: ,

:
:
EPUB:

ISBN: 978-960-603-273-8

Copyright , 2015

Creative Commons
- - 3.0.

https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/gr/

9, 15780

http://www.kallipos.gr


iv
vi
ix
1: 1
1.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.4 R2 R3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
R2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
R3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
1.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
1.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
1.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
1.6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2: 29
2.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
2.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
2.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
2.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
2.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
2.4 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
LU . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Leontief . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
2.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
2.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
3: 67
3.1 Rn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
3.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74

i
 ii

3.2 kn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
3.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
3.3 , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
3.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
3.4 , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
3.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
3.5 k- . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
3.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
3.6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
4: 107
4.1 , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
4.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
4.2 , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
4.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
4.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
4.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
4.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
5: , 129
5.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
5.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
5.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
5.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
5.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
5.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
5.4 Rn . . . . . . . . . . . 155
5.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
5.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
5.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
5.6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
6: 171
6.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
6.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
6.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
6.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
6.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
194
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207

ii
 iii

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213

iii


1.2.1 Gauss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.3.1 . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.2.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
2.4.1 AX = B LU- A . . 63
3.3.1 S(X) kn
X. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
3.3.2 S(X) kn
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
3.4.1 U + W U W kn . 96
3.4.2 U kn . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
5.2.1 : kn
kn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
6.1.1 Gram-Schmidt V
Rm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
6.1.2 projV (w). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
6.1.3 projV (w) . . . . . 178

1.1 x + y = 2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
1.2 y = 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
1.3 x y = 0 x y = 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
1.4 x + y = 2 R3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
1.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
1.6 xy , xz , yz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
1.7 y = x2 + 3x + 2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
1.8 y = 28 + 34x 11x2 + x3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
1.9 A, B, C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

2.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
2.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

3.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
3.2 (v1 , v2 ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
3.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
3.4 a 1/2a . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
3.5 {tu : t R} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
3.6 {t(2, 3, 1) : t R} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
3.7 {(a, b, c) : 3a + b 2c = 0} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
3.8 {(1, 3) + t(1, 1) : t R} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
3.9 P P1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
3.10 PM , P1 , P2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
3.11 S({u, w}) = R2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
3.12 S ({(1, 0, 1), (0, 2, 0)}) = {(a, b, a) : a, b R} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
3.13 U = S ({(2, 0, 3), (0, 2, 1)}) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
3.14 x y = 0 R2 R3 . . . . . . . . . . . 81
3.15 V1 + V2 = R2 , V1 V2 = 0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82

4.1 f : R2 R3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
4.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
4.3 X 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
4.4 y = mx . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
4.5 y = mx . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
4.6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114

5.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
5.2 /4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
5.3 R2 y = mx . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131

vii
 viii

5.4 y = mx . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
5.5 u v R3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157

6.1 v L . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
6.2 L . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
6.3 v U . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
6.4 (2, 3, 3) U . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
6.5 (1, 1): T (x1 , x2 ) = (x1 + 1, x2 + 1). . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
6.6 T . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
6.7 y12 + 3y22 5 = 0. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
6.8 x21 + 4x1 x2 + x22 5 = 0. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
6.9 y = 32 + 32 x. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192

viii


-
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-
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-
, ,
, -
. .

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,
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,
,
. -

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. , . -
. .
HTML5.

ix
 1

.
.

1.1
-
. k R,
C. (linear system) m
n , k,

11 x1 + 12 x2 + + 1n xn = 1
.. .. (1.1.0.1)
. .
m1 x1 + m2 x2 + + mn xn = m ,

aij i k. i
1, . . . , m, j 1, . . . , n. x1 , . . . , xn
. (solution) (1.1.0.1) k
n- (1 , 2 , . . . , n ) k, (1.1.0.1), .

i1 1 + + in n = i , 1 i m.

.
(1.1.0.1) (consistent) .
, (1.1.0.1) (inconsistent).
, (1.1.0.1)

AX = B, (1.1.0.2)

11 1n x1 1
A = ... .. , X = ... B = .. .

. .
m1 mn xn m
A m , (1.1.0.1), n ,
(1.1.0.1). A A = (aij )

1
2 . , .

(coefficient matrix) (1.1.0.2), B

(column of constants) (1.1.0.2),

11 1n 1
[A | B] =
.. .. ..
. . .
m1 mn m
(extended) (1.1.0.2).
[A | B]

11 1n 1
[A | B] = ... .. .. ,

. .
m1 mn m

AX = B . j A j xj .
j xj .

1.1.1.

1.

x1 2x2 + 4x5 = 0
x1 + 2x2 + x3 5x5 = 0
, (1.1.1.1)
2x1 + 4x2 3x3 + x4 2x5 = 0
3x1 6x2 + 4x3 2x4 + 2x5 = 0

4 5 , R.
(1.1.1.1)

1 2 0 0 4
1 2 1 0 5
,
2 4 3 1 2
3 6 4 2 2

1 2 0 0 4 | 0
1 2 1 0 5 | 0
.
2 4 3 1 2 | 0
3 6 4 2 2 | 0

(1.1.1.1) , 5- (0, 0, 0, 0, 0)
4 (1.1.1.1).
(2, 1, 0, 0, 0) R5 .
R5 (2t, t, 0, 0, 0), t R (1.1.1.1),
x1 = 2t, x2 = t, x3 = 0, x4 = 0, x5 = 0
(1.1.1.1). (1.1.1.1) . 5- (2, 1, 1, 0, 0)
(1.1.1.1), :

2 + 2 1 + 1 5 0 = 1 6= 0.
 3

2.
 
1 1 | 1
2 2 | 0

x1 x2 = 1
(1.1.1.2)
2x1 2x2 = 0

. , (1 , 2 )
(1.1.1.2), 1 = 1 + 2 ,
21 = 22 1 = 2 .
1 1 = 1 + 1 , 0 = 1 . -
(1 , 2 ) (1.1.1.2).
(1.1.1.2) .

3.

1 2 0 0 4 | 0
1 2 1 0 5 | 0
.
2 4 3 1 2 | 0
0 0 0 0 0 | 1

0 x1 + 0 x2 + 0 x3 + 0 x4 = 1,

, 0 = 1.
. , -
[A | B] AX = B

[ 0 0 0 | t ],
t 6= 0, .

i j . i j
j i .
.

(1.1.0.1) i j .
(1.1.0.1) -
i c k.
i . i
(1.1.0.1)

i1 x1 + + in xn = i , (1.1.1.3)

(ci1 )x1 + + (cin )xn = ci . (1.1.1.4)

4 . , .

(1 , 2 , . . . , n ) (1.1.1.3)

i1 1 + + in n = i c(i1 1 + + cin n ) = ci
(ci1 )1 + + (cin )n = ci ,

. (1 , 2 , . . . , n ) (1.1.1.4). -
, (1.1.1.3) (1.1.1.4)
c1 . , ,
.

i k .
, i (1.1.0.1) k l
(1.1.0.1),
i .

(i1 + kl1 )x1 + + (in + kln )xn = i + kl . (1.1.1.5)

. , = (1 , . . . , n )
(1.1.0.1), i
, .
i l (1.1.0.1),

i1 1 + + in n = i (1.1.1.6)

l1 1 + + ln n = l . (1.1.1.7)

(1.1.1.7) k

kl1 1 + + kln n = kl . (1.1.1.8)

(1.1.1.6) (1.1.1.8),

(i1 + kl1 )1 + + (in + kln )n = i + kl ,

. (1.1.1.5). ,
(1.1.0.1),
(1.1.0.1),
i , k l . ,
. .

1.1.2. AX = B k.
[A0 |B 0 ] [A|B]
:

[A|B],
[A|B] k,
[A|B] [A|B],

A0 X = B 0 AX = B .
 5

B 0, B = 0
AX = 0 (homogeneous). AX = 0
A, (0, . . . , 0) .
:

1.1.3. AX = 0 k
v1 = (p1 , . . . , pn ), v2 = (q1 , . . . , qn ). v1 + v2 AX = 0,
, k.

. i AX = 0

i1 x1 + i2 x2 + + in xn = 0 .

v1 + v2 = (kp1 + tq1 , . . . , kpn + tqn ). , ,

v1 + v2 AX = 0,

i1 (p1 + tq1 ) + + in (pn + qn ) = 0 .

,
i1 p1 + + in pn = 0 i1 q1 + + in qn = 0.

i1 p1 + + in pn = 0 i1 q1 + + in qn = 0.
:

(i1 p1 + + in pn ) + (i1 q1 + + in qn ) = 0
(i1 p1 + i1 q1 ) + + (in pn + in qn ) = 0
i1 (p1 + q1 ) + + in (pn + qn ) = 0.

v1 + v2 AX = 0.

v1 + v2 (linear combination)
v1 v2 , k. 1.1.3
v A X = 0, v A X = 0 k.
.

1.1.4. A X = 0 ,
A X = 0 .

1.1
1. :

i) x + y + z = 0 ii) x + y + z = 1
x + 2y z = 0 , x + 2y z = 2 ,
2x + 3y = 0 2x + 3y = 0
iii) x y + = 1
.
x + y z = 2
6 . , .

2. R
.

0 0 1 0 0 0 1 2 1
i) 0 1 0 1 3 2 , ii) 0 4 8 .
0 3 0 0 0 1 1 5 1

3. AX = 0 R, A
3 4 ,

0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 .
0 0 0 0

1.2
Gauss.
mn A = (aij )
.
.
A 1 , . . . , m . A 1n .
 
i = ai1 ain , i = 1, . . . , m.
bi , i
b k. 1 n
 
bi = bai1 bain .

i + bj , j b
i . 1 n
 
i + bj = ai1 + baj1 ain + bajn .

1.2.1. A = (aij ) m n k 1 , . . . , m
A. (elementary row operations)
A :

1: i i + aj , 1 i, j n
a k. i i + aj .
2: i j , 1 i, j n.
i j .
3: i bi , 1 i n
0 6= b k. i bi .

1, :
i aj j . a ,
i . , A B
B A.
 7

1.2.2.

1 0 1 3 2 1 0 1 3 2
1. 4 0 0 0 1 0 0 4 12 7 .
2 2 41
0 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0

1 0 1 3 2 4 0 0 0 1
2. 4 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 3 2 .
2 1
0 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0

1 0 1 3 2 1 0 1 3 2
3. 4 0 0 0 1 4 0 0 0 1 .
3 23
0 1 1 0 0 0 2 2 0 0
i A i ,
.  
i = 0 0 .
.

1.2.3. A ( row echelon form)

:

A, , ,
1. 1 ( leading one) .
,
.
, , .

A ( row reduced eche-

lon form)

A
A, ,
.

A ,
i , .
j , j i.
. ,
.

1.2.4.

1. m n 0, . m n
0, .
2.

" # 1 2 3 4 5
0 1 2 3
A= C = 0 1 2 3 0
0 0 0 1
0 0 0 0 0

.
8 . , .

3.

" # 1 0 0 2 6
0 1 2 0
B= D = 0 1 0 3 2
0 0 0 1
0 0 0 0 0
.
4.
" #  
0 0 0 1 1 0 3 4 5
E= F =
0 1 2 3 0 0 2 0 0
.
A .
Gauss (Gaussian elimination
algorithm).

1.2.1 Gauss
: m n A.
: A.
1 A , -
.
2 A.
3 ,
2,
.
4 3 a, -
1/a
.
5 -
-
.
6 ,
.
,
.
7
6 ,

.

.
1.2.5.
1. Gauss

0 0 1 0 0 0
A= 0 2 0 2 6 4
0 3 0 0 0 1
 9

.
,
. 3 ,
4 2.
A , ( 2-6).

0 2 0 2 6 4 0 1 0 1 3 2
A 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0
1 2 1 2 1
0 3 0 0 0 1 0 3 0 0 0 1

0 1 0 1 3 2
0 0 1 0 0 0
3 3 31
0 0 0 3 9 5

0 1 0 1 3 2
0
1 A = 0

0 1 0 0 0 .

3 3 3
0 0 0 1 3 53

A0 . A0
, :

0 1 0 0 0 13
0 00
A A = 0 0 1 0 0 0

1 1 3
0 0 0 1 3 53 .

A00 .

2.

1 1 0 2
A= 0 0 1 1
0 0 0 0
. Gauss
A.

3. Gauss B :

2 0 0 3 0 1 0 0 32 0
4 0 0 4 2 4 0 0 4 2
B=
1 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 1
0 0 0 1 0 1 2 1 0 0 0 1 0

3

1 0 0 2
0
0 0 0 2 2
2 2 41
0 0 0 23 1 2 12 2
3 3 1
0 0 0 1 0
10 . , .

3
3

1 0 0 2
0 1 0 0 2
0

1 1 3
0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1
3 3 + 2 2

3
0 0 0 2 1 0 0 0 0 12
4 4 2
0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1

3 3
1 0 0 2
0 1 0 0 2
0
0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 0

3 23 0 0 0 0 1 4 4 3 0 0 0 0 1
0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0

1 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 1 0
2 .
1 1 3 2 0 0 0 0 1
0 0 0 0 0
4. 3 3-

1 2 1
A= 0 4 8
1 5 1 .
A
Gauss.
( ) -
.
1.2.1.

1 2 1 1 2 1
A 0 4 8 0 1 2
3 3 1
0 3 2 2 41 2
0 3 2

1 0 3 1 0 3

1 1 22 0 1 2 1 0

1 2

3 8 3
3 3 32 0 0 8 0 0 1

1 0 0

1 1 + 33 0 1 0 .

2 2 23 0 0 1

A -
B , A B ,
. B , C , A
, B
C A. -
A0 A00
 11

A0 A00 A
, A0 6= A00 . , 1.2.5.1, A0 A00
A. , ,
.

1.2.6. B , C -
B C A
. B = C .

. A m n.
(mathematical induction) n, A. ,
n ( )
n = k ( ),
n = k + 1.
n = 1, . 1.2.1.
m k .
A m (k + 1) B , C , ,
A .
k B C

k A . ,
, k B
C . , B C ( )
(k + 1)-. B ,
C ,
( (k + 1) )
B C
. , B
C . ,
B = C.

A
A.

1.2.7. ( rank) A
A. A
rank(A).

1.2.6, B A
, rank(A) = rank(B).

1.2.8.

1. 0 m n . rank(0) = 0.

2. B 1.2.5.3. rank(B) = 3.

B m n A,
B rank(B) m.
B ,
12 . , .

. , B
rank(B) n. rank(A) = rank(B), :

A m n , rank(A) min(m, n).

1.2.9. A,
(elementary column operations) A
(column
reduced echelon form) A, . [2, 1.2.5].
Gauss A .

1.2.10.

1 0 0 4
A= 0 0 1 0
0 0 0 0

. , A
. , A
.

1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
A 0 0 1 0
0 1 0 0
4 4 41 2 3
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

.

1.2
1. m 1 R
.
2. 2 2 C
.
3. 2 3 C
.
4. -
.

3 8 6 5 3
2 1 1 2 4 7 4
1 2 0 3 1

A1 = 1 3 1 , A2 = 1 2 3 1 , A3 =
1 1 3 2 5
.
1 1 4 3 6 5 5 2 3 3 5 0
1 5 9 0 7
 13

2 3 3 2 1 3 0 3
3 3 3 1 1 1 0
0 1 2 1
A4 = 1 2 1 , A5 =
3 2 4 , A6 = .
1 0 9 5 0
0 1 1
0 5 1 1 1 2 0 4

1.3
-
Gauss. 1.1.2
.

1.3.1. AX = B
k [R|B 0 ] [A|B].
RX = B 0 AX = B .

(1.3.1) .

1.3.1
: AX = B .
: AX = B .
1 [A | B].
[A | B] [A0 | B 0 ].
[A0 | B 0 ]

[ 0 0 0 | a ]

a 6= 0, AX = B
. .
2 [A0 |B 0 ] [R|B 00 ].

, k
(free variable).
3
[R|B 00 ].
. n-
3.

[A | B] [A0 | B 0 ] , -
Gauss. 1.1.2,
AX = B A0 X = B 0 .
. -

. 0
.

1.3.2.
14 . , .

1.
R:

x1 2x2 + 4x5 = 0
x1 + 2x2 + x3 5x5 = 0
(1.3.2.1)
2x1 + 4x2 3x3 + x4 2x5 = 0
3x1 6x2 + 4x3 2x4 + 2x5 = 0.

(1.3.2.1) -
:

1 2 0 0 4 0
1 2 1 0 5 0
[A |0] =
2

4 3 1 2 0
3 6 4 2 2 0

1 2 0 0 4 0
0 0 1 0 1 0

0 0 0 1 3 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 .

(1.3.2.1)

x1 2x2 +4x5 = 0
x3 x5 = 0
x4 +3x5 = 0.

x2 , x5 . x1 , x3 , x4 ,

x1 = 2x2 4x5
x3 = x 5 . (1.3.2.2)
x4 = 3x5

(x1 , . . . , x5 ) (1.3.2.1), x2 , x5 -
R, x1 , x3 , x4 (1.3.2.2).
(1.3.2.1) 5-

(2x2 4x5 , x2 , x5 , 3x5 , x5 ) x2 , x5 R.

(1.3.2.1)

{ (2x2 4x5 , x2 , x5 , 3x5 , x5 ) : x2 , x5 R} =

= {(2x2 , x2 , 0, 0, 0) + (4x5 , 0, x5 , 3x5 , x5 ) : x2 , x5 R} =
= {x2 (2, 1, 0, 0, 0) + x5 (4, 0, 1, 3, 1) : x2 , x5 R} .

{x2 (2, 1, 0, 0, 0) + x5 (4, 0, 1, 3, 1) : x2 , x5 C}.

 15

2. R

x1 x2 x3 + 2x4 2x5 = 1
2x1 + x2 2x3 + x4 + x5 = 2
x1 4x2 x3 + 5x4 7x5 = 1 (1.3.2.3)
x1 + x2 + x3 x4 + 3x5 = 0
2x1 + x2 x3 + x4 + 2x5 = 3.

A B
(1.3.2.3).

1 1 1 2 2 1

2 1 2 1 1 2

[A |B] =
1 4 1 5 7 1

1 1 1 1 3 0
2 1 1 1 2 3

1 0 0 0 1/3 1
0 1 0 0 8/3 1


0

0 1 0 1 1

0 0 0 1 1 1
0 0 0 0 0 0 .

rank(A) = rank([A | B]) = 4 -

x1 1/3 x5 = 1
x2 +8/3 x5 = 1
x3 + x5 = 1
x4 + x5 = 1.
AX = 0

{ (1/3x5 , 8/3x5 , x5 , x5 , x5 ) : x5 R} =

= {x5 (1/3, 8/3, 1, 1, 1) : x5 R}.

AX = B

{ (1, 1, 1, 1, 0) + t (1/3, 8/3, 1, 1, 1) : t R}.

3. R AX = B ,
 
0 1 2 3  
A= , B = 1 1 .
0 0 1 1

[A | B]
" #
0 1 0 1 3
.
0 0 1 1 1
16 . , .

x2 +x4 = 3
.
x3 +x4 = 1

x1 , x4 . x2 , x3

x2 = 3 x4
.
x3 = 1 x4

{(x1 , 3 x4 , 1 x4 , x4 ) : x1 , x4 R} =

{x1 (1, 0, 0, 0) + x4 (0, 1, 1, 1) + (0, 3, 1, 0) : x1 , x4 R}.

4. AX = B R,
   
1 2 1
A= , B= .
0 1 1

[A | B]
" #
1 0 3
.
0 1 1

x1 = 3
x2 = 1 .

(3, 1). {(3, 1)}

AX = B .
5. C AX = 0, AX = B
AX = C ,
1 2 0 1 1
1 3 0 2 0
A=
0
, B=
1 ,
C=
i .

0 1
0 0 0 1 0
  -
. A , A | 0 B C ,
:

1 2 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 3
1 3 0 0 2 0 0 1 0 0 1 1
.
0 0 1 0 1 i 0 0 1 0 1 i
0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0

(0, 0, 0) AX = 0,
 17

AX = B .
(3, 1, i) AX = C .

.
.

1.3.3. AX = B , A m n .
:

AX = B rank(A) = rank([A | B]).

rank(A) = m, AX = B .
rank(A) = rank([A | B]) = n, AX = B .
rank(A) = rank([A | B]) < n, AX = B .
AX = B n rank(A) .

AX =
0, A m n . rank(A) = rank([A | 0]),
AX = 0 (0, . . . , 0) AX = 0.
[A | 0]
. AX = 0
. (0, . . . , 0)
AX = 0 , . rank(A) = n.
.

1.3.4. A mn R
A.

AX = 0 () .

(0, . . . , 0) AX = 0 rank(A) = n,
. A
.

1.3
1. . ()
R. , ()
a, b, c R .
i) x + y + z = 0 ii) x + y + z = 1
x + 2y z = 0 x + 2y z = 2
2x + 3y = 0 2x + 3y = 0

iii) x + y + z = 1 iv) x + y + z = a
x + 2y z = 2 x + 2y z = b
2x + 3y = 3. 2x + 3y = b
18 . , .

2.

x1 2 x2 + x3 + 3 x4 x5 = 0
2 x1 + x2 + x4 + x5 = 3
.
x1 7 x2 + 3 x3 + 8 x4 4 x5 = 3
3 x1 4 x2 + x3 + x4 + 3 x5 = 0

3.

1 2 0 1 1 x
2 5 1 3 0 y
A=
3
, B=
3 X = z
.
4 0 1
0 4 2 6 a t

a AX = B .

4. AX = B
 
1 2 0 2 0 3
0 0 1 2 0 1 .
.

5. AX = B S = {(1, 2, 0, 1) + t(1, 1, 1, 2) +
s(0, 1, 2, 1) : t, s C}. AX = 0.

1.4 R2 R3

R3 . , , R2 .

R2
R2 ax + by = c,
a, b .


. a b 1. ,
.

1.4.1.

1. x + y = 2
 
1 1 | 2 ,

{(2 y, y) : y R} = {y(1, 1) + (2, 0) : y R}.

x + y = 2 :
 19

(0, 2)

x
(2, 0)

1.1: x + y = 2.

 
2. y = 2 0 1 | 2 ,
.
{(t, 2) : t R}
y = 2 :

2
x

1.2: y = 2

3.
L = {(1, 0) + t(1, 1) : t R}
x y = 1. , (x, y) L, x = 1 + t, y = t,
t R. , x = 1 + y x y = 1. L

{t(1, 1) : t R}.
:

1.3: x y = 0 x y = 1
20 . , .

R3
m ,
R. AX = B , A m n .
rank A 3, . rank A ,
3 0. AX = B ( )
R3 . , R3 (a priori) . ( )
.
,
. , , , R3
. , , AX = B
. , A.
1.4.1: AX = B R3 ,
A m 3

i.) rank A = 3, .
, . AX = B
.
ii.) rank A = 2,

{t(a1 , a2 , a3 ) + (a, b, c) : t R}.

.
AX = B (a, b, c) (
t = 0) (a1 + a, a2 + b, a3 + c) ( t = 1).
iii.) rank A = 1, .
AX = B

{t(a1 , a2 , a3 ) + s(b1 , b2 , b3 ) + (a, b, c) : t R}.

-
.
AX = B (a, b, c) ( t = 0, s = 0),
(a1 + a, a2 + b, a3 + c) ( t = 1, c = 0) (b1 + a, b2 + b, b3 + c) ( t = 0,
c = 1) .
iv.) rank A = 0, A , . A
. ,

R3 .

1.4.2.

1. xy R3 z = 0. z = 0

 
0 0 1 0 .
 21

1. ,
.
2. x + y = 2 R3 . (
x + y = 2 R2 ,
1.4.1.1). x + y = 2 R3

 
1 1 0 2 .
,
1 E :

E = {(2 y, y, z) : y R} = {(2, 0, 0) + y(1, 1, 0) + z(0, 0, 1) : y, z R} ,

1.4.

x
1.4: x + y = 2 R3

, E xy (z = 0),
.

x+y =2
,
z =0

AX = B .
 
  1 1 0 2
A |B =
0 0 1 0

AX = B L

L = {(2 y, y, 0) : y R} = {(2, 0, 0) + y(1, 1, 0) : y R}.

L (2, 0, 0), ( t = 0), (1, 1, 1), ( t = 1).

L

{y(1, 1, 0) : y R},

AX = 0.
22 . , .

3. x1 + 2x2 + 3x3 = 1 x1 + 2x2 + x3 = 2

R3 . ,
.

x1 +2x2 +3x3 = 1
x1 +2x2 +x3 = 2 .

:
   
1 2 3 | 1 1 2 0 | 5/2
.
1 2 1 | 2 0 0 1 | 1/2

x1 = 5/2 2x2
x3 = 1/2

L = { (5/2, 0, 1/2) + t(2, 1, 0) : t R}.

, x1 +2x2 +3x3 = 1 x1 +2x2 +x3 = 2

L (. 1.6). L (5/2, 0, 1/2)
(t = 0) (1/2, 1, 1/2) (t = 1). t R R3
L.

1.5:

4. x = 0, y = 0, z = 0,

1 0 0
0 1 0 .
0 0 1
(0, 0, 0). x = 0
yz , y = 0 xz z = 0 xy
,
0 : (0, 0, 0).

1.6: xy , xz , yz
 23

5. x1 +x2 +x3 = 0, x1 +2x2 x3 = 1

2x1 +3x2 = 2 R3 .
x1 +x2 +x3 = 0
x1 +2x2 x3 = 1
2x1 +3x2 =2
:

1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0
1 2 1 1 0 1 2 1 .
2 3 0 2 0 0 0 1
,
.
6. (1, 0, 0), (0, 1, 1) (0, 0, 1) R3 .
. R3

ax + by + cz = d ax + by + cz d = 0.
, a, b, c, d -
:
a d = 0
b +c d = 0 (1.4.2.1)
c d = 0 .
(1.4.2.1) , .
:

1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1
0 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 .
0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1
(1.4.2.1)
{(d, 0, d, d) : d R} = {t(1, 0, 1, 1) : t R}.
, t = 1, (1, 0, 1, 1), . a = c = d = 1 b = 0.

x + z = 1.

.

1.4
1. {(1, 4) + t(1, 2) : t R}.

2. x + 2y z = 0, x y + z = 1 R3 .

3. (0, 0, 0), (1, 0, 0)

(0, 2, 3).
4. (0, 0, 0), (1, 0, 1) (2, 0, 2).
.
24 . , .

1.5
f (x) = a0 + a1 x + + an xn , ai R 0 i n
an 6= 0, n N, n (polynomial curve
of degree n). (a, b) R2
b = f (a). ,
n .
,
(model)
.

1.5.1. A(2, 4), B(3, 2) C(5, 8).

2 .
3
.
1, . A, B, C .

y = a0 + a1 x. A, B, C y -

a0 +2a1 = 4
a0 +3a1 = 2
a0 +5a1 = 8 .
( a0 , a1 )

1 2 4
1 3 2
1 5 8 .

3 2 2,
3.
. 1
3 .
y = a0 + a1 x + a2 x2 . A, B, C y ,

a0 +2a1 +4 a2 = 4
a0 +3a1 + 9a2 = 2 .
a0 +5a1 +25a2 = 8

( a0 , a1 , a2 )
:

 
1 2 4 4 

 1 0 0
 2
1 3 9 2  0 1 0 3 .
 
1 5 25 8   0 0 1 1

(2, 3, 1). . a0 = 2, a1 = 3, a2 = 1,
A, B , C y = 2 + 3x x2 (. ).
 25

5
A B
0

5
C
10

15

1 2 3 4 5 6

1.7: y = x2 + 3x + 2.

y = a0 + a1 x + a2 x2 + a3 x3 . A, B C
y
a0 + 2 a1 + 4 a2 + 8 a3 = 4
a0 + 3 a1 + 9 a2 + 27a3 = 2 (1.5.1.1)
a0 + 5 a1 + 25a2 + 125a3 = 8 .


