FARM POULTRY

BY
GEORGE C. WATSON

ie Rural Science i

Lli Bailey
mural &timtt
EDITED BY L. H. BAILEY

FARM POULTRY
 l&urai Science Series
EDITED BY L. H. BAILEY
THE SOIL. King.
THE SPRAYING OF PLANTS. Lodeman.
MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS. Wing. Enlarged and Revised.
THE FERTILITY OF THE LAND. Roberts.
THE PRINCIPLES OF FRUIT-GROWING. Bailey. 20th
Edition, Revised.
BUSH-FRUITS. Card.
FERTILIZERS. Voorhees. Revised.
THE PRINCIPLES OF AGRICULTURE. Bailey. Revised.
IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE. King.
THE FARMSTEAD. Roberts.
RURAL WEALTH AND WELFARE. Fairchild.
THE PRINCIPLES OF VEGETABLE-GARDENING. Bailey.
FARM POULTRY. Watson Enlarged and Revised.
THE FEEDING OF ANIMALS. Jordan.
THE FARMER'S BUSINESS HANDBOOK. Roberts.'
THE DISEASES OF ANIMALS. Mayo.
THE HORSE. Roberts.
How TO CHOOSE A FARM. Hunt.
FORAGE CROPS. Voorhees.
BACTERIA IN RELATION TO COUNTRY LIFE. Lipman.
THE NURSERY-BOOK. Bailey.
PLANT-BREEDING. Bailey and Gilbert. Revised.
THE FORCING-BOOK. Bailey.
THE PRUNING-BOOK. Bailey.
FRUIT-GROWING IN ARID REGIONS. Paddock and Whipple.
RURAL HYGIENE. Ogden.
DRY-FARMING. Widtsoe.
LAW FOR THE AMERICAN FARMER. Green.
FARM BOYS AND GIRLS. McKeever.
THE TRAINING AND BREAKING OF HORSES. Harper.
SHEEP-FARMING IN NORTH AMERICA. Craig.
COOPERATION IN AGRICULTURE. Powell.
THE FARM WOODLOT. Cheyney and Wentling.
HOUSEHOLD INSECTS. Herrick.
CITRUS FRUITS. Coit.
PRINCIPLES OF RURAL CREDITS. Morman.
BEEKEEPING. Phillips.
SUBTROPICAL VEGETABLE-GARDENING. Rolfs.
 FARM POULTRY

A POPULAR SKETCH OF DOMESTIC FOWLS

FOR THE FARMER AND AMATEUR

BY

GEORGE C. WATSON, M.S

FOURTEENTH EDITION

Sotk
THE MACMILLAN COMPANY
LONDON = MACMILLAN & CO., LTD.

1917

All rights reserved

 COPYRIGHT, 1901, 1912

By THE MACMILLAN COMPANY

Set up and electrotyped June, 1901

Reprinted February, 1903; February, 1904; July, 1905;
November, 1906; October, 1907; January, 1909;
July, 1909; October, 1910

New Edition, Revised and Enlarged, September, 1912

August, 1913; August, December, 1914; May, 1917

Plrnsant Press
J, Horace McFarland Company
Harrisburg, Pa.
 CONTENTS
CHAPTER I
PAGE
POULTRY-RAISING AS A BUSINESS 1-12
Extent of business 2
Capital and land required 3
Business suitable for many persons 9
A variety of products 10
Products easy to market 11

CHAPTER II

EGG BREEDS OF THE DOMESTIC HEN 13-40

Classification as to utility 13
General characteristics of egg breeds 16
Leghorn 25
Minorca 33
Andalusian 35
Spanish 36
Hamburg 37
Red Cap 40

CHAPTER III

MEAT BREEDS 41-56

General characteristics 42
Brahma 47
Cochin 51
Langshan 53
Faverolle 54

(v)

380119
vi Contents

CHAPTER IV
PAGE
GENERAL-PURPOSE FOWLS 57-80
General characteristics 59
Plymouth Rocks. 62
Wyandotte 68
Orpington 70
Java 72
Dominique 73
Dorking , : 74
Houdan . . ? 76
Cornish Game 77
Rhode Island Red 79

CHAPTER V
FANCY BREEDS 81-87
Polish 82
Game 84
Silky 84
-
Sultan ; 85
'

Frizzle 85
Bantam 86

CHAPTER VI

BUILDINGS FOR FOWLS: LOCATION, PLANS AND CONSTRUC-

TION 88-122
Selection of suitable location as to markets 88
Location of buildings 89
Convenience 92
Construction of houses 96
Size of buildings . 100
 Contents vii

CHAPTER VII
PAGE
BUILDINGS: INTERNAL ARRANGEMENTS AND YARDS 123-142
Construction of perches 123
Nests 126

Drinking-fountains 130
Dust-boxes 133
Yards and parks 135
Orchards as ranges 140

CHAPTER VIII

IMPROVEMENT AND BREEDING OF FOWLS 143-170

Selection 143

Selecting eggs 145

Breeding 152

Heredity 152
Variation 154
In-and-in-breeding 157

Cross-breeding 160
Pure-bred stock 163

Improvement of common fowls 165

Breed for utility 168

CHAPTER IX
FEEDING FOR EGGS AND FOR MEAT 171-201
Exercise 172

Quality of food 172

Forced feeding for eggs 174
Grain food 175
Green food 179
Meat food, 182
Lime.., . 185
viii Contents
PAGE
Salt 186
Grain rations 193
Feeding for meat or fattening 195
Care of fattening fowls 197
Cramming 198

CHAPTER X
INCUBATORS AND BROODERS 202-223
Incubators in general 203
Artificial incubation 204
Selection of an incubator 207
Care of incubators 212
Brooders and brooder houses 215
Home-made brooders 221

CHAPTER XI
FEEDING AND CARE OF LITTLE CHICKENS 224-239
Food 225
Rations 226
Exercise 230
Feeding-troughs and -hoppers 232
Grit 233
Drinking-fountains 234
Brooders 236
Brooder conditions 238

CHAPTER XII

CAPONS AND BROILERS 240-255

Capon rearing 240
Caponizing 249
Preparing capons for market 250
Broilers.. . 251
 Contents ix

CHAPTER XIII
PAGE
DUCKS AND GEESE 256-279
Ducks: General discussion 256
Pekin 259
Aylesbury 260
Rouen 261
Black Cayuga 263
Ducks: Food and care 264
Geese: General discussion 269
Toulouse 271
Embden 272
African 273
Chinese 274
Canadian or wild 275
Geese: Food and care 276
Pate de foie gras 277

CHAPTER XIV
TURKEYS, GUINEAS, PEA-FOWLS, PIGEONS 280-301
Turkeys: General discussion 280
Bronze 286
Narragansett 287
White Holland 287
Buff 288
Slate
"
.
.^ 288
Black 288
Bourbon Red 289
Turkeys: General care 289
Breeding stock 290
Care and food for young 292
Guineas.. . 294
 Contents
PAGE
Pea-fowls 297
Pigeons 298
Squabs 300

CHAPTER XV
PREPARING AND MARKETING POULTRY PRODUCTS 302-329
Dressing poultry 303
Packing and shipping 309
Shipping live poultry 317
Eggs: Care and handling 318
Preserving eggs 324
Water-glass 326
Lime-water 329

CHAPTER XVI
DISEASES AND ENEMIES 330-353
Lice 330
Mites 334

Gapes / 335

Roup 338
Cholera 342
White Diarrhea . : 345
Other diseases 347
Vices 34S
Enemies 352

APPENDIX
IMPORTANT POULTRY PUBLICATIONS. . ,
355-361
 FARM POULTRY

CHAPTER I

POULTRY- RAISING AS A BUSINESS

THE importance of the .poultry industry, not only

in this country but in countries, is now generally
all

recognized. Particularly is this apparent to those

who have made the subject a study. It is not
necessary, therefore, in this book, to enter into an
extended discussion of the present or possible use-
fulness of domesticated fowls. It may be of interest,
however, to note some of the difficulties that hinder,
if they do not entirely prevent, the compilation of

accurate statistics of the value of the poultry and

poultry products of the United States.
When one attempts to compare poultry-raising
with other agricultural industries, he is confronted
with more or less inaccurate data. Many, at first
thought, place the value of this industry far below
its true worth, and it will require but a moment's

reflection to understand why this is so. Both the

rural and suburban population look to the domestic
fowls for a little help each day in providing the
table with wholesome and palatable food. So gen-
A (1)
*&?? Farm Poultry

eral is the consumption of fowls and of poultry

products that some of these products are found
among the constituents of almost every well-pre-
pared meal. As a large proportion of the poultry
products go directly to supply the daily wants of
the producers' families, it is impossible to ascertain
with any degree of accuracy the quantity thus
consumed. Very few records are kept by producers
of either the fowls or eggs thus consumed, and
whenever statements are made for the census-
taker or others, the aggregate is much more likely
to be underestimated than exaggerated. Conse-
quently, published data are likely to be more or
less misleading, and to give far too low value to
the industry.
The United States Census Reports for the last
two census years give the following number of
fowls on farms:
Per cent
No. fowls No. fowls Increase+
June l 1900
s April 15, 1910 Decrease- -

Chickens 233,566,021 280,345,133 +20

Turkeys 6,594,695 3,688,708 -44
Ducks 4,785,850 2,906,525 -39
Geese 5,676,788 4,431,980 -21.9

As these figuresdo not include the fowls kept

on village lots, they probably fall far short of rep-
resenting the actual number in the country. It
should be noticed that the time of taking the last
census was much earlier in the season than that
of the previous census. So the difference in number
 Number of Fowls 3

does not necessarily mean that fewer turkeys,

ducks, and geese are now kept than formerly, for
without doubt the former figures include more
young fowls than the latter. In like manner, the
number of chickens determined April 15 by the
1910 census consists largely of fowls maintained
for breeding purposes, while the numbers as deter-
mined by the enumerators of the previous census
on June necessarily included many young fowls.
1

Consequently the increase in the development

of this industry in this country is without doubt
much more than that indicated by the statistics
of the census reports.

LITTLE CAPITAL REQUIRED

To a person contemplating a new enterprise or

the extension of a business already established,
one of the first questions to be solved is, "What
will it cost?" happens that the original or
It often
first cost an enterprise prevents persons of
of
moderate resources from making what in their
judgment would be a safe investment. Probably
there is no important branch of animal industry
that requires so little outlay in labor and money
as poultry-keeping Unlike many enterprises, the
,

poultry business may be begun in a small way and

conducted successfully with the expenditure of a
very meager sum of money.
4 Farm Poultry

Pure-bred animals possessing individual merit,

of families or of strains of blood that are recognized
as being particularly valuable for the useful pur-
poses for which these animals are maintained,
have a high market value. Consequently one who
begins with approved foundation stock must invest
considerable capital in animals that are to be the
beginning of his flock, herd or stud, as the case
may be, before he really commences his breeding
operations. With poultry, however, a small begin-
ning, which is often desirable in order to give the
preliminary training necessary to final success,
may be made with the resources of an ordinary
farm. This modest beginning would not in any
way interfere with the development or extension
of the business should circumstances and expe-
rience warrant such a course. In this respect the
poultry business furnishes a marked contrast to
.

some other lines of particularly to those

work,
that require tools and machinery to place a finished
product upon the market. If the business be largely
increased, new and larger machines must be obtained
in order to produce with the greatest economy,
and consequently a sacrifice must be made in the
equipment of the original small plant.
To those about to make their first attempt in
poultry-keeping on an extensive scale, it may be

said that one of the safest ways, if not the only

sure way to success, is to start in a moderate way
 Understand the Business 5

and to delay long enough to learn the business

thoroughly before much is invested. Mistakes will
certainly be made and difficult problems will pre-
sent themselves for solution before success can be
attained in any extended way. Many have made
the experiment of investing considerable money
and labor before the business was even fairly well
understood, and failure, or discouragement which
often amounts to the same thing has been the
consequent result.
While failures due inexperience are
solely to
in evidence most of the time, yet new recruits
are continually rushing forward to repeat the dis-
aster. This is without doubt due largely to the
desire on the part of many to accumulate money
rapidly and before they have time to pass through
the important apprenticeship of learning the busi-
ness. Undoubtedly many are tempted to go into
the poultry business on a somewhat extensive
scale because a few fowls are kept on many farms
seemingly with profit, and yet without much care.
The small flocks that have the run of the farm
may thrive with little care,but large colonies demand
close attention from one who has passed the stage
of a novice, if the greatest success is to be attained.

Many failures in the poultry business have

resulted from a neglect of some or many of the little
details so necessary to success.
Individuals have succeeded admirably even
6 Farm Poultry

beyond expectation, when they were able person-

ally to look after the business and to see that nothing
was neglected, but failed entirely when they under-
took to greatly enlarge the business and to trust
the details to others who were giving their services
for a moderate consideration.

TIME OF YEAR TO BEGIN

The question may arise as to the best time of

the year to begin, for one who is wholly unacquainted
with any of the phases of poultry work.
This perhaps is not so important, provided the
manner of making the beginning has been fully
decided upon, so that the time of year will not
wholly determine the way in which this enterprise
will be begun. If one should decide to make a
start during the late summer or fall months, in
all probability it will be found quite advantageous

to make a beginning through the purchase of mature

fowls. Whereas, if the beginning should be made
in the late winter or early spring, eggs be
may
purchased so that the beginning may be effected
in part or wholly in this manner.
If time and circumstances will permit, the fall
of the year is an excellent time to begin, for then
fowls may be purchased somewhat cheaper than
in the spring,and the experience of caring for them
during the winter will prove of great value during
 How to Begin 7

the coming season of incubation and rearing of

young fowls with its many new experiences and
perplexities. One should gain all knowledge possible
as to care of fowls before this busy season approaches.

COMPARATIVELY LITTLE LAND NECESSARY

Unless it is desirable to raise all, or nearly all,

of the grain which the fowls require, on the same
farms on which they are kept, comparatively little
land will be required. Especially is this true with
ducks and chickens. Turkeys, on account of their
roving nature, do best when given a wide range.
Laying hens, however, will do well when confined
in a comparatively small yard or "run" if the

ground is kept clean by cultivation. Four or five

acres will afford ample space for eight hundred
hens if arrangements are made to keep
suitable
them in moderately small flocks. This amount of
land will also provide ample space for the rearing
of the young required for the maintenance of the
flock. If the grain food be purchased, very little
land will be necessary, only enough for the houses,
yards and sufficient space whereon to grow the
green or succulent food. A very small area will
be sufficient on which to raise the green food if
the land be kept in a high state of fertility. It is
true that in some parts of the year it will be advan-
tageous to have a wide range, if one can be provided.
8 Farm Poultry

Fowls, like other classes of live stock, require

more exercise while they are growing and devel-
oping, and do best in a large run or park, as so
much depends on a strong body and constitution
when the period of greatest usefulness is reached.
It is of relatively more importance, therefore, to
have a large run for the young and immature
fowls than for the mature birds which are being
maintained solely for the production of eggs. Fat-
tening fowls require comparatively little exercise,
their health is not materially impaired by a short

confinement, and more rapid gain in weight is

secured by confining them.

QUICK RETURNS FROM MONEY INVESTED

Of the various branches of animal industry

there is probably none that brings such quick
returns as poultry-keeping. It matters not whether
the poultry-raiser desires to produce eggs, meat
in the form of broilers, mature fowls, or capons,
the product is ready for the market within a com-
paratively short time. Even though the slowest
method be pursued, that of
selecting eggs for
hatching, from which are to be reared the fowls
to produce eggs, there should be no difficulty
in producing for the market in from five to eight
months.
With other classes of live stock, not only is
 Poultry Raising Attractive 9

a much longer time required in which to secure

returns, but also a greater money outlay at the
beginning, as above stated. The fact that so little
time is required for the development of a paying
business makes poultry-keeping an attractive field
for those having little capital, and who must enter
some business that will bring quick returns.

MAY BE CONDUCTED BY PERSONS OF EITHER SEX

The fact that the poultry business requires

littleland, few and inexpensive buildings and no
heavy and complicated machinery, makes it well
suited to persons of either sex who are unable
physically, or who do not desire, to perform heavy
manual labor any work that requires the outlay
or
of considerable effortand strength.
Those who desire to work more or less out-of-
doors, and who are willing to attend regularly to
details, may find congenial employment, and may
undertake to perform the necessary operations of
poultry-keeping without the feeling that they are
starting in a business for which they are not fitted.
It will frequently be noticed that success in business
is attained by those who for various reasons are
more or less unfitted for the work which they have
undertaken, and who consequently achieve success
through great perseverance alone in the face of
greater difficulties than their competitors experience.
10 Farm Poultry

Many people of means and refined tastes have

profitably taken up the study and occupation of
poultry-keeping as a means of affording health-
in order to regain failing
ful out-of-door exercise,
health or to afford a change and rest from pro-
fessional activity. Many women have become
expert breeders, or producers of various poultry
products, and are recognized as authorities in their
respective lines of work. There is no' branch of
animal industry that offers so many inducements
to women as some of the various branches of poultry-
keeping, particularly if they desire to experiment
in the production of new forms, or to improve for
their particular purpose the breed or variety which

they have selected as best adapted for their use.

A GREAT VARIETY OF PRODUCTS

Quite unlike other lines of live-stock work, in

which only a few products are raised on the farm
ready for the market, poultry-keeping fortunately
offers to the poultryman and farmer an oppor-

tunity to choose from a number of marketable

products those which he prefers to provide, or
which in his judgment will most likely bring
pleasure or financial success. It is noticed that
circumstances are often such that certain lines
of poultry work can be conducted with greater
success than others, so that those who study closely
 Choice of Products 11

their own
adaptabilities are enabled to select at
the outset the line of work that is likely to prove
the most satisfactory.
To carry out this idea somewhat further by
means of an illustration, it readily be seen
will
that a poultryman had
if a somewhat limited space
for fowls, including both buildings and yards, so
that it would be quite impossible to keep to advan-
tage more than a few hundred at most, he should
either devote his energy to the production of fowls
of high merit for breeding purposes or confine him-
self toegg production. The rearing of young fowls
for market demands more space both in- and out-
of-doors than a business of the same magnitude in
which egg production is the chief object. The
various classes of domestic hen, with turkeys,
ducks, geese, and pigeons, furnish a great variety of
products that find ready sale in the markets. From
these the farmer or poultryman may select those
that offer to him the greatest special inducements.

PRODUCTS EASY TO MARKET

With modern facilities for rapid transportation,

the various poultry products may be sent to market
hundreds of miles distant and be placed before
the consumer in excellent condition. Eggs only
a few days old may be served as food after being
shipped hundreds of miles by express.
12 Farm Poultry

While the best products may be sent long dis-

tances by express with profit, the poorer ones sel-
dom pay for the extra cost of rapid transit. Supe-
rior products create new demands. Since more
attention is now
paid to poultry-raising in this
country than was given to the industry but a few
years ago, many highly prized special articles
have been produced which find a ready market
at remunerative prices in nearly all of the large
cities. As" better products are placed on the market

and as people of means become aware of this fact,

the demand a good article soon becomes as
for

strong and constant as that for the cheaper and

more staple articles. As soon as a worthy article
is produced regularly, customers are ready to pur-

chase. The best on the market is usually sold first,

and at prices considerably in advance of that for
common or ordinary grades. Better work with
poultry will eventually insure better products,
which find ready sales, and, in turn, create new
demands. It should be the aim of each person who
is about to enter the poultry business to produce

the best which the market affords. The greatest

skill is required to furnish the best, but articles

which are produced with great skill and a thorough

knowledge of the business usually yield the greatest

profits.
 CHAPTER II

EGG BREEDS OF THE DOMESTIC HEN

AGRICULTURISTS may, for convenience, classify

fowls as to their useful qualities as

Egg Breeds General-Purpose Breeds

Meat Breeds Fancy Breeds

While this classification gives considerable infor-

mation, ina general way, yet it should not be

inferred that the distinctions between these classes
are constant or very pronounced. In other words,
a classification that is based on utility does not
make use of positive characteristics. The distinc-
tions are relative and therefore quite variable, as
the usefulness of any breed will depend to a large
extent upon various conditions, as food, care,
climate, etc. Again, the so-called general-purpose
fowls form a connecting link between those which
are most highly esteemed as egg producers and
the heavy, clumsy Asiatic fowls, whose most useful
quality is the production of large bodies that are
highly valued for table use. From the nature of
the classification and the variation of the fowls
from the standpoint of usefulness, it will readily
(13)
14 Farm Poultry

be seen that different breeders may honestly differ

as to the exact position of certain breeds.
To further illustrate, what would be recognized
as a meat breed by one breeder might by another
be placed among the general-purpose fowls on
account of its good laying qualities. As we find
all grades of domesticated cattle, from the heavy

strictly beef type on the one hand, whose useful-

ness lies in meat production alone, to the dairy cow
on the other hand, whose tendency toward milk
production is so strong that she can with difficulty
be induced to lay on enough flesh to look well, so
do we find many intermediate grades of fowls,
from the large, massive form noted for the produc-
tion of flesh to the small, nervous fowl so famed
for egg production. The inexperienced person
will find more or less confusion on account of this
faulty classification, and mistakes are to be expected,
and these will be corrected only by study and
observation.
As these terms are current and are likely to
be used in the future, a brief discussion of them
may aid in arriving at a better understanding of
the points at issue.
The egg breeds include all the small or medium-
sized fowls that have a strong tendency toward egg
production. They are generally poor sitters, at
least while young, of a nervous temperament, being

easily frightened, and more readily take to flight

 Classes Described 15

than do the other breeds that are noted for utility.

They are maintained for the production of eggs
and for this purpose are unexcelled. Poultrymen
who rear large flocks for egg production find it
necessary, and often remunerative, to dispose as
market fowls of large numbers of young male birds
and also old hens that have passed the period of
greatest usefulness as egg producers; yet this is
incidental to the production of eggs and should not
in any way mask the fact that egg production is

the greatest useful quality of these fowls. The

Leghorns, Spanish, Minorcas, and Hamburgs are
good representatives of this class.
The meat breeds are larger than the egg or the
general-purpose breeds. The largest breeds of
fowls are represented in this class. They are gen-
erally considered to be poor layers except, pos-
sibly, in a few cases where the pullets are fairly good
winter layers. They are heavy-bodied, slow-moving
fowls, of gentle disposition, and are persistent
sitters. The Brahmas, Cochins, and Langshans
are representative breeds of this class.
The general-purpose breeds, as the term indicates,
include those fowls that are of medium size and
furnish a good quality of meat when properly fattened
and prepared for table use. For certain methods
of cooking, these fowls are preferred by many to
the larger bodies and coarser-grained flesh of the
distinctively meat breeds. As these fowls are good
16 Farm Poultry

egg producers, when kept under favorable conditions

for egg production, they have become most popular
with a large class of poultry-keepers who main-
tain comparatively small flocks largely to supply
the demands of the home table. Farmers and others,
who keep a few fowls as a secondary consideration,
find this class most useful. Aside from furnishing
the home table they are sufficiently economical
in the production of both eggs and meat to permit
the surplus to be sold on the market to good advan-
tage. The Plymouth Rocks, Wyandottes, and
Rhode Island Reds, are familiar breeds of this class.
The fancy breeds include those fowls that are
reared on account of their peculiar or pleasing
appearance, and are not bred exclusively for utility.
While many of the so-called fancy breeds may
serve a useful purpose in furnishing eggs and meat,
they cannot successfully compete with other classes
when usefulness alone is considered. The Polish,
Bantams, Frizzles, and Silkies may be taken as
familiar representatives.

GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS AND SIZE OF EGG BREEDS

While those breeds and varieties of fowls that

may be classed as distinctively egg producers vary
somewhat in size and form, yet they differ so
materially from the general-purpose and meat breeds
that they may well be placed by themselves if for
 Egg Breeds Described 17

no other reason' than the one distinguishing char-

acteristic of size. Almost without exception the
noted egg-producing breeds are small or medium
in sizeand possessed of a neat, trim appearance,
which gives them an air of activity. They are
also somewhat longer-legged in proportion to their
size than the meat breeds, yet those having the
most robust constitution do not appear to be small
or long-legged.
While mature fowls of some of the heaviest
breeds of this class should weigh from six to nine
pounds, yet the weight is seldom mentioned in
descriptions of the most noted egg -producers of
this class. This is undoubtedly due to the fact
that production is the chief consideration,
egg
regardless of the weight of the fowl.
The purpose for which these fowls are
specific
reared being egg production, the breeder does
not care to sacrifice this product for increased
meat production, except as increased vigor in the
individual is likely to bring an increase in size,
a subject that is discussed somewhat fully in the
chapter on breeding.
Disposition. Almost without exception, a ner-
vous, active disposition is characteristic of the
various varieties of fowls which are noted for egg
production. They are naturally quick, alert, easily
frightened, and when once thoroughly aroused
fly almost with the ease of wild birds. On account
18 Farm Poultry

of this activity, they like a wide range and ordinarily

do best when not closely confined. Many varieties,
however, thrive well when kept within inclosures,
if the confinement is not too rigorous, and good

judgment is exercised in providing other conditions

that are most sanitary and congenial to the fowls.
Whenever inclosuresprovided to restrict
are
their range, careful handling is necessary in order
that the practice of using their wings as a means
of locomotion may be avoided as far as possible.

Habit, when once acquired, is not easily changed;

consequently breeders find it difficult to correct
the annoying tendency to fly on slight provocation
when the habit is well formed. Many a fine fowl
has suffered the death penalty for continually
flying over inclosures. Whenever a few fowls of
a flock or pen have acquired the habit of flying
over the inclosures or fences, a reasonable modi-
fication of the inclosure to correct the evil rarely
suffices. It has been said with much aptness
that "Egg breeds of fowls, like honey bees, require
slow movements and careful handling from the
attendant, for
success, while hasty movements
bring annoyance and disaster."
All fowls may become gentle and tame by con-
tinued handling, so that the charac-
careful
alertness of the egg breeds need not pre-
teristic
vent the use of these types, even though tame
fowls are required. Leghorn and Minorca hens
 Carefulness of Handling 19

have frequently been seen to perch on a basket

carried on the arm of an attendant who was enter-
ing the pen or yard, in order that they might secure
the first morsel of a coveted food. This degree of
familiarity is attained only by continued thought-
fulness and gentleness on the part of the attendant.
The nervous fowls of the egg breeds, even though
they have become gentle and tame by careful hand-
ling, are more suspicious of strangers than are the
heavier and slower moving fowls of the general-
purpose and meat breeds. Consequently many
poultrymen will not admit strangers to the yards
and pens occupied by laying hens.
Early maturity. The noted egg breeds are
classed among the earliest maturing fowls. In
fact, they almost form a class by themselves if

judged from a standpoint of development. Early

in life they assume the appearance of miniature
adults, both in general outline or conformation
and in the growth of plumage.
The early feathering greatly enhances the prob-
ability of the young chick living to reach maturity.
Other things being equal, the more rapidly the
young chick "feathers out" the more hardy it
becomes. The time when a young fowl is growing
feathers rapidly is always a delicate period in its
existence. It is well known by those who keep song
birds in cages that the molting period is a trying
one for their pets. As these songsters in the molt-
20 Farm Poultry

ing period are producing feathers, which make

great demands on their systems, their condition
is very similar to that of the young fowl that is
producing feathers for protection at the expense
of its physical organization. It is difficult, if not

impossible, for a fowl having a weak constitution

to produce feathers rapidly.
While all egg breeds are not of equal hardiness
in this respect, yet as a class they pass rapidly

through the most delicate periods of infancy,

which goes a long way toward placing them as
the most hardy of fowls. The individuals of egg
breeds develop combs and wattles early in life,
which still them the appearance of
further give
small adults. At no time do they appear so ill
proportioned and awkward as do the good-sized
though undeveloped young of the larger breeds.
Poor sitters.All noted egg-producing fowls are

poor and uncertain sitters. The term "non-sitters"

has frequently been used to designate various
breeds of fowls possessed of a marked tendency
toward egg production at the expense of a dis-
position to incubate.
have long been trying to further
Breeders
develop the tendency of egg production that is
inherent in all the Mediterranean fowls, which has
resulted in producing an exclusively egg-producing
machine. The marked development in egg pro-
duction in this class of fowls has been accomplished
 Unreliable Incubators 21

at the expense of other desirable qualities. In

other words, the whole energy of the fowl is devoted
to the one particular purpose of producing eggs.
That is so far as the breeders and improvers have
been able to direct the energies of the fowl toward
securing increased amount of useful products. So
far has this been carried that breeders are now

seeking to breed fowls having stronger constitutions,

that this specialization may be carried to a still
greater extreme.
The tendency toward egg production has become
so great that hen has comparatively little
the
desire to rear young and otherwise exercise her
maternal instincts. Almost without exception, those
breeds of fowls that are noted especially for egg
production cannot be depended upon for natural
incubation if any considerable number of fowls are
to be reared. Breeders are therefore compelled to
resort to artificial incubation, or to keep largely if
not wholly, for incubation, some fowls of another
breed, whose maternal instincts make them good
mothers. Occasionally individuals of the egg breeds
become "broody " and under favorable conditions
prove to be persistent sitters, but too frequently
the desire to incubate is but a fickle one and indulged
in at the expense of the owner who supplies the
"sitting of eggs." As the hens become older the
tendency to incubate becomes stronger. While
these fowls are extremely poor sitters, yet so long
22 Farm Poultry

as they continue to incubate, though it be some-

what rarely, the term "non-sitters" cannot strictly
be applied to them.
Good foragers. These egg breeds rank among
the most active and industrious fowls, as many
a good housewife can testify whose cherished
flower garden has undergone a system of surface
culture instituted by a Leghorn hen. All the noted
egg producers are very alert, and are well suited
to foraging, and may obtain a considerable portion
of their living if a wide range is provided. They
are not only active, but seem to be constantly
on the lookout for food. It is true that often,
under otherwise favorable conditions, they seem
to endure close confinement very well. This is
undoubtedly due to the fact that they are hardy
and will stand more or less abuse and still maintain
a thrifty appearance. They thrive in spite of con-
finement, not because of it. The most skilful breed-
ers, who are unable to give their fowls the desired run
or yard, almost invariably provide means for giving
the fowls exercise, which may be done by requiring
them to scratch among litter for their food. This
will ina degree modify the evil of close confinement.
There is not the least doubt that many fowls
that are now kept in close confinement would be more
healthy, give a larger percentage of fertile eggs,
and in the end prove much more profitable if greater
freedom could be afforded them.
 Sensitive to Cold 23

Sensitiveness to cold. All of the noted egg breeds

have large combs and wattles, which make them
sensitive to low temperatures. Some of the breeds
having extremely large combs and wattles are
so liable to have them frosted in the colder latitudes
that warm quarters must be provided, if the pro-
duction of eggs in the winter time is a requisite.
Theory and practice agree that a lower degree of
temperature will be endured without serious results
if the quarters occupied by the fowls are free from
drafts. These fowls may become accustomed to
a comparatively low temperature without any
injury whatever provided actual freezing of any
parts does not occur. Pure air, even though it
be cold, seems quite essential to the highest degree
of health and to greatest vigor.
Breeders have sought to remedy this somewhat
serious objection by breeding "rose-combs," that
are not so readily frozen. In practice this is found
to be only a partial remedy, as the wattles, when
extremely large, are almost as sensitive to cold
as the large, thin, upright combs.
The egg breeds are much closer feathered than
the fleshy Asiatics (Brahmas, Cochins, and Lang-
shans), which endure low temperatures so well.
The thicker coat of fluffy feathers of the Asiatics
undoubtedly forms a thicker dead-air space than
do the thinner and more compact coats of the
egg breeds. The comparatively long and naked
24 Farm Poultry

shanks, large combs and wattles, with a compact

coat of feathers, ill prepare the latter to withstand
IJie severity of the northern winter when more or
less exposed by the neglect or indifference too
often accorded the fowls on many farms.
should not be inferred, however, that these
It
fowls are not suited to the northern, central and
New England states, forthey are the best winter
layers when warm and comfortable quarters are
provided. Even when more or less neglected they
may stillprove to be wholly satisfactory as winter
layers on account of their hardiness and their
great natural tendency to produce eggs. The very
fact that they do so well under comparative neglect
is one of the chief reasons for such unsatisfactory

results in poultry-keeping: fowls that will live with

little care are likely to receive little care. It often

happens that the most delicate breeds receive

the most care.

BREEDS AND VARIETIES

The most noted egg breeds now reared in the

United States include the so-called Mediterranean
fowls, which comprise the following breeds: Leg-
horn, Minorca, Ancona, Andalusian, and Span-
ish. To these should be added the Hamburg,
Red Cap, and perhaps some others. Some of these
breeds are further subdivided into numerous varie-
 Breeds and Varieties 25

ties which partake of the same general form and

disposition but differ greatly in color of plumage.
In producing so great a variety in plumage as
seen in the numerous varieties of some breeds,
notably the Leghorn, foreign blood has been intro-
duced which has modified, to some extent, the
laying propensities. At first thought the practice
of introducing the blood of an alien breed in the
formation of a new variety of an egg breed would
be condemned; but when it is once well understood
that crossing within certain limits brings increased
vigor to the progeny, it may be seen that for egg
production alone the new variety, which is given
a little more robustness, may be made to pro-
duce as many eggs by a process of moderately
forced feeding as the somewhat more delicate pure
breed whose inherent tendency to egg production
may be a little stronger.
Leghorn. This is one of the Mediterranean
breeds whose name supposed to have been derived
is

from the city of Leghorn, in Italy, whence they

are thought to have been brought to America.
The early history of the breed is now more or less
obscure, and this is due, no doubt, in a large degree,
to the fact that they were unpopular for many
years after they were introduced into this country.
Although they are credited with being introduced
in the early part of the nineteenth century, it
was not until after the middle of the century that
26 Farm Poultry

they attracted much attention. As the popular

animals and crops are most written about, it is
not strange that a more or less unpopular breed
should pass for nearly half a century with com-
paratively slight notice. Since the introduction

FIG. 1. A White Leghorn cockerel.

of the Leghorns, however, they have been consider-

ably changed and bred to that degree of perfec-
tion that has designated them an Americanized,
if not an American breed. In the early history
of these fowls in this country they were spoken
 Varieties of Leghorns 27

of as being of various colors yet all partaking of

the same general nature, and were recognized as
belonging to the same breed. The different va-

FIG. 2. White Leghorns.

rieties that are now recognized had not then been

formed.
All varieties of Leghorns are comparatively
small in size, and consequently are not well suited
to those who depend largely upon their fowls for
28 Farm Poultry

the supply of fresh meat for the table. They are

active and do not fatten so readily under ordinary
conditions as larger and less active breeds. These
fowls are hardy, and all varieties are good layers,
most of them being extremely prolific.
The
fact of their being hardy in all stages of
development, as well as extremely good layers,
fits them where a considerable revenue
for the farm,
is expected from the sale of eggs and where com-

paratively little importance is placed on the pro-

duction of meat. They are noted for laying early
in life; frequently early-hatched pullets lay at
five months of age and under favorable conditions
willlay well throughout the winter and summer
months. Many records of more than two hundred
eggs per year from single birds are known, and even
large flocks have produced two hundred eggs per
hen in a single year.
The Leghorns are comparatively light eaters
and are somewhat less expensive to raise to maturity
than larger and heavier-bodied fowls. All va-
rieties ofLeghorns are active and do best if given
wide liberty and if permitted to take much exercise
in search of food.
The varieties of the Leghorn breed are:

Single-comb Brown Single-comb Buff

Rose-comb Brown Rose-comb Buff
Single-comb White Single-comb Black
Rose-comb White Silver
 Varieties 29

All varieties except the Rose-combs have large

single combs, which, in the males, should, be thin,
firm and erect. In the females they should fall

FIG. 3. Buff Leghorn cockerel (one-fifth size).

gracefully to one side, particularly during the

laying period.
The White and the Brown varieties are older
than the others and are usually selected when egg
production is the sole object. Some of the new
30 Farm Poultry

have not been bred pure long enough to

varieties
become thoroughly fixed in their distinctive char-
acteristics.
There is practically no difference between the
White and the Brown varieties in the number of
eggs produced. The White, however, lays some-
what larger eggs than the Brown, and the shells
are of a purer white; that is, the shells of the Brown
Leghorn are a little tinted, although they readily
pass for .white eggs. The color of the shells is of
minor importance, although it isrecognized as one
of the fancy points when highest-priced eggs are
produced. In some markets white eggs sell for the
highest prices in other markets brown eggs are
;

preferred. Under ordinary conditions the difference

in the color will be of little or no value. If, however,
the poultryman desires to produce the highest-
priced eggs, some attention should be given to the
color and other characteristics which go to make

up uniformity of product.
It needs no argument to sustain the assertion
that, other things being equal, those fowls that
lay the largest eggs are to be preferred. At first
thought it appear to be of more importance
may
to those who aim to produce eggs for their own
table than to those who produce eggs for the market
to be sold by the dozen. It should not be forgotten,
however, that continued success in any business
requires the business man to satisfy his customers.
 Size of Eggs 31

He should aim, therefore, to produce good-sized

eggs, which will be acceptable not only as to quality
but also as to weight. It will be evident to all

that those fowls which lay the greatest weight of

eggs during the year will be the most economical
for the farmer to keep to supply the wants of his

FIG. 4. Buff Leghorn pullet (one-sixth size).

own table. The difference in expense of keeping

fowls which lay different-sized eggs is not commen-
surate with the difference in the value of the prod-
uct. This subject will be given a fuller discussion
in another chapter.
It is asserted that some of the other and newer
varieties of Leghorns are equally as good egg pro-
32 Farm Poultry

ducers as the White and the Brown How-

varieties.

ever, the majority of practical poultrymen who

have selected a variety of the Leghorns and have
entered into the business of egg production for
profit select either the White or the Brown variety.
Fowls of a solid color, like the White or the Black
variety of the Leghorn breed, often prove most

FIG. 5. Single-comb Brown Leghorn hen (two-thirteenths size).

satisfactory in the hands of a poultryman whose

primary object is to produce eggs, and whose sec-
ondary object is to sell his surplus stock for breed-
ing purposes at something more than the price of
which dressed poultry brings in the market. The
reason for this is readily seen when we consider
that old fowls must be disposed of and be replaced
by younger and more vigorous stock. Such stock
 Develop Useful Qualities 83

may frequently be sold and used for breeders after

having served a period of forced egg production,
provided it represents fairly well the type of fowls
to which it belongs. Fowls are more likely to rep-
resent a type in color if they are solid-colored than
ifthe plumage is distinguished by various markings,
as seen in many of the useful breeds. In other
words, the poultryman finds it much easier to develop
the one point of egg production than to breed
for plumage and develop for egg production at the
same time. One important principle in stock breed-
ing should not be forgotten, that it is much easier

to develop one useful quality to its greatest per-

fection than to develop two qualities which are
not closely correlated. Consequently, it is found
much easier to produce strong, robust fowls of a
solid color for egg production than to produce

equally good birds of a colored variety, for both

exhibition and useful qualities.
Minorca. This breed is thought to have been
introduced into England from the island of Minorca
in the Mediterranean Sea, and it is said by some
poultry authorities to be the progenitor of the White-
faced Black Spanish breed. The varieties of this
breed are:
Single-comb Black Rose-comb Black
Single-comb White

These are the heaviest of the Mediterranean

fowls.
34 Farm Poultry

Of theSingle-comb Black variety the cock

should weigh 9 and the hen 7^ pounds. Of the
other varieties the cock should weigh 8 and the
hen 6^ pounds.

FIG. 6. Black Minorca cockerel (one-seventh size).

They have the great laying tendencies of the

fowls of this class. Lewis Wright, writing of Eng-
lish fowls, places them second on the
list of egg

producers. In appearance they resemble the Leg-

horns, although they have larger combs and wattles.
The solid color is in their favor, although there is
a tendency toward white in the primaries of the
 Minorcas 35

Black variety. They have not been so popular

for egg production as the Leghorns, although they
are coming more into popular favor. The eggs of
this breed are large and white. They average about

eight to the pound. As Americans prefer fowls

having yellow skin and shanks, the Minorcas are

FIG. 7. Black Minorca hen (one-seventh size).

therefore placed at a disadvantage, as their skin is

white and the shanks and feet of a dark leaden
color approaching black.
Andalusian. This breedthought to be native
is

to Andalusia, a province the southern part

in
of Spain. It is a large, hardy breed of the Med-
36 Farm Poultry

iterranean class. These fowls have not been popular

in the United States, partly owing, no doubt, to
the color of their skin and shanks. The skin is
white and the shanks and toes are slaty blue. For
farm purposes they are considered about the same
as the Minor cas. There is only one variety pf this
breed the Blue. The plumage is of a bluish gray
or dove color, approaching black on the back.
They do not breed so true to color as some of the
other breeds of this class. They are excellent layers
but are not supplanting the Leghorns for this pur-
pose. They are classed with the non-sitters, but
have a somewhat greater tendency to incubate
than Leghorns do. The cock should weigh 6 and
the hen 5 pounds.
Spanish. Now known as the White-faced Black
Spanish. This breed has been bred pure for a great
many years in England. It is called the oldest
of the non-sitting varieties. There seems to be no
doubt in the minds of many authorities that this
Spanish breed came from some of the Mediter-
ranean countries, and probably from Spain. The
fowls are somewhat longer-legged in proportion
to the size of the body than the other breeds of
this class. They are glossy black
throughout,
without any white or gray feathers. The shanks
and toes are dark in color, leaden blue approach-
ing black. The Spanish is not so hardy as the
other breeds mentioned, particularly when imma-
 White-faced Black Spanish 37

ture and subjected to more or less dampness. The

chickens do not feather so rapidly as the Leghorns
and are considered more delicate. On account, no
doubt, of the somewhat more delicate constitution,
the eggs are more or less infertile, and breeders
consequently are forced to keep a somewhat smaller
number of females with one male than with other
breeds of fowls noted for egg production. Breed^
ers have attempted, and succeeded in a large meas-

ure, in developing more fancy points with the

White-faced Black Spanish than with other noted
egg breeds of a solid color. This breeding for
fancy points is thought to have weakened the con-
stitution considerably. On account of the develop-
ment of these fancy points, some practical poultry-
keepers are inclined to consider the Spanish as a
fancy breed rather than to class it among the most
useful ones. While they will undoubtedly produce
a good supply of eggs under favorable conditions,
yet the fact remains that few if any practical poul-
trymen select them
solely for egg production.
The white face a distinguishing feature of this
is

fowl, as the white of the face and the ear lobe form
a continuous smooth, white surface extending
down below the wattles and uniting in front. They
have large, single combs. For farm purposes they
should be placed after the Leghorns, Minorcas,
Andalusians, and Anconas.
Hamburg. The Hamburgs have long been known
38 Farm Poultry

as prolific egg producers. This breed consists of

six varieties:

Goldeii-spangled Golden-penciled
Silver-spangled Silver-penciled
White Black

The Hamburg breed was introduced into Eng-

land from Holland or North Germany, and eventu-
ally took the name of the noted seaport, Hamburg,
although they were known at that time, and for
many" years after their introduction into Great
"
Britain, as the Dutch every-day layers," or "ever-
lasting layers." They are small, active fowls, and
are recognized as being extremely good layers if
kept under favorable conditions. It is said that
when properly kept they will equal the Leghorns in
egg production, although as a matter of fact com-
paratively few poultrymen select Hamburgs in pref-
erence to the Mediterranean fowls when egg pro-
duction is the sole, or even the chief, object. They
are quite as difficult to keep in confinement as any
of the Mediterraneans, being small, light, and easily

frightened. Their tendency to fly makes it difficult

to keep them in the yards or runs. Of all breeds,

probably there is none that likes a wide range
better than the Hamburgs. Their eggs are small
and white, being somewhat smaller than those of
the Leghorns. All varieties have blue, or leaden
blue, shanks and toes, except, possibly, the Black,
which may have dark, leaden blue or black shanks
 Hamburgs 39

and toes. have rose combs, which terminate in a

All
This point is usually some-
spike or point at the rear.
what elevated, and is one of the characteristic
features of the Hamburg comb. When these fowls
are entered for competition at shows or exhibitions
there is no weight qualification. Their small size

FIG. 8. Silver-spangled Hamburg cock.

makes them unprofitable as table fowls; then, too,

the color of their shanks and skin is against them

for table use. The chickens are not noted for their
vigor, and it is said that both old and young are
likely to suffer from want of cleanliness more than
any other egg breed, with the possible exception
of the White-faced Black Spanish. Wright says
"
they do not stand crowding well, and that where
40 Farm Poultry

six Brahmas could be kept, four Hamburgs are

quite enough."
Red
Cap. This is recognized as a distinct
breed, yet the fowls resemble the Hamburgs in
many respects. They are somewhat larger than
the Hamburgs, and compare with them in size
much as the Minorcas compare with the Leg-
horns. They are quite hardy, and are extremely
good layers. They have large rose combs, which
have "a tendency to grow somewhat irregular.
This makes them difficult to breed for exhibition
purposes. They have slate-colored shanks. The
plumage is red and black. Cocks should weigh
hen 6j/, cockerel 6, and pullet 5 pounds.
,
 CHAPTER III

MEAT BREEDS

THOSE breeds that are reared especially for

the production of meat, either for home consump-
tion or for the market, are good-sized, compactly
built fowls, probably of Asiatic origin. They are
much heavier than those that are reared especially
for egg production and from them almost
differ
as much in general outline as they do in size and
weight. It should be borne in mind that the term
"meat breeds," as used in this volume, refers chiefly
to those breeds whose greatest usefulness is in the
production of meat. While the quality of the
flesh of these fowls may not exceed, or even equal,
the flesh of some other breeds, yet on account of
their large size they are especially prized for table
use under certain conditions. As a good-sized
roast of meat is preferred to a small one, so large
fowls are preferred for certain methods of cooking.
Certain it is that large fowls are usually served to
better advantage than small ones.
As a rule, the noted meat breeds are larger,
more compact and "blocky" than the Mediter-
raneans. They are broader and deeper in body,

(41)
42 Farm Poultry

fuller in breast and have shorter necks and legs.

While some of the intermediate, or general-purpose
fowls, as they are sometimes called, are reared
wholly for their flesh, they should not be classi-
fied with the distinctively meat breeds. The latter
fowls produce, under favorable conditions, a good
number of eggs, which, together with their size,
warrants placing them in the intermediate class,
which may be called general-purpose breeds, for
convenience of discussion. Whatever may be said
of those fowls noted for meat production will apply

only in part to the smaller general-purpose fowls,

so far as they enter into competition for meat pro-
duction. As a matter of fact, many of the so-called
general-purpose fowls are reared extensively for
meat production, but they are nevertheless of a
different type from the large, heavy, phlegmatic

breeds, whose greatest usefulness is in the produc-

tion of large, plump bodies, most highly prized for
table use. These meat breeds form a class by them-
selves even when the fowls are considered from
the standpoint of weight only.
Disposition. Without exception, all the noted
meat breeds are slow and more or less sluggish
in movement and are not easily frightened. They
become very tame and gentle with careful treat-
ment and do not show a dislike to handling, as
do some of the smaller and more nervous breeds.
They are not well calculated to seek their own
 Quiet Fowls 43

living, even though a wide range be provided.

