National culture; the culture of a country

- Refers to norms (codes of conduct) and values (set of beliefs) that people share
in different countries
- Geert Hofstede; researcher in the area of national culture
Worked at IBM - surveyed > 100.000 people regarding behavior and
collaboration in IBM.
- Discovered differences between cultures, saw similarities in how people
responded when from the same country
Cultural dimensions theory
- 4 basic dimensions along which cultural values can be analyzed -- represent
independent preferences for one state of affairs over another
1. Power distance
- Refers to degree to which the less powerful members of a society
accept and expect that power is distributed unequally
- People in societies exhibiting higher degree of power distance
accept a hierarchical order where everybody has a place which needs no further
justification
- Society with low power distance, people strive to equalize power
distribution and demand justification for inequality
2. Individualism (vs. collectivism)
- Individualism; preference for a loosely-knit social framework --
individuals expected to take care of themselves and immediate families
- Collectivism; preference for a tightly-knit framework --
individuals expect their relatives to look after them in exchange for loyalty
- Society's position reflected in self-image of individuals
3. Masculinity (vs. femininity)
- Masculinity; preference in society for achievement, heroism,
assertiveness and material rewards for success -- society is more competitive
- Femininity; preference for cooperation, modesty, caring for weak
and quality of life -- society more consensus-oriented
- Tough vs. tender
4. Uncertainty avoidance (UA)
- Expresses degree to which members of a society feel uncomfortable
with uncertainty and ambiguity
- Issue is how a society deals with the fact that the future can
never be known
- Countries exhibiting strong UA maintain rigid codes of belief and
behavior
- Weak UA societies maintain relaxed attitude and prcatice counts
more than principles
- Practical importance
Promotes cultural sensitivity, helps people work more effectively when
interacting with people from other countries
- Cross-cultural communication
- International negotiation
- International management
- International marketing
- Netherlands (National culture with consequences);
Low power distance;
- Expect leaders to be accessible, supportive and expect to be included by
their supervisors in decision-making process
High on individualism;
- Strong focus on individual. Violating norm causes guilt and loss in self-
esteem, hiring decisions should be based on merit
Feminine;
- People strive for consnesus, valueing equality and solidarity. Conflicts
resolved by compromise and negotiation
Slight preference for avoiding uncertainty;
- High-scoring -- need for rules, high resistence to change with security as
important motivation
- Conclusions International Review Management literature;
Behavior in organizations differs in different cultures
The culture itself is an important 'cause' of this
Management practices are the same, yet people are different
The same manager behaves differently in different cultures
Cultural diversity can increase the effectiveness of the organization
- Cultural differences;
Non-verbal communication
Gestures and sounds
- High context cultures; cultures that rely heavily on subtle cues and non-verbal
behavior in comunication
- Low context cultures; cultures that rely on using language to communicate

Organizational culture; the culture of a company or institute

- Unique set of values, norms and behaviors that contribute to the social and
psychological environment of an organization
- Affects productivity, performance, product quality, safety practices, cooperation
and ethical behavior
- Dominant culture; expression of core values that are shared by majority of
members of the organization
- Sub cultures; mini-cultures within organization, in general determined by
department and geographical characteristics
- Core values; dominant values that are accepted by the entire organization
- Strong culture; culture in which the dominant values are widely supported,
accepted and implemented throughout the organization -- strong culture can replace
formalization
- Social and psychological consequences;
1. Enhances social cohesion
2. Provides its members with an identity
3. Facilitates commitment (loyalty) to the organization
4. Increases the stability of the social system by reducting uncertainty
(culture guides expectations)
5. Provides direction
- Hofstede dimensions;
1. Means-oriented vs. Goal-oriented
2. Employee-oriented vs. Job-oriented
3. Internally driven vs. Externally driven
4. Easygoig work discipline vs. Strict work discipline
5. Local vs. Professional
6. Open system vs. Closed system
- Adam Grant;
Different cultures emphasize different social rules;
- A culture of givers
- A culture of takes
- A culture of matchers
Research suggests that an organization with a 'givers culture' outperforms
the other types of cultures
- How do employees learn the culture?
Socialization
- Process of inheriting and disseminating norms, values, customs, symbols,
and language, providing an employee with the skills and habits necessary for
participating in the organization
Done by providing new members with history, values, jargon and
procedures of the organization
Observing social exemplars or actively seek to learn these aspects
- Stages;
Pre-arrival stage (anticipatory socialization)
- Learning period before a new employee enters the organization
 Encounter stage (breaking in)
- Stage in socialization process in which a new employee experiences
values of the organization;
Employee finds out wheter expectations match or not
Metamorphosis stage (setting in)
- Stage in which a new employee accepts the norms, values, and beliefs
of the organization (assimilation)
- Created;
Founders select employees who think and feel as they do
Founders socialize these employees such that they will think and feel the
same as they do
Founders functions as a role model. Learning takes place in a social context
and can occur through observation
- Change;
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- Organizational climate vs organnizational culture
National culture; shared values of a society
Organizational culture; shared values of an organization
Organizational climate; shared perceptions of employees about their work
entity
Climate/culture strength; extent that perceptions (climate) and values
(culture) are alligned
National cultures are stronger than organizational cultures
Organizational cultures can be changed, national cultures cannot
Organizational climate concerns context where activities are created
- Focus on perception
- Created and communicated on lower levels of organization by supervisors and
managers
Organizational culture concerns values
- Main focus on believes
- Created and communicated on higher levels in the organization by the higher
management
- Maintainance organizational culture;
Selection;
- Applicants deemed to fit in the culture
- Potential candidates being screened on wheter ther is a fit the person and
culture during the application period
Top management;
- Senior managers help to adopt and communicate the values and norms of the
organization
Socialization;
- The process ensures that new employees adopt the organizational structure
- ASA (Attraction-Selection-Attrition) model;
Organiztions attract and select certain types of individuals
Turnover happens because of direct or indirect actions; not lengthening trial
period, pressure to leave organization
Recruitment - Selection - Socialization OR attrition

Conclusions;
- Culture of organization is just as important as the structure of the
organization;
National culture is stronger than the organizational culture
National culture of people cannot be undone
Organizational culture can be influenced by the upper-management
Organizational climate can be influenced by the operational management