1 0 0 30 2
0 1 0 31 3 .
0 0 1 10 1
(1.5.1.1)

{(2, 3, 1, 0) + a3 (30, 31, 10, 1) : a3 R} .

a3 = 0 4- (2, 3, 1, 0) -
. a3 R 3
. 3
A, B, C

y = (2 30t) + (3 + 31t)x (1 + 10t)x2 + tx3 ,

, , 3 A, B, C .
t = 1 y = 28 + 34x 11x2 + x3
:

5 A
B

1 2 3 4 5 6

1.8: y = 28 + 34x 11x2 + x3 .

26 . , .

n 3, a0 , a1 , . . . , an ,
f (x) = a0 + a1 x + + an xn A, B, C


1 0 0 30 2
0 1 0 31 3
0 0 1 10 1
.

1.5.1 R2 .
, n
R2 n
n 1, . 2.3.6.
A, B, C 1.5.1.
.

;
,
.
-
.
6.2. (1.9)
A, B, C 1.5.1.

10

5 A
B
0

5
C
10

1 2 3 4 5 6

1.9: A, B, C .

1.5
1. 2
(2, 5), (1, 4), (3, 0).

2. 3
(1, 0), (0, 2), (1, 2), (2, 6).

3. 4
(1, 0), (0, 2), (1, 2), (2, 6).
 27

1.6

.
300 .. .
, 200 .. 100 ..,
.
, Han (206 .. 220 ..),

Gauss.
. -
Cardano (1501-1576)
Ars Magna ( ), 1545,
. -
Cramer (1704-1755), , 1750,
, -
, . 2.3. , ,
Gauss (1777-1855). 1801
Piazzi 41
. , ,
,
Gauss
, 1801, -
,
Gauss. Gauss -
1809.
-
. [3].
Gauss
[6].

1. H. Anton, C. Rorres, Elementary Linear Algebra, Applications Version, John Wiley

and Sons, 1994.

2. . -, . , . , -
, 2006.

3. V. Katz, , , 2013.

4. K. Nicholoson, Elementary Linear Algebra, McGraw-Hill, 2001.

5. Th. Shiffrin and M. R.Adams, Linear Algebra, a Geometric Approach, W. H. Free-

man and Company, 2002.

6. J. Tennenbaum and B. Director, How Gauss Determined The Orbit of Ceres,

Schiller Institute, 2006.
 2

.
.
.

2.1
1, k R,
C. , Mmn (k)
m n- k. n = m Mn (k)
A Mn (k) (square).
. A = (aij ) Mmn (k). i
A 1 n , i . j A
m 1 , j . ,

1j
  2j
i = i1 i2 in , j = .

..
.
mj

(ij ) (ij ) Mnm (k) (equal) ij = ij

1 i n 1 j m.

2.1.1.
1. A M23 (C),
 
1 1 1
A= .
0 2 4
A
     
1 1 1
1 = , 2 = , 3 =
0 2 4

   
1 = 1 1 1 2 = 0 2 4 .
12 1, 21 0.

29
30 . , .

2. [3] 1 1-.

3. .

2013-2014.
( ), /
(, ).
 
40 16 10 12 6 3 3 5
.
53 11 9 5 4 1 1 4
 
15 4 1 2 3 0 0 1
22 5 2 0 1 0 0 0

.

4. ,
. ,
x1 + x2 = 5
2x1 x2 = 1

 
1 1 5
.
2 1 1

5. (simple directed graph)

, ,
.
n n n
, A = (aij ),
(
1 i j
aij =
0 .

A (adjacency matrix). , -

2 4

3
2.1:
 31

0 1 0 1
0 0 0 1
A=
1
.
1 0 0
0 0 1 0

6. n m ,
m n (incindence matrix) ,
A = (aij ),

-1, i j

aij = +1, i j

0, .

,
.

1
1 2

2 4 4
3
5 6

3
2.2:

1 1 0 0

1 0 0 1

0 1 0 1
A= .

1 0 1 0

0 1 1 0
0 0 1 1

7. Mnm (k) m n
0 0.

. , ,

,
. .
32 . , .

2.1.2. A = (ij ), B = (ij ) Mnm (k),

( sum) A, B :

A + B = (ij + ij ).

2.1.3.
     
2 2 1 2 0 1 4 2 2
1. + = .
0 3 4 1 0 1 1 3 3

2.

  0 2
1 0
1 3
0 1
5 4

k. A = (ij ) Mnm (k), A (i, j)
ij , .
A = (ij ).
A (opposite) A.
:

2.1.4. A, B , Mnm (k). :

A + (B + ) = (A + B) + .
(associativity) .
A + 0 = A.
A + (A) = 0 = (A) + A.
A+B = B +A. (commutativity)
.

, , Mnm (k)
. -
.

2.1.5. A Mnm (k) B Mm (k).

( product) A B A B AB
n i j
m
X
ij = i1 1j + i2 2j + + im mj = i j .
=1
 33

1j
    2j
ij ! i1 i2 in

..
.

.
mj
. ,
.
A B , A
B .

2.1.6.

3
  0
1. 1 2 0 1 0 = 1 3 + 2 0 + 0 0 + 1 1 = 4.

1

0   0 0 0 0
2. 1 2 1 0 4 = 2 1 0 4 .
3 6 3 0 12
    
1 i 0 1 0 1+i
3. = .
0 1 0 1 0 1

4. A A A .
A2 A A.
Am m > 1 A Am1 .

5.
0 1 0 1
0 0 0 1
A=
1
.
1 0 0
0 0 1 0

0 0 1 1 1 1 1 0
0 0 1 0 1 1 0 0
A2 =
0
A3 = .
1 0 2 0 0 2 1
1 1 0 0 0 1 0 2

11 x1 + 12 x2 + + 1n xn = 1
.. ..
. .
m1 x1 + m2 x2 + + mn xn = m

AX = B , A = (ij )
B .
, X - .
.
34 . , .

2.1.7.
     
1 2 x 2
A= , X= 1 , B= .
3 4 x2 5

AX
 
x1 + 2x2
AX =
3x1 + 4x2

AX = B :
   
x1 + 2x2 2
= .
3x1 + 4x2 5

x1 + 2x2 = 2
3x1 + 4x2 = 5 .

(main diagonal) A = (aij ) Mnm (k)

aii . In Mn (k)
1, .
In (identity matrix) n n-
. ,

1 0 0
I3 = 0 1 0
0 0 1 ,
3 3 .
,
.

2.1.8. A Mnm (k), B, B 0 Mmk (k), Mks (k). :

i) A(B) = (AB). (associativity)

.
ii) AIm = A = In A = A.
iii) A(B + ) = AB + A. (right
distributivity) .
iv) (A + B) = A + B.
(left distributivity) .

2.1.4, -
. . :
A, B Mn (k)

AB 6= BA. (2.1.8.1)
 35

    
1 0 0 1 0 1
= ,
0 0 0 0 0 0
    
0 1 1 0 0 0
= .
0 0 0 0 0 0
, ,
, . . ,
, Mnm (k) .
(scalar product) k
A = (ij ) Mnm (k). A
(ij ). , A A,
A .
.

2.1.9. A, B Mmn (k), C Mnl (k) , k. :

i) (A + B) = A + B .
ii) ( + )A = A + A.
iii) ()A = (A).
iv) (AC) = (A)C = A(C).

A,
A, (transpose) A AT .
A = (ij ) Mnm (K), AT = (ij ) Mmn (k), ij = ji , 1 i n,
1 j m. , A = (aij ) Mnm (C), (conjugate) A
A = (aij ).

2.1.10.

1.  
1 0 2 3
A= .
0 1 3 5

1 0
0 1
AT =
2
.
3
3 5

2.

a1 + b 1 i
..
X= Mn1 (C), aj , bj R, 1 j n X 6= 0 .

.
an + b n i

X T X M1 (R)
.
36 . , .

a1 b 1 i
X=
..
.
an b n i

X T X = (a21 + b21 ) + + (a2n + b2n ) .

 

.
2.1.11. A, B Mn (k). :
i) (AB)T = B T AT .

ii) (AT )T = A.

iii) (A)T = AT , K .
A Mn (k) (symmetric) A = AT , . ij = ji ,
1 i, j n, A (antisymmetric) A = AT , .
ij = ji , 1 i, j n. A (diagonal)
, . ij = 0,
i 6= j , 1 i, j n. A (upper triangular)
, . ij = 0, i > j , 1 i, j n.
A (lower triangular)
, . ij = 0, i < j , 1 i, j n. (trace)
A = (ij ) Mn (k) A
Tr A:
Tr(A) := 11 + + nn .
2.1.12.
1.
  6 1 5
1 2
A1 = , A2 = 1 0 2 ,
2 3
5 2 1
. Tr(A1 ) = 4, Tr(A2 ) = 7.

2.

 0 3
 6
0 1
, 3 0 2
1 0
6 2 0
0.

3.      
2 3 2 5 0 2
= + ,
7 5 5 5 2 0
.
.
-
.
 37

4. Tr(0) = 0, Tr(In ) = n.

5. A Mn (R), AT A , . AT A
, , :

(AT A)T = AT (AT )T = AT A .

.
Eij In i j
, .

In Eij .
i j
Eij Mn (k) Eij A ,
A Mnm (k). , , A Mnm (k).
Eij A Mnm (k) A i j
, .

A Eij A .
i j
, A
( ) A Eij .
.

2.1.13.

1 2 3 0 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
E12 4 5 6 = 1 0 0 4 5 6 = 1 2 3 .
7 8 9 0 0 1 7 8 9 7 8 9

2.1
1. :
     
1 2 2 0 1 2
() + ,
5 3 0 4 3 5

1 2 0 3
() 3 1 1 0 .
0 0 4 1
2.
0 a b
A = a
0 c .
b c 0
A3 . A3
.

3. 2 2
:
38 . , .
 
1 0
() ,
0 0
 
2 0
() ,
0 6
 
1 3
() .
0 1
4.
1 2 3
4 5 6
7 8 9
.

5. Mm (k)
. , ,
n, n
Mm (k) .

2.2
.

2.2.1. A Mn (k) ( invertible) ,

B
AB = In = BA .
B ( inverse) A,
A1 .

, A Mn (k) ,
B : AB = In
BA = In . AB = In BA = In . ,
A ( ), B
( ) A
. ,
.

2.2.2.
   
1 0 1 0
1. . ,
1 1 1 1
       
1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0
= = .
1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 1
 
1 0
2. A = . B
0 0
A AB = In . , AB
AB = In .
 39

3. A n n i. -
n n B i AB . , ,
B AB = In . A .

4. A n n j . -
n n B j BA B . ,
, B BA = In . A
.

5. 0 .

6. In : In In = In , In 1 = In .

7.  
a b
A=
c d
ad bc 6= 0.  
1 d b
B= ,
ad bc c a
A B = B A = I2 B = A1 .
adbc (determinant) A M2 (k) det(A).

8.
1 0
A=
..
.
0 n
1 n 6= 0, 1 i n.

11

0
A1 =
.. .

.
0 n1

9. A B = A1 . B -
A = B 1 .

10. A . n N
:

(An )1 = (A1 )n .

. n = 2, A2
(A1 )2 , I2 :

A2 (A1 )2 = (A A)(A1 A1 ) = A(A A1 )A1 = A I2 A1 =

A(I2 A1 ) = A A1 = I2 .
40 . , .

n N, (An )1 = (A1 )n
. ,
n ( )
n = k ( ),
n = k + 1.

, n = 1, ,
(A1 )1 = A1 (A1 )1 = A1 .
n = k , . (Ak )1 =
(A1 )k .
n = k + 1. ,

Ak+1 (A1 )k+1 = (AAk ) (A1 )k A1 = A Ak (A1 )k A1 =

A In A1 = A(In A1 ) = A A1 = In .

n = k n = k + 1
n = 2.
.

A , A0 = In n N

An := (A1 )n .

, A , Am m. -
1/A A1
.

2.2.3. A, B Mn (k) , -

(AB)1 = B 1 A1 .

(AB)(B 1 A1 ) = [A(BB 1 )]A1 = (AIn )A1 = AA1 = In .

(B 1 A1 )(AB) = In . (AB)1 = B 1 A1 .

-
. , A1 , A2 , . . . , As Mn (k) ,
:

(A1 A2 As )1 = (As )1 (As1 )1 (A1 )1 .

2.2.4. ( elementary) :
 41

i 6= j a k, Ei+aj ,
In i In i + aj , .

In Ei+aj .
i i + aj

Eij In
i j , .

In Eij .
i j

b k , Ebi
In i
b, .
In Ebi .
i bi

2.2.5.

1. M2 (R) :
     
1 a 1 0 0 1
E1+a2 = , E2+a1 = , E12 = ,
0 1 a 1 1 0
   
b 0 1 0
Eb1 = , Eb2 = ,
0 1 0 b
a, b R b 6= 0.

2. M3 (R)

1 0 a 1 0 0 1 0 0
E1+a3 = 0 1 0 , E23 = 0 0 1 , Eb3 = 0 1 0 .
0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 b

. -
, . 2.2.1.
.

2.2.6. A = (ij ) Mnm (k), :

i) Ei+aj A A i
i + aj , .
A Ei+aj A.
i i + aj

ii) Eij A A i- j -
, .

A Eij A.
i j
42 . , .

iii) Ebi A A i
b k, .

A Ebi A.
i bi

2.2.7.

1.    
0 3 2 4
A= B = .
2 4 0 3

A B B = E12 A.
1 2
2. A -
.  
0 3
A= .
2 4
   
2 4 1 2
A A1 = A =
1 2 0 3 1 1 1 2 0 3 2 1 2
2 3
 
1 2
A3 = I .
0 1 1 1 22 2

A1 = E12 A,
A2 = E 1 1 A1 = E 1 1 E12 A,
2 2

A3 = E 1 2 A2 = E 1 2 E 1 1 E12 A,
3 3 2

I2 = E122 A3 = E122 E 1 2 E 1 1 E12 A.

3 2

R
A. 2.2.6
Gauss A.

2.2.8. R A
Mnm (k). E1 , . . . , En

R = En E1 A .

B E1 , . . . , En 2.2.8. -
A , 2.2.8,

In = BA.
, A In ,
A B = E1 En ,
E1 , . . . , En 2.2.8. B A =
In . A B = In .
 43

2.2.9. 

1 2
A= .
3 4
B = (bij ) AB = I2 .

      
1 2 b11 b12 b11 + 2b21 b12 + 2b22 1 0
= = .
3 4 b21 b22 3b11 + 4b21 3b12 + 4b22 0 1
4 :
b11 + 2b21 = 1
3b11 + 4b21 = 0
b12 + 2b22 = 0
3b12 + 4b22 = 1.
, , -
, () A.
b11 + 2b21 = 1 b12 + 2b22 = 0

3b11 + 4b21 = 0 3b12 + 4b22 = 1.
( )
:
   
1 2 1 0 1 0 2 1
.
3 4 0 1 0 1 3/2 1/2
(b11 , b21 ) = (2, 3/2) (b12 , b22 ) = (1, 1/2).
 
2 1
B= ,
3/2 1/2
AB = I2 . B [A | I2 ]
, Gauss, .

[A | I2 ] [I2 | B] .
A
:
I2 = E122 E 1 2 E231 A ,
2

I2 B . ,

B = E122 E 1 2 E231 I2 = E122 E 1 2 E231 .

2 2

.
A Mn (k) B = (bij ), AB =
In . AB Mn (k) n2 , AB = In , n2 (
) . , , n2
n2 . n
( n n ), AB = In .
A.

  .
A In .  A ,
A In .
44 . , .

rank(A) = n, AB = In -
.
[ A | In ]. [ A | In ]
. B
:
[ A | In ] [ In | B ] .
E1 , . . . , En A
,

E E1 A = In . (2.2.9.1)

[ A | In ] [ In | E E1 ].
B AB = In E E1 .
, (2.2.9.3) BA = In . A -

A1 = E E1
E1 , . . . , En A -
.
rank(A) < n,
[ A | In ] [ R | C ] , (2.2.9.2)
R A. R 6= In ,
R . C

AB = In . 2.2.8,

E E2 E1 A = R , (2.2.9.3)

E1 , . . . , E .

[ A | In ] [ R | E E1 ].

C (2.2.9.2) E E1 .
C , C
, . 2.2.3. C
, . 2.2.2. R
, AB = In
. rank(A) < n, B
AB = In A .

2.2.10. A, B Mn (k).

i) A rank(A) = n.

ii) A B = In ( B A = In ), A B
B = A1 .
 45

2.2.1
: n n A.
: A, .
1 A In

[ A | In ].
2 Gauss [ A | In ]
[ R | B ].
3 R = In A B = A1 . R 6= In ,
A .

(2.2.1) 2.2.10 -
:

2.2.11.

1.

1 3 0
A = 2 4 3 .
1 2 1

[ A | In ]
:
 
1 3 0  1 0 0 1 3 0  1 0 0

2 4 3  0 1 0 0 2 3  2 1 0
 
1 2 1  0 0 1 0 1 1  1 0 1

 
1 3 0  1 0 0
 1 3 0  1 0
 0
0 1 1  1 0 1 0 1 1  1 0 1

0 2 3  2 1 0 0 2 3  2 1 0

 
1 0 3  2 0 3 1 0 0  2 3
 9
0 1 1  1 0 1 0 1 0  1 1 3 .
 
0 0 1  0 1 2 0 0 1  0 1 2

2 3 9
A1 = 1 1 3 .
0 1 2

2.
1 2 3
A = 2 5 6 .
3 7 9
46 . , .

[ A | In ].


1 2 3 | 1 0 0 1 2 3 | 1 0 0
2 5 6 | 0 1 0 0 1 0 | 2 1 0 .
3 7 9 | 0 0 1 0 0 0 | 1 1 1

rank A < 3 A .
3. A Mn (K) A4 + 3A2 + A 4In = 0 .

1 3
A4 + 3A2 + A = 4In A


(A + 3A + In ) = In .
4

2.2.10, A A1 =
1
4
(A3 + 3A + In ).

A, :

2.2.12. A Mn (K). A
AT (AT )1 = (A1 )T .

. A ,

A A1 = In (A A1 )T = InT (A1 )T AT = In .

AT

(AT )1 = (A1 )T .

, AT , A = (AT )T
.

-
, .

2.2.13. A Mn (k) ,
AX = B , A1 B .

.
AX = B A1 (AX) = A1 B (A1 A)X = A1 B

In X = A1 B X = A1 B .

A1 .
A1 .
 47

2.2.14. AX = B

1 3 0 1
A = 2 4 3 , B = 0

1 2 1 1

2.2.11

2 3 9
A1 = 1 1 3 .
0 1 2

7
A1 B = 2
2
AX = B (7, 2, 2).

2.2
1. , ( :
2.2.6).

2. , .

  0 2 1 1 3 0
2 1
A= , B= 2 1 1 , C = 0 2 1 .
4 3
1 3 0 2 8 2

3.

      0 1
1 1 0
AX1 = , AX2 = , AX3 = , BX4 = 0 ,
BX5 = 1 ,

0 1 2
0 1

A B .

4. A2 + 2A In = 0, A Mn (K)
A. ,
B Mn (K), 2B 3 + B 2 4B + 3In = 0,
(B T )1 .

2.3
2.3.2, (determinant)

det : Mn (k) k ,
48 . , .

A Mn (k) k.
A det A |A|.
1 1 [] . . det[] = . 2 2

 
a b
det = ad bc.
c d
n > 2,
(n 1) (n 1) A. ,
(minors) A Aij . Aij
A A i j A.

2.3.1.

1 2 3  
1 2
1. A = 4 5 6 , A23 = .
7 8
7 8 0 2
2. (In )11 n n In1 .

1 0 0
3. , (I3 )21 . I3 = 0 1 0, (I3 )21 =
  0 0 1
0 0
.
0 1
4. A n n . i 6= j Aij ()
.

5. A ( ) . A11 (
) .
2.3.2. A = (ij ) Mn (k)

det A = 11 det A11 21 det A21 + + (1)n+1 n1 det An1 .

A
. , A
.
2.3.3.
1. A = [2], det A = 2.
 
1 0
2. A = det A = 4.
2 4

1 2 1
3. A = 3 1 1 . :
0 1 1
     
1 1 2 1 2 1
det A = 1 det 3 det + 0 det =
1 1 1 1 1 1
= 1 2 3 3 + 0 = 7.
 49

4.
2 1 2 1
0 3 1 1
A= .
0 0 1 1
3 0 0 0

det A = 2 det A11 0 det A21 + 0 det A31 3 det A41 .
A21 , A31
, 0. A41
3 3 3 det A41 = 7.
A11 .

3 1 1      
1 1 1 1 1 1
det A11 = det 0 1 1
= 3 det 0 det + 0
0 0 0 0 1 1
0 0 0

=00+0=0.

det A = 3 (7) = 21 .

5. |In | = 1. I In , . ,

det In = det I = 1 det I11 0 det I21 + + (1)n+1 0 det In1 = det I11 .

I11 = (In )11 = In1 . , n 1

det In = det In1 = = det[1] = 1 .

6. A .

det A = a11 det A11 + 0 det A21 + (1)n+1 0 det An1 = a11 det A11 .

A11 . -
n 1 det A = a11 ann .
.

A , A
A.

2.3.4. A Mn (k). :

i) det Ei+aj A = det A.

ii) det Eij A = det A.

iii) det Ebi A = b det A.

50 . , .

A
A A .

. E1 , . . . , Es , s
2.3.4

det (E1 E2 Es A) = det E1 det E2 det Es det A . (2.3.4.1)

, A, A
2.3.4.

2.3.5.

1.

1 1 1 1
1 1 3 5
A=
0
.
1 3 7
0 0 0 2

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
0 0 2
4 0 1 3 7
A A1 =
0
A2 =
2 2 1 1 7 3
3 2 0 0 2 4
0 0 2 0 0 0 0 2

1 1 1 1
0 1 3 7
1 A3 =
0 0 1 2 .

3 2 3
0 0 0 2
A3 . 2.3.3.6,

det A3 = 1 1 1 2 = 2.

2.3.4 A3 A,

det A2 = 2 det A3 , det A1 = det A2 , det A = det A1 ,

det A = 4.

2. A Mn (k) b k.
bA, A. bA A
A b. det(bA) = b b det A = bn det A
.

A Mn (k) b k, det(bA) = bn det A.

3. A M2 (k) det A = 3, det(2A) = 22 3 = 12.

 51

4. A M3 (k) det A = 3, det(2A) = 23 3 = 24.

2.3.6. det Ei+aj = 1, det Eij = 1, det Ebi = b.

. In -
. det In = 1.

det In = det(Ei+aj In ) det In = det Ei+aj det Ei+aj = 1.

2.3.7. R A. b k,
b 6= 0 det R = b det A.

A.

2.3.8. A Mn (k) det A 6=

0 . det A = 0 A . det A = 0
rank A < n.

. R A. A
R = In . 2.3.7, det A 6= 0
det R 6= 0.

2.3.9. A Mn (k).

i) A , det A = 0.

ii) A A, det A = 0.

. i). A . rank(A) < n

A . ii) i = bj ,
Eibj A i det A = det Eibj A = 0.

2.2.10, AB A B
A, B .
, 2.3.4.1 .

2.3.10. A, B Mn (k). :

det(AB) = det A det B.

.
52 . , .

2.3.11. A Mn (k).

1
det A 6= 0, det (A1 ) = .
det A

. det A 6= 0, A1 A. AA1 =
In , 2.3.10
1
det(AA1 ) = det In det A det(A1 ) = 1 det(A1 ) = .
det A

AT .

(Ei+aj )T = Ej+ai ,

1
1.

(Eij )T = Eij (Ebi )T = Ebi .

, .

2.3.12.

det(Ei+aj )T = 1, det(Eij )T = 1, det(Ebi )T = b .

2.2.12, B
T
B . , , .

2.3.13. A Mn (k).

det(AT ) = det A.

. E1 Es A = R, R
A E1 , . . . , Es , . 2.2.8. Ei1
, i = 1, . . . , s.

A = Es0 E10 R Ei0 = (Ei )1 , i = 1, . . . , s .

2.3.10,

det A = det Es0 det E10 det R .

AT = RT (E10 )T (Es0 )T

2.3.10,

det AT = det RT det(E10 )T det(Es0 )T . (2.3.13.1)

 53

det Ei0 = det(Ei0 )T . , A , R = In

det A = det E10 det Es0 1 = det AT .

A , R
det R = 0. RT , RT
rank(RT ) < n. det RT = 0. (2.3.13.1)
det AT = 0
det A = det AT = 0.

AT
A . , det A
A . , ,
.

2.3.14. A = (ij ) Mn (k). ,

1 j n A,

det A = (1)1+i 1i det A1i + (1)2+i 2i det A2i + + (1)n+i ni det Ani .

1 i n A,

det A = (1)i+1 i1 det Ai1 + (1)i+2 i2 det Ai2 + + (1)i+n in det Ain .

2.3.14.

2.3.15.

1.
1 2 5
A= 4 2 5 .
3 1 2
,

1 2 5
A1 = 3 0 0
3 1 2
det A1 = det A. A1
,
 
2 5
det A = det A1 = 3 det = 3.
1 2
,
2.3.14.
2.
1 0 1 2
0 1 3 4
A=
0
.
0 5 6
0 0 7 8
54 . , .

A
A. det A = det A11 .

1 3 4
det A = det 0 5 6 .
0 7 8
-
 
5 6
det A = det = 2 .
7 8
A :

1 0 1 2
0 1 3 4
A=
0
.
0 5 6
0 0 7 8
(block) .
A -
A.
3.
 
B C
A= ,
0 D
A Mn (k), B Mr (k), D Mnr (k) C Mr(nr) (k).
  
Ir 0 B C
A= ,
0 D 0 Inr

   
Ir 0 B C
, .
0 D 0 Inr

,
n ,
 
Ir 0
det = det D .
0 D
,
n ,
 
B C
det = det B .
0 Inr
.

A Mn (k)
  B Mr (k),
B C
D Mnr (k) C Mr(nr) (k) A = , :
0 D

det A = det B det D.

 55

4. A . AT ,
2.3.13 2.3.3.6,

det A = a11 ann .

A = (ij ) Mn (k). (i, j)

(1)i+j det Aji , (adjoint) A
adj(A). ,

T
adj(A) = a0ij a0ij = (1)i+j det Aij .
2.3.16. A 2.3.15.
     
 2 5   2 5   2 5 
det A11 =   , det A21 = 
 1 2  , det A31 =  2 5  ,
  
1 2 
     
 4 5   1 5   1 5 
det A12 =   , det A22 = 
 3 2  , det A32 =  4 5  ,
  
3 2 
     
 4 2
 , det A23 =  1 2  , det A33 =  1 2  .
    
det A13 = 
3 1   3 1   4 2 

, adj(A)


1 1 0
adj(A) = 7 13 15 .
2 5 6
2.3.14,
:

2.3.17. A = (ij ) n n-. :

i) adj(A) A = det A In .
1
ii) det A 6= 0, A1 = adj(A).
det A

2.3.18.
1. A 2.3.15.
det A = 3.

1 1 0
1
A1 = 7 13 15 .
3
2 5 6

2. A M3 (C) det A = 5. adj(A).

det A 6= 0, A

adj(A) A = det A In adj(A) = (det A)A1 .

det adj(A) = 53 det(A1 ), . 2.3.5. det(A1 ) =
1/5, det adj(A) = 25.
56 . , .

A Mn (k) AX = B
B Mn1 (k). A1 AX =
B . ,
1
X = A1 B = adj(A) B.
det A

(1)1+i det A1i 1 + + (1)n+i det Ani n

xi = , 1in. (2.3.18.1)
det A
A(i, B) A i
A B . det A(i, B)
i (2.3.18.1),

det A(i, B)
xi = , 1 i n. (2.3.18.2)
det A
:

2.3.19 ( Cramer). A Mn (k) .