They have little desire to roam far from home unless
compelled to do so in search of food. Even then
their slow and, in many cases, awkward move-
ments totally unfit them for foraging for insects
and other foods which nature provides, in com-
petition with more active breeds. Preeminently,
they are fowls which should be fed, rather than
allowed to shift for themselves. As the more active,
nervous Mediterraneans illustrate an ideal fowl for
foraging, clumsy, phlegmatic meat
so the heavy,
breeds represent the opposite extreme, or that of
gentleness and docility.
Easily confined. If only the heavy-bodied fowls
are to be reared on farms where all fowls are to
be kept within enclosures, comparatively low fences
will suffice. When mature, fowls of the heaviest
breeds rarely fly from the ground, and are satisfied
with comparatively low perches. On account of
their gentle dispositions they make most excellent
"lawn fowls," and may be given liberty without
fear of trespassing on the holdings of a near-by

neighbor. In the minds of many, a few fowls on

the back lawn during certain portions of the year
add to the attractiveness of the surroundings and
bring pleasure to the owner, who delights in the
freedom of his birds. This is particularly true if
he is assured that these birds, which, in a sense,
have become pets, are quite certain not to annoy
44 Farm Poultry

either the members of his own household or his

neighbors. There are probably no breeds of fowls
so well suited to have the liberties of a small farm
or lot as these slow-moving Asiatics.
Laying qualities. The laying qualities of these
fowls are considerably below the average, and, as
a rule, are not to be compared with those of the
more active fowls which originated in the countries
bordering on the Mediterranean.
The useful qualities of animals reach the highest
state of development when one quality is developed
at the expense of others. Experience has shown
that it has not been possible to develop in the same
individual or breed two or more useful qualities to
the highest stage of perfection. The two most
highly prized useful qualities in our domesticated
fowls are meat and egg production. When one is
unusually well developed the other is lessened in
value or importance, so that both are never developed
to the greatest extent in one individual. Admirable
illustrations are seen in the development of animals
that are highly prized for the production of meat
or of milk. In no instance has the best milker been
most highly prized for meat production. A similar
condition exists in the poultry world. While the
breeding of fowls solely for egg production, or for
meat production, has reached a high state of per-
fection, yet these two qualities are not brought to
the highest stage of perfection in one individual.
 Deficient as Egg Producers 45

The development of either is largely held to be a

matter of food and constitutional vigor, although
some investigations tend to show some differences
between egg production, a reproductive function,
and other useful qualities that previously had not
been given so careful consideration. This is dis-
cussed more fully in the chapter on breeding.
The relative importance of meat production and
egg production in this country is continually becom-
ing more widely separated as the price of food and
labor advances. The importance of egg production
is steadily advancing faster than that of meat pro-
duction, just as the dairy interests of the country
are becoming of far greater importance than the
beef interests.
This condition has a tendency to cause undue
claims to be made for the meat breeds as to egg
production. Those about to purchase fowls to be
used as foundation stock for a flock should not be
misled by any claims that breeders of meat breeds
may make as to the profitable egg production of
their fowls.
While some breeds or varieties of large fowls,

notably the Light Brahmas, are good winter layers

while young, yet it is not to be inferred from any
records these fowls may have made that they are
equal to some of the Mediterranean breeds as
economical egg-producing machines, when the entire
life of the fowl is taken into consideration. The
46 Farm Poultry

modern poultryman regards his fowls much as a

manufacturer regards his machine, and, in either

case, the machine that will run at its fullest capacity

for the longest period, other things being equal,
will bring to the owner the most profit. While
poultry-keepers may rightly consider their fowls
as machines for the production of meat and eggs,
yet it should be understood that it is not only
desirable,but necessary, that the successful poul-
tryman "regard his flock from a standpoint other
than a purely business one. It is necessary to the
most successful poultry business that the poul-
tryman love his fowls. Unless the live-stock owner
has a love for the animals under his charge, and
which is entirely distinct from the purpose for
which he is breeding them, he is not likely to
study their necessities and comforts.
The distinctive meat breeds include all of the
Asiatics, namely, the Brahmas, Cochins, and Lang-
shans. Of the Brahmas, there are two varieties,
the Light and the Dark. The Cochins are rep-
resented by four varieties, Buff, Partridge, White,
and Black; while the Langshans have but two
varieties, Black and White.
Late maturity. It is well understood that in
the development of animal life large size is not
1

conducive to early maturity. Thus, heavy meat

breeds require a much longer time in which to reach
maturity than do the smaller, more active fowls.
 Late Maturing 47

On thisaccount the chicks are considered somewhat

more This is because they require a much
delicate.

longer time while passing the early and critical periods

of their existence. Little chickens are more delicate
than mature fowls; consequently, the longer the
time required to pass through the juvenile period
the more difficult they are to rear. On the other
hand, the little chicks are well suited to withstand
the hardships of early life if they are kept dry and
clean. The young of some varieties are much better
protected with down and feathers than others.

BRAHMAS

These are frequently called the leading breed

of the Asiatics.Light Brahmas, particularly, have
long been popular with many poultry-keepers
throughout the country. The origin of these fowls

FIG. 9. A flock of Light Brahmas.

48 Farm Poultry

is somewhat obscure. Wright and others think

that they probably have descended from the fowls
of India, while Tegetmeier asserts that this breed
was probably formed in America.
A distinctive feature of the Brahmas is the
comb, which is known as the pea-comb. It is unlike

FIG. 10. Dark Brahma cock (one-eighth size).

either the rose or ttye single comb. The pea-comb

has been described as the union of three single
combs, joined at the front, rear and base, the middle
comb being somewhat larger than the other two.
Each comb should have distinct serrations.
The Brahmas are large fowls, in fact, the
largest variety known is the Light Brahma. The
 Characteristics of Brahmas 49

Light Brahma cock should weigh 12 and the hen

9}/2 pounds. The Dark Brahmas are a pound
lighter. The Brahmas have yellow skin and shanks,
and the outer sides of the shanks are feathered.
Leg-feathering undoubtedly a protection during
is

the severe winter weather, but it is somewhat objec-

Fia. 11. Dark Brahma hen (one-seventh size).

tionable, as the majority of consumers prefer a

clean-legged fowl.
The young birds do not "feather out" so rap-
idly as the young of the Mediterraneans, and con-
sequently are ill-looking while young on account
of their partially naked appearance. Sometimes
50 Farm Poultry

this partial nakedness continues throughout a

considerable period of their growth. Some farmers
object to Brahmas on account of this slow feather-
ing,but this characteristic cannot detract materially
from their usefulness.
When not injured by breeding for fancy points,
as sometimes is done in the production of fowls

for exhibition, the pullets make good winter layers.

For egg production, however, they should not
be kept longer than two years. If the pullets are
early hatched and mature reasonably early, for
Brahmas, they should not be kept longer than one
complete season of usefulness if egg production is

an important essential.
The Dark Brahmas are not considered to be as
good layers as the Light variety, and are quite
as difficult to breed true to color. The Dark Brah-
mas have somewhat feather markings
delicate
which are difficult to produce with that degree of
excellence necessary for exhibition purposes.
The Brahmas are good sitters, in fact sit too
much for general-purpose fowls, and are considered
too heavy to sit on eggs of light-weight fowls.
All Asiatics lay buff-colored eggs. Some of them
are much darker than others. The Brahmas are
"good growers" and make excellent table fowls.
They are fairly hardy and gain rapidly in weight.
The meat is of fair quality, but does not equal
that of the Dorking or Game. The Dark Brahmas
 Cochins Described 51

are not quite so popular as the Light, which is no

doubt due to the superior egg production of the
latter. Brahmas do well in small runs or yards.
When liberally fed, the Brahmas have a tendency
to become too fat for laying and for breeding pur-

poses. Excessive fatness not only causes fewer

eggs, but a larger proportion of infertile ones.

FIG. 12. Buff Cochin cock (one-eighth size).

COCHINS

The Cochins were introduced into England from

China about 1843, when the ports of China were
opened to European traders. The cock is a pound
52 Farm Poultry

lighter than the Light Brahma; the hens have the

same weight. They are distinctively table fowls.
The hens are good sitters, easily handled, and are
slow and awkward in movement. The young are

Fia. 13. Buff Cochin hen (one-seventh size).

fairly hardy after the chickens once get a good

start. They grow fast and furnish a good quantity
of meat, but not of the best quality. They are
considered indifferent layers.These fowls are gentle
and tame, very peaceable, seldom quarrel and stand
confinement well. They do well where others would
not thrive for lack of exercise.
The Buff Cochins are as pure buff as any of
the buff breeds. This variety is the most popular
 Lanqshans Described 53

of the Cochins. The fowls have an abundance

of fluffy feathers which enable them to withstand
severe cold weather. Their shanks are well feathered
on the outer side. The middle and outer toes are
also feathered, while the inner toes are entirely
naked. They havesmall, single, upright combs. They
are much admired by those who delight in large,
gentle, slow-moving fowls.

LANGSHANS

Langshans are natives of Northern China and

were introduced into England more than a quarter
of a century ago. They have not been bred to a

great extent in America until the last few years.

They endure severe weather well, and are said
to be good winter layers. It is also said that the
tendency to incubate is not so great as in the
Cochins. The cock should weigh 9J^ and the hen
7J/2 pounds. The Langshans are the smallest and
most active of the Asiatics, and more nearly approach
the general-purpose fowl than do the other Orientals.
They have white skin and dark shanks, while the
others have yellow skin and yellow shanks. The
quality of the flesh considered excellent, being
is

fine-grained for such large fowls. They are better

foragers than the Cochins and Brahmas. They are
somewhat longer-legged than the Brahmas and
Cochins, and consequently appear taller in proper-
54 Farm Poultry

tion to their size. Their leg feathering is less than

that of the other Asiatics.
Langshans are steadily gaining in popularity,
although they will probably never become so popu-
lar as the general-purpose breeds unless they undergo
a marked modification. They are preferred by
some because they are more active than either the
Brahmas or Cochins.

FIG. 14. Faverolle cock (one-eighth size).

FAVEROLLE

This is a class of cross-bred fowls, not being a

distinct breed, but serving a useful purpose as
 Faverolles 55

meat producers. It has supplanted the Houdan

and other French breeds in some parts of France,
where the production of good-sized young birds
for the Paris market is the chief aim.
The Faverolles were produced by crossing the
following breeds: Cochin, Brahma, Dorking, and

FIG. 15. Faverolle hen (one-sixth size).

Houdan. They and sometimes have

are bearded
a frequently
crest, have five toes, and show white
skin and light-colored shanks. The shanks are
usually feathered unless the Dorking blood pre-
dominates, in which case they are frequently bare.
For early rearing and quick-growing chickens that
produce tender and juicy flesh, the Faverolles
56 Farm Poultry

are highly prized where they are best known. It

is undoubtedly true that the flesh of the mature

birds is somewhat coarse and undesirable. While

these fowls may become a well-established breed
and may be highly prized for the fine quality of
their meat, it is doubtful if they ever will become
popular in America as farm fowls.
 CHAPTER IV

GENERAL-PURPOSE FOWLS

As the name indicates, the general-purpose

breeds include such fowls as profitably be
may
kept on the farm for the production of both meat
and eggs, particularly under the conditions that
require natural incubation. They are adapted to
common and general conditions. It should not
be forgotten that the term "general-purpose" is
relativeand is not intended to express exact con-
ditions. It is impossible to make definite class-
ifications of the various breeds of fowls, as some
breeds the hands
in of poultrymen may
skilled

prove profitable, while in the hands of an unskilled

person they would not compare favorably with many
other breeds that really are less productive when
under the care of those who supply the necessary
> conditions for profitable production. Fowls of all
breeds and varieties lay eggs, and the flesh of
all fowls furnishes good and wholesome food, yet
not all breeds are equally desirable for these
purposes.
Farmers, from the fact that they are somewhat
isolated, require fowls that are noted for utility
(57)
58 Farm Poultry

along more than one line of production. They

look not only for a fairly good egg production, but
also for a body of considerable size that will fur-
nish a good quantity of meat of first-class quality
for table use. Both eggs and meat are of the high-
est importance for the practical farmer, for upon
his poultry he depends to a greater extent than
he himself is aware. The quality of the meat, as
well as its quantity, is to be considered. Not only
does the farmer demand meat when the fowls are
mature, but the meat of fowls of all ages after the
young reach the broiler stage must be of good
quality. It is vitally important, also, that the fowls

produce the greatest quantity and best quality of

meat from the food consumed; for some fowls eat
much and produce relatively little. Good layers
also are required, especially during the winter
months. Steady winter layers are demanded by
the farmer quite as much as by the poultryman
whose business it is to produce eggs for the market.
Most farmers do not expect to consume all the
product of the poultry-yard at home. If eggs are
produced in good numbers during the cold weather,
a high price is usually realized for them. A greater
price is realized from winter eggs than from those
produced during the spring and summer months
when fowls lay most abundantly. It is also desired
" 7
that the farm hen should become broody/ incubate
and prove a good mother for her young. Many
 Characteristics of General-purpose Fowls 59

farmers do not feel that they can afford to be bur-

dened with the extra care and study which the
successful operation of the modern incubator would
incur. They therefore depend upon the natural
instincts of the fowls to provide incubators and
brooders. Some of the more noted characteristics
of the general-purpose fowls are discussed in the
following paragraphs.
Size. These fowls are usually of medium size;
that is, they rarely represent either extreme, although
the largest breed the Light Brahmas may, under
exceptionally favorable conditions, prove to be
fairlygood farm fowls. The general-purpose fowls,
as a rule, have blocky, compact bodies, which is
one of the requisites for meat production. They
are rarely long-legged. They are most economical
feeders; that is, they make a good growth for the
food consumed.
Disposition. Gentleness is one of the charac-
teristics of these breeds. The fowls are not easily
frightened, and are more easily confined than the
breeds which are noted for egg production alone.
They rarely attempt to use their wings in order
to escape from inclosures of medium height. While
they may become wild and easily frightened by
improper management, yet with proper care they
become quite as docile and tame as is consistent
with ease of management and profit. They occupy
a medium position between the Mediterraneans
60 Farm Poultry

and the Asiatics as regards size, egg production,

and docility.
Early maturity. These fowls are hardy, grow
quickly and pass through the delicate stages of
early life rapidly. They closely resemble the most
hardy of the noted egg breeds in this respect. They
are considered to be hardy at all stages, which is an

important point for,farm poultry. The many cares

of busy farm life during the growing seasons of the
year sometimes prevent giving the fowls the close
attention which the more delicate breeds require in
order that they may be brought safely to a stronger
stage of development. Hardiness at stages of
all

development is, therefore, an important character-

isticof farm poultry. Early maturity produces
early-laying pullets. The so-called general-purpose
breeds mature early and frequently produce pullets
that will lay at five months of age. Early-hatched
pullets, as a rule, will lay at an earlier age than
those hatched later in the season. The early-hatched
fowls generally grow most rapidly and reach matu-
rity in the shortest time. Early-hatched fowls are
usually preferred for breeding as well as for utility.
Good sitters and good brooders. While these
fowls are not so persistent sitters as the Asiatics,
yet they may be depended upon for natural incu-
bation, particularly if the hens are kept until they
are two or three years old. They make excel-
lent mothers, as they care for their young excel-
 Useful Qualities 61

lently and have a great abundance of fluffy feath-

ers, which enable them to do their brooding well.
They are probably somewhat better sitters and
brooders than the extremely heavy fowls. Fewer
eggs are likely to be broken by these careful birds
than by the larger and more clumsy kind.
Good foragers. These fowls are good foragers,
considering their size. While they are not inclined
to roam so far as some of the lighter and more
active breeds, yet they are well calculated to seek
their own living when an opportunity is afforded
them. The young fowls will roam a considerable
distance for insects and green food, and in this
respect they occupy a medium position between
the active, nervous breeds and the heavy Asiatics,
approaching more nearly the former than the latter.
Endure cold weather well. The compact body
and medium-sized combs and wattles enable the
general-pupose fowls to withstand the severe weather
of the winters. While a frosted comb may occasion-

ally result, yet they are not nearly so liable to

injuryby freezing as are the more noted egg breeds.
They have a somewhat thicker coat of feathers and
more than the Mediterraneans. The thick
fluff

coat of feathers gives them a much better protection

than a thin one, for the reason that the air space
inclosed by a thick coat is considerably greater
than that inclosed by a thin one. While they do not
equal the Asiatics in this respect, yet they are sum-
62 Farm Poultry

ciently protected to withstand the rigors of the

northern winters.

PLYMOUTH ROCKS

For half a century these fowls have been steadily

gaining in favor until they now occupy the highest
position as to popularity. Probably no other breed
has ever been so widely distributed and so numer-
ously bred under such varying conditions as the
Plymouth Rocks. They seem to have remarkable
powers of adapting themselves to the conditions
under which they are placed.
It has been said of them by an eminent poultry
"
authority that Where any fowl will thrive this
breed will do well.' The fact that these fowls are
7

so numerously bred on the farms of this country,

where usefulness is the important consideration,
is perhaps the highest testimonial that any breed

of fowls can have.

There has been, and still continues, an effort
on the part of poultry fanciers to create a large
number of varieties. This breed, like many others,
shows the result of this work. While the older va-
rieties are not necessarily injured through the for-
mation of new ones, yet one must lament the fact
that so much effort has been bestowed on a useful
breed to simply please the eye, without any marked
improvement along the lines for which these fowls
 Plymouth Rocks 63

are maintained. The fact that comparatively

easy tasks are more likely to be accomplished than
are very difficult ones may possibly explain why
the easier task of creating a new variety has become
more popular than the more difficult one of improv-
ing the useful qualities of a well-established breed.
The recognized varieties of this breed are the
following:
Barred Silver-penciled
White Partridge
Buff Columbian

All varietieshave the same weight cock 9J/,

hen 7J^, cockerel 8, and pullet 6 pounds.

BARRED PLYMOUTH ROCKS

This probably originated in Massa-

variety
chusetts about the middle of the last century.
It is said to have sprung from the cross of a Domi-

nique cock and a Black Java hen. The Barred

Plymouth Rocks combine largely the qualities of
both these breeds. They more nearly approach
the Java in size, but retain many of the good qual-
ities of the Dominique. While they do not have
the color of either parent, yet they more nearly
approach that of the Dominique. These fowls
approach the Asiatics in size, the Leghorns in egg
production, and constitute one of the most useful
varieties. They also produce flesh of an excellent
64 Farm Poultry

quality. It is maintained by some breeders of Ply-

mouth Rocks that the quality of the flesh approaches
that of the Dorking. They are blocky fowls, have large,
full, plump, well-proportioned bodies, yellow shanks
and skin. The flesh is of good texture and flavor.

They are early maturing, considering their size,

FIG. 16. Barred Plymouth Rock cockerel.

are good layers, hardy both as little chicks and

mature fowls. They are excellent mothers, kind
and persistent sitters. The laying capacity is con-
siderably above the average of fowls. Authentic
records are reported of more than two hundred and
thirty eggs per year from single birds. The pullets
 Plymouth Rocks Popular 65

make excellent winter layers, but for greatest egg

production in the wintertime fowls should not be
kept longer than two years. They are easily kept
in confinement and are adapted to nearly all cli-
mates. Probably no breed better combines these
two qualities egg production and the yielding
of a large amount of good meat for the table. This

FIG. 17. Barred Plymouth Rock hen (one-seventh size).

variety, more than any other, has won for this breed
its remarkable popularity.

WHITE PLYMOUTH ROCKS

In a general way, what has been said of the

Barred Plymouth Rocks will apply to all varieties
of this breed, although the newer varieties are not
66 Farm Poultry

quite so well fixed in their distinguishing characters

as the Barred. It is asserted that the White Ply-
mouth Rocks originated as an off-shoot from the
Barred Plymouth Rocks early in the history of
the latter.* The Plymouth Rock form predominates
in all varieties, and the solid colors have the advan-
tage of the Barred in mating, as often, with the
Barred, the best formed fowl will be objectionable
on account of some imperfection in color, so that
it must be discarded from the breeding-pen if charac-

teristic colors are desired.

The White variety is preferred by poultrymen
who rear young fowls for market. White fowls
present a better appearance when dressed than
colored ones do, particularly if the fowls are not
in the most perfect condition. Immature fowls
of all breeds and have more or less unde-
varieties

veloped feathers, the removal of which, in colored

varieties, leaves a discoloration beneath the skin.
On this account, young birds of a white variety
that are dressed for the market present a better
appearance than equally good birds of a colored
As long as attractive appearance is a desired
variety.
quality in dressed fowls, white varieties will be
preferred.
BUFF PLYMOUTH HOCKS

The Buff variety of this breed is more recent

of

origin than those already described. It, however, came

*"Barred and White Plymouth Rocks," by Wallace.
 Plymouth Rock Varieties 67

at once into favor with a large number of poultry-

men who may be regarded, to some extent at least,
as poultry fanciers, and also with others who have
a decided liking for fowls of this color. The advocates

FIG. 18. Buff Plymouth Rock cockerel (one-seventh size).

of this variety maintain that the useful qualities

measure favorably with the older and better known
varieties.

OTHER VARIETIES

These are of still more recent origin, and as yet

have not been given an opportunity to prove their
68 Farm Poultry

value under the great variety of conditions as

have those of the Barred variety that won for the
Plymouth Rocks their -remarkable reputation.
Each of the varieties hasmedium-sized single
combs. In size, the combs and wattles occupy
a medium position between the Cochins and the
Mediterraneans. The eggs of each variety are
buff in color, but vary considerably in shade.

WYANDOTTES

The Wyandottes are not so old as the Plymouth

Rocks. When introduced, they came at once
first

into popular favor, and are now crowding the Ply-

mouth Rocks for supremacy as the most popular
general-purpose fowl. They are purely of American
Origin. They were recognized as a distinct breed
by the American Poultry Association in 1883, and
at that time were given a new name, which they
now bear.
Previous to that time they were known and sold
as American Sebrights, Excelsiors, Ambrights, etc.
They are a little smaller than the Plymouth Rocks,
the cock weighing 8J^, hen cockerel 7J^, pullet
6^,
5^/2 pounds. They have yellow skin and shanks,
with the exception of the black variety, which has
black shanks shading into yellow, and the bottom
of the feet are yellow. As producers of broilers to

weigh two pounds apiece they are highly esteemed.

 Wyandottes 69

The hens are excellent sitters and make good mothers.

In this respect they closely resemble the Plymouth
Rocks. The Wyandottes have a neat and trim
appearance, are good sized, produce excellent flesh,
and have a gentle disposition. They are generally
called handsome fowls. In appearance, they are

v^ 1

Fia. 19. A pair of White Wyandottes, young (one-eighth size).

somewhat neater than the Plymouth Rocks. In ful-

filling the demands of the farmer for the econom-
ical production of both eggs and meat the Wyan-
dottes are not wanting. Joseph Wallace says,
"It should not be claimed that the Wyandottes,
in quality and quantity of breast meat, equal the

Dorking, Houdan or Game." Neither do they

equal the Leghorns or the Minorcas in egg produc-
70 Farm Poultry

tion, yet they are excellent general-purpose fowls.

They are called good layers and bear confinement
well.They are hardy, both as mature fowls and
when young. They have a low rose comb, which
makes them well suited to a cold country. They
are well feathered and attractive in appearance.
The object of the originators of this breed was
to obtain a
compact, blocky, clean-legged fowl
of good one particularly deep in the breast,
size,
that should produce a good number of eggs. The
results fully meet these various requirements. The
flesh is of a superior quality, being tender and juicy.
The proportion of bone to the total weight of dressed
fowl comparatively small. In general outline as
is

compared to the Plymouth Rocks they are smoother

and more compact, they have shorter backs and
have deep round bodies. They are often spoken
of as the fowl of curves. Their low and close-fitting
comb that conforms pretty well to the outline of
the skull adds even more to their smooth and rounded
appearance.
There are eight recognized varieties of this breed:

Silver Buff Partridge

Golden Black Silver-penciled
White Columbian

ORPINGTONS

This breed is said to have originated in the

hands of William Cook, of Orpington, England;

 Orpingtons 71

hence the name. They have come into popular favor

both in England and America. They are said to
be the most popular fowls in England. Since their
introduction here many breeders have become very
enthusiastic over them. It is significant that those
who are loudest in their praise are those who
have bred them longest and understand them
besti The Orpingtons are particularly prized by

FIG. 20. Buff Orpingtons.

those who desire a white-skinned fowl for table

use. This feature has, without doubt, aided mate-
rially in making them popular in England, where
the white skin is prized, as the yellow skin is prized
in this country. There is, however, an increasing

appreciation of white-skinned fowls in America.

The idea that yellow color indicates greater richness
is becoming less general, particularly with those
who are most fastidious in their tastes,
72 Farm Poultry

There are ten or more varieties of this breed

recognized in England but only three have been
recognized by the American Poultry Association,
the White, Buff, and Black, all solid colors. It is
claimed that no one variety is superior to the others
as to usefulness. Breeders claim that Orpingtons
are profitable egg producers. The cock should
weigh 10, and the hen 8 pounds. They are particu-
larly prized for quantity and quality of their flesh.
The^ White is
perhaps the most popular of any of
the varieties. They are easier to breed to feather,
being pure white throughout. However, each va-
riety hasmany ardent admirers. All varieties are,
without doubt, most useful farm fowls.

JAVA

Javas are one of the valuable, useful breeds

of this country. They are said to have originated
in Missouri near the middle of the last century,
about the time the Plymouth Rocks originated, per-
haps a little earlier. It is asserted that they have
been bred pure longer than any of the recently
formed breeds. Javas are noted for their good size,
being the same size as the Plymouth Rocks, and
are quick maturing. They are of two varieties,,
the Black and the Mottled. It is said that, when
cooked, the meat of the Black variety does not pre-
sent the objectionable dark color of some other black
 Dominiques 73

breeds. They are good layers, perfectly hardy, and

are easily reared, endure confinement well, and are
easily kept in inclosures. It is said that the fowls
breed quite as true as any of the breeds of this class.

They are good winter layers, and the chicks make

good an early age. They are not raised
broilers at
so extensively as some other breeds of this class.
They are becoming more popular, yet in this respect
are still far behind the Plymouth Rocks and the
Wyandottes. The Black variety has been the most
popular. This variety is rich black throughout,
with a metallic luster. They have single combs,
their shanks and toes are free from feathers but are

nearly black in color. The Javas may be recom-

mended as useful farm fowls. The cock should weigh
9J/2 and the hen 7% pounds.

DOMINIQUE

Dominiques are smaller than the Wyandottes,

and are compact and hardy. This is one of the
oldest American breeds. The origin is obscure.
The general color is a grayish white, with yellow
shanks, somewhat like the Plymouth Rocks, yet
the fowls are lighter in color. For a time they were
unpopular, but are now
receiving attention and are
apparently coming into favor. They endure con-
finement well. It is said of them that they change
little by in-and-in-breeding. It is also asserted
74 Farm Poultry

that they suffer comparatively little from unclean-

liness. They have rose-combs, and endure cold
weather well. They are excellent table fowls, good

mothers, good foragers, mature early, and are a

most useful farm breed. There is but one recog-
nized variety, the Rose-comb. The cock should
weigh 7, and the hen 5 pounds

DORKING
?

The Dorking is preeminently an English breed.

The fowls approach the ideal for general purposes.

FIG. 21. Colored Dorking hen, English (one-eighth size).

They are fairly hardykept dry, although some-

if

what delicate subjected to dampness, particu-

if

larly in cold weather. This is, without doubt, one

 Dorkings 75

of the oldest of domesticated breeds. It is said

by some authorities that the fowls were taken to
England by the Romans. They are low, heavy-
bodied fowls, with single combs. A distinguishing

FIG. 22. Flock of Dorkings, Acle, England.

mark of the Dorking is the fifth toe. They are good

layers, persistent and careful sitters and good
mothers. They are excellent farm fowls, especially
prized for the table. Their flesh is light-colored
76 Farm Poultry

and of fine texture. Some even hold that the flesh

of the Dorking is Game.
superior to that of the
American breeders prize the Dorkings highly for
quality of flesh, and also for the small proportion
of bone. They are especially noted for a broad,
deep breast, and the breast meat is distinctly fine in
quality. They fatten easily, and stand confinement
fairly well, although a wide range in dry weather suits
them best. It is said that the hens remain longer
with the chickens than do the hens of most breeds.
The fifth toe is objected to by some breeders.
It is at least a superfluous organ so far as useful-
ness is concerned. It is, however, one of the promi-
nent characteristics of the Dorking. Some Eng-
lish writers, notably Wright, assert that those
varieties of fowls which have five toes are more
afflicted with bruised feet "Bumblefoot" than
are other varieties.

HOUDAN

The Houdan without doubt the most popular

is

of French varieties that are bred in the United

States. The other French breeds are the Creve-
coeur, and the La Fleche. The Houdans rank
among the useful fowls and are noted for the pro-
duction of a goodly number of eggs, and, at the
same time, furnish a moderate quantity of fine
flesh. The cock should weigh 7J/ and the hen 6J/2
pounds. Wright says of them: "Better table fowls
 Cornish Games 77

are none, the laying powers are great, the chickens

fledge and grow faster than almost any breed, and
the eggs are invariably prolific."
The Houdans are crested, bearded, and have
the characteristic fifth toe. Notwithstanding these
objectionable characteristics, they are reared to
some extent for their useful qualities, but are not
nearly so popular as the Plymouth Rocks and
Wyandottes.

FIG. 23. Dark Cornish Game cock (one-ninth size).

CORNISH GAME

These are hardy and most excellent table fowls.

They are considered profitable general-purpose fowls;
78 Farm Poultry

are fairly good layers, mature rapidly and are

unexcelled for quality of flesh. The hens are good
sitters and excellent mothers. All Games are close-
feathered and muscular, which gives them a firm
and compact feeling to the touch. They weigh

FIG. 24. Dark Cornish Game hen (one-:ixth size).

very heavily for their apparent size. The thighs

of games are well developed and appear prominent.
The Cornish Games are represented by three
varieties, the Dark, White, and White-laced Red.
The Dark and the White are best known and are
most highly prized as useful fowls. They should
weigh, cock 9 and the hen 7 pounds. The White-
 Rhode Island Reds 79

laced Red is a pound lighter. For general farm use

they are not so desirable as most of the other breeds
discussed in this class.
They are considerably more pugnacious than
the other breeds mentioned in this chapter and
in certain localities are highly prized on this account.
It is said that they suffer less from attacks of hawks
than most other breeds.
The Games of this class are sometimes used to
cross on other fowls for the purpose of infusing
vigor and of improving the quality of the flesh.

RHODE ISLAND REDS

These fowls are of American origin and are

generallyrecognized as a new
breed, although
they have been bred in Rhode
Island for many
years. They are there bred numerously and are
recognized as practical, useful fowls that are well
adapted to the conditions under which farm fowls
are usually kept. The American Poultry Associ-
ation recognizes two varieties, the Single- and
the Rose-comb. The cock weighs 8^ and the hen
6J/2pounds, the same weight as the Wyandottes.
This breed has* undoubtedly been developed by
men who thoroughly appreciate utility, and they
claim for these fowls all the essentials of a general-
purpose fowl. Some remarkable egg records have
been made, yet it has not been shown that they
80 Farm Poultry

have the remarkable powers of adaptability accred-

ited the Plymouth Rocks.
Breeders assert that they mature earlier than
the Plymouth Rocks and in a general way occupy
a position between these fowls and the Leghorns.
It is claimed that they yield from the live weight a

large proportion of dressed meat. The color of

these fowls is designated as red and should be
rich anc} brilliant; a little black is desired in some

places, notably the tail. A

lustrous red, which is
quite distinct from the buff ofother breeds, is
characteristic of these fowls. Where they are well
known they are highly prized as farm fowls.

FIG. 25. Rhode Island Reds.

 CHAPTER V
FANCY BREEDS

WHILE the breeds discussed in this arbitrary

class are more or less useful, yet they are less adapt-
able as farm fowls than those mentioned as egg or
general-purpose breeds. Fowls of these breeds will
undoubtedly lay a good number of eggs under
favorable circumstances, and will produce flesh that
is excellent for food, yet they are all less important

for the furnishing of the useful products than are the

varieties mentioned in previous chapters. This
class of fancy breeds includes great variety as to
size,form and color. Some of the breeds, in the
hands of skilful poultrymen, would prove quite
satisfactory as general-purpose fowls, yet, in the
hands of the farmer, under ordinary farm conditions,
they are of minor value.
Nearly all may be greatly improved
kinds of fowls
by skilfulbreeding and management, and undoubt-
edly these so-called fancy breeds could be improved
as to useful qualities if given food and management
conducive to that end. If one desires to attempt
improvement for useful purposes it will be best to
select fowls of one of the more useful breeds, as the

F (81)
82 Farm Poultry

stock on which to work. There are so many useful

breeds, that, beyond doubt, are susceptible of still
further improvement that it would seem injudicious
to start with some of the least useful. The same
skill and care transferred to other breedswill give
much greater returns in useful products than can be
secured from these breeds whose energies have
been expended in developing a variety of charac-
teristics that are highly prized for exhibition
purp6ses but have little value toward the pro-
duction of eggs and meat.

POLISH

It is generally conceded that the name Polish,

or Poland, has no connection with the country of
that name. Charles Darwin says that probably the
name was given on account of their elevated crest
or poll just back of the nostrils on the top of the
head, where there is an elevation in the bony struc-
ture. These fowls have been bred for many years.
It is said thatthey have a known history extending
as far back as the sixteenth century. They were
introduced into England about 1835. They are gen-
erally considered handsome fowls, but are not noted
for hardiness. They certainly cannot hold their own
in a promiscuous flock. When bred in small flocks
and given extra care they are said to pay very well.
They are only fair layers of small white eggs. They
 Polish Fowls 83

cannot withstand wet weather well, and require

extra care in time of snow or rain.
The very large crests, which obstruct their sight
to some extent, make them a somewhat easy prey to
hawks in localities where these enemies are numerous.
In stormy weather the crests are liable to become wet
and to cause inconvenience to the fowls, as well as to
make them more liable to take cold. On account of
their delicacy, small size, and moderate egg pro-

duction, they are designated a fancy breed.

They endure confinement quite well if kept in dry
and clean houses and yards. Their flesh is esteemed
for its fine quality. If one desires a few handsome
fowls, and is willing to give them extra care, they
will probably prove satisfactory, but they are not
practical for the poultry-keeper who desires to
realize the largest profit from the production of eggs
or meat.
Both sexes have and handsome crests. The
large
comb of Polish fowlspeculiar in form and differs
is

materially from the combs of the breeds previously

described. It is V-shaped or branched in form, and
is often nearly, or quite, hidden by the crest.
The American Poultry Association recognizes
eight varieties of Polish fowls, namely:

Bearded Golden Non-bearded Golden

Bearded Silver Non-bearded Silver
Bearded White Non-bearded White
Buff-laced White-crested Black
84 Farm Poultry

The shanks of all varieties are of a slate or bluish

color and the skin is white. Probably the Silver,
Golden, and White-crested Black are the most
popular varieties.
GAME

The varieties of Games are especially noted for

the production of flesh of fine quality. Some varieties
are sometimes recommended as farm fowls, but on
account of their pugnacious disposition and their
deficiency in egg production it is extremely doubtful
whether they will prove as useful as the breeds dis-
cussed under the head of general-purpose fowls
(Chapter IV).
They are among the most popular of exhibition
or fancy fowls. The classes of these fowls are usually
well filled at the large poultry shows and fairs. They
are called good sitters and good mothers, traits which,
in general, are common to all Games. There are

eight recognized varieties of the Exhibition Games,

and of these the Black-breasted Red and the Brown-
Red are probably the most popular.

SILKY

The Silkies are not bred to any extent in this

country, although in England they are in consider-
able favor. Their great peculiarity is that their
feathers are not webbed, and when in good condition
 Silkies, Sultans and Frizzles 85

present a fluffy, loose appearance. Standing well

out from the body in all directions, the plumage
causes them to appear much heavier than they
really are. They are compactly built birds, and are
reared chiefly for their odd appearance, and for
hatching the eggs of other breeds. They are said
to make good mothers for tender little chickens on
account of their light weight and soft, downy feathers.
They have irregular rose combs of a dark color. The
comb and face present a dark, purplish appearance,
in marked contrast to other varieties of fowls.

SULTAN

Sultans were taken into England from Turkey

about 1850. They were not brought to America
until many years later. On account of their crest
they somewhat resemble the Polish, particularly the
Bearded Polish. Their shanks and toes are heavily
feathered. They are reared chiefly for their peculiar
appearance. No particular claim is made as to use-
fulness. They thrive well in small inclosures, and are
gentle and readily become pets.

FRIZZLE

Frizzles are peculiar fowls, and are reared wholly

for their unique appearance, their feathers curving

upward and backward at the ends. The curve is

86 Farm Poultry

most pronounced in the hackle feathers and feathers

of the back. Any color is
recognized. Single combs
are preferred. The is that
chief requisite of Frizzles
the feathers turn upward and toward the head. On
account of this peculiarity of the feathers, they
do not well withstand unfavorable weather. They
should not be classed among the most useful breeds.
They are not bred extensively. Without doubt
they might be made more useful than they now are
should skilful breeders give them some attention.
However, the fact that they are not prepared to
withstand the hardships that more useful breeds
endure will tend to prevent them from becoming
other than fancy fowls.

BANTAM

The Bantams are purely fancy or ornamental

breeds. There are many varieties. While some
breeders maintain that they can be profitably kept
for eggs and for the table, yet on account of their
diminutive size they cannot compete with the larger
breeds. As ponies represent the children's horse
and are in a way ornamental, so do the Bantams

occupy a similar position among fowls. They are

often reared as children's pets and undoubtedly
afford a great deal of pleasure for both young and
old. Among the most common and popular varieties
of Bantams may be mentioned the Black, White,
 Bantams 87

Buff, and Partridge Cochin; Dark and Light

Brahma; Golden and Silver Sebright; Bearded
White and Buff-faced Polish; Black-tailed, White
and Black Japanese, and many varieties of Games.
Probably the Golden and the Silver Sebright and
the Buff Cochin are quite as popular as any.
For exhibition purposes the plumage and form
of these miniature representatives correspond closely
to the varieties of larger fowls. Small size is preferred.
There seems to be a marked tendency on the part
of some varieties of Bantams to revert to the larger
fowls from which they were derived.
 CHAPTER VI

BUILDINGS FOR FOWLS: LOCATION PLANS AND

CONSTRUCTION

THE convenience of location both as to the

situation and arrangement of buildings is a most
potent factor bearing on the financial success of
the business. Poultrymen who aim to make a com-
mercial enterprise of poultry-keeping consider
proximity to market and shipping facilities before
taking up the many minor details.
The larger questions that affect the whole enter-
prise should receive attention first, as a serious
mistake in locating may turn into failure what
otherwise would have been a success.
The location of poultry houses is often thought
to be of minor importance when compared with
the location of other farm buildings. This may be
true when but few fowls are to be kept for the sole
purpose of supplying the home table, but the profit
derived from keeping these few fowls is frequently
very much less than it would be if the same care
and thought were given them that is devoted to
other farm stock. The greatest success requires
thought and judgment in all operations.
(88)
 Thorough Drainage Necessary 89

LOCATION OF BUILDINGS

In selecting a site for poultry houses and yards,

three important points should be constantly borne
in mind: (1) health of the fowls, (2) convenience
of the attendant, and (3) liability to vermin and
other poultry enemies.
Health of the fowls. As cleanliness and freedom
from moisture are two highly essential conditions
of successful poultry-keeping, the natural sur-

roundings which strongly influence them should

receive first consideration. A
dry, porous soil not
only insures a suitable yard or run, whenever the
weather is favorable for the fowls to take out-of-
door but also controls to some extent the
exercise,
amount of moisture in the buildings. If the highest
degree of success is to be attained, cleanliness and
freedom from moisture must be secured. Partial
success or entire failure undoubtedly more fre-
is

quently due to filthy houses and yards, together

with dampness, than to any other causes. Particu-
larly is this true with those whose chief interests
lie in other directions, and who,
consequently,
more or less neglect their smaller poultry interests
during certain portions of the year. If it is desired
to keep poultry on heavy or wet soils, the land
should be thoroughly underdrained. The removal
of the surplus water from the yards or runs very
much lessens the labor of keeping them clean, par-
90 Farm Poultry

ticularly during the growing season. During the

summer months a yard or run of loose sand or
gravelly soil will require comparatively little labor
to keep it clean, while a similar one on a heavy
and impervious clay will demand continual atten-
tion, and even this will not always suffice to keep
the yards in a satisfactory condition. A heavy soil
not only retains nearly all of the droppings on the
surface, but by retarding the percolation in times
of frequent rains soon gives a coating of filth. This
is particularly true of those parts of the yard most
frequented by the fowls.
A slightly raised elevation is to be preferred,

particularly if the ground slopes gently on all sides

from the building. This good surface

will insure

drainage -in times of heavy showers and whenever

the ground is frozen. While a somewhat light or
porous soil that is naturally well underdrained
is to be preferred, it should not be inferred that

success may not be attained on somewhat heavier

soils if they are thoroughly underdrained. Any
good potato soil that is naturally well drained will

not be objectionable on account of excessive moisture.

Another important consideration is the admis-
sion to the houses and yards of abundant sunshine.
Fowls, like other classes of live stock, do not thrive
so well when deprived of sunshine. This is particu-
larly true of laying fowls during the cold winter
months. The houses, yards or runs should be so
 Light and Sunshine Desirable 91

planned, if possible, as to give them a southern or

southeastern exposure (Figs. 26, 27). Many build-
ings for domesticated animals are so constructed
that they do not admit sufficient light and air for
the best health of the occupants. It has been found
by experience that animals have a somewhat whiter

FIG. 26. A poultry house Massachusetts Agricultural College.

skin and present a somewhat more delicate appear-

ance when deprived of direct sunlight than when
they are permitted to bask in the sunshine at will.
This is frequently noticed in dairy cows, in which
a yellow skin is so highly prized.
Poultrymen turn to good advantage all the
sunshine they can secure in the winter time in
order to maintain a high standard of vigor and to
92 Farm Poultry

stimulate egg production. It is an advantage to

have the yard on the south side of the house, in
order that the fowls may have the benefit of the
firstdry ground in the early spring. It frequently
occurs in localities where snow is more or less abun-
dant that the ground on the south side of the build-
ing will be dry many days before that on the north

CRUSHLD f~
SHELLS I

NESTS UNDER BOARDS

PCRCHCS 4
i
FIG. 27. Ground plan of poultry house Massachusetts Agricultural College.

side is entirely free from frost and dampness. The

relative location of the house and yard is, therefore,
of sufficient importance to demand one's best thought
and care in planning.
The poultry business, if prop-
Convenience.
erlyconducted, necessitates close attention to
many details, each one, perhaps, somewhat insig-
nificant in itself, yet of so much importance
 Convenience Important 93

when considered in the aggregate that success or

failure may depend on its performance or neglect.
In a general way, the labor is not considered heavy
or burdensome, but constant vigilance and atten-
tion are necessary. The mere fact that there are
many small details requiring attention demands
that convenient houses and yards be built, since
a little inconvenience each day, or perhaps several

times a day, will, in time, create an unnecessary

expense of considerable magnitude. Economy of
labor requires convenience of appliances, and
nowhere is this better illustrated than in the poul-
try business. It should also be borne in mind that
whenever labor may be performed conveniently
it is less likely to be neglected than when it is per-
formed with While one should not enter
difficulty.
into the poultry business with the thought of neglect-
ing any of its details, or to plan for any but thorough
work, knowing the shortcomings of human
yet,
operations and tendencies, one will fail to make the
most of his opportunities if he does not consider
the inclinations of those who are expected to per-
form the work. To do the work thoroughly will

require a little attention several times a day. The

fowls must be fed and watered, houses must be kept
clean and other attentions given. In nearly all
kinds of agricultural work the labor account is one
of the greatest items of expense in conducting the
business.
94 Farm Poultry

-*.-
*

2 Rods
33'

-House. <340 House.

FIG. 28. A good plan for poultry houses and yards. Each house will accom-
modate from 80 to 100 fowls. The yards are planted with fruit trees.

A convenient arrangement of houses is illustrated

in Fig. 28. The attendant may go from one house
to another, passing through each pen without going
through yards, which would necessitate opening
and closing gates.should be observed that each
It
house is
provided with two doors, in order that
the poultryman may enter one and pass out at the
other in less time than would be required if but
 Guard against Enemies 95

one door were provided. This arrangement, how-

ever, may not be found to be applicable on many
farms, particularly where but one small house
is needed.
Vermin, etc. Rats and mice often become seri-
ous pests in poultry houses, particularly if grain
is kept in these buildings. For the same reason, it
is generally best to locate the poultry houses some
distance from other farm buildings, particularly
from those in which grain is stored. Every farmer
well knows how difficult it is to store grain for any
considerable length of time and keep it entirely
free from these pests. While convenience of access
is of prime importance, yet often it is best to make a
slight sacrifice of labor in order to secure the great-
est freedom from rats and mice. Isolated build-
ings will probably give the greatest satisfaction in
the end. Mice will probably not be troublesome
in poultry houses unless grain is stored in these

buildings, but rats are likely to give more or less

trouble, particularly in brooder houses and in pens
or yards frequented by young chickens.
In some localities, crows, hawks, skunks and other
poultry enemies give some trouble, and one must
plan to meet these annoyances according to his
best judgment. It may be necessary in some cases
to cover entirely small yards in which young chick-
ens are kept, with netting, in order to protect them
properly from hawks and crows. A
covered run for
96 Farm Poultry

little chickens is described in the chapter on feeding.

Skunks may be excluded by proper fencing.
Wherever vermin are numerous enough to give seri-
ous annoyance, all possible ingenuity should be exer-
cised to exclude them before resorting to destruc-
tion poison. While poison may sometimes be
by
safely used, the danger of poisoning the fowls and
other domestic animals is so great that one is not
warranted in using it except as a last resort.

