive mathemati -
cal analysis of the problem .
In 1960 Burkhardt 5 presented an excellent resume of how to deter-
mine surge pressures. His work included test results and a mathematical
prediction method that compared favorably with actual pressure surge
measurements. Figure 9-1 shows a chart of the measured pressure changes
in the bore-hole, while running one joint of pipe at about 1,850 feet. Figure
9-2 shows the velocity and acceleration of this joint of pipe as it was low-
ered into the hole. Lettering has been used to indicate the same time pe-
riod on both Figures 9-1 and 9-2 .
At point A, the pipe was lifted from the slips. The swab pressure reduc-
tion was almost 200 psi as noted in Figure 9-1 and the fluid velocity was
negative as shown in Figure 9-2. At point B, the surge pressure was over
400 psi and it is noted that this is the point of maximum pipe velocity. At
point C, swabbing again occurred and it is noted that this point corresponds
to the maximum deceleration of the pipe .
Of interest was the fact that the swab pressure reduction at point C was

2016. Society of Petroleum Engineers Copyright transferred to SPE by Larry Moore on behalf of Preston L. Moore.
 Surge and Swab Pressures 245

almost 200 psi and this occurred when running pipe into the hole. This de-
celeration pressure indicates a well can be swabbed when running pipe
into the hole. Other changes in pressure are probably due to the changes in
pipe speed .
Figures 9-1 and 9-2 show that (1) the pressure can change drastically
when running pipe, (2) the running speed changes substantially when
running pipe, and (3) the pressure surges can be very high at shallow
depths.
Surge pressures or swab pressure reductions may be caused by break-
ing the gel strength, viscous shear, fluid displacement in turbulence or by
pipe acceleration and deceleration. These effects will be considered sepa-
rately.

Surge-Gel Factors

The surge pressure required to break the gel strength may be estimated
using the definition of shear stress as a function of pressure, this relation-
ship is shown in Equation 1.

(1)

The gel strength in Equation 1 will be gel strength of the mud in lbr/100
ft 2 as determined from the rotating viscometer. The surge pressure re-
corded when breaking the gel strength is generally less than that experi-
enced at the maximum pipe running speed as indicated in Figure 9-1. How-
ever, this may not always be the case and the operator should be careful
when initiating fluid circulation either by starting the pump or by lowering
the drill string. In the deep high temperature well, gelation may be severe,
as shown in the chapter on drilling muds.
Equations have been presented for calculating pressure losses in the
normal circulation of drilling muds. These same equations can be used to
determine surge pressures providing the velocity of the displaced fluid can
be determined.
The displacement velocity of the fluid will depend on whether the pipe
is open or closed and for this reason the two cases will be considered sepa-
rately. Also, the operator must determine whether the flow pattern is lami-
nar or turbulent. This may be done in exactly the same manner as shown in
the chapter on pressure losses during normal fluid circulation. Probably the
best way is to calculate the surge pressures, assuming both laminar and
turbulent flow and to use the answer which gives the highest surge pres-
sure .

CLOSED PIPE
The first consideration of surge pressures will be made assuming closed
pipe. The pipe would actually be closed only when using drill pipe floats or
when using conventional float collars when running casing. It may be con-
sidered almost closed when using differential float collars in casing. The

2016. Society of Petroleum Engineers Copyright transferred to SPE by Larry Moore on behalf of Preston L. Moore.
246 D RI L L I N G P RA C TI C E S M A N U A L

Velocity profile for fluid

when running pipe.

FIG. 9-3. Velocity profile for

fluid when running pipe

differential float collars are excellent tools for the continuous filling of the
casing; however, most of the fill up generally occurs after the joint of casing
has been lowered into the hole. Thus, in general, even with differential
fill-up tools, the casing can be considered closed when calculating surge
pressures.
The fluid displaced by the pipe volume is easily determined; however ,
friction losses are determined by the relative movement of the fluid to the
pipe wall and thus the pipe movement into the hole must also be con-
sidered. The rate of fluid movement by the pipe is increased by the rate the
pipe is lowered into the hole. The assumed velocity profile is shown by Fig-
ure 9-3.