AX = B , n n , (x1 , . . . , xn ),

det A(i, B)
xi = , 1 i n.
det A
Cramer ,
xi , 1 i n, AX = B .

2.3.20.

1 2 5 0
A = 4 2 5 , B = 0 .

3 1 2 1

2.3.15 det(A) = 3 AX = B
. x3 .

1 2 0
A(3, B) = 4 2 0 .
3 1 1

det(A(3, B))

 
1 2
det A(3, B) = 1 det = 6 .
4 2

det A(3, B) 6
x3 = = = 2.
det A 3
 2 57

2.3
1. :
 

 3 + 2i 1 + i



 3 i 2 
a1 =  , a2 =  3 + i
 3 i  ,
1i 0 
 7 2i 5 
 
   4 2 7 0 1 
 1 3 2 0  
 2 2 3
  0 1 
 3 0 3 5  
a3 =  , a4 =  4 7 5 3 6  .
5 1 2 7 
 0 0 2
  0 0 
 2 6 4 3  
 3 4 2 0 3 
2. , -
2.3.15.3:  

 2 1 1 4 7 8 
  

 3 2 7 9 8 6 


 1 7 2 8 


 0 0 3 2 1 7 
 ,

 3 9 4 2 
 .

 0 0 0 1 0 0 


 0 5 0 2 


 0 0 0 5 2 0 

 0 2 0 1 
 0 0 0 4 7 1 

3. A Mn (C) A = (aij ) A, aij

aij . det A = det A.

4. A M5 (C) det A = i. det 2A det(adj(A)).

5. Mn (K), n
, .

6. Vandermonde, V
1 a1 a21 an1

1
1 a2 a22 an1
2

V = . . .. .

. . ..
. . . .
2 n1
1 an an an
Y
det V = (aj ai ).
1i<jn

7. Cramer :

i) 2x1 x2 + 3x3 = 3
x1 2x2 + 4x3 = 0
3x1 + x2 2x3 = 1 .

ii) 2x1 + x4 = 3
x1 + 3x2 + x3 5x4 = 0
4x1 + x2 + 2x3 x4 = 0
2x2 x3 = 9.
58 . , .

2.4 2
, ,
.

n . -
1 n , A = (aj ), aj j
. j bj , -
1 n B = (bj ). AB T
.

A = (aij ) n n
n , . 2.1.5.
Am , m N. , m = 2.
A2 = (gij ).
m
X
gij = ai1 a1j + ai2 a2j + + aim amj = ai aj .
=1

aik akj 6= 0, 1 k n, aik = 1 akj = 1, . aik akj = 1.

i k (aik = 1)
k j (akj = 1). ,
i j 2 :
i 7 k 7 j .
, gij A2 = (gij )
i j 2 . , -
gij Am = (gij )
i j m .
2.4.1. 2.1.5
A, :
0 1 0 1
0 0 0 1
A=
1
.
1 0 0
0 0 1 0

0 0 1 1 1 1 1 0
0 0 1 0 1 1 0 0
A2 =
0
, A3 = .
1 0 2 0 0 2 1
1 1 0 0 0 1 0 2
(1, 3) A2 1.
1 3 -
.

143.
 2 59

(4, 4) A3 2 -
3 4 4.
.

A = (aij ) m n
n m . xi -
 T
A X = x1 xn , AX
.
, A 2.1.6
100, 0, 200 50 ,

1 1 0 0 100

1 0 0 1 100


50


0 1 0 1 0
. = 50


1 0 1 0 200
100

0 1 1 0 50 200
0 0 1 1 150
(.
).

1
1 2

2 4 4
3
5 6

1 -
1, 3, 6, 4,
2, 4, 3 1. -
. A

1 + 3 + 6 + 4 = 0 .
(
) ( ).
A, AT .

1 1 0 1 0 0
1 0 1 0 1 0
AT =
0 0 0 1 1 1
0 1 1 0 0 1
60 . , .

, 1, 3, 6, 4 AT -
. , (1, 0, 1, 1, 0, 1)
AT X = 0. .

A ,
AT X = 0 .

2.4.2 AT X = 0
. 3.5
[5] .

.
A ,
An n.
Am m.
 
0.7 0.2
A=
0.6 1.4

. : k
k pk k .
A, k + 1

k+1 = 0.7k + 0.2pk , pk+1 = 0.6k + 1.4pk .

   
k+1
=A k .
pk+1 pk

0.
10 20 ;
         
1 0 2 1 2 0
=A , =A =A
p1 p0 p2 p1 p0

   
k k 0
=A .
pk p0
Am m
. A Mn (k), A
, A.
Am m n .
Am
A.
 2 61

n (x1 , y1 ), . . . , (xn , yn ), R2 . 1.5,
xi 6= xj , 1 i < j n, n R2
n 1. , ,
a0 , . . . , an1 R, f (x) = a0 + a1 x + + an1 xn1 ,
f (xi ) = yi . n
n :

a0 +x1 a1 + +xn1
1 an1 = y1
.. .. .. (2.4.1.1)
. . .
a0 xn a1 + +xn1 a n1 = yn
.
n

V
Vandermonde, . 2.3.6.

V X = B,

1 x1 x21 xn1

1 a0 y1
1 x2 x22 xn1
2
a1 y2
V = . . .. , X= , B = . .

. . .. ..
. . . . . ..
2 n1
1 xn xn xn n1 yn
Y
det V = (xj xi ) ,
1i<jn

, det V 6= 0. 2.4.1.1
.

LU
,
. LU- (LU-
decomposition) A A = LU , L
U . LU- A,
A AX = B .
.

2.4.2. A

3x1 6x2 = 0
2x1 + 5x2 = 1

LU- :
    
3 6 3 0 1 2
= .
2 5 2 1 0 1

L U
A. :
62 . , .

LY = B ,
U X = C , C LY =
B .1

U X = C , AX = B .
,
AX = L(U C) = LC = B.
L U ,
. LY = B :

3y1 = 0
2y1 +y2 = 1

(0, 1). U X = C

x1 2x2 = 0
x2 = 1

(2, 1). AX = B
(2, 1).

A LU- ; s -
, 1 3 (. 1.2.1) A
U . E1 , . . . , Es ,

Es E1 A = U

L = (Es E1 )1 = E11 Es1
. A = LU LU-.

2.4.3.
3 9 3
A = 3 8 0 .
4 9 2

1 1/31 ,
2 2 + 31 ,
3 3 41 ,
3 3 + 32 ,

A
1 3 1
U = 0 1 3 .
0 0 7
 
1 c1
(c1 , c2 ) LY = B , C = .
c2
 2 63

L = E31 E231 E3+41 E332 .

3 0 0
L = 3 1 0
4 3 1
LU- A :

3 9 3 3 0 0 1 3 1
3 8 0 = 3 1 0 0 1 3 .
4 9 2 4 3 1 0 0 7
A LU-, -
AX = B :

2.4.1 AX = B LU-
A
: AX = B LU- A.
: AX = B .
1 LY = B .
2 U X = Y , Y -
, .
.

L, U LU- A ,
A L, U .
LU- A 9.9
[1].

Leontief
Leontief, () n
1, 2, . . . , n. , -

n .

.
pi i , eij
j . -
, :

ei1 + + ein = 1, i = 1, . . . , n .
. -

e11 e1n p1
.. .
.. , P = ...
E= . .

en1 enn pn
64 . , .

E - (input-ouput). P -
(value matrix).
P , :

EP = P = (E In )P = 0 . (2.4.3.1)

, , n n .
.

2.4.4. n - E
eij > 0, 1 i, j n, P = (pi ) 6= 0,
EP = P pi 0, i = 1, . . . , n. Q EQ = Q
P .

, -
, .

2.4.5. , (1), (2)

(3),
10 , .

(1) 7 (1), 1 (2) 2 (3).

(2) 3 (1), 4 (2) 3 (3).

(3) 2 (1), 4 (2) 4 (3).

(1), (2), (3), -

;
-

0.7 0.1 0.2
E = 0.3 0.4 0.3 .
0.2 0.4 0.4

(I3 E)X = 0.
I3 E

1 0 1
0 1 1 .
0 0 0

(I3 E)X = 0 {t(1, 1, 1) : t

R}. ,
.

11.9 [1] -
. Leontief 1973
Nobel , -
.
 65

2.4
1.

0 1 1 1
1 0 1 1
.
1 1 0 1
1 1 1 0

A2 A3
.

2. 2.1.6,
AT X = 0 .

3. 3
(1, 0), (0, 0, (1, 1), (2, 0).

4. n n , -
n.

5. LU- A AX = B ,
 T
A 2.4.3 B = 1 2 3 .

6.
-
0.2 0.4 0.4
0.1 0.5 0.4 .
0.6 0.1 0.3
60.

2.5
-
. Leibniz (1646-1716) 1693 -
. Gauss
(1777-1855), 1801, , -
2 2 3 3 . , ,


A. Cayley, (1821-1895). Cayley
, . 1858 Cay-
ley , (Memoir on the
Theory of Matrices). matrix Cayley
,
, J. Sylvester, (1814-1897),
1850. Cayley |A| A,
, ,
66 . , .

. , , -
Cauchy (1789-1857)
. Cauchy array 1826 -
matrix. matrix
. Jacobi (1804-1851)
1841 .
F. G. Frobenius (1849-1917)
,
Cayley. , Frobenius
1878. Cayley 1896,
Frobenius Cayley
Cayley ,
Cayley-Hamilton, 5.
[3].

1. H. Anton, C. Rorres, Elementary Linear Algebra, Applications Version, John Wiley

and Sons, 1994.
2. . -, . , . , -
, 2006.
3. V. Katz, , , 2013.
4. K. Nicholoson, Elementary Linear Algebra, McGraw-Hill, 2001.
5. Th. Shiffrin and M. R.Adams, Linear Algebra, a Geometric Approach, W. H. Free-
man and Company, 2002.
 3

k R C.
kn
k. kn
kn . ,
.
. kn ,
k- .

3.1 Rn
(vectors) Rn , n N, -
, .
, (3.1),
~ =
AB ~ .

3.1:

P (p1 , . . . , pn ) Q(q1 , . . . , qn ) Rn ,
P Q P~Q n-
P~Q := (q1 p1 , . . . , qn pn ) .
P~Q ,
, . qi pi , i = 1, . . . , n.
, v = (v1 , . . . , vn ) Rn . -
v O(0, . . . , 0), v
A(v1 , . . . , vn ).
Rn Rn , . -
OA ~ = (v1 , v2 ), A A(v1 , v2 )
2
R .

67
68 . , .

y
A(v1 , v2 )

3.2: (v1 , v2 )

= (a1 , . . . , an ), = (b1 , . . . , bn ) Rn ,
(sum) + = (a1 + b1 , . . . , an + bn ). , -
Rn ,
(3.3). , OA ~ = B ~ , OB ~ = A ~ .

3.3:

(scalar product) = (a1 , . . . , an )

c R,
c := (ca1 , . . . , can ) .
c
|c| > 1, |c| < 1. c > 0, ca
, c < 0.

y
A

3.4: a 1/2a

c = 1 , . = (a1 , . . . , an ). ,
Rn , .
:
 Rn 69

1. (associativity) -
, .
v + (u + w) = (v + u) + w ,
, v, u, w , Rn .
2. 0 = (0, . . . , 0) (zero element) -
, .
0+v =v =v+0,
v Rn .
3. v (opposite) v ,
v Rn , .

v + v = 0 = v + (v) .

4. (commutativity) -
:
v+u=u+v ,
v, u, Rn .
5. (distributivity)
:

(v + u) = v + u ,

( + )v = v + v ,
, R v , u Rn .
6.
(v) = ()v ,
, R v Rn .
7.
1v = v ,
v Rn .

(properties of a vector
space). Rn Rn , (vector
space Rn ). u Rn u
Rn . U Rn

1. v + u U , u, v U ,

2. cu U , u U c R,

U (subspace) Rn . ,
u Rn Rn ,

U = {tu : t R}
70 . , .

Rn . U (line)
u.

3.5: {tu : t R}

3.1.1.
1. v = (2, 3, 1).
v
U = {(2t, 3t, t) : t R} = {tv : t R} .
U
AX = 0,
 
1 0 2
A= , . 1.4.
0 1 3

U


v

y
x
3.6: {t(2, 3, 1) : t R}

2. U R3
U = {(a, b, c) R3 : 3a + b 2c = 0}.
(3.7) U .
(0, 0, 0) U . U
R3 , U .
u = (u1 , u2 , u3 ) U , t(u1 , u2 , u3 ) U , t R. ,
3u1 + u2 2u3 = 0 3(tu1 ) + (tu2 ) 2(tu3 ) = 0.
u U w U u + w U . , u = (u1 , u2 , u3 )
w = (w1 , w2 , w3 ). 3u1 + u2 2u3 = 0 3w1 + w2 2w3 = 0.
3(u1 + w1 ) + (u2 w2 ) 2(u3 + w3 ) = 0 u + w U .
U R- Rn .
 Rn 71

(2/3,0,1)
(0,2,1)

0
y
x
3.7: {(a, b, c) : 3a + b 2c = 0}

3. L

L = {(1, 3) + t(1, 1) : t R}.

L (1, 1)
A(1, 3), ( t = 0), B(2, 4), ( t = 1). L
. L L
R2 .

y
L

(1,1)
x

3.8: {(1, 3) + t(1, 1) : t R}

4. E = { (x, y, z) R3 : x + y = 2 } 1.4.2.2,
R3 , 0
/ E (. 1.4).
-
.
. A,
B R2 , AB
|AB| AB .

3.1.2.
 
a1 b 1
M= M2 (R)
a2 b 2
PM O(0, 0), A(a1 , a2 ), B(b1 , b2 ),
OA, OB . PM | det M |.
72 . , .

PM = PM PM .

PM . L
O B L0 A . L0
OB~

L0 = {(a1 , a2 ) + k(b1 , b2 ) : k R}.

C(c1 , c2 ) L0 . , , k R,

(c1 , c2 ) = (a1 + kb1 , a2 + kb2 ) .

P1 O , B , C , OB , OC ,
. (3.9).

L0

C PM
P1 L

3.9: P P1

PM P1 |OB|.
A C L0 L0 L,
A C L . PM P1
.
PM = P1 .

 
c b
M M1 = 1 1 P1 = PM1 det M = det M1 .
1 1 + k2 c 2 b2

, M ,

M M2 , k R ,
2 2 + k1

det M = det M2 PM = PM2 .

PM2 OA
B .
 Rn 73

. -
C(0, c) L0 y . , P1 OB
OC :
 
0 b1
M1 = .
c b2

, P1 .

~ + tB
{OB ~ : t R},

x, D . , D = (d, 0) P2
O, C, D , . (3.10).

y y

A A

C PM C PM
P1

P2 B
B
x x
O O D

3.10: PM , P1 , P2

 
0 d
M2 = PM2 = P2 .
c 0

PM = P1 = P2

det M = det M1 = det M2 = cd .

P2 ,

P2 = |c||d| = PM = | det M | .

M
PM .

R3 , .
, -
3 3
. R3 -

. ,
, 3 3 .
74 . , .

3.1
1. L = {(1, 2) + k(1, 0) : k R}
ax + by = c. L R2 .
L0 = {(2, 4) + k(1, 2) : k R}.

2. E1 = {k(1, 1, 1) + t(1, 0, 1) : k, t R}
ax + by + cz = d. E1
R3 . E1 = {k(1, 1, 1) + t(1, 0, 1) + (3, 1, 3) : k, t R}
E2 = {k(1, 1, 1) + t(1, 0, 1) + (3, 2, 3) : k, t R}.

3. (0, 0), (1, 3), (2, 4), (3, 7).

4. (1, 1), (2, 3), (1, 5), (2, 7).

5. (1, 1, 1),
(0, 2, 1), (0, 0, 3).

3.2 kn
Cn ,
Rn . , k, k = R C. v = (v1 , . . . , vn ),
w = (w1 , . . . , wn ) kn , (sum), v + w, :

v + w = (v1 + w1 , . . . , vn + wn ) .

c k, (scalar product), cv , :

cv = (cv1 , . . . , cvn ) .

kn (vector space)
. kn -
(vectors).
kn . 0 (0, . . . , 0) kn .
3.2.1: kn

1. v + (u + w) = (v + u) + w, v, u, w kn .

2. 0 + v = v = v + 0, v kn .

3. v + v = 0 = v + (v), v kn .

4. v + u = u + v , v, u kn .

5. (v + u) = v + u, k v, u kn ,
( + )v = v + v , , k v kn .

6. (v) = ()v , , k v kn .

7. 1v = v , v kn .
 kn 75

kn
.

3.2.1. U kn
( subspace) kn ( )

i. u + w U , u, w U ,
ii. u U , u U k,

U kn . ,
:

u U , u = (1)u U .

0 U , u u = 0 U .

A kn 0 / A,
n
A k . , , ;
,
kn .

3.2.2. v kn .

L = {v : k}

kn . , L 1 v
2 v 1 , 2 k.

1 v + v = (1 + 2 )v L.

, v L k,
c k.

c(v) = (c)v L .

L = S ({v}) {v} L.
s k,

L = S ({s v)}) .

k = R n = 2 3, L Rn
, . 3.1.1.1.,

S({(1, 2)}) = { (, 2) : R }

R2 (1, 2). -
,
S({(1 , . . . , n )}) Rn
Rn (1 , . . . , n ).
76 . , .

X kn . S(X)
kn :

S(X) = { 1 x1 + + s xs : j k, xj X, 1 j s, s N}.

S(X) X (space spanned by

X ) X (spanning set) S(X). S(X)
(linear combinations) X
k. :
S() = {0} X S(X).
S(X) -
kn . :

u S(X), 1 , . . . , s k x1 , . . . , xs X v =
1 x1 + + s xs . t k,

tv = (t1 )x1 + + (ts )xs S(X) .

u, w S(X), 1 , . . . , s 1 , . . . , t k
x1 , . . . , xs y1 , . . . , yt X v = 1 x1 + + s xs w = 1 y1 + +
t yt .

v + w = 1 x1 + + s xs + 1 y1 + + t yt S(X) .

V kn , S(V ) V .

V S(V ) V V = S(V ) .

, , .

3.2.3. V kn
kn V = S(X) X kn .

V kn ,
V V .

3.2.4.

1. X = {(1, 0), (0, 1)} C2 . S(X) = C2 .

(a, b) C2 . a, b C

(a, b) = a(1, 0) + b(0, 1) S(X) .

C2 S(X) C2 C2 = S(X).
(1, 0) C2 (0, 1) /
2
S ({(1, 0)}). , S ({(0, 1)}) 6= C (1, 0)
/ S ({(0, 1)).
X C2 .
R2 X = {(1, 0), (0, 1)} R2 ,
R2 = S(X).
 kn 77

2. ei kn i
. ,

e1 = (1, 0, , 0), e2 = (0, 1, 0, , 0), . . . , en = (0, , 0, 1) .

X = {e1 , e2 , . . . , en } kn . (a1 , , an ) kn ,

(a1 , , an ) = a1 e1 + + an en S(X) .

kn S(X) kn kn = S(X).

kn = S ({(e1 , . . . , en }) .

3. {0} = S ({0}) kn .
4.
S({(1, 2), (2, 4)}) = S({(1, 2)}).
S({(1, 2)}) S(X). ,

S(X) = {(1, 2) + (2, 4) : , k} = {( + 2, 2 + 4) : , k} =

{( + 2) (1, 2) : , k} = {t(1, 2) : t k}.

S({(1, 2)}) S(X) S({(1, 2)}) S({(1, 2)}) = S(X) .

S(X) = S({(2, 4)}) = S({(3, 6)}),

S(X) .
5. X = {(1, 2), (0, 1)}. ,
S(X) = k2 . (, ) k2 . x1 , x2 k

(, ) = x1 (1, 2) + x2 (0, 1) .
, ,

x1 =
2x1 +x2 = .
   
1 0 1 0
.
2 1 0 1 2
x1 = , x2 = 2.

(, ) = (, 2 + ( 2)) = (1, 2) + ( 2)(0, 1) . (3.2.4.1)

S(X) = k2 .

e1 = 1(1, 2) 2(0, 1) e2 = 0(1, 2) + 1(0, 1) ,

(3.2.4.1).
78 . , .

6. X = {u, w}, u, w k2 u
v . S(X) = k2 .
, u = (a1 , a2 ), w = (b1 , b2 ) ai , bi k, i = 1, 2
h = (c1 , c2 ) k2 . h S(X) k, t k,

h = ku + tw .
u, w, h ,
(k, t)

xa1 + yb1 = c1
(3.2.4.2)
xa2 + yb2 = c2 .

(3.2.4.2) .
 
a1 b 1
A= .
a2 b 2
det A = a1 b2 b1 a2 , (a2 , b1 ) 6=
k(b1 , b2 ) k k. , ,
rank(A) = 2 A . , (3.2.4.2)
. h U

k2 U k2 U = k2 .

k = R, -
. , h, u, w R2 , .

h
L
w
B

u L0
x
O

3.11: S({u, w}) = R2

A, h. u
L. L0 , w
A. L L0 , u w
. L L0 ,
~ = ku, OA
B . OB ~ = tw k, t R,

~ + BA
h = OB ~ = ku + tw U .
 kn 79

7. ,
S (X) R3 X = {(1, 0, 1), (0, 2, 0)}.

S(X) = { (1, 0, 1) + (0, 2, 0) : , k },

(a, b, c) S(X) ,

1 0   a
0 2 = b

1 0 c

.

1 0 a 1 0 a
0 2 b 0 2 b
1 0 c 0 0 ca

ac = 0,
. a = c.

S(X) = {(a, b, a) : a, b k} = {(a, b, c) k3 : a c = 0} .

S(X)
:

(1,0,1)

(0,2,0)
0

x y

3.12: S ({(1, 0, 1), (0, 2, 0)}) = {(a, b, a) : a, b R}

8. , -
U k3 , u1 , u2
U = S ({u1 , u2 }).

U = { (x, y, z) k3 : 3x + y 2z = 0 } .

3x + y 2z = 0, 3x + 2z = y . (x, y, z) U ,

(x, y, z) = (x, 3x + 2z, z) = x(1, 3, 0) + z(0, 2, 1).

u1 = (1, 3, 0), u2 = (0, 2, 1) u1 , u2 U . ,

X = {u1 , u2 },

U = { xu1 + zu2 : x, z k } = S(X) .

80 . , .

X . 3x+y 2z = 0
z
U .

3x + y 3 1
z = 1/2(3x + y) (x, y, z) = (x, y, ) = x(1, 0, ) + y(0, 1, )
2 2 2

3 1
U = S(Y ), Y = {(1, 0, ), (0, 1, )}) .
2 2

U = S({(2, 0, 3), (0, 2, 1)}) .

k = R, 3.13 U .

(2,0,3)
(0,2,1)

0
y
x
3.13: U = S ({(2, 0, 3), (0, 2, 1)})

9.
U = {(a1 , . . . , an ) kn : a1 a2 = 0}.

U -
kn , . 3.4.2. k2 ,
U :

U = {(a1 , a2 ) k2 : a1 a2 = 0} = {(a1 , a2 ) k2 : a1 a2 = 0} =
{(a2 , a2 ) : a2 k} = {a2 (1, 1) : a2 k} = S ({(1, 1)}) .

k3 , , :

U = {(a1 , a2 , a3 ) kn : a1 a2 = 0} = {(a2 , a2 , a3 ) : a2 , a3 k} =
{a2 (1, 1, 0) + a3 (0, 1, 0) : a2 , a3 k} = S ({(1, 1, 0), (0, 0, 1)}) .

, kn n 1 U .
(3.14) U R2 R3 .
 kn 81

z
y

E
x y

3.14: x y = 0 R2 R3

(sum) (intersection)
kn . U W kn . U + W U W
:
U + W = { u + w : u U w W }.
U U + W , 0 W u = u + 0. W U + W .
, :

U = S(X1 ), W = S(X2 ) X1 , X2 kn ,

U + W = S(X1 X2 )

U + W kn .

U W :

U W = { v : v U v W } .

U W kn .
U W
.

3.2.5.

1. v = (1, 2), e2 = (0, 1)

V1 = { (x, y) k2 : 2x y = 0 } = S({(1, 2)}) = S({v})

V2 = { (x, y) k2 : x = 0 } = S({0, 1)} = S({e2 }).
V1 V2 = {0}. 3.2.4.5
V1 + V2 = k2 . w = (, ) k2

w = v + (b 2a) e2 .

(3.15), V1 V2 R2 .
82 . , .

V1
y
av

(b 2a)e2
V2
v
(a, b)
e2
w
x
O

3.15: V1 + V2 = R2 , V1 V2 = 0

2.

V1 = { (x, y, z) k3 : x z = 0 } = S ({v1 , v2 }) ,

V2 = { (x, y, z) k3 : x + y + z = 0 } = S ({w1 , w2 }) ,
v1 = (1, 0, 1), v2 = (0, 1, 0) w1 = (1, 0, 1), w2 = (0, 1, 1). -
V1 V2 . (x, y, z) V1 V2

x z = 0
x + y +z = 0 .

V1 V2 = { (x, 2x, x) : x k } = {x(1, 2, 1) : x k}.

, V1 + V2 = k3 .
(a, b, c) V1 + V2 (x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 )

(a, b, c) = x1 v1 + x2 v2 + x3 w1 + x4 w4 ,

x1 +x3 =a
x2 +x4 = b
x1 x3 x4 = c

.

1 0 1 0
A= 0 1 0 1 .
1 0 1 1

A 3, ,
(a, b, c) k3 . V1 + V2 = k3 .
 kn 83

A = (aij ) Mmn (k). (nullspace) A

null(A) kn -
AX = 0. (row space) A (A)
kn m
A, .

(A) := S({(a11 , a12 , , a1n ), . . . , (am1 , am2 , , amn )}) kn .

(column space) A (A)

km n A, .

(A) := S({(a11 , a21 , , am1 ), . . . , (a1n , a2n , , amn )}) km .

A AT , A
AT , .

(A) = (AT ) (A) = (AT ).

AX = 0 null(A).
, 1.1.3.
.

3.2.6. A = (aij ) Mmn (k). null(A)

AX = 0.

B 6= 0, AX = B
kn , 0 .

3.2.7. ,
A

0 1 0 2
A = 0 0 1 0 M34 (C).
0 0 0 0

A .
AX = 0 :

{(x, y, z, w) : y + 2w = 0, z = 0, x, w k} = {(x, 2w, 0, w) : x, w C} =

= {x(1, 0, 0, 0) + w(0, 2, 0, 1) : x, w k} .

null(A) = S ({(1, 0, 0, 0), (0, 2, 0, 1)}) .

, ,
v1 = (0, 1, 0, 2), v2 = (0, 0, 1, 0)
A

w1 = (1, 0, 0), w2 = (0, 1, 0), w3 = (2, 0, 0)

84 . , .

A.

(A) = S ({v1 , v2 , 0}) = S ({v1 , v2 }) C4

(A) = S ({0, w1 , w2 , w3 }) = S({w1 , w2 , w3 }) = S ({w1 , w2 }) C3 .

u (A),
k, t, s k, u = kw1 + tw2 + sw3 . , u = (k + 2s)w1 + tw2 ,
w3 = 2w1 .
(A).
3.2.8.
km m 1 k. , , :
km Mm1 (k),
b1
..
(b1 , . . . , bm ) 7 . .
bm
(one to one) (onto), . -
km Mm1 (k) .
-
. v1 , . . . , vn km ,
 
A = v1 v2 vn ,
m n  (v1 ), . . . , (vn ). ,
v1 = (1, 1), v2 = (1, 2), v3 = (2, 4), A = v1 v2 v3

1 1 2
A= .
1 2 4
A = (aij ) Mmn (k) X = (xi ) Mn1 (k). AX
:

a11 a1n x1 a11 a1n
.. .. .. .. = x .. + + x .. .
AX = . . . . 1 . n .

am1 amn xn am1 amn

AX = B AT X = C
:

3.2.9.

a11 a1n b1 c1
.. .. .. , B = .. , C = .. .
A= . . . . .
am1 amn bm cn

AX = B (b1 , . . . , bm ) (A).
AT X = C (c1 , . . . , cn ) (A).