CONSTRUCTION OF HOUSES

In designing poultry houses, the form is neces-

sarily one of the first points to be determined.
While the design is under consideration, the essen-
tials of a farm poultry house should be continually

kept in mind. The chief essentials may be enu-

merated as warmth, dryness, light and cheapness.
In order to assure proper lighting, it is often found
necessary to deviate somewhat from the form that
would give the greatest warmth for the least cost.
In all poultry houses in which fowls are confined
during the cold winter months, some provision
should be made to admit sunlight on the floor, where
the fowls may congregate. In order to accomplish
this to the best advantage, it is necessary to have a
considerable frontage toward the south or southeast.
During December, January and February it is

most difficult, yet most essential, to have the direct

 Forms of Houses 97

sunlight. Square or octagon houses inclose % the

most space for the money expended, and also give
opportunity for warm houses which may be con-

FIG. 29. A double house Pennsylvania State College

can:

FIG. 30. Ground plan of double house Pennsylvania State College.

structed cheaply, but in order to secure sunlight

it is necessary to build the house considerably longer

than wide. For economy, it is also desirable to build

a house longer than is necessary for one pen or

flock of fowls. A long and comparatively narrow

98 Farm Poultry

house, with light partitions constructed largely of

netting, may be erected for considerably less expense
than two or more separate houses having the same
capacity. That is, it is much cheaper to construct
a partition across a narrow poultry house than to
construct two end walls. Then, too, adjoining
poultry pens, connected by an easy swinging door,

FIG. 31. Poultry houses West Virginia Agricultural Experiment Station.

are more convenient for the attendant than two

separate houses. The arrangement of having two
or more pens in one building is of the utmost im-
portance where warm houses must be provided to
guard against frosted combs and wattles. (See
Figs. 29 and 30.)
In constructing poultry houses, the material
 Selection of Material 99

to be used and the manner

of building will depend

largely upon the material at hand. In one locality

certain materials may be comparatively cheap, while
same articles may be relatively
in other localities the
more expensive than other material equally suitable
for the purpose. In selecting material, it should
be borne in mind that the building is to provide a

FIG. 32. Poultry houses and yards Massachusetts Agricultural College.

warm, dry, well- ventilated, well-lighted home for

the fowls. If these requirements are satisfactorily
complied with, it will be necessary to provide roof
and side walls that are impervious to moisture and

relatively poor conductors of heat. Suitable arrange-

ments and lighting the building must
for ventilating
be provided, and some provision should be made
100 Farm Poultry

to exclude the moisture from beneath, particularly

if the soil is damp.
Size of building. The
the building
size of

required will depend largely upon the number of

fowls to be kept. While fowls of some breeds re-
quire more room than the same number of indi-
viduals of other breeds, yet the number is of more
importance than the breed in determining the size
of the building. The noted egg breeds are much
more active than the heavier, slow-moving breeds,
and therefore require quite as much room, although
in weight they are far inferior.
The climate will determine to a considerable
extent the size of the buildings. If the climate
is so mild that it is not necessary to keep the fowls

confined within doors much of the time, smaller

houses will suffice than in colder latitudes where
the fowls are kept in the house for weeks at a time.
In the latitude of New York City and farther north,
where fowls are expected to be kept within doors a
considerable portion of the year, five square feet of
floor space per fowl will suffice for most breeds, and
it willbe none too much for best results. This may
be taken as a general rule when the house is to be
kept in good condition as regards cleanliness and
ventilation. If the houses are to be more or less
neglected, considerably more space should be
provided.
It is somewhat more difficult to give a good
102 Farm Poultry

working rule as regards air-space or cubical con-

tents of the building. Under good average con-
ditions, six or eight cubic feet per
pound of live weight
will perhaps be quite satisfactory. The amount of
air-space, of course, will depend upon the ventila-
tion, and also upon the sources of contamina-
tion, aside from the fowls themselves. If manure
is allowed to accumulate and the litter becomes

damp, the air will become impure. Other things

being equal, it will become impure sooner in small
houses than in large ones. The above rule as regards
air-space has given good satisfaction under favor-
able conditions, and may be used in the absence of
more definite* information derived from actual
experience.
Foundation. When permanent houses are to
be built, it is undoubtedly most economical, in
the long run, to erect them on foundations made
of brick, stone or concrete. Such foundations
should extend into the ground below the frost line,
should be vermin-proof, and so constructed as to
exclude drafts of air. Some provision should be
made to give thorough ventilation during the warm
seasons of the year, if the floor and its supports
are to be constructed of wood.
It is not safe to inclose wooden floor supports
with solid walls of masonry on account of the liabil-
ity of "dry rot" to destroy the supports and even
to ruin the floor. A free ventilation should be pro-
 Foundations for Houses 103

vided by means of openings in the foundation walls

of all buildings when the floors are placed within
a few feet of the ground.
When wooden floors are constructed near the
ground, it is essential to arrange the foundation
walls so that rats cannot gain access underneath
the floor. This may be readily accomplished by
covering windows or openings in the walls with
fine-meshed wire screens. Close-fitting blinds may
be used to close the windows and prevent draft
underneath the house during the colder part of
the year. If suitable stones are at hand for the
construction of foundation walls, they undoubtedly
may be used to good advantage. When neither
brick nor stone is readily available, the founda-
tion walls be made of grout or concrete, pro-
may
vided small stone or gravel can be readily obtained.
On many farms small field-stones, which prove a
hindrance to cultivation, may be used to good
advantage.
Walls of this description may be constructed
without the aid of skilled labor and at a very moder-
ate expense. In order to construct such walls satis-
factorily, it is necessary to dig narrow trenches
below the frost line. A simple and effective manner
of proceeding is as follows: Drive rows of stakes
into the ground, onerow on each side of the trench,
and boards on the inside of the stakes. The
nail
boards are used to hold the concrete in place until
104 Farm Poultry

the cement hardens. Old, rough or uneven boards

may be used, except for the top ones, which should
have the upper edges straight. The upper boards
should be placed level, as they will determine the
top of the wall. The stakes which hold the boards
should be firm enough to withstand the pressure

FIG. 34. Method of constructing a concrete wall.

of the stones and cement without yielding very

much. If the groundis so hard that stakes cannot

be driven readily, tall stakes may be used and

supported by fastening the tops together as shown
in Fig. 34. Place a few layers of stone in the bottom
of the trench, then put on some thin cement, and

pound down by means of a light pounder. This

operation should be repeated until the desired
 Construction of Concrete Walls 105

height is reached. The top may be smoothed off

with a ditching spade or trowel, using the top board
as a guide.
The wall should be left until the cement is hard,
when the building may be placed upon it. The
boards at the side may be removed at any time
after the cement becomes hard. If old boards
have been used at the bottom, it will not pay to
remove them. A concrete wall of this kind may be
constructed of cheap material and with ordinary
farm labor.
Side walls. The side walls of poultry houses
are usually built of wood, which is a compara-
tively cheap material and is a poor conductor of
heat. The side walls are constructed in various
ways. For convenience of discussion the various
kinds of walls may be placed under two heads:
solid walls and hollow walls. In cold countries
the hollow walls, or those with a dead air-space,
are to be preferred, because of their greater warmth
and freedom from moisture. In moderate or warm
climates solid walls will undoubtedly answer every
purpose.
For latitudes south of New York, solid walls,
constructed of one or two thicknesses of inch boards,
will prove quite satisfactory, particularly in the
hands of the poultryman. The amateur
skilled
will undoubtedly prefer the hollow walls, as imper-
fect appliances and buildings are greater hind-
106 Farm Poultry

ranees to him than they would be to the skilled

and experienced man. Buildings with hollow side
walls are cooler in summer,
-Tar "Paper.
warmer in winter, and are
not so likely to be covered
with frost in severe weather
as solid walls, particularly
if the solid wall consists of

but one or two thicknesses

of boards. If the side walls
and roof become more or less
frosted in severe weather,

dampness whenever
results FIG 35 - -

,
. , Method of building a
the temperature moderates poultry house with
solid side walls, ce-
ment an <* a roof
sumciently to melt the frost. floor -

that is impervious to
A cheap and efficient wall wind.

for the sides and ends of

the building may be con-
structed of two thicknesses
of rough inch lumber. Both
thicknesses of this siding
should be
Ce-m
putonver- p, okenStone

tically,with
a good quality of tarred build-
ing-paper between. When walls
of this nature are constructed,
it is best to nail on the inner siding first. On the out-
side of these boards put a coat of the tarred paper in
 Construction of Side Walls 107

such a manner that the whole surface is thoroughly

covere,d, providing for a liberal lap wherever the
edges meet. The object of this tarred building-
paper is to prevent drafts of air from penetrating
the side walls. (See Fig. 35.) The boards of the
outside covering should be put over the building-
paper in such a way that they will break joints
with the inner boarding. If boards of a uniform
width can be selected for this purpose, the ease of
breaking joints will be greatly increased. A wall
of this thickness of inch boards, with building

paper, constructed as previously described, will

prove satisfactory under ordinary conditions. It

should be remembered, however, that these walls
will be covered somewhat with frost in severe

weather, particularly if the houses are well filled

with fowls.
A hollow wall may be constructed at about the
same expense as the solid wall just described. One
method of constructing a cheap and efficient poul-
try house having hollow side walls is shown in
Fig. 36. The sill be of 2 x 8 or 2 x 6 scantling,
may
laid flat on the foundation wall. A 2 x 2 scantling
or strip is nailed on top of the sill, at its outer edge.
This gives the width of the space or hollow in the
side walls. The plate may be constructed of a 2 x 3
or 2x4 scantling, placed edgewise. The boards
which constitute the side walls are nailed to the
sides of the plate and to the sides of the strip which
108 Farm Poultry

was nailed to the top of the sill. Rough lumber may

be used for the side walls, if strict economy is desired.
The inner boarding should be nailed on first and
covered on the outside with tarred building-paper.
This paper will be within the wall when it is com-

FIG. 36.

Method of constructing a poultry

house with a hollow side wall
ana a dead air-space between
ceiling and roof.

pleted. It is preferable to fasten the paper in place

by means of thin strips, laths, pieces of thin boards,

etc., rather than to depend wholly on the heads of

tacks or nails. The outside boarding may now be
put on, and the cracks between the boards covered
with inexpensive battens, ifthey are secured with
small nails at frequent intervals. If cheapness is of
 Economy of Roof Construction 109

considerable importance, the ordinary building laths

may be used, and will answer the purpose admirably,
although somewhat heavier battens will be more
durable. A mistake is sometimes made in selecting
heavy battens which will not draw down by nailing
as well as lighter ones. The battens on the outside
boarding and the tarred building paper on the
inside boarding make two coverings, each of which is

impervious to wind, with an air-space between them.

Roofs. Various kinds of material are used in the
construction of roofs for poultry houses, although
shingles are more generally employed than anything
else. Tin, steel, and various kinds of roofing-paper
are used, although they are more or less objection-
able on account of the great heat radiated in the
building during the hot summer months.
Roofs of various forms are constructed. The
gable and lean-to or shed roofs are used most. A
shed roof may be constructed with a trifle less
labor than a gable roof, yet it is not nearly so eco-
nomical in the matter of space as the latter. At first
thought, a shed roof may seem to include the most
space, but upon closer analysis it will be found
that the gable roof, other things being equal, includes
considerably more space. To further illustrate, we
willsuppose that boards twelve feet long are to be
used for the side walls in constructing a house
twelve feet wide, the roof to be one-third pitch. If
the gable form be used, the building would then
110 Farm Poultry

have side walls six feet high, and the area included
in cross section would be 96 square feet. (See Fig. 37.)
If the shed form of roof be used and the same
material as described above for side walls, but 72
feet in cross section would be included. (See Fig.
38.) It is undoubtedly true that the shed roof may

FIG. 37. Cross section of a poultry house with a gable roof, 96 square feet.

be constructed at a trifle less expense for labor than

the gable roof although it will be found necessary to

use somewhat heavier rafters than would suffice
for the gable roof. As long
as the pitch of the roof
remains the same, practically the same roofing
material will be required for all forms of roof. The
advantage that one form of roof may have over
 Forms of Roofs 111

another as to material of construction will occur

in side walls, ends and partitions. It often happens
that one style of roof may be preferred for reasons
other than those mentioned. It may be desirable
to have all the water from the roof on one side of
the building, that the other side may be kept as
dry as possible; then the shed roof would be preferred.

FIG. 38.

Cross section of a
poultry house with
a shed roof, 72
square feet.

Then, too, theshed roof, if the building faces the

south, will absorb less heat from the direct rays of
the sun than would a roof of the gable form: this
of course will be most noticeable during the hot
summer months and if a dark roofing material
be used.
It often happens that the location or peculiar
conditions as to soil, exposure, etc., on the farm
112 Farm Poultry

in question will require a particular form of build-

ing that might not be advisable to construct on

another farm under very different conditions. It
isfor each one to determine for himself that which

may answer his purpose best. There is no hard

and fast rule as to the construction of buildings

*FiG. 39. Types of roofs, showing combination form.

that will apply equally well to all of the vast multi-

tude of conditions under which fowls may be profit-
ably maintained on American farms. Each indi-
vidual poultryman should ever bear in mind the
ideal conditions for profitable work, and so construct
his buildings that the ideal may be approached
as nearly as possible.
*Michigan Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin No. 266.
 Construction of Roofs 113

A form of roof known as the "Combination"

has become quite popular and under some circum-
stances has many advantages.
Whatever form of roof be used, it should be so
constructed that it will effectually exclude all drafts
of air. Shingled roofs, as ordinarily constructed,
do not sufficiently exclude drafts. In order to make
such roofs satisfactory it is necessary to cover the
roof boards with building-paper before the shingles
are laid, or to provide an inner ceiling for the poul-
try house. Either of these will exclude the drafts,
but both are more or less objectionable. Each
one must choose what seems to him to be the lesser
of the two evils. The building-paper underneath
the shingles prevents the shingles from drying as
readily as they otherwise would, and, consequently,
materially shortens the life of the roof. Experience
has taught that the shingled roofs that dry quickest
last longest. The ceiling on the inside of the ordinary

shingled roofs is objectionable on account of the

additional expense. With the steady advance in
the price of shingles, other roofing materials are
gaining in popular favor. Felt and paper that are
protected by various kinds of paints and other pro-
tective material are largely used. These roofing
materials seem to be particularly well adapted to
the small, low and easily accessible roofs of poultry
houses.
Floors. Some successful poultry-keepers pre-
114 Farm Poultry

fer earth floors to artificial ones, but as these are

somewhat more difficult to keep clean many prefer
an artificial floor constructed of wood or cement.
Wooden floors are used, although they are some-
what more expensive to construct, and it is often
necessary to replace them every few years. The
"submerged cement floor" is preferred by some. In
constructing this floor the ground should be slightly
excavated so that the top of the cement floor when
finished will be a trifle lower than that desired for
the fowls. The cement may be placed directly on
the ground if the earth is firm. If the earth is not
firm it should be further excavated and filled with
stone, which should be thoroughly pounded before
applying the cement. (See Fig. 35.) After the cement
hardens, sand or gravel may be used to cover it to
a depth of from one to three inches. Some poultry-
men prefer to place the cement floor somewhat
higher than the surface of the ground in order to
secure good drainage, depending on litter to pro-
tect the fowls from coming in contact with the
cement when the weather is cold. A cement floor
properly constructed is a most excellent protection
against rats and mice and has become very popular,
particularly where an abundance of suitable litter
may be obtained cheaply. These floors if properly
constructed are most durable and are easily cleaned,
a most important feature.
Windows. For the colder latitudes, windows
 Location and Form of Windows 115

should not be large, not more than one to every

ten feet in length for a house twelve feet wide. These
should be placed on the south side and at such
distance from the floor as to allow the greatest
possible amount of sunshine to fall upon the floor
during the cold winter months. It is desirable to
have the windows of such size that one may be placed
in each division or pen. One square foot of window

opening for each fifteen to seventeen square feet of

floor-space will be quite sufficient under ordinary
conditions. In order to secure most sunshine on the
floor the windows should be so placed that their
greatest lengthis vertical. At noon, during the short-

est days of the year, in the latitude of New York

City, the sun's rays make about the same angle

with the horizon as that of a quarter pitch roof; that
is, an object one foot high would cast a shadow two

feet long. Then, if the bottom of the window be

placed eighteen inches from the floor, the sunshine
on the floor will be three feet from the side of the
building in which the window is placed. In cold
latitudes it is a common and somewhat serious mis-
take to use more windows than are absolutely needed
for the health and convenience of the fowls. While

sunlight is desirable, many windows make the

building cold, unless they are covered with shutters
or heavy curtains, during the severest weather. It
has been found that windows radiate about four
times as much heat as the same area of side walls
116 Farm Poultry

FIG. 40. Window of poultry house protected by a wooden shutter

for summer use.

in average well-constructed dwelling houses. If

warm houses are desired large window surface
should be avoided. A coat of whitewash on the inte-
making the building light.
rior will aid materially in

Sliding windows are preferred on many accounts

to those that open by means of hinges. They can
 Windows and Ventilation 117

be partially opened for ventilation in warm weather,

and during the extreme heat of summer they may
be left entirely open. The opening should be covered
with poultry netting to confine the fowls, and if the
mesh enough to exclude the English sparrow,
is fine

annoyance sometimes avoided.

is

Whether the windows are made to slide either

vertically or horizontally, or are hinged either at
the top or at the sides, is a matter for each poultry-
man to determine for himself. After considering
the various methods of construction it is for the
owner or manager to select that which appears to
be best for him. He
should be able to give a reason
for the particular construction of every poultry

appliance with which he has to deal.

Comparatively cheap window shades may be
made of thin matched lumber nailed together so
as to make a solid shutter. This shade, or shutter,
may be hinged to the side of the poultry house
just above the window with loose hinges, the lower
edge supported by a wire, as shown in Fig. 40.
Such shades exclude the sun and serve as a protection
from the heat during the warmest part of the year
when the windows are left open. The loose hinges
permit of easy removal for winter storage.
Ventilation. During the warm weather the open
windows will afford sufficient ventilation, but dur-
ing the colder months some means of ventilating
the building should be provided, aside from that
118 Farm Poultry

afforded by the doors and windows. Many ventila-

tors have been planned for poultry houses, but all
ventilators that are in continuous operation either
give too much ventilation during the coldest weather
or not enough during the warm, still days. As a
rule, they furnish too much ventilation during the
cold nights, and not enough during the sunny part
of the day. Any system of ventilation that will

FIG. 41. A good ventilator.

fullymeet the requirements of the busy farmer or

poultryman must be simple and readily controlled
by the attendant. Ventilators are not needed in
the severest weather, but during the warm days of
spring and whenever the temperature is above
freezing point during the winter and early spring,
some ventilation should be given. Farmers and poul-
trymen should aim to ventilate their poultry houses
as they ventilate their own sleeping apartments.
 Ventilators and Muslin Windows 119

Little or no ventilation is needed at night during the

severest weather in the colder latitudes, but during
the day, when the fowls are more or less actively
engaged in scratching in the litter, the house should
be ventilated just as regularly as a sleeping apart-
ment should be aired when not occupied or when
the occupant is actively engaged in light manual

labor. Houses with single walls will become quite

frosty on the inside during the severest weather,
and this will cause more or less dampness whenever
the temperature is sufficiently high to thaw the
frost from the walls and roof. At this time ventila-
tion is most needed and may be supplied by placing
a ventilator in the highest part of the roof, which
will permit the heated air to escape. It is rarely

necessary to
provide special meanscold air
for
to enter, as thereis usually a sufficient number of

cracks about doors and windows to admit cold air

if means be provided for the lighter air to escape.

Fig. 41 illustrates the construction of a cheap and

effective ventilator. This may be readily closed
and opened by means of cords or chains as the
attendant passes through the house.
Muslin windows have had and still have many
earnest advocates.As a means of ventilation with
minimum drafts they serve a most useful purpose.
They transmit light also, but, like many other
appliances, have some serious faults. Under some
conditions they soon become soiled and then are
120 Farm Poultry

not so effective either as transmitters of light or

as ventilators. Their use, however, is to be com-
mended even though they may require somewhat fre-
quent renewals. Houses have been constructed
with a straw ceiling as an aid to ventilation. They
are constructed as follows: A gable-roofed house
is floored over with narrow boards placed a few inches

FIG. 42. A combined muslin and open front house Cornell University.

apart at the height of the plate or a little higher.

These boards are then covered with clean straw
to the depth of eight inches or a foot. The space
between the straw and the roof is ventilated by means
of open windows in the ends of the building. The
heated air of the building will pass up through the
straw and out at the windows. This may work
nicely under certain conditions but unless other
means are used for ventilating it will be found to
 Open-front Houses 121

be insufficient at times and more than is needed in

extreme cold weather. Then too, the straw soon
becomes dusty and requires changing. This manner
of ventilating has not become very popular.

Open-front houses. These have been recom-

mended largely on account of the extreme venti-

FIG. 43. An open front colony house.

lation which they afford, but for cold climates they

cannot take the place of the warmer and more
comfortable quarters provided by careful poultry-
men. While reasonably cold pure air is to be pre-
ferred to warmer impure air, yet it should not be
forgotten that it is the purity of the air and not the
low temperature that is desirable. A moderately
122 Farm Poultry

warm pure air is desired. The greatest vigor cannot

be secured if the fowls are required to breathe
impure air. Neither can greatest production be
obtained if the fowls are uncomfortable on account
of the low temperature. For prolificacy the spring-
time conditions in central northern United States
are without doubt the nearest ideal, a moderately
warm temperature, pure fresh plenty of exer-
air,
cise with fresh vegetable, grain and animal food.
 CHAPTER VII

BUILDINGS: INTERNAL ARRANGEMENTS AND YARDS

Perches. While the construction of the perches

is perhaps of less importance than many other

details of a well-equiped poultry house, yet one

should be able to give a reason for constructing
each part of the house in a particular way, and
it will be necessary to give considerable thought

to the planning and arrangement of minor features.

In the construction of perches two objects should
be kept in mind: (1) The perches should be con-
venient for the fowls and (2) so arranged that the

droppings may be readily caught without falling

to the floor or soiling the litter. For heavy-bodied
fowls the perches should not be more than two and
one-half or three feet from the floor, and all should
be of the same height. Many fowls prefer to perch
far above the ground in order, without doubt, to
be more secure from their enemies. It may be
accepted as natural for fowls to perch at a
considerable distance from the ground in order
that they may be better protected from skunks,
minks, foxes, etc. In the poultry house, from which
these enemies are excluded, however, low perches

(123)
124 Farm Poultry

are considered just as safe and much better for

heavy-bodied fowls. More or less clumsy, heavy-
bodied fowls ascend to high perches with difficulty,
and are likely to be injured in alighting from any
considerable elevation. Convenient ladders or walks
may be constructed, which will enable the fowls to
approach the perches without great effort, but there
are always times when clumsy fowls will attempt
to fly to the floor, although injury to themselves
may Leghorns and other egg breeds may
result.

safely perch somewhat higher than the Asiatics,

and if the buildings are well constructed this may
be an advantage in cold weather, as the fowls will
undoubtedly find it somewhat warmer on high
perches than on low ones. For houses in cold lati-
tudes that have large cubic contents for the number
of fowls may be quite
they contain high perches
desirable, particularly the roof or ceiling imme-
if

diately above the perches be partitioned so as to

exclude drafts quite effectually.
Only movable perches should be constructed.
A 2x3 scantling, set edgewise, with the upper
corners rounded, answers every purpose and makes
a satisfactory perch. Poles or narrow boards may
be used, but whatever material is selected the
perches should be so constructed that they will
be firm and will not tip or rock when fowls alight
on them. A small scantling is easy to secure firmly
and also to clean and to disinfect. Underneath
 Perches 125

the perches a smooth platform should always be

placed to catch the droppings. This is recommended
for two reasons: first, it is much easier to keep
the house clean and free from objectionable odors
if the droppings are easily removed; and, second,
the droppings are valuable as a fertilizer and should

FIG. 44. Movable perches with board platform underneath to catch droppings.

not be mixed with the litter on the floor. The

distance from the perch to the platform will depend
somewhat on the size of the fowls and on the imple-
ment used in removing the droppings. It will also

depend on the form of platform constructed.

The distance between the perches and a level
platform should not be great enough to permit
the fowls to walk on the platform underneath the
126 Farm Poultry

perches. If a broad iron shovel with a tolerably

straight handle is used, the perches need not be

more than from five to eight inches from a level
platform. It is desirable to have the platform
some distance from the floor, in order that the
fowls may occupy the floor-space underneath the
platform. This will permit the construction of
perches, and, at the same time, will allow the fowls
to use all of the floor-space. The perches may
be supported by brackets secured to the side wall,
as shown in Fig. 44.
Nests.- In the construction of nests in poultry
houses, at least three points should constantly be
kept in mind. First, the nest should be situated
in a place which is more or less
dark; second, it
should be readily accessible to the fowls from more
than one side; and, third, it should be constructed
in such a way that can be readily seen, easily
it

cleaned, and thoroughly disinfected. Since it is

important to give the fowls as much floor-space
as possible, it is usually best to have the nest attached
in some manner to the side or end walls of the build-

ing. In a general way it may be said that the num-

ber of fowls which a poultry house will accommo-
date depends on the floor-space and air-space which
the house contains. Anything, therefore, that
unnecessarily occupies floor-space will diminish the
capacity of the house. Various plans of arranging
nests have been adopted, and it is difficult and
 Arrangement of Nests 127

probably impossible to say which is the best. Each

has advantages and disadvantages. A somewhat
simple and easy plan of arranging nests when the
perches are placed not more than two and one-
from the floor, is as follows Under-
half or three feet :

neath the platform, which should always be under-

neath the perches, as described above, the nests
are placed in a row on the floor. From the front
edge of the platform to the floor, in front of the
nests, a tight board partition is constructed. This
board partition is opened by means of a long door,
hinged either at the top or bottom. In either
case the lower edge of the door should be about
level with the top of the nests. A small opening
at one end of the door will admit fowls to the
nests. This arrangement secures darkness for the
nests, plenty of room for the fowls to approach
the nests from two or three sides, and the nests
are readily accessible for cleaning, gathering eggs,
etc. Some of the disadvantages of this plan are
that the nests occupy considerable floor-space and
the fowls are sometimes inclined to deposit their
eggs on the floor back of the nests. It is desirable
to arrange the nests so that they may be approached
from more than one side for the following reason:
In flocks of fowls of any considerable size there are

usually individuals more or less aggressive in char-

acter, that seem to delight in exercising their mastery
over others; such birds, when seeking a nest, will
128 Farm Poultry

almost invariably drive others off the nests rather

than take equally as convenient a nest which is
unoccupied. If the nests can be approached from
only one side, one hen in trying to drive the
other off, which she will eventually accomplish,
will force the occupant to spring from the nest

FIG. 45. Perches and sts West Virginia Agricultural Experiment Station.

suddenly. This may cause the eggs to be thrown

violently to one side, and often a broken egg is
the result.
The vice of egg-eating
undoubtedly largely
is

caused by eggs being broken accidentally, or by

frozen eggs. If the nests can be placed in partial
 Nests and Egg-eating 129

darkness, the habit of egg-eating should be reduced

to a minimum. While it may not suffice to cure the
habit when once well formed, yet it should pre-
vent, in a large measure, the development of this
vice. It is the duty of those constructing poultry
houses to arrange them so that this vice, together
with other undesirable features of poultry-keeping,
may be avoided so far as possible. Another arrange-
ment of nests, in which they are attached to the
side or end walls, and therefore do not occupy
floor-space, is recommended by many practical
poultry-keepers.
It is important to arrange the nests so that
they may be readily cleaned and disinfected, for
it is well known that if the perches and nests of

the fowls can be kept free from mites, or so-called

summer lice, the fowls themselves will be entirely
free from them. If the nest boxes, therefore, are
movable and can be readily taken out-of-doors
for thorough cleaning, it will be found somewhat
easier to keep them entirely free from these pests
than if stationary nests are used, and it will cer-
tainly be easier to exterminate them should they
once gain a foothold.
Nests of Leghorns, Hamburgs, and Minorcas
may be constructed of boards, 6 inches wide, making
boxes 8x10 inches in the clear. The American
breeds and Asiatics should have somewhat larger
nests.
130 Farm Poultry

Fine hay is satisfactory for nest material and

excelsior answers the purpose admirably. Sea-
grass, so extensively used in packing china and
crockery, is an excellent material. Whatever mate-
rial is used, it should be such as will not easily stain
the eggs. An egg when first laid is moist, and if
the nest material stains or gives up its coloring
matter readily, the egg is likely to be more or less
stained, particularly if it has a white shell. If the
nests are placed side by side, the partitions should
extend two inches or more above the nest material
to prevent the fowls from attempting to draw
the eggs from one nest to another, and, in so doing,
cause the eggs to roll back and be broken.
Drinking-fountains. It is of the utmost impor-
tance that fowls be supplied with pure water. This
is one of the somewhat difficult problems

that every poultryman has to meet. It

is difficult to keep the water-dishes clean,

particularly when the fowls are confined

in the houses, as they are during the severe
winter months. Scratching in
the litter will cause more or less
dirt to enter the drinking-dishes,
, .. . . , FIG. 46. A simple drinking-
and usually such fowls are fed fountain; a bottle or ug j

used as a reservoir
soft food once a day at least,
-

and this food will also enter the drinking-dishes to

some extent when the fowls drink after eating.
There are a number of patented drinking-fountains
 Drinking-fountains 131

on the market, many of which are automatic and

keep a small supply of water constantly before the
fowls. Under favorable conditions these fountains
will, undoubtedly, prove very satisfactory. Under
adverse conditions, however,
some of them have not given
satisfaction, for the reason
that they are difficult to
clean. If the fountain becomes rrt
tainted, as it is very likely "
&
to do in warm weather, it is p^

not so readily cleaned as a

simple tin or earthen dish.
Drinking-fountains that are
not readily cleaned are .x
objectionable. Many r-
automatic fountains are FIG. 47. An improved drinldng-fountain
i , -i with a revolving reservoir.
constructed on the
principle of the student lamp, which permits a
small quantity of liquid to pass from the reservoir
whenever a bubble of air is permitted to enter it.
The inverted jug or bottle, with its opening placed
in a shallow dish, illustrates the principle. (See
Fig. 46.) An improved arrangement is seen in Fig.
47. The reservoir is supported between two uprights
and so arranged that it may revolve for conve-
nience in filling.
Another arrangement, which has given satis-
faction in the hands of successful poultrymen, may
132 Farm Poultry

be constructed as follows (Fig. 48): An ordinary

shallow milk-pan is placed on a block or shallow
box, the top of which is four or five inches from
the floor. The water or milk to be drunk by the
fowls is placed in this pan. Over the pan is placed
a board cover supported on pieces of lath about
eight inches long nailed to the cover so that they
are about two inches apart, the lower ends resting
on the box which forms the support of the pan.
In order to drink from the pan, it is necessary for
the fowls to insert
their heads be-
tween these pieces
of lath. The cover
over the pan and
the strips of lath

Fia. 48. A shallow milk-pan used as a at the sides pre-

water basin, and protected with a board vent the poultry
cover having supports of laths.
fouling thefrom
water in any manner except in the act of drinking.
When drinking-pans of this kind are used, it is very
easy to cleanse and scald them with hot water as
occasion demands. This arrangement can be carried
a little further or, what would be
by placing a pan
still narrow dish, something like a tin
better, a long,
bread-tray, on a low shelf a few inches from the floor
and hinging the cover to one side of the poultry house
so that it can be tipped up in front for the removal
of the dish or for filling it with water. (See Fig. 49.)
 Drinking-fountains and Dust-boxes 133

If desired, the cover may be so constructed that

it will be on an incline to prevent fowls from perch-
ing on it.

There are various forms of drinking-fountains

on the market that are kept in stock by poultry-
supply houses. Selection may be made from these,
or fountains may be made from special designs,

FIG. 49. A protected water basin.

but whatever arrangement is made for furnishing

water for the fowls, it should comply with these
conditions: (1) The drinking-pan must be so con-
structed that it may be easily and thoroughly
cleansed; (2) fowls should have access to pure
water at all times.
Dust-boxes. It is not only desirable, but neces-

sary, to provide dust-boxes for the fowls if they

are to be kept reasonably free from body-lice.
This is particularly true during the winter months.
134 Farm Poultry

During the summer, if the fowls have a more or

lesswide range, dusty places will be found out-of-
doors wherein they may take dust-baths. During
the late fall, winter and early spring, conveniences
should be supplied the fowls within doors, wherein
they may wallow in the dust. A comparatively
small box will answer for a flock of a dozen or

FIG. 50. Combined house and scratching-shed, an excellent plan.

Rhode Island Agricultural College.

twenty hens if the attendant will see that the box

is kept well with dry dust and free from litter
filled

and other coarse material. If these boxes can

be so placed that they receive some sunshine on

bright days it will be found easier to keep the
dust dry, and fowls prefer them so located rather
than in some dark corner. Fine road dust pro-
cured during the hot, dry weather of July and
August from a much traveled highway has no
superior for this purpose. Probably there is no
 Dust-boxes and Insecticides 135

way in which the poultryman can better combat

the body-lice than by providing dust-boxes for
his fowls.
Dust-boxes are objectionable because their use
makes the houses so dusty and dirty. If space
will permit, a special room or closed dust-bath with
window facing the south can easily be constructed,
and will keep the house comparatively free from
dust, and the bath will be kept free from the litter
used in the poultry house.
It is true that the fowls may be kept compara-
tively free from these pests by the occasional use
of insecticides dusted thoroughly among the feathers
of the various parts of the body, but as this method
necessitates the handling of each bird several times
during the season, most farmers will prefer to have
the fowls use the dust-bath. If an insecticide, as
powdered sulfur or insect powder, is used, it should
be dusted through the feathers next to the skin,
preferably in the evening when the fowls are quiet
and on the perches, in order that the material may
remain in the feathers for several hours.
Yards and parks. The question of confining
fowls is perhaps somewhat undecided in the minds
of many farmers. Because the fowls of a compara-

tively small flock, when given their liberty or the

run of the farm, thrive well and produce many eggs
with very little attention on the part of the owner,
it should not be inferred that large flocks will prove
136 Farm Poultry

equally satisfactory under similar conditions. While

a few fowls may be given the run of the farm with-
out causing very much annoyance, large flocks
would be objectionable for many reasons.
Each individual must decide for himself whether
he will permit his fowls to have the run of the farm,
or whether he will confine them in pens or yards.
Generally speaking, it is far better to confine the

Fia. 51. Poultry house and yard.

Rhode Island Agricultural Experiment Station.

fowls within suitable inclosures. The owner then

has control of the conditions and is more nearly
master of the situation than it is possible for him
to be when his fowls are given full liberty. Those
who provide yards or runs for the fowls do not all

agree as to the best method. There are two sys-

tems in use, each possessing its own advantages,
and each having warm adherents. One system or
plan provides comparatively small areas for small- or
 Yards and Parks 137

medium-sized flocks; the other fences more extended

areas for large flocks or masses. It is undoubtedly
best for each beginner to learn what he can of the

experience of others and then to select the plan that

best meets his own, requirements.
Undoubtedly there is no best method of con-
structing yards or runs for fowls. What may answer
the purpose admirably for one would be quite
unsuited to the conditions of another. The yards
should be so constructed that they best meet the
natural as well as the artificial conditions under
which the fowls are to be kept. Figs. 52 and 53
illustrate a way of constructing poultry houses
and adjoining yards for moderate -sized
flocks.

This system has been used satisfactorily by success-

ful poultrymen on comparatively level land. It
is particularly advantageous when small yards
are to be used that will require thorough culti-
vation. Whatever may be the form or size of the
yard, it should be borne in mind that the first
requisite is cleanliness, that part of the yard nearest
the poultry house undoubtedly requiring frequent
cultivation. The ideal condition is to have one
part of the yard in permanent grass and another
part well cultivated. If a rocky or rough piece of
land, more or less woody, is near at hand, there is
no reason why this may not profitably form a part
of the poultry run or yard. Poultry yards accom-
modating fifty hens should inclose about sixteen
138 'Farm Poultry

square rods. If fifty fowls are kept confined in the

house and yard throughout the year, as described
above, it will be necessary to have a considerable
part of the yard thoroughly cultivated in order to
keep it clean.
The expense of constructing and maintaining
poultry fencesconsiderable, and the plan to
is

be preferred is the one that will give the greatest

satisfaction with the least amount of fence.

yards are to be cultivated, it will be found

If the"

advantageous to have them long and compara-

tively narrow. A yard two rods wide and eight
rods long is convenient to cultivate, and is very
satisfactory for other reasons. As it is found most
convenient to have several pens in one house, it
is therefore convenient to have several poultry
yards side by one fence forming the boundary
side,
of two yards. Provision should be
(See Fig. 28.)
made for two-horse cultivation, for sometimes
yards will need to be plowed. Whether the fences
be entirely wood or of wire netting, they should not
be less than seven feet high, if egg breeds are to be
confined. In either case, it is well to have a wide
board placed at the bottom. Sometimes it is desirable
to confine comparatively small chickens in these
yards. Boards at least a foot wide at the bottom
will be very satisfactory, if the remainder of the
fence constructed of the ordinary two-inch mesh
is

poultry netting. Should the boards be omitted,

 Yards and Shade Trees 139

the lower part of the fence should be formed of

netting having a mesh smaller than two inches.
It is undoubtedly best to provide some shade for
the fowls. For this purpose fruit trees have given

FIG. 52.

FIG. 53.
Poultry houses and yards of C. H. Wyckoff, Groton, N. Y.

entire satisfaction. Pium trees are especially recom-

mended forpoultry yards. One of the greatest
difficultiesexperienced in raising plums is caused
by the attacks of the curculio. It has been found
by trial that plums grown within the poultry yard
140 Farm Poultry

are much less liable to injury by this insect than

those grown under similiar conditions outside of
the yards. If several poultry yards are arranged
side by side, the owner may provide for a plum
orchard by planting a row of plum trees through
the middle of each yard. The following varieties
of plums have been especially recommended for
this purpose:

Lombard Burbank
Bradshaw Coe Golden Drop
Peter Yellow Gage

There is no reason why an apple orchard may

not form a poultry yard to good advantage. Par-
ticularly would this be true if the orchard were
kept under thorough cultivation, a practice which is
now so strongly recommended by the most advanced
orchardists. The whole orchard may be inclosed
with the poultry fence and the fowls given the
run of it. If thought advisable, simple,, temporary
yards may be provided for the various flocks during
a part of the year, when it is desired to keep them
separate. At other times all of the flocks may be
given the run of the entire orchard.
When the fowls have once become accustomed
to their house or home, they will give the owner
very little trouble by perching elsewhere, even
though they be given the opportunity to do so.
Whenever small yards are used, it will be found
desirable to place the young birds or pullets in
 Yards and Fences 141

their permanent yards, if possible to do so. Mature

fowls, when moved from one pen to another, are
more likely to fly over the enclosure than if kept
throughout the season in the yard they have learned
to recognize as home. It has frequently been noticed
that Leghorn and Minorca hens will remain peace-
ably in the yard in which they have been reared,
but if moved to other yards will give the owner

FIG. 54. Poultry houses and yards.

West Virginia Agricultural Experiment Station.

more or less trouble by flying over the fences,

although the latter may be as high as seven
feet.
In latitudes where it is not necessary to provide
warm houses for protection against freezing, many
small portable houses in a field of considerable
size are preferred to more pretentious stationary
houses with permanent yards. It is true that the
labor of attendant in feeding is somewhat
the
increased, but considerable labor is saved in clean-
ing and cultivating the land by merely moving the
142 Farm Poultry

buildings a short distance. The houses are usually

constructed on rude and inexpensive runners,
and are moved from place to place by means of
horses. Small, light houses, that are used chiefly
for shelters and roosting places, can be moved

readily short distances by one or two horses if

suitable provision be made for such moving when
the houses are constructed. Many poultrymen
prefer this method, that they may avoid cultivating
the yards and yet secure fresh, clean runs for their
fowls.
 CHAPTER VIII

THE IMPROVEMENT AND BREEDING OF FOWLS

As a dairyman would make a serious mistake

in selecting cattle for his dairy if he should draw
from any but the noted dairy breeds, so the poul-
tryman or farmer would make an equally serious
mistake if fowls were chosen that were not specially
adapted to his purposes. The ultimate success of
a business depends largely on the skill of the manager
in selecting the proper agents or machines to do the
work. If inferior agents are used to produce a
merchantable article, either the article produced
is not first-class or the cost of production is not

.reduced to a minimum. In either case the producer is

not able to compete successfully with those who
have a better equipment.

SELECTION

The importance of choosing a suitable breed

or variety for a special purpose is likely to be under-
estimated. Apparently the same importance is
not given to differences between the useful breeds
of fowls that is recognized between the different

(143)
144 Farm Poultry

breeds of cattle and horses. In reality, as great

differences exist. The importance of a proper
selection further emphasized when the con-
is still

ditions under which the fowls are to be kept are

taken into consideration. Some fowls will thrive
fairly well under conditions that would not prove
adequate for the profitable maintenance of others.
Too often a particular variety is selected for farm
use because some fine-looking or profitable flock
has beeii seen which has created a desire in the mind
of the visitor to possess a similar flock. This is
sometimes done without considering the special
purposes for which these fowls are to be kept, and
perhaps without taking into account the conditions
under which the flock is to be maintained, even
though these conditions differ materially from those
under which the admired flock existed.
The great variety of fowls now bred in this
country offers to the poultryman and farmer a
wide field for selection. It must be borne in mind
that of this great variety all are not equally well
adapted to various purposes of utility. While a
certain breed may give entire satisfaction in the
hands of one poultry-keeper, another may find
these fowls quite unsatisfactory because he is unable
to give them the necessary care and to provide the
conditions under which they thrive best. It may
happen, therefore, that under a somewhat careless
management the most noted egg-breeds may not
 Selecting for Improvement 145

prove the. most satisfactory for egg production.

The capabilities of the fowls and the conditions
under which they are to be kept should both be
taken into consideration before fowls are selected
for a special purpose.
The wide-awake, progressive poultryman will
ever be watchful to improve his fowls for the pur-
pose in view, after procuring those that seem best
adapted to his wants. He must not be content with
merely choosing a proper flock. Selection should
go on year after year, and the fowls be continually
improved for the purpose for which they are kept,
and under the existing conditions.
Selecting eggs. In the attempt to still further
increase the productiveness of his flock it will be
well for the poultryman to study carefully, or at
least as besthe can, the accomplishments that have
already been achieved along the lines of increased
egg production and the manner in which these
improvements have been brought about.
It will not be questioned that the most prolific
fowls of today are, as egg producers, greatly superior
to the wild fowls from which they have descended.
And also that marked improvement has been made
well within the memory and even practice of poul-
trymen who are now maintaining flocks of fowls
for market products. Lessons drawn from these
achievements cannot fail to be of value to one
who aims to still further improve the medium by
146 Farm Poultry

means of which ordinary commercial feed is trans-

formed into desirable poultry products. Whatever
may be learned from these improvements will surely
have the important quality of being practical.
Imitators of the successful are following a safe
guide, even though they may seem to be "making
"
haste slowly.
Some of the noted, if not the most noted breeders
and improvers of fowls for egg production, have laid
great stress on egg selection. They were careful to
select the best layers of the pullet year for breeders,
and from these hens eggs were selected for hatching.
That is, year-old hens, that were used for the main-
tenance and improvement of the flocks, were the
best layers during their pullet year.This practice
carefully pursued these
year after year, by
poultry-
men, resulted in the steady improvement of the
fowls for egg production.
Without doubt all of the improvers who have
achieved success have been skilful feeders and also
have provided congenial homes for their fowls.
It will be impossible to say just how much of the

improvement has been due to egg selection, to feed,

to environment, and how much to the influence of
the males; but surely the noted breeders who have
secured marked improvement in egg production
have laid much stress on egg selection.
Whenever it is convenient to do so, a few of
the best-laying hens should be placed by them-
 Selecting for Vigor 147

selves in order that their eggg alone may be used

for hatching. If it is impossible to select fowls

for breeding purposes from the records of egg. pro-

duction, which is the true test of the laying hen,

the owner must resort to other methods. One of
the best substitutes for actual performance undoubt-
edly to select for strength and vigor of constitu-
is

tion. It is well understood that if the animal machine

is not strong be unable to perform the greatest
it will

service. The
best layers are strong, large-bodied,
vigorous fowls. They are known to have strong
constitutions.
If breeders are to select for vigor, they can do
no better, perhaps, than to make the choice at the
molting period. Strong, vigorous fowls pass through
the molting period very much more rapidly than
do those having a weak constitution. The robust
hen that lays a large number of eggs during the year
will pass through the molting period quickly, and
will hardly stop laying, while the one having a weak
constitution will be a long time in producing a new
coat of feathers, and will not lay for many weeks.
The experienced poultryman, therefore, finds this
period in the life of the fowl a most excellent one
in which to make his selection. The fact that the
bird with a strong constitution the most profitable
is

for egg production may explain why the fowls of

poultrymen who make a specialty of egg production
average larger than the fowls of those who breed
148 Farm Poultry

for exhibition. Almost without exception, the aver-

age noted for egg lay-
size of fowls of flocks specially

ing is considerably larger than the average size of

fowls of the pure-bred stock of that breed. As a
good-sized body and a deep and broad breast are
indicative of a strong constitution, so are they the
requisites of a good laying hen.
If one is compelled to make a selection for egg

production solely from the general conformation

or appearance of the fowl, he should select deep,
long-bodied birds. Those having a short underline,
circular in outline, should be discarded. The feeding

capacity of the hen is important, for those that are

able to digest and assimilate large quantities of
food are vigorous fowls and consequently can pro-
duce eggs in abundance.
At present there is a wide divergence of opinion
as to the manner in which improvement has been
brought about. Some of the experimenters hold that
egg production in the female ancestry is not a potent
factor in improvement.
*"That the egg record of an individual hen
gives no definite indication whatever as to what the
probable laying of her daughter will be. Exami-
nation of hundreds of pedigree records leaves no
doubt as to the truth of this fact. Individual birds
with high egg records are as likely as not to produce
daughters that make poor egg records, and vice
*Maine Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin No. 192.
 Selecting for Egg Production 149

versa. From the laying record of an individual hen

it is quite impossible for any one to tell whether
7
its progeny will be good layers or poor layers.'
However, the more conservative breeders are
still pursuing the methods that have been pro-

ductive of greatest good in the past.

Americans look very much closer to the color
and feather markings than do the English. So far
as meat and egg production are concerned, the
English, without doubt, have the advantage. As
shown in a previous chapter, it is undoubtedly much
more difficult to develop two unrelated character-
istics to the highest state of perfection than to

develop a single characteristic. The Englishman,

therefore, who seeks egg production without special
regard to the color of the plumage finds it easier
to reach the highest state of perfection than does the
American who desires to breed fowls for egg pro-
duction and, at the same time, have them true
to feather.
one must select fowls for exhibition purposes
If
and breed them for fancy points, it will undoubtedly
be best to choose some solid-colored breed or va-
riety whose tendency to depart from the standard
color is not strong. It should not be inferred that
all solid-colored fowls are easy to breed true to color;

in fact, some of the so-called solid colors, notably

the buffs, are the most difficult to breed to perfection.
The question of securing fertile eggs for incu-
150 Farm Poultry

bation is one that always gives breeders more or

less concern. Some breeders are more successful
than others in securing, fertile
eggs, and, appar-
ently, all breeders are moresuccessful during some
seasons than others. Some breeds of fowls are
noted for producing fertile eggs, while others are
generally recognized as in this respect.
inferior
The freedom given the fowls of a flock, the vigor
of the individuals,and the number of males, very
largely ^determine the fertility. Pullets' eggs are
generally not selected for hatching. It is thought
that they are not so likely to be fertile, and will
not produce so strong and vigorous chickens as
hens' eggs.
Those who have had experience in operating
incubators know that not all fertile eggs will hatch.
There seem to be all grades of fertility, from the egg

having a vigorous germ that will produce a strong,

healthy chicken, to that having a weak germ and
is practically an infertile egg. As the two extremes

are united by various intermediate grades, it is

impossible to draw a definite line of separation
which shall divide the fertile from the infertile ones.
Fresh eggs are to be preferred for hatching,
although good hatches from eggs that were kept
several weeks are reported. Eggs are sometimes
sent long distances and still retain their vitality
sufficiently to produce a good number of strong
chicks. The following is quoted from an experi-
 Fertility of Eggs 151

"
ment station publication:* Where the incubator
is placed in a room whose temperature is reason-
ably even and is properly managed, a high percentage
of hatch may be expected only (a) when the hens
have plenty of exercise, (6) when the eggs are
freshly laid."
After the male removed, the eggs are thought
is

to be fertile for a few days, "from four to four-

teen days" is given by some authors. The following
gives the results of definite observations :f "On the
farm of the Ohio State University, 40 Leghorn hens
which had previously been kept without males
were placed in pens with the male birds February
18, and the percentage of fertile eggs observed for
nine days after mating. This increased regularly
from 0, on the day of mating, to 95 per cent on the
eighth day after mating. July 1 the males were
removed from the pens. The fertility of the eggs
was apparently not materially affected until the
twelfth day removing the roosters.
after . . .

