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LANGUAGE PROFICIENCY LECTURE NOTES (ENGLISH)

READING COMPREHENSION

DEFINITION:
Reading comprehension is the understanding of what a particular text means and the ideas the author is attempting to
convey, both textual and sub textual. ( In order to read any text, your brain must process not only the literal words of
the piece, but also their relationship with one another, the context behind the words, how subtle language and
vocabulary usage can impact emotion and meaning behind the text, and how the text comes together as a larger,
coherent whole. )

TIPS:
1. Start by selecting excerpts from different texts with which you are unfamiliar - slowly increase reading time/stamina

A. Stop When You Get Confused and Try to Summarize What You Just Read
B. Reread/Skim
C. Discuss

2. Expand vocabulary - dictionary


3. If too difficult, read for pleasure/smooth easy
4. Analyze: Theme, messages, characters, progression

Sources:
http://blog.prepscholar.com/how-to-improve-reading-comprehension

PARAGRAPH ORGANIZATION:

A. Stop When You Get Confused and Try to Summarize What You Just Read

1. Hook, intro/topic
2. Supporting/Content
3. Conclusion & added insights

B. Watch out for the following signal words:

1. Order or sequence: First, second, third, first and foremost, afterwards, then, next, at last, until, finally, lastly
2. Comparison: Similarities and differences: But, however, on the other hand, than, likewise, nonetheless, nevertheless,
similarly, oppose to, apparently
3. Cause and effect: Because, hence, thus, therefore, consequently, subsequently

C. Read aloud

To order paragraphs of a text, you have to work like a detective and look for clues to help you. These tips will help you.

Read all the paragraphs before deciding on the correct order.

Look for linking words and discourse markers that express:

the same idea: too, also, furthermore, in addition, whats more, etc.

a different idea: however, but, nevertheless, on the other hand, then again, while, whereas, etc.
reason and result: so, as a result, consequently, for this reason, since, as, because of this, due to, etc.

sequence or order: firstly, first of all, initially, then, secondly, finally, eventually, in the end, etc.

Look for connections between paragraphs. Reference words link backwards to things earlier in the text or forwards to
things later in the text. Pronouns are typical reference words, for example:

personal pronouns (I, you, he, she, it, we, they)

possessive pronouns (my, mine, your, yours, his, her, hers, its, our, ours, their, theirs)

demonstrative pronouns (this, that, these, those)

GRAMMAR

1. Subject-Verb Agreement
The basic rule to remember is that the VERB must agree with its SUBJECT in number (singular or plural) and in
person (first, second, third).

2. Adjectives
a. Adjectives may come in series:
Limiting adjective (determiner/intensifier)- quality (age, size, description, opinion)- shape- color- origin-
material or kind- common or proper noun.
b. Never use double comparison such as using more better.
c. Absolute adjectives such as correct, perfect, complete, round, and spotless cannot have comparative or
superlative form . When there is a need to indicate the degree to which a person or thing approaches the
ultimate quality, use more nearly or most nearly.

3. Adverbs
a. Negative adverbs that should never be used in negative statements or used with not in a sentence. Ex.:
never, scarcely, hardly, only
b. Do not use not with indefinite pronouns none, neither, never, nothing, nobody.

4. Verbs
a. Simple Tense
b. Perfect Tense
Present Perfect:
(It shows an action that started in the past but continues in the present)
(It shows an action started in the past and completed recently)

Past Perfect:
(There are two simultaneous actions that happened in the past)

Future Perfect:
(It shows an action that is completed before a specified future time)
(It shows two actions to be completed simultaneously in the future)
c. Progressive tense
d. Voice of the Verb
c.1. Active Voice: The subject of the sentence performs the action.
c.2. Passive Voice: The subject is the receiver of the action.

5. Prepositions
- A connective word that denotes relationships.

SENTENCE CONSTRUCTION

1. Run-on Sentence
Two or more sentences are not separated by the proper punctuation, a proper conjunction or are incorrectly
separated using a comma.

2. Sentence Fragment
A sentence fragment is an incomplete sentence. Either the predicate(verb phrase) or the subject (noun
phrase) is made to stand by itself.

3. Parallel Structure
The elements of a sentence which perform the same purpose must be in the same form.

Tips in Finding or Spotting the Errors:

a. Remember that there may or may not be an error in a given sentence.


b. Look for the most common errors first. Start by checking subject verb agreement in the principal as well as the
subordinate clauses.
c. Check for other possible error in grammar (verb tense, pronoun-antecedent combination, comparative forms o
adjective or adverb, wrong conjunction or preposition, punctuation and spelling.)
d. Read the whole sentence again and check for any error in sentence construction (parallel structure, logical
construction).
e. When you find the error there is no need to explain why. Just properly mark the space corresponding to the
letter of your answer.

VOCABULARY

CONTEXT CLUES
help you understand vocabulary words in the context of a reading passage
Context clues are hints that an author gives to help define a difficult or unusual word. The clue may appear within
the same sentence as the word to which it refers, or it may follow in a preceding sentence.