3.2.9
.
 kn 85

3.2.10.
0 1 0 2
A = 0 0 1 0
0 0 0 0
 T
3.2.7. AX = 1 1 1 ,


0 1 0 2 1
0 0 1 0 1 .
0 0 0 0 1

(1, 1, 1) A.
(0, 2, 2, 4) A,
T
AT X = 0 2 2 4


,

0 0 0 0
1 0 0 2
.
0 1 0 2
2 0 0 4

3.2.4 X U kn
. U ( )
X S(X) = U . U
.
U
.

3.2
1. L = { (x, y, z) R3 : x + y = 1 }
R3 .

2. U = {(a1 , . . . , an ) kn : a1 a2 = 0} -
kn . n = 4 .

3. L = { (x, y, z) R3 : x + y = 0 }
R3 .

4.

U = { (k, k, k) : k R } V = { (0, , ) : , R }

R3 . U, V R3 .
U V . U V .

5. S({(1, 2, 0), (1, 0, 1)}).

86 . , .

6.

X = {(1, 0), (1, 1)} Y = {(0, 1), (1, 2)}

R2 S(X) = S(Y ).

7. (1, 2, 3)

1 0 2
A = 1 1 3 .
2 1 5

3.3 ,
kn
. . -
; V kn .
X V (minimal) (.
X ) X V .
V ,
.
3.3.1. V kn
B V V = S(B).
B 0 B V = S(B 0 ) V , B
(basis) V . kn
.
kn . -
,
(ordered basis).
.
3.3.2.
1. V S({v}), v 6= 0. {v} V V 6= 0.
{v} , {v}
V .
2. V = S({(1, 2), (2, 4)}), 3.2.4.4. V = S({(1, 2)}),
{(1, 2), (2, 4)} V . B = {(1, 2)}
V .
3. 3.2.4.2, kn = S(X) X = {e1 , . . . en }

e1 = (1, 0, 0, . . . , 0), e2 = (0, 1, 0, . . . , 0), . . . , en = (0, 0, . . . , 0, 1)

X 0 & X ei / X 0 , i. ei
X 0 ei / S(X 0 ).
S(X 0 ) 6= kn . {e1 , . . . , en } kn .

n
(canonical basis) k

B = e1 , . . . , en .
 , 87

4. X = {v1 = (1, 2, 0), v2 = (0, 1, 2), v3 = (2, 5, 2)} V = S(X). -

v3 = 2v1 + v2 S({v1 , v2 }) = V.

, {v1 , v2 } ( X V ,
X V . : () V 6=
S({v2 }), () V 6= S({v2 }), {v1 , v2 } V .

, X
V kn , V ;
. X V = S(X).
, , B ( X , S(B) = S(X). B 6= X v X \ B .
v S(B), ( S(B) = S(X) v S(X)). v
B , .

v = 1 v1 + + m vm , vi B i k 1 i m .

v 1 v1 2 v2 m vm = 0 .
X
, v . , V = S(X)

1 v1 + 2 v2 + + m vm = 0 , (3.3.2.1)

v1 , . . . , vn X , 1 6= 0, v1
1 ,
2 m
v1 =
v2 vm .
1 1
, v1 ,
.
V = S(X \ {v1 }) .
, .

3.3.3. v1 , v2 , . . . , vm V kn .

1 v1 + 2 v2 + + m vm = 0 , (3.3.3.1)

1 , 2 , . . . , m k , (3.3.3.1)
( ) (linear dependence equation)
v1 , v2 , . . . , vn v1 , v2 , . . . , vn (linearly
dependent).

v1 , v2 , . . . , vn ,
(linearly dependent set). 0
,
10 = 0
.
0 ( ) .
88 . , .

3.3.4. v1 , v2 , . . . , vm kn
 
A = v1 v2 vm .

1 , 2 , . . . , m (3.3.3.1) (1 , 2 , . . . , m )
AX = 0. 1.3.4, AX = 0
rank(A) 6= m. .
 

v1 , . . . , vm rank v1 vm < m.

, . 1.2. , m kn
m > n, .

v1 , v2 , . . . , vn ,
(linearly independent) {v1 , v2 , . . . , vm } -
(linearly  independent
 set). v1 , . . . , vn kn
A = v1 vn . rank(A) = n A
. 3.2.9, kn
v1 , . . . , vn . , -
:
 
3.3.5. v1 , . . . , vm kn A = v1 vm .
:

i) v1 , . . . , vm rank(A) = m.
ii) n < m, v1 , . . . , vm .
iii) n = m, v1 , . . . , vm det A 6= 0.
iv) n = m det A 6= 0, S({v1 , . . . , vm }) = kn .

3.3.6.

1. v1 = (1, 2) v2 = (2, 4) k2 ,
v2 = 2v1 2v1 v2 = 0.  (2, 1)
AX = 0 A = v1 | v2 . A
.
   
1 2 1 2
A= .
2 4 0 0

rank A = 1.
2. e1 , . . . , en ,
 
e1 | e2 | |en = In

rank(In ) = n.
 , 89

3. v1 = (1, 2, 0), v2 = (0, 1, 2), v3 = (2, 5, 2). v1 , v2 , v3

, v3 = 2v1 + v2

2v1 + v2 v3 = 0 . (3.3.6.1)
 
A = v1 | v2 |v3
.

1 0 2 1 0 2
A = 2 1 5 0 1 1 .
0 2 2 0 0 0

AX = 0

{(2t, t, t) : t R}

t = 1 (3.3.6.1).
4. v1 = (1, 2, 2), v2 = (1, 3, 5), v3 = (0, 4, 9)

1 1 0
A = 2 3 4

2 5 9
.

, , V = S(B). B V ;
.

3.3.7. V = S(B). B V
V .

V = S(X). V ,
B X B {v} ,
v X \ B .

3.3.8. 3.3.8.4, v1 = (1, 2, 2),

 {v1 , v2 , v3 },
v2 = (1, 3, 5), v3 = (0, 4, 9) . D =
D V = S(D). A = v1 | v2 |v3
. AX = B B .
3.2.9, k3 A.
k3 V .

V = k3 D k3 .

V kn
; . B1 = {v}
B2 = {w1 , w2 } V . w1 V B1 V ,
w1 = t1 v . w2 = t2 v . w2 6= 0 ( ;) t2 6= 0.

t1 t1
w1 w2 = t1 v t2 v = 0
t2 t2
90 . , .

B2
.
. ,
, . [2, 2.4].

3.3.9. kn .
.

3.3.10. V kn .
V ( dimension) V dimk (V ).

kn ,
.
, . V 6= 0 dimk (V ) > 0.

3.3.11.

1. dimk (kn ) = n

2. V k2 . dimk (V ) = 2, V = k2 . dimk (V ) = 1,
V = S({v}), v 6= 0. dimk (V ) = 0, V = {0}.
k2 .

3. k3 3. V
k3 . dimk (V ) = 0, V . dimk (V ) = 1,
V = S({v}) v 6= 0. dimk (V ) = 2, V = S({v1 , v2 }) v1 , v2
. dimk (V ) = 3, V = k3 .

V =
S(X) kn . (3.3.1) (3.3.2).

3.3.1 S(X) kn -
X .
: X = {v1 , . . . , vm } kn
: B S(X) B X .  
1 n m A = v1 | v2 | | vm .
2 A .
3 j1 , . . . , jt .
vj1 , . . . , vjt S(X).

(3.3.1)
.
,
A.
 , 91

3.3.12. v1 = (1, 2, 0, 1), v2 = (0, 1, 3, 1), v3 =

(1, 1, 3, 2) X = {v1 , v2 , v3 }, V = S(X). V . -

1 0 1
2 1 1
A= .
0 3 3
1 1 2
A

1 0 1
0
R= 1 1
.
0 0 0
0 0 0

R
R. {v1 , v2 } V dimR (V ) = 2.
{v1 , v2 } V , v3 v1
v2 . , , k1 , k2 R v3 = k1 v1 + k2 v2 .
k1 , k2

1 0 1
2 1
1
X= . (3.3.12.1)
0 3 3
1 1 2

A (3.3.12.1).
R. (1, 1)

v3 = v1 v2 .

v1 v2 v3 = 0
v1 , v2 , v3 . -
R R
A.

, X
, X A.
V = S(X)
X .
X .
X
A.

3.3.13. S(X) = V -
X :

X ,
X X ,
X 0 6= k.
92 . , .

X1 ,
S(X1 ) = S(X) = V .
V =
S(X).

3.3.2 S(X) kn -
.
: X = {v1 , . . . , vm } kn .
n
 S(X) k .
: 
1 A = v1 | v2 | | vm .
2 AT R.
3 t = rank(AT ) 1 , 2 , . . . , t
R. S(X).

,

.
X . , ,
,
.
3.3.14. V = S(X) 3.3.12.

1 2 0 1
T
A = 0 1
3 1
1 1 3 2 .
AT

1 0 6 3
0 1 3 1 .
0 0 0 0
{(1, 0, 6, 3), (0, 1, 3, 1)} V .

3.3
1.

u1 = (1, 0, 2, 1), u2 = (0, 0, 2, 4), u3 = (0, 1, 0, 2), u4 = (2, 0, 4, 2)

R4 .
.

2.

v1 = (1, 2, 0, 1), v2 = (0, 1, 3, 1), v3 = (1, 1, 3, 2)

R4 .
S({v1 , v2 , v3 }) R3 .
 , 93

3. , .

() U1 = { (x, y) R2 / 2x + y = 0 }.
() U2 = { (x, y, z) R3 / x + y + 3z = 0 }.
() U3 = S{(1, 0, 2, 1), (3, 1, 0, 0), (2, 0, 1, 4)}.

3.4 ,
,
A
AT null(A). , ,

Rn . ,
.
A m n (A) Rn , A.
(3.3.1), (A),
(A) , . AT .
, rank(AT )
A, (A), .

dimR ((A)) = rank(AT ) .

, , (3.3.2), (A), A
R.
R (A). (A)
rank(R) = rank(A) .
3.5.7, (A) .

dimR ((A)) = rank(AT ) = rank(A) .

A, (A).

dimR ((A)) = rank(AT ) = rank(A) .

.

3.4.1. A Mmn (R).

rank(A) = rank(AT )

A A
rank(A).

, n rank(A)
null(A).

3.4.2.

1 2 0 1
A= 0 1 3 1 .
1 1 3 2
94 . , .

A R,

1 0 6 3
R= 0 1 3 1 .
0 0 0 0
,

{(1, 0, 1), (2, 1, 1)}

A
AT . ,

{(1, 0, 6, 3), (0, 1, 3, 1)}

A AT .

v1 = (1, 0, 1), v2 = (2, 1, 1), v3 = (0, 3, 3), v4 = (1, 1, 2)

A. R,
. R ,
. , i R, i = 1, . . . , 4.

3 = 6 1 + 3 2 4 = 3 1 2 .

6 1 3 2 3 = 0 1 2 4 = 0 .
A

6 v1 3 v2 v3 = 0 v1 v2 v4 = 0 .
, , 3.3.4,
v1 , . . . , v4 -
AX = 0 RX = 0 ( 1.3.4).
.

null(A) = {(6z 3w, 3z + w, z, w) : z, w R} = {z(6, 3, 1, 0)+

w(3, 1, 0, 1) : z, w R} = S ({(6, 3, 1, 0), (3, 1, 0, 1)}) .
u1 = (6, 3, 1, 0), u2 = (3, 1, 0, 1). {u1 , u2 }
null(A). ,
u1 , u2 .
u1 , u2
. , 0 1 ,
.

3.4.3. A Mmn (R).

rank(A) + dimR (null(A)) = n.

Rn .
 , 95

3.4.4.
. V = S({v1 , v2 }) W = S({w1 , w2 }) v1 =
(1, 1,0, 1), v2 = (1, 2,
 3, 0), w1 = (1, 2, 2, 2), w2 = (0, 1, 2, 1).
A = v1 v2 w1 w2 , .

1 1 1 0
1 2 2 1
A= .
0 3 2 2
1 0 2 1

(A) = V + W . A
R:
1 0 0 1
0 1 0 0
R= .
0 0 1 1
0 0 0 0
rank(A) = 3, dimR (V + W ) = 3.
R V + W {v1 , v2 , w1 }.
R

w2 = v1 w1 v1 w1 w2 = 0 v1 = w1 + w2 .

v1 W v1 V W . , V W
A.
3.3.4, null(A).
R ,
.

V W = S({v1 }).

, -
:

3.4.5. U W kn .

dimk (U + W ) = dimk (U ) + dimk (W ) dimk (U W ) .

. . A,
dimk (U ) U
dimk (W ) W . ,
A n (dimk (U ) + dimk W ) . A
R. A
dimk (U + W ). R

.
U W . U
W , U
W , . U W .
, U W
96 . , .

A. 3.3.4,
null(A). ,

dimk (U W ) = dimk (null(A)) .

3.4.3, .

3.4.5 -
U + W U W .
dimk (U + W ) dimk (U ) dimk (U + W ) = dimk (U ) W U .

3.4.1 U + W U W
kn .
: {v1 , . . . , vm }, {w1 , . . . , wr } U W .
: U + W , U W .  
1 n (m + r) A = v1 vm w1 wr .
2 A R.
3 i1 , . . . , it ,
t = rank(A). U +W ,
{v1 , . . . , vm , w1 , . . . , wr }.
4 R ,
. -
m
{v1 , . . . , vm }.
.
U W .

3.4.6. U v1 = (1, 0, 0),

v2 = (0, 1, 0) W w1 = (1, 1, 0), w2 =
(0, 0, 1).
1 0 1 0
A = 0 1 1 0

0 0 0 1
. rank A = 3,
dimR (U +W ) = 3 U +W = R3 .
A ,
v1 , v2 , w2 R3 . dimR (U + W ) = 3,

dimR (U W ) = 4 3 = 1 .

A .

3 = 1 + 2

w3 = v1 + v2 . U W = S({v1 + v2 }).

kn . .
 , 97

3.4.2 U kn .
: {v1 , . . . , vm } U .
: D kn {v1 , . . . , vm } D . 
1 n(m+n) A = v1 | | vm | e1 | | en ,
e1 , . . . , en kn .
2 A R.
3 i1 , . . . , in .
{v1 , . . . , vm , e1 , . . . , er }.

3.4.7. v = (1, 1, 0) W = S({v}). {v} W .

W R3 . {e1 , e2 , e3 } R3 ,
{e1 , e2 , e3 } R3 . X = {v, e1 , e2 , e3 }
R3 . (3.4.2).

1 1 0 0 1 0 1 0
A = 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 ,
0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1

{v, e1 , e3 } R3 .

V kn , m, B -
V : B = (v1 , . . . , vm ). V
B . , , v V . B
V , 1 , . . . , n k

v = 1 v1 + + m vm . (3.4.7.1)

:
v = 01 v1 + + 0m vm . (3.4.7.2)
(3.4.7.2) (3.4.7.1)

0 = (1 01 )v1 + + (m 0m )vm .

B , .
i = 0i , i = 1, . . . , m. 1 , . . . , m k
(3.4.7.1) . :

B = (v1 , . . . , vm ) V , v V
v = 1 v1 + + m vm .
 T
m 1 1 m (coordinate
matrix) v B = (v1 , . . . , vm ) CB (v).
CB (v) m , m V , v kn .
,
 T
CB (v) = 1 m v = 1 v1 + + m vm .

3.2.9 :
98 . , .

v V B = (v1 , . . . , vm ) V , CB (v)

AX = [v], A = v1 vm .

.
3.4.8.
1. v = (1, 1), B = {v} V = S(B). w = (3, 3)
V CB (w) = [3], w = 3v . B1 = {(1/2, 1/2)},
B2 = {(1, 1)} B3 = {w}. Bi V , i = 1, . . . , 3.

CB1 (w) = [6], CB2 (w) = [3], CB3 (w) = [1] ,

CB (v) = [1], CB1 (v) = [2], CB3 (v) = [1/3].


2. B = e1 , e2 R2 v = (1, 2) R2 .
     
1 0 1
CB (e1 ) = , CB (e2 ) = , CB (v) = .
0 1 2

e1 = 1 e1 + 0 e2 , e2 = 0 e1 + 1 e2 , v = 1 e1 + 2 e2 .


3. D = e1 , w R2 , w = (0, 1) v =
(1, 2), .
     
1 0 1
CD (e1 ) = , CD (e2 ) = , CD (v) = ,
0 1 2

e1 = 1 e1 + 0 w, e2 = 0 e1 1 w, v = 1 e1 2 w .


4. v = (1, 1) w = (2, 3). B = v, w C2 .
(4, 5i) .
(4, 5i) v , w.
.
   
1 2 4 1 0 4 10i
.
1 3 5i 0 1 4 + 5i
(4, 5i) = (4 10i)v + (4 + 5i)w
 
4 10i
CB (4, 5i) = .
4 + 5i

5. B = (v, w) E R3
x + y z = 0 R3 , v = (1, 0, 1) w = (0, 1, 1). u =
(2, 2, 4) E

1 0 2 1 0 2
0 1 2 0 1 2 ,
1 1 4 0 0 0
 T
CB (u) = 2 2 .
 , 99

V Rn .
V V . , , D
V u1 , . . . , ut V , 1 , . . . , t R.

CD (1 u1 + + t ut ) = 1 CD (u1 ) + + t CD (ut ) .

:

1
  .
1 CD (u1 ) + + t CD (ut ) = CD (u1 ) CD (ut ) .. =
t
CD (1 u1 + + t ut ) .

3.4
1. V W R- R5 dimR V = 3
dimR W = 3. v 6= 0 R5 v V U .

2. U + V U W R4 ,

U = S({(1, 0, 2, 1), (1, 1, 0, 0), (0, 0, 1, 0)}

W = S({(0, 0, 2, 1), (2, 2, 0, 0), (0, 0, 0, 1)}.

3. CB (e1 ) CB (e2 )

() B = (e1 , e2 ),
() B = (e2 , e1 ),
() B = ((1, 1), (0, 2)).

4. D = (v1 , v2 ) R2 . CD (5w1 w2 )
   
2 4
CD (w1 ) = , CD (w2 ) = .
3 5

 T
5. v R3 CB (v) = 1 1 2 ,

() B = (e1 , e2 , e3 ).
() B = (e1 + e2 , e3 , e2 ).

6. D = ((1, 0, 1), (0, 1, 0)) U = {(x, y, z) :

xz = 0}. w1 = (2, 2, 2) w2 (2, 5, 2)
D .
100 . , .

7. (A), (A) null(A)

 
1 1 1 2 3
A= M25 (k) .
2 2 2 5 6

null(A)
A.

8. mn A nk B k,
dimk null(AB) dimk null(B).

9. m n A n k B , rank(AB)
min(rank(A), rank(B)). ( : ,
3.4.3 3.4.1.)

3.5 k-
kn
. -
3.2.1 Mnm (k)
2.1.4 2.1.9. -
.
.

3.5.1. V ( V V V )
( k V V ). V
k k- ( k-vector space)
:

i. v + (u + w) = (v + u) + w, v, u, w V .

ii. 0 V , 0 + v = v = v + 0, v V .

iii. v V , v V , v + v = 0 = v + (v).

iv. v + u = u + v v, u V .

v. (v + u) = v + u k v, u V
( + )v = v + v , , k v V .

vi. (v) = ()v , , k v V .

vii. 1v = v , v V .

3.5.2.

1. kn k- n N.

2. Mnm (k) k-
.
 k 101

3. k[x] k. f (x), g(x)

k[x], (f + g)(x) f (x) + g(x).
P
i
f (x) = i aP i x k[x] c k, r f (x)
i (cai )xi . k[x] k- .

4. RR , . R
R. f, g V , f +g f +g : R R,
(f + g)(a) = f (a) + g(a), a R. f V r R,
r f r f : R R, (r f )(a) = f (ra),
a R. V R- .

5. R- , -
() .

3.5.3. U V k-
( k-subspace) V

i. u + w U , u, w U ,
ii. cu U , u U c k,

3.5.4. U V k-
U k- .

-
, .

3.5.5.

1. kn k- .

2. k[x] m k-
k[x].

3. nn k k-
Mn (k). .

4. k-
RR .

5. R R- C.

X k- V .

S(X) = { 1 x1 + + s xs : j k, xj X, 1 j s, s N}.

s S(X) -
,
N. S(X) -
X k. X = , S(X) = {0}.
.
102 . , .

3.5.6. U V k- V
X V U = S(X)

V k- ,

0v = 0 .

kn ,
. , 3.5.1 ( v)

0v + 0v = (0 + 0)v = 0v,

0 ( ii.),

0v = 0.

v1 , v2 , . . . , vm V (linearly independent)
v1 , v2 , . . . , vn , .

1 v1 + 2 v2 + + m vm = 0 ,

1 = 2 = . . . = m = 0. (basis) k- V
B V V = S(B) V -
. () kn .

3.5.7. V k- . V .
V , V .

V , k- -
(k- dimension) V dimk (V ). V ,
V dimk (V ) = .

3.5.8.

1. dimk (kn ) = n.

2. B = {1, i} R- C.
C = {a + bi : , b R}. a + bi = a 1 + b i C = S(B).
a + bi = 0 a = b = 0. 1, i . B
C dimR (C) = 2. dimC C = 1.

3. R[x]

{1, x, x2 , . . . , }

dimR R[x] = .

4. k- M23 (k)
dimk (M23 (k)) = 6. :
     
1 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0
E1 = , E2 = , E3 = ,
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
 k 103

     
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
E4 = , E5 = , E6 = .
1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1
M23 (k)

 
a b c
= aE1 + bE2 + cE3 + dE4 + eE5 + f E6 .
d e f

E1 , . . . , E6 -
M23 (k),
   
1 2 3 0 0 0
1 E1 + + 6 Em = 0 =
4 5 6 0 0 0

1 = 2 = = 6 = 0. {E1 , . . . , E6 }
M23 (k).

-
k. ,
.
B = (v1 , . . . , vm ) (ordered basis) k-
V , . .

v = 1 v1 + + m vm ,

1 , . . . , m R m 1

1
CB (v) = ... ,

(coordinate matrix) v B .

3.5.9.

1. B = (E1 , . . . , E6 ) B 0 = (E2 , E1 , E3 , . . . , E6 )


1 2 5
M23 (k) E1 , . . . , E6 3.5.8.4. A =
0 2 8

1 2

2


1

5 5
CB (A) = CB 0 (A) = .

0


0

2 2
8 8

2. E = {(x, y, x + y) : x, y R2 } R2
 
2
B = ((1, 0, 1), (0, 1, 1)). v = (2, 1, 3) E CB (v) = .
1
104 . , .

, w, w1 , . . . , wt V .

w = 1 w1 + + t wt , CB (w) = 1 CB (w1 ) + + 1 CB (wt ).

,
1 w1 + + t wt = 0,

0
..
1 CB (w1 ) + + 1 CB (wt ) = . .
0
. , , .

3.5.10. B k- W ,
dimk W = m. :

i) w1 , . . . , wt W
CB (w1 ), . . . , CB (wt ) Mm1 (k) .
ii) w1 , . . . , wt W
CB (w1 ), . . . , CB (wt ) Mm1 (k) .

3.5
1. R
6 R[x]. {1, x, . . . , x6 }
R
6.
R m.

2. Mnm (k)

dimk (Mnm (k)) = nm.

3. n n
n.

4. 2 2
3. n n .

3.6
1636 Fer-
mat (1601-1665) Descartes (1596-1650) -
. , 1804,
Bolzano (1782-1848) . Bolza-
no
, .
 105

Mobius (1790-1868) 1827
1828. Argand (1768-
1822) 1814 ,
. C R- 2, -
. Hamilton (1805-1865)
1843
, -
Broome.
Grassman (1809-1877) 1844
.
Cauchy (1789-1857) 1853 Grassman.

Peano (1858-1932) 1888. , Peano
-
.
[3] [4].

1. H. Anton, C. Rorres, Elementary Linear Algebra, Applications Version, John Wiley

and Sons, 1994.

2. . -, . , . , -
, 2006.

3. V. Katz, , , 2013.

4. I. Kleiner, A History of Abstract Algebra, Birkhauser, 2007.

5. K. Nicholoson, Elementary Linear Algebra, McGraw-Hill, 2001.

6. Th. Shiffrin and M. R.Adams, Linear Algebra, a Geometric Approach, W. H. Free-

man and Company, 2002.
 4

k-
.
.

( 2) .

4.1 ,
V , W k- . -
. , ,
f : V W ; V
W . , , V
, v V

f (v) = f (v), k .
.
. V
W .

f (v + u) = f (v) + f (u)
v, u V .
4.1.1. V , W k- . f : V W
( linear transformation)
i. f (v + u) = f (v) + f (u),
ii. f (v) = f (v),
k, v, u V . f : V W

f (k v + t u) = k f (v) + t f (w), k, t k, v, w V.

f : R2 R3 . R2 R3
R2 R3 ,
:

107
108 .

() R2 R3
R3 ,

v, w
f (v), f (w).

z
y

f f (w)
f (P )
w P
0 y
v
x f (v)
0
x
4.1: f : R2 R3

f : V W . -
f (0) = 0. v V ,

f (0) = f (0v) = 0f (v) = 0 .

f : V W , f (0) = 0.

4.1.2.

1. V, W k- . V W , v 7 0 -
(trivial transfor-
mation) V .
2. V k- . idV : V V , v 7 v
(identity transformation) V .
3. f : R2 R2 , (x, y) 7 (x + 1, y) , 0 7
(1, 0) 6= 0.
4. f : k3 k2 , (x, y, z) 7 (x z, x + y) . :

(x1 , y1 , z1 ) + (x2 , y2 + z2 ) = (x1 + x2 , y1 + y2 , z1 + z2 ) 7

((x1 + x2 ) (z1 + z2 ), (x1 + x2 ) + (y1 + y2 ))
= (x1 z1 , x1 + y1 ) + (x2 z2 , x2 + y2 ) = f (x1 , y1 , z1 ) + f (x2 , y2 , z2 )

c(x, y, z) = (cx, cy, cz) 7 (cx cz, cx + cy) = c(x z, x + y) = cf (x, y, z) .

. , . 109

5. : kn Mn1 (k),
 T
(b1 , . . . , bn ) 7 b1 bn , 3.2.8, .
f : V W , B D V
W . f : V W
m n ,
m = dimk W n = dimk W .
f f
AD,B . B = v1 , . . . , vn , i AD,B CD (f (vi )), .

AfD,B =
 
CD (f (v1 )) CD (f (vn )) .

f
AD,B ,
4.1.2.

4.1.3.

1. f : R2 R3 . B D
R2 R3 f 3 2 :
 
0 0 0
AfD,B = .
0 0 0

2. V n, W
m, B D V W f : V W
f
, AD,B Mmn (k).


3. V = R2 , B = v1 , v2 V idV : V V
V . idV (v1 ) = v1 idV (v2 ) = v2 ,

AidB,B = I2 .
V

B = e1 , e2 D = e2 , 2e1 . idv (e1 ) = e1 = 0(e2 )+1/2(2e1 )
idv (e2 ) = e2 = (e2 ),
 
idV 0 1
AD,B = 1 .
2
0

  1
idV 0 2 
idV
AB,D = AD,B = Aid
B,D .
V
1 0

4. V n B
V ,
idV
AB,B = In .

5.

f : k3 k2 , (x, y, z) 7 (x z, x + y).