Unfortunately the eggs were saved only fifteen days,

and hence it is not shown how long hens must be
removed from the male before all the eggs become
infertile."
For the greatest production of eggs, males are
not required except for the breeding-pen. Many
poultrymen who have made a speciality of egg
*Bulletin No. 158, Michigan Agricultural Experiment Station.
fAgricultural Student I (1894), in Experiment Station Record.
152 Farm Poultry

production and have won for themselves a repu-

tation in this direction, have found by experience
that males are of no use in the laying-pen, and are
often a positive injury when eggs for food only are
desired. Tests that have been made at experiment
stations to determine the influence of males on egg
production tend to show that the practice of poul-
trymen in excluding males is most advantageous.
The following paragraph is taken from an experiment
station bulletin:*
"A pen
of pullets kept without a male produced

eggs at about 30 per cent less cost than an exactly

similar pen with which a cockerel was kept. . . .

In each of the two pens without male birds some

pullets had begun to lay from one to two months
than any in the corresponding pens in which
earlier
male birds were kept."

BREEDING

Heredity. Since the earliest times of which

any authentic records have been preserved, owners
of live stock have made attempts to improve the
animals under their charge by the art of breed-
ing. Accounts state that the ancients recognized
the principle in breeding that "like begets like,"
and depended on it quite as much as on any other
principle. It is on this principle that the poul-
*Bulletin No. 57, New York Agricultural Experiment Station.
 Transmission of Characters 153

tryman and stock owner depend for the perpetu-

ation of species, breeds and varieties. In this
principle is recognized the law which, within cer-
tain limits, makes offspring like their parents. The
development of this theory no doubt came from a
close observation of domesticated animals. Had
only wild animals been observed, it is likely that
the similarity of offspring to parents would have

FIG. 55. Breeding and exhibition house and runs Rhode Island
Agricultural College.

been taken as a matter of course, and what is

now known as the law of heredity would have
been studied comparatively little.
Poultry-breeders recognize the law that off-
spring resemble their parents within certain limits,
and depend upon law more than upon any
this
other as the foundation upon which the improve-
ment by breeding depends. If it were not for the law
of heredity, selection would be practically of no
value. If strong, hearty r vigorous parents, which
154 Farm Poultry

are noted for their useful qualities, were unable

to transmit their desirable traits, it might be
quite as profitable to breed from the most use-
less of animals. In other words, the value of selec-
tion depends upon the ability of the parent to
impress its own characteristics upon its offspring.
That characteristics are transmitted to a certainty,
within certain limits, is evident to all. Were this
not true there would be no continuity of species,
"
and plants and animals would not bring forth after
their kind." A
description of one typical Clydesdale
horse will apply to all Clydesdales.
It has long been recognized that
Variation.
there a tendency to vary within certain limits,
is

and that this tendency is always present in all

classes of animals, whether wild or domesticated.
The fact that wild birds and animals possess suffi-
cient individuality to make them readily recognizable
by each other is adequate proof that these animals

are not precisely alike in all respects. We readily

distinguish the differences between individual mem-
bers of our herds and flocks, although all members
of a flock or herd may have sprung from the mating
of two and therefore have the same
individuals,
lineage. more
It is difficult to observe the differ-

ences in wild birds and animals, yet such differences

exist sufficiently to show that the law of variation is
universal and constant in its action. It has been said
that "no two animals are exactly alike in all respects."
 Improvement through Variation 155

The tendency to vary is transmitted from pa-

rents to progeny in the same way that other pecu-

liarities are transmitted. This has often been of the
greatest importance in the improvement of fowls,
mammals and plants. Breeders who are trying
to improve their stock are continually endeavoring
to bring the law of heredity into force so far as
desirable characteristics are concerned, and as
continually striving to prevent the operation of
the law so far as undesirable characteristics are
concerned.
The fact that animalsvary permits of an indi-
vidual being an improvement on its parents. If
this individual is allowed to transmit its good char-

acteristics, improvement may be attained. With-

out progressive variation breeders could not secure
improvement. Probably all they could do would
be to prevent deterioration.
If a breeder is trying to improve his .

flock, he
looks closely for those individuals that show the
greatest tendency to vary. These individuals he
selects for breeding stock. He finds that their

young vary considerably. They do not closely

resemble each other, nor do they closely resemble
their parents. If an abundance of good food and

congenial surroundings be provided, he may expect,

in the course of a few generations, that some indi-
viduals will show a marked tendency to vary in
the direction of improvement. By judicious mating,
156 Farm Poultry

some or all of the desiredimprovements may be

transmitted and rendered permanent. The improve-
ment of breeds consists essentially in fixing the
desired variations.
Poultrymen usually look to the male for the
.

greatest tendency to vary.* Consequently in many

improvements and in the development of many
new breeds the male leads. As a rule, the males

FIG. 56. Aninclosed scratching-shed, an excellent plan Rhode

Island Agricultural Experiment Station.

of a breed or variety differ more from one another

than the females differ from each other. The young
more nearly resemble the female than they do the
male. It is also observed that the organs most
highly developed in the male differ more than do
the organs which are most highly developed in the
female, that is, the comb, wattles, and tail, which
are most highly developed in the male, differ more
""'Heredity," by Wm. H. Brooks.
 In-and-in-breeding 157

than those parts which are most highly developed

in the female. The improvement of domesticated
fowls depends upon the transmission of desired
characteristics which have been produced through
the action of this law or fact of variation.
In-and-in-breeding. This term is often used
in a rather loose sense to indicate the breeding
together of animals which are more or less closely
related. It is generally used, however, to indicate
the breeding together of animals that are closely
related for several successive generations; and in
this sense it is used in this discussion. As breeders
have not agreed on an exact definition of in-and-in-
breeding, there is a considerable difference of opin-
ion as to just what the term implies. Some breeders
hold that the term implies only the mating of animals
of the closest relationship, while others strenuously
maintain that more distant relationship should be
included. It is held by some that breeding together
animals which have a more distant degree of relation-
ship than that known in the human family as aunt
and nephew or uncle and niece, should not be recog-
nized as coming within the meaning of this term.
On the other hand, others are emphatic in including
more remote relationship.
In-and-in-breeding has played a most important
part in the formation of breeds and also in the
improvement of breeds that were well established.
As variation and selection enable the breeder to
158 Farm Poultry

produce individuals of superior merit, he will

naturally try to perpetuate this superiority and to
reap the advantages of it through successive gene-
rations in his herd or flock. This has been made
possible through in-and-in-breeding. Almost with-
out exception marked improvement is first noted
in one or two animals. If the progeny of these
animals are bred to each other or to one of their
parents, the young resulting from this mating will
contain a much larger percentage of the "blood"
of the animal in which the improvement was noted
than could be obtained in any other way. Con-
sequently the chances that the improvement will
be transmitted are considerably enhanced.
In other words, in-and-in-breeding enables the
breeder to accumulate or "pile up" the blood of
a superior animal in the descendants of this valu-
able individual. To make use of an illustration,
it may be supposed that A and B represent two
animals of the same breed and that A is of superior
merit. If these animals are mated, the blood of
the progeny will be represented by one-half A and
one-half B. If A be bred to one of the progeny, the
blood of the offspring of the last union will be repre-
sented by three-fourths A and one-fourth B. This
practice may be repeated in succeeding generations
and would be accepted by all as in-and-in-breeding.
As the percentage of blood is increased the improve-
ment is more likely to be perpetuated.
 Benefits and Dangers of in-and-in-breeding 159

While in-and-in-breeding serves a most useful

purpose, under certain conditions, it should not be
forgotten that it may also cause deterioration in
various ways. A commonly accepted belief is, that
the practice of in-and-in-breeding maya result in
reduced constitution, may weaken the mental vigor,
reduce the size of the individuals and make them
less prolific. Many instances might be cited to show
that any one or all of these evils may accrue from
in-and-in-breeding, and it is also true that any one
or all of these evils will not be produced to a cer-
tainty by this practice.
It is recognized that both good and evil results

may follow the practice of in-breeding, but it is

not generally accepted that the good or evil results
are inproportion to the degree of relationship
between the animals mated. If in-breeding is to be
practised, the degree of relationship should not be
the determining factor. A more rational selection
is based on the individual merits of the animals to be

mated. When related individuals are to be bred

together, the selection should be made on the suita-
bility of the animals to each other and not wholly
on the degree of relationship.
The safety with which in-and-in-breeding may
be practised will depend largely on the skill that
is used in selecting the related animals that are

to be mated, and on the extent to which the practice

is carried. The skilful breeder will be able to derive
160 Farm Poultry

many benefits, and

will cease the practice before

positive injuries accrue. It may safely be asserted,

that promiscuous or indiscriminate in-and-in-breed-
ing should not be practised.
Farmers sometimes select from their young
fowls the best cockerel to head the flock the next
year,and hold that as long as they are breeding
from their best stock, improvement should follow.
In so doing, they perhaps forget that the weaknesses
are moredikely to be multiplied in the progeny than
the desired characteristics.
Anything like general or flock in-and-in-breeding
should not be attempted; neither should in-and-in-
breeding be practised by any except careful and
keen observers who have a good knowledge of the
animals with which they are dealing and are able
to detect tendencies for good or evil at an early
stage of development.
Cross-breeding. This may be defined as breed-
ing together animals of two distinct breeds. For
many years cross-breeding was a favorite method,
and probably became popular because of the fre-

quently observed fact that increased vigor was

imparted by it. During the eighteenth century,
animals were frequently cross-bred, which, undoubt-
edly, produced in the progeny a plasticity of con-
stitution and well prepared them for the hands of
skilful breeders who later attempted to improve them.

Crossing does not always bring improvement,

 Dangers of Cross-breeding 161

although there seems to be a somewhat prevalent

idea that such improvement necessarily results.
While certain breeds may be crossed and will thus
produce increased vigor in the progeny, yet there
is frequently a tendency to reversion. That is, the
progeny will resemble a remote ancestor, perhaps
one of the original breeds from which the improved
animals were descended. Charles Darwin bred a
Black Spanish and a White Silky together and in
the second generation secured a fowl that very
much resembled the wild Jungle Fowl of India,
from which domesticated fowls are supposed to
have descended.
Whenever a cross is made between individuals
of distinct and well-established breeds, reversion
is most likely to occur. is,That the blood of cer-
tain distinct breeds does not blend well. It is said
that a well-established white breed crossed upon
a black one that is equally well
established, is
quite as likely to produce copper-colored chicks as
black or white, or a mixture of the two. There
seems to be a greater tendency to reversion when-
ever violent crosses are made.
There is a somewhat prevalent idea that if a
fowl that has certain good qualities be crossed on
one having other good qualities, the offspring
will have the good qualities of both. This is a most
serious mistake. In fact, the poor qualities of both
parents are even more likely to be seen in the off-
162 Farm Poultry

spring than are the good qualities of both. Some

authorities state that the poor qualities of both
parents are more likely to be seen in the offspring
than the good qualities of either.
When we consider that the characters of the
parents that are most likely to be transmitted to the
offspring are those that are common to both parents,
we can understand that when the improved char-
acters of the parents differ widely the unimproved
characters that are common to both are most likely
to be transmitted.
There is much controversy over the influence of
a preceding sire on the offspring. Some breeders
hold that in mammals if a pure-bred female becomes
pregnant by a mongrel she is forever after incapable
of bearing pure-bred offspring. Poultrymen, how-

ever, do not hold such extreme views. It is doubtful

whether has been clearly shown that the breed-
it

ing qualities of a pure-bred hen have been injured

by a previous mating.
Cross-breeding has rendered a great service
in the formation of new breeds. The Plymouth
Rocks and Wyandottes are familiar examples of
breeds formed by crossing well-established breeds.
It is of doubtful economy to cross pure-bred fowls
of well-established races, except for special pur-
poses which be of service to the general
will rarely
farmer. It may happen that skilled poultrymen will
find it to their advantage to cross distinct breeds for
 Pure-bred Stock 163

the production of a speciality which has become

quite famous. Successful practices of this kind are
comparatively few, and are of foremost interest to
the specialist. Whenever pure breeds are crossed
it is for the production of a merchantable product,

and the use of these fowls for the production of pure-

bred stock is therefore lost.
Breed pure-bred stock. The question is frequently
asked whether it will pay to breed pure-bred stock.
If the answer is made candidly and honestly it must
be given as both affirmative and negative. It cer-
tainly will pay to breed pure-bred stock if proper
food, care and management be given. It probably
will not pay the average farmer to invest in expen-
sive pure-bred stock and to keep this stock in the

way in which the fowls of mixed breeding are gen-

erally kept throughout the country. As the pure-
bred stock had received superior advantages in
order to bring it to its greatest usefulness, so must
it receive advantages which the common stock of

the country does not receive if it is to remain supe-

rior. In other words, the common stock of mixed
breeding throughout the country is practically
equal to the thoroughbred stock that is kept under
the same conditions for any considerable length of
time. If neglect and improper feeding are not to enter
into the problem, the pure-bred stock will, undoubt-
edly, give by far the best satisfaction. The grain-
raiser finds that a certain variety of grain is hardy
164 Farm Poultry

and recognized as "sure," that is, it rarely fails to

is

bring reasonable crop, yet under the most favorable

a
conditions would not produce a maximum crop.
Under the most favorable conditions other varieties

may outyield hardy one, but under adverse

this
conditions would not be able to withstand the severe
test endured by it. So we find pure-bred stock, in
some respects, resembles the improved and more
productive but less hardy varieties of grain. Under
the most favorable conditions the pure breeds will,
undoubtedly, prove most remunerative. Under
adverse conditions, where hardiness is the all-impor-
tant consideration, the useful qualities cannot remain
so highly developed.
It is frequently said that if pure-bred stock is

good foranything should

itprove superior in the
same conditions under which common stock is
usually kept; but the owner of common stock says
that he does not believe in pampering his fowls.
This a serious mistake, and one that frequently
is

prevents the true appreciation of improved breeds.

It should not be forgotten that the best of improved
breeds have reached their superiority through years
of skilful feeding and breeding. Food has always

played an important part in the formation and

improvement of all noted useful breeds. Abundant
feeding and good care have produced an organiza-
tion that is capable of digesting and assimilating
large quantities of food and turning it to good
 Common and Pure-bred Stock Compared 1G5

account. That is, the machine is an economical one

and strong enough to do much work. The farmer
who invests in pure-bred stock and gives it the
same treatment that has maintained for years an
indifferent lot of fowls finds the improved stock
satisfactory at first, but succeeding generations
become more and more unsatisfactory until they
reach the level of the common stock, which was the
highest standard that his care and feeding could
maintain. Such breeders stoutly maintain that it
does not pay to breed pure-bred stock.
Improved breeds are the best, and should be
selected whenever it is possible to give them proper
food and care. While they may not prove greatly
superior under adverse conditions, yet they respond
so much more quickly to improved conditions that
those who are able to care properly for their fowls
will derive much greater profit from the best than
from the ordinary. Improved breeds are most
remunerative when an abundance of suitable food
is provided, and the fowls are given care conducive

to the particular purpose for which they are kept.

IMPROVEMENT OF COMMON FOWLS

If it is desired to improve the fowls of the farm

without the outlay of any considerable time or
money except that which is to be given in providing
better food and environment, perhaps the most
166 Farm Poultry

satisfactory way is to use a pure-bred male. This

method enables the farmer or poultryman to change
at once one-half of his breeding flock to pure-bred
stock so far as influence on the progeny is concerned.
From the breeders' standpoint the male consti-
tutes one-half of the flock, and under the average
existing conditions this will probably be a fair state-
ment of the male's influence. Undoubtedly there
are many instances in which the male's influence
is very much greater than the combined influence of
all the females of the flock. Instances of this kind
are more likely to be seen when the male is a well-
formed, strong,, vigorous bird, from equally well-
formed, strong, pure-bred ancestors. If these con-
ditions have existed for several generations, the
importance of the male is all the more marked.
If the females are of mixed or no particular

breeding, their influence is likely to be far less than

that of the male. So it may be safely said that the
influence of a strong, vigorous, pure-bred male,
introduced into a flock of females of mixed breeding,
will be at least equal to that of all the females in a
transmission of
parental The
characteristics.

progeny from a well-bred male and females of mixed

breeding are generally quite uniform in form and
color. a farmer's boy has been delighted with
Many
the sudden improvement of a flock of fowls by the
introduction of a pure-bred male. In fact, many
of them have found that the progeny of this breed-
 Improvement of Common Stock 167

ing have proved to be the most desirable fowls

for the farm. Some of them, to their sorrow, have
tried to maintain the fine appearance and highly
useful qualities of these fowls
by selecting breeding
stock from the general flock. Consequently, the
next generation was less satisfactory and the third
and fourth were disappointing. This condition has
been most noticeable when the pure-bred male
and the more or less indifferent females have repre-
sented quite marked differences in type. Instead of
selecting a male from the general flock, another
pure-bred male of the same breed as the first
should have been secured. This process is known
in stock-breeding as "grading up." The larger
the proportion of pure-bred blood the higher the
grade.
In breeding for egg production it is held to be of
great importance to select males whose female
ancestors possessed the desired characteristics to
a marked degree. The fact that the characteristics
of our fowls are transmitted through the male
makes it comparatively easy for the poultryman to
improve his flock through the introduction of supe-
rior pure-bred males. It is held by some that egg

production, which is a reproductive function, is

transmitted almost wholly through the male. How-
ever, the conservative breeder will be slow to entirely
give up certain practices as to selection that in
the past have apparently been potent factors for
168 Farm Poultry

good, and place his whole dependence on the influence

of the male.
A rational method of improving a flock of fowls
is first to choose with great care the breed for the

purpose; from this breed pick a strong, vigorous,

pure-bred male, and mate him with the best hen;
from the progeny of this mating select the best
females, to place with another vigorous, pure-bred
male of the same breed as the first. This operation
should be repeated each year, and eventually the fowls
will have all the characteristics of pure-bred fowls.
The yearly choice of a pure-bred male should be
continued.
It is undoubtedly best to breed from unrelated
stock so far as possible. It may also be safely said
that if the greatest improvement is to be made,
only mature fowls should be used for breeding
purposes. Particularly is this true with the females
of egg breeds. Pullets are not so desirable as hens
for breeding purposes. Continued breeding from
immature stock has a tendency to weaken the con-
stitution and to reduce the size. If it is necessary
to use pullets they should, as a rule, be mated with
mature males. On the other hand, it is frequently
desirable to mate hens with cockerels.
Breed useful fowls. It is the object of the farmer
to breed useful fowls. While the individuals may
not possess the requisite fancy points to win prizes
at exhibitions, yet these same individuals should
 Breed Useful Fowls 169

be noted for usefulness. The most noted flocks for

egg production, those that have gained a national

reputation, have been selected and improved for
this one particular quality to the exclusion of fancy

points, on which so much importance is placed at

the great poultry exhibitions. In the early history
of these flocks, the surplus birds were not largely
sold for breeding purposes. The reputation of
these flocks had not been established, and because
the birds did not possess the prize-winning fancy
points, the demand for them was not equal to the
supply. In later years, when the reputation of these
flocks became well known, the surplus stock found
ready sale at remunerative prices, solely because
of their usefulness. While farm stock should receive

recognition at agricultural fairs, yet it will be shown

at a disadvantage when placed in competition with
the fanciers' fowls, which are bred largely for exhi-
bition. The farmer's stock should be selected and
maintained for the profit of eggs and meat, rather
than for the profit which the fowls may bring when
sold for breeding stock.
many farmers may sell
It is quite possible that

breeding stock remunerative

at prices, although
the main object should not be to produce birds for
this purpose. Whenever one depends on the sale
of fowls for breeding purposes for profit, it becomes

necessary to enter into competition with other

breeders at the great poultry shows. This necessi-
170 Farm Poultry

tates a departure from the purpose for which farm

fowls are kept.
Farmers and others who maintain flocks for
usefulness should not forget the importance of
selection. Remember that all improvement largely
is

due to selection, and that after the flock is well

established it can be further improved for the pur-
poses for which the breeds are kept by rigorous
selection, skilful breeding, and improved feeding.
It is possible for every farmer to improve any breed
of fowls for purpose. This of course implies
his

productiveness under certain conditions. A breed

of fowls, or a flock of fowls of a distinct breed, may
be brought to a high state of perfection by a poul-
tryman, considering the conditions under which
he keeps them, and under more favorable conditions
they may be still further improved.
 CHAPTER IX
FEEDING FOE EGGS AND FOR MEAT

THE successful poultry-keeper recognizes that

not all kinds of wholesome poultry food which
the market affords are equally well suited to his
fowls which he keeps for the production of either
eggs or meat. He lays great stress on the careful
selection of food for the making of special products.

FEEDING FOR EGGS

If one desires to feed economically for egg pro-

duction, .and has learned little or nothing from
experience, a most valuable lesson may be learned
from nature. It will be observed that those fowls
which are more or less neglected, and, conse-
quently, not so far removed from the natural
state, lay most abundantly in the spring. In this
respect, then, the poultry-keeper may profitably
aim, so far as it lies within his power, to prolong
the spring throughout the year. In the spring
these fowls are at liberty to roam at will and to
find abundant green food in the tender shoots
of grass and other plants. They find meat food in
(17D
172 Farm Poultry

the form of insects, worms and other low forms of

animal life. These, with grain in some form, make
a most perfect food for laying hens. If the grain
food is not supplied to them by the poultry-keeper,
they may still find form of seeds of various
it in the

plants. In other words, should be the aim of

it

the poultry-keeper to supply the food and conditions

which tend to produce eggs most abundantly.
While it is true that the physical organization of
fowls is such that they will be unable to maintain
throughout the year the abundant supply of eggs
of the springtime, yet this will be most nearly

approached if the conditions are springlike the

year round.
Exercise. In the spring season the fowls that
are given free range obtain abundant exercise. It is
important to provide exercise for all noted egg
breeds, as these fowls are active in disposition.
Close confinement without exercise is not condu-
cive to the best results, although the quality and
quantity of food provided may be most excellent.
While exercise required for egg production, it
is

is not desirable when the finest quality of meat is

sought, particularly during the last of the fattening

period, so that what may be
said of exercise for egg
production should not be applied to fattening fowls.
Quality of food. It has been clearly shown by
experiments that the food consumed by laying
hens affects the flavor of the eggs. In extreme
 Influence of Food on Flavor of Egg 173

cases, not only is the flavor of the food imparted,

but the odor as well. Onions* have been fed to
fowls in sufficient quantity to impart a decided
flavor and odor to the eggs. So marked was the
result that persons wholly unacquainted with the
experiment had no difficulty in distinguishing
these eggs from those which were laid by hens
fed a normal ration.
The mere fact that food influences the flavor of

eggs extreme
in cases, is a sufficient reason for
the poultryman to reject all food that is not strictly
wholesome. It has not been determined to what
extent the ordinary poultry foods influence the
flavor; but tainted food should not be permitted
to enter into the composition of the ration. If

food of high and objectionable flavor imparts its

peculiar taste and odor to the egg, it is not safe

for those who desire to produce a prime article
to run unnecessary risks in feeding doubtful food.
Pure, wholesome food is so abundant and cheap that
there is no excuse for a questionable practice.
Oftentimes food of an inferior quality as to
market requirements may serve a most useful
purpose as poultry food, and its use would not
in any way be condemned. Shrunken and cracked
grain, and mixed grains that cannot be readily
separated may make most excellent food, while
*From unpublished results of experiments conducted by the author,
at Cornell University.
174 Farm Poultry

those foods that are moldy or have objectionable

odors or flavors should be avoided.
Forced feeding for eggs. It is maintained by
some authorities that, when hens are given a course
of forced feeding for egg production, their period
of usefulness is materially shortened. This, no doubt,

may be true in some instances, when the fowls

have been injudiciously fed. Experience has shown
that possible with ordinarily vigorous animals
it is

to carry, the forcing process so far that many indi-

viduals will be permanently injured. These cases,
however, should be considered as extreme and do
not come within the province of judicious feeding.
The injury done to dairy animals by forced feeding
is chiefly due to the injudicious feed-
undoubtedly
ing of unnatural foods. The injury is associated

mostly with the digestive functions. While it may

be possible to injure the digestion of laying hens by
forced feeding, yet the danger from this practice
is very much less with poultry than with other

classes of farm stock. Given a suitable ration and

an opportunity to take necessary exercise in pure
air, the hens' judgment as to quantity will not
often lead the poultryman astray.
Egg production is a reproductive function, and
in this respect differs from milk production in
the dairy cow. To what extent this reproductive
function be injured by feeding has not been
may
fully determined. It has been observed many times
 Forced Feeding for Egg Production 175

that after a year of forced egg production the number

of eggs laid has been somewhat decreased; that is,
it is possible, by means of extra food and care, to

induce fowls to lay more eggs than would be pro-

duced under good average conditions; but it is
not possible to keep up the highest degree of egg
production through two or three, successive years.
It is, therefore, the practice of many poultrymen
to keep only young birds for egg production and
to force them for this product. When the hens
have served a period of forced egg-laying, they
are replaced by younger fowls. This method will
necessitate keeping older fowls as breeding stock,
which is in accord with the most approved practice.
The question will naturally arise Will the forced
:

feeding of young fowls for egg production lessen

their vitality or in any way injure their value as

breeding stock? At the present time there is not

sufficient accurate experimental data at hand to
warrant a positive answer, yet it is well known
that many of the most successful egg-producing
flocks have been built up by persistently pursuing
this practice for many years.
Corn. Of the grain foods that are usually
supplied to farm poultry, corn has been, and still
is, the most popular. This, no doubt, is largely
due to the abundance and to its relative
of this grain
cheapness. the fowls are somewhat closely con-
If

fined, a corn ration is found to be somewhat too

176 Farm Poultry

fattening most satisfactory results, particu-

for

larly when fed to general-purpose fowls. If this

grain is supplied to the noted egg breeds that have
a wide range, much more satisfactory results are
likely to be obtained. It should be the aim of the
poultryman to feed considerable grain in such man-
ner as will not cause the fowls to become excessively
fa*t. Fat fowls, as a rule, do not lay so abundantly
as do those in moderate flesh. When corn is fed to
laying hens that have opportunity to take plenty
of exercise and to secure for themselves insects
and green food, much better results will be obtained
than when it is fed to the same kind of fowls closely
confined. Experiments have shown that a clear corn
ration, given to closely confined Leghorn hens, has
resulted in a marked decrease in egg production
and sometimes accompanied by feather pulling.
is

Feather pulling usually indicates a faulty ration.

The fowls have a craving for something not sup-
plied to them, and resort to feather eating to
obtain it.

Experiments have clearly shown that food has

a great influence on the color of the yolk of the egg.
Corn will give deep yellow or highly colored yolks.
Clear corn and water, the feeding of which would
be considered an extreme case, will produce yolks
which are objectionable to many consumers on
account of the extremely high color. Fairly high-
colored yolks are generally preferred, and a moderate
 Value of Corn as Food 177

amount of corn in the ration can be depended

upon to produce the desired color.
The greatest economy in feeding fowls will
depend largely upon the ability of the feeder to
make the best use of corn. In supplying food for
domesticated fowls, it should be remembered that
three kinds of constituents should be present, in
tolerably well-fixed proportions, if the desired
results are to be obtained most economically. These
constituents are mineral, nitrogenous and carbon-
aceous. Corn is deficient in both mineral and
nitrogenous matter. So, whenever corn forms a con-
siderable proportion of the daily ration, these
deficiencies should be supplied in some acceptable
form. Animal meal, cut bone, animal charcoal
and bone ash are all used for this purpose.
Wheat. Wheat is preferred to corn by many
because not quite so fattening, and is, there-
it is

fore, a somewhat safer food in the hands of the

unskilled feeder. On account of the low price of
wheat it is becoming a very com-
in recent years,
mon poultry food.Wheat, when fed alone, pro-
duces eggs having much lighter-colored yolks than
are produced by a corn ration. Wheat alone has
somewhat too wide a nutritive ratio for best results.
This grain should be supplemented by some meat
food or skimmed milk in order that the proportion
of protein may be materially increased. Wheat
should not form all of the grain ration of laying
178 Farm Poultry

hens, but when mixed with other grains it is most

highly prized.
Buckwheat. Buckwheat, like wheat, when fed
alone, has toowide a nutritive ratio and produces
white flesh and light-colored yolks. These are
objectionable features to most Americans, but
in some large cities the foreign population prefers
white skin and light-colored flesh. This grain has
never been so popular as a poultry food in the
United States as corn or wheat.
Oats. Oats are considered a most excellent
food, and perhaps come nearer the ideal than any
other single grain, particularly if the hull or outer
covering is removed. This hull, being tough and
woody and quite indigestible, is not relished by
the fowls, although some fowls will learn to eat
whole oats. Oats also tend to give the fowl light-
colored flesh and light-colored skin. On this account
oats are not recommended for a finishing food,
unless skin and shanks of a light color are desired.
Linseed meal. A little linseed meal in the ground
food serves a most valuable purpose, particularly
at the molting period. "Hens having linseed
meal molted nearly all at the same time, earlier
in the season, and more rapidly."*
Green food in general. When fowls are some-
what closely confined in yards or pens, it will be
necessary to supply some kind of green food in
*Bulletin No. 39, New York Agricultural Experiment Station.
 Grains and Succulent Food 179

order obtain the greatest production of eggs.

to
This should be given them throughout the year.
The question of how to supply the best food at the
least costone that each poultry-keeper must
is

decide largely for himself. It will probably make

very little difference what kind of green food is
supplied, provided that it is relished by the fowls.
If the runs or yards are large, so that fresh grass

may be supplied to them during the summer months,

little or no other green food will be required.
Clover, etc.Clover cut during the early spring
is perhaps one of the cheapest and best of foods.
It nitrogenous and is readily eaten when cut
is

fine in a fodder-cutter. If clover is frequently

mowed, a good quality of green food may be obtained

nearly all in seasons of abun-
summer, particularly
dant Should the supply of clover be limited,
rainfall.
or the season prove an unusually dry one, other
legumes may provide a satisfactory substitute.
Alfalfa will answer the purpose well if fed to the
fowls in a fresh condition. A small plot, if well
established, will afford a great quantity of green
food if it ismowed. Young alfalfa is
frequently
tender and by the fowls, but when it
is relished
approaches the blossoming stage it becomes more
woody and is not so valuable. Canada field peas
are sometimes grown for this purpose, and the
peas, if fed whole while in a tender and crisp
condition, are eaten readily by the fowls.
180 Farm Poultry

Beets (Mangel-wurzels). These beets make an

excellent green food for the winter months. As
they are easily raised and will maintain their fresh
condition in an ordinary root cellar during the winter
months, they fulfil many of the requirements of
a practical poultry food. They may be fed by
simply splitting the root length-
wise with a large knife. If
given to the fowls in this form,
they will pick out the crisp,
fresh pulp from the cut surface.
Root-cutters are on the market
which cut beets in fine shreds
somewhat resembling earth-
worms in form. (See Fig. 57.)
These shreds are eaten readily.
Under ordinary conditions,
fowls should have, once a day,
about all the green food they
will eat. The form in which the
FIG. 57. A vegetable-cutter.
beets are offered is not impor-
tant, provided they are consumed while in a clean,
fresh condition. Unless the pieces of roots be small

enough for the fowls to swallow them, large pieces like

half a beet are preferable. When beets are fed from
an open trough, in pieces of the size usually made
by ordinary root-cutters, many pieces are likely to
be scattered in the litter and more or less soiled
before eaten, if eaten at all. Either very small,
 Succulent Food 181

or large and practically immovable pieces, are

preferred.
Cabbage. Cabbage is relished by fowls, and is
highly prized as a poultry food by many expe-
rienced poultrymen. Cabbage, like beets, should
be fed in a fresh condition. It is the practice of
some poultry-keepers to suspend heads of cabbage
within reach of the fowls and permit them to
partake ad libitum.
Rape, etc. Rape, sea kale, and other plants
of the cabbage family, which are noted for their
crisp and leaves, furnish excellent green
stems
poultry Dwarf Essex rape may be sown
food.
in narrow rows and given horse cultivation. When
the leaves are large enough to furnish considerable
food, they may be picked and fed to the fowls.
If hand-picking is objectionable, the leaves may
be cut with a sickle or scythe. If cut a few
inches from the ground, a second or third crop will
often be produced from one seeding.
Clover hay. If green food is not at hand for
winter feeding, a good substitute may be found
in steamed clover hay, particularly if it is mixed
with the soft or ground grain food. It is impor-
tant to have this hay finely cut. If the steamer
is not at hand, the hay may be satisfactorily treated

by putting it in a tight vessel and pouring on boil-

ing water sufficient to moisten all the cut hay,
permitting it to remain tightly covered over night.
182 Farm Poultry

Meat foods. Poultrymen find it to their advan-

tage to imitate the natural food of the fowls and
to furnish some meat food. Fowls that are given
a wide range in the summer time feed largely on
insects and earthworms; but during the winter

months, and when fowls are

confined in comparatively
small and yards, it
houses
will be best to feed meat in
some form. "Vegetable foods,
even though furnishing equal
amounts of all nutrients and
in the proportions con-
sidered suitable, are shown
to be much inferior to ani-
mal foods furnishing the
same amounts of nutrients
and in the same propor-
FIG. 58. A bone-cutter. 7 *
tions.'
Fresh bones, which may be obtained from meat-
markets, if finely cut with bone-cutters (Figs. 58,
59), make one of the best, if not the best, of meat
foods for laying hens. This is also excellent for
little chickens. poultrymen, however, can-
Many
not depend upon the local meat-markets for their
supply, particularly during the warm weather.
After the bones have become tainted they should
be rejected as unfit for poultry food. When fresh
*Eighth Annual Report, Mass. Hatch Experiment Station.
 Meat Foods and Skim Milk 183

bones cannot be obtained, animal meal may be

relied on for satisfactory results. Only meal that
is guaranteed wholesome should be procured. A
good quality will generally contain about 10 per
cent of nitrogen. This meal should be dry enough
to keep well for several seasons if necessity requires.
Canned meat foods, specially prepared for poul-
try, are on the market.
These give satisfactory re-
sults under ordinary con-

ditions, but are usually

found to be somewhat
more expensive than the
animal meals. Some of the
so-called poultry meat
foods that are preserved in
tin cans consist largely of FIG. 59. Another style of
bone-cutter.
liver.
Skim milk. Skim milk may be substituted,
wholly or in part, for meat food without a marked
decrease in egg production, provided the proper
grain ration is given. In order to substitute milk
entirely for meat, it will probably be necessary
to give the fowls milk to drink instead of water
and to mix soft food with the milk. If milk be
depended upon entirely to take the place of meat,
somewhat greater skill will probably be required
in feeding than if a good quality of animal meal
is fed.
184 Farm Poultry
<.

Evaporated milk by-products, known as gran-

ulated milk, milk albumen and various other trade
names, have been fed to fowls, both young and
mature, with quite satisfactory results. These
products are rich in protein and may often be used
to good advantage in compounding rations.
Grit. It is necessary that fowls be supplied
with some kind of grit, which is used in the giz-
zard for grinding the food. Fowls at all ages, from
the little chicken just hatched to the mature fowl,
require grit if hard food is given them. When
soft food alone is supplied, little or no grit will
be required. During the summer months, when
fowls have a large range, they are usually able
to find sufficient grit for themselves. Small pieces
of stone, cinders, etc., are eaten. Crushed lime-
stone and crushed granite also answer the purpose
admirably when it is necessary to supply grit arti-
ficially. Crushed granite, on account of its exces-
sive hardness, is more durable than pieces of softer
material. There are many poultry-supply houses
that keep crushed granite in various sizes, suitable
for all kinds of poultry. Crushed oyster shells will
also furnish material for grinding the food, although

they are not recommended solely for this purpose.

or sharp splinters of glass or dry bone
"Long
should be avoided. The size of particles of grit,
for hens, had better be larger than a kernel of wheat
and should be smaller than a kernel of corn. An
 Grit and Lime 185

unlimited supply of pounded glass has been attended

with no bad result when the food and other grit
available to the fowls contained an abundance of

lime, but, when the food was deficient in lime and

no other grit was attainable, hens ate an injuriously
large amount of glass."*
Lime. Many experiments and also chemical
analyses of foods and of eggs show that there is
not sufficient lime consumed by the fowls, in ordi-
nary poultry foods, to form the shells of eggs pro-
duced by laying hens, particularly when they
are producing eggs most abundantly. It is there-
fore necessary to supply lime, in some form, to

laying hens. Crushed oyster shells are recom-

mended for this purpose. It is found to be sat-
isfactory to place the crushed shells before the
fowls in such a manner that they may eat the
amount needed, and it is usually safe to rely on
the judgment of the fowls in this respect. Some
poultrymen, however, mix crushed oyster shells
with the soft food in addition to the supply which
should be kept before them all the time. "The
feeding of oyster shells during the laying sea-
son, when they can be cheaply obtained, is recom-
mended. One pound will contain lime enough
for the shells of about seven dozen of eggs. Fine
gravel containing limestone will probably as well
supply the deficiency of lime existing in most foods,
"Bulletin No. 38, New York Agricultural Experiment Statipn,
186 Farm Poultry

but the use of some sharper grit with it may be

of advantage."*
Salt. A little salt is undoubtedly beneficial and
necessary, but it is poisonous if taken in large
quantities. Instances are frequently reported of
fowls being injured by eating salt. They are un-
doubtedly frequently misled in eating it, sup-
posing that they are eating grit. Rock-salt is par-
ticularly dangerous on this account. Some instances
have been known of fowls being poisoned by eat-
ing salt fish which had been carelessly thrown where
they could gain access to it. When fowls have a
wide range they eat grass, insects, and many other
things that furnish salt in some quantity. This may
explain why it is not necessary to feed salt under
these conditions.
Experiments made at the New York Agricultural
Experiment Station showed that salt was not
injurious in quantities below .063 ounce per day
for each hen (that is, nearly one-half pint per day
for 100 hens). The following, taken from Bulletin
No. 39, gives results of the experiment: "The num-
ber of eggs laid during this trial is of no great signifi-
cance, as it was about the end of the laying sea-
son and the hens were old; but, inasmuch as the
yield of eggs was twice as great from the hens
having salt, while it was mixed with the food, it
would appear that not enough was fed to very
*Bulletin No. 38, New York Agricultural Experiment Station.
 Amount of Salt Necessary 187

injuriously affect egg production. The salt used

was ordinary barrel salt, although not coarse.
Should rock-salt be exposed, or salt that contained
large crystals or fragments as large as the par-
ticles of gravel and grit eaten by hens, it would
of course not take long for a fatal amount to be
swallowed. For mature fowls it is probable that
salt at the rate of one ounce per day for 100 fowls

could, under ordinary conditions, be fed without

injury."
Sulfur. Sulfur is generally recognized as a
blood purifier, but should not be fed in any con-
siderable quantity unless its action is well under-
stood and precautions are taken to guard against
any undesirable results. It is generally recognized
that fowls take cold easily when fed sulfur.
Pepper. Pepper is sometimes given to fowls
suffering from cold or in the first stages of roup.
This is a stimulant and is sometimes given to improve
digestion. It is the general opinion, however,
that not necessary to feed
it is it if the proper con-
ditions are maintained.
How to feed. If those who have the responsi-
bility of providing food for fowls and other stock
will bear in mind that food is 'given for a two-
fold purpose, it will help them to appreciate the
importance of a bountiful supply of the proper
kind. Food sustains the physical organization of
the fowl and furnishes material for a useful prod-
188 Farm Poultry

uct in the form of eggs or meat, or both. It may

also be considered largely as the basis of improve-
ment in breeds and varieties, and is often spoken
of as the cause, and breed as the effect. While
this may not be strictly true in all cases, yet all
authorities believe that food has been a most potent
factor in the improvement of breeds if not the
chief cause.
The profit in feeding comes from the food con-
sumed in excess of that required for the main-
tenance of the body. If the individual makes
good use consumed, that which is not
of the food

required for maintenance should be directed chiefly

toward the production of merchantable articles.
It should not be held, however, that all of the
food consumed in excess of that required to main-
tain the body may be devoted to the production
of eggs or meat. As the ration is increased, the
work required of the fowls to digest and assimilate
this food is also increased. So no matter whether
the animal be a hen or a cow, the physical organ-
ization is required to do more work on a full ration
than on a light one, and food is required to supply
energy for this increased work.
There is little danger of overfeeding laying
hens if the proper kind of food is given. The diffi-
culty lies in not being able to secure fowls that
are, sufficiently strong to digest and assimilate
enough food to give the greatest profit. A strong
 Ground Food 189

tendency toward egg laying, a vigorous consti-

tution, and an abundance of suitable food, are
three prime essentials for profitable egg production.
Other things being equal, those fowls that are able
to digest and assimilate the largest quantities
of food will prove the most profitable.
It is the practice of some successful poultry-
men to feed a part of the daily grain ration ground,
and moistened with either milk or water. It is
held to be more economical to do a part of the
grinding by steam or water power than to require it all
to be done within the body of the fowl. In other words,
water or some other power is thought to be cheaper
than the muscular power of the laying hen. It
is true that the hen is required to take considerable
exercise, but this exercise does not materially aid
in grinding the food.
Some experiments have been made which tend
to show that there is considerable to be gained
in feeding ground or soft food. The following
is taken from an experiment station publication:*
"Two pens of laying hens, one of a large and the
other of a small breed, having a ration the grain
of which was whole, ate during their second year
somewhat more food at a little greater cost than
two similar pens having a ration in which half
the grain was ground and moistened.
"
Cochin hens having the whole grain ration
*Bulletin No. 106, New York Agricultural Experiment Station.
190 Farm Poultry

laid much better than those having the ground

grain, although neither lot laid at a profitable
rate during the second year. Leghorn hens having
a ration in which the grain was whole, consumed
on the average for two years over 20 per cent more
food for the same egg production than did similar
hens having half the grain in their ration ground and
moistened. The hens having whole grain had on
the average for two years 6.4 pounds of water-free
food for every pound of eggs produced. Those
f

having ground grain had on the average for two

years 5.3 pounds of water-free food for every pound
of eggs produced."
Poultrymen do not agree as to the time of day
when the soft food should be fed. Some hold that
such food should be given in the morning, for 'the
reason that the fowls have been on the perches
during the night and have largely digested the
food which was consumed the day before, and
consequently have comparatively empty crops and
digestive organs. In order that the morning meal
may be rapidly and easily digested they feed only
ground and moistened grain. They also hold that,
if the fowls are to be fed three times a day, whole

grain should be fed at noon and at night. Other

careful observers maintain that whole grain should
be given in the morning and that the ground food
should be given at noon. It is probably more impor-
tant to feed a part of the grain food in a ground
 Ground Food 191

or soft condition than it is to feed this food at any

particular time of day.
All poultrymen believe that it is important to

give the hens considerable exercise, par-

laying
ticularly during the winter months, and when they
are more or less closely confined. This may be
accomplished, in part, by requiring them to scratch
in the litter for their grain food.

FIG. 60. Feed trough protected by a revolving rod.

Equal parts of corn and oats ground, mixed

with an equal weight of wheat bran and fine mid-
dlings, make an excellent soft food when moist-
ened with milk or water. That is, the bran and
fine middlings together constitute one-half the
weight of the ration. The proportion of bran and
fine middlings may be varied somewhat. If the
mixture appears too sticky, less middlings and
more bran should be used. It is usually preferred

thoroughly wet; that is, enough milk or water

192 t
Farm Poultry

should be added to the ground grain to, wet all of

the grain after it is thoroughly stirred. It will
be necessary to feed this food in troughs. Con-
siderable ingenuity has been exercised in devising
convenient troughs that will keep the food clean.
A swinging trough, or one protected by an easy-turn-
ing rod, as shown in the illustrations, will answer the
purpose very well. (See Figs. 60 and 61.) Any safe
and convenient arrangement that will prevent the

FIG. 61. A swinging feed trough.

fowls from perching on the sides of the troughs will

meet the requirements of a satisfactory device.
Many poultrymen prefer to feed animal meal
in this soft food. From one to two pounds of animal
meal per day should suffice for twenty-five hens,
particularly if milk is used to moisten the ground
grain. A little linseed meal, which is particularly
valuable during moulting period, may also
the
be added. Horsemen have long known that when
animals are shedding their coats a little linseed
meal added to their ration hastens the shedding
of the old coat and gives more luster to the
 Grain Rations 193

new, and so poultrymen find that a little of this

meal during the molting period aids in the pro-
duction of a new coat of feathers.
The practice of feeding the mixed ground grain
in a dry condition has become popular with many
poultrymen. After extended trials it has been
found to be particularly well adapted to laying
hens. This feed is often spoken of as "dry mash"
and should constitute about one-third by weight
of the total grain food consumed. This "dry mash"
is fed from a hopper that is kept open before the
fowls for a part of the day only. The following
rations are recommended by the Poultry Department
of Cornell University:
GRAIN
Winter Ration Lbs.
Wheat 60
Corn 60
Oats 30
Buckwheat 30

Summer Ration
Wheat 60
Corn 60
Oats 30

GROUND FEED "DRY MASH"

Corn meal 60
Wheat middlings 60
Wheat bran 30
Alfalfa meal 10
Oil meal 10
Beef scrap 50
Salt 1

M
194 Farm Poultry

The whole grain should be fed once or twice a

day and scattered in the litter during the cold
months or whenever the fowls do not have ample
opportunity to take exercise out-of-doors. This
grain maybe scattered in the litter and given
in such quantity that the fowls will eat it up clean.
In fact, they should not be given quite all they
want to eat. They should be made to scratch over
the litter and pick out the last kernels. At night,
about an hour before they go on the perches, the
last meal of the day may be given them. This
should be given in such quantities that it will all
be consumed and still afford the fowls about all
they care to eat. In other words, they should go
on the perches at night with full crops. During
the night they have nothing to do except to digest
and assimilate the evening meal.
Litter. Straw, either whole, makes a
cut or
good litter for poultry houses for both winter and
summer. Hay may also be used for this purpose
if itmore convenient or cheaper than straw.
is

Buckwheat hulls are preferred by many on account

of cheapness.. In the vicinity of mills,where large
quantities of buckwheat are floured, buckwheat
hulls may be obtained cheaply. Shredded corn
fodder makes satisfactory litter, although it is
somewhat more expensive and answers the purpose
no better than straw. During the winter months,
the floor of the poultry house should be covered
 Food and Exercise 195

to a depth of a few inches withsome kind of litter.