2016. Society of Petroleum Engineers Copyright transferred to SPE by Larry Moore on behalf of Preston L. Moore.
 Surge and Swab Pressures 24 7

.3 ________ __,,.________ _._ ___ __..___ __.

.4 .5 .6 .7 .8 .9 1.0
Op/ Oh- Ratio of pipe diameter to hole diameter

FIG. 9-4 . Mud "clinging" constant

Equation 2 shows the estimated annular fluid velocity for plugged pipe.
2
D
v= [ K+Dh2_PDP2 Vp J (2)

Burkhardt determined the value of Kin Equation 2 by the use of Fig-

ure 9-4. A good general average for K is 0.45. One other problem arises in
the use of Equation 2. The pipe velocity, Vp, changes as pipe is being run;
this is shown in Figure 9-2. The maximum surge pressure will generally
occur at the maximum pipe velocity. Thus , the maximum fluid velocity
may be estimated, using Equation 3.
Vm = 1.5v (3)
Equation 3 is a rough estimate of the maximum fluid velocity and the
1.5 is primarily an experience factor. When running a joint or stand of pipe,
it is common practice to accelerate to some point and then decelerate to
set the pipe in the slips. In general, the maximum pipe speed would be about
1.5 times the average pipe speed, which is determined by dividing the
length of pipe lowered into the hole by the total time required in minutes.

OPEN PIPE
Pressure surges with open pipe are difficult to define . The relative flow
in the annulus and inside the drill string would be dependent on the relative
pressure forces and cross-sectional areas. Pressure forces in the annulus
will depend many times on mud properties , while those through the bit and
inside the drill string will, in general, be independent of mud properties, be-
cause the flow would be turbulent. As a first step, it can be assumed that
the pipe is completely open and for this purpose Equation 4 can be used to
calculate the displacement velocity.

(4)

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248 DR I L L I N G P RA C TI C E S M A N U A L

On this basis, it would be assumed that the fluid velocity both inside
and outside the pipe is equal. This would be true only if the pressures inside
and outside the pipe are equal. In any event the assumption of equal veloci-
ties is a good starting point and provides the basis for further trial and error
steps.
After the determination of the fluid velocity, the calculation of pressure
surges may be determined, using the equations for normal fluid circulation .
These equations are given again for convenient reference.
(PV)vml yl
(5)
p s = 60,000(Dh - Dp)2 + 200(Dh - DP)

2.4Vm_\(2n +
P s = [( Dh - Dr,} 3n
1)]" Kl
300(Dh -DP)
(6 )

Note: Equation 5 should be used only when a multispeed viscometer is

available to determine the PV and Y at viscometer speeds of 30 and 60 rpm .
If only a two speed viscometer is available, Equation 6 should always be
used.

Turbulent Flow
_ 7. 7(I0 - 5 )p 8 Q1.8 (PV} 2l
p s - (Dh - Dp)3 (Dh + Dp)1.8 (7)

The use of these equations is shown in Examples 1 and 2.

EXAMPLE 1:
Well Depth = 15,000 feet
Hole Size= 77/ 8 in.
Drill pipe size= 4 1/ 2 in.
Drill collar length= 700 feet
Drill collar size= 6 1/ 4 inch 0 .0.
2% inch 1.0.
Mud properties: Mud weight= 15 ppg
Viscometer readings , 0600 = 140
0300 = 80
Average pipe running speed, Vp = 270 fpm
Bit nozzle size= 3 11/ 32 in .
Determine: The surge pressure at 15,000 feet assuming plugged pipe .
Solution :

Ps = [
2
(o~-~V;J(~;
1 1
) 300(D: - DP) r
140
n = 3.32 log
80 = (3.32)(.243) = 0.805

80 80
K (511) .805 = 152 = 0.527

V = [ 0.45 + !~]270 = 250 fpm

Vm = (1.5)(250) = 375 fpm (maximum fluid velocity)

2016. Society of Petroleum Engineers Copyright transferred to SPE by Larry Moore on behalf of Preston L. Moore.
 Surge and Swab Pressures 249
Around Drill Pipe (14,300 Feet)

Assume laminar flow:

p = [ (2.4 )(375 )( 1.08)1 805(.527)(14.3) (10 3) = (95) (7 44) = 707 .
s (3.375 ) J .3(10 3)(3.375) psi
Assume turbulent flow:
Q = 642 gpm (equivalent)
P s = 704 psi
Because P s is about the same , the flow pattern is not distinguishable.