Types of Context Clues


1. Definition or Restatement
The meaning of the vocabulary word is in the sentence itself, usually following the vocabulary word

2. Synonym
The sentence uses a similar word to help explain the meaning of the vocabulary word.

3. Antonym/Opposite/Contrast
The sentence uses a word with an opposite definition to give the meaning of the vocabulary word
4. Example or Explanation
This type of context clue uses examples to help the reader infer the meaning of the vocabulary word

AFFIXES
an additional element placed at the beginning or end of a root, stem, or word, or in the body of a word, to modify
its meaning

PREFIX MEANING EXAMPLES


AB- away, from abject, abscess, absorb
AD-, A-, AC-, AS- to, toward access, admit, assist, adsorb
EU- good, normal eugenics, eulogy
MAL- bad malfunction, malignant
OB-,O-, OC-, OP- against, over, completely object, occur, omit, oppose
SYM-, SYN- with, together sympathy, synthetic

SUFFIX MEANING EXAMPLES


-AL act or process of refusal, recital, rebuttal
-ANCE, -ENCE state or quality of maintenance, eminence, assurance
-MENT condition of argument, endorsement
-ER, -OR, -IST one who trainer, protector, plagiarist
-ATE, -EN, -IZE become regulate, awaken, humanize
-IOUS, -OUS, -Y characterized by nutritious, portentous, greasy, nerdy
-ESQUE reminiscent of picturesque, statuesque, burlesque

VOCABULARY TIPS
1. Read. Read. Read.
2. Understand the question or statement properly.
3. Always take note of helpful components that can give you an idea of the words meaning.
4. Trust yourself.

WORD ANALOGY
a similarity between like features of two things, on which a comparison may be based

PART TO WHOLE
a pair of words consisting of a part and a whole

Spoke : Wheel
Petal : Flower

TYPE AND CATEGORY


pairs of words in which one word is a specific type in a general category

Dog : Mammals
Orange : Citrus
DEGREE OF INTENSITY
tests your ability to discern nuance of meaning among pairs of words

Lukewarm : Boiling
Shower : Monsoon

FUNCTION
a pair of words that are related through function

Hammer : Build
Broom : Sweep

SYMBOL OR REPRESENTATION
a pair of words in which one word is the symbol of the other

Dove : Peace
Lamb : Meekness

WORD ANALOGY TIPS


1. Learn to recognize common types of analogies
2. Think of a short sentence that expresses the relationship between the two words.
3. Eliminate answer-choices that do not have a clear and reasonably necessary relationship.
4. Never initially eliminate a choice if you are uncertain of the meaning of either word in it.

SENTENCE STRUCTURE

1. Simple Sentence: One (subject + predicate)


o Twenty Freeport citizens protested the ban against smoking.

2. Compound Sentence: Two complete sentences joined by a comma + coordinate conjunction (and, or, nor,
but, for, because, etc.)
o Twenty Freeport citizens protested the smoking ban, but the newspaper failed to cover the story.

3. Complex Sentences: One complete sentence (also known as an independent or main clause) + 1
subordinate(or dependent ) clause (missing either a subject or a predicate; or introduced by a conjunctive
adverb although, however, moreover, etc.)
o Although 20 Freeport citizens protested the smoking ban, the newspaper failed to cover the story.

Modifiers
A modifier changes, clarifies, qualifies, or limits a particular word in a sentence in order to add emphasis, explanation, or
detail. Modifiers tend to be descriptive words, such as adjectives and adverbs. Modifier phrases, such as adjective
clauses and adverbial phrases also exist and tend to describe adjectives and adverbs.
Dangling Modifiers
Its a grammatical error where the modifying word or phrase is attached to the wrong subject or where the
subject is missing in a sentence.

Distant Modifiers
Taylor was upset with Fred when he returned her damaged car with an air of nonchalance.
Who had an air of nonchalance? From this sentence, it appears the car did. With an air of nonchalance dangles
because it is too far away from the subject the writer intends to modify, which is, in this case, Fred.

Missing Subject
Walking into the room, the smell was overpowering.
This sentence makes it sound like the smell walked into the room, a physical impossibility. In this case, there is
no subject for the participial phrase, walking into the room, to modify. Hence, it dangles.
Most cases of dangling modifiers can be fixed by identifying the subject you want to modify, making sure its
present, and placing the modifier immediately before or after it in the sentence: Walking into the room, they
encountered an overpowering smell.

Identify and Include a Logical Subject


While walking along the shore, the clumps of seaweed tripped me and I fell.
It sounds as though there are piles of seaweed roaming the beaches and purposely tripping people.
The fix is simply to include a subject for the participial phrase while walking along the shore, to reference.
Then, the sentence makes sense: While walking along the shore, I tripped on some clumps of seaweed and
fell.