This litter should be changed whenever it becomes
soiled or damp.

FEEDING FOR MEAT OR FATTENING

Feeding fowls for meat production may prop-

erly be discussed under two rather distinct heads
so far as exercise is concerned: Fattening mature
fowls, and feeding young growing fowls that are
to be sent to the market when a few months old.

Mature fowls no exercise during

will require little or
the process of fattening, while young fowls that
are growing rapidly will require considerable exercise
in order to keep them in a healthy and vigorous

condition, except perhaps for a short time during

the last of the fattening period, which is some-
times called "the finishing."
Whenever a choice quality of meat is to be pro-

duced, little or no should be given for

exercise
a few weeks immediately preceding the killing.
When the fowl is shut up or closely confined, the
muscles soften and the flesh becomes more tender.
It is conceded by those who most highly prize
tender flesh that close confinement, without exer-
cise, greatly improves the quality. It is also true
that fowls under these conditions take on fat rapidly
if the close confinement is not continued too long.

Little exercise, with plenty of pure air and an abun-

196 Farm Poultry

dance of soft food, are among the chief essentials

for economical fattening. If it is desired to fatten
fowls as quickly as possible, the ration should
consist largely of corn. Ground oats, wheat, buck-
wheat, and barley may also be used to some extent.
A variety of foods undoubtedly will serve a good
purpose in maintaining a good appetite somewhat
longer than could be maintained with but one or
two kinds of grain. After fowls have been kept for
some time on soft food, whole grain cannot form
a considerable portion of their ration without a
loss. The organs for grinding and digesting hard
food have been so long in disuse that they are quite
unfitted perform the office required of them
to
when hard or whole grain is provided.
The kind of food and the form in which it is
to be given will depend somewhat on the kind of
fowls. Some successful poultrymen, who make a
specialty of young fowls of fine quality, are accus-
tomed to feed animal meal in such proportion
that it form 10 to 20 per cent of the total ration.
will
No one would think of using so large a propor-
tion of animal meal in compounding a ration for
fattening matured fowls. In one case, the object
is to produce large quantities of tender flesh; in
the other, to improve the quality of the flesh by
confinement, and to induce the fowls to fatten
readily.
Separate the sexes. The sexes should be sep-
 Fattening and Exercise 197

arated before the fattening period begins. It is

always advisable to have the individuals as nearly
uniform as possible as regards age and size. Uneven
flocks are not nearly so satisfactory to feed as
uniform ones and are quite as unsatisfactory to
sell, particularly if they are sent to market
alive.

FIG. 62. A handy crate for carrying live fowls.

If it is desired to fatten cocks or cockerels that

show a disposition to fight, they should be con-
fined in coops which are provided with slat bottoms
or bottoms made of poles near enough together
so that the fowls cannot drop between them. These
coops should be placed at some distance from the
ground, so that the droppings will not foul them.
While attempts may be made to fight, yet as one
or both of the combatants will almost surely step
between the slats the combat will not be carried far.
198 Farm Poultry

Cramming. The English and French resort to

the system of forced feeding, known as cramming,
for the production of the choicest poultry for the
London and Paris markets. The English learned
this process from the French, and now carry it
on to a large extent in some parts of southern Eng-
land. The Heathfield district in Sussex County,

FIG. 63. An English method of arranging coops, where cramming is practised.

England, is noted for the large quantities of poul-

try that are fattened for the London markets
by this process. Young birds four or five months
old are placed in coops, which are raised about
three feet from the ground. These coops have
slat and bottoms and are protected from
sides
the weather by a roof. Each coop is large enough
to hold comfortably four or five birds. (See Fig.
63.) For the first ten days after placing the fowls
 Cramming 199

in the coops, they are fed twice a day soft food

from little troughs suspended within easy reach.
After they have eaten all they will, the troughs
are removed and no food is offered until the next
meal. The food consists largely of ground oats,
with the hulls re-

moved, and ground

barley. To this is

added a little tallow

so that each fowl
may receive about
a teaspoonful a day.
The fowls are fed
in this manner for
about ten days, at
the end of which
time they will not
eat so much on
account of loss of
appetite. They are
then fattened by the
FIG. 64. An English cramming machine.
cramming process,
the food being forced into the crop by means of
a machine. Fig. 64 illustrates a cramming machine
similar to those used in the great poultry districts of
England. The food is mixed with milk or water to
the consistency of thick porridge; that is, just
about as thick as it will
pour well.
is placed This
in a receptacle or hopper in the machine and is
200 Farm Poultry

forced through a rubber tube into the crop of the

chicken. This tube is forced down the chicken's
neck and a light pressure on a lever with the foot
forces thefood, while the hand on the outside of
the crop will detect the proper quantity. Men
operating this machine become very skilful. A good
operator can feed thirty dozen fowls per hour.
This cramming process is continued for about ten
days, when the fowls are dressed and sent to mar-
ket. During the major part
of the fattening season
the coops are placed out-of-doors. (See Fig. 63.)
When the weather becomes too cool, indoor coops
are used.
Before fowls are placed in fattening-pens they
should be given a thorough dressing of sulfur or
some other insecticide to kill the vermin. This is
particularly essential, as the fowls kept in coops
have no opportunity to combat these pests. Lay-
ing hens and other fowls should be provided with
dust-baths, but when fowls are placed in close
confinement for fattening, it is not feasible to
provide baths. Cleanliness is of the utmost impor-
tance for these confined fowls. The coops or cages
of fattening fowls should not be allowed to become

filthy, neither should they be too hot in summer

or too cool in winter.
The French and English use oats and buck-
wheat largely as fattening foods. They prefer
fowls having light-colored flesh with white skin.
 Cramming and Ordinary Methods Compared 201

Americans prefer yellow skin and flesh. Corn is,

therefore, to be preferred in this country as a
fattening food to wheat, barley, or buckwheat. It
not only produces the desired product but is the
cheapest food that the market affords.
Fattening by means of cramming has been tried
in several places in this country, but without pro-
nounced satisfactory results. The American market
does not demand so excessively fat fowls to bring
the highest prices as do some of the great markets
of Europe. Some experiments tend to show that
almost equal gains in weight may be obtained by
ordinary methods of feeding to those gained by
cramming. The gains in weight by the cramming
process are due mostly to the addition of fat, while
the ordinary methods produce more flesh.
 CHAPTER X
INCUBATORS AND BROODERS

WHETHER it is best to use incubators on farms

where only small flocks of fowls are kept, is often
a difficult question to decide, particularly for those
who are familiar with only the natural method of
incubation. As the adoption of modern methods
includes not only the purchase of an incubator
and a brooder to care for the young fowls, but also
carries with it a marked change in their manage-
ment, it is a question of considerable importance.
One frequently hears it said that if success is
"
to be attained, new and up-to-date" appliances
must be used, and that old methods are too slow
for the present age. In one sense this is undoubt-

edly true, but when seen from another viewpoint

it becomes very misleading. It is true, and prob-
ably always will be true, that in order to achieve
success in any line of work one should employ
the best means at his command. This does not
prove, however, that because the modern incubator
is a new invention and has proved to be a
great
advantage to many, it is best for every person
who desires to keep fowls to purchase one. Many
(202)
 Incubation and Incubators 203

incubators have been purchased that have been

little used.

INCUBATORS

Before an incubator is purchased for the farm,

it should be understood that it will be necessary

to devote more time and labor to its manage-

ment than is usually given to natural incubation.
Even the most successful and experienced poul-
trymen feel that there is yet much for them to
accomplish the best results with
learn, in order to
modern appliances for hatching and rearing the
various kinds of farm poultry. The successful
management of incubators requires close attention
and the best thought of the operator. In other
words, it is a business that should be thoroughly
learned. It should not be entered into with the idea
that is a simpler or easier method of hatching
it

eggs than the older and rather slow method of

natural incubation.
If only small flocks, consisting of from fifty to
one hundred fowls, are to be kept, probably it
will not pay the farmer who expects but a small
cash revenue from his fowls to attempt artificial
incubation. Particularly is this true if his fowls
belong to one of the so-called general-purpose
breeds. On the other hand, if it is desired to keep
a larger flock which consists principally or entirely
of one of the distinctively egg breeds, it undoubt-
204 Farm Poultry

edly will be best in the end if the art of artificial

incubation is thoroughly learned. The natural
processes of incubation are too slow to meet the
demands of the modern poultry-keeper who is

extensively engaged in When

the business. one
undertakes to produce eggs exclusively and desires
as many as possible in the winter, pullets will,
of course, be largely kept for this purpose, and these
cannot be depended on for natural incubation.
Under these conditions, it will be advisable to resort
to the use incubators and brooders,
t)f by means
of which the flock can be maintained. It would
be quite impossible for the poultrymen of modern
times to maintain large flocks of young birds for
egg production and rear chickens by the natural
method.
ARTIFICIAL INCUBATION

The art of hatching eggs by means of artificial

heat has been known for a long time.
Early travelers
in Egypt gave accounts of ovens that were used
for hatching the eggs of ducks, geese, and chickens.
Heat was supplied by fermenting manure. Remains
of these ovens are said to have been seen in com-

paratively recent times. It is said that the French

became interested in artificial incubation as early as
the fifteenth century, but not until the latter part of
the eighteenth century was use made of hot water as
a means of conveying heat for artificial incubation.
 Incubation 205

From this time until the middle of the nineteenth

century, comparatively little advancement was made
in the construction of incubators. Since 1870 many
improvements have been made and a large number
of incubators have been placed on the market.
In the manufacture of the modern incubator,
the idea has been largely to imitate nature. As
the hen applies heat above the egg, so nearly all
incubators apply heat to the egg-chamber from
above. In natural incubation the hen provides
a nest or shallow receptacle for the eggs, usually
on the ground. After laying a number of eggs,
the hen becomes "broody" and commences to sit,
or incubate. At this time the underpart of the
hen's body is more abundantly supplied with blood
than during the laying or molting periods. In
other words, what is known as the organ of incu-
bation, or plexus,most fully develops at this time.
This consists of anetwork of arterial blood-vessels,
near the surface of the body, which bring greater
heat to the eggs than would otherwise be supplied.
In order to perfect systems of artificial incubation,
many persons have made a close study of the natural
method and have been led to adopt some devices
or practices which were accidental or necessary
to the hen, but not essential to perfect incubation.
The fact that hens sometimes leave the nest in the
early morning to search for food, when the grass is

still wet with dew, and upon returning moisten

206 Farm Poultry

their eggswith their wet feathers, has led some to

sprinkle the eggs at various periods during the
process of incubation. This, however, has been
shown to be unnecessary, except possibly in local-
ities where the air is very dry. Poultrymen have
also learned close observation that, in the nest,
by
particularly as the period of incubation advances,
the eggs are arranged mostly with the large end
uppermost or toward the outer side of the nest. This
is probably due to the form of the nest and the
fact that the small end of the egg is heavier in
proportion to its size than the large end; that is,
the center of gravity approaches the small end,
which is, as incubation progresses, due to the devel-
opment of the air-chamber in the large end. The
fact that the eggs are arranged with the large end

uppermost, has led some persons to place the eggs

in the incubator trays in a similar position. With-
out doubt, the position of the eggs does not have
any particular influence on the hatching.
Many tests have been made to determine the
actual temperature of eggs when natural incubation
is taking place. These tests show a considerable
variation until the ninth or tenth day. Until this
time the eggs seldom reach 100.* Although the tem-
perature of the fowl is usually above 106, yet the
temperature of the eggs is seldom raised above 103,
owing to the fact that heat is applied only on one side.
* "Incubation and Its Natural Laws," Cyphers.
 Selecting an Incubator 207

Selection of an incubator. An inexperienced per-

son should exercise the same care and judgment
in selecting an incubator that would be exercised
when purchasing a mowing machine or other expen-
sive implement. It is no longer thought that one

FIG. 65. One hundred-and-eighty-egg incubator.

particular kind of mowingmachine is far superior

may be said that there
to all others. Similarly, it
are many good incubators on the market. A well-
made machine, similar to those in use by successful
poultrymen, will probably give satisfaction after
the business is once thoroughly learned. It should
208 Farm Poultry

be remembered that machines do not think, and

that the good judgment of the operator is one of
the most important essentials in artificial incuba-
tion. While incubators are often placed before
the public with somewhat flaring announcements,

FIG. 66. One-hundred-egg incubator.

stating that the operation of the machine is most

simple, it should not be forgotten that the most
successful operators are those who have given
the business their best thought and attention
throughout a long experience.
While there is much to be learned about arti-
 Selecting a Place for the Incubator 209

ficialincubation by experience, yet the beginner

cannot afford to ignore the knowledge which has
been gained by the experience of others. Manu-
facturers of have studied their own
incubators
machines more or less carefully, and are therefore
able to give some valuable information. Those who
are about to invest in an incubator should make
the most of the information given by manufacturers
and others, and expect to learn many valuable
lessons by their own experience.
Placing the incubator. On many farms it is not
easy to prepare a suitable place for an incubator.
In selecting a location four essentials should be kept
in mind, namely, ventilation, even temperature of

room, convenience, and freedom from danger of

fire. Most incubators are heated by lamps, and if
they are placed in a small room, considerable venti-
lation will be required in order to keep the air pure.
An even temperature is of considerable impor-
tance, although some tests with modern incubators
tend to show that the best hatches do not necessarily
result from the most uniform temperature of the

egg chamber. Uniform

temperature is desired,
however, and is maintain when the tem-
easiest to
perature of the room in which the incubator is placed
varies least.
It is important that the incubator be placed
ina room in which the air is in a normal condition,
that is, neither too dry nor saturated with moisture.
210 Farm Poultry

The ideal condition as to purity will approximate

the air out-of-doors where there is a free circulation.
The air should also contain at least a moderate
amount of moisture. The amount of moisture in the

FIG. 67. An incubator house Rhode Island Agricultural Experiment Station.

atmosphere should control, to some extent, the

ventilation of the incubator. It is desirable that a
considerable proportion of the moisture of the egg
be evaporated during the process of incubation. If
the air is very dry, a little ventilation will be suffi-
cient to secure the desired evaporation, while a
moist atmosphere would require much more ventila-
tion to secure the same result. The moist air of
a wet cellar which contains decaying fruit and vege-
tables is not suited to incubation.
Whenever kerosene oil lamps are kept contin-

ually burning weeks at a time, as they are in

for

incubators, there is some danger from fire. It is true

 Incubator Rooms 211

that the modern incubator lamps are well adapted

to the purpose, but the element of danger from fire
cannot be said to be wholly eliminated so long as
these lamps are permitted to burn in wooden build-
ings without the watchfulness of an attendant.
The convenience of an incubator room is prob-

ably one of the least of the essentials, yet it is of

so much importance that it should not be wholly
overlooked. Everything considered, probably a
dry, airy cellar or half-basement will make the
most desirable location for an incubator on the
farm. Many incubator rooms have been con-

FIG. 68. A small incubator building with poultry house attached.

Cornell University.

structed in excavations which were sufficiently

deep to permit of most of the room being below
the surface of the ground. (See Figs. 67 and 68.)
This method will indoubtedly secure an even tern-
212 Farm Poultry

perature, but the room is likely to be ventilated

with difficulty unless special provisions are made.
During the warm days of spring and early summer
it issomewhat difficult to ventilate a cellar or even
a basement without causing drafts, which would
interfere with the lamps and prevent them from

burning steadily. During cold weather, when the

air in the cellar is warmer than that outside, it will

readily escape through ventilating flues if given

an opportunity to do so; but whenever the outside
air is warmer and consequently lighter than the
cool impure air of the cellar, ventilation without
drafts becomes a serious problem.
Care of incubators. Incubators should receive
the same care and careful adjustment that are
given to other delicate machines. The accurate
working of the incubator will depend very largely
on the treatment it receives from the operator
or attendant. Whoever has charge of an incuba-
tor should plan to give it a careful inspection at
regular intervals. It should not be necessary,

however, to visit an incubator oftener than twice

a day. It is always well for the beginner to run the
incubator for a few days before filling it with eggs,
in order that it may be properly adjusted, and also
to give the operator a little experience before risk-
ing loss.
After the machine is adjusted and the atten-
dant has gained some knowledge of operating it,
 Operating an Incubator 213

the eggs may be put in, although it is well to place

them in a warm room for a few hours previous,
to prevent so great a change in the temperature of
the incubator as would result from the use of cold
eggs. It will be of some advantage to the beginner
to keep temperature records of the machine by
means both an incubator thermometer and a
of

registering thermometer. These records will some-

times be of value in regulating the machine for
subsequent hatches.
Within a comparatively few years some large or
mammoth incubators have been constructed that
have the capacity of holding thousands of eggs
each, at one time. These incubators have been
operated successfully for several seasons and may
be considered beyond the experimental stage. In
these machines heat is furnished by means of hot-
water pipes somewhat after the plan of hot-water-
pipe brooding systems.
They are too large for farm use except perhaps
that they may be used for what is known as the
"community system of hatching/' that is, one
machine doing the hatching for many near-by poultry
raisers. Close proximity is wholly
not, however,
essential, asnewly hatched chicks may be trans-

ported many miles with safety. "The community

system of hatching" is becoming quite popular in
some places. Many farmers prefer to purchase newly
hatched chicks rather than care for an incubator.
 FIG. 69. House for brooders and incubators; also breeding pens New
York Agricultural Experiment Station.

FIG. 70. Brooder house Rhode Island Agricultural Experiment Station.

FIG. 71. A small brooder house Cornell University.

 Brooders 215

BROODERS

If artificial incubation is employed, some pro-

vision must be made for the care of the little chickens
as soon as they leave the incubator. Various kinds
of machines have been devised for this purpose,
which vary considerably in regard to efficiency, but
some kind of an artificial brooder must be provided.
From the great variety of brooders on the market
the farmer or poultryman has an opportunity to
make a selection according to his wants and best
judgment. Brooders vary greatly in size, as some of
the smaller ones accommodate no more than fifty
chickens, while the larger ones are devised to furnish
accommodations for many hundreds of young
fowls. For convenience, we may separate the various
kinds of brooders into two classes. These classes
represent two entirely different systems of furnish-
ing heat and providing for the comforts of the
little chickens. One class supplies heat by means
of hot-water pipes. (See Fig. 72.) Brooders of this
kind are capable of extension and of providing heat
for many hundreds of young chickens. The other

system is represented fairly well by small portable

brooders, which supply heat by radiation from hot

air or from hot-water tanks. These are usually
heated by small oil lamps or by gas jets. The pipe
system is most extensively used by poultrymen
who rear fowls on a somewhat extensive scale. One
216 Farm Poultry

fire,producing the heat for many hundred chickens,

gives to this system an advantage over the smaller
brooders which require a separate lamp for each
small flock. Oil lamps require close attention, and
even then they are likely to give more or less trouble

FIG. 72. Hot-water-pipe brooders, covers of three lifted, man raising

the fourth New York Agricultural Experiment Station.

by some imperfection in the burner or deposit

of soot or carbon in some parts of the flue, which
may lead to overheating and, in some cases,, may
produce disastrous results. Brooders, and even
poultry houses, have been set on fire by careless
or improper handling of brooder lamps.
Some" of the most important requisites of a good
brooder may be enumerated as follows:
 Essentials of a Good Brooder 217

1. Capable of maintaining a proper tempera-

ture.
2. Be easily cleaned.
3. Provide good ventilation.
4. Of such form that all the chickens may readily
be seen.
5. Must be dry.
6. Economical of heat.
7. Easy of construction.

(1) A satisfactory brooder must maintain a

proper temperature for delicate little chickens.
It will be necessary to maintain an even temper-
ature, from 90 to 100, for the first week. After
that a somewhat lower temperature will be required.
Breeds of fowls that feather early in life do not
require so high a temperature in the brooder after
two or three weeks. The temperature should always
be so high that the chickens are not inclined to
huddle together to keep warm. Huddling indicates
that the temperature is too low for best results.
The amateur poultryman finds it difficult to over-
come the tendency toward bowel disorders in little
chickens. One of the potent causes of these dis-
orders a cold brooder or frequent chills.
is

(2) A brooder should be easily cleaned. There

are several reasons for this. The labor of cleaning
is an important item. The time occupied is fre-

quently of considerable importance, and then, if

1

the brooder is not readily cleaned, it is much more

218 Farm Poultry

likely to be neglected, particularly during the

busiest seasons of the year. A brooder should be so
constructed that be swept clean, preferably
it may
with an ordinary broom. The floor should be kept

Fia. 73. An out-of-door brooder

littered, so that allthe manure may be readily

swept out. As filth and dampness are two great
causes of failure with the amateur poultryman, it
is of the greatest importance that poultry houses
and brooders be kept as clean as possible.
(3) The air in a brooder will become foul if

not changed frequently. Usually, when sufficient

heat is supplied to give proper temperature, venti-
lation is also secured; but occasionally the source
of heat barely sufficient to maintain the required
is

temperature with the least possible ventilation.

Then, in order to keep the chickens warm, ventila-
tion must be cut off. Pure air should be supplied at
all times. It should be remembered that little chick-
 Essentials of a Good Brooder 219

ens have a high temperature, that they breathe

rapidly, and that the supply of pure ah- is of the
greatest importance to them.
(4) It is important to have the brooder so arranged
that all may readily be seen by the
the chickens
attendant. dark and inconvenient corners are
If

permitted to exist, weak chickens find these nooks

a place of refuge, and may escape the attention of
the attendant. As it is important that all of the
chickens be seen at each feeding, the ease of thorough
inspection is of considerable importance in the
care of brooders.
(5) A brooder must be dry. At no time in the
life of a hen is she so sensitive to moisture as in

FIG. 74. An out-of-door brooder.

the early stages of her existence. All parts of the

brooder should be kept dry and clean. Whenever
the floor of the brooder becomes moist, some means
should be taken at once to correct the evil. There
220 Farm Poultry

should be sufficient bottom heat or enough heat near

the floor to keep it dry. Too much bottom heat
is objected to by many poultry men. A somewhat
popular belief is held that bottom heat, if consider-
able, is likely to produce what is known as "leg
weakness."
(6) some importance to have a brooder
It is of
that economical of heat, or, in other words, one
is

that makes good use of the fuel consumed. The

provision of fuel is an item of expense.
(7) It is of considerable importance that the
brooder be simply constructed. Machines that are
more or less difficult to build are necessarily more
expensive than those that are easy of construction.
Then, too, some parts of the appliance may require
renewal, and if the brooder is easy of construction
the farmer or poultryman may readily perform the
labor which otherwise would require an additional
expense in sending the machine to the factory for
repairs.
The amateur should bear in mind that it is

necessary for each person to learn the business for

himself by study and experience, that there are no
hard and fast rules for the selection and operation
of the various kinds of brooders. One person may
succeed well a brooder that would prove
with
unsatisfactory in the hands of another. One per-
son may learn how best to operate a particular
machine, and, from his study of the condition of
 Brooders 221

the brooder and chickens, soon learn how to remedy

the most serious difficulties, whereas another,
through a lack of sufficient knowledge of that
particular brooder, would fail to secure the essen-
tials in rearing young fowls. There are many brood-
ers that are capable of producing good results if the

FIG. 75. Gasoline-heated, colony brooder houses Cornell University.

proper attention be given them; but the manner of

caring for the young, which find in them a home,
isof greater relative importance than the particular
construction of the machine.
Home-made brooders. It is often desirable and
sometimes necessary to construct at home a con-
siderable portion of the appliances used in the
modern poultry yard. Sometimes material is at
222 Farm Poultry

hand that may be turned to

good advantage in the
construction of machines. It sometimes happens
that more chickens are hatched than were provided
for, and an extra brooder is needed for the emergency.
Satisfactory brooders may be made at home, at
a small expense for materials, by any one who is
able to work well with the most common of car-
penters' tools. Drygoods boxes may be utilized to

FIG. 76. A home-made brooder in cross-section.

good advantage. If a" part of a large drygoods box

isplaced bottom upwards so that the bottom will
form a level floor about a foot from the ground, a
good foundation for a cheap brooder is established.
In the center of this a square or circular opening
is cut, into which is fitted a box of tin which is also

placed bottom up. A straight-sided tin bucket or

pail may be used instead of the tin box. If the
former isused, a circular opening should be made
to fit the pail. In the bottom of this pail (which is
bottom upwards) should be fitted a small tube
 Home-made Brooders 223

of iron or tin to carry off the smoke and gases from

the lamp which is placed underneath. On the top
of the tin box or pail is placed a cover of light boards
which supports woolen or felt curtains. The illus-
tration (Fig. 76), which shows an indoor brooder in
cross section, may aid in the proper understanding
of this device.
The chickens should be confined by a board
railing for several days, after which they may be
given an opportunity to take more exercise than
would be permitted within the brooder. Little
chickens should have a chance to return to the
brooder whenever they desire to do so. The illus-
tration shows a board railing, in section, which will
effectually confine the chickens until they require
more exercise than the brooder will permit. There
is shown an approach which will provide a
also
means by which the chicks may easily enter and
leave the brooder, provided a suitable opening be
made in the board railing. The curtains mentioned
above prevent the heat from escaping, and provide
warm, comfortable compartments for the chicks.
One objection to indoor lamp brooders is the diffi-
culty in carrying off the fumes from the lamp. If
possible, some provision should be made to carry
the vitiated air and fumes from the lamp outside
the brooder and brooder house. A
little ingenuity

on the part of the poultryman is sometimes required

to accomplish this object.
 CHAPTER XI
FEEDING AND CAEE OF LITTLE CHICKENS

IN rearing fowls it will be found that the atten-

tion given to little chickens and the manner of feed-

ing them are of the greatest importance. While it

and probably impossible to discuss satis-
is difficult

factorily care and feeding separately, yet it may

safely be said that care and attention are quite as
important as the selection of food.
One poultry-feeder may find it to
successful
his advantage to make use of certain foods, while
these same foods in the hands of others may be
so misused that disappointment will surely result.
To further illustrate, one successful poultryman
may insist that comparatively little of certain
kinds of grains should be fed. Other successful
feeders may make a most satisfactory use of these
objectionable grains. It is for each one to learn for
himself how to feed to the best advantage those
foods which are at hand, and to learn how to sup-
plement them with others if they do not form the
desired combination of themselves. In preparing
food for little chickens, it will be well to remember
that they are delicate organisms and require careful

(224)
 Food for Little Chickens 225

handling and suitable food, particularly during the

first few days of their existence, or until they become

strong enough to seek food for themselves.

FOOD

The littlechickens will require no food for the

first twenty-four or forty-eight hours after hatching.
A mistake often made- in feeding them frequently
is

before the system requires food. The close observer

will readilydetermine by the action of the chickens
when food required. The first food should be of
is

such a character that it may be readily digested

without the aid of grit; consequently, soft food is
preferred. Stale bread thoroughly moistened with
milk makes a most excellent food for newly hatched
chickens. An experienced poultryman will recognize
that there is no best food for little chickens. There
are many good kinds, if fed judiciously. Again,
it may be said that the manner of feeding is of the
utmost importance, and that the attendant who
fails to study closely the condition and wants of the

little fail to reach the best results.

chickens will
While bread dipped in milk makes an excellent
stale

food, yet it may be so treated as to be quite unfit

for use. It should be allowed to drain, after dipping,
so that the bread is only thoroughly moistened. In
this condition, if finely crumbled, it makes a most

satisfactory food. On the other hand, bread that

226 Farm Poultry

is freshand not perfectly baked will be quite too

sloppy, saturated with milk. Ground grain may be
if

mixed with milk and fed to good advantage. If this

grain is mixed some time before it is to be given,
it will become more thoroughly soaked and will be in

a much softer condition than if fed immediately after

preparing. This is thought to be of considerable
importance by persons who have had years of ex-
perience in the preparation of food for little chick-
ens. Sour milk thought by many
is most of the
successful poultry-raisers to be equally as desirable
as sweet milk. Some, however, prefer to use chiefly
the curd of sour milk in mixing the soft food.
The
following rations are recommended for young
chickens :

MIXTURE No. 1* Lbs.

Rolled oats 8
Bread crumbs or cracker waste 8
Sifted beef scrap (best grade) 2
Bone meal 1

MIXTURE No. 2*
Wheat (cracked) 3
Cracked corn (fine) 2
Pinhead oatmeal 1

MIXTURE No. 3*
Wheat bran 3
Corn meal 3
Wheat middlings 3
Beef scrap (best grade) 3
Bone meal 1

"Cornell University leaflet, "Cornell Ration for Chick Feeding."

 Foods for Little Chickens 227

Mixture No. 1 should be moistened with sour

skimmed milk and will prove a most satisfactory
food for the first five or six days. Mixture No. 3 is
best fed as a dry mash in a hopper and is a suitable
food to keep constantly before the chicks until
they are pretty well grown. No. 2 mixture is suit-
able for feeding in light litter after about the first

week.
It is not best to give the little chick all it can
possibly eat and then require it to become ravenously
hungry before the next feeding. Under natural
conditions the young chickens are seeking food dur-
ing a large portion of the day and at no time are
they completely gorged . A little food at frequent
intervals
undoubtedly is best. If they are given food
in suitable quantities, feeding from five to seven
times per day will be found to be none too often
for the first five or six days. After this time it will
not be necessary to feed more than three times a
day if they have access to the dry mash in the
hopper at all times. Finely shredded green food and
charcoal are also necessary. Some authorities prefer
to scatter the grit and charcoal over the food.
The following is quoted from an experiment
station publication:* "If skim milk be added to the
ration fed to young chickens it will increase the
consumption of other foods given. The great increase
*Summary of Bulletin No. 71, Purdue University Agricultural
Experiment Station.
228 Farm Poultry

in average gainwas coincident with the periods when

the greatest amount of skim milk was consumed.
Skim milk is especially valuable as a food for young
chickens during the hot dry weather; and becomes
of less importance as the chickens grow older and
the weather becomes cooler."
Ground grain is preferred to whole or cracked
grain, and should constitute the chief part of the
daily ration. Practical poultrymen and experi-
menters are fairly well agreed on this point. The
following illustrates:* "A ration consisting mostly
of ordinary ground grain foods and containing no
whole grain was more profitably fed to chicks than
another ration consisting mostly of whole grain
and containing no ground grain. ... In every
trial more food was eaten when the ground grain
was fed than when the whole grain was fed."
In addition to the grain given to the chickens,
it be necessary to provide some animal food.
will
Various mixtures of grain foods have been com-
pared to mixtures of grain and animal meal, but the
latter have given the better results. The domesti-
cated hen seems to thrive best, in all stages of exist-
ence, on a ration which consists in part of animal
food. "A ration in which about two-fifths of the
protein was supplied by animal food was much
more profitably fed to chicks than another ration
supplying an equal amount of protein, mostly from
*Bulletin No. 126, New York Agricultural Experiment Station.
 Feeding Little Chickens 229

vegetable sources, but supplemented by skim milk

curd."*
Experiments have demonstrated clearly that
the ordinary grain foods, as usually fed, do not
contain sufficient ash to permit the most rapid
development of the young. The following briefly
states the results ofsomewhat extended experi-
ments at the New York Agricultural Experiment
Station:f "Of two rations which contained prac-
tically the same proportions of the ordinarily con-
sidered groups of constituents, but different amounts
of mineral matter, the one wholly of vegetable origin

proved much inferior for growing chicks to the

other ration, higher in ash content, containing
animal food. When the deficiency of mineral matter
was made good by the addition bone
ash, the vege-
of
table food ration for chicks equaled or somewhat
surpassed in. efficiency the corresponding ration
in which three-eighths of the protein was derived
from animal food."
Hard-boiled eggs mixed with ground grain, and
perhaps a little milk, make a most excellent food.
This is frequently fed with satisfactory results dur-
ing the first few days of the chick's existence. Infer-
tile eggs which are taken out of the incubator when-

ever the eggs are tested, if properly prepared, will

furnish an excellent food for little chickens. These
*Bulletin No. 149, New York Agricultural Experiment Station.
tSummary of Bulletin No. 171.
230 Farm Poultry

boiled eggs should be crumbled or chopped fine and

may be fed alone or mixed with softened ground
grain.
Corn may form a considerable portion of the
ration foryoung fowls that are growing rapidly.
Granulated oats make an excellent food for chick-
ens after they are several days old. These oats
may be placed in receptacles of such a character
that the food may be readily accessible at all times
and yet will not be soiled by tramping.

EXERCISE

It is of the utmost importance to provide a run

or yard for young chickens. They require much
exercise,and unless provision is made for this,
it cannot be expected that the most satisfactory

growth and development will be made.

The young of all animals are active and will
take constant exercise if opportunity is given.
Particularly is this true of the young of fowls.
They are not only inclined to range freely on their
own account, but under natural conditions the
mother, wandering from place to place in search
of food, compels the young to take a greater amount
of daily exercise than they would if left wholly to
themselves. Perhaps the reader, if he is a farmer,
will be surprised to recall how far from home he
has seen the old hen with her brood of little chicks.
 Care of Little Chickens 231

It is essential also that they be kept in a dry

on a floor or a dry soil. Young chickens
place, either
should never be permitted to run on moist land,
particularly if it is allowed to become filthy. Many
chickens that are hardy when kept dry prove tender
when compelled to occupy quarters that are more

FIG. 77. Chicken coop Rhode Island Agricultural Experiment Station.

or lessdamp. There are several breeds of poultry

that cannot endure dampness, though hardy to a
satisfactory degree when provided with warm and
dry quarters.
It should be borne in mind that the attendant
or feeder is responsible for the health arid general

condition of the chickens, quite as much as is the

232 Farm Poultry

food which they consume. Skilful feeders, by not-

ing carefully the wants and conditions of the chick-
ens as regards thrift, are able to determine how
best to feed and to accomplish satisfactory results
with food that would prove entirely unsatisfactory
with a little neglect or indifference on the part of
the feeder.
FEEDING-TROUGHS

Itis, necessary to provide feeding-troughs for

little chickens in order to prevent them from tramp-

ing on the food; for if the food be placed on the

floor of the brooder or poultry house, it soon becomes

FIG. 78. A feeding-trough for little chickens.

soiled and unfit for consumption. A simple and effi-

cient feeding-trough may be made by tacking a strip

of tin about 3J^ inches wide along the edge of a
half-inch board so that the tin projects about an
inch and a half on either side of the board. Bend
the tin so as to form a shallow trough on each side
of the board, then fasten the board to blocks which
will edgewise and raise it from one to two
hold it

inches from the floor. (See Fig. 78.) The trough

 Food and Grit 233

may be from one to three feet long. It is within easy

reach of the chickens and so narrow that they cannot
stand upon the edges. Food placed in such feeding
troughs may be kept clean until wholly consumed.
Small feeding troughs have been supplanted to a

FIG. 79. A movable coop, showing a good device.

large extent by dry-feed hoppers for such food as

will work well in hoppers. It is often desirable,

however, to feed moistened food that can be best

placed before the chickens in little troughs.

GRIT

Grit should be placed before chickens not later

than the second day after they commence to eat.
Coarse sand will answer the purpose very well for
young chickens. Finely crushed stone or pulver-
ized cinders will suffice if coarse sand or prepared
234 Farm Poultry

grit is not at hand. As nature does not provide

grit in the digestive organs of the newly hatched
chicken, it is necessary to furnish this grit in order
that the chick may grind its first hard food. As
nature provides nourishment for a chicken for a
day or two after it is hatched, grit is not absolutely
needed until the third or fourth day, provided the
first food is quite soft. As the chick becomes older,

coarser grit is required and its supply should never

be neglected.
DRINKING-FOUNTAINS

One problems that the amateur

of the difficult

poultryman has to solve is how best to keep pure

drinking-water continually before the little chickens.
Small chickens drink frequently, and as their little
beaks are sometimes more or less loaded with soft
food, which is deposited in the drinking-fountain
whenever the beak becomes wet, the question of
how to keep the water pure is not an easy one to
solve. As it is necessary to keep the drinking-foun-
tain at a warm temperature, it soon becomes tainted
and, unless given frequent attention, will emit a
disagreeable odor. This condition must not be
allowed to exist, for all food and water consumed
by the fowls, particularly the young, should be free
from There is no greater stumbling block
taint.
to the novice than the lack of cleanliness.
Many automatic fountains will keep water before
 Drinking Fountains 235

the chickens, but they are frequently difficult to

cleanse if they once become tainted. Nothing less
than frequent scalding with steam or boiling water
will answer the purpose. Any drinking-fountain
that is constructed of glass, that will not bear such
temperatures, is objectionable. Tin or earthenware

FIG. 80. Summer house for cockerels.

New York State College of Agriculture, Ithaca, N. Y.

is preferred on account of the ease of cleansing. A

drinking-fountain made on the same principle as
the one with a revolving reservoir, described in a
previous chapter (see Fig. 47), will prove very satis-
factory. An empty tomato can and a shallow saucer
will answer every purpose. These may be readily
cleansed and are convenient.
236 Farm Poultry

BROODERS

Brooders require constant care to keep them

clean and to see that no part becomes wet, which
will frequently happen if water-dishes are placed
within the machine. Cleanliness must be insisted
on. The temperature at which the brooder should

FIG. 81. A home-made outdoor dry-feed hopper.

be kept depend largely upon the age of the

will
chickens. should be warm enough so that the
It
chickens will not huddle together to keep warm,
and, of course, should be cool enough for the greatest
comfort. Bowel disorders are frequently caused by
exposure and improper brooder temperatures. The
person who makes his chickens the most comfortable
will probably succeed best with the brooder.
 Care of Brooders 237

The following conclusions in regard to improper

feeding and brooder conditions are given by the
Rhode Island Agricultural Experiment Station:*
"Post-mortem examination showed that the diseases
may be classified under four heads. Disorders
ascribable :

"A. To heredity or to environment during period

of incubation. (Recent experiments have
demonstrated that successive alternate
periods of heat and cold during incubation
are responsible for a very large proportion
of abnormalities.) Thirty-three per cent
of the chicks examined showed more or
less trouble under this head.
"B. To mechanical causes, e. g., overcrowding
in the brooders, resulting in death by
suffocation, trampling, etc.
"C. To imperfect sanitation, lack of ventilation,
sunlight, etc.; e. g., tuberculosis flourishes
in dark, poorly ventilated brooders. Fif-
teen and one-tenth per cent of the post-
mortems showed more or less evidence of
tuberculosis.
"D. To improperly balanced ration, i. e., im-
proper feeding. For the continued main-
tenance of health there must be a definite
proportion between the amount of carbo-
hydrates (starch, sugar, etc.), fats, and the
*Bulletin No. 61, p. 53.
238 Farm Poultry

nitrogen-containing proteins. A ration

wholly vegetable is almost certain to con-
tain a too low percentage of nitrogen,
while a ration exclusively animal is very
sure to be deficient in carbohydrates. As
a result of improper food, digestive dis-
orders soon appear, either in the liver and
gall-bladder, or in the intestines. Of the
chicks examined, 75.7 per cent had abnor-
mal livers; 38.6 per cent had various forms
of intestinal disorders."

"In conclusion, special attention is called to the

following facts, confirmed by experiments:*
"1. Careful and internal examination
external
(such as any one can readily make) of the dead
chick will usually disclose the cause of death. The
necessary remedies are usually not difficult to find.
"2. Death from overcrowding, suffocation and
trampling can be readily corrected. It is more
frequent than is generally suspected.
"3. For guarding against tuberculosis, give the
interior of the brooders all the sun and air pos-
sible on pleasant days.
"4. Trouble of the and gall-bladder are
liver

usually easily recognizable from the green stains.

For correcting this, feed more animal food. The
use of the proper proportion of animal food will
pay a handsome profit through decreased mortality
*Bulletin No. 61, Rhode Island Agricultural Experiment Station, p. 59.
 Causes of Death 239

and increased weight of the chicks. In feeding

bear in mind that chicks in a state of nature spend
practically all their waking hours in search of food,
and that they do not fill their crops in ten minutes
every two hours. Feeding should be, as far as the
time of the attendant renders profitable, a con-
tinuous process, but by no means a continuous gorge.
"5. Diarrhoea, etc., frequently result from feed-

ing a too large proportion of animal food, and are

often brought on by cold, exposure, etc.
"6. If the yolk is present in considerable quan-

tity in chicks a week old, or if more than 1 or 2

per cent of deformed chicks appears, look to the
better regulation of the incubators or to the health
of the breeding-pens."
 CHAPTER XII
CAPONS AND BROILERS

THERE is a question in the minds of many per-

sons whether caponizing is really as profitable as
it is often represented to be. The profits of capon
rearing that are frequently given in captivating
accounts are often very misleading. While it is
true that these most favorable reports are well
within the range of possibilities; yet many of them
far exceed the probable returns of earnest and well-
directed efforts of beginners. One of the first ques-
tions which should be decided as regards capon
rearing is the profit which this enterprise will
probably yield; in other words, will caponizing
pay? Without doubt this question should be an-
swered both affirmatively and negatively. When
capon rearing is compared with some of the most
productive lines of poultry work conducted at this
time by the most skilful operators, it probably will
not make a very favorable showing. On the other
hand, the profits from fine capons which have been
prepared by the expert will undoubtedly compare
favorably with results obtained in other directions.
If the prices which capons bring are to be compared

(240)
 Capons and Broilers 241

with those of the choicest broilers,one would be

led to believe that broiler raising would be the more
profitable.
It should be borne in mind, however, that it is
quite possible to make good capons of fowls that
at no time in their existence would have sold for
the highest prices as broilers. Broiler raising, like the
rearing of early or "hothouse" lambs, requires great
skill. Those who do not understand how to secure
these choice products, may make good capons from
fowls that would not answer the requirements of
the higher priced broilers.
In rearing broilers, it impossible to bring all
is

the birds to the desired condition that is, all will

not be so good as the best. The poorer birds may
be retained on the farm and prepared for the capon
market, provided the breed of fowls selected for
broiler rearing will mature birds sufficiently large to
make good capons. It will not pay to attempt to
produce capons from small fowls. When the profits
which choice capons bring are compared with the
profits of rearing mature fowls that are sold for
meat, a most excellent showing will be made. The
question, then, whether capons will pay, depends
largely on the point of view. Sometimes capons
undoubtedly can be made to pay well, and the rear-
ing of them should be encouraged under certain
conditions.
To those who have had no experience in the rear-
242 Farm Poultry

ing of capons, and to whom, perhaps, the word

is almost a new
one, may be stated that they
it

are castrated males. The capon bears the same

relation to the cock as the steer does to the bull
or the wether to the ram. The operation is per-
formed in order that the fowls may grow larger,
become more gentle, and fatten more readily than
they would otherwise. The operation, if success-
fully performed, changes the nature of the indivi-
vidual to a marked degree. The change brought
about by this operation on the fowls is quite as

great as that caused by a similar operation upon

other classes of farm stock, if not even greater than
that. The birds lose their activity, which is a potent
factor in easy fattening. They grow considerably
larger than they otherwise would and appear much
more gentle and consequently thrive well in close
confinement.
As the bodies of capons are large, their heads
appear somewhat out of proportion, that is, the
comb and wattles do not develop, which makes the
head appear small. The capon never crows and
loses the voice of the male and also most of the
masculine characteristics except size. The flesh
of capons is especially prized. The muscles are
tender, the birds fatten readily, and their large
sizemakes them especially desirable for certain
methods of cooking. The largest capons sell for
the highest price. In order to reach the highest
 Capons 243

profit,capons should be large and fat and not more

than ten or eleven months of age. If they are kept
until a later age, the meat becomes somewhat
coarse and is not so desirable. While early chickens

FIG. 82. A caponizing set.

are most highly prized for broilers, the later ones may
be turned to a good account for the capon market.
The question is sometimes asked, with all serious-

ness, whether the operation is not sufficiently pain-

ful to condemn the practice. Without doubt con-
siderable pain is involved, but no more than in
a similar operation which is performed so gener-
244 Farm Poultry

ally on other classes of farm stock, and the pain

is probably less than in those cases.
That capons are regularly quoted in markets
of many cities shows that there is sufficient demand
for them to warrant poultrymen in giving consider-
able to their production, particularly
attention
ifthey are so situated that fowls which would other-
wise bring low prices can be turned to this use to
a good advantage. The regular quotations also
indicate .that a considerable number of poultrymen
find capon rearing a fairly profitable branch of the
poultry business. Were this not true, poultrymen
would cease to rear them and their presence in the
markets of so friany cities would be unknown.
It is not difficult to learn how
to perform success-

fully the operation of caponizing fowls of the proper

age, but some persons are naturally more deft in
finger manipulation than others and are able to
perform delicate operations neatly and rapidly.
In districts in which large numbers of capons are
reared, professionals are usually engaged by capon
rearers to perform operations on large numbers of
fowls at one time. They go about the country
doing the work more satisfactorily and more rapidly
than the owners could do it for themselves, and, as
they have become so expert, they are enabled to
perform the operation for a very small sum and still
make good wages. From two to four cents per head
usually pays for a skilful operator. Any one who is
 Caponizing 245

at all deft may perform the work by merely follow-

ing the directions furnished by the manufacturers of
caponizing instruments. Comparatively few farm-
ers, however, will become expert if they operate
"
only upon their own While the novice might,
fowls.
and probably would, spend a half hour upon the first
bird, and then possibly produce a slip, experts will
do scores each hour during the whole day. One
very sure and rapid worker caponized one bird per
minute for three hours in succession, his day's work
being 450, of which not one per cent died."*
Not all breeds of fowls are equally well suited
to the production of capons. The Black Langshans
are generally especially recommended for this
purpose. The birds of this breed are large and
are easily operated upon. In a somewhat general
way it may be said that the meat breeds and the
general-purpose fowls are suitable for producing
capons. It is held by some that the Brahmas
though large are not easily operated upon. Crosses
between the Light Brahma and the White Plymouth
Rocks or the White Wyandottes are highly prized.
The Cornish Indian Game is sometimes used to
crosson other large fowls, as it improves the breast
meat without decreasing the size. Commission men
do not state that there is much, if any, difference in
the value of capons from the different breeds of
fowls; that is, it is not recognized that some breeds
* "Pocket Money Poultry," Norys, page 171.
246 Farm Poultry

produce capons decidedly superior to those of other

breeds. Large-sized birds that are fat bring the
highest prices.
It recommended that the fowls should be
is

operated upon when they have attained the weight

of about two pounds. Some poultrymen recom-
mend that the operation be performed a little
earlier in life, while others are very successful in
operating upon birds that are somewhat older.
Without doubt the best time will depend somewhat
upon the condition of the bird. If the fowls are
growthy and thin, a somewhat lighter weight will
suffice the fowls are very plump. In a general
than if

way, authorities on caponizing recommend that the

operation be performed when the fowls are from 1J/2
to 2^2 pounds in weight.
Sometimes birds of the larger breeds may be
operated upon when 3 pounds in weight or even
larger, but they should never be over six months
old. more difficult to operate on young, small
It is
birds on account of lack of room to perform the

operation. On the other hand, as the birds become

older the testacles increase in size and the blood-
vessels supplying these organs are more likely to
be ruptured.
Chickens to be operated upon should be fasted
from twelve to twenty-four hours, and in some
cases even forty-eight hours is recommended. It

is suggested not only to withhold food, but, during

 Preparation for Caponizing 247

a considerable period of the fasting, to withhold

water as well. Fowls are fasted in order to empty
the digestive organs and to deplete somewhat the
quantity of blood, and thereby reduce the danger of
rupturing the blood-vessels while performing the
operation. One great danger is in the liability of
rupturing the arteries which are situated very near
the organs that are to be removed. When it is borne
in mind that the abdominal cavity is opened and
that the intestines are
pushed aside in order to
perform the operation
successfully, it will
readily be seen how es-
sential it is to have the
bowels as nearly empty
aS pOSSible, and, at the FIG. 83. Caponizing table, showing cords
and weights used to hold the fowls.
same time, to deplete
the quantity of blood in the blood-vessels so far as
the good health of the fowl will permit. One objec-
tion that is frequently made to caponizing is, that
good light is
required, particularly the operator is if

not the most skilled. Clear days when the sun shines
brightly are preferred. It frequently happens that
fowls may be fasted for the operation and cloudy
weather prevail. This should be sufficient cause to
prevent the novice from proceeding further until
clear weather comes. In such an event, it will be

necessary to keep the fowls on very light rations

248 Farm Poultry

of soft food until the promise of clear weather is

near at hand. Experienced operators are not hin-
dered so much by improper light as are the inex-
perienced, yet all deem the brightest light desirable.
The head-reflector used
by physicians in per-
forming delicate operations upon the throat, is
used by some operators, and is found to work suc-
cessfully with artificial light. Expert operators
are enabled to work with the reflector with almost
as much .ease and satisfaction as in bright sunlight.
This reflector consists of a mirror fastened to the
head by a band in such a manner that the mirror
can be turned to any desired angle to throw the
light into the cavity, and to show the location of the

organs to be removed, as well as the place of the

near-by veins and arteries.
When to make capons and the time to sell.