Around Drill Collars (700 Feet)

V = [ 0.45 + ~~]270 = 580 fpm

Vm = (1.5)(580) = 870 fpm
At the higher velocity , the flow around the drill collars can be assumed to
be turbulent.
- 7. 7( 10- 5 )(15} 8(816)1. 8(60} 2 (700) - .
Ps- (1.625) 3(14.125)1. 8 - 375 psi
The total annular surge pressure at 15,000 feet:
707 + 375 = 1082 psi

EXAMPLE 2:
Same conditions as shown in Example 1, except pipe is open .
Determine the surge pressure at 15,000 feet.
Solution : Annular surge around Drill Pipe:

V = [ .45 5.9. ) 270 =

+ 56 150 fpm
1
Vm= 150 X 1.5 = 225fpm
805 3
P = [ (2.4)(225)(1 .08)] (.527)(14 .3)(10 ) = (64 )(7 .44 ) = 476 si
s (3.375) (300)(3.375) p

Around Drill Collar :

V = (225)(42)= 410f
m 23 pm

Assume turbulent flow :

P5 = 140 X .7 = 98 .0 psi
Total annular surge = 476 + 98 = 574 psi
Surge inside drill string through drill pipe . Assume laminar flow :

P = [( 1.6)(225)(1 .06)] 805(.527)(14 .3)(103) = (41.5)(6.7) = 278 psi

s (3.75) (300)(3 .75)

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250 DR I L L I N G P RAC TI C E S MA N U A L
Through Drill Collars assuming turbulent flow:

Q = VA = (410)(.785)(7 .56) =
19.2 19.2 127 gpm

Ps = 76 X .7 = 53.2 psi
Through bit
Ps = 288 psi
Total surge inside drill string= 278 + 53 + 288 = 619 psi.

These calculations show the annular surge will be between the 574 psi
considering the pipe completely open and 619 psi which represents the
pressure required to flow fluid inside the pipe at the indicated rate. A reason-
able estimate of annular surge in Example 1, with the pipe open , would be
600 psi. This is about 55 per cent of the surge with the pipe plugged, and
indicates a substantial potential reduction in annular surge pressure by
omitting float collars even with small jet nozzles .
The calculation assuming open pipe was a rough estimate and the rela-
tive effects of having open pipe will change with mud properties and drill
string geometry. In any event, these calculations do show a reduction in
annular surge pressures by omitting the use of drill string floats.
In addition to the surge or swab pressures associated directly with pipe
velocity, it is noted from Figure 9-1 that acceleration and deceleration ef-
fects may need to be considered. Of particular interest is the swab pressure
reduction noted at point C in Figure 9-1, when the pipe was stopped sud-
denly. This simply shows that a well could be swabbed-in while running
pipe and emphasizes the need for the operator to be conscious of this ef-
fect. Equation 8 may be used to estimate acceleration or deceleration pres-
sures associated with pipe movement if pipe is plugged and Equation 9
may be used for the same purpose if the pipe is open.
Plugged pipe:
p = .00162plDp 2a p (8)
s Dl-Dp 2
Open pipe:
p = .00162p(Dif - Dr)aJ
s Dh2 - Dp2 + D;2 (9)

Example 3 illustrates the use of these equations .