Ambiguous (Squinting) Modifiers


A squinting modifier is a misplaced modifier that, because of its location in a sentence, could modify either the phrase
that precedes it or the one that follows it. To correct a squinting modifier, reposition it in the sentence to make it clear
to the reader which word you intend to modify.
Example:
Incorrect: Listening to loud music slowly gives me a headache.
In the example sentence, is the subject listening to music slowly or slowly getting a headache?
Correct: When I listen to loud music, I slowly develop a headache.

Common English Usage Problems


1. a, an
The article a is used before consonant sounds, and the article an before vowel sounds. Words beginning with h, o, or u
may either have a consonant sound or a vowel sound.
Examples: a histology class (h-sound)
a one-way path (w-sound)
a uniform look (y-sound)
2. A.M., P.M.
A.M. refers to the hours before noon and P.M. refers to the hours after noon. Do not spell out numbers when you use
these abbreviations, and do not use such phrases as in the morning or in the afternoon with them.
Example:
Incorrect: We will leave for Calgary at nine A.M. in the morning.
Correct: We will leave for Calgary at 9:00 A.M.
3. farther, further
Farther refers to distance. Further means additional or to a greater degree of extent
Example:
Grandmothers place is farther than what we expected.
Grandmother asked us further how we were able to get to her place.
4. unique
Unique means one of a kind. It should not be used to mean odd, interesting, or unusual. The word means one
of a kind, so such expressions as most unique, very unique, and extremely unique are illogical.
Examples:
Illogical: The group presented their output in an extremely unique way.
Correct: The group presented their output in a unique way.
5. advice, advise
Advice is a noun meaning an opinion. Advise is a verb meaning to give an opinion to.
Example:
I miss the pieces of advice that mother used to bombard me with.
She has always advised me to remain strong and independent.

IDENTIFYING ERRORS
Identifying Sentence Errors questions, which ask you to pick the error in a sentence, seem like they should be the easiest
part. After all, you only have to find the error; you don't have to fix it.
The test writers, however, are extremely adept at camouflaging the mistake in each sentenceif you don't know what
to look for, you can easily find yourself assuming there's no error in as many as half of the sentences.
Full Error Checklist
The word types are arranged in the order you should check them, though not every question will be relevant in a given
sentence.
Keep in mind that some underlined sections may contain more than one type of word: the most common such pairs are
pronoun/verb, adverb/adjective, and verb/pronoun combos. When you see these, just check each part.
#1: Verbs
Is the verb in the correct form and tense?
Does it agree with the subject?
#2: Pronouns
Does the pronoun agree with the noun it's replacing?
Is it in the correct case?
#3: Gerunds (-ing verbs)
Is the gerund replacing a main verb and creating a sentence fragment?
Is it part of a list that isn't parallel?
Has it been incorrectly switched with an infinitive?
#4: Prepositions
Is the preposition idiomatically correct?
Does it incorrectly complete a word pair?
#5: Adjectives and Adverbs
Is the modifier of the correct type?
Are -er and -est used appropriately? (Rare)
#6: Conjunctions
Is the conjunction creating a sentence fragment?
Does it logically connect ideas?
#7: Nouns
Is the noun part of a faulty comparison?
Is the sentence consistent in its use of plural and singular nouns? (Rare)
#8: Relative pronouns (who, which, that, etc.)
Is the correct pronoun used for the context?
Does the pronoun have a clear noun antecedent?

Other issues to watch out for


"Any" underlined often indicates an illogical comparison
The presence of comparison words like "than," "like," and "as" also tends to indicate illogical comparisons
A sentence with a list often has a parallelism issue
Make sure to watch for redundancy: the use of different two words
Examples:
1. Formed by volcanic eruptions over the last five million years, the Hawaiian Islands containing
A B
an incredibly wide variety of speciesmany found nowhere else on Earth. No error.
C D E
There aren't any verbs or nouns underlined, so we'll look at B, "containing," which is a gerund, first. Let's look at just the
main clause of the sentence:
the Hawaiian Islands containing an incredibly wide variety of species
This is clearly a fragment. The gerund "containing" should be replaced with the conjugated verb "contain."
As such, B is the correct answer choice.
2. The relationship between goby fish and striped shrimp are truly symbiotic, for neither can
A B
survive without the other. No error.
C D E
The correct subject is "the relationship." This noun is singular, so the plural verb "are" doesn't agree. A has an error.
3. The union insisted on an increase in their members starting pay, and threatened to call a
A B C
strike if the company refused to meet the demand. No error.
D E
Change their to its because the union is a singular noun. B is the correct answer.
Key Identifying Sentence Errors Strategies
Always read the entire sentence
When looking for the error, examine each choice individually
Check verbs and pronouns first, since they're the most likely to include errors
When an answer choice contains more than one type of word, check both
Don't be afraid to pick E, "no error," if you've ruled out all the other choices
Always make sure you can explain what error the answer contains
Even if you think you know the answer, quickly check the other choices to confirm

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