The production of
capons market should be
for
controlled largely by the market conditions. As
capons sell best from soon after Christmas until the
last of March or middle of April, they should be
ready for market at this time. It takes about ten
months to prepare properly a capon for market, and
they should not be put on the market when over
a year old. There is not much difference as to the
seasons of the year so far as the effects of the opera-
tion are concerned. Cockerels hatched in May
or June, especially of the early maturing varie-
ties, like Plymouth Rocks or Wyandottes ?
or even
 How to Caponize 249

th^se crossed on Brahmas or Langshans, castrated

in September or October, should find ready sale
during the high market season.
Farmers who have cheap food, who are far from
shipping points, and therefore kill and ship all at
one time in cold weather, might profitably make
capons of all young cocks. Those who keep birds
until maturity for their own table should do the same.
The operation. If one desires to attempt the
operation without having received personal instruc-
tion, he will do well to commence on a fowl that has
just been killed for this purpose. He may then take
as much time as he desires to study the location,
attachment, and removal of the organs without
inflicting torture on the fowl. It will be best, how-
ever, to hold the fowl, and to perform the operation
as though he were alive. The fowl should be held
on its side on a table, box or end of barrel and secured
by passing a strong cord around its shanks and
another around both wings close to the shoulder
joints. These cords may be held in place by weights
as shown in the illustration. Remove a few feathers
on the side over the last two ribs and moisten the
others so they will not interfere with the operation.
Make an incision well toward the back between the
last two ribs, this may be about an inch and a half

long and should be kept open by means of a spreader

provided for this purpose. The lining membrane
of the abdominal cavity should now be hooked and
250 Farm Poultry

cut through or torn. The intestines may be pushed

away from the back and the testacles readily seen.
These may be removed by proper instruments. The
manufacturers of caponizing instruments furnish
instruments for the various parts of the operation and
accompany them with explicit instructions for the
beginner.
Preparing capons for market. "Capons, like
other fowls, should be fasted twenty-four hours
before killing, that the crop may be empty and
therefore need not be removed. The head, the
distinguishing mark of a capon, has a particularly

long and pointed appearance and should always be

left on. They should be bled by cutting inside the
mouth or throat. The neck and saddle feathers are
unusually large and fine; these and the small size
of the tail distinguish a capon from any other fowl;
therefore they are left on, as well as the feathers on
the leg from the hock joint half way up the thigh
and those on the outer joints of the wings. The
breast, back, the wings next to the body and the
upper part of the thighs are picked clean. They
should be dry-picked without tearing the skin, and
the head, mouth, shanks and feet washed clean.
Care should be taken to remove all clotted blood
from the mouth. Capons for the New York markets
should be sent undrawn. Some Boston dealers
receive them undrawn. They should be packed
in boxes or flour barrels washed clean and lined
 Broilers 251

with white wrapping-paper. Neatness and attrac-

tive appearance are everything where quick sales
and best prices are to be secured."*

BROILERS

Broilers are young, plump and fat chickens

which have been forced to make the greatest pos-
sible weight during the few weeks of their existence.
Broiler rearing may be regarded as one of the spe-
cialties of the poultry business, and one that does not

appeal particularly to the farmer who keeps his fowls

under what may be called good average conditions.
If a farmer who keeps from fifty to one hundred and

fifty hens should produce a few good broilers, the

extra expense and trouble of preparing them for
market and of marketing them would make serious
inroads on the profits.
Great skill is required to bring this work to its
highest perfection; consequently those who are
prepared to raise a considerable number of fowls
for this purpose are more likely to become expert
than are those whose chief interests lie along other
lines of work. On this account the production of
broilers for the markets of the large cities is chiefly
in the hands of comparatively few, who may be
called specialists. These men make broiler rearing
a considerable part of their business, and learn how
* Bulletin No. 20, Rhode Island Agricultural Experiment Station.
252 Farm Poultry

to perform the various operations in the best manner

and with the greatest exactness.
one is contemplating the production of broil-
If
ers on a somewhat extensive scale, he should not

depend upon written directions for his guidance,

but should make a thorough inspection of the
markets, in order to learn what kind of product
the market demands. He should also visit one or
more broiler farms, where these birds are success-
fully reared in large numbers. The experience of
practical men is the safest guide.
As broilers are often placed upon the market
when they weigh less than two pounds per pair,
the skill in feeding little chickens and the care of
the brooder become of the utmost importance.
Light-weight winter broilers may be regarded as
strictlybrooder chickens. The light-weight broil-
ers, when in demand, sell for the highest prices.
Skill is of more relative importance in the produc-
tion of young high-priced meat than in the pro-
duction of mature fowls or those which more nearly
approach maturity.
While the cost of food isof less relative impor-
tance in the production of young fowls for the
market than in the production of older ones, yet it
should be remembered that the cost of food per
pound of gain in live weight increases as the period
from birth or hatching is increased. This cost con-
tinues to increase until a period is reached when the
 Broiler Rearing 253

food consumed produces no gain, that is, until the

and weight. If the pro-
fowls cease to increase in size
duction of flesh is considered from a standpoint of
food alone, the young fowls are the most profitable.
When the cost of hatching and the value of the
eggs are taken into account, the youngest product
may not be the most profitable to the producer. It
is for each breeder to determine for himself at what

age he can with the greatest profit. Young fowls

sell

willundoubtedly be selected, but, as a few weeks'

growth often changes considerably the value per
pound, fine discriminations must be made if one is
to become expert.
The question is frequently asked, "Will it pay
to raise broilers?" undoubtedly pay the
It will

right kind of people to enter into the business on a

somewhat large scale; yet no one, no matter how
enthusiastic he may be, should attempt broiler
rearing on a large scale without experience and con-
siderable capital. The chief essential to success
isa good knowledge of the business. If this cannot
be learned from the experience of others, it should
be learned from personal experience, beginning
in a small way at first and advancing as judgment
seems to warrant.
Broilers are reared more for home consumption
on the farms in some parts of the country than others.
The South depends more on these young fowls than
the North.
254 Farm Poultry

Dry, sandy or gravelly soils are specially prized

for broiler rearing. Cleanliness and freedom from
moisture are requisites to These con-
success.
ditions are more easily maintained on light, po-
rous than on heavy ones. Keep the chickens
soils

dry and clean and give them plenty of wholesome,

easily digested food. Corn meal, wheat bran,
ground oats with the hulls removed, and hard-
boiled eggs may make the bulk of the ration. These
should be fed after thoroughly soaking or scalding.
Some meat food and some green food should not
be neglected. Baked foods are recommended and
are undoubtedly safe. For further discussion of
foods, see chapter on feeding little chickens (Chap-
ter XI). Those who make a study of the foods used

by successful poultry-raisers soon learn that there is

no best food, but many foods are excellent if fed
with judgment.
Various breeds of fowls are used for broilers, one
of the favorites being the Wyandotte. Many prefer
to use crosses, on account of the vigor and hardiness of
the chicks. Heavy breeds are usually crossed on
the smaller, quick-maturing ones. These crosses
have suitable size and they mature early.
Broiler-rearing and egg production go well
together. Experienced broiler raisers who have a
good knowledge of the business are able to produce
eggs that will give better and more uniform lots of
chickens than those that are purchased from farmers
 Production of Broilers 255

who, perhaps, keep fowls of many different breeds.

The ultimate success will depend largely on the
fertility of the eggs and on the kind of fowls that
produce them.
Many farmers who near good markets are
live
able to dispose of some of their best early chickens
as broilers at remunerative prices. Sometimes the
local demand is sufficiently great to cause rather

indifferent birds to be marketed at good prices.

 CHAPTER XIII

DUCKS AND GEESE

THE American farmer too often thinks of "poul-

try" as comprising only "hens and chickens." The
term really covers all kinds of domesticated birds,
including those grown for pets or for mere fancy.
With the more diversified agriculture of the future,
other species than hens must come into greater
prominence.

DUCKS GENERAL DISCUSSION

While ducks have been reared on farms for a

great many years, yet a large proportion of the
business of duck-rearing is now in the hands of
specialists who conduct it on an extensive scale.
A considerableproportion of the duck products
of farms, where only small flocks are maintained,
is consumed at home and does not affect the gen-
eral market. The rearing of the so-called "green
ducks" for market has provided a profitable occu-
pation for many extensive duck-raisers. Compara-
tively few farmers enter into the business of duck-
raising extensively. Ducks are usually kept in
(256)
 Duck-Rearing 257

moderate-sized flocks, that roam at will over a

considerable portion of the premises. When reared
under these conditions, the ducks frequently prove
beneficial in the destruction of various insect pests.

They will travel long distances, and in their rambles

are continually on the lookout for food; both vege-
table and animal life are greedily consumed. Ducks
may become, under certain conditions, quite as
destructive to farm crops as chickens, although
if streams or wet fields are included within their

range a considerable portion of their time is given

to hunting food in these places.
Those who enter into duck-raising extensively
rear the fowls almost exclusively for meat. The
eggs produced by extensive duck-raisers are not
put on the market as food to any great extent, in
competition with eggs that are produced cheaper
by the noted egg breeds of hens. Ducks can seldom
successfully compete with hens for egg production.
Many farmers prefer, for various reasons, to
keep ducks rather than hens. It is well known
that ducks are comparatively free from disease
and are not nearly so likely to be troubled with
vermin as are hens. This is of considerable impor-
tance on many farms where the fowls are not given
much care and attention.
Ducks are much more easily confined than
hens. A fence two or three feet high should suffice
for them under all ordinary conditions, particularly
258 Farm Poultry

for those breeds which are the most profitable

for farm use. It is true that someof the less profit-
able breeds, so far as meat production is concerned,
are able to use their wings to good advantage
and are quiteas troublesome to keep within inclo-
sures Mediterranean fowls.
as Another reason
why farmers frequently prefer ducks to hens, is
that the young grow much more rapidly. Those
who make a practice of fattening young ducks
for the market, expect to secure birds that will
weigh four and one-half or five pounds at nine or ten
weeks of age, while good chickens would weigh only
about half as much.
Ducksare adapted to the various parts of the
country where chickens thrive well. They may
be reared under a great variety of conditions as
regards climate and exposure. Because ducks,
in a state of nature, select shallow water or marshy
land as their feeding-ground and largely prefer
bodies of water to dry land, it is thought by many
that streams or ponds are necessary for the suc-
cessful rearing of domesticated birds. However,
many of the most successful duck-raisers, who
produce large numbers of young birds for the
market, do not depend on streams or ponds of
water for their fowls. It is true that the plumage
of both young and old birds will be kept in a
somewhat cleaner condition if the ducks have
access to ponds or streams, but this is a matter
 Breeds of Ducks 259

of minor importance in the rearing of ducks for

the market. Some hold thatif the breeding ducks

have access to water, a larger proportion of fertile

eggs is secured. Other breeders, however, are able
to conduct their business satisfactorily without such
water, and consequently it may be said that the
value of ponds or running water for breeding ducks
may be somewhat questionable.

DUCKS BREEDS

Ten breeds of ducks are described in the Ameri-

can Standard of Perfection; viz., the Pekin, Ayles-
bury, Rouen, Cayuga, Muscovy, East Indian,
Call, Crested, Indian Runner and Swedish. Of
these, the first four may be mentioned as the profit-
able breeds for farm use. While the Muscovy
ducks are the largest, yet they are not the most
profitable for farmers. The East Indian and Call
ducks are too small to be most profitable. They
have not been bred for eggs or meat and are con-
sidered as fancy fowls. They occupy a similar posi-
tion among ducks to that which bantams occupy
among chickens.
Pekin. The white Pekins undoubtedly occupy
a foremost position as to popularity. Without
doubt, a larger number of White Pekins are reared
for market than of any other breed. They are
pure white, large, and are excellent layers. They
260 Farm Poultry

are considered hardy and are easily reared. They

mature early and are especially prized for the
production young birds for market. When
of

walking they assume a more upright position than

do the ducks of most other breeds. The Pekins

FIG. 84. White Pekin drake, young (one-eighth size).

are largely reared by extensive duck-raisers who

make a specialty of the so-called "green ducks;"
that is, young birds that will weigh about five
pounds apiece when not more than ten weeks
old. The standard weight for Pekins is 9 pounds
for the drake and 8 for the duck.

Aylesbury. The Aylesburys probably rank next

 Pekins and Aylesburys 261

to the Pekins in popularity. In general appear-

ance they closely resemble the Pekins, but may
be distinguished by their carriage. The Ayles-
burys have the same weight as the Pekins. They
have the power of adapting themselves readily
to the various conditions under which ducks are
reared. They are considered even more hardy

FIG. 85. White Pekin duck, young (one-ninth size).

and prolificthan the Pekins. Some practical duck

raisers sometimes introduce an Aylesbury cross
on their Pekin stock to increase vigor and pro-
lificacy. For market purposes the white breeds
(Pekin and Aylesbury) are preferred to the colored
ones, because white young birds present a better
appearance when dressed than do those of colored
breeds.
Rouen. The Rouens are especially prized as
262 Farm Poultry

table fowls. As producers of fine-grained, deli-

cate flesh, these fowls are not surpassed by any of
the so-called useful farm breeds. The Rouens
resemble the wild Mallards in color, the resem-
blance between the drakes being most marked.
The Rouens are hardy, prolific, and of gentle dis-
position. Young birds may be kept in rather large

FIG. 86. Rouen drake (one-eighth size).

flocks without the danger of stampeding that

is so troublesome with the Pekins. The standard
weight for the Rouens the same as that for Pekins,
is

yet it is thought that they do not grow so rapidly

as the latter. Extensive duck-raisers prefer the
Pekins or Aylesburys on account of their quick
growth. However, the Rouens are most excellent
farm fowls and are highly prized on account of
their hardiness, prolificacy, and gentle disposition.
 Rouens and Black Cayugas 263

Black CayugaThe Black Cayugas are rec-

ognized as a distinctively American breed. It is
asserted by some that the Cayugas grow as rapidly
and mature as early as the Pekins, but those who
are extensively engaged in rearing ducks invari-
ably choose one of the white breeds. The Cayugas
are profitable farm ducks. They thrive well in

FIG. 87. Rouen duck (one-eighth size).

rather close confinement, are hardy, gentle, and

do not care to wander so far from home as some
other breeds. The standard weight -for these is
8 pounds for the drake and 7 for the duck.
Muscovy ducks. These are the largest of any
of thebreeds mentioned, but, for various rea-
sons, are not such profitable farm fowls as others.
When compared with the Pekins or Rouens, the
Muscovies are not so good layers. They are not
264 Farm Poultry

so easily confined. Muscovyducks are often

troublesome in the poultry yard on account of
their disposition to attack other fowls, both young
and old. On account of their disposition to fly
they are not easily kept within inclosures.
Call ducks. Call ducks are bred chiefly for
exhibition purposes. The gray Call ducks are some-
times bred for decoys and are used by sports-
men to lure wild ducks within shooting distances.
They are not recommended as profitable farm
fowls.

DUCKS FOOD AND CARE

The natural food of the duck differs in some

respects from that of the hen. While ducks, like
hens, eat a great variety of food, yet, because the
duck is not possessed of a distinct crop, the food
is passed more directly to the digestive organs
and does not undergo so complete a softening
process as that consumed by the hen. It is, there-
fore, of the utmost importance that the food be
consumed in a soft condition. In nature the duck
gathers a large proportion of its food from streams,
ponds, or marshy places. This food consists of
the young, growing shoots and roots of water plants,
snails and the larvae of various water insects, together
with small fish and other aquatic Those who
life.

have made a success of rearing ducks on an extended

scale have learned a valuable lesson from nature
 Food for Ducks 265

and give to growing ducks very little

their young,
or no hard While a considerable portion of
food.
the ration will consist of grain, it is ground and
moistened with water or milk and fed in a soft
condition.

FIG. 88. View on Wm. H. Truslow's duck farm, East Stroudsburg, Pa.,
showing arrangement of yards and manner of supplying water.

It important in duck-rearing to secure the

is

greatest degree of cleanliness, although this is

somewhat more difficult than with hens. Where
ducks are kept in confinement in comparatively
small pens or yards, it will sometimes be found
impossible to prevent the runs from becoming foul,
though occasional cultivation will aid materially
in keeping the yards clean and in providing a sani-
266 Farm Poultry

tary home for the occupants. Poultrymen use

various disinfectants and absorbents in the yards
in order tokeep them as clean as possible. Yards
that are not in use all the year should be planted

to some crop if an opportunity is afforded. Those

FIG. 89. Another view on Mr. Truslow's duck farm, showing the track
on which a car of feed is pushed from pen to pen at feeding time.

poultrymen who make a specialty of producing

young ducks for the market make a practice of
sowing the yards and runs to some quick-growing
crop as soon as the yards are vacant. Rye is
often used for this purpose. During the rearing
season, gypsum, sawdust, sifted coal ashes, and
other absorbents are freely used in those parts
 Food and Care 267

of the yards that are most frequented by the

ducks.
Young ducks should be fed from a shallow
trough, which should be kept as clean as possible.
(See Fig. 90.) Pure water and clean yards are prom-
inent essentials in suc-
cessful duck-rearing. It
is true that ducks will
make small ponds and
, , , FIG. 90. A shallow feeding-trough.
streams muddy and
more or less filthy when they have access to them, yet
those that are confined in yards without a running
stream should be supplied with pure drinking-water.
If the young ducks do not have opportunity
to obtain for themselves green and animal food,
it should be supplied to them. Specialists fre-
quently feed young, rapidly growing ducks a ration
that consists of 10 or 20 per cent animal meal.
Rations which contain considerable animal meal
have proved superior to a purely vegetable diet.
"Rations containing animal food proved very
much superior for ducklings to rations of vege-
table origin which had, according to the ordinary
methods of estimation, practically the same nutri-
tive value. A ration of vegetable food supplemented

by bone ash proved much inferior to another ration

of similar 'composition/ in which three-eighths
of the protein came from animal food."*
* Summary of Bulletin No. 171, New York Experiment Station.
268 Farm Poultry

the ducklings are confined in comparatively

If
small yards, it is best to provide some shade for
them, particularly during the hottest months.
Green food fed to ducks confined in yards should
be cut fine in a feed cutter. Almost
any green, succulent food will be
readily eaten. Rye, clover, alfalfa,
Canada field peas, and corn make

FIG. 91. A V-shaped water trough. FIG. 92. A shallow water trough

excellent food if finely cut. Ducks will readily eat the

plant, stalk and all, in this condition, while chick-

ens will select the leaves and other tender parts
and reject the more woody portions of the stalks.
The green material may be fed alone or mixed
with the moistened ground food. The latter may
consist of wheat bran, corn meal and ground oats,
the hulls of the oats having been removed. Various
kinds of ground grains may be employed, although
those mentioned are used most by experienced men.
 Care of Ducks and Geese 269

Ducklings of some breeds appear to be quite

fearless in some respects, yet under other condi-
tions they are easily frightened, and, if a consid-
erable number are kept in one yard or pen, the
injury done by "stampeding" is sometimes con-
siderable. Pekin ducklings are particularly liable
to injury from this cause. Some extensive duck-
raisers make a practice of lighting artificially that
part of the yard occupied by the fowls during
the night as a partial safeguard against this
trouble.
GEESE GENERAL DISCUSSION

The rearing of geese is not so extensive a busi-

ness as that of raising ducks. The conditions
requisite for the successful raising of geese are
very different from those for ducks. The rear-
ing of geese is not in the hands of a comparatively
few extensive raisers. Geese are still raised on
many farms in comparatively small flocks. The
fact that geese require very much more room than
ducks has probably been an important factor
in keeping the business of rearing them in the
hands of farmers who go into the enterprise in
a moderate way. While ducks are frequently reared
successfully without water, except as it may be
necessary for drinking, yeb geese thrive best where
ponds' or streams are provided. While ducks
may thrive under practically the same condi-
270 Farm Poultry

tions as geese, yet the conditions under which geese

do best are not necessary for successful duck-
raising. Fields which are not suitable for culti-
vation on account of springs or streams make
good pastures for geese. A
comparatively low,
springy or marshy land may be used to good advan-
tage if some part of the run is comparatively high
and dry. Geese do not thrive so well in large flocks
as ducks do. There seems to be a somewhat gen-
eral law ;which may be applied to all farm stock
as regards the size of flocks or herds. The smaller
animals, as a rule, thrive much better in large
flocks than do the larger breeds or varieties. It
istrue that large herds of cattle are maintained on
some of the great cattle ranches in the prairie
countries, but an almost unlimited range is given
them.
Geese do not require a great deal of attention.
After the young are a week or so old, they are able
to care for themselves largely, if a good range is
given. The food of geese is largely grass, although
insects and other low forms of animal life are eaten

readily and are essential.

GEESE BREEDS

The most common breeds of the pure-bred

geese are the Toulouse, African, Embden, Chinese,
Canada or Wild, and Egyptian. Many geese
 Toulouse Geese 271

throughout the country are of no particular breed.

It is probable that these geese have descended
from those imported by settlers at an early date
in the history of the country. In some instances

improved breeds have been crossed on these common

or mongrel geese, but many flocks are still main-
tained that are of no particular breed, neither
color nor conformation indicating that they con-
tain any considerable proportion of blood of improved
kinds.
Toulouse. The Toulouse geese are large, mas-
sive, and probably attain a greater weight than
those of any other breed. I. K. Felch states* that
geese of sixty pounds weight per pair have been
exhibited in American exhibitions.
The American Poultry Association has adopted
the following as standard weights: Adult gander
25 and adult goose 20 pounds.
"
Toulouse geese usually lay more eggs in a
season than Embden or African geese, but not so
many as the best China geese. They are nearer
non-sitting than any other variety, but some indi-
viduals make good mothers. The goslings are
greenish yellow in color, generally hardy and vig-
orous. They are quiet and peaceable, and more
easily confined by stone fences than other breeds,
and would be more likely to be contented in close
quarters. Toulouse geese are gray in color, with
* "Poultry Culture," page 404.
272 Farm Poultry

a square, massive body, carried fairly horizontal,

the abdominal pouch, or loose folds of skin between
and behind the legs, almost or quite touching the
ground."*
It is often difficult to distinguish the sexes,

FIG. 93. A pair of gray Toulouse geese. From United States Department
Farmers' Bulletin No. 64. Howard.
of Agriculture,

as the gander and goose have exactly the same

color and the same feathering.
Embden. The Embdens very much resemble
the Toulouse in general form; they are; however,
pure white throughout, which enables one readily
to one breed from the other. The,
distinguish
Embdens do not have the great abdominal pouch
of the Toulouse, although it is sometimes dis-
* Report, 1897, Rhode Island Agricultural Experiment Station.
 Embden and African Geese 273

tinctly "These geese are inclined to

developed.
lay a little than the Toulouse, and their
earlier

eggs average a trifle heavier, but they do not lay

quite so many eggs, and are much more persistent
sitters. They make excellent mothers. The gos-
lings when hatched are of a rich yellow color, which

FIG. 94. Gray wild goose. From United States Department of Agriculture,
Farmers' Bulletin No. 64. Howard.

changes to white as the quill feathers grow. They

are generally hardy and grow rapidly."*
The standard weight for geese is 20 pounds
for adult gander and 18 pounds for adult goose.
African. "Gray African geese are by many
raisers considered the most profitable of all geese
to keep. They grow the heaviest in the shortest
space of time, and are ready for market in ten weeks,
*Report, 1897, Rhode Island Agricultural Experiment Station.
274 Farm Poultry

weighing, at that age, between eight and ten pounds.

They are very much like the Pekin duck in this
respect, and, ascompared with other geese, give
the most satisfactory returns for the least labor
5

and time spent in growing them."

The African geese are called good layers, and
are especially prized as table fowls. The flesh

FIG. 95. A pair of gray African geese. From United States Depart-
ment of Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin No. 64. Howard.

is good flavored and not so coarse fibered as the

Toulouse. The young are hardy and grow rapidly.
The voice and notes of the African goose resemble
those of the China goose quite as much as those
of the Toulouse or Embden.
Chinese. Individuals of this breed are several
pounds smaller than those of the breeds pre-
*Farmers' Bulletin No. 64, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.
 Chinese and Wild Geese 275

viously described. They are highly prized for the

quality of their flesh and are recognized as excel-
lent layers. Their lack of size, however, has made
them unpopular except for exhibition purposes.
They are considered an ornamental variety and
are small or medium in size. They have long, arched

FIG. 96. Wild and African cross. From United States Department of
Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin No. 64. Howard.

necks and bear a knob at the base of the beak

which gives them a peculiar appearance.

WILD, OR CANADIAN GOOSE

These geese are bred mostly for exhibition pur-

poses and for parks. They are of medium size and
are not bred for utility. They have long, slim necks
276 Farm Poultry

and small heads. They, of course, retain the voice

of the wild geese, which adds to their attractiveness.

GEESE FOOD AND CARE

The first food for young goslings in nature is

grass, and breeders prefer to provide this for the

young of the Grass at pas-

domesticated geese.
ture is recommended. Moistened corn meal is
also recommended. Grit in the form of sand or
fine gravel should be provided. Cooked vege-
tables make an excellent food and may be fed
in the form of a mash. Bran, middlings, and corn
meal, mixed with cooked vegetables, are highly
recommended. As with ducks and chickens, it
has been found best to give some animal food.
Animal meal mixed with the moistened corn
meal is recommended for young geese by
many breeders. The food of breeding geese should
consist chiefly of natural food gathered from the
pasture. Insects, snails, and other primal life
are then consumed. If animal food is not abundant,
it may be supplied artificially to good advantage

in the form of animal meal. It is essential to per-

mit breeding geese to roam at will over areas of
considerable size. For fattening geese, it is a gen-
eral practice to confine them somewhat closely
in order to prevent them from taking too much
exercise. Europeans, who have become so noted for
 PdU de foie gras 277

fattening geese, take great pains to keep them quiet.

Every precaution should be taken to avoid any
disturbance of the flock. Corn meal may form the
larger portion of the daily ration for fattening
geese. Meat scrap may enter into the ration up
to one-fifth of the total amount, for immature
fowls.
Pate de foie gras. In districts where the pro-
duction of "pate de foie gras" has developed into
an industry, particularly about Strasburg, Ger-
many, the geese are confined in individual stalls
so closely that they are compelled to remain in
a sitting or standing posture. The stalls are nar-
row, so that the birds are not even permitted to
turn around. They are removed from this stall
twice each day and fed, by the cramming process,
whole Indian corn that has been thoroughly soaked.
The corn is forced into the mouth by hand and
pushed into the throat by the finger and is worked
down the neck by rubbing externally. The geese
are given plenty pure water and grit in the
of
form of fine gravel. The close confinement and
abundance of corn cause the livers to grow abnor-
mally large, sometimes weighing as much as three
pounds each.
It is said that expert feeders will
produce large
livers in over 80 per cent of the geese fed. The
livers when prepared are known commercially
as "pate de foie gras," and are esteemed a great
278 Farm Poultry

delicacy. The feeders who sell livers to those who

prepare them for the trade sometimes receive as
much as $1.50 per pound. In some districts, it is
reported that great stress is laid on the grit which
is furnished these fattening geese. Small pieces of
antimony ore are said to be highly prized for this
purpose. In some places the geese are suspended
in nets, which prevent them from taking exercise.
Houses. Geese require inexpensive and small
houses. Comparatively rude and simple struc-
?

tures answer every purpose. Simple shelter from

the storm is all that is necessary during the larger
part of the year. While they require larger houses
than ducks, and do not stand crowding to so great
an extent, yet the buildings need not be expensive.
Geese will require about the same space in the
building per of live weight as ducks, but
pound
being much larger, require larger buildings for the
same number of fowls.
Laying qualities. Geese are long-lived. It is
stated on good authority that they frequently
live from thirty to fifty years, and individuals
have lived to be more than a hundred years old.
The females retain their breeding qualities through
life, yet it is recommended to keep only young gan-
ders. Those from three to five years of age are
preferred. Geese are good sitters and make good
mothers. In this respect they still retain well
their natural instincts. Under ordinary conditions,
 Laying and Incubation 279

a goose will lay from twelve to twenty eggs before

incubation. If the eggs be removed from the nest,
two or three sittings of eggs may be produced by
one female before incubation will be persisted in.
Usually it is recommended not to attempt to secure
more than three sittings from one female before she
is permitted to incubate. In practice, the first
eggs are usually set under hens, the goose hatching
the eggs that are laid last.
Geese frequently begin laying early in the spring,
sometimes as early as February. Many instances
have been noted where the laying commenced in
in the late fall or early winter, but would not con-
tinue through the winter. In such instances the
laying would begin again in the spring.
The period of incubation is stated by various
authors to be from twenty-eight to thirty-one
days, which without doubt will represent the limits
under ordinary conditions. When eggs are placed
under hens they are not covered quite so well as
when placed under the mother goose, and incuba-
tion therefore may be delayed a little.
 CHAPTER XIV
TURKEYS, GUINEAS, PEAFOWLS, PIGEONS

OF the species of poultry aside from the hen,

ducks and geese, none has risen to great popularity
in North America except the turkey. The various
kinds of pheasants and peafowls are grown more for
fancy than for profit. At all events, they are not
to be considered as important farm fowls.

TURKEYS

The wild turkey a native of North America

is

and still .abounds in the natural forests of Penn-

sylvania, Virginia and other Atlantic states. It
is found in Tennessee and Kentucky, and is
also
abundant in some of the western states, but its
principal home in the eastern United States at
the present time is in the mountainous regions of
the Atlantic states. Like many other species of
game it is rapidly disappearing, due to the great
changes made by man in his onward march of
civilization. Man
a great disturbing force of
is

nature's equilibrium when he removes the forests

in order to prepare the land for cultivation. He

(280)
 Wild Turkeys 281

not only destroys the home of the game by removing

the woods but causes frequent forest fires, which
are destructive at the brooding season. Probably
the number of wild turkeys is diminishing, yet,
owing to their shy nature, they are not likely to
become entirely extinct for many years.
The wild turkeys that are now found in the
forests of North America are those which, have
been strong enough to withstand the unfavorable
conditions to which they have been subjected and
which have escaped their natural enemies. In
other words, they furnish a most excellent illus-
tration of the "survival of the fittest." Persons who
nave had experience in breeding wild turkeys in
confinement are convinced that they will do well
and retain good breeding qualities on less food than
willbe required to keep domesticated turkeys in
the same condition.
Wild turkeys appear to be somewhat taller in

proportion to their weight than domesticated ones.

"They thrive and keep in good condition on less
food than the domestic turkey. Their slender,
alert appearance is striking to the most careless
observer. Their breadth of shoulder, deep chest
and firm step 'are noticeable when they are compared
with the domestic turkey. The head is small in
proportion to the body, and has a clean, game-like
appearance. The eyes are large, bright hazel, and
full of intelligence and suspicion. . . .
Gobblers,
282 Farm Poultry

when full grown, are about four feet high and weigh,
according to the section of the country they are
taken in, from 15 to 20 pounds each. They do not
get their full growth until the end of the third year,
and increase in weight and beauty for several years
after that. Gobblers weighing 36 and 40 pounds have
often been shot. Wild gobblers mate Hter
. . .

and the hens lay later than domestic turkeys. The

flesh of wild birds is of excellent flavor and is more
delicate and juicy than that of domestic turkeys."*
The Rhode Island Experiment Station speaks
"
as follows of wild turkey crosses :f Where wild
turkeys are plenty, crosses between wild and domes-
tic birds frequently occur without design on the
part of the owner of the latter. Scores of cases
are recorded where a wild gobbler from the woods
has taken possession of a flock of common turkeys,
sometimes after first battling with and killing the
domestic gobbler. The results of such a cross in
almost every case have been so satisfactory that
such matings are much desired by turkey-raisers
in those sections, and young wild birds are caught
for this purpose and brought up with common
young turkeys. Very often nests of wild turkey
eggs are found in the woods and hatched on the
farm. These domesticated wild birds usually persist
in roosting separate from the others, generally in
* Bulletin 25, Rhode Island Agricultural Experiment Station, p. 116.
tSame, p. 119.
 Wild Turkey Crosses 283

the woods or on the top of a house or barn. When

raisedfrom the egg they become more gentle and
fearless than the domestic turkey, but if chased
or frightened they recover their wild habits very
quickly. Wild turkey crosses are hardier and health-
ierthan common turkeys and rarely have disease.
Half-blood hens are generally too wild, but half-
blood gobblers are not so wild and are suitable
for crossing with domestic hens. A
small proportion
of wild blood improves the size, form, and general

appearance, as well as the vigor, without being a

disadvantage in any way. A
quarter-wild cross is
better for practical breeding than a pure wild or
half- wild bird. Half-wild crosses do well if allowed a

large range, but are not well suited to woody lands

or as easily kept on small places as the domestic
turkey.
"Wild turkey hens under domestication and wild
first-cross hens often disappear in the spring and
are not seen until fall, when they usually return to
then- own home with a brood of nearly full-grown

turkeys. Half-blood mothers make their young

too wild. Half-bloods reared by domestic turkey
hens are not much inclined to stray. Quarter-bloods
under certain conditions may be as wild as the wild
bird of the woods.
"The flock of half-wild birds reared at the Sta-
tion this season was very tame and unsuspicious
until several were snared for exhibition at the Kings-
284 Farm Poultry

ton Fair. Since then they have been so shy that

we were unable to secure another lot. They take
flight immediatelya suspicious movement is
if

made. They will be more easily caught later in

the season. The wild blood gives the cross an
astonishing ability to care for themselves. It is
apt to have the strongest influence in breeding. If
first crosses are bred together the stock resembles

the pure wild, and after several generations cannot

be distinguished from the pure wild by good judges.
The older the bird grows the more he shows the wild
blood. Crosses have much of the superior game flavor
of the wild and command a higher price for the table.
"Some wild bronze crosses that are half and three-
quarters wild blood are as large as the pure bronze
7

turkeys. Several years crossing, however, with the

selection of the largest for breeding each season,

gives the greatest size."*

Domesticated turkeys partake largely of the
nature of the wild stock from which they have de-
scended. Many of the domesticated flocks have been
crossed with the wild fowl within recent years.
Turkeys that are commonly reared for profit on
farms are of a roving disposition and do not thrive
well when closely confined. On this account, they
are not suited to rearing in large numbers on small
areas. Owners of small farms or village lots, there-
fore, are practically debarred from rearing large
* Bulletin No. 25, Rhode Island Agricultural Experiment Station.
 Turkeys Varieties 285

numbers of turkeys, particularly if they are to be

kept from trespassing on the, holdings of their
neighbors. While the mother turkey with her brooa
may be confined in very limited areas for a time
during the brooding season, yet as the young become
older and are prepared to seek their own living, they
thrive much better if close restrictions are not en-
forced. Whoever attempts to rear turkeys in con-
siderable numbers should therefore plan to give
them a wide range, particularly during the latter
part of their growth. They are not able to adapt
themselves to artificial conditions so well as chickens
or ducks or even geese.
In North America there are two distinct species
of native turkeys; one inhabits the United States
and Mexico, the other is found in Honduras. The
latter is sometimes spoken of as the ocellated turkey.
The former has been separated into several varieties,
the best known of which are the Mexican turkey,
from which the common domesticated turkey is
descended, and the wild turkey of the eastern United
States. The Mexican form is somewhat smaller
than the wild form of the eastern United States.

TURKEYS VARIETIES

The recognized varieties of the domestic turkey

are the Bronze, Narragansett, White Holland, Buff,
Slate, Black, and Bourbon.
286 Farm Poultry

The Bronze. The Bronze is the largest variety.

The weight adopted by the American Poultry
Association is for this turkey, adult male 36 pounds,
adult female 20 pounds. The origin of the variety
is obscure. Some authorities maintain that it was
formed by crossing the North American wild on

FIG. 97. Bronze turkey, male.

the domesticated Black. The wandering disposi-

tion of the Bronze thought to be due to a com-
is

paratively recent infusion of wild blood. This is

unquestionably the most popular variety, owing
largely, no doubt, to its great size. Breeders and
judges of turkeys lay great stress on the size
of the Bronze. Correct plumage is not sufficient
 Varieties of Turkeys 287

to redeem an exhibition bird if it lacks in size.

(Fig. 97.)
Narragansett. This variety takes its name from
Narragansett Bay in Rhode Island. This state
has long been noted for the large numbers and
excellence of the turkeys which it has produced. The
reputation of the Rhode Island turkeys was made
largely when the Narragansetts were chiefly reared.
In more recent years the Bronze has supplanted
the Narragansetts to a considerable extent, which
was due to the greater size of the former, although
the latter are not small turkeys. The Standard
gives the weight for Narragansetts as 30 pounds
for the cock and 18 for the hen. They are of a gray
color, although some bronze luster is seen on the
wings. They have plump, thick-set bodies and grow
rapidly. They mature early and do not roam so far
as the Bronze.
The White Holland. This variety is sometimes
known as the White Turkey. It is not so popular
as some other kinds, yet in a few localities it is a
favorite. Many breeders who have had an oppor-
tunity to compare thisturkey with others assert
that it is one of the most profitable kinds. The White
Hollands grow rapidly and attain a heavy weight at
an early age.
"The White Hollands are perhaps the best lay-
ers among turkeys. It is sometimes reckoned as
a fault that few hens want to hatch early in the
288 Farm Poultry

season, and a large number of eggs and no broody

hens is not an uncommon occurrence. ... I
believe them good turkeys and worthy of
to be
the best efforts of the breeders and farmers in
general, and think no one need be seriously dis-
appointed in them if he goes ahead properly and
knows what he is doing."* The standard weight
for White Hollands is given for cock 28 pounds
and hen 18 pounds.
Buff turkey. The Buff variety is thought by
many to be the most beautiful of turkeys. It is
not known how the variety originated, although
it was probably produced by crossing. The Buffs
are about the same size as the White Hollands and
are profitable fowls.
Slate turkey. The Slate turkeys in many respects
are very much like the Buffs. The color is thought

by many to be the chief difference.

Neither of these varieties is largely bred, so
their actual value as market turkeys has not been
determined. Some breeders speak highly of them
and, no doubt, they are valuable varieties, but there
seems to be no indication that they are supplanting
either the Bronze or the Narragansetts as profitable
fowls for the farmer and poultryman.
Black turkey. This is an old variety. It has
been bred in England for a long time. "In certain
parts of England it was, until quite recently, the
*Geo. Enty, in "Turkeys and How to Grow Them." Myrick, p. 28.
 Care of Turkeys 289

favorite variety, and is known there as the Black

Norfolk."*
Bourbon Red turkey. These turkeys take their
name from Bourbon County, Kentucky, where it

issupposed they originated. In size they compare

with the Narragansetts, cock 30 and hen 18 pounds.
Breeders make rather strong claims for these fowls,
yet it is very doubtful if they are superior to the
three first-mentioned varieties. It is, however,
an advantage oftentimes to have the different flocks
of a neighborhood distinguished by variety char-
acteristics so that they may be most readily separated
should they become mixed.

TURKEYS GENERAL CARE

At no time in the life of the turkey does its

wild nature assert more than at the laying
itself

season. The domesticated turkey hen still loves

secrecy as her nesting-place.
regards Half-wild
turkeys, when giventheir liberty, have frequently
eluded all attempts on the part of watchers to follow
them and to locate their nests. Many successful
turkey-raisers who do not keep the breeding fowls
confined within large inclosures provide nesting-
places for them in more or less secluded places. An

empty barrel turned on its side or pieces of wide

boards nailed together so that a low roof is formed
* H. S. Babcock, in "Turkeys and How to Grow Them" Myrick, p. 22.
290 Farm Poultry

over a nest on the ground answer the purpose. As a

good turkey hen will lay more eggs than she can cover
well at one sitting, it is customary to remove the
eggs from the nest daily and to place the first laid
under broody hens. The last eggs should be given
the turkey hen to hatch.
Some attempts have been made to rear turkeys
by means of artificial incubators and brooders, but
in many instances the results have been far from satis-
factory. Most turkey-raisersdepend upon natural
methods of incubation and brooding. Turkey eggs
hatch in twenty-eight days.
Selection of breeding stock. Many farmers un-
doubtedly make mistakes in selecting young and
immature birds for breeding stock. Experienced
turkey-raisers insist on breeding from mature and
well-tried birds. If a hen proves to be a good
breeder and a careful mother, she should- be kept as
long as she proves profitable. The young of mature
parents are thought to be considerably stronger
than those of immature fowls. Two- or three-year-
old toms are sometimes preferred to older ones
on account of the great weight which older birds
attain.
"A fewplain rules which may be observed to
advantage are as follows :

"First. Always use as breeders turkey hens over

one year old. Be sure they are strong, healthy, and
vigorous, and of good medium size. In no instance
 Breeding Turkeys 291

select the smaller ones. Do not strive to have them

unnaturally large.
"Second. The male may be a yearling or older.
Do not imagine that the large, overgrown males are
the best. Strength, health, and vigor, with well-
proportioned medium size are the main points of
excellence.
"Third. close breeding. New blood is of
Avoid
vitalimportance to turkeys. Better send a thousand
miles for a new male than to risk the chances of
inbreeding. Secure one in the fall so as to be assured
of his health and vigor prior to the breeding season."*
"Mr. Grinnell, who lives on a farm near the
Experiment Station, from 50 to 60 turkeys
raises

every season. Others in his neighborhood have

poor success. He does not believe in changing
gobblers when a good one has been secured. When
he gets one that sires good stock he keeps him as
long as he is good for anything. The one he now
has is four years old. The hens also are kept as long
as they live. One hen that he has had for
. . .

five years was said to have been eight years old when
he bought her. She still lays from two to three litters
of eggs each season, and her turkeys are larger than
the others."f
Number of females to one male. The question is
often asked as to how many females can be placed
*T. F. McGrew in Farmers' Bulletin No. 200.
t Bulletin No. 25, Rhode Island Agricultural Experiment Station.
292 Farm Poultry

with one male for best results. be impossible

It will
to give any inflexible rule to govern this phase of
the breeding operations, as freedom of exercise,
strength, vigor, etc., are important factors bearing
on this question. In extreme cases, the results have
been all that could be desired, when twenty females
were placed with one male; but under ordinary
conditions it will be safest if no more than from four
to eight females be placed with one male.
Care and food for the young. Newly hatched
poults .are very delicate and require close atten-
tion on the part of the attendant. First of all, they
must be kept dry. Wet or damp quarters should be
avoided. A
dry, porous soil is considered much more
satisfactory than a heavy one, though the latter
"
be underdrained. Young turkeys should not be
out in heavy showers until their backs are well
covered with feathers. If they get wet, they may die
from chill unless put in a warm room to dry. Black
or red pepper and ginger in the food or drinking-
water aid them to overcome a chill, and are of great
value on cold or damp days and are a preventive
of bowel troubles in both old and young turkeys."*
For the first few weeks the young should be kept
in dry places and not permitted to travel through
tall grass when it is wet. During the warm and dry

parts of the day they may be given a run on short

grass or cultivated land. Many poultrymen prefer
* Bulletin No. 25, Rhode Island Agricultural Experiment Station.
 Care and. Food for Young Turkeys 293

placing the hen in a large, airy coop and giving the

young a free run, rather than to confine the young
and give the hen her freedom. In either case it is

advisable to restrict the run of the young for a few

days. It should not be omitted to move the coops
frequently, that the young may be brooded on fresh
ground.
The first food should be soft and easily digestible.
Most turkey-raisers highly recommend hard-boiled

Fia. 98. Turkey house Rhode Island Agricultural Experiment Station.

eggs chopped fine. This is a most excellent food, but

should be fed in moderation and in connection with
other soft foods. Stale bread dipped in milk and
allowed to drain until it becomes dry enough to
crumble is a most excellent first food. This may be
fed until theyoung are several days old. It should
be borne in mind that the bread, or any other food
294 Farm Poultry

for that matter, should not be fed in a sloppy or

very moist condition. Coarse bread baked for the
purpose, if softened with milk, is highly prized.
It should be borne in mind that young turkeys are
seed- and insect-eaters and not slop-eaters. While
bread, milk, and eggs contain the elements most
necessary for the growth of the young of nearly all
fowls, yet it is important to have this food properly
prepared as regards water content. Scalded bran
and corn meal, to which some finely chopped hard-
boiled 'eggs have been added, is relished, and is a
satisfactory food. As the poults become older, they
may be fed bran, Indian meal and ground oats (the
hulls removed) which have been thoroughly soaked.

Freshly moistened meal foods are not equal to the

same food that has become thoroughly softened by
soaking or scalding. Thick sour milk or curd may
be mixed with the soft foods to good advantage.
When the birds are beginning to "feather out,"
cracked corn may be added to the ration. Some
successful poultry -raisers, however, recommend
soaking the cracked corn at first. Later in the season
whole corn may be fed. Old corn is preferred to new.