B = (e1 , e2 , e3 ) k3 D = (1 , 2 )
k2 .
f (e1 ) = (1, 1) = 1 + 2 , CD (f (e1 )) = [1 1]T .
110 .

f (e2 ) = (0, 1) = 01 + 12 . CD (f (e2 )) = [0 1]T .

f (e3 ) = (1, 0) = 11 + 02 , CD (f (e3 )) = [1 0]T .
 
1 0 1
AfD,B = .
1 1 0


x   x  
f 1 0 1 x z
AD,B y = y = .
1 1 0 x+y
z z

4.1.4. f : V W , B D
V W . , v F ,

CD (f (v)) = AfD,B CB (v).

. B = v1 , . . . , vn v = k1 v1 + + kn vn , .
 T
CB (v) = k1 kn .

f ,

f (v) = f (k1 v1 + + kn vn ) = f (k1 v1 ) + + f (kn vn ) = k1 f (v1 ) + + kn f (vn ).

D = (w1 , . . . , wm ), f (vi ) wj ,
1 j m 1 i n, ,

k1
..
CD (f (v)) = k1 CD (f (v1 )) + + kn CD (f (vn )) = AfD,B . .
kn

B = (v1 , . . . , vn ) D = (w1 , . . . , wn )
V W , A = (ij ) Mmn (R)
f : V W

CD (f (v)) = A CB (v) . (4.1.4.1)

i A CD (f (vi )). , f (v1 )

A:

f (v1 ) = a11 w1 + a21 w2 + + an1 wn .

f (vi ) vi B . -
, , .
. , . 111

4.1.5. A = (ij ) Mmn (k), B , D V

f
W . f : V W AD,B = A.
, f : V W m n
A Mmn (k).
.
4.1.6.
1. f : k2 k2 f (e1 ) = (1, 1) f (e2 ) = (1, 2).
B k2 .
 
1 1
AfB,B = .
1 2
v = (a, b). (4.1.4.1)
   
a a+b
CB (f (v)) = AfB,B =
b a + 2b
f (a, b) = (a + b, a + 2b).

2. f : k3 k3

1 2 5
AfB,B = 0 1 1 ,
3 0 2
B = (e1 , e2 , e3 ) R3 .

f (e1 ) = (1, 0, 3), f (e2 ) = (2, 1, 0), f (e3 ) = (5, 1, 2).

, v = 1 e1 + 2 e2 + 3 e3 ,

1 1 + 22 + 53
CB (v) = 2 , CB (f (v)) = A CB (v) = 2 + 3 ,
3 31 + 23
f (v) = (1 + 22 + 53 , 2 + 3 , 31 + 23 ).

3. R- k3 k4
B = (e1 , e2 , e3 ) D = (1 , 2 , 3 , 4 ). -
f : k3 k4

1 2 3
4 5 6
AfD,B =
7 8 9 .

10 11 12
f

a + 2b + 3c
a 4a + 5b + 6c
f
AD,B b =

7a + 8b + 9c

c
10a + 11b + 12c

f (a, b, c) = (a + 2b + 3c, 4a + 5b + 6c, 7a + 8b + 9c, 10a + 11b + 12c) .

112 .

4. (counterclockwise rotation) ,
r R2 OA -
.
(4.2).

( sin , cos ) e2 (cos , sin )

r (e1 )
r (e2 )

x
0 e1

4.2:

r : R2 R2 , (, ) 7 (0 , 0 ).

-
(1, 0) 7 (cos , sin ), (0, 1) 7 ( sin , cos ).
r

 
cos sin
.
sin cos

r (a, b) = (cos a sin b, sin a + cos b) .

5.
f : R2 R2 , (, ) 7 (k, ),

k , (dilation)
k 1, 0 < k < 1, f (contraction)
. f R2

 
k 0
0 1

f f (a, b) = (ka, b).

Y .

k = 2.
. , . 113

y y

P f (P )
e2 f (e2 )
x x
0 e1 0 f (e1 )

4.3: X 2

6. m . f : R2 R2 -
~ OA
OA ~ 1 y = mx
~ ~
OA1 AA1 , (projection) -
. (6.1):

L
A1

A
x
0

4.4: y = mx

7. f k2 OA OA0
y = mx OA (reflection):

y
A1 L

x
0

4.5: y = mx

f X
B = {e1 , e2 } R2 , . (4.6). f (e1 ) = e1
114 .

f (e2 ) = (0, 1).

 
1 0
AB,B = , f (a, b) = (a, b) .
0 1

y
y
f
f (e1 ) = e1
x
P 0
e2
x f (e2 ) = e2 f (P )
0 e1

4.6:

V1 , V2 , V3 k- f : V1 V2 , g : V2 V3
.
g f : V1 V3 . B, D, E V1 , V2 , V3
, :

(gf )
AE,B = AgE,D AfD,B .

4.1.7.

1. f : k2 k2 , f (a, b) = (a, b), g : k2 k3 ,

g(a, b) = (a, b, a b) B, D k2 k3 .


  1 0 1 0
1 0
AfB,B = , AgD,B = 0 1 , AD,B
gf
= AgD,B AfB,B = 0 1 .
0 1
1 1 1 1

g f : k2 k3 , (g f )(a, b) = (a, b, a + b) .

2. f : R2
R2 :
f1 : R2 = /2,
f2 : R2 X ,
f3 : Y 2.

, -
R2 :
f1 f2 f3
e1 e2 e2 (0, 2)
f1 f2 f3 .
e2 e1 e1 (1, 0)
 115
 
0 1
2
B R , AfB,B = .
2 0

f : R2 R2 , (a, b) 7 (b, 2a).

4.1
1. f , f : k2 k3 , (x, y) 7
(x + y, y, 3x). B k2 D
k3 ,
1 1
AfB,D = 0 1 .

3 0

2.  
1 2
A= .
3 4
f : R2 R2 A.

3.  
1 3 5 6
A= .
3 1 0 1
f : R4 R2 A.
g : R2 R4 AT .

4. f : R3 R4 f (a, b, c) = (a + b + c, b + c, a + 2c, b + 3c).

f R3 .

5.  
1 1
A=
2 1
f : R2 R2 .
f (4, 3).

6. f : R2 R2
/2, 3,
2 -
. ( :
e1 e2 ).

4.2 ,

.
116 . , .

4.2.1. V , W k- f : V W , v
7 f (v)
. (image) f Imf

Imf = { f (v) : v V } W.
(kernel) f Ker f

Ker f = { v V : f (v) = 0} V.

-
.

4.2.2.

1.
f : Rn Rm , v 7 0,
Rn . Ker f = Rn , Im f = {0}.

2.
f : R2 R3 , (x, y) 7 (x, 0, 0) .

Ker f = S({(0, 1)}) Imf = {S({(1, 0, 0)}) .

Imf Ker f -
W V . w W
Imf v V Ker f ; B D
V W . dimk (V ) = n, dimk (W ) = m
B = (v1 , . . . , vn ). 4.1.4

AfD,B CB (v) = CD (f (v)) .

w Imf , . v V f (v) = w,

AfD,B X = B, B = CD (w)
. (x1 , . . . , xn ) ,

CD (w) = x1 CD (f (v1 )) + + xn CD (f (vn )) .

v V

v = x1 v1 + xn vn .

v Ker f , . f (v) = 0,

AfD,B CB (v) = 0.
f
Ker f null(AD,B ).
f
v = (x1 , . . . , xn ) AX = 0, v null(AD,B )

v = x1 v1 + xn vn Ker f.
 117

4.2.3. f : V W , v 7 f (v) , B D
V W . :

i) w W Imf CD (w)
AfD,B
f
ii) v V Ker f V AD,B CB (v) = 0.

f
rank(AD,B )
AfD,B , . 3.4.1. AfD,B
f
rank(AD,B ). 4.2.3,
.

4.2.4. f : V W , v 7 f (v) , B D
V W . :
f
i) dimk (Imf ) = rank(AD,B ).
ii) dimk (Ker f ) = dimk (null(A))

4.2.5.

f : R3 R2 , (x, y, z) 7 (x z, x + y) ,

B , D R3 R2 .
 
1 0 1
AfD,B = .
1 1 0
f f
rank(AD,B ) = 2. , AD,B
f


R2 , AD,B = R2 , Imf = R2 .
w = (b1 , b2 ) R2 , v = (a1 , a2 , a3 ) R3
f
f (v) = w. [AD,B | CD (w)]
:
   
1 0 1 b1 1 0 1 b1
.
1 1 0 b2 0 1 1 b 2 b1

v = (b1 + t, b2 b1 t, t) f (v) = w, t R
R3 f w.
f
Ker f AD,B
f
AD,B X = 0.

Ker f = {(x3 , x3 , x3 ) : x3 R} = S({(1, 1, 1)}) .

dimk (Ker f ) + dimk (Imf ) = 3 = dimk (R3 ) .
118 . , .

f : V W
. f
f (v1 ) = f (v2 ), v1 = v2 .

4.2.6. f : V W . f
Ker f = {0}.

. 0 6= v Ker f f (v) = f (0) = 0 f

. , Ker f = {0} f (v1 ) = f (v2 ).

f (v1 ) f (v2 ) = 0 f (v1 v2 ) = 0 v1 v2 Ker f {0}.

v1 v2 = 0 v1 = v2 .

f
f . f : V W
(epimorphism) Imf = W .
4.2.7. f : V W , B D
V W . f dimk (W ) =
rank(AfD,B ).
. f Imf = W . 4.2.4
f
f dimk (W ) = rank(AD,B ).

f : V W (isomorphism)
.
4.2.8.

f : R2 R2 , (x, y) 7 (x + 2y, 2x + 3y) .

B R2 .
 
1 2
AfB,B = .
2 3
f f f
det(AB,B ) = 1, AB,B null(AB,B ) =
{0}. AfB,B R2 . f ,
f .
f : V W . -
Imf W Ker f V .

4.2.9. f : V W . :

n = dimk (V ) = dimk (Ker f ) + dimk (Imf ) .

. A Mmn (k) f
B D V W . 3.4.3,

rank(A) + dim(null(A)) = n . (4.2.9.1)

4.2.4 rank(A) = dimk (Imf ) dimk (null(A)) = dimk (Ker f ),

.
 119

4.2.9.

4.2.10. f : V W ,

dimk V = dimk W .
. f , dimk (Ker f ) = 0 dimk (Imf ) =
dimk (W ).
dimk (V ) = 0 + dimk (W ) = dimk (W ) .

, , f : V W ,
.

4.2.11. V W , B
V D W . f : V W
f
f AD,B
.

f f
. AD,B null AD,B = {0}, -
f


rank(AD,B = dimk (W ), . Ker f = {0} Imf = W .

, B, D, E
V1 , V2 , V3 ,
gf
AE,B = AgE,D AfD,B .

. f :
V W , f 1 : W V , f
.

4.2.12. f : V W , B , D V
W , A = AfD,B . f 1 : W V A1
D B W V , .
1
AfB,D = (AfD,B )1 .
g
. g : W V AB,D = A1 .

Agf g f 1
B,B = AB,D AD,B = A A = In

CB g f (v) = In CB (v) = CB (v) .
, g f : V V , v 7 v , . g = f 1 .

4.2.13. -
f : R2 R2 , (x, y) 7 (x + 2y, 2x + 3y). B R2 .
   
1 2 1 3 2
A = AfB,B = AfB,B = (A)1 = .
2 3 2 1
f 1 (x, y) = (3x + 2y, 2x y).
120 . , .

k- V ,W n, B ,
D V W .
f : V W AfD,B = In . AfD,B ,
f . .

4.2.14. V , W k- dimk (V ) =
dimk (W ). f : V W . , dimk (V ),
V kn .

k- ,
: ,
.
4.2.14 .
B V ,
W , .
; ,
,
. , ,
( ) .

4.2.15.

1. v1 = (1, 2, 0),v2 = (0, 0, 1), V = S({v1 , v2 }). V

R3 , D = (v1 , v2 ) V dimV = 2.
R2 V . B = (e1 , e2 )
R2 . f : R2 V, f (e1 ) = (1, 2, 0)
f (e2 ) = (0, 0, 1). f f (a, b) =
f (ae1 + be2 ) = af (e1 ) + bf (e2 ) = (a, 2a, 0) + (0, 0, b) = (a, 2a, b),
 
1 0
AfD,B = .
0 1

f
AD,B f -
.
2. V = S({(1, 2, 0), (0, 0, 1)}) W = S({(1, 4, 0), (0, 0, 1)}). -
dim(V ) = dim(W ) = 2. f : V W .
D = (v1 , v2 ) V, v1 = (1, 2, 0), v2 = (0, 0, 1) E = (w1 , w2 )
W, w1 = (1, 4, 0), w2 = (0, 0, 1).
 
0 1
A=
1 0

f
f : V W AE,D = A. f (v1 ) = w2
f (v2 ) = w1 , f (av1 + bv2 ) = af (v1 ) + bf (v2 ) f (a, 2a, b) = (b, 4b, a).
f .

-
.
 121

4.2.1: ,

i. f : V U f (v1 + v2 ) = f (v1 ) + f (v2 )

f (v) = f (v) R, v1 , v2 , v V .
ii. B D V U , f
B . f
f
D B AD,B m n

AfD,B =
 
CD (f (v1 )) CD (f (vn )) ,

n = dimk (V ) m = dimk (U ).

CD (f (v)) = AfD,B CB (v) .

iii. f Ker f = {v V : f (v) = 0}

null(Af ) = {0}. f
f
Imf = U , . rank(AD,B ) = dimk (U ).

dimk (Imf ) + dimk (Ker f ) = dimk (V ) .

iv. dimk (V ) = dimk (U ),

f f f .
f
f : V U AD,B

1
1
AfB,D = AfD,B .

4.2
1.

f : R3 R3 , (x, y, z) (x + 2y, y z, x + 2z).

Ker f Imf .

2. f : R3 R3 ,

f (x, y, z) = (x + 3z, 2x + y + 5z, y + 2z),

(x, y, z) R3 . f .

3. f : R2 V, V = {(x, y, z) : x + y + z = 0}.

4. f : V R2 , V = {(x, y, z) : x + y + z = 0}.
122 . , .

4.3
B , B 0 k- V
D , D 0 k- U .
f
f : V U . AD,B
AfD0 B 0 ; . ,
idV : V V -
idV
B B 0 . AB,B (change of basis
matrix) SB 0 B . SB 0 B .
( ) SB 0 B n n = dimk (V ). B = (v1 , . . . , vn ),
4.2.1.ii, :
 
SB 0 B = CB 0 (v1 ) CB 0 (vn ) .

SB 0 B = In B = B 0 .
, 4.2.1.iv,
SBB 0 SB 0 B = SBB = In ,
:

(SB 0 B )1 = SBB 0 .

4.3.1.
1. B = (e1 , e2 ) R2 B 0 = (v1 , v2 ) v1 = (1, 2),
v2 = (1, 1). SBB 0 . v1 = e1 + 2e2
v2 = e1 + e2 ,  
1 1
SBB 0 = .
2 1
 
1 1 1
SB 0 B = (SBB 0 ) = .
2 1
SB 0 B , -
B B 0 .
 
SB 0 B = CB 0 (v1 ) CB 0 (v2 ) ,
e1 = v1 + 2v2 e2 = v1 v2 .
2. B = (e1 , e2 , e3 ) R2 B 0 = (v1 , v2 , v3 ) v1 =
(1, 2, 0), v2 = (1, 1, 0), v3 = e3 .
. ,
SBB 0 , B 0 . ,
SB 0 B SBB 0 .


1 1 0 1 1 0
SBB 0 = 2 1 0 SB 0 B =
2 1 0 .
0 0 1 0 0 1
SB 0 B e1 = v1 +2v2 , e2 = v1 v2
e3 = v3 .
 123

3. M22 (C) A :
   
3 2 1 1 2
A= , A = .
1 1 1 3

A , A , v1 =
(3, 1), v2 = (2, 1), C2 B 0 = (v1 , v2 )
, . 3.5.10. :

A = SBB 0 A1 = SB 0 B .

e1 = v1 v2 e2 = 2v1 + 3v2 .

, SB 0 B -
V 4.1.4 :

CB 0 (v) = SB 0 B CB (v) . (4.3.1.1)

4.3.2. B = (e1 , e2 ) R2 , w1 = (1, 1), w2 = (1, 1)

B 0 = (w1 , w2 ). w1 = e1 + e2 , w2 = e1 e2 .
   
1 1 1 1/2 1/2
SBB 0 = SB 0 B = (SBB 0 ) = .
1 1 1/2 1/2

e1 = 1/2 w1 + 1/2 w2 , e2 = 1/2 w1 1/2 w2 . v = (2, 1).

v B 0 . v = 2e1 + e2 ,
    
1/2 1/2 2 3/2
CB 0 (v) = SB 0 B CB (v) = = ,
1/2 1/2 1 1/2

. v = 3/2 w1 + 1/2 w2 .
w = 3w1 + w2 .
    
1 1 3 4
CB (u) = SBB 0 CB 0 (u) = = ,
1 1 1 2

w = 4e1 + 2e2 = (4, 2).

, , f : V U .
f f
AD,B AD0 B 0 .

4.3.3. f : V W , B , B 0 -
V D , D 0 W .

AfD0 ,B 0 = SD0 D AfD,B SBB 0 .

. B 0 = (v1 , . . . , vn ), n = dimk (V ).

AfD0 ,B 0 =
 
CD0 (f (v1 )) CD0 (f (vn )) .
124 . , .

f
i AD0 ,B 0 , (4.3.1.1),

CD0 (f (vi )) = SD0 D CD (f (vi )) . (4.3.3.1)

4.1.4

CD (f (vi )) = AfD,B CB (vi ) .

(4.3.3.1)

CD0 (f (vi )) = SD0 D AfD,B 0 CB (vi ).

f
CB (vi ) i SBB 0 , . i AD0 ,B 0
i

SD0 D AfD,B SBB 0 .

4.3.3 V = W
B = D B 0 = D0 . S = SBB 0 , :

4.3.4. f : V V B , B 0 -
V . S ,

AfB 0 ,B 0 = S 1 AfB,B S . (4.3.4.1)

f f
AB,B , AB 0 ,B 0 . A, A0 Mn (k)
(similar) P Mn (k)

A0 = P 1 A P .

4.3.5. A, A0 . det A = det A0 .

. A0 = P 1 A P P . det(P 1 ) det P =
1,
det A0 = det (P 1 A P ) = det(P 1 ) det A det P = det A.

f : V V
B , B 0 V ,

det(AfB 0 ,B 0 ) = det(AfB,B ).

4.3.6.

1.

f : R3 R3 , (x, y, z) 7 (x + 3y z, 2x y, y + 2z).
 125

B = (e1 , e2 , e3 ) R3 . f (e1 ) = (1, 2, 0), f (e2 ) =

(3, 1, 1) f (e3 ) = (1, 0, 2),

1 3 1
AfB,B = 2 1 0 .
0 1 2

v1 = (0, 1, 1), v2 = (1, 1, 1), v3 = (2, 0, 1). v1 , v2 , v3

D = (v1 , v2 , v3 ) R3 .
,

0 1 2
SBD = 1 1 0
1 1 1

1 3 2
1
SDB = (SBD )1 = 1 2 2 .
5
2 1 1

5 8 3
1
AfD,B = SDB AfB,B SBB = SDB AfB,B I3 = 5 3 3 .
5
0 6 4

T
AfD,B = CD (f (e1 )) CD (f (e2 )) CD (f (e3 )) ,


f (e1 ) = v1 + v2 ,
1
f (e2 ) = (8v1 + 3v2 + 6v3 ),
5
1
f (e3 ) = (35v1 + 3v2 4.
5
,

5 6 13
1
AfD,D = SDB AfB,B SBD = 0 11 7 .
5
10 2 4

f (v1 ) = v1 + 2v3 ,
f (v2 ) = 15 (6v1 + 11v2 + 2v3 ),
f (v3 ) = 15 (13v1 + 7v2 + 4v3 ).

2. v1 = (1, 1), v2 = (1, 1) C2 , B C2 D

(v1 , v2 ). f : C2 C2 ,
f (v1 ) = v1 f (v2 ) = 2v2 . , , f D
:  
1 0
AfD,D = .
0 2
126 . , .

f .
  
1 1 1 1 1 1
SBD = , SDB = (SBD ) = ,
1 1 2 1 1

 
1 3 1
AfB,B = SBD AfD,D SDB = .
5 1 3
f
CB f (a, b) = AB,B CB (a, b), :
     
1 3 1 a 1 3a + b
CB f (a, b) = =
2 1 3 b 2 b + 3a

1
f (a, b) = (3a + b, b + 3a) .
2
f D
f B .

n n A k (diagonali-
zable), A . f : V V
(diagonalizable) D V ,
f
AD,D .
,
.

4.3
1. B = (e1 , e2 , e3 , e4 ) R- R4 , 1 =
e1 + e4 , 2 = e1 + 3e2 , 3 = 3e1 + e2 , 4 = e1 + e2 + e3 + e4 , D = (1 , 2 , 3 , 4 ).
SDB SBD .

2. C = ((1, 1), (1, 1))

 
1 2
A= .
3 4
f : R2 R2 , A = Af = AC,C .

3. R- R3 ,

f : R3 R3 , x1 + y2 + z3 7 y1 + z2 + x3 ,

1 = (1, 0, 1), 2 = (1, 1, 0), 3 = (1, 0, 0). f

R3 , . f (e1 ), f (e2 ), f (e3 )
f (a, b, c). f f 1 .
 127

4.4
, () -
17 18
. Gauss (1777-1855) -
, . f (x, y) = ax2 + bxy + cy 2 , 1801
() -
.
, ,
1. ,

.
[3] [4].

1. H. Anton, C. Rorres, Elementary Linear Algebra, Applications Version, John Wiley

and Sons, 1994.

2. . -, . , . , -
, 2006.

3. V. Katz, , , 2013.

4. I. Kleiner, A History of Abstract Algebra, Birkhauser Boston, 2007.

5. K. Nicholoson, Elementary Linear Algebra, McGraw-Hill, 2001.

6. Th. Shiffrin and M. R.Adams, Linear Algebra, a Geometric Approach, W. H. Free-

man and Company, 2002.
 5

. , k R C.

5.1
V k- : V V .
v ,
(v), v .
. 5.1 v
, .

(v) = v
v
0

5.1:

5.1.1. V k- : V V
. k (eigenvalue) , v V , v 6= 0,

(v) = v. (5.1.1.1)

v (5.1.1.1) (eigenvector) .

5.1.2.

1. idV : V V , idV (v) = v 1 ,

v 6= 0 V 1.
idV : V V .

129
130 . , .

2. v V ()
f : V V 0 f (v) = 0.
0.

,
.
 T
5.1.3. A Mn (k), b = b1 bn Mn1 (k) -
(eigenvector) A (eigenvalue) , b 6= 0 A b = b, .

b1 b1
.. ..
A . = . . (5.1.3.1)
bn bn
4.2.14, k- V n -
kn . , , ,
V = kn . .

5.1.4. : kn kn , D
kn . v kn
CD (v) AD,D . , B
kn , (b1 , . . . , bn )
 T
b = b1 bn AB,B .

. v , . (v) = v .
v 6= 0, CD (v) 6= 0. CD (v) = CD (v). 4.1.4,
:
AD,D CD (v) = CD ((v)) = CD (v) = CD (v) .

CD (v) AD,D .
.
B
 T
kn v = (b1 , . . . , bn ), CB (v) = b1 bn .

-
, -
.

5.1.5.

1. In 1 v = 6 0 kn .
In idkn : kn kn ,
id(v) = v .
2. n n
0 0
.. . . ..
0 = . . .
0 0
0 v 6= 0 kn . 0
kn kn , v 7 0 .
 131

3. f : R2 R2
/4 R2 (. 5.2) .
-
: v 6= 0 f (v) v
/4. f (v) = v .

f (v)

/4
0 v

5.2: /4

 
2 1 1
A= AfBB
= .
2 1 1
f , A -
R.
4. f : R2 R2 y = mx,
6.1.
y
(m, 1)
L

(1, m)
x
0

5.3: R2 y = mx

y = mx O(0, 0) (1, m).

(1, m)
(m, 1). , f
: 1 0. v1 = (1, m) f (v1 ) = v1
v1 1. v2 = (m, 1) f (v2 ) = 0 v2
0. , v1
1, v2
f 0.
f
f . D = (v1 , v2 ). AD,D
, .
f (v1 ) = v1 f (v2 ) = 0,
   
1 0
CD (f (v1 )) = CD (f (v2 )) = .
0 0
132 . , .


1 0
AfD,D = .
0 0
B = (e1 , e2 ),  
1 m
S = SBD = .
m 1
 
1 1 m
AfB,B =S AfB,B S 1
= .
1 + m2 m m2
   
a 1 a + mb
AfB,B = ,
b 1 + m2 ma + m2 b

1
f (a, b) = (a + mb, ma + m2 b) .
1 + m2
5. f : R2 R2 y = mx, -
5.4.

y
L

v2 v1

x
0

5.4: y = mx

f 1 v1 = (1, m),
-1 v2 = (m, 1).
D = (v1 , v2 )

1 0
AfD,D = .
0 1
B R2 S = SBD .
 
1 m
S=
m 1
 
1 1 m2 2m
AfB,B =S AfD,D S 1
= .
1 + m2 2m m2 1
   
a 1 a(1 m2 ) + 2bm
AfB,b = ,
b 1 + m2 2am + b(m2 1)
f
1
f (a, b) = (a(1 m2 ) + 2bm, 2am + b(m2 1)) .
1 + m2
 133

: kn kn ,
(eigenspace) , V (),

V () := {v kn : (v) = v} .

V () , , ,
0. , A n n ,

V (A) := {b Mn1 (k) : Ab = b} .

n n : kn kn
, V () V (A)
. V () . :

v1 , v2 V (), (v1 + v2 ) = (v1 ) + (v2 ) = v1 + v2 = (v1 + v2 )

v1 + v2 V ().

, v V () k, (v) = (v) = (v) = ()v = (v) =

(v) v V ().
, V (),
(invariant) , .

(V ()) V ().

5.1.6.

1.

: R2 R2 , (x, y) 7 (2x + y, 4x + 2y).

B = (e1 , e2 ) R2 .
 
2 1
AB,B =
4 2

(1, 2) = (0, 0) = 0(1, 2) ,
. 0 v1 = (1, 2) 0
( ) Ker . ,

(1, 2) = (4, 8) = 4(1, 2) ,

. 4 v2 = (1, 2) 4.
v1 , v2 R2 . D = (v1 , v2 )
R2 .  
0 0
AD,D = ,
0 4
 
1 1
AD,D =S 1
AB,B S S = SBD = .
2 2
V0 () = S({(v1 }) V4 () = S({v2 }).
134 . , .

2.

: R2 R2 , (x, y) 7 (2x, 3y).

B = (e1 , e2 ) R2 .
 
2 0
A= AB,B =
0 3

.: (e1 ) = 2e1 (e2 ) = 3e2 . , e1 -

2, e2 3.

V2 () = S({e1 }) V3 () = S({e2 }) .

3. : R3 R3 ,(x, y, z) = (3x, 3y, z) B = (e1 , e2 , e3 )

R3 .
3 0 0
AB,B = 0 3 0 .

0 0 1

AB,B e1 , e2 3,
e3 1.

V3 () = S({e1 , e2 }), V1 () = S({e3 }) .

4.
. f : kn kn
D = (v1 , . . . , vn ) kn vi
f , i = 1, . . . , n. i f vi ,
i = 1, . . . , n. f (vi ) = i vi , f (vi )
D :
 T
CD (f (vi )) = 0 i 0

i-
f
AD,D ,

1 0
AfD,D =
.. .

.
0 n

, D = (v1 , . . . , vn ) kn , f : kn kn

1 O
AfD,D =
.. ,

.
O n

f (vi ) = i vi , i = 1, . . . , n. vi f
i , i = 1, . . . , n.
 135

5. : V V V 0
. 0 6= v V (v) = 0 v = 0. v Ker
Ker 6= {0}. , v Ker v 6= 0, (v) = 0
v 0.
:

0 : V V
. , 0
A det A = 0.