EXAMPLE 3:
Same conditions as given in Example 1.
Assume ap = -4.5 fps ,2 which is comparable to stopping the pipe in one second
while running the pipe into the hole at a velocity of 4.5 fps.
Determine the surge pressure assuming plugged and open pipe.
Plugged pipe around drill pipe:
1.62(1o- 3 )(15)(14 .3)(10 3 )(20)(- 4.5) .
ps = = - 745 psi
42
Around drill collars :
p _ 1.62(10- 3 )(15)(.7)(10 3 )(39)(-4 .5) .
s- =- 130ps1
23

2016. Society of Petroleum Engineers Copyright transferred to SPE by Larry Moore on behalf of Preston L. Moore.
 Surge and Swab Pressures 251
Total negative surge= - 875 psi .
Open pipe around drill pipe :
P = 1.62(1o - 3 )(15)(14.3)(10 3 )(6)(-4.5) _ _ .
s 56 - 168 PSI

Around drill collars:

p _ 1.62(10- 3 )(15)(.7)(10 3 )(31.4)(-4.5) _ 79 .
s - ( 0. ) - - ps1
3 6
Total negative surge = -168 + (-79) = -247 psi.

The negative surge would be higher than -24 7 psi and to be precise,
the actual quantities of fluid entering the pipe would have to be determined.
The deceleration losses noted in Example 3 are rough estimates and at
best simply show why the negative surge pressures occur and provide a
warning signal on their potential order of magnitude. This warning be-
comes even more important as mud weights are reduced to levels close to
pore pressure.

SPECIAL CONSIDERATIONS

In deep high temperature wells, the mud may gel considerably on bot-
tom. The surge pressures may be trapped in the mud and have an additive
effect to circulating pressure losses when circulation is commenced. For
this reason, it is always important to pick-up pipe slowly when pumping is
commenced. Also, surface pressures should be watcneo. carefully when
breaking circulation to avoid excess pressure on the formation.
If problems should be experienced with lost circulation, it should be
remembered that the crucial point in slowing down pipe running speed is
when the bit first reaches the weak zone . In coastal areas, this will generally
be just below the protective casing seat. This is true because at this point
the drill collars are above the weak zone and this restriction is annulus size
as compared with drill pipe increases fluid velocity over the collar interval.
It can be seen that pressure fluctuations when handling pipe can be
very high. This places a premium on careful pipe handling practices in
areas where hole stability is a problem .

REFERENCES

1. Cannon , George E. , "Changes in Hydrostatic Press_ure Due to Withdrawing Drill Pipe from
the Hole ," Drilling an d Production Practice , 42 (1934).
2. Goins, W. C., Jr., Weichert, J. P ., Burba , J. L., Jr., Dawson, D. D ., Jr. , and Teplitz, A. J.,
"Down-The-Hole Pressure Surges and Their Effect on Loss of Circulation," Southwestern
District , Division of Production, Beaumont , Texas , 1951.
3. Cardwell , W. T., Jr., "Press ure , Changes in Drilling Wells Caused by Pipe Movement ,"
Drilling and Production Practices API (1953).
4. Clark, E. H., Jr., "A Graphic View of Pressure Sur ges and Lost Circulation," Drilling and
Production Practices, API 1956 .
5. Burkhardt, J. A., "Wellbore Pressure Surges Produced by Pipe Movement," SPE of AIME
paper No . 1546-G, Denver , Colorado, 1960.

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252 DR I L L I N G P RA C TI C E S M A N U A L

NOMENCLATURE

P , = Surge pressure , psi

l = Well depth , feet
7 = Gel strength of mud , lb 1/100 ft 2
Dh = Hole diameter , inches
D 0 = Outside diameter of pipe , inches
v = Fluid velocity , fpm
v 0 = Pipe Velocity , fpm
D 1 = Inside pipe diameter , inches
PV = Plastic viscosity , centipoise
Vm = Maximum fluid velocity , fpm
Y = Yield point , lb 1/ 100 ft 2
Q = Circulation rate , gpm
p = Mud weight ppg
a 0 = Pipe acceleration, fps 2

2016. Society of Petroleum Engineers Copyright transferred to SPE by Larry Moore on behalf of Preston L. Moore.