GUINEA FOWLS

These fowls are not reared in large numbers on

farms devoted to that particular purpose, as are
chickens and ducks, but comparatively small numbers
 Guinea Fowls 295

are reared on many farms. The

rearing of guineas
in the southern part of the United States is of far

greater importance than it is in the North. Where

they are reared in the largest numbers the young
fowls are highly esteemed for food.
Under ordinary farm conditions the domes-

Fio. 99. A guinea hen (one-sixth size).

ticated guineas can hardly be called profitable

farm fowls. lay fairly well during the sum-
They
mer time if given a wide range, but, owing to the
disposition of the hen to hide her nest, the eggs
are often entirely lost. Many instances are known
in which the hen has secreted her nest and continued
to lay until it became well filled, when it would be
296 Farm Poultry

abandoned for another. This, in turn, might be left

to thesame fate as the first. Instances are known
of three nests being well filled with eggs before the
hen showed any disposition to incubate.
Objections have been made to the fowl on account
of its sharp, screeching voice. It is true that guineas
make more noise than chickens and that their
voices are somewhat piercing, yet they are not objec-
tionable to most people unless the poultry yard and
other places frequented by them are very near the
dwelling; -house. The writer has heard several
farmers express a liking for these birds because
they are "rather noisy." They are "company." Like
geese, guineas are inclined to give an alarm if the
poultry yard is molested. As a rule, these fowls
mingle well in the poultry yard with chickens,
both young and old.
Guineas like a wide range. They prefer to perch
far from the ground preferably in trees
although
they frequently perch with hens in poultry
will
houses during severe weather, if given an opportu-
nity to do so. Guineas are naturally shy and are
easily frightened, although they may become tame
with kind and careful treatment. While not strictly
so,guineas are strongly inclined to be monogamous,
and consequently it is necessary to keep almost as
many males as females, if fertile eggs are desired.
When females are placed with one male,
several
poor hatches are to be expected.
 Characteristics of Peafowls 297

PEAFOWLS

Peafowls are reared in small numbers by those

who delight in seeing the most gorgeous plumage
of domesticated fowls. They are not reared for
their flesh nor for egg production. It is recorded,*

however, that in the reign of Henry VI of England,

peacocks were highly esteemed as a delicacy. In
some respects peafowls are quite as near the wild
forms from which they have descended as any species
of domesticated fowls. They delight in perching at
a great distance from the ground and frequently fly
to the roofs of tall farm buildings. They fly easily
and gracefully.
The male is by far the most gor-
or cock bird
geous of farm Peafowls are reared almost
fowls.

wholly on account of the proud and brilliant appear-

ance of the male. The brilliant coloring of the head
and neck feathers and his large and beautiful tail

make him a source of delight to children and an

interesting bird to adults. The hen is modest-appear-
ing and unattractive in coloring. The cock is gener-
ally troublesome in the poultry yard on account of
his disposition to kill other kinds of poultry, particu-

larly young chickens and ducks. Cocks have been

known to attack mature fowls and even children
and adults. The male does not acquire his most
brilliant and perfect plumage until he is more than
* "Book of Poultry," Wright, p. 531.
298 Farm Poultry

three years of age. The peacock is disliked by some

on account of his loud, screeching voice, which he is

inclined to use freely.

PIGEONS

While pigeons are not usually mentioned among

the various kinds of profitable farm stock, yet
the possibilities of profitable returns are so great
that a somewhat full discussion of pigeon-rearing
is warranted. However, only a short discussion
will be devoted to the business as yielding money
returns on the investment. To lovers of animal
life, pigeon-rearing offers a most fascinating field,

particularly to the boys and girls who delight in

caring for stock thatthey may own. Many
call their

a farm boy has become interested in animal life

and has learned many things which have been of
great use to him in after years, that he acquired by
caring for and studying the needs of pets which had
been given wholly to his charge. Farm boys become
dissatisfied with the farm and decide to leave it

chiefly for two reasons because they are not inter-

ested in farm life and work, and because they have
not been taught how to make quick returns and good
profits for the money invested. The rearing of pigeons
will often afford satisfactory first lessons and may
reveal possibilities that will be sufficiently enticing
when considered from a standpoint of income alone.
 Pigeon Rearing 299

Interest in animallife, particularly those forms that

are easily handled and controlled, serves a most

useful purpose in leading the young mind along
profitable channels of development. Interest in
pigeon-rearing cannot fail to develop, to some extent,
the powers of observation. Other things being equal,
the boy who sees most will have the best understand-

Fio. 100. Pigeon cote and aviary Rhode Island Agricultural College.

ing of the subject in question. So long as knowledge

is power, then those who are the closest observers

will not only understand best the matter under con-

sideration, but will be best prepared to meet the
greater problems that each individual is required,
sooner or later, to solve for himself.
The care of pigeons may be given almost wholly
to quite young boys and girls, if a few simple direc-
tions for feeding and care be understood, and a
suitable home be provided for the birds. On most
300 Farm Poultry

farms only a small money outlay will be required,

and very little trouble is necessary to prepare com-

fortable quarters for breeding pigeons, particularly

if the young be sold as squabs.

"The shelters for squab-breeders should not

be too cold, although the experienced can raise
them in almost any old shell of a building, as far
north as New York city. The fittings are only nests,
perches and drinking- and bath-fountains, a space
of two square feet of floor being counted to each bird,
with never less than twice as much room in the flight
yards, in the open air. The flight spaces are best en-
closed by inch-mesh wire net, as this excludes
sparrows, which are arrant thieves and fighters. The
netting usually runs overhead, to the highest point
of the roof."*
A fine quality of squabs finds a ready market
in the great cities. They are quoted from about
and frequently the expert
50 cents to $4 per dozen,
producers obtain nearly twice this amount. For
the money outlay, squab-raising offers a tempting
field for those who are willing to give attention to
the many little things. To those who are not willing
to observe closely the needs of the birds and to use
good judgment in meeting these demands, pigeon-
raising will probably prove unsatisfactory, affording
neither pleasure nor profit. The negligent or care-
less person should not enter into the poultry busi-
* "Pocket Money Poultry," Norys, p. 140.
 Squabs 301

ness, success depends on the many minor

since
things which cannot be neglected. Squab-rearing
may be made very profitable if "eternal vigilance,"
the price of success, be given.
Most of the squabs that are now sold in the
markets of the large cities average from one-half
pound to three-quarters of a pound each, while the
choicest birds may weigh nearly twice as much.*
Many experienced squab-raisers prefer a cross of
Runts and Homers for fine birds. The mother should
be a Homer, as these birds are better breeders and
better mothers than the Runts.
The health of pigeons should receive close atten-
tion. They should be given an opportunity to
bathe, and such conditions should be provided as
will produce the strongest and most vigorous squabs.

Light-colored squabs sell best on the market.

A variety of
grains is usually fed. Cracked
corn, wheat, hulled oats, millet, hemp, and other
small seeds are much used. Cracked corn is a
favorite food. Pigeons are particularly fond of salt.
Many pigeon raisers keep a supply of salt acces-
sible to the birds at all times. As the old birds
feed the squabs, it is essential that the parents be
well fed. Aclean sanded floor is an excellent place
for feeding the old birds.
*"Pocket Money Poultry," Norys, p. 142.
 CHAPTER XV
PREPARING AND MARKETING POULTRY PRODUCTS

THE advance in price of poultry products, par-

ticularly the meat products, makes their condition

when they reach the market of greater relative import-
ance. With low prices the different grades do not
vary greatly, but with comparatively high prices
the variation in grades due to quality and appear-
ance is very marked.
Those who are preparing poultry for market
should constantly bear in mind that it is of the
utmost importance to have the products reach
the market in the most perfect condition. Flesh
that is clean and bright always presents a more
attractive appearance than that which is discol-
ored. Fowls are sometimes discolored as the result
of improper methods of packing and shipping.
Careless packing and rough handling the latter
too often given by the employees of railroads and
express companies frequently cause a good article
to reach the market in a poor condition, and it
therefore brings a low price. It is the privilege of
every shipper to prepare his fowls in such a manner
that they may reach the market in as inviting con-
(302)
 Attractive Appearance Important 303

dition as possible. The best-appearing fowls always

sell at a higher price than equally as good stock

that has been improperly prepared or is untidy.

Commission men state that properly prepared meat
will readily sell for twice as much as an equally

good article that is poorly arranged and uninviting.

DRESSING POULTRY

Those who have taken the trouble to study

the conditions of the markets in the great cities
say, without hesitation, that the good stock is sold
and that the poor and indifferent often becomes
first

a drug on the market. New York commission men

are quite positive in the conviction that shippers who
send considerable produce to market and who pre-
pare their product in uniformly fine order readily
acquire a reputation among buyers. This is always
an advantage and is a material aid in securing better
prices. Thorough and careful preparation enable
shippers to secure a somewhat higher price than the
same stock would bring if prepared in an indifferent
manner.
In order to arrange products for market in the
best possible manner, it is necessary to study the
details of killing, dressing and packing, which
will enable the producer to send not only those
articles which the market demands, but to send
them in the best possible condition. Fowls should
304 Farm Poultry

not be fed for some time before killing. At least

twelve hours, and in many cases twenty-four hours,
should elapse after the last feeding before the killing
takes place. At any rate, the crops of the chickens
should become entirely empty. Some cities have
passed ordinances prohibiting the selling of dressed
fowls whose crops are not free from food. In such
markets the law makes it imperative that solid
food should be withheld long enough before killing
to permit the crops to become entirely empty.
If for any reason a few fowls should gain access
to food just before killing time, and it is not desir-
able to retain them longer on the farm, they may
be and dressed with the rest, and after pick-
killed

ing,a short, clean-cut incision may be made through

the skin, which will permit the removal of the crop.
An incision should be made in the crop, the crop
turned inside out, thoroughly cleaned and returned.
The practice of removing grain from the crop by
forcing it out through the mouth by external pres-
sure not recommended; in fact, it is condemned
is

in positive terms by dealers. While in some in-

stances it may be possible to empty the crop with-

out breaking the skin, yet it will be necessary to

use sufficient force in many cases to cause dis-
coloration.
There are two methods used in preparing dressed
fowls -for market.These are known as dry-picking
and scalding. It may be stated in a general way
 Killing Fowls 305

that the finest quality of chickens and turkeys

commands higher prices when dry-picked. On the
other hand, lean or thin poultry does not present so
good an appearance as when scalded and "plumped,"
as will be explained later, and therefore does not
sellso well. Ducks and geese are usually scalded,
with the exception of young, fat ducks, which are
known on the market as "green ducks." These
are usually dry-picked.
Killing. Those who are required to perform
the operation of killing fowls should bear in mind
that it is desirable to remove all the blood from the
body that can be withdrawn, and to cause the fowl
to suffer as pain as possible. In other words,
little

the operator should be as humane as circumstances

will allow. He may, at the same time, prepare his
birds in the best possible manner.
All kinds of fowls are recommended to be killed

by cutting through the roof of the mouth. This

will cut through an artery, which will cause the blood
to flow freely. A
sharp-pointed knife should be
used for this purpose, which should pierce the base of
the brain; it will cause death at once. It is said

by experts that a fowl may be killed so quickly

that the blood will not flow as freely as desired
and that the feathers will be removed with more
difficulty, especially if
dry-picking is practiced.
The ideal condition is to have the knife enter the
brain and paralyze the fowl, and while in this
306 Farm Poultry

condition to have it bleed to death. If the fowl

becomes paralyzed the muscles are relaxed and
the feathers are easily removed. Too much stress
cannot be laid on the importance of thorough
bleeding. Americans prefer to have all flesh free
from blood. The keeping quality is thought to be
considerably enhanced by thorough bleeding. In
all the operations of killing and picking, care should

be taken to avoid bruising the flesh, tearing the skin

or breaking the bones.
It is customary to suspend fowls by the feet
before they are killed. In the case of heavy fowls
they should be so suspended that they will not
strike each other with their wings when flopping,
or strike their wings against any hard object. Fowls
bleed best when suspended head downward at the
time of killing.
Dry-picking. Immediately after killing, the
feathers should be removed carefully and cleanly.
Dressed fowls should be sent to market, if pos-
sible, without the skin being broken at any place.
It is usually customary to commence picking im-
"
mediately after sticking. Green ducks" and broilers
are usually picked while the bleeding is taking place.
As soon as the incision is made with the knife, the
birds are stunned by a blow on the head and then
picking commences at once. It is essential in dry-
picking to remove the feathers as soon as possible
after the birds are killed.
 Dry-picking and Scalding 307

When fowls are picked dry, to be shipped in

cold weather, they should be hung in a cool place
until thoroughly cold before they are packed.

Poultry should not be packed until all of the ani-

mal heat has disappeared. A cool place is prefer-
able to one so cold that the flesh will freeze quickly.
If the skin is wet when the fowls are packed, they
are likely to present a more or less discolored appear-
ance when offered for sale. When dry-picked fowls
are to be packed in ice for hot-weather shipment,
they may be plunged into cold water for a short
time immediately after picking and then placed in a
tank of ice water and left for several hours. Some
extensive duck-raisersmake a practice of leaving
the picked ducks in cold water over night. Either
ice water or cold spring water may be used for
this purpose.

Young fowls, especially ducks, that have many

pin feathers are sometimes prepared by shaving
with a sharp knife after the feathers are removed.
This removes the projecting parts of the pin feathers
and will help to place the fowl in the best possible
condition for market. Of course white birds are
much preferred on this account to colored ones.
The English use a short, thin-bladed knife in re-
moving the pin feathers. This operation is called
"stubbing," and is generally performed by women
and children.
,

Scalding. When birds are scalded they should

308 Farm Poultry

be immersed in hot water immediately after they

are through bleeding. The water should be a little
below the boiling-point. It is recommended to
immerse the birds thoroughly in the water three
or four times, lifting them out between each immer-
sion in order to give them a little airing. Immed-
iately after scalding, chickens and turkeys should
be picked clean, and care be taken not to break the
skin. The skin of young fat fowls is more likely
to tear than that of older ones. As these birds are
the mdst valuable, it is necessary to exercise the
greatest care and skill in preparing them. After
scalding ducks and geese, it is recommended to
wrap them in a cloth for about two minutes, in
order that the down may be more readily removed
with the feathers.
Plumping. Commission men recommend that
scalded poultry be "plumped" after picking. That
is, after the fowls are carefully picked, they should

be dipped in hot water for a few seconds. This

water should be about the same temperature as
that used for scalding, perhaps not quite so warm.
Then they are removed and placed at once in cold
water, where they should remain from fifteen to
twenty minutes. If fowls that are scalded and
"plumped" in this manner are to be shipped dry,
they should be hung up until the skin becomes

thoroughly dry. If they are to be packed in ice for

warm-weather shipment they may be placed in
 Plumping and Packing 309

cold water for several hours, when they will be ready

to pack. It is not necessary to dry the fowls when
they are to be packed in ice.
In scalding fowls, care should be taken not to
leave them in the water too long. Over-scald-
ing will cause the outer surface of the skin to peel
off, and consequently, they will not present a good

appearance. If they are under-scalded, the feathers

cannot be removed so readily, and salesmen find
that they do not appear so well when exposed for sale.

PACKING AND SHIPPING

If the fowls are to be packed dry for cool-weather

shipment, neat packages that are clean, and as

light as will carry the contents safely, are to be
preferred. Uniform packages are preferred to
various kinds of rough boxes. Clean barrels or
neatly prepared cases should be used. It is recom-
mended to use cases or boxes for turkeys and geese,
and barrels for chickens. In packing poultry, it is
customary to use dry wheat or rye straw.
clean,
The straw should be free from chaff, and hand-
threshed is preferred to that which has been threshed
by a machine. A layer of straw should be placed
in the bottom of the package, and then alternate

layers of poultry and straw until the package is full.

Heavy paper is placed by some .poultry shippers
between the poultry and the sides of the package.
310 Farm Poultry

All fowls should be perfectly clean and dry before

packing. If there is any moisture or blood about

the head it should be removed with a cloth. If a
fowl is inclined to bleed a little at the mouth, the
mouth should be thoroughly wiped out and a little

cotton inserted to absorb any liquid that might

otherwise cause discoloration.
Packing in ice. Large barrels are usually em-
ployed for this purpose. If sugar barrels are used,
they should be thoroughly washed, preferably
with h6t water, to remove all traces of sugar. Expert
packers place a layer of cracked ice in the bottom
of the barrel, then a layer of poultry, then another

layer of ice, and so on until the barrel is full. After

the top layer of poultry is in place, there should be
a layer of cracked ice placed on top. On this layer
spread a piece of burlap which is sufficiently large
to cover well the top of the barrel.On this burlap
some cracked may
icebe placed and on top of all
a large piece of ice. Over all place another piece
of burlap. This may be held in place by driving
the top hoop on over the burlap.
It is recommended to place the fowls heads

outward, backs up and the feet toward the middle

of the barrel. That is, the fowls as placed in the
barrel should slope from the center toward the
staves. This will cause the ice as it melts to work
from the center toward the outside of the barrel.
In transit the ice nearest to the outside of the barrel
 Packing for Shipment 311

will melt It is, therefore, of considerable

first.

importance to have those parts of the fowls nearest

to the outside of the barrel cooled by the ice which
is in the center of the barrel. The water and ice
from the center will continually work toward the
outside.
Frozen poultry. Poultry is frequently shipped
during cold weather in a frozen condition. Com-
mission men recommend that only the best quality
of poultry should be shipped in this manner. Only

dry-picked fowls should be selected for freezing.

When poultry is frozen
by natural out-of-door
temperature, cases may be filled when the fowls are
thoroughly frozen and the temperature is low. It is
not necessary to use ice in packing when frozen
fowls are shipped. Poultry that is frozen solid may
be kept for a long time, even for months, provided
it does not thaw out.

Marking packages. If dressed poultry is sent

to middlemen, each package should be marked with
the name and address of the commission man and
also with the name and address of the sender. It
is also well to mark on each package its contents,
whether chickens, fowls, turkeys, ducks or geese,
and the number should
of birds or gross weight. It
not be neglected to forward advice by mail, giving
a correct statement of all goods sent. If inferior
or second-quality fowls are shipped, it is always best
to state to the commission man the contents of
312 Farm Poultry

the package and also the quality. If a poor quality

of goods is sent, he is sure to find it out, and it may
save him considerable annoyance if he knows what
the package contains before it is opened.
There seems to be a disposition on the part of
some shippers, who are not very familiar with the
business, to refrainfrom marking packages as to
quality. Nothing can be made by this practice as
the quality will be known before a sale is made.
A good rule is to help the dealer, then you may

expect favors from him.

Time of shipment. When poultry or eggs are
sent to commission men, it should be borne in mind
that these products, if for immediate sale, should
reach them in the middle or early part of the week.
Many commission men sell very little after Friday
noon. In a general way, it may be stated that Sat-
urday day; that the retailers are sup-
is retailers'

posed to have on hand before Saturday,

their stock
and that they do not go to the commission men for
their supplies during that day. Shipments are often
made so that they reach their destination late in the
week and are, therefore, carried over until the begin-
ning of the next week.
English and German methods. The English
method of preparing fowls for market is, in many

respects, very different from that in vogue in the

United States, and undoubtedly would not be
acceptable to the most fastidious in this country,
 English Methods 313

who have become accustomed to other methods of

dressing and marketing fowls. The English method
of preparing young fowls for market, which have been
fattened by the cramming process and which affords
a most delicate flesh, is to kill them without bleeding.
While in the United States great stress is laid on
removing as much blood as possible from the body,
the English prefer not to have the fowl bled at all.
The operator holds the fowl with his left hand and
grasps the head with his right. He gives a forcible,
forward pull with his right hand, holding the head
at right angles to the neck. He uses enough force
to dislocate the neck just below the head. This
kills the fowl at once and frequently causes consid-

erable blood to settle in the neck, although no blood

leaves the body. When dry-picking is practiced the
fowls are picked at once after the neck is dislocated.
Pickersbecome very expert in dry-picking fowls. As
the hand moves back and forth over the body the
feathers gradually disappear, and in less time than
it requires to describe the operation properly an

expert picker will have the feathers removed from a

good specimen. While the English do not meet
our requirements as regards the drawing of blood,
yet in some respects they take more pains in pre-
paring the bids for market than Americans do.
As soon as the birds are picked, they are fre-
quently placed on what is known as a "forming
7

machine/ prepared for the purpose and weighted,

314 Farm Poultry

in order to make
the bodies appear plump. The
legs are folded underneath the body, which gives
a plumper appearance. Before the fowls are placed
on the machine the breast bone is sometimes broken
down, though not always. The stern of the fowl
is pressed firmly against a smooth, hard object in
order to give it a flattened appearance. This appear-
ance is still further increased by the use of the ma-
chine on which the fowls are placed. They are left
on the shelves until cool. Sometimes, however,
they ard sent to a near-by market before the animal
heat has left the body. The English method of
preparing fowls for market has some advantages
over that in use in the United States. There is no
doubt that fowls will appear plumper when cooled
on a "forming machine," after the English fashion,
than when hung up by the feet to cool according
to the almost universal custom in America.
The "forming machine,"* see Fig. 101, is made
by arranging conveniently a series of shelves so that
each shelf has a backboard placed at nearly a right
angle toit. The shelves slope backward somewhat,
which keeps the fowls which are placed upon them
snugly in the angle formed by the shelf and the
backboard. The width of the shelf is determined
somewhat by the size of the fowls to be placed upon
it. Those who are extensively engaged in fattening
fowls have different sizes of "forming machines."
* "Fattening Fowls," E. Cobb.
 The Forming Machine 315

For medium-sized chickens, shelves about seven

inches wide are used. The English become very
skilful in using the machine to the best advantage.

Fio. 101. An English "forming machine," which is used to give a plump

appearance to dressed chickens.

The operation of preparing the fowls by the use of

this machine may be briefly described as follows:
They first squeeze out any matter from the vent,

then grasp the bird, back uppermost, with both

hands. The thumbs are placed on the back with the
fingers clasping the legs, 'which are bent under-
neath the body. While held in this position the
bird ispressed forcibly against a smooth wall or
post, which forces the "parson's nose" upward so
that its point is above the back. During this oper-
ation the body is held firmly, but care is taken not
316 Farm Poultry

to mar the skin. The bird is placed carefully in

the machine so that the "parson's nose" is held

FIG. 102. A capon as prepared for

the English market by use of a
"forming machine." From "Fat-
tening Fowls," by Cobb. Note de-
pression
on back made by weighted
board.

straight up against the backboard, the head and

neck hanging over the front of the shelf. When
the shelf is filled with birds that are tightly packed
side by side, a board three or four inches wide is
placed on the fowls and heavily weighted. They
are left in this position until cold. (See Fig. 102.)
The English
frequently break down the breast
bone of young fowls that are not very fat, in order
to give them a plumper appearance. This may
be done by grasping the fowl with both hands and
pressing with the thumbs on the breast until the
 Shipping Live Poultry 317

bone, or the structure which supports it, breaks and

leaves the fowl with a less prominent breast. The
Germans frequently break down the breast bone of
chickens and ducks by striking a smart blow on
the most prominent part of the bone with a smooth,
well-rounded paddle.

SHIPPING LIVE POULTRY

When live poultry is shipped long distances

to market, it should be placed in coops which are
high enough to permit the fowls to stand erect.
It is also an advantage, and will give comfort
to the occupants of the coop, if the top is made
of slatswhich are far enough apart so that they may
straighten up and pass their heads between the slats.
Shipping crates or coops should be as light as
is consistentwith the requisite strength. Large
and heavy crates areawkward to handle and are
expensive to transport. Large coops on many accounts
are not so desirable as small ones, particularly if
they are well filled with heavy fowls. It should be
borne in mind that these shipping crates or coops
are required to be handled quickly, and if they are
heavy, rougher usage is given them than would be
given to smaller ones. These coops are usually
sent by express, and the employees of the express
companies find it necessary to work rapidly and
often are prevented from handling the coops carefully.
318 Farm Poultry

If large coops are used, they should have one

or more partitions across them so that the fowls will
not all be thrown to one side, if for any reason the

coop becomes tilted. When tilted, large coops with-

out partitions cause great discomfort to the occu-
pants on the lower side of the coop, and in many
cases if the coop remains tipped for any consider-
able time, death may result from suffocation.
It is important that the fowls of a crate or coop
should be uniform; that is, the sexes should not be
shipped' in the same division of a crate and young
fowls should not be sent with old ones. It fre-
quently happens that a commission man or dealer
can find ready sale for a uniform lot of fowls but is
unable to dispose of a mixed lot. It is often incon-
venient, if not impossible, for him to sort and grade
them, consequently the fowls are sold at a sacrifice.
Middlemen and dealers of the great cities are busy
and are accustomed to do a great deal of business
in a short time. They do not have the time and
conveniences for the grading that should be done
before the fowls are placed in the shipping-crates.
They want things ready.

EGGS CARE AND HANDLING

Itimportant that eggs receive proper care

is

immediately after they are laid if they are to be

marketed in a strictlv first-class condition.
 Preparing Eggs for Market 319

The loss to the country through the marketing

of deteriorated eggs is great, and any movement
that will tend to lessen the evil cannot help to be
of value to the farmer and

poultryman. *"It has been

estimated that about five
per cent of all the eggs mar-
keted in this country are
"
culled out as dirties" caus-

ing a about one per

loss of
l

cent on the total value of FIG. 103.

. , ,, . , A convenient egg-carrier.
the egg crop of the country.
For this the farmer and poultryman are alone to
blame."
Eggs that are not perfectly clean should not
be sent to market. Indifferent or careless poultry-
men permit the nests to become fouled, and many
eggs are not clean when gathered. Eggs may be
stained from nest material, and they are some-
times colored with blood, particularly the first
eggs of pullets. Stains of various kinds may be
readily removed with a moistened cloth on which
has been dusted a little cooking soda. Poultrymen
who make a specialty of fancy eggs are particular
to send clean eggs to market, and also take consider-
able pains to ship only those of uniform size and
color. Uniformity is of great importance when the

highest prices are to be secured. As a fruit-grower

* United States Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Animal In-
dustry, Circular No. 140.
320 Farm Poultry

recognizes that a few large apples when mixed with

those of medium size do positive injury, so far as
the market value concerned, so expert egg pro-
is

ducers recognize that a few large eggs mixed with

those of average size detract from the appearance,
and, consequently, from the market value. The
purchaser is attracted by uniformity. If he sees that
all the eggs on top of the crate are of uniform size,

color, and shape, he naturally expects uniformity

throughout. On the other hand, if he finds that

they are of all -sizes, he cannot expect uniformity

in the lower layers. If one's flock consists of pure-
bred stock, the eggs should be fairly uniform in
shape and color, and also in size, although large
eggs and abnormally small ones will occasionally
appear; these may be kept for home consumption
or for the local market.
Much has been said about marketing eggs in
a strictly fresh condition. Those who have had
years of experience, and have established a repu-
tation that has become almost national, are con-
vinced that the market will not distinguish between
an egg one day old and one four days old. An
egg four or five days old is in a perfectly fresh condi-
tion, if it has had good treatment. If it has been
subjected to the heat of an incubator for that length
of time, it would not be fresh. Eggs may be sent to
market hundreds of miles by express and placed
in the hands of the consumer when not more than
 Deteriorated Eggs 321

a few days old. Whenever a poultryman who

aims to produce the finest quality of eggs desires to
establish a reputation for himself, it will probably
be necessary for him, at first, to send his eggs under
a guaranty that they were produced by his own
flock, and that he knows them to be strictly first-
class in every respect.
Many deteriorated eggs are shipped to market
and are there sorted out; some are known as "heated
eggs." These are fertile eggs that have been sub-
jected to a sufficiently high temperature to per-
ceptibly start the development of the germ which
if continued long enough would produce the fully
developed chick. This may have been done in the
nest, perhaps under a broody hen, or by keeping the
eggs in too warm a place in the barn or house, or
during the time occupied in traveling from the farm
to the market where the poor eggs are culled out.
The loss from this cause alone is thought to be several
times that caused by eggs becoming spoiled.

SPOILED EGGS

Evaporated or "shrunken" eggs are those that

have been allowed to dry out through the natural
process of evaporation. They are readily detected
by the increased size of the air-chamber which
shows that the egg is not fresh. Eggs kept for some

time in a dry, well-ventilated room lose so much

322 Farm Poultry

moisture that they cannot be sold as fresh and are

"
culled out as shrunken."
There is another large class of deteriorated eggs
known as "rots." These eggs have become totally
unfit for food through bacterial contamination.
The from this source is great, which
loss to dealers

eventually must be borne either directly or indi-

rectly by the producer.
be regretted that there has not been
It is to

developed in this country a more rapid and satis-

factory method of gathering eggs from the farm
and transporting them to the consumer, in order
that this great loss might be lessened as far as pos-
sible and the consumer be given a greater guarantee
as to quality.
It has been suggested that in dairy districts
where daily trips are made from the farm to the
creamery or skimming station, that fresh eggs be
delivered with the milk. This would enable the
creamery to make frequent shipments and thus
prove an efficient agency in the handling of this
important food product.
Shipping-cases. Eggs are usually sent to mar-
ket in shipping-crates which are constructed speci-
ally for this purpose. The standard-size crate
holds thirty dozens. (See Fig. 104.) These crates,
or shipping-cases, contain trays which fit into the
outer case, one above the other. The trays are
divided by pasteboard partitions into many sepa-
 Shipping Cases for Eggs 323

rate compartments, each compartment holding one

egg. Some shipping-cases have wire springs instead
of the pasteboard partitions to hold the eggs. The
English prefer what
is known as the Irish

shipping-case. This
consists of a case not
unlike a small dry-
goods box. In this
is placed a layer of
sea grass similar to
Fia. 104. A thirty-dozen-egg shipping case.
that used in packing
china and glassware. The grass placed in the
is

form of a shallow hen's nest. This is filled with

eggs. On placed another layer of sea grass
these is

and another layer of eggs, the layers of eggs and

sea grass alternating until the case is nearly full.
More sea grass is then put on and the cover
fastened by nails or screws. While this case is

preferred by the English, it is doubtful whether it

would be sufficient to withstand the rough usage

given by the American express companies and freight

lines.

Many commission men prefer to have eggs

shipped to them in barrels, packed in dry, fine-
cut, clean wheat or rye straw. Barrels are strong,
rigid packages for their weight, and are well adapted
for shipping. A
barrel will hold about seventy
dozen, if properly packed.
324 Farm Poultry

PRESERVING EGGS

During the spring and early summer months,

when a large proportion of the hens that are kept
on farms are laying, the price of eggs is frequently
very low, particularly in local markets where most
of the farm eggs are sold. In such times many
eggs are preserved until late fall, when the price
is usually the highest. Many persons make a busi-
ness of preserving eggs in order to reap the benefit
of the advance in price; others preserve them in
times of plenty for home consumption when the
hens are not laying. Many others would attempt
to keep them if they but knew of a simple and
safe way of preserving them. To such persons it
may be said that there is no well-known way of
keeping eggs absolutely fresh for any considerable
length of time. There are several methods, however,
that are sufficiently satisfactory to warrant the
preservation of eggs both for the market and for
home use. Preserved eggs are thought to be injured
by cold sooner than fresh ones. The following gives
the results of experiments made in Germany with
various preservatives :*
"The Berliner Markthallenzeitung reports about
experiments made for the purpose of securing the
most rational method of preserving eggs. . . .

Twenty methods were selected for these experi-

*United States Consular Reports, Dec., 1897, pp. 563, 564. Thieriot.
 Egg Preservatives 325

ments. first days of July, four hundred

In the
fresh eggswere prepared according to these methods
(twenty eggs for each method), to be opened for
use at the end of the month of February. . . .

After eight months of preservation the eggs were

opened for use, and the twenty different methods
employed gave the most heterogeneous results . . .

1. Eggs put for preservation in salt water were all bad.

2. Eggs wrapped in paper, 80 per cent bad.
3. Eggs preserved in a solution of salicylic acid and glycerin,
80 per cent bad.
4. Eggs rubbed with salt, 70 per cent bad.
5. Eggs preserved in bran, 70 per cent bad.
6. Eggs provided with a cover of paraffin, 70 per cent bad.
7. Eggs varnished with a solution of glycerin and salicylic
acid, 70 per cent bad.
8. Eggs put in boiling water for twelve to fifteen seconds,
50 per cent bad.
9. Eggs treated with a solution of alum, 50 per cent bad.
10. Eggs put in a solution of salicylic acid, 50 per cent bad.
11. Eggs varnished with water-glass (wasserglas) 40 per cent
bad.
12. Eggs varnished with collodion, 40 per cent bad.
13. Eggs covered with lac, 40 per cent bad.
14. Eggs varnished with sward, 20 per cent bad.
15. Eggs preserved in ashes of wood, 20 per cent bad.
16. Eggs treated with boric acid and water-glass, 20 per cent
bad.
17. Eggs treated with manganate of potassa, 20 per cent bad.
18. Eggs varnished with vaseline, all good.
19. Eggs preserved in lime-water, all good.
20. Eggs preserved in a solution of water-glass, all good.

"The last three methods are consequently to be

326 Farm Poultry

considered the best ones, especially the preserva-

tion in a solution of water-glass, as varnishing the
eggs with vaseline takes too much time, and the
treatment with lime-water sometimes communi-
cates to the eggs a disagreeable odor and taste."
Water-glass* "We tried the keeping of eggs
with sodium silicate (water-glass) with good results.
Sodium silicate is a compound containing silicon,
sodium and oxygen in the proportion of one, two
and three respectively. It can be purchased from
druggist's in the form of a semi-fluid resembling
thick sugar syrup, for which it might easily be
mistaken. .

"An experiment was conducted in our depart-

ment for the purpose of determining the most
effective degree of concentration. The result of
the experiment is of considerable importance, inas-
much as the cost of the mixture may be greatly
reduced without destroying its value.
"On the 27th of May, we took twelve dozen
eggs, all known to be perfectly fresh, and prepared
the following solutions:

No. 1. One part of water-glass in the semi-fluid form to ten

parts water.
No. 2. One part water-glass in the semi-liquid form to fifteen/
parts water.
No. 3. One part water-glass in the semi-liquid form to twenty
parts water.
* 24th Annual Report Ontario Agricultural College, pp. 193, 194.
 Water-glass as a Preservative 327

"The first solution was found to be too strong,

as it caused the eggs to float. The second was
all right in this respect. The third, though much
weaker, gave perfect satisfaction. We divided
the eggs into three lots of four dozen each, and
put one lot into each solution. We tested them
from time to time, and in every case found them
perfectly fresh; and, on breaking, we noticed that
the yolk stood up exactly as in new-laid eggs, and
did not show the slightest tendency towards decay.
"We tested one-half dozen from each solution
on the first of December, and could not detect
any difference in the appearance or quality in the

eggs out of the different solutions, all being per-

fectly fresh after being in the solution six months. . .

"In order to use water-glass successfully, the

following plan should be adopted: Take one part
by measure of water-glass, say one gallon, and
twenty parts by measure of water that has been
boiled (twenty gallons), and allow the water to
cool; then place the water-glass and water in a
vessel; stir the ingredients well together; put the
eggs into the tub or vat in which they are to be
kept, and pour the solution over them until the
topmost layer is completely covered. The reason
for boiling the water is to kill any putrefactive

germs which may be in the water at the time. If

water-glass is purchased by the cwt., it should be
procured for $2.50 to S3 per cwt. (112 Ibs.).
328 Farm Poultry .

"So far as we know this is the best solution yet

tried for the preservation of eggs. When taken
out of the eggs have the appearance of fresh-
it

laid eggs, and when they are broken the yolk stands

up exactly as in new-laid eggs, without showing

the tendency toward decay. It is first
slighest
necessary, before boiling eggs that have been kept
in this solution, as in lime pickle, to puncture the
shell with a needle, otherwise the shell will crack
as soon as placed in hot water, owing to the pores of
the shell being closed."
The reports of tests, made with
water-glass as
an egg preservative, from different parts of the coun-
try would indicate considerable variation as to the
strength or thickness of commercial water-glass. The
Storrs (Conn.) Experiment Station recommends that
the mixture be made in the proportion of nine quarts
of boiled water to one quart of water-glass. At
any rate the specific gravity of the preserving liquid
must be low enough to allow the eggs to sink readily.
The following precautions should be quite strictly
observed :

Use strictly fresh eggs

Keep the immersed in the preservative, in
eggs,
a dry, cool place where the variation in temperature
is comparatively slight.
Do not attempt to preserve cracked eggs.
Keep all of the eggs submerged in the liquid at
all times.
 Lime-water Preservative 329

The preservative should not be used for more

than one year.
Lime-water. A most satisfactory lime-water
preservative may be made of the following in-

gredients:

\ bushel fresh quicklime.

15 pounds salt.

\ pound cream of tartar.

40 gallons of water.

Slake the lime thoroughly and add the water

and salt. Stir it well. Dissolve the cream of tartar
in a little water and add to the whole. Stir well.
Let the solution stand until it is fully settled. Remove
the clear liquid by dipping or by means of a siphon.
Place the liquid in a cask or tank and put in the
eggs. It is desirable to keep the eggs in a cool place
that has an even temperature. Have at least one
and one-half inches of the liquid above the eggs.
New oak casks should not be used on account of
the liability to color the eggs.
Cold storage. Eggs that are kept in large quan-
tities by dealers are placed chiefly in cold storage.

A low, even temperature is maintained by the use

of ice, or by means of ice machines. Ice machines
have wholly superseded the use of natural ice in
large establishments.
 CHAPTER XVI
DISEASES AND ENEMIES

IT would require an exhaustive treatise by one

who had given years of study to the subject to
present in a thorough manner a discussion of the
various phases of the many diseases to which farm
poultry are subject. Many of the troubles are
insidious and are not yet well understood. However,
a few general hints on the more common diseases,
and a discussion of some of the parasites, may be
valuable to those who have not the time or incli-
nation to study the subject in detail. The one
paramount safeguard against disease is thorough
cleanliness; then avoid introducing infected fowls.

LICE

Various kinds of domesticated fowls and wild

birds are infested with parasites that are known
under the popular name of "lice." There are
several species of lice which infest chickens. Some
kinds are found only on a certain class of poul-
try, while others are sometimes found on more
than one kind. There are at least four
(330)
 Lice and Filth 331

species which are very troublesome to chicken-

raisers, particularly to those who do not keep
their poultry-yards and -houses in a cleanly con-
dition. Filth and dampness seem to favor the
propagation of these pests. Fowls are naturally
cleanly, particularly those that have their liberty
and, consequently, live under conditions nearest
the natural ones. Weak fowls are always more
likely to be troubled with lice than are strong,
healthy, vigorous ones. Many years ago it was
thought that filth and dampness produced lice.
While these conditions undoubtedly favor the
increase and development of these pests, yet they
can only be produced in a flock by the introduction
of an infected bird or by placing the fowls in infected

quarters. The life-history of these parasites is

so well known that it is not thought possible for
them to be introduced in any other way. The
species of lice which infest chickens vary consider-
ably as to their shape and size, yet in their habits
they closely resemble each other. They are very
small insects, varying from one-fifth to less than
one-fiftieth of an inch in length. These parasites

rarely pierce the skin and suck the blood, as do

mites and fleas. They cause much annoyance by
crawling over the surface, and sometimes they
bite the skin in a way that causes considerable
irritation and perhaps some inflammation. When
fowls are once infested they may become unthrifty
332 Farm Poultry

and unprofitable if not given proper care. It has

been estimated that a single pair of lice may pro-
duce, through the quickly successive generations
which would be reared within three months, more
than 100,000 individuals. As the weaker fowls
of the flock are most likely to be infested, lice are
often detected by the unthrifty condition of such
birds. Upon examination, large numbers of these
lice may be seen crawling over the skin underneath
the feathers. They be most prevalent
will likely
on those parts which the fowl cannot reach with
the beak.
Remedies. Fowls maybe effectually treated
in several ways. Substances may be put upon the
bird which will poison the lice, or the pests may
be driven offby making the fowl an uncongenial
home for them, or they may be killed by the appli-
cation of substances, like oil, which stop the breathing
pores and thus cause them to die of suffocation.
The last plan is preferable in the case of the young
chickens and weak fowls. Little chickens when
but a few days old are frequently infested with
lice from the mother or from the surroundings.
As these little chickens are delicate, a few lice will
cause serious trouble. In this case, it is usually
advisable to place a few drops of oil on the head
and perhaps on the wings and throat of each chicken
Sweet oil or lard oil may be used. Other oils of
about the same consistency may answer the pur-
 Remedies for Lice 333

pose quite as well. Older fowls should be given

an opportunity to take dust baths. This is nature's
method and is effectual if the fowls will bathe
thoroughly. Many of the heavier fowls, however,
do not care to take dust baths frequently, nor to
do the work thoroughly when they undertake it;

consequently it frequently necessary to

is use
artificial methods to kill or drive away the lice,
when they once become well established on adult
fowls. Powdered sulphur or fresh insect powder
dusted well among the feathers is found to be effi-
cient. Fowls are sometimes placed in compara-
tively tight boxes with their heads protruding
through close-fitting openings, the box then being
filled with sulfur fumes for several minutes. This
issaid to completely destroy the pests and in no
way to injure the fowls.
Whenpoultry-houses become infested with lice
a complete cleansing of the building is required.
Movable fixtures should be taken out and the
walls thoroughly washed and cleansed. The interior
should be freshly whitewashed or sprayed with
chlorides or other efficient insecticides. Kerosene
emulsion is effective if the spraying is thoroughly
done. Some modern spraying machines are so
constructed that kerosene may be mixed with
oil

water in a fine spray to answer every purpose. This

method is easier than to apply the kerosene in the
form of a soap emulsion.
334 Farm Poultry

MITES

These parasites are frequently called "lice/'

although they are entirely different from the ani-
mals described under that name. Mites are usually
smaller than lice. The red poultry mite is one of
the greatest pests. It is frequently called the
"summer louse" and is found in great numbers
in the poultry-house and other places frequented

by fowjs in the summer time. It is frequently

seen about and cracks crevices, underneath and
about the perches, and also in the nests, partic-

ularly those of sitting hens. It multiplies rapidly,

so that if a few have been introduced into a
poultry-house, the place may become overrun within
a short time.
The habit of these pests is very different from
that of lice.The mites breed in cracks and chinks
about the perches and nests and go on the body
of the fowls at night to feed. They pierce the skin
and fill themselves with blood. Though they are
small, each insect can remove an appreciable amount
of blood. The fowl not only suffers from the loss
of blood but is disturbed during the night when
it should have perfect rest and be free from annoy-
ance. Sitting hens are so much annoyed that they
are compelled to leave the nests in order to relieve
themselves of the parasites. If the nests and

perches, and the cracks and crevices about them, are

 Mites Gapes 335

kept free from the pests, the fowls will not be dis-
turbed. Free use of kerosene oil or kerosene emulsion
about the nests and perches will usually suffice.
Some manufacturers have taken advantage of
the habit of these and construct perches
pests
which will not permit them to pass from the places
of concealment about the poultry house to the
body of the fowl, each perch being supported by
means of slender iron supports, the bases of which
are placed in small cups filled with oil.

A little care and watchfulness on the part of

the poultry attendant to keep the poultry-house
entirely free from mites will protect the fowls
from these pests.

GAPES

Gapes sometimes destroy large numbers of

small chickens; in fact, on some farms during
certain seasons it seems almost impossible to rear
broods of young chickens that are entirely free from
it, particularly if the young chickens are kept under

the ordinary conditions. It is well known, that

gapes are caused by a small worm known as Synga-

mus trachealis. This worm is of a reddish color
and varies in lengthfrom three-eighths to three-
fourths of an inch. The two sexes are united,
which fact has given rise to the name of "branched
worm." On account of its color it is also some-
336 Farm Poultry

times known worm." It is stated that

as the "red
the male is
always attached to the female, the for-
mer being the smaller of the two. These worms
are found in the windpipe or trachea of the chickens,
where they are attached to the membraneous
lining of this air-passage. They are nourished by
sucking the blood of the fowl and cause consider-
able irritation and inflammation, particularly if
the chickens are weak. The stronger and more
robust undoubtedly are considerably inconve-
nienced, but the attacks are not severe enough to
prevent them from making a fairly good growth.
It stated, on. good authority, that as many as
is

thirty or forty of these worms have been found

in a single chicken.
Dr. H. D. Walker, Newburgh, N. Y., states
that the earthworm isthe natural host of this pest.
Chickens, robins and other birds have become
infested with the gape worm by feeding them infested
earthworms. Comparatively few gape worms are
sufficient to destroy the life of weak young chickens.
Many more, however, would not necessarily destroy
a vigorous bird, either young or adult. These
worms are frequently dislodged by coughing or
sneezing. When they are thrown out in this manner
other fowls may eat them and in turn become
infected.
Remedies. Keep little chickens in a dry place
and away from infected ground. As the weak
 Remedies and Preventive Measures 337

fowls are likely to succumb first, it is of the utmost

importance that the brood be kept in as healthy
and vigorous condition as possible.
It is recommended to dislodge the worms by
introducing into the trachea a horsehair, doubled
so as to form a loop, then give it several turns,
and slowly withdraw it. As the loop is withdrawn
the dislodged worms may be removed or coughed
up by the fowl. This operation repeated several
times will frequently give relief to aggravated
cases. Other good authorities recommend the
introduction of a feather which has been moist-
ened with turpentine. The turpentine will cause
the dislodgment of the worms and the chickens
will sneeze or cough them up.
Some practical poultry-keepers recommend
placing an infested brood in a barrel or compar-
atively tight box and dusting in the the compart-
ment a considerable quantity of fine air-slaked
lime.The infested chickens will be required to
breathe the air heavily laden with this fine lime,
which will cause the dislodgment of many of the
worms. While this treatment is rather severe
and may cause the death of some of the weakest
of the birds, yet it will sometimes prove efficacious
in saving the larger proportion of a brood which
otherwise might succumb.
Preventive measures are more satisfactory than
remedial ones. Keep the chickens in a dry place
338 Farm Poultry

and and vigorous a condition as pos-

in as healthy

sible, and away from sources of contamination.

ROUP

Roup is a common disease among farm

poul-
try and one that often causes serious loss. When
roup is permitted to remain in a flock unchecked,
the loss from death alone may be considerable,
and the occasioned by many sick birds which
loss
j
are for a long time thoroughly incapacitated for
usefulness be quite as great. Roup is con-
may
sidered contagious by the most eminent authori-
ties. It passes from one fowl to another of the
same flock, and may be carried from one flock to
another by the introduction of infected birds.
It has been considered by some as being pro-
duced by unfavorable conditions. This is not
strictly true. Undoubtedly unsanitary conditions
are potent factors in the development of the dis-
ease when the fowls are once exposed. Tender
fowls, or those requiring particularly good care,
are more susceptible to roup than are the more
healthy or robust. The introduction of the
specific organism of the disease is necessary
for its development; hence it is a communicable
disease.