6. : V V . v
, ( ) 1 1
v 1 1 . , v
. : V V
, 6= 0.

1 (v) = 1 ((1 )v) = 1 1 ((v)) = 1 idV (v) = 1 v.

: V V -
v , 1 1 : V V
v.

7. : R2 R2 , (x, y) = (y, 2x + 3y).

A B R2
 
0 2
A= .
1 3

2 A
{t(1, 1) : t R}
1
2. 1 : R2 R2 , 1 (x, y) = (3xy, 2x).
2
1
1 .
2
8. 2 2
 
i 1
A= .
0 1+i

e1 i (1, 1)
1 + i.

9. 2 2
 
0 i
A= .
i 1

1 A.
136 . , .

10. A Mn (C) A. A. ,
b A . A b = b

A b = b A b = b,

. b A .
T
11. A Mn (C) , A = A . A -
(self-adjoint). A
.

. b A C. -
, = .
(Ab)T b:
(Ab)T b = (b)T b = (bT b) . (5.1.6.1)

A b
T
. , A = A. A = AT .
(Ab)T b, .

(Ab)T b = (bT AT )b = bT (A b) = bT ( b) = (bT b) . (5.1.6.2)

(5.1.6.1) (5.1.6.2)

(bT b) = (bT b) ( )(bT b) = 0.

, bT b 6= 0 (. 2.1.10.2) = . R
.

A Mn (C) A
. A Mn (R) ,
A .

12.  
i 0
A=
0 2i
, ( : A = AT , A
/ Mn (R)).
A i, 2i.

5.1.5.5.

5.1.7. A Mn (k). A
det(A In ) = 0. , : kn kn A
kn ,
det(A In ) = 0. A,
A , A In = 0.
 137

. b A . -
b 6= 0.

Ab = b Ab b = 0 Ab In = 0 (A In )b = 0.

(A In )X = 0 , b.
A In det(A In ) = 0.
,
.

5.1.8.

1.  
1 1
A= M2 (R)
1 1
R. ,
 
1 1
det(A I2 ) = det = (1 )2 + 1 = 2 2 + 2
1 1

R, 2 2 + 2 .
2 2 + 2 , 1 i. ,
A M22 (C) C.
(i, 1) C2 A 1 + i, (i, 1) C2
A 1 i.

2. A, B n n B = P 1 AP
P . b A , P 1 b
B .

. b A , Ab = b. :

B(P 1 b) = (P 1 AP )(P 1 b) = (P 1 A)(P P 1 b) = (P 1 A)(In b)

= P 1 (A b) = P 1 (b) = (P 1 b) .

5.1.7,

V () = null(A In )

, V () ,

dimk V () 1 .
138 . , .

5.1
1. : R2 R2 -
.
.

2. : R3 R3
y = 0. .

3. -

() : C2 C2 , (x, y) 7 (x + 4y, 2x + 3y).

() : R3 R3 , (a, b, c) 7 (b, c, a).
() f : R3 R3 , (x, y, z) 7 (2x + y, y z, 2y + 4z).

4. :
 
1 2
() ,
3 2
 
2 2
() ,
2 3
 
1 i
() .
i 1

5. A n n , A X
A . + k
A + kIn X A + kIn . m
Am X Am
m .

6. A n n 3A.
2 + 2 3A2 A + 2In .

5.2
: kn kn . , -
5.1.4 5.1.7 :

A , ( -
) kn ,

A xIn ,

det(A xIn ).
 139

,
AX = X A.
; ,
A. A xIn n n

11 x 12 1n
21 22 x 2n
A xIn = . .

. .. ..
. . .
n1 n2 nn x
det(A xIn ) k[x], n.
PA (x) (characteristic polyno-
mial) A, .

PA (x) := det(A xIn ).

P (x) PA (x) .
A PA (x) PA (x).
PA (x) :

PA (x) = (1)n xn + n1 xn1 + + 1 x + 0 .

PA (x), a0 , A. ,

PA (0) = 0 = det(A 0In ) = det A .

an1 PA (x).
A xIn an1 A:

n1 = (1)n1 (11 + + nn ) = (1)n1 Tr(A) .

5.2.1.

1.  
1 2
A= .
0 i

 
1x 2
A xI2 = PA (x) = (1 x)(i x) = x2 (1 + i)x + i .
0 ix

A 1 i. : C2 C2 , (a, b) = (a, 2a + ib). B

C2 , A = AB,B .

P (x) = x2 (1 + i)x + i .

2.
1 0 2
A = 0 2 3 .
0 2 3
140 . , .

1x 0 2
A xI3 = 0 2x 3
0 2 3x
det(A xI3 ) =

(1 x) (2 x)(3 x) 6 = x(x 1)(x 5) = x3 + 6x2 6x .

3. A Mn (k).

det(A xIn ) = det(A xIn )T = det(AT xIn ) .

A AT .

4. PA (x) A.
5.1.7, 0 A det A = 0.

A PA (x)
.

: kn kn ;
n n A;
A P (x)
PA (x)). n;

.

5.2.2. : Cn Cn , n
. : Rn Rn ,
n . A Mn (C) A n
. A Mn (R) A n .

. , -
. , p(x) C[x] n -
C n C,
. , p(x) R[x], p(x) C[x]. p(x) deg p(x)
,
. p(x) R[x], p(x) deg p(x) .
PA (x) n,
.

5.2.3.
 141

1. A Mn (C) A 1 , . . . , n C.
PA (x) (1)n ,

PA (x) = (1)n (x 1 ) (x n ).
, xn1

(1)n1 (1 + + n ),
PA (x), PA (0),

(1)n (0 1 ) (0 n ) = (1)n (1)n (1 n ) = 1 n .

xn1 (1)n1 Tr(A)
PA (x) A.
A A.

A Mn (C) A 1 , . . . , n
Tr(A) = 1 + + n det A = 1 n .

2.
3 a 3b c
A= c a i
i c + i 1
det A = 2 A 2.
5.2.2 A .
.
1 , 2 A.

2 = det A = 21 2 , 2 = Tr A = 2 + 1 + 2 .

1 = 2 , 21 = 1
A i.

, , . 5.1.8.2.
, .

5.2.4. .

. A, B Mn (k) . det(A
xIn ) = det(B xIn ). A, B , S

B = S 1 A S .
det(B xIn ) = det(A xIn ).

det(B xIn ) = det(S 1 A S xS 1 S) = det(S 1 A S S 1 xIn S) =

= det(S 1 (A xIn )S) = det(S 1 | det(A xIn ) det(S) = det(A xIn ) .
A B -
.
142 . , .

: kn kn .
kn , ( 4.3.4). ,
kn -
P (x).
.

5.2.1
n n
:k k
: : kn kn .
: .
1  
A = (e1 ) (en ) .
2 PA (x) = P (x)

det(A xIn ) .

3 A k,

PA (x) = 0 .

4 A, -
A In :
V () = null(A In ) .

5.2.5.

1. : C2 C2 , (a, b) = (a + 2b, ib). (e1 )

(e2 ). (e1 ) = (1, i) (e2 ) = (2, i), B C2

A = AB,B ,
 
1 2
A= .
0 i
5.2.1.1,

PA (x) = (1 x)(i x)

A 1 i.
   
0 2 0 1
V1 (A) = null(A I2 ) = null = null = {t(1, 0) : t C}
0 i1 0 0

   
1i 2 1 1+i
Vi (A) = null(A iI2 ) = null = null
0 0 0 0
= {t(1 i, 1) : t C} .
 143

v1 = (1, 0), v2 = (1i, 1), D = (v1 , v2 )

C2

1 0
AD,D = .
0 i

AD,D , -
.
2.

: R2 R2 , (x, y) 7 (2x + y, x + 2y).

R2
 
2 1
A= .
1 2

A = AT , A , .
5.1.5.11. , -
:
 
2x 1
P (x) = det = (2 x)2 1 = x2 4x + 3 = (x 1)(x 3).
1 2x

A 1 3. A 1I2
:
   
1 1 1 1
.
1 1 0 0

1,

V1 () = { (x2 , x2 ) : x2 k} = S({(1, 1)}) = S({v}),

v = (1, 1).
V3 (), A 3I2

   
1 1 1 1
,
1 1 0 0

V3 () = { (x2 , x2 ) : x2 k} = S({(1, 1)}) = S({u}),
u = (1, 1).
{v, u} R2 A

 
1 0
.
0 3
144 . , .

3.
 
1 1
A= M2 (R).
1 0

A
  ! !
 1x 1 
 = x + x2 1 = 1+ 5 1 5
 x x .
 1 x  2 2

1+ 5 1 5
A 1 = 2 = .
2 2
V1 (A 1 I2 )X = O. -
A 1 I2 :
 
1 5
1 2
0 0

1+ 5 1+ 5
V1 (A) = {( x2 , x2 ) : x2 R} = S({( , 1)})
2 2

= S({(1 + 5, 2)}).


1 5
V2 (A) = S({( , 1)}) = S({(1 5, 2)}).
2
A
 
1 0
.
0 2

4.
 
0 1
A= M2 (R)
1 0

 
 x 1 
PA (x) =   = x2 + 1 .
1 x 

PA (x) R A
R. i C PA (x) C A
i C.

Vi (A) = { (ix2 , x2 ) : x2 C} = S({(i, 1)}),

Vi (A) = { (ix2 , x2 ) : x2 C} = S({(i, 1)}).
 145

5. : R3 R3 , (a, b, c) = (a + 2c, 2b + 3c, 2b + 3c), B

R3 A = AB,B .

1 0 2
A = 0 2 3
0 2 3
5.2.1.2, PA (x) = x(x 1)(x 5).
A 0, 1, 5.

1 0 2 1 0 2
V0 (A) = null(A 0 I3 ) = null A = null 0 2 3 = null 0 1 23 .
0 2 3 0 0 0

3
V0 (A) = {t(2, , 1) : t R} .
2

0 0 2 0 1 0
V1 (A) = null(A 1 I3 ) = null 0 1 3 = null 0 0 1 .
0 2 2 0 0 0

V1 (A) = {t(1, 0, 0) : t R} .

1 0 21

4 0 2
V5 (A) = null(A 5 I3 ) = null 0 3 3 = null 0 1 1
0 2 2 0 0 0

1
V5 (A) = {t( , 1, 1) : t R} .
2

3 1
v1 = (2, , 1), v2 = (1, 0, 0), v3 = ( , 1, 1)
2 2
D = (v1 , v2 , v3 ) R3

0 0 0
AD,D = 0 1 0 .
0 0 5

AD,D , .
6.
4 0 1
A = 2 1 0 M3 (R).
2 0 1
PA (x) A
 
 4x 0 1 
 
PA (x) =  2 1 x
 0  = (1 x)[(4 x)(1 x) + 2]

 2 0 1x 
146 . , .

PA (x) = (1 x)(x 2)(x 3).

A

1 = 1, 2 = 2, 3 = 3.

A .
, A

V1 = { (0, , 0) : R} = S({(0, 1, 0)}),

V2 = { ( 21 , , ) : R} = S({( 21 , 1, 1)}),
V3 = { (, , ) : R} = S({(1, 1, 1)}) .

1
1 = (0, 1, 0), 2 = ( , 1, 1), 3 = (1, 1, 1)
2
R3 . D = (1 , 2 , 3 ). A

1 0 0
E= 0 2 0 ,
0 0 3

E = S 1 A S

0 1/2 1
S = SBD = 1 1 1 .
0 1 1

A Mn (k). PA () = 0 PA (x) = (x )q1 (x)

q1 (x) k[x]. q1 () = 0, q1 (x) = (x )q2 (x) q2 (x) k[x]
PA (x) = (x )2 q2 (x). ,
m N

PA (x) = (x )m q(x) , q(x) k[x] , q() 6= 0 .

1 m n. m -
(algebraic multiplicity) . 1 , . . . , k -
A k, h(x) k[x]

deg PA (x) = (x 1 )m1 (x k )mk h(x)

m1 + + mk n.
V (A) 6= {0},

n := dimk V (A) 1 .

n (geometric multiplicity)
.
 147

5.2.6. A, m n 1, .

[2,
5.2.5].

5.2.7.

4 0 0 0 0
0 4 1 0 0
A=
0
.
0 4 5 0
0 0 0 0 5

PA (x) = (x 2)3 (x 3)2 4 3

5 2.
4 2
5 2.

5.2
1.

a b 0
A = c 1 a 2i .
i c+1 1

det A = 8 A 2 .

2.

2 1 0
A = 0 1 1 M3 (R).
0 2 4

3. -
5.2.4.

4.

1 1 2 0 0
0 1 1 0 0

0
A= 0 1 0 0.
0 0 0 1 3
0 0 0 3 1
148 . , .

5.3
n n A A -
.
: kn kn . 5.1.6.3, -
kn D
. vi i
D, i i AD,D .

5.3.1.

1. : C2 C2 , (a, b) = (a + 2b, ib). 5.2.5.1,

1 i v1
v2 . D1 = (v1 , v2 ) D2 = (v2 , v1 ).
   
1 0 i 0
AD1 ,D1 =
, AD2 ,D2 = .
0 i 0 1

2. : R3 R3 , 1 , 2 ,
3 v1 , v2 , v3 . D1 = (v1 , v2 , v3 ) D2 = (v3 , v1 , v2 ),

1 0 0 3 0 0
AD1 ,D1
= 0 2 0 , AD2 ,D2 = 0 1 0 .

0 0 3 0 0 2

5.3.2. : kn kn . w1 , w2 , . . . , w
V 1 ,2 , . . . , ,
w1 , w2 ,. . . , w .

. , -

.

1 w1 + 2 w2 = 0, (5.3.2.1)

1 , 2 k. 1 = 2 = 0. ,

(1 w1 + 2 w2 ) = (0) = (0) 1 (w1 ) + 2 (w2 ) = 0

1 1 w1 + 2 2 w2 = 0. (5.3.2.2)

(5.3.2.1) 2 (5.3.2.2).

1 (1 2 )w1 = 0 .
w1 w1 6= 0. 1 (1 2 ) = 0. 1 = 0
1 6= 2 . (5.3.2.1)
2 = 0.
 149

5.3.3. A Mn (k) 1 , . . . , k k
A k. A

dimk V1 (A) + + dimk Vk (A) = n .

5.3.3.

5.3.4. A Mn (k).

i) A n , A .
ii) A ,
A .
. 5.2.6

k n1 + + mk = m1 + + mk n.
A

m1 = n1 , . . . , mk = nk ,
n = k , ni = mi = 1, i = 1, . . . , n A .

5.3.5.

1.

: R3 R3 , (x, y, z) 7 4(x, y, z)
R- R3 . R3

4 0 0
A= 0 4 0

0 0 4 ,
PA (x) = (4 x)3 .
4 A 4I3 = 0 V4 () = null(A 4I3 ) = R3 .

2.
4 0 1
A = 0 4 0 .
0 0 4
PA (x) = (4 x)3 A 4.

0 0 1
A 4I3 = 0 0 0
0 0 0
V4 (A) = {(s, t, 0) : s, t R} = S({e1 , e2 }). A -
R3
A.
150 . , .

3.
f : R3 R3 ,f (a, b, c) = (3a + 2b + 2c, a + 4b + 2c, a 2b). B
R3

3 2 2
A = AfB,B = 1 4 2
1 2 0 .

PA (x)
 
 3x 2 2 
 
 1 4x 2  = 12 16x + 7x2 x3 = (2 x)2 (3 x),
 
 1 2 x 

A 2 3. A2I3
:

1 2 2 1 2 2
A 2I3 = 1 2 2 0 0 0
1 4 0 0 0 0 ,

(A 2I3 )X = 0

V2 (A) = { (2x2 2x3 , x2 , x3 ) : x2 , x3 R} =

{ t(2, 1, 0) + s(2, 0, 1) : t, s R}.

A 3I3 :

0 2 2 1 0 1
A 3I3 = 1 1 2 0 1 1
1 2 3 0 0 0 ,

V3 (A) = S({(1, 1, 1)}).

dim(V2 (A)) + dim(V3 (A)) = 3

V2 (A) + V3 (A) = R3
f . v1 = (2, 1, 0),v2 =
(2, 0, 1) ( 2) v3 = (1, 1, 1) ( 3) -
D = (v1 , v2 , v3 ), E = (v2 , v3 , v1 ) R3 .

2 0 0 2 0 0
AfD,D = 0 2 0 AfE,E = 0 3 0 .
0 0 3 0 0 2
f f f
AB,B , AD,D , AE,E .
.
 151

4.
2 0 0 0
0 2 1 0
A=
0 5 2 0 .

0 0 0 2
PA (x) == (2 x)2 (x2 + 1). A
R 2, C A 2 i.
A R. A
C.
V2 (A), A 2I4
:

0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0
0 4 1 0 0 0 1 0
0 5 0 0 0 0

0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 .

V2 (A) = null(A 2I4 ) = { (x1 , 0, 0, x4 ) : x1 , x4 C} = S({(1, 0, 0, 0), (0, 0, 0, 1)}).

Vi (A)
, A iI4

1 0 0 0
0 2i
1 5
0

0 0 0 1
0 0 0 0

2 + i
Vi (A) = { x3 (0, , 1, 0) : t C} = {k(0, 2 + i, 5, 0) : k C}.
5
, i

Vi (A) = { t(0, 2 i, 5, 0) : t C}.

A C ,

(1, 0, 0, 0), (0, 0, 0, 1), (0, 2 + i, 5, 0), (0, 2 i, 5, 0)

C4 . A C

2 0 0 0
0 2 0 0
.
0 0 i 0
0 0 0 i

,
.
152 . , .

A
. , [2, 5.3].

5.3.6. (Cayley-Hamilton) A Mn (k)

PA (x) = (1)n xn + n1 xn1 + + 1 x + 0 ,

A.

(1)n An + n1 An1 + + 1 A + 0 In

, . PA (A) = 0.

Cayley-Hamilton.

5.3.7.

1.  
1 1
A= .
0 2
PA (x) = x2 3x + 2.
      
2 1 3 1 1 2 0 0 0
A 3A + 2I2 = 3 + = = 0,
0 4 0 2 0 2 0 0

Cayley-Hamilton
.

A2 3A + 2I2 = 0 A2 3A = 2I2 (A 3I2 )A = 2I2

1 1
(A 3I2 )A = I2 A1 = (A 3I2 ) .
2 2

2.
1 0 2
A = 0 1 1 .
0 1 0
PA (x) = x3 + 2x 1 Cayley-Hamilton

A3 + 2A I3 = 0.

PA (x) , A -
. A1
A.

A3 + 2A I3 = 0 A3 + 2A = I3 A(A2 + 2I3 ) = I3 .

A1 = A2 + 2I3 .
 153

3.
PA (x) = (1)n xn + n1 xn1 + + 1 x + 0 .
Cayley-Hamilton

PA (A) = 0 (1)n An + n1 An1 + + 1 A + 0 In = 0

An = (1)n+1 n1 An1 + + (1)n+1 1 A + (1)n+1 0 In .

An In , A, . . . , An1 . -
A
An

An+1 = (n1
2
+ n1 n2 )An1 + + n1 0 In .
An+1 In , A, . . . , An1 . -
, Am m n
In , A, . . . , An1 .
A1 A . , A
0 6= 0. ,

(1)n An + n1 An1 + + 1 A = 0 In .
A ( )

A (1)n An1 + n1 An2 + + 1 In = 0 In ,

.
1
A1 = ((1)n An1 + n1 An2 + + 1 In ).
0
4.
0 0 i
A = i 0 0 .
0 1 0
A

x 0 i
det i x 0 = (x)(x)2 i i = x3 + 1.
0 1 x
Cayley-Hamilton

A3 + I3 = 0
A3 = I3 . m N, m m = 3 + r ,
r = 0, 1, 2 N. m N :

3 3
A = (A ) = I3 = I3

Am = A3+1 = (A3 ) A = A

3+2
A = (A3 ) A2 = A2 .
A I3 , A, A2 . A3 = I3 ,
A A2 = I3 , A1 = A2 .
154 . , .

J Mk (C) Jordan (Jordan block) J

:
1 0 0 0
0
1 0 0
0 0 0 0
J = . .. .

.. ..
. .
0 0 0 1
0 0 0 0
-
Jordan. .

5.3.8. A Mn (C) PA (x) =

(x1 )m1 (xs )ms , 1 , . . . , s C A.
ni = dimC Vi (A), i = 1, . . . , s. P

J1 0 0
0 J2 0
P 1 AP = . ,

.. ..
. 0
0 0 Jr
, j = 1, . . . , r , Jj J Jordan
A. i (i = 1, . . . , s):

i) Jordan i ni ,
ii) i mi Jordan i .

P 1 AP Jordan (Jordan
canonical form) A.

5.3.8 3 3 .

5.3.9. PA (x) = (x 2)3 . A

:

2 0 0 2 0 0 2 1 0
J1 = 0 2 0 , J2 = 0 2 1 , J3 = 0 2 1 .
0 0 2 0 0 2 0 0 2

, 2 3.
A Jordan A J1 ,
. 2 3. J1
Jordan, 1 1 . 2 ,
Jordan A J2 . J2
Jordan: 1 1 , 2 2 . ,
2 , Jordan
A J3 . J3 3 3 Jordan.

[6]
.
 Rn 155

5.3
1. : R2 R2 -
. ;

2. : R3 R3
y = 0. ;

3. a, b
 
a 1
M2 (R).
0 b

4.
2 1 0
A = 0 1 1
0 2 4
.

5.  
1 i
A=
i 2
.

6. A

x4 2x3 + x + 4.

A, rank(A) -
A1 A.

7. Cayley-Hamilton

1 2 2
A = 1 0 1
3 4 3
A4 I3 , A, A2 .

8. Jordan A
M5 (C) PA (x) = (x 3)2 (x + 1)3 .

5.4
Rn
A Mn (R) (orthogonal)

AT A = In A1 = AT .

A AT ,
. 5.4.2.
156 . , .

5.4.1.

1. In .
2.
1/3 2/6 0

A = 1/3 1/6 1/2 .
1/ 3 1/ 6 1/ 2
A AT = I3 A

1/3 1/3 1/3
A1 = AT = 2/ 6 1/6 1/6 .
0 1/ 2 1/ 2

3. A Mn (R) . AT A = In

det AT A = det In = 1 det AT det A = 1 det A det A = 1

det A = 1 .

, 1, . 5.3.3. , ,
,
Rn AT A
.
(standard inner product) Rn -

h , i : Rn Rn R,
h(1 , . . . , n ), (1 , . . . , n )i = 1 1 + + n n .
, R2

h(1, 2), (3, 1)i = 1 3 + 2 (1) = 1 , h(1, 2), (1, 2)i = 5 .

Rn n N, :

h (1 , . . . , n ), (1 , . . . , n ) i = 12 + + n2 .

v, u, w Rn , , R.
.
5.4.1:
h , i : Rn Rn R.

i) hv, vi 0, v Rn hv, vi = 0 v = 0.
ii) hv, ui = hu, vi, v, w Rn
iii) hv + w, ui = hv, ui + hw, ui, v, w Rn , , R,
iv) hv, u + wi = hv, ui + hv, wi, v, w Rn , , R,
v) hv, 0i = 0, v Rn .
 Rn 157

hv, wi = 0, w Rn , v = 0. (5.4.1.1)
p
(norm) v kvk hv, vi. v
n
(normal) kvk = 1. w R ,

1
w
kwk
w. (distance)
v, u Rn v u d(v, u) . d(v, u) =
ku vk. ,
Cauchy-Schwarz (Cauchy-Schwarz inequality):

kukkvk hu, vi kukkvk .

hu, vi
1 1.
kukkvk
(triangle inequality) -
Cauchy-Schwarz:

kv + uk kvk + kuk .
v , u 6= 0 (angle) v u 0
hu, vi
cos = .
kukkvk

5.4.2. v = (1, 0, 1), u = (1, 1, 0). kuk = kuk =
2
d(u, v) = 6.
hv, ui 1 1
cos = = =
kvkkuk 2 2 2
2
= = .
3 3

5.5: u v R3

u,v .
1 1
u0 = (1, 0, 1), v 0 = (1, 1, 0)
2 2
u v .
158 . , .

v , u (orthogonal)

hv, ui = 0 .

v , u ,
, , . 5.4.2.

u, v Rn ku + vk2 = kuk2 + kvk2 .

D Rn , D (orthogonal
basis) Rn , D . D
Rn D , D
(orthonormal basis) Rn .

5.4.3. B = (e1 , . . . , en ) Rn
. , e1 , . . . , en kei k = 1, i = 1, . . . , n
(
0, i 6= j
hei , ej i =
1, i = j

. ei , ej 1 i < j n.

V Rn
. , D V D
(orthogonal basis) V D
D (orthonormal basis) V D
D . .

V
(normalize) , .
.

5.4.4.

1. v1 = (1, 1), v2 = (1, 1). hv1 , v2 i = 0 v1 , v2 -

2
D = {v1 , v2 } R .
kv1 k = kv2 k = 2. D .

, w1 = 1/ 2(1, 1), w2 = 1/ 2(1, 1).
{w1 , w2 } R2 .

2. v1 = 1/ 3(1, 1, 1), v2 = 1/ 6(2, 1, 1), v3 = 1/ 2(0, 1, 1).
.
v1 , v2 , v3 . ,

1/3 2/ 6 0
A = 1/3 1/6 1/ 2
1/ 3 1/ 6 1/ 2
( 5.4.1), . v1 , v2 , v3
, . 3.3.5. kv1 k = kv2 k = kv3 k = 1.
{v1 , v2 , v3 } R3 .
 Rn 159

3. V R3

V = {(x, y, z) R3 : x + y z = 0} .


v1 = (1, 0, 1), v2 = (0, 1, 1), v1 , v2 V
V . , ,

w = (1, 2, 1) = v1 + 2v2 V

hv1 , wi = 0, {v1 , w} V .

1 1
{ v1 , w}
2 6
V .

5.4.5. V Rn v1 , . . . , vt V
. v1 , . . . , vt

hv, vi i
v = 1 v1 + + t vt = i = i = 1, . . . , t .
kvi k2
.
1 v1 + + t vt = 0 (5.4.5.1)
1 , . . . , t 0.
v1 (5.4.5.1).

hv1 , 1 v1 + + t vt i = hv1 , 0i = 0

hv1 , 1 v1 i + + hv1 , t vt i = 0

1 hv1 , v1 i + + t hv1 , vt i = 0 ,

1 1 + 2 0 + + t 0 = 0 1 = 0 .
-
v1 , . . . , vt 1 = =
t = 0. v1 , . . . , vt .
v = 1 v1 + + t vt . vi
:
hv, vi i
hv, vi i = h1 v1 + + t vt , vi i = i hvi , vi i = i =
hvi , vi i
.

B = (e1 , . . . , en ) Rn . CB (u)T CB (v)

1 1
u, v , .
CB (u)T CB (v) = CB (v)T CB (u) = [hv, ui] .
160 . , .

hv, ui = v T u .
 
, A Mn (R) A = CB (v1 ) . . . CB (vn ) ,

v1T v1 . . . v1T vn

AT A = ... .. .

.
vnT v1 . . . vnT vn

5.4.6. D = {v1 , . . . , vn } Rn Rn
AT A ,
 
A = CB (v1 ) CB (vn ) .

D Rn AT A = In , .
A .

V Rn .

5.4.7. B Rn , V
Rn , dimR V = m. D = {v1 , . . . , vm } V
V AT A m m ,
 
A = CB (v1 ) . . . CB (vm ) .

D Rn AT A = Im , .
A .

A Rn ,
A Rn .

5.4.8.

1. 5.4.1

1/3 2/6 0
A = 1/3 1/6 1/2
1/ 3 1/ 6 1/ 2

.
 
1 1 1
(1, 1, 1), (2, 1, 1), (0, 1, 1)
3 6 2
 
1 2 1 1 1 1 1 1
( , , 0), ( , , ), ( , , ) ,
3 6 3 6 2 3 6 2
R3 .
 Rn 161

2. 5.4.4.3
 
1 1
(1, 0, 1), (1, 2, 1)
2 6

V = {(x, y, z) R3 : x + y z = 0} .

B R3 . A 5.4.7 3 2

1/ 2 1/6
A= 0 2/6 .
1/ 2 1/ 6
AT A = I2 .

V R- ; V
R- , V
(Euclidean vector space) (inner
product) V , . h , i : V V R -
, Rn
, . 5.4.1.
.
5.4.2: h , i : V V R.

i.) hv, vi 0, v V hv, vi = 0 v = 0.

ii.) hv, ui = hu, vi, v, w V
iii.) hv + w, ui = hv, ui + hw, ui, v, w V , , R,
iv.) hv, u + wi = hv, ui + hv, wi, v, w V , , R,
v.) hv, 0i = 0, v V .

5.4.9.

1. Rn .
2. V
[a, b]
Z b
h , i : V V R, hf, gi = f (t)g(t)dt .
a

.
.
, , Cn
C- .
(standard inner product) Cn :

h(1 , . . . , n ), (1 , . . . , n )i = 1 1 + + n n .
162 . , .

C- V (Hermitian
vector space) (inner pro-
duct), . h , i : V V C
.
5.4.3:
h , i : V V C.

i.) hv, vi R+ , v V hv, vi = 0 v = 0.

ii.) hv, ui = hu, vi, v, w V .
iii.) hv + w, ui = hv, ui + hw, ui, v, w V , , R.
iv.) hv, u + wi = hv, ui + hv, wi, v, w V , , R.
v.) hv, 0i = 0, v V .

A Mn (C) (orthogonal)

A(AT ) = In .
,
.
A Mn (R) R, C. ,
() Rn ()
Cn . ,
, .

5.4.10.
 
1 1 i
A=
2 i 1
A C2 .

5.4
1. v = (1, 2, 3, 4). kvk, k3vk, k 51 vk, d(u, v).

2. u, v Rn , ,
, .

ku + vk2 = kuk2 + kvk2 .

3. v1 = (3, 0, 4), v2 = (4, 0, 3), v3 = (0, 5, 0)

R3 .

4. A AT .

5.  
1 5
A=
5 1
D P D = P T AP .
 163

6.

1 0 0
0 3 2 .
0 2 6

7. V [, ]

Z
h , i : V V R, hf, gi = f (t)g(t)dt .

()

{1, cos x, sin x, cos(2x), sin(2x), . . . , cos(nx), sin(nx), . . . , }

. dimR (V ) = .

8. A1 M2 (R) ( )
   
1/2 1/2 1/4 a
A1 = , A2 = .
b d b d

9. C3 (1, 0, i).

10. {u1 , . . . , un } U Rm w Rm .
hw, ui = 0, u U , hw, ui i = 0,
i = 1, . . . , n.

11. h : Rn Rn .

hh(v), wi = 0, v, w Rn ,

h = 0Rn h(v) = 0, v Rn . g : Rn Rn

hg(v), wi = hv, wi, v, w Rn ,

g = idRn g(v) = v , v Rn .

5.5
: Rn Rn , B Rn ,

A = AB,B . (adjoint linear map)
, : Rn Rn ,

AB,B = AT .
164 . , .

5.5.1. : R2 R2 , (x, y) = (x+2y, 3xy).

B R2 ,
 
1 2
AB,B = .
3 1

 
1 3
AB,B = : R2 R2 , (x, y) = (x + 3y, 2x y) .
2 1

5.5.2. : Rn Rn .

h(v), wi = hv, (w)i v, w Rn .

.
(v)T w = v T (w)

CB ((v))T CB (w) = CB (v)T CB ( (w)) .
4.1.4,

CB ((v)) = A CB (v) CB ( (w)) = AT CB (w) ,

A = AB,B .

(A CB (v))T CB (w) = CB (v)T AT CB (w) = CB (v)T AT CB (w)

, 5.5.2 :

A Mn (R) v Rn . hA v, vi = hv, AT vi.

( ) = . 5.5.2
.

5.5.3. : Rn Rn .

h (v), wi = hv, (w)i v, w Rn .

h (v), wi = h(v), (w)i v, w Rn .

: Rn Rn
n . ( -
Rn )
(orthogonal diagonalizable). n Rn
.
5.1.6.11 .
 165

5.5.4. A Mn (R) -
P Mn (R)

1 0
PTA P =
.. .

.
0 n

1 , . . . , n A
. P A.

A
Rn A.
.
(Spectral Theorem).
[2, 7.2.18]

5.5.5 ( ). A Mn (R)
A = AT .

, 5.5.6, -
.

5.5.6. A M2 (R) A = AT . A
.

. A M2 (R) A = AT . 5.1.6.11
A . 1
 T
A X1 = a1 b1 A 1 .
 
a1 b1
P = .
b1 a1
 T
X2 = b1 11 A. v1 = (a1 , b1 ), v2 =
(b1 , a1 ) B R2 . , X1 = CB (v1 ), X2 = CB (v2 ).
X2 A AX2 = tX2
t. Y = AX2
(v1 , v2 ) R2 , , t R Y = X1 + tX2 .
, , = 0. ,
T
Y T X1 = (AX2 ) X1 .

(AX2 )T X1 = X2T (AT X1 ) = X2T (AX1 ) = X2T (1 X1 ) = 1 (X2T X1 ) = 0 .

X1 + tX2 AX2

(AX2 )T X1 = (X1 + tX2 )T X1 = (X1T + tX2T )X1

= (X1T X1 ) + t(X2T X1 ) = (X1T X1 ) + t0 = (X1T X1 ) .

X1T X1 6= 0 (X1T X1 ) = 0 = 0. AX2 = tX2 X2
A t. 2 2 A
.
166 . , .

B Rn : Rn Rn
.

AB,B = (AB,B )T = .
: Rn Rn (self-adjoint) =
A Mn (R) A = AT .
5.5.5 : Rn Rn
.

5.5.7.

1. 5.2.5.2

: R2 R2 , (x, y) 7 (2x + y, x + 2y)

 
1 0
P T
Ab,B P = ,
0 3
 
1 1 1
P = .
2 1 1
1 3 = .

2.
1 1 0
A = 1 2 1 .
0 1 1
A = AT . A.
 
 1 x 1 0 
 
PA (x) =  1 2 x 1
  = (1 x)[(2 x)(1 x) 1] + [(1 x)]

 0 1 1 x 

PA (x) = (1 x)x(x 3).

1 = 1, 2 = 0, 3 = 3 PA (x) A.
V1 (A), V0 (A), V3 (A) A.

V1 (A) = { (, 0, ) : R} = S({(1, 0, 1)}),

V0 (A) = { (, , ) : R} = S({(1, 1, 1)}),
V3 (A) = { (, 2, ) : R} = S({(1, 2, 1)}.

R3 .
1 = (1, 0, 1), 2 = (1, 1, 1), 3 = (1, 2, 1), (1 , 2 , 3 )
R3 . i = 1, . . . , 3, i
R3 A:
 
1 1 1
(1, 0, 1), (1, 1, 1), (1, 2, 1) .
2 3 6
 167

1/ 2 1/ 3 1/ 6

S= 0 1/ 3 2/ 6 ,


1/ 2 1/ 3 1/ 6

1 0 0
ST A S = 0 0 0 .
0 0 3

3. : R3 R3 , (x, y, z) = (x, 2y + 4z, 4y + 3z).

B R3

1 0 0
A = 0 2 4 .
0 4 3

A = AT , A = -
.

PA (x) = (1 x)(x2 5x 10)

A

5+ 65 5 65
1 = 1, 2 = , 3 = .
2 2
A I3

0 1 0
0 0 1 .
0 0 0

V1 (A) = {t(1, 0, 0) : t R} v1 = (1, 0, 0)

1.
A 2 I3

1 0 0
0 1 + 65/2 4 .
0 0 0
.

V2 (A). (x, y, z) V2 (A)
x = 0,

1 + 65 1 65
y + 4z = 0 z = y.
2 8

1 65
V2 (A) = {t(0, 1, ) : t R} = {s(0, 8, 1 65) : s R}
8
168 . , .

v2 = (0, 8, 1 65) 2 .

V3 (A) = {t(0, 8, 1 + 65) : t R}

v3 = (0, 8, 1 + 65) 3 .

(v1 , v2 , v3 )

R3 A. -
R3 :

1 1
((1, 0, 0), p (0, 8, 1 65), p (0, 8, 1 + 65)).
130 2 65 130 + 2 65

1 0 0
0 8 8
P =
1302
65 130+2
65

0 1 65 ) 1+ 65
1302 65 130+2 65

1 0 0
0 2 0 = P T AP .
0 0 3

5.5.5
.
.
A Mn (C), Cn A;
A Mn (C) (orthogonal diagonalizable),
P P 1 = (P T )

1 0
(P T )AP = 0 ..
.

.
n

P A 1 , . . . , n A.
A (Hermitian) A = (AT ). -
5.1.6.11 A , A
. 5.5.2
n n Cn .

5.5.8. A Mn (C) v Cn , hA v, vi = hv, AT vi.

A -
A .
. Mn (C)
. ;
A Mn (C) (normal) :
T T
AA =A A.
 169

A = (AT ) A . , ,
.

5.5.9. A Mn (C)
A . , A = (AT ), A
.

, [2,
7.3.11].
5.5.10.

1 1 0
A = 0 1 1
1 0 1
. 5.5.7,
A.

. , , . ,
1, . 5.5.5. , ,
.

5.5.11. A Mn (C) n n . A
. A 1.

5.5
1. : R3 R3 , (x, y, z) = (x + 2y, x + y + z, y x). .

2. A Mmn (R). null(A) = null(AT A).

rank(AT A) = rank(A).
3. A Mn (R) , A v A
. hAv, Avi
= 1.
4.
  A M3 (R) -

1 2 3 . A .

5. A Mn (C) A.
kk = 1. ( : 3)
6.
  A M2 (C) -
1 1 + 3i . A .

7.

1 1 0
A = 0 1 1 .
1 0 1
170 . , .

5.6

.
18 Euler Lagrange. 19 Cauchy -

, Fourier -
. Cauchy,
. Hermite
1855 20 Hilbert .
eigenvectors . Jordan
Jordan 1870.

1. H. Anton, C. Rorres, Elementary Linear Algebra, Applications Version, John Wiley

and Sons, 1994.
2. . -, . , . , -
, 2006.
3. V. Katz, , , 2013.
4. K. Nicholoson, Elementary Linear Algebra, McGraw-Hill, 2001.
5. Th. Shiffrin and M. R.Adams, Linear Algebra, a Geometric Approach, W. H. Free-
man and Company, 2002.
6. S. H. Weintraub, Jordan Canonical Form, Theory and Practice, Morgan & Claypool
Publishers, 2009.
 6

Rn Rn .

.

6.1
u, v Rn . (projection) v u proju (v)
u
v = proj u (v) + w,
w = v proju (v) u.
:
i. proju v = u, R,
ii. hw, ui = 0.
hv, ui v = u + w
hv, ui = hu + w, ui = hu, ui + hw, ui = hu, ui,

hv, ui hv, ui
proju (v) = u w = v u. (6.1.0.1)
hu, ui hu, ui
hv, tui = thv, ui htu, tui = t2 hu, ui
thv, ui hv, ui
projtu v = 2
tu = u = proju (v), t 6= 0.
t hu, ui hu, ui
v L = {tu : t R} projL (v)
proju (v).

L
A1

0 v A

6.1: v L

171
172 . , .

~ , A(a1 , . . . , an )
v = OA
L = {tu : t R} v projL (v). 6.1
~ 1 . A
v L, . OA
L A~1 A.
~ = OA
OA ~ 1 + A~1 A,

~ 1 L A~1 A L.
OA

6.1.1.

1. v1 = (0, 1, 1), v2 = (0, 2, 0).

hv1 , v2 i 00+12+10
projv1 (v2 ) = v1 = (0, 1, 1) = (0, 1, 1).
hv1 , v1 i 00+11+11
w = v2 projv1 (v2 ) = (0, 1, 1) v1
2. u = (1, m).
1 m
proju (e1 ) = (1, m), proj u (e2 ) = (1, m) .
1 + m2 1 + m2

f : R2 R2 y = mx, .
4.1.6.6 5.1.5.4. f (v) = proju (v).
   
1 1 m 1
CB (f (e1 )) = , CB (f (e2 )) =
1+m 2 m 1+m 2 m
 
f 1 1 m
AB,B = .
1 + m2 m m2
3. f : R2 R2 y = mx, .
4.1.6.5.

y
L

x
0

6.2: L

u = (1, m). v R2 , w = v proju (v)

f (v) = proju (v) w = proju (v) (v proju (v)) = 2 proju (v) v .

2 1
f (e1 ) = 2
(1, m) (1, 0) = (1 m2 , 2m)
1+m 1 + m2
 173

2m 1
f (e2 ) = 2
(1, m) (0, 1) = 2
(2m, m2 1) .
1+m 1+m
, B R2 ,
 
1 1 m2 2m
AfB,B = .
1 + m2 2m m2 1

v Rn , -
v L.
6.1.2. U Rm v Rm .
(orthogonal projection) v U projU (v), U
hv projU (v)), ui = 0, u U .

6.3: v U

; , U
Rm . , dimR U = n
{u1 , . . . , un } U .
v 0 = proju1 (v) + + projun (v)
U w = vv 0 U . ,
6.1.10 hui , wi = 0 i = 1, . . . , n.
X hv, uj i
hw, ui i = hv, ui i huj , ui i =
jI
huj , uj i

hv, ui i
= hv, ui i hui , ui i = 0.
hui , ui i
v 0 v U , .
hv, u1 i hv, un i
projU (v) = u1 + + un . (6.1.2.1)
hu1 , u1 i hun , un i
v U v = proju (v).

kv projU (v)k k v uk, u U .

, B(b1 , . . . , bm ) U , v =
(b1 , . . . , bm ) v projU (v).
174 . , .

6.1.3.
1.
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
v1 = ( , , , ), v2 = ( , , , ),
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
V = S ({v1 , v2 }) w = (1, 3, 1, 5). (v1 , v2 )
V .
projv1 (w) = 5v1 , projv2 (w) = v2 projV (w) = 5v1 + v2 .

2. u1 = (1, 1, 0), u2 = (0, 1, 1), U = S ({u1 , u2 }) w = (2, 3, 3).

projU (w). (u1 , u2 ) U
.
U .
1
u2 proju1 (u2 ) = (1, 1, 2)
2
u1 , .
U u1 = (1, 1, 0) u02 =
(1, 1, 2)).
5 7
proju1 (w) = (1, 1, 0), proju02 (w) = (1, 1, 2),
2 6

1
projU (w) = proju1 (w) + proju02 (w) = (4, 11, 7) .
3

1 1
w = projU (w) + (w projU (w)) = (4, 11, 7) + (2, 2, 2) .
3 3
U R3 .
, 31 (2, 2, 2) U .
.


(1, 1, 0), (1, 1, 2), (2, 2, 2)
R3 .
projU (w) 6= w, w / U .
(2, 3, 3) ( w) U .
(2, 3, 3) U w projU (w).
1 1 1 2
kw projU (w)k = k (2, 2, 2)k = k2, 2, 2)k = 12 = 3.
3 3 3 3

6.4: (2, 3, 3) U
 175

(2, 3, 3) U projU (w),

. 1/3(4, 11, 7).

3.
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
v1 = ( , , , ), v2 = ( , , , ),
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
v3 = ( , , , ), v4 = ( , , , )
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
v = (1, 3, 1, 5). D = (v1 , v2 , v3 , v4 ) R4 .
v D .
v = projR4 (v)

hv1 , vi = 5, hv2 , vi = 1, hv3 , vi = 2, hv4 , vi = 1 .

(6.1.2.1)

v = 5v1 + v2 2v3 + v1 .

Rm
-
, QR- . 6.1.3.2
U R2 ( ) U .

Gram-Schmidt.

6.1.1 Gram-Schmidt -
V Rm .
: {v1 , . . . , vn } V .
: V .
1 w1 = v1 . i = 2, . . . , n, Vi1 = S({w1 , . . . , wi1 })

wi = vi projVi1 (vi ) = vi projw1 (vi ) projwi1 (vi ) .

2 wi i = 1, . . . , n,
w1 w2 wn
{ , ,..., }
kw1 k kw2 k kwn k

V .

Vi1 = S({w1 , . . . , wi1 }) = S({v1 , . . . , vi1 })

wi w1 , . . . , wi1 , i = 2, . . . , n. -
6.1.1.
176 . , .

i.) wi wi , 0 6= R, 1 i < n.
, -
.
V .
ii.) , V
V .
, -
.
.

6.1.4.

1.
v1 = (1, 1, 0, 0), v2 = (1, 1, 2, 1) v3 = (0, 1, 0, 2),
V = S({v1 , v2 , v3 }).

w1 = v1 = (1, 1, 0, 0),
w2 = v2 projw1 v2 = (1, 1, 2, 1) 22 (1, 1, 0, 0) = (0, 0, 2, 1),
w3 = v3 projw1 (v3 ) projw2 (v3 ) =

1 2 1 1 4 8
(0, 1, 0, 2) (1, 1, 0, 0) (0, 0, 2, 1) = ( , , , )
2 5 2 2 5 5
1
= (5, 5, 8, 16) .
10
V

(1, 1, 0, 0), (0, 0, 2, 1), (5, 5, 8, 16),

1 1 1
(1, 1, 0, 0), (0, 0, 2, 1), (5, 5, 8, 16)
2 5 370
V .
V 10w3 .
V .
.
.

2.

V = { (x, y, z) R3 : x 5y 2z = 0} .

V = { (5y + 2z, y, z) : y, z R} = { y(5, 1, 0) + z(2, 0, 1) : y, z R} =

= S({(5, 1, 0), (2, 0, 1)}).

 177

v1 = (5, 1, 0), v2 = (2, 0, 1).

{v1 , v2 projv1 (v2 )} = {(5, 1, 0), (1, 1, 2)}

V ,

1 1
{ (2, 0, 1), (1, 1 2)}
5 6

V .

3. v1 = (1, 1, 1), v2 = (2, 1, 0), v3 = (4, 3, 2) V = S({v1 , v2 , v3 }).

6.1.1,

w1 = v1 ,

w2 = v2 projw1 (v2 ) = (1, 0, 1)

w3 = v3 projw1 (v3 ) projw2 (v2 ) =

9 2
(4, 3, 2) (1, 1, 1) (1, 0, 1) = (0, 0, 0) .
3 2

w3 = 0 v3 = projS({w1 ,w2 }) (v3 ), v3 S(w1 , w2 })

V = S ({w1 , w2 }). , V
{w1 , w2 }.

V Rm w Rm .
V .
projV (w).

6.1.2 projV (w).

: V w.
: projV (w).
1 6.1.1, i,
{w1 , . . . , wn } V .
2 6.1.2.1
projV (w).

6.1.5. e3 V = S({(1, 1, 1), (2, 1, 0)}).

V {(1, 1, 1), (1, 0, 1)}.

1 1 1
projV (e3 ) = (1, 1, 1) (1, 0, 1) = (1, 2, 5) .
3 2 6

,
projV (w), V .
178 . , .

6.1.3 projV (w) .

: V w.
: projV (w).
1 V = S({v1 , . . . , vn }) Rm
 B = (e1 , . . . , em ). T
m n A = CB (v1 ) CB (vn ) . n n A A.
2 (c1 , . . . , cn )

(AT A)X = AT CB (w) . (6.1.5.1)

projV (w) = c1 v1 + + cn vn .

6.1.3 . projV (w) V = S({v1 , . . . , vn })

c1 , . . . , cn projV (w) = c1 v1 + +cn vn . (c1 , . . . , cn )
6.1.5.1. , w projV (w)
V .

hvi , w projV (w)i = 0, i = 1, . . . , n .

hvi , w c1 v1 cn vn i = 0, i = 1, . . . , n

CB (vi )T CB (w) c1 CB (v1 ) cn CB (vn ) = 0, i = 1, . . . , n .

(6.1.5.2)
 T
C = c1 cn .

c1 CB (v1 ) + + cn CB (vn ) = AC .

6.1.5.2

CB (vi )T CB (w) AC = 0, i = 1, . . . , n

CB (vi )T CB (w) = CB (vi )T (AC), i = 1, . . . , n .

CB (vi )T i AT . , ,

AT CB (w) = AT (AC) AT CB (w) = (AT A)C .

(AT A)X = AT CB (w)

C 6.1.5.1.
v1 , . . . , vn V , 6.1.5.1
.

6.1.6. V = S ({(1, 1, 1, 1), (1, 1, 0, 0)}).

projV (e1 ).
 179

6.1.2, V
v1 = (1, 1, 1, 1) v2 = (1, 1, 1, 1).

1 1
projV (e1 ) = projv1 (e1 ) + projv2 (e1 ) = (1, 1, 1, 1) + (1, 1, 1, 1) =
4 4
1
= (1, 1, 0, 0) .
2
6.1.3,

1 1 1    
1 1 0 T 4 2 T 1
A=
1 , CB (e1 ) =
0 , A A = 2 2 , A CB (e1 ) = 1 .

0
1 0 0

(AT A)X = AT CB (w) .

 
1 0 0
0 1 12

(0, 1/2).

1 1
projV (e1 ) = 0(1, 1, 1, 1) + (1, 1, 0, 0) = (1, 1, 0, 0) .
2 2

6.1
1.

B = { v1 = (3, 1, 1), v2 = (1, 2, 1), v3 = (1, 4, 7) }

R3 . v = (a, b, c) R3
v1 , v2 , v3 v1 , v2
v = projR3 (v) v1 , v2 , v3 .

2. v1 = (3, 0, 4), v2 = (4, 0, 3), v3 = (0, 5, 0) u = (1, 2, 3).

projv1 u, projS({v2 ,v3 }) u, v = projR3 (v)
v1 , v2 , v3 .

3. B = {u1 = (1, 0, 1), u2 = (2, 1, 3), u3 = (1, 1, 0)} R3 .

Gram-Schmidt B 0 R3
.

4. v = (0, 1, 2, 1), u = (1, 0, 0, 2), w = (3, 1, 2, 1). U =

S({u, w}), projU v .

5. U = S({v1 , v2 }) R3 v1 = (1, 0, 1) v2 = (1, 1, 2).

(3, 3, 4) U .
180 . , .

6.2

.

A Mn (k) . S D

d1 0
S 1 A S = D =
.. 1
A = S D S .

.
0 dn
m .
m
d1 0
Dm =
.. , m N .

.
m
0 dn

Am = (S D S 1 )m = (S D S 1 )(S D S 1 ) (S D S 1 ) = S Dm S 1 .
A , , .
5.1.7. D
D . m N, D m = (D m )1

dm

1 0
Dm =
.. , m N .

.
0 dm
n

Am = (Am )1 = (S Dm S 1 )1 = S Dm S 1 .
6.2.1. A Mn (C) 1
i. k Z
A4k = In .
, A ,

A = S D S 1 ,
D 1 i, (
).

A4k = S D4k S 1 , k Z.

(1)4k = 1 (i)4k = 1 .

D4k = In A4k = S D4k S 1 = S In S 1 = S S 1 = In .

 181

,
,
.
.
. (isometry) Rn
T : Rn Rn , .

kT (x) T (y)k = kx yk x, y Rn .

T : Rn Rn . -

(translation) , .

T : Rn Rn , T (x) = x + , 0 6= Rn

6.2.2. 6.5 R2
= (1, 1).

x2 x2

T f (P )

P
(1, 1)
x1 x1
0 0

6.5: (1, 1): T (x1 , x2 ) = (x1 + 1, x2 + 1).

6.2.3. T : Rn Rn . f : Rn Rn ,
f (x) = T (x) T (0) .

. f .

kf (v1 ) f (v2 )k = kT (v1 ) T (v2 )k = kv1 v2 k.

f (0) = T (0) T (0) = 0.
f ,

kf (v)k = kf (v) f (0)k = kv 0k = kvk, v R2 .

,
hf (v), f (w)i = hv, wi.
182 . , .

kf (v) f (w)k = kv wk hf (v) f (w), f (v) f (w)i = hv w, v wi

hf (v), f (v)i 2hf (v), f (w)i + hf (w), f (w)i = hv, vi 2hv, wi + hw, wi.
hf (v), f (v)i = hv, vi hf (w), f (w)i = hw, wi, .
, B = (e1 , . . . , en ), Rn . wi = f (ei ), i =
1, . . . , n, D = (w1 , . . . , wn )
Rn . u Rn c1 , . . . , cn
f (u) D , . f (u) = c1 w1 + + cn wn .
5.4.5, ci = hf (u), wi i, i = 1, . . . , n. , ,

hf (u), wi i = hhf (u), f (ei )i = hu, ei i, i = 1, . . . , n.

f (u) = hu, ei iwi .

u, v Rn ,
X X
f (u + v) = hu + v, ei iwi = (hu, ei i + hv, ei i)wi =
X X
hu, ei iwi + hv, ei iwi = f (u) + f (v).
, -

f (cu) = cf (u), c R, u Rn .

f : Rn Rn .
5.5.3,

hf f (v), wi = hf (v), f (w)i = hv, wi, v, w Rn .

hf f (v), wi = hv, wi hf f (v) v, wi = 0, w Rn .

f f = idV , . (5.4.1.1). , f
B Rn :

AfB,B AfB,B = In .

, -
, (orthogonal linear transformations). ,
.

6.2.4. T : R2 R2 , T
:

1. a (translation),
2. (rotation),
3. L (reflection),
 183

4. L
L L (glide reflection).

6.2.5. T : R2
R2 , R2 2 Y , -
/4 (1, 1/2). -
4.1.
 
1 0
,
0 2
. 4.1.5.
 
2/2 2/2
,
2/2 2/2

. 4.1.4. , .
 
2/2 2 ,
2/2 2

.
(1, 1/2),
!
2 2 1
T : R2 R2 , (, ) 7 2 + 1, + 2 + .
2 2 2

y y

x x

6.6: T .

[4]
.

(predator-prey model)
: .
, .
, ()
.
184 . , .

xk yk
k ( )
:

yk+1 = 1/2 yk + 1/100 xk

xk+1 = 50/4 yk + 5/4 xk .

   
1/2 1/100 yk
A= Vk = ,
50/4 5/4 xk

Vk+1 = A Vk .

y0 = 50 x0 = 1600. V0 V1
:
   
50 41
V0 = V1 = .
1600 1375

. -
;
Vk k . Vk = Ak V0 . ,

Vk = A Vk1 = A (A Vk2 ) = A2 Vk2 = = Ak V0 .

, A :
   
1 1 0 1 1
A=P DP , D = P = .
0 3/4 50 25

Ak = P Dk P 1 Vk = Ak V0 = P Dk P 1 V0 .

   
k 1k 0 1 0
D = = ,
0 (3/4)k 0 (3/4)k
 
k 1 0
k , D .
0 0
k , Vk
   
1 0 1 14
(P P ) V0 = .
0 0 700

.
yk xk , A
.
 185

k . 1, 2 . . . , k .
j i pij .
(Markov chain). -
k k P = (pij ).
P 1.
(stochastic). -
.
6.2.6. : (-
1) ( 2).
 
0.94 0.02
P = .
0.06 0.98
, ,
94% 6%.
, 2%
98%.
.
10 ; x(0) x(0) =
 T
0 1 , x(1) := P x(0)
. x(n) n- .

x(n) = P x(n1) = P P x(n2) = P 2 x(n2) = = P n x(0) .

, , , .
x(10) , P 10 .
, ,
P . -
. , ,
,.
6.2.7. P ,
P . 1 P
P m m.
.
-
.
6.2.8. ( 6.2.6.)
6.2.7, P m , . P m = P m+1 , m.
x(m+1) = x(m) ,
x(m+1) = P m x(0) = P m+1 x(0) = x(m) .
, x(m+1) = P x(m) , :
x(m) = P x(m) ,
. x(m) P 1.
x(10) .

V1 (P ) = {t(1, 3) : t R}.
186 . , .

x(m) V1 (P ) ,
1.  
0.25
x(m) =
0.75
10 25%
75%.

;;
.

n :

f10 (x) = a11 f1 (x) + + a1n fn (x)

..
.
fn0 (x) = an1 f1 (x) + + ann fn (x),

fi : R R fi0 : R R
, 1 i n. fi , 1 i n.

F 0 = A F,
0
a11 a1n f1 (x) f1 (x)
A = . ... , F = ... F 0 = ... .
..

an1 ann fn (x) fn0 (x)

A , F 0 = A F
. -
F 0 = A F

g(x) = c1 f1 (x) + cn fn (x), g 0 (x) = c1 f10 (x) + cn fn0 (x).

G = P F G0 = P F 0 .
, F 0 = A F .

6.2.9.

1. f 0 (x) = 5f (x), f (x) = Ce5x .

f (0) = 2, 2 = Ce0 = C f (x) = 2e5x .

2.
    0 
0 3 0 f1 (x) 0 f (x)
F = A F, A = , F = F = 10 .
0 4 f2 (x) f2 (x)

F 0 = A F

f10 (x) = 3f1 (x)

f20 (x) = 4f2 (x)
 187

   
f1 (x) C1 e3x
F =F = = .
f2 (x) C2 e4x
, C1
C2 . f1 (0) = 2 f2 (0) = 1,
f1 (x) = 2e3x
f2 (x) = e4x .

3.
f10 (x) = 2f1 (x) f2 (x)
f20 (x) = 6f1 (x) f2 (x).
 
2 1
A=
6 5
1, 4 A = P DP 1 ,
   
1 0 1 1
D= P = .
0 4 1 6
G0 = D G, . g1 : R R, g2 : R R

g10 (x) = g1 (x)
g20 (x) = 4g2 (x).
G = D G
   
g1 (x) C1 ex
G=F = = .
g2 (x) C2 e4x
F = P G, F 0 = P G0 F
. :
F = P G A F = (P DP 1 )P G = (P D)(P 1 )P G) = P (D G) = P G0 = F 0 .
F 0 = AF F = P G, .
C1 ex + C2 e4x
   
f1 (x)
F = = .
f2 (x) C1 ex + 6C2 e4x
f1 , f2 ,
C1 , C2 . , f1 (0) = 2, f2 (0) = 3.
2 = C1 + C2
3 = C1 + 6C2
C1 = 3, C2 = 1,
f1 (x) = 3ex e4x f2 (x) = 3ex 6e4x .

A = P DP 1 , G G0 = D G P G
F 0 = A F .
188 . , .

n -
(quadratic form)
.

q(x1 , x2 , x3 ) = 3x21 + 4x22 + 5x23 + 5x1 x2 + x2 x3

.

  3 7/2 0 x1  
x 1 x 2 x3 7/2 4 1/2 x2 = 3x21 + 4x22 + 5x23 + 5x1 x2 + 2x2 x3 .
0 1/2 5 x3
, ,
q(x1 , x2 , x3 ) = X T AX,

3 7/2 0 x1
A = 7/2 4 1 , X = x2 .
0 1 5 x3
A . A
x2i q(x1 , x2 , x3 ), 1 i 3. 1 i 6= j
3, aij A xi xj
q(x1 , x2 , x3 ).
,
n
X n
X
q(x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) = bi x2i + 2bij xi xj ,
i=1 1i<jn

q(x1 . . . , xn ) = X T A X X T = [ x1 x2 xn ] A = AT .
c R A = AT Mn (R), Rn

q(x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) = c, q(x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) = X T A X ;
A , ,
A A .
D = P T AP A, D
A P T = P 1 . Y = P T X
. ,
1 , . . . , n A,
X T A X = X T (P DP T ) X = (X T P )D(P T X) = (P T X)T D(P T X) = Y T DY
q(x1 , . . . , xn ) = X T A X

q(y1 , . . . , yn ) = 1 y12 + + n yn2 = Y T D Y .

, . [2,
7.2.22].
 189

6.2.10.

x21 + 4x1 x2 + x22 5 = 0 .

q(x1 , x2 ) = x21 + 4x1 x2 + x2

 
1 2
A=
2 1 .

A 1, 3
   
T 1 0 1 1 1
D=P AP = P = .
0 3 2 1 1

   
T x1 y1
Y = P X, X = Y = .
x2 y2

y12 + 3y22 5 = 0.

,
Y1 Y2 :

Y2

Y1
-4 -2 2 4
-1

-2

6.7: y12 + 3y22 5 = 0.

Y1 , . R2 Y2 = 0,
x1 = x2 :

1
y2 = 0 (x1 + x2 ) = 0 x1 = x2 .
2

Y2 x1 = x2 :

1
y1 = 0 (x1 + x2 ) = 0 x1 = x2 . 2
2

X1 X2
/4:
190 . , .

X2
4

X1
-4 -2 2 4

-2

-4

6.8: x21 + 4x1 x2 + x22 5 = 0.

a1 y12 + a2 y 2 = c,

c > 0, :

, a1 , a2 ,
, a1 , a2 .

,

q(x1 , x2 ) = 0,
q(x1 , x2 ) , , (-
):

i. ,
ii. ,

wikipedia.

6.1
. A Mmn (R),
E Mm1 (R), AX = E E
(A), A, . 3.2.9. ,
 T
E = c1 cm
E = (c1 , . . . , cm ). v1 , . . . , vn
A AX = E . E / (A),
. (A)
E , . proj(A) (E). ,
z1 , . . . , zn R

proj(A) (E) = z1 v1 + + zn vn .
 191

6.1.3, (z1 , . . . , zn ), E
(A),

(AT A)X = AT E .

(z1 , . . . , zn ) (best approximation)

AX = E . ( ) E proj(A) (E).
proj(A) (E) = (p1 , . . . , pm )
p
kE proj(A) (E)k = (c1 p1 )2 + + (cm pm )2 ,

, (method
of least squares). .

6.2.11. AX = E , A Mmn (R) E

Mm1 (R).

(AT A)X = AT E

AX = B .

6.2.12.

1.
x1 + x2 = 1
2x1 + 2x2 = 1
.    
1 1 1
A= ,E = .
2 2 1
   
T 5 5 T 3
A A= , A E = .
5 5 3
(AT A)X = AT E :

3
{( , 0) + t(1, 1) : t R} .
5

AX = E . ( 53 , 0). (
)

    
3/5 3/5 1
A = 6=
0 6/5 1
p p
(2/5)2 + (1/5)2 = 1/5.

2. (1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 4).

y = a0 + a1 x

a0 + a1 = 1
a0 + 2a1 = 2
a0 + 3a1 = 4
192 . , .

.
(line of best fit) .

1 1 1    
T 3 6 T 7
A = 1 2 , E = 2 , A A = , A E= .
6 14 17
1 3 4

(AT A)X = AT E .
(2/3, 3/2).

2 3
y= + x.
3 2

 2 5 1
3 1
A 3 = 14 6= 2 .
2 6
23 4

p p
(1/6)2 + (1/3)2 + (1/6)2 = 1/6 .

y
(3, 4)

(2, 2)

(1, 1)

4/9
x
2/3

6.9: y = 32 + 32 x.

6.2
1. A100 ,

1 1 0
A = 0 i 2 .
0 0 0

2. T : Rn Rn T (0) = 0,

T (cu) = cT (u), c R, u Rn .
 193

3. T : R2 R2 ,
) /2, )
X 1/2 ) (2, 1). -
.
;

4.
 
0.55 0.005
.
18 1.2
.

5. ( )
:  
0.70 0.23
P = .
0.38 0.77
m
 P .  -

0.4 0.6 , 100
.

6.

f10 (x) = 3f1 (x) + 2f2 (x) + 2f3 (x)

f20 (x) = f1 (x) + 4f2 (x) + 2f3 (x) ,
f30 (x) = f1 (x) 2f2 (x)

f1 (0) = 1, f2 (0) = 1 f3 (0) = 1.

7. 5x2 4xy +
8y 2 = 1.

8.

2x + 5y + z = 1
4x + 10y + 3z = 2 .
6x + 15y + 4z = 2

9. (1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 4), (4, 5).

6.3
,
19

, Gauss, Fourier, Cachy .
, Lotka-Volterra
Lotka 1925 ,
.
Volterra , 1926,
194 . , .

.

Isle, Michigan . -
Andrey Markov,
20 .

1. H. Anton, C. Rorres, Elementary Linear Algebra, Applications Version, John Wiley

and Sons, 1994.
2. . -, . , . , -
, 2006.
3. V. Katz, , , 2013.
4. F. Lin, K. Wyrwas, J. Irwin, C. Lilley, W.T. Hewitt, T.L.J. Howard, Geometry for
Computer Graphics, Student Notes, The University of Manchester
5. K. Nicholoson, Elementary Linear Algebra, McGraw-Hill, 2001.
6. L.R. Rabiner, B.H. Juang An Introduction to Hidden Markov Models, 1986.
7. Th. Shiffrin and M. R.Adams, Linear Alegbra, a Geometric Approach, W. H. Free-
man and Company, 2002.


1.1
1 i)

1 1 1 0
1 2 1 0 .
2 3 0 0

2 ii)
x3 =0
x2 +x4 +3x5 = 2 .
3x2 =1
x2 x4 ,
5 (x1 , 1/3, 0, 5/3 x5 , x5 ) s, t R.

1 5
{(s, , 0, t, t) : s, t R}.
3 3

3 R4 .

1.2
1 .

2      
0 0 1 0 1 a
, , , a C .
0 0 0 1 0 0

3      
0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0
, , , a C .
0 0 0 0 1 0 a 0 0

4 rank
A2 = 2
A2
1 2 0 5
0 0 1 2 .
0 0 0 0

195
196 . , .

1.3
1


1 0 3 0 0 0 2a b
0 1 2 0 1 1 b a .
0 0 0 0 3 0 c a b

, {(3t, 2t, t) : t R},

,
{(3t, 2t + 1, t) : t R}.
c a b = 0.

2 x3 , x4 .

1 2 1 2
{(1 t s, t + s, t, s, 1) : t, s R} = {(1, 0, 0, 0, 1) + t( , , 1, 0, 0)
5 5 5 5
+ s(1, 1, 0, 1, 0) : t, s R} .

3 a = 2.

5 {t(1, 1, 1, 2) + s(0, 1, 2, 1) :
t, s C}.

1.4
1 t y 2x 2 = 0

2
1 2
 
1 0 3 3 .
0 1 23 31

2 1 1 2
{( , , 0) + t( , , 1) : t R}.
3 3 3 3

3 3y 2z = 0

4 ax + by + az = 0 ,
a, b R . ,
. {t(1, 0, 1) : t R}.

1.5
1 y = 3 2x + x2 .

2 y = 2 x2 + x3 .

3 y = 2 + 2ax (1 + a)x2 + (1 2a)x3 + ax4

. , a 6= 0.
 197

2.1
1
 
9 20
()
24 28

3
() 10
4

0 a(a2 + b2 c2 ) b(a2 + b2 c2 )
2 A3 = a(a2 + b2 + c2 ) 0 c(a2 + b2 + c2 )
b(a + b + c ) c(a + b2 + c2 )
2 2 2 2
0
 
a 0
3 ()
0 d
 
a 0
()
0 d
 
a b
()
0 a
4
A + AT A AT
A= + .
2 2
A + AT A AT .

5 n = 1, . n = k .
n = k + 1. A1 Ak+1 = (A1 Ak )Ak+1 ,
A1 Ak . , ,
.
A, B , AB = (cij ). cij = ai1 b1j + +aim bmj .
AB
. j > i. k i, k < j bkj = 0, aik bkj = 0. k > i,
aik = 0 aik bkj = 0. cij = 0 , j > i AB
.

2.2
1 (Ei+aj )1 = Eiaj , (Eij )1 = Eij , (Ebi )1 = Ebi .

2

  3 3 3 12 6 3
1 3 1 1 1
A1 = , B 1 = 1 1 2 , C 1 = 2 2 1 .
2 4 2 3 6
5 2 4 4 2 2
3    
1 1 3/2
X1 = A = .
0 2
4 A2 + 2A = I + n A(A + 2In ) = (A + 2In )A = In A1 = A + 2In .
B 1 = 1/3(2B 2 + 4B 2In )
198 . , .

2.3
1 a1 = 2, a2 = 3 + 3i. a3
: a3 = 90. a4 -
: a4 = 72.

2 b1 3 3 : b1 =
6. b2 ,
: b2 = 2.

3 n.

4 A 5 5, det (2A) = 25 det A. det 2A = 32i. ,

det adj(A) det A = (det A)5 det(adj(A)) = 1.

5 A = AT det A = (1)n det A det A = 0

6 ai = aj i 6= j , . ,
n. (n = k + 1),

2, . . . , k + 1,
i ai a1 , i = 2, . . . , k + 1.

7 i x1 = 2/7, x2 = 37/7, x3 = 18/7.

2.4
2 AT X = 0

{t(1, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0) + s(1, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0) + r(0, 1, 0, 1, 0, 1) : t, s, r R} .

, (1, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0)
1, 3 2 .

3 Cramer,
Vandermonde.

4 n (n + 1) A
a0 , . . . , an y = a0 + a1 x + + an xn ,
Vanermonde. rank A = n,
.
.
 T  T
5 Y = 1/3 3 2/3 , X = 166/21 57/21 2/21 .

 T
6 31 32 36 .
 199

3.1
1 L y = 2 R2 . L0
y 2x = 0 R2 .

2 (0, 0, 0) (k = t = 0), (1, 0, 1) (k = 0, t = 1) (1, 1, 1) (k = 1, t = 0)

E1 . d = 0, a + b + c d = 0, a + c d = 0.
E1 z x = 0 R3 . E2
R3 . E3 = E1 .

3 2

4 1 . -
(0, 0), (1, 2), (0, 4), (1, 6) -
3.1.2.

5 6.

3.2
1 (0, 0)
/ L.

2 a, b U . a = (a1 , a1 , a3 , . . . , an ) b. k, l k
ka + lb = (ka1 + lb1 , ka1 + lb1 , Ka3 + lb3 , . . . , kan + lbn ) U .
U n = 4 {(1, 1, 0, 0), (0, 0, 1, 0), (0, 0, 0, 1)}.

3 L {(1, 1, , 0), (0, 0, 1)}.

4 U {(1, 1, 1)}. V
{(0, 1, 0), (0, 0, 1)}. U V = {(0, 0, 0)}.

5 3.2.4.7. 2z + y 2x = 0

6 S(X) = S(Y ) = R2 .

7 3.2.9. (1, 2, 3)
A.

3.3
1 2u1 u4 = 0.

2 v1 v2 v3 = 0. S({v1 , v2 , v3 }) {v1 , v2 }.

3 () {(1, 2)}.
() {(1, 0, 31 ), (0, 1, 31 )}.
()
U3 .
200 . , .

3.4
1 3.4.5 dimR (U W ) 1.

2 A U
W .

1 1 0 0 2 0 1 0 0 0 0 0
0 1 0 0 2 0 0 1 0 0 2 0
A= .
2 0 1 2 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 2
1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1

U +W = R4 ( R4 ).
5 = 22 6 = 23 + 4 2 = 1/55 , 3 = 1/2(4 6 ).
, U W = S({(1, 1, 0, 0), (1, 1, 0, 0)}).
   
1 0
3 () CB (e1 ) = , CB (e2 ) =
0 1
   
0 1
() CB (e1 ) = , CB (e2 ) =
1 0
   
1 0
() CB (e1 ) = , CB (e2 ) = 1
2 2
 
6
4 CD (w1 ) =
10
5 () v = e1 + e2 + 2e3 = (1, 1, 2)

() v = e1 + 3e2 + e3 = (1, 3, 1)

6
1 0 2 2 1 0 2 2
0 1 2 5 0 1 2 5 ,
1 0 2 2 0 0 0 0
   
2 2
CD (w1 ) = , CD (w2 ) = .
2 5
7 A
 
1 1 1 0 1
.
0 0 0 1 1

{(1, 1, 1, 0, 1), (0, 0, 0, 1, 1)} (A).

{(1, 2), (2, 5)} (A).
AX = 0

{t(1, 1, 0, 0, 0) + s(1, 0, 1, 0, 0) + f (1, 0, 0, 1, 1) : s, t, f k} ,

{(1, 1, 0, 0, 0), (1, 0, 1, 0, 0), (1, 0, 0, 1, 1)}
 201

null(A). 1 + 2 = 0, 1 + 3 = 0,
1 + 4 6 = 0.

8 BX = 0, (AB)X = 0. null(B) null(AB)

dimk null(B) dimk null(AB).

9 8 3.4.3, rank(AB)
rank(B). , B T AT , rank(B T AT ) rank(AT ).
3.4.1 .

3.5
1 R 6
R[x], x6 + (1)(x6 2x) = 2x
1. R
m {1, x, . . . , xm }

2 Eij 1 ij , -
{E11 , E12 , . . . , Enm } Mnm (k).

3 n n Mnm (k)
{E11 , E22 , . . . , Enn } .

4.1
2 f (x, y) = (x + 2y, 3x + 4y).

3 f (x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 ) = (x1 + 3x2 + 5x3 + 6x4 , 3x1 + x2 x4 ),

g(x1 , x2 ) = (x1 + 3x2 , 3x1 + x2 , 5x1 , 6x1 x2 )

1 1 1
0 1 1
4 A= 1 0 2

0 1 3

5 f (4, 3) = (1, 11)

6 e1 7 (0, 1) 7 (0, 1) 7 (0, 2) 7 (0, 2). e2 7 e1 7 (3, 0) 7 (3, 0) 7 (3, 0).

f (x, y) = (3y, 2x).

4.2
1

1 2 0 a 1 0 2 a 2b
A = 0 1 1 b 0 1 1 b ,
1 0 2 c 1 0 2 c a + 2b
(1, 0, 1), (2, 1, 0) Imf . Imf
c a + 2b = 0 R3 .
202 . , .

3 V {(1, 1, 0), (0, 1, 1)}.

4.2.1.iv, f : R2 V , f (e1 ) = (1, 1, 0), f (e2 ) =
(0, 1, 1) . f (x, y) = f (xe1 + ye2 ) = (x, x +
y, y)
.

4 . v1 = (1, 1, 0) v2 = (0, 1, 1)
f : V R2 , v1 7 e1 , v2 7 e2 . av1 + bv2 7 (a, b).

4.3
1
1 0 0 1 0 1 3 0
, SBD = 1 3 1 0
1 3 0 0 0
SDB = .
3 1 0 0 8 8 3 1 8
1 1 1 1 8 1 3 0

2 f (x, y) = (5x y, 2x).

3 f (x, y, z) = (x, x y z, y), f 1 (x, y, z) = (x, z, x y z).

5.1
1 (v) = v, v R2 . , = 1 v R2 , v 6=
(0, 0) .

2 , 1. = 1,
(x, 0, z). = 1 (0, y, 0).

3 () 1 = 5, v1 = (1, 1).
2 = 1, v2 = (1, 21 ).

i 31 i 31 i 3+1
() 1 = 2
, (1, 2
, 2
).

2 = i 3+1
2
, (1, i 3+1
2
, i 31
2
).
3 = 1, v3 = (1, 1, 1).

4 () 1 = 3 , (1, 1, 2).
2 = 2, (1, 0, 0).
() 1 = 2, (1, 2).
2 = 1, (1, 12 ).
() 1 = 0, (i, 1).
2 = 2, (i, 1).

5
AX = X = (A + kI)X = ( + k)X .
Am X = m X , .

6 Av = v =
(3A2 A + 2I)v = (2 + 2)v
 203

5.2
1
2i.

2 V3 = {t(1, 1, 2) : t R}, V2 = {t(1, 0, 0) : t R}.

3 B = S 1 AS , det(B xIn ) = det(AxIn ).

, . det(B) = det(A). , xn1
Tr(B) = Tr(A)

4 1, 3 -
1. 1,
1.

5.3
1 .

2 .

3 a 6= b R

4 A .

5 A .

6 A 4 4 . det(A) = 4, rank(A) = 4.
Cayley-Hamilton A1 = 41 (A3 2A2 + I).

7 A1 = 12
1
(A2 2A + 7I3 ) A4 = 11A2 2A 24I3 .

8 Jordan 3
Jordan 1. , 6 .

5.4

30
1 kvk = 30, k3vk = 3 30, k 15 vk = 5
.

2 hu + v, u + vi hu, vi =
0.
 
3 AT A , A = v1 v2 v3
5.4.7.

4 AT (AT )T = AT A = In .

5    
6 0 1 1 1
D= ,P = .
0 4 2 1 1

6 3 3 ( 1, 2, 7) .
204 . , .

8 k(1/2,1/2)k =
6 1, A1 . A2 ,
a = 15/4.

9 (1, 0, i) (1, 0, i). ,

(a, b, c) C3 , ,
a ic = 0, a ic = 0.

11 w = h(v) h(v) = 0.

5.5
1 A R3 , AT
R3 .

1 2 0 1 1 1
A = 1 1 1 = AT = 2 1 1 = (x, y, z) = (x+yz, 2x+y+z, y) .
1 1 0 0 1 0

5 X null(A), AX = 0 AT AX = 0, . X null(AT A).

, X null(AT A), X null(A). Y = AX .

hY, Y i = hAX, AXi = hX, AT AXi = hX, 0i = 0

Y = 0, . Y null(A).
3.4.3.

3 hAv, Avi = hv, vi = hv, AT A vi = 2 hv, vi = hv, vi = 2 hv, vi. hv, vi =

6
0, = 1.

4 5.5.5, A = AT . , A
. , A

1 2 3
A = 2 4 6 .
3 6 0

6 A = AT . , A
 
1 1 + 3i
A= .
1 3i 0

6.1
3a+bc a2b+c a+4b+7c
1 projv1 (v) = 11
v1 , projv2 (v) = 6
v2 , projv3 (v) = 66
v3 .
, B . -
(6.1.2.1). , U =<
v1 , v2 >, projU (v) = projv1 (v) + projv2 (v) v = projR3 (v) = projv1 (v) +
projv2 (v) + projv3 (v).
9
2 projv1 u = v.
25 1
, 1.
 205

3 6.1.1, -
i (u1 , (5, 2, 5), (1, 5, 1)).

4 U
6.1.2. projU (v) = 51 (4, 1, 2, 3).

5 U
6.1.2. (3, 3, 4) projU (3, 3, 4) = 13 (2, 2, 2),

(2 3)/3.

6.2
1 A 1, i, 0. A
D A = SDS 1 . A100 = SD100 S 1

1 0 0
D100 = 0 1 0 .
0 0 0

S S 1 -
.

2 6.2.3,

n
X
T (v) = hv, ei iT (ei ), v Rn .
i=1

3 f (x, y) = (2y + 2, x + 1).

4 1
1, .

6 f1 = e3x , f2 = e3x 2e2x , f3 = 2e2x e3x .

7 .

8 (1/6, 0, 1/3).

9 y = 21 + 75 .
 207

A1 , 38
Aij , 48
PA (x), 139
S(X), 76
SB 0 B , 122
V (A), 133
V (), 133
(A), 83
Imf , 116
Ker f , 116
(A)
 , 83 
v1 v2 vm , 84
dimk (V ), 90, 102
null(A), 83
, 163
projL (v), 171
proju (v), 171
Tr A, 36
|A|, 48
d(v, u), 157
m , 146
n , 146
r , 112
projU (v), 173

CB (v), 97

A, 35
AT , 35

i j , 6
i i + aj , 6
i bi , 6

det A, 48

Ebi , 41
Ei+aj , 41
Eij , 41

In , 34

rank(A), 11
 209

, 88, 102
, 68 , 87
, 32 , 107
, 84, 118, 135 , 126
, 36, 139 , 5, 76
LU-, 61 , 157
, 29

, 158 , 67, 74
, 158 , 69
, 86 , 157
, 112 , 158
, 90, 102
, 74 , 186
Gauss, 8
, 48 , 34
, 133 , 126
, 126
Cauchy-Schwarz, 157 , 69, 74
, 157 , 100
, 113 , 162
, 69 k, 100
, 32 , 112
, 191
, 157, 172 , 116
, 112 , 13
, 84
, 86, 102 , 20
, 86, 103
, 86 , 11
, 158 , 69
, 158
, 191 , 34
, 11 , 34
, 35, 74 , 118
, 162
, 68 , 162
, 161
, 86 , 156
, 1 , 18, 70
, 1 , 192
, 1

, 162 , 74
, 161
, 32 , 30
210 . , .

, 36
, 166 , 166
, 164 , 136
, 30
, 129 , 36
, 126, 148
, 133 -, 64
, 129 , 48
, 133 , 2
, 29 , 168
, 181
, 36
, 118
, 122
, 7 , 31
Jordan, 154 , 162
, 168 , 34
, 158 , 155
, 8 , 162
, 7, 11 , 55
, 7
, 12 , 2
, 40
, 1 , 185
, 36
, 191 , 2
Cramer, 56 , 97, 103
, 157 , 35
, 185 , 29
, 181 , 101
, 69

, 83
, 146
, 24
, 146
Leontief, 64
, 24
, 183
, 113
, 54
, 171
Jordan, 154
, 171
, 5 , 163
, 48
, 173 , 32, 69
, 158 , 34
, 175 , 158
, 116

, 36 , 87, 102
, 124 , 6
, 35
, 32 , 107
, 38, 55 , 108
, 38 , 108
 211

, 67

, 188

, 70
, 81
, 75, 101
, 77
, 76
, 81

, 165
, 139

, 83
, 83
 213

antisymmetric, 36 line, 70
associativity, 32 line of best fit, 192
basis, 86 linear combination, 5, 76, 101
canonical, 86 linear dependence equation, 87
ordered, 86 linear system, 1
orthogonal, 158 consistent, 1
orthonormal, 158 inconsistent, 1
best approximation, 191 linear transformation, 107
Cramers method, 56 linearly independent, 88, 102
column echelon form lower triangular, 36
reduced, 12 LU-decomposition, 61
column of constants, 2 Markov chain, 185
column space, 83 mathematical induction, 40
commutativity, 32 matrix
contraction, 112 adjacency, 30
counterclockwise rotation, 112 adjoint, 55
determinant, 48 augmented, 2
diagonal, 36 block, 54
main, 34 change of basis, 122
diagonalizable, 126 coefficient, 2
dilation, 112 conjugate, 35
distributivity, 34 coordinate, 97
eigenspace, 133 elementary, 40
elementary identity, 34
matrix, 40 incidence, 31
elementary column operation, 12 opposite, 32
elementary row operation, 6 product, 33
free variable, 13 self-adjoint, 136
Gaussian elimination algorithm, 8 similar, 124
graph square, 29
simple directed, 30 sum, 32
Hermitian vector space, 162 transpose, 35
homogeneous system, 5 method of least squares, 191
image, 116 minor submatrix, 48
inner product, 161 model, 24
intersection, 81 multiplicity
invariant, 133 algebraic, 146
inverse, 38 geometric, 146
invertible, 38 norm, 157
isomorphism, 118 normal, 157
Jordan block, 154 nullspace, 83
Jordan canonical form, 154 one to one, 84
kernel, 116 onto, 84
Leontiefs model, 64 polynomial curve, 24
leading one, 7 product
214 . , .

scalar, 35, 68
projection, 113
quadratic form, 188
rank, 11
reflection, 113
row echelon form, 7
reduced, 7
row space, 83
scalar product, 74
solution of a linear system, 1
span, 76
subspace, 70, 75, 101
sum, 74, 81
symmetric, 36
trace, 36
upper triangular, 36
vector, 67, 74
vector space, 74, 100