Symptoms. Among the first symptoms that

will be noticed is a thin, watery discharge from
 Roup Symptoms and Treatment 339

the nostrils, followed by obstructed breathing. A

few cases of harsh breathing that had not pre-
viously been manifest should be looked upon with
suspicion. These cases may be readily detected
by passing through the poultry house in the eve-
ning when all is quiet. In the later stages of the
disease the watery discharge at the nostrils becomes
thicker and more sticky, which causes frequent
sneezing in order to prevent the air-passages from
becoming completely closed.
Dr. D. E. Salmon says* that the inflammation
extends, as the disease advances, from the mem-
brane of the nasal cavities to those of other con-
necting passages. As the orbital space which sur-
rounds the eye connects with the nasal passage,
this is frequently involved. The membrane of
the orbital cavity becomes inflamed and swollen,
and in severe cases apparently forces the eye from
its socket. The head become unduly
sides of the
swollen and the fowl frequently becomes entirely
blind, the birds presenting a most unsightly appear-
ance. Breathing is performed with difficulty, and
a thick discharge at this time, may escape from
the nostrils. Death frequently follows after these
serious symptoms.
Treatment. Prevent healthy birds from becom-
ing contaminated by removing them to clean
quarters, or by the removal of the sick birds and
* "The Diseases of Poultry," pp. 32-34.
340 Farm Poultry

thoroughly cleaning and disinfecting the poultry-

house. Give wholesome and easily digested food
and keep the fowls in as healthy and vigorous
condition as possible. Antiseptic solutions are
to be injected into the nostrils and on the roof
of the mouth. If large swellings have appeared
which are filled with cheesy pus, this should
be removed and these cavities be injected with
antiseptics. The following solutions are recom-
mended:
1. Two per cent solution of creoline.
2. Two per cent solution of carbolic acid.
3. Peroxide of hydrogen and water, equal parts.
4. One grain of permanganate of potash to an
ounce of water.
5. Kerosene oil mixed with equal parts of lard
or olive oil. Some poultrymen recommend
the use of pure kerosene oil, a drop in
each nostril of the infected fowl.
When diphtheritic roup develops, white patches
are frequently seen on the roof of the mouth and
on the connecting air-passages. Later these patches
become more or less
yellow. Dr. Salmon also
says* that the sick birds should be placed in clean,
warm, well-ventilated quarters, where they can
be readily examined and where they will not be
exposed to drafts of air. In other words, these
quarters should be most favorable for invalids.
*"The Diseases of Poultry," pp. 224, 225.
 Treatment for Roup 341

He recommends the application, to the diphtheritic

spots in the mouth and eyes, of a 2 per cent solution
of carbolic acid in water or a 2 per cent solution
of creoline, and that some of the same should be

injected in small quantities into the nostrils. The

removal of this diphtheritic membrane is recom-
mended ifcan be accomplished without bleed-
it

ing. Tincture of iodine has been applied to the

diseased parts successfully. Boric acid, 15 grains
to an ounce of water, may be applied to the roof
of the mouth, nostrils and eyes. This application
is often made with benefit, and is considered
safe. Dr. Salmon further recommends the use
of chlorate of potassium and salicylic acid in
the following proportions: 2 grains of salicylic
acid and 35 grains of ounce of
chlorate in 1

water, to which may be added 1 ounce of glycer-

ine. This should be applied two or three times a
day on the diphtheritic spots and may be given
internally in doses of about a teaspoonful to
adult fowls.
"
Disinfect thoroughly by sprinkling the walls of
the building and the ground frequented by the
diseased fowls with carbolic acid water (1% ounces
of carbolic acid to a quart of water) . Wash feed-
ing-troughs, water-dishes, etc., with the same
solution. Cover the earth with straw or boards
and keep the fowls perfectly dry.
"Mix with the soft food several hours before
342 Farm Poultry

feeding, as a curative and a preventive, a pinch

of the following mixture for each fowl:

Hyposulfite of soda 50 grams

"
Salicylate of soda 50
"
Pulverized yellow gentian 200
Pulverized ginger "
200
Pulverized sulfate of iron "
100

"Give sulfate of iron in the drinking-water,

grams to a quart of water."*

CHOLERA

Dr. Salmon statesf that fowl cholera attacks

chickens, geese, ducks, turkeys, pigeons, and in
fact all varieties of domesticated fowls. The
infection often takes place through drinking-water,
or partaking of food that is contaminated by the
excrement of sick birds. It is possible for fowls
to be infected through wounds or by means of
the germs which may be inhaled in the form of
dust. He further states that the disease is gen-
erally brought in by the introduction of infected
birds or with eggs that have been purchased for
hatching. This disease may be communicated
to mice and rabbits by inoculation.
Symptoms. "The symptoms of American fowl
cholera were first described by Dr. Salmon in
* "Journal
D'Agriculture Pratique," 1895, Tome 2, pp. 913, 914.
f "The Diseases of Poultry," pp. 233, 234.
 Fowl Cholera 343

1880. They include the voiding of feces, of which

the part that is normally white is yellow. The
white part of the feces is excreted by the kidneys,
and the yellow discoloration of this excrement
is usually the first indication of disease.
Shortly
droppings become thin and fluid,
thereafter the
and they are voided frequently and enveloped
by a layer of thin mucus. The fowl becomes
depressed; it stands still or assumes a sitting pos-
ture, goes into a sunny, warm place, if possible.
The plumage becomes ruffled, the head is drawn
down, the comb becomes pale and bloodless, and the
appetite is depressed or lost. The depression and
torpidity of the fowl increase until it , seems to
become unconscious. . . . The bird then becomes
thin and weak, and sometimes passes into a
stupor and dies. In other cases, it may have
convulsions prior to death."*
Treatment. "The treatment of individual fowls
afflicted with such a highly contagious disease
as true fowl cholera is not to be recommended,
because, in the first place, so long as the infected
fowl remains around there is danger that its poi-
sonous products may be carried to healthy birds;
secondly, there is little chance of curing it and it

is hardly worth while to try.

"The important point in this connection is the
prevention of disease, and fowl cholera can usu-
* "Diseases and Enemies of Poultry," Pearson & Warren, Bulletin
No. 17, Pennsylvania State Department of Agriculture.
344 Farm Poultry

ally be stopped by preventing the introduction

of fowls suffering from it, or that come from infected
localities. If the disease is once introduced the most

stringent measures should be enforced as regards

cleanliness, and the total destruction
disinfection,
of the carcasses of the dead birds. The birds that
are still healthy should be removed from the flock
and placed in a wholesome locality. The drop-
pings from the diseased fowls should be burned or
thoroughly disinfected by mixing with a 10 per
cent solution of sulfuric acid or with a quantity
of lime equal in amount to the manure. The build-

ing should be disinfected by cleaning it very thor-

oughly, flushing the floor with a saturated solution
of copperas and spraying the interior with a 5 per
cent solution of carbolic acid, followed by white-
washing. If the pens and runs can be abandoned
for a year and grass or crops grown in them, this
isthe best plan, but if it is not possible to do this,
they should be cleaned with as great thoroughness
as possible and slaked lime scattered over the
surface of the earth, which should be plowed.
"It should be remembered that the germs of
fowl cholera be carried in the feathers, so
may
that a perfectly healthy fowl, coming from a dis-
eased flock, may carry the disease to another flock
a long distance away. These germs may also be
carried on the shoes and clothing of persons; by
vermin, as rats or mice, or they may become attached
 White Diarrhcea 345

to light such as leaves, and be carried

objects,
long distances by the wind. If the disease exists
among the fowls along the water-course, those
lower down the stream may receive the germs with
their water-supply. So, whenever this disease pre-
vails in a locality, one cannot guard his fowls too
carefully."*

BACILLARY WHITE DIARRHEA OF YOUNG CHICKS

"
The term white diarrhea" undoubtedly has, for
many years, been used to designate a variety of
bowel disorders in which the discharges of the
digestive organs are more or less whitish in char-
acter and show to a greater or less extent symptoms
of diarrhea. But not until recently has it been
determined beyond question that the most serious
of these disorders is due to a specific bacillus Bac-
terium pullorum. It has long been known that the
so-called white diarrhea was sometimes one of the
most serious and fatal disorders to which little
chickens are subject, but knowledge as to the true
nature of the disease has come through recent
investigation and study.
t" Symptoms of bacillary white diarrhea. As in
many other diseases the symptoms may vary within
certain limits in the individuals affected . . .

* "Diseasesand Enemies of Poultry," Bulletin No. 17, Pennsyl-

vania State Department of Agriculture.
t Storrs (Conn.) Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin No. 60.
346 Farm Poultry

but most of the following will be apparent in epi-

demics of any considerable size. The earliest deaths
may occur within a very short time after hatching
without any prominent symptoms except perhaps
weakness and lack of vitality. The characteristic
whitish discharge from the vent soon makes its
appearance in the flock the discharge may
. . .

be slight or profuse, in color white or creamy, some-

times mixed with brown. The voided matter has a
more or less sticky or glairy character. It may
streak down below the vent or may cling to the down
sufficiently to up the vent.
seal Chicks . . .

soon become and sleepy

listless wings droop
. . .

or project slightly beyond the body, with feathers

ruffled. In acute cases the eyes are closed and
chicks become indifferent to everything about them.
Frequently when endeavoring to void excreta the
chicks utter a shrill twitter apparently a cry of
pain. The weakling is almost always big-bellied,
the abdomen protruding to the rear so that it
bunches out behind. With few exceptions deaths
. .

from typical bacillary white diarrhea occur while

the chicks are under one month of age. Chicks
which have had bacillary white diarrhea seem to
be greatly weakened in constitution and fall an
easy victim to disorders which would be easily re-
sisted by normal chicks.
"The mother hen is the original source of infec-
tion of the chick . . .
although the disease may
 Prevention of White Diarrhea 347

be transmitted through the food during the first

three or four days of the chick's life.
"Prevention. Since the disease cannot appar-
ently be transmitted through the food supply after
the chicks have reached the age of three or four days,
every means should be pursued to prevent the spread
of the infection during this critical period. Wesug-
gest the segregation of the chicks in small lots during
this interval; perfect disinfection and cleanliness of
brooders and brood coops; food and water supplied
in such a manner as to prevent contamination by
the droppings; the use in the brooder of a liberal
amount of fine absorptive litter which will quickly
cover and seal up the droppings. (For this purpose
we have used alfalfa meal with much satisfaction.)
"
Raise and maintain the vigor and vitality of the
breeding stock and chicks by every reasonable
means known to poultrymen. . . .

"If the breeding stock proves infected there are

two courses of procedure open; (a) market the entire
flock or refrain from using their eggs for hatching or

(b) install trap nests in the breeding-pens .and.

ascertain which individual hens are producing

infected chicks, and remove them."

SCALY LEGS

This disease is caused by a parasite somewhat

similar to that of the mange of the cat and dog.
348 Farm Poultry

The disease is considered to be contagious, though

it does not spread rapidly. It is most frequently
noticed in old fowls of the heavy breeds, as of the
Asiatic types. Ducks and geese are not affected with
this trouble.
Treatment.Soak with oil sweet oil or lard
oil mixed with kerosene is recommended. Kero-
sene alone is sometimes applied with most excel-
lent results. However, it is a somewhat harsher
treatment than is necessary. Those who keep on
hand a stock solution of kerosene emulsion may
j

find this a most excellent remedy for scaly legs.

It should be applied thoroughly. A few applica-
tions are usually sufficient. If thorough work is to
be accomplished the poultry-houses should be
disinfected.

FREEZING

Valuable fowls sometimes die from frosted combs

and wattles. Remedial measures are not so satis-
factory as preventive ones. The most that can be
done to give good nursing. If the fowls are dis-
is

covered to be frosted before the organs affected

have thawed out, the frost should be removed by
applications of cold water or snow. The gradual
thawing of the frozen parts may sometimes save
them. After thawing has taken place, the parts
should be smeared with grease, vaseline or cosmoline.
 Freezing Egg-eating 349

It is thought to be advantageous to keep the fowls

in a fairly cool room.

BUMBLE FOOT

Bumble is caused by bruises on the bottom

foot
of the feet. These bruises are sometimes followed
by swellings which suppurate and become greatly
enlarged if they are not lanced and the pus per-
mitted to escape. Causes which produce bruises
should be removed. Heavy fowls that are required
to fly from rather high perches and to alight on
hard and uneven surfaces are liable to suffer from
bumble foot. In serious cases it is advisable to
inclose the feet in little bags filled with poultice
in order to induce free suppuration. If the pus
is not permitted to escape, it becomes cheesy and

finally dries sufficiently to form a hard mass, which

produces a permanent enlargement.

EGG-EATING

This habit sometimes becomes a most serious

vice in the poultry-yard. It spreads from fowl
to fowl. Fowls become very fond of eggs when
they once learn to eat them. The habit usually
starts through accident, either by eggs being broken
or frozen. If eggs are not permitted to freeze in
the poultry-house, and care is taken to prevent
350 Farm Poultry

their being broken, the habit is not likely to be

contracted. As soon as it is discovered that a fowl
has the habit well formed this fowl should be removed
from the others before the habit is spread. Unless
the bird is a specially valuable one, it is often advis-
able to inflict the death penalty.

FEATHER-EATING

Feather-eating, like egg-eating, may become a

most objectionable habit. Fowls of active breeds
that are closely confined are more likely to learn
feather-eating or feather-pulling than those that
are given wide range and plenty of wholesome
food. Close confinement with improper ration
will often lead to this vice. When once the habit
is well formed it may become most troublesome.
Fowls pluck the feathers from each other. Those
on the back at the root of the tail or high up on
the breast are likely to be plucked first. If but
few fowls have learned the habit, it is sometimes
recommended to file the beak so that the front
and sides will not close tightly. This will prevent
the bird from pulling feathers but will permit it
to eat ordinary food readily. When several fowls
of a flock have but slightly contracted the habit, a
wide range with change of diet, including plenty of
animal food, will usually suffice to correct the evil.
Above all, permit the fowls to take plenty of exercise.
 Feather-eating Diarrhea 351

DIARRHEA

Diarrhea caused by some irritation of the

is

digestive system. Depression and loss of appe-

tite frequently precede it. If the diarrhea is at

all may be mixed with mucus

serious the excrement
or blood. Fowls suffering from this disease should
be placed in comfortable quarters and given clean,
wholesome food that is easily digested. Foods of
gelatinous nature, like cooked linseed meal, are
specially recommended. Some poultry men place
a high value on charcoal which has been broken
into small pieces, about the size of a kernel of corn.
This is placed before them and left to the judgment
of the fowls to eat what is needed. A few drops of
laudanum is recommended in severe cases.

SALT POISONING

Salt insmall doses, as before stated, is very

beneficial, but large quantities may produce death.
It is stated on good authority that one-half an
ounce to one ounce is fatal to a chicken. Salt fish
and some salt meats, and the brine in which meats
have been preserved, are specially dangerous.
Whites of eggs and the liquor of boiled flax-

seed are recommended as remedies. Laudanum

and powdered chalk in water, together or
finely
singly, may sometimes be given with good effect.
352 Farm Poultry

Laudanum is especially valuable when consider-

able pain is manifest.

RATS

Rats sometimes become very troublesome in

poultry-houses, and the question of their extermi-
nation is often a most perplexing one. Precau-
tionary measures are usually the most satisfactory.
If the buildings are so constructed that rats can-
not burrow under them, the battle is largely won.
If, however, the rats find suitable homes about

poultry-houses, and cannot be driven out by ordin-

ary methods, much annoyance and often severe
loss mayresult. When traps and cats will not
suffice, more extreme measures must be adopted.
Sometimes it is advisable to remove the fowls
temporarily and hunt the rats by means of ferrets.
In some cases it may be necessary to resort to poison-
ing. In a general way it may be stated that animals
should not be poisoned except in extreme cases. The
author has on several occasions found it necessary
to use poison to rid the premises of these pests. A
littlestrychnine was placed in each of many small
pieces of cheese. These little pieces were dropped
into the rat holes and other places frequented by
the vermin, care being taken in every case to cover
the holes with boards so that the fowls would be
prevented from gaining access to the poison. While
 Hawks, Crows, Etc. 353

the fowls were not killed or in any way. injured by

this method of killing rats, the practice is always

accompanied with more or less danger, particu-

larly as it is
necessary to place the poison near
places frequented by the fowls.

HAWKS, CROWS, ETC.

It is sometimes necessary to protect the yards

and runs from the depredations of these chicken
thieves. Crows sometimes become so bold that
they are serious pests in yards where little chickens
are given their liberty. Covering the yard with
wire netting is a perfect protection. If there are
bushes in the yard, under which the fowls may
hide, the depredations will be much lessened.
 APPENDIX
SOME IMPORTANT POULTRY PUBLICATIONS

AMERICAN STANDARD OF PERFECTION. American Poultry Associa-

tion. Published by the Association.

AMERICAN STANDARD POULTRY BOOK. John Taggart. Published

by Wm. L. Allison, New York.
ANIMAL PROTEIN FOR DUCKS. New York State Agricultural Experi-
ment Station Bulletin No. 259.
ARTIFICIAL INCUBATING AND BROODING. Reliable Poultry Journal,
Quincy, HI.
APPLIANCES AND METHODS FOR PEDIGREE POULTRY BREEDING.
Maine Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin No. 159.
ASIATICS. Reliable Poultry Journal, Quincy, 111.

BANTAM FOWL. Reliable Poultry Journal, Quincy, 111.

BLACKHEADS IN TURKEYS. Rhode Island Agricultural Experi-

ment Station Bulletin No. 124; Oregon Agricultural Experi-
ment Station Bulletin No. 95.
BOOK OF POULTRY. L. Wright. Published by Cassell & Co.,
London.
BREEDING FOR EGG PRODUCTION. Maine Agricultural Experi-
ment Station Bulletin No. 192.
BREEDS, POULTRY RAISING. Colorado Agricultural Experiment Sta-
tion Bulletin No. 164.
BREEDS. Kansas Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin No. 150.

THE BOOK OF HAMBURGS. Theo. Hines. Published by Inland

Poultry Journal Co., Indianapolis, Ind.
THE BRIGGS SYSTEM, PROFITS IN POULTRY KEEPING SOLVED.
Edgar Briggs, Springfield, Ohio.

(355)
356 Appendix
BROILERS AND ROASTERS. Jno. H. Robinson. Farm Poultry Pub-
lishing Co., Boston.
BROODING. West Virginia Agricultural Experiment Station Bul-
letin.

BROODER, FRESH-AIR. Maine Agricultural Experiment Station

Bulletin No. 193.
BUILDING POULTRY-HOUSES. Cornell Agricultural Experiment
Station Bulletin No. 274.
CAPONS AND CAPONIZING. G. Q. Dow, New York.
CAPONS AND CAPONIZING. United States Department of Agri-
Farmer's Bulletin No. 452.
culture,
CAPONS FOR PROFIT. Cyphers.
CHICK BOOK. Reliable Poultry Journal, Quincy, 111.
CHICKEN HATCHING AND REARING. H. A. House, St. Paul, Minn.
COMMON SENSE POULTRY DOCTOR. John H. Robinson, Boston.
CURTAIN-FRONT POULTRY-HOUSE. Theo. Whitman. American
Poultry Journal Publishing Co., Chicago, 111.
DEVELOPMENT OF THE CHICK. Frank R. Lillie. H. Holt & Co., N. Y.
DISEASES OF POULTRY. Dr. D. E. Salmon. Published by Geo. E.
Howard & Co., Washington, D. C.
THE DOLLAR HEN. M. M. Hastings. Acadian Press.
DUCK CULTURE. James Rankin. Published by the Author, South
Easton, Mass.
DUCKS AND GEESE. Reliable Poultry Journal, Quincy, 111.
DUCKS AND GEESE. United States Department of Agriculture,
Farmers' Bulletin No. 164.
DRAWN vs. UNDRAWN POULTRY.United States Department of
Bureau of Chemistry, Circular No. 70.
Agriculture,
ECONOMY OF USING ANIMAL FOOD IN POULTRY FEEDING. Bulletin
No. 149. Published by New York Agricultural Experiment
Station, Geneva, N. Y.
EGG AND POULTRY RAISING AT HOME. M. M. Elkinton. Double-
day, Page & Co., New York City.
EGG PRODUCTION. Maine Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin
No. 193.
EGG TRADE OF UNITED STATES. United States Department of Agri-

culture, Bureau Animal Industry, Circular No. 140.

 Appendix 357

EGGS AND THEIR USES AS FOOD. United States Department of

Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin No. 128.
EGGS CLASSES OF, FOR MARKET. United States Department of
Bureau of Animal Industry, Circular No. 140.
Agriculture,
EGGS AND EGG FARMS. Reliable Poultry Journal, Quincy, 111.
EXPERIMENTS WITH GEESE. Eighth Annual Report. Published
by Rhode Island Agricultural Experiment Station, Kingston,
R. I.

EXPERIMENTS WITH TURKEYS. Sixth Annual Report. Published

by Rhode Island Agricultural Experiment Station, Kingston,
R.I.
FACTS ABOUT WHITE DIARRHEA. Dr. P. T. Woods. Reliable

Poultry Journal Publishing Co., Quincy, 111.

FATTENING FOWLS. Ernest Cobb. Published by The Feathered
World,London.
THE FEATHERS PRACTICAL PIGEON BOOK. Josiah C. Long. G. E.
Howard Publishing Co., Washington, D. C.
FEEDING EXPERIMENTS WITH LAYING HENS. Bulletin No. 90.
Published by New York Agricultural Experiment Station,
Geneva, N. Y.
FIRST LESSONS IN POULTRY KEEPING. J. H. Robinson. Farm
Poultry Publishing Association, Boston.
FROM THE SHELL TO THE SHOW ROOM. R. E. Jones, and Theo.
Hewee. Published by Inland Poultry Journal Co., Indianopolis,
Ind.
FOWLS: CARE AND FEEDING. G. C. Watson, Farmers' Bulletin
No. 41. Published by the United States Department of Agri-
culture, Washington, D. C.
GAPEWORMS OF FOWLS. H. D. Walker. Published by the Author,
Newburg, N. Y.
GAPES. Delaware Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin No. 47.
GEESE, STANDARD VARIETIES AND MANAGEMENT. United States
Department of Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin No. 64.
GOOSE BREEDING. Tenth Annual Report. Published by Rhode
Island Agricultural Experiment Station, Kingston, R. I.
GOOSE SEPTICAEMIA. Rhode Island Agricultural Experiment Sta-
tion Bulletin No. 86.
358 Appendix
GUINEA FOWL AND ITS USE AS FOOD. United States Department
of Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin No. 234.
HOUSE CONSTRUCTION. Michigan Agricultural Experiment Station
Bulletin No. 266.
How TO DRESS POULTRY. S. V. Thomas. Published by A. D.
Hosterman Company, Binghamton, N. Y.
How TO KEEP HENS FOR PROFIT. C. S. Valentine. Published by
The Macmillan Company, N. Y.
How TO MAKE POULTRY PAY. F. G. Paynter.
HAMBURGS UP TO DATE. Charles Holt. Published by The
Feathered World, London.
ILLUSTRATED BOOK OF DOMESTIC POULTRY. Martin Doyle. Pub-
by Porter & Coats, Philadelphia.
lished,
IMPROVEMENT OF THE EGG FARM. United States Department of
Bureau of Animal Industry, Bulletin No. 141.
Agriculture,
INCUBATION AND BROODING. E. B. Hawks, Clinton, Wis.
INCUBATION AND ITS NATURAL LAWS. C. A. Cyphers.
INCUBATORS AND THEIR MANAGEMENT. J. H: Sutcliffe." Doubleday,
Page & Co., New York City.
INDIAN GAME FOWL. G. T. Whitefield. Published by The Fan-
ciers' Gazette, London.

INDIAN RUNNER DUCK BOOK. C. S. Valentine, Ridgewood, N. J.

INFECTIOUS DISEASES OF TURKEYS. Seventh Annual Report.
Published by Rhode Island Agricultural Experiment Station,
Kingston, R. I.
INHERITANCE OF FECUNDITY. Maine Argicultural Experiment
Station Bulletin No. 166.
INHERITANCE IN POULTRY. C. B. Davenport, Washington, D. C.
LABOR-SAVING POULTRY APPLIANCES. Cornell Experiment Station
Bulletin No. 284.
LAYING HENS, SELECTION OF. Kansas Agricultural Experiment
Station Bulletin No. 164.
LLOYD'S MODERN POULTRY BOOK. W. B. Lloyd. Published by
Howard & Wilson Publishing Co., Chicago.
MANAGEMENT OF POULTRY. United States Department of Agri-
culture, Farmers' Bulletin 287.
MARKETING OF EGGS. Ohio State University Bulletin No. 8.
 Appendix 359

MARKETING OF EGGS THROUGH THE CREAMERY. United States

Department of Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin No. 445.
MAKING POULTRY PAY. Powell.
MARKETING OF POULTRY PRODUCTS. Connecticut Agricultural
Experiment Station Bulletin No. 38.
MILLER SYSTEM BOOK. A. D. Hosterman Company, Binghamton,
N.Y.
MINORCAS. Northrup.
MONEY IN BROILERS AND SQUABS. M. K. Boyer, Hammonton, N. J.
MOULTING OF FOWLS. Cornell University Agricultural Experi-
ment Station Bulletin No. 258.
NATIONAL STANDARD SQUAB BOOK. C. E. Rice. American Poultry
Journal Publishing Co., Chicago, 111.

NEW BOOK OF POULTRY. Lewis Wright, London.

NEW EGG FARM. H. H. Stoddard. Published by Orange Judd
Company, New York.
THE ORPINGTONS. The Reliable Poultry Journal Publishing Co.,
Quincy, 111.

ONE HUNDRED FORMULAS AND RECEIPTS FOR POULTRYMEN.

Miller Purvis Poultry Herald Publishing Co. St. Paul, Minn.
PARASITES OF POULTRY. Bulletin No. 131. Published by North
Carolina Agricultural Experiment Station, West Raleigh, N. C.
PERFECTED POULTRY OF AMERICA. T. F. McGrew and G. E.
Howard. Howard Publishing Co., Washington, D. C.
PLYMOUTH ROCKS. Reliable Poultry Journal Publishing Co.,
Quincy, 111.

POULTRY APPLIANCES AND HANDICRAFT. Geo. B. Fiske. Orange

Judd Company, New York.
POULTRY AS FOOD. United States Department of Agriculture,
Farmers' Bulletin No. 182.
POULTRY AS FOOD. Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station
Bulletin No. 27.
POULTRY ARCHITECTURE. G. B. Fiske. Orange Judd Company,
New York.
POULTRY BOOK. Wm. B. Tegetmeier. Published by Routledge
& Sons, London.
360 Appendix
THE POULTRY BOOK. H. Weir. American Edition. Edited by
W. G. Johnston, G. O. Brown and others, 3 vols.
POULTRY CULTURE. Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station
Bulletin No. 52.
POULTRY CULTURE. I. K. Felch. Published by Donohue, Hen-
neberry & Co., Chicago.
POULTRY FEEDING AND FATTENING. G. B. Fiske. Orange Judd
Company, New York.
POULTRY-HOUSE CONSTRUCTION. Wisconsin Agricultural Experi-
ment Station Bulletin No. 215.
POULTRY-HOUSES AND FIXTURES. Reliable Poultry Journal,
Quincy, 111.

POULTRY KEEPING FOR PROFIT. Bulletin No. 130. Published

by North Carolina Agricultural Experiment Station, West
Raleigh, N. C.
PRACTICAL POULTRY KEEPER. L. Wright. Published by Orange
Judd Company, New York.
PRINCIPLES OF BROODING. Cornell University Agricultural Experi-
ment Station Bulletin No. 277.
PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF POULTRY CULTURE. J. H. Robinson.
PROFITABLE POULTRY KEEPING. Stephen Beale. Published by
Routledge & Sons, London.
PROFITS IN POULTRY. Orange Judd Company. Published by
Orange Judd Company, New York.
PROFITABLE POULTRY PRODUCTION. M. G. Kains. Published by
Orange Judd Company, New Yorl^.
PROGRESSIVE POULTRY CULTURE. Brigham.
RACES OF DOMESTIC POULTRY. Brown.
SCIENCE AND ART OF POULTRY CULTURE. E. A. Hawkes, Clinton,
Wis.
SEVEN METHODS OF FEEDING YOUNG CHICKENS. Cornell Univer-
Experiment Station Bulletin No. 282.
sity Agricultural
STANDARD VARIETIES OF CHICKENS. United States Department
of Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin No. 64.
STUDIES OF POULTRY FROM FARM TO CONSUMER. United States
Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Chemistry, Circular
No. 64.
 Appendix 361

SUCCESSFUL BROODER HOUSE. Connecticut Agricultural Experi-

ment Station Bulletin No. 33.
SUCCESSFUL POULTRY FARM. United States Department of Agri-
culture, Farmers' Bulletin No. 355.
TAPEWORMS OF POULTRY. United States Department of Agri-
culture, Bureau of Animal Industry, Bulletin No. 12.
TRAP NESTS. Maine Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin
No. 193.
TURKEYS AND How TO GROW THEM. -Myrick. Published by
Orange Judd Company, New York.
TURKEYS, STANDARD VARIETIES AND MANAGEMENT. United
States Depatment of Agriculture Farmers' Bulletin No. 200.
TWELVE MONTHS' WORK IN THE POULTRY- YARD. Theo. Whitman.
TUBERCULOSIS. California Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin
No. 161.
WATER-GLASS A PRESERVATIVE FOR EGGS. Connecticut Agricul-
tural Experiment Station Bulletin No. 67.
WHITE DIARRHEA OF YOUNG CHICKS. Connecticut Agricultural
Experiment Station Bulletin No. 68.
WYANDOTTES. Reliable Poultry Journal Publishing Co., Quincy,
111.
 INDEX
African geese, 273. Breeds of ducks, 259.
Air-space necessary, 102. Breeds of geese, 270.
Amount of land necessary, 7. Breeds suitable for broiler rearing, 254.
Amount of salt necessary, 186. Breeds suited to produce capons, 245.
Andalusians, 35. Breed useful fowls, 168.
Animal and vegetable food for young Broiler rearing, 253.
chickens, 228. Broilers, description of, 251; food for,
Animal and vegetable food for young 254; size of, 252.
ducks, 267. Brooders, 215; classes of, 215; home-
Animal meal, 183. made, 221 requisites
; of, 217.
Arrangement of houses, 88. Brown. Leghorns, 30.
Arrangement of nests, 127. Buckwheat as a food, 178.
Artificial incubation, 204. Buff Cochins, 52.
Ash, deficient in food for chicks, 229. Buff Leghorns, 29.
Asiatics, 46. Buff Orpingtons, 72.
Automatic drinking-fountains, 131. Buff Plymouth Rocks, 66.
Aylesbury ducks, 260. Buildings, foundation of, 102; roofs for,
109; side walls of, 105; size of, 100.
Bacillary white diarrhea of young Bumble foot, 349; treatment for, 349.
chicks, 345; prevention of, 347; Business of rearing fowls, 1; suited to
source of infection, 346. many persons, 9.
Bantams, 86.
Barred Plymouth Rocks, description Cabbage and rape, 181.
of,63; origin of, 63. Canned meat foods, 183.
Beets as food, 180; manner of feeding, Capital required, 3.
180. Capon and broiler rearing, 241.
Best products most remunerative, 12; Caponizing, instruments for, 243; oper-
sell quickest, 12. ation of, 249; results of, 242; when to
Bone cutters, 183. operate, 248.
Bones as food, 182. Care of incubators, 212.
Bones, fresh cut, 182. Care of little chickens, 224, 231.
Bourbon turkeys, 289. Care of pigeons, 299.
Bowel disorders of little chicks, 236. Characteristics of Bantams, 86; Brah-
Brahmas, characteristics of, 48; laying mas, 48; Cochins, 52; Cornish Games,
qualities of, 50; origin of, 47; varie- 77; Dominiques, 73; Dorkings, 75;
ties of, 47. Faverolles, 54; Frizzles, 85; Houdans,
Breeding, 152. 76; Javas, 72; Langshans, 53; Orping-
Breed pure-bred stock, 163. tons, 70; Plymouth Rocks, 63;

(363)
364 Index

Polish, 82; Red Caps, 40; Rhode Diseases and enemies of poultry, 330.
Island Reds, 79; Silkies, 84; Sultans, Diseases of brooder chicks, 237-239.
85; Wyandottes, 68. Disinfect fattening fowls, 200.
Characteristics of egg breeds, 16. Disinfectants for roup, 340.
Chickens, number of, in the United Disposition of egg breeds, 17; of general -
States, 2. purpose breeds, 59; of meat breeds,
Chick rations, 226; manner of feeding, 42.
227. Dominiques, 73.
Cholera, 342;how communicated, 342; Dorkings, 74; description of, 75.
symptoms of, 342; treatment for, 343. Drainage, 89.
Classes of chickens described, 14-16. Dressed fowls, how cooled, 307.
Classification of breeds, 13. Dressed fowls, when to ship, 312.
Close-feathered egg breeds, 23. Dressing poultry, 303.
Clover as food, 179. Drinking-fountains, 130; essentials of,
Clover hay, 181. 133; for little chicks, 234; kinds of,
Cochins, characteristics of, 52. 130-133.
Cold storage for eggs, 329. Dry-feed hoppers, 233.
Combination form of roof, 112. Dry-picking fowls, 306.
Common fowls, improvement of, 165. Duck rearing, animal food essential,
Community system of hatching, 213. 267; feeding troughs for, 267; green
Construction of floors, 113; nests, 129; food for, 268; pure water essential,
perches, 123; roofs, 110; side walls, 267; stampeding, 269; water-troughs,
105; hollow, 107; straw ceilings, 121; 268.
ventilators, 118. Duck rearing, use of disinfectants, 266.
Construction of houses, 96 economy; of, Ducks and chickens require little land,
87. 7.
Convenience of buildings, 92 as regards
; Ducks, breeds of, 259; Aylesbury, 260;
labor, 93. Black Cayuga, 263; Call, 264; East
Corn as a food for laying hens, 175. Indian, 259; Muscovy, 263; Pekin,
Cornish Games, 77. 259; Rouen, 261.
Cramming, 198; machine for, 199; man- Ducks, cleanliness essential, 265.
ner of feeding, 199. Ducks, food and care, 264; natural
Cross-breeding, 160. food, 264.
Crows, dangers from, 353. Ducks, general discussion, 256; easily
confined, 258; reared for meat, 256;
Dangers of in-and-in-breeding, 159; of streams or ponds not necessary, 258.
cross breeding, 161. Ducks, number of, in the United States,
Dark Brahmas, 49. 2.

Description of egg breeds, 14; of fancy Dust-boxes, 133; location of, 134.

breeds, 16; of general purpose

breeds, 15; of meat breeds, 15. Early maturity of egg breeds, 19.

Description of gape worm, Syngamus Egg breeds, characteristics of, lli

trachealis, 335. disposition of, 17.

Description of lice, 331; of mites, 334. Egg breeds classified, 13; are small or
Deteriorated eggs, 321. medium sized, 14.
Diarrhea, 351; symptoms of, 351; Egg breeds, called "non- sitters," 22;
treatment for, 351. close-feathered, 23; easily frightened,
 Index 365

18; easily frozen, 23; fly readily, 18; Feed-troughs, 191; for little chicks, 232.
generally hardy, 20; good foragers, Fencing yards, 138.
22; mature early, 19; nervous dis- Fertility of eggs, 151.
position, 19; poor sitters, 20; pro- Flavor of eggs affected by food, 173.
lificacy of, 21. Floors, 113; kinds of, 113.
Egg breeds described, 14. Floor space necessary, 100.
Egg breeds, varieties of, 24. Flying-lofts for pigeons, 300.
Egg-eating, 128, 349. Food for broilers, 254.
Egg production and meat production, Food for goslings, 276.
45. Food, ground, 189.
Eggs deteriorated, 321; shrunken, 321; Food, manner of feeding, 187; for

spoiled, 321. fattening fowls, 200.

Eggs, for, 171; selection for
feeding Food, quality of, 172.
150; selection of, 145.
fertility, Foraging of egg breeds, 22.
Eggs, forced feeding for, 174. Forced feeding for eggs, 174.
Eggs, how prepared for market, Formation of breeds through crossing,
319. 162.

Eggs, preserving in cold storage, 329. Forming machine, 314; how used, 315.
Eggs, preserving in lime water, 329; Form of house, 97.
preserving in water-glass, 326. Foundation of buildings, 102.
Eggs, shipping cases for, 322. Fowls, Guinea, 294.
Embden geese, 272. Freezing, 348; treatment for, 348.
Enemies and diseases of poultry, Fresh bones, 182.
330. Fresh eggs, 320; how marketed, 320.
English method of killing, 313. Frizzles, description of, 85.
English methods of dressing, 312. Frozen poultry, 311.
Essentials of a brooder, 217. Fruit trees for yards and parks, 140.
Evaporated milk by-products as food,
184. Gable roof, 110.
Exercise and egg production, 172. Game fowls, 84; varieties of, 84.
Exercise for little chicks, 230. Games, Cornish, 77.
Exercise not necessary for fattening, Gapes, 335; description of, 335; reme-
172. dies for, 336.
Geese, general discussion, 269; African,
Failures due to inexperience, 5. 273; Canadian, or Wild, 275; Chinese,
Fancy breeds, 81. 274; Embden, 272; Toulouse, 271.
Fancy breeds described, 16. Geese, houses for, 278.
Faverolles, 54; description of, 54. General-purpose breeds described, 15.
Feather-eating, 350. General-purpose fowls, 57; disposition
Feeding and exercise, 191. of, 59; early maturing, 60; good
Feeding for eggs, 171. foragers, 60; good sitters, 60; size of,
Feeding for meat or fattening, 196; 59; useful qualities of, 58.
animal meal, 196; coops, 197; exer- Good-sized eggs sell best, 30.
cise, 197; grain food, 196. Goslings, food for, 276; natural food of,
Feeding in litter, 191. 276.
Feeding little chickens, 224; food for, Grading fowls for shipment, 318.
225. "Grading up," 167.
366 Index

Grain foods, buckwheat, 178; corn, 175; Inexperience, cause of failures, 5.

linseed meal, 178; oats, 178; wheat, Influence of food on color of yolk, 176.
177. Investments yield quick returns, 8.
Grain rations for laying hens, 193; Irish shipping case, 323.
summer, 193; winter, 193.
Green foods, necessity of, 178; beets, Javas, 72.
180; cabbage, 181; clover, 179; rape,
181. Killing fowls for market, 305.
Grit, necessary, 184. Kinds of litter, 194.
Ground food, 189.
Guinea fowls, 294; esteemed for food, Lamp brooders, objections to, 223.
295; great rovers, 296; number of Land, amount required, 7.
females to one male, 296. Langshans, characteristics of, 53.
Large combs and wattles sensitive to
Hamburgs, 37; characteristics of, 38; cold, 23.
unprofitable table fowls, 39; varie- Late-maturing qualities of meat breeds,
ties of, 38. ? 46.
Handling eggs through the creamery, Law of heredity, 152.
322. Law of variation, 154.
Hawks, dangers from, 353. Laying qualities of Brahmas, 50.
Health of fowls, 89. Laying qualities of .geese, 278.
Heredity, 152. . Leghorns, history of, 2.5; improvement
History of Leghorns, 25; of Minorcas, of,26; hardy, 28; light eaters, 28;
33; Andalusians, 33. produce white eggs, 30; size of, 27;
Hollow-side walls, 107. varieties of, 28.
Home-made brooders, 221. Lice, 330; description of, 331; manner of
Homers, 301. propagating, 331; remedies for, 332.
Houdans, description of, 76. Lime, necessary, 185.
Houses, construction of, 96; size of, 100; Lime water as an egg preservative,
movable, 142. 329.
Houses for geese, 278. Lime water, how made, 329.
Houses for pigeons, 300. Linseed meal, for molting hens, 178.
How to feed, 187; little chickens, 225. Litter, 194.
Live poultry, how shipped, 317.
Importance of exercise, 172. Locating a poultry-farm, 88.
Importance of the poultry industry, 1. Location of windows, 115.
Improper brooder conditions, 237.
Improvement of common fowls, 165. Machine, forming, 314.
Improvement of Leghorns, 26. Maels and egg production, 151.
Improvement through variation, 155; Manner of beginning, 6,
through in-and-in-breeding, 158. Market price of squabs, 300.
In-and-in-breeding, 157. Marketing poultry products, 302.
Incubating eggs, temperature of, 206. Marking packages, 311.
Incubator buildings, 210, 211, 214. Material for nests, 130.
Incubator rooms, 211. Maturing qualities of general purpose
Incubators, 203; care of, 212; opera- breeds, 60.
tion of, 213. Meat breeds described, 15.
 Index 367

Meat breeds, disposition of, 42; easily Overfeeding, 188.

confined, 43; large fowls, 41; late Oyster shells, 185.
maturing, 46; laying qualities of, 44;
poor foragers, 43; quality of flesh, 41; Pate de foie gras, 277.
varieties of, 46. Pea comb, 48.
Meat foods, 182; for little chicks, 228. Pea fowls, 297; habits of, 297; objec-
Meat production compared to egg pro- tions to, 297.
duction, 45. Packages, how marked, 311.
Methods of cooking dressed fowls, 307. Packing dressed fowls for shipment, 309.
Mexican turkey, 285. Packing fowls in ice, 310; detailed
Minorcas, description of, 34 history of,
; description of, 310.
33; varieties of, 33. Parks and yards, 135.
Mites, 334; habits of, 334; remedies for, Pekin ducks, 259.
334. Pepper, 187.
Money invested yields quick returns, 8. Perches, construction of, 123; location
Movable houses, 142. of, 124.

Muscovy ducks, 263. Pigeons, general discussion, 298; houses

Muslin windows, 119. for, 300.
Placing an incubator, 209; even tem-
Narragansett turkeys, 287. perature desired, 209.
Natural and artificial incubation com- Plum trees for the poultry-yard, 140.
pared, 203. Plumping, 308.
Natural food, of ducks, 264; of geese, Plymouth Rocks, 62; varieties of, 63;
276. weight of, 63.
Natural food of goslings, 276. Poisoning from salt, 186; remedies for,

Necessary air-space per fowl, 102. 351.

Nests, 126; arrangement of, 127; mater- Poisoning rats, 352.
ial for, 130; size of, 129. Polish, 82; varieties of, 83.
Number the United
of chickens in Portable poultry-houses, 141.
States, 2;ducks in the United States, Poultry, dressing for market, 302.
2; geese in the United States, 2; Poultry rearing compared, 4 a business ;

turkeys in the United States, 2. of details, 5.

Number of females to one male, turkeys,
291; guineas, 296.
Oats as a food, 178.
Open-front houses, 121.
Operating incubators, 213.
Operation for caponizing, 249.
Origin of Brahmas, 47; Cochins, 51;
Faverolle, 54; Javas, 72; Leghorns,
25; Minorcas, 33; Orpingtons, 70;
Plymouth Rocks, 63; White-faced
Black Spanish, 36; Wyandottes, 68.
Orpingtons, general description of,
origin of, 70; size of, 72; varieties of ,72.
Outdoor brooders, 217.
Poultry, frozen, 311.
Poultry statistics unreliable, 2.
Precautions against vermin, 95.
Preparation for caponizing, 246.
Preparing capons for market, 250.
Preparing eggs for market, 319.
Preparing poultry for market, 302.
Preserving eggs, 324; various methods,
of, 325.
Preventive measures for gapes, 337.
Produce good-sized eggs, 31.
Products easy to market, 11.
71; Profit from feeding, 188.
Profits of capon rearing, 240.
Pure-bred vs. common stock, 165.
368 Index

Quality of flesh of meat breeds, 41. Shipping-cases for eggs, 322.

Quality of food, 172. Shipping-crates, 317.
Quick returns from money invested, 8. Shipping live poultry, 317.
Shrunken eggs, 321.
Raising poultry as a business, 1. Shutters for windows, 115.
Rape as food. 181. Side walls, construction of, 105.
Rations for little chicks, 226; animal Silkies, description of, 84.
food, 228; hard-boiled eggs, 229; skim Size of egg breeds, 14 fancy breeds, 59
; ;

milk for, 228. general purpose, 59; meat breeds, 41.

Rats, 352; extermination of, 352. Size of fowls to caponize, 246.
Rearing capons, 240. Skim milk, 183; for little chicks, 228.
Rearing squabs, 300. Slate turkeys, 288.
Red Caps, 40; characteristics of, 40. Slight elevation preferred, 90.
Remedies for diarrhea, 347. Soft foods most profitable, 189.
Remedies for gapes, 336. Solid colors preferred, 33.
Remedies for lice, 332; for mites, 334. Solid side walls, construction of, 105.
Rhode Island Reds, 79. South side of house desirable for yards,

Roofing materials, 113. 92.

Roofs for poultry-houses, construction Spanish fowls, 36.
of, 110; essentials of, 113; form of, Species of native turkeys, 285.
109; materials for, 113. Spraying for lice, 333.
Rooms for incubators, 211. Spoiled eggs, 321.
Root cutters, 180. Squabs, 300; market prices of, 300;
Rouen ducks, 261. varieties of, 301.
Roup, 338; general discussion of, 338; Squabs, food for, 301.

symptoms of, 338 treatment

; for, 339. Statistics, unreliable, 2.
Rules for selecting eggs, 328. Straw as litter, 194; buckwheat hulls,
Rules for selecting turkeys for breeding, .
194.
290. Sulphur, 187.
Runs, suitable for geese, 270. Sultans, description of, 85.
Runts, 301. Sunshine desirable, 90.
Superior products create new demands,
Salt, beneficial, 186; poisonous in large 12.

quantities, 351. Symptoms of cholera, 342; of roup,

Salt, necessary, 186; amount required, 338.
186. Syngamus trachealis, 335.
Scalding, 307; precautions of, 309.
Scaly legs, 347; treatment for, 348. Temperature of incubating eggs, 206.
Selecting eggs, 328. Theory of incubation, 205.
Selecting eggs for hatching, 145. Time of feeding, 190.
Selection for vigor, 147; for egg produc- Time of year to begin, 6.
tion, 148; for utility, 170. Time to caponize, 246, 248; to seU
Selection of a breed, 143. broilers, 252.
Selection of an incubator, 207. Toulouse geese, 271.
Selection of breeding stock, turkeys, Transmission of characters, 153.
290. Treatment for bumble foot, 349'.
Shed-roof, 111. Treatment for cholera, 343.
 Index 369

Treatment, for freezing, 348; for scaly Ventilators, construction of, 118.
legs, 348. Vermin, precautions against, 95.
Treatment for roup, 339. Vigorous fowls most profitable, 188.
Troughs, water, for ducks, 268.
Turkeys, care and food for the young, Water-glass as an egg preservative,
292; first food for, 293; grain foods 326; how made, 327.
for, 294. Wheat as a food for laying hens, 177.
Turkeys, general discussion, 280. When to ship poultry, 312.
Turkeys, selection of breeding stock, White diarrhea, 345.
290. White-faced Black Spanish, 36.
Turkeys, varieties of, 285; Black, 288; White Leghorns, 30.
Bourbon, 289; Bronze, 286; Buff, White or Brown Leghorns preferred, 32.
288;, Narragansett, 287; Slate, 288; White Orpingtons, 72.
White Holland, 287. White Plymouth Rocks, 65.
Wild and domesticated turkeys com-,
United States Census Report, 2. .
pared, 281.
Useful qualities of fowls, 44. Wild turkey crosses, 282.
Wild turkeys, where found, 280.
Variation, 154; law of, 154; male leads Windows, number and size of, 115;
in, 156. location of. 115; shutters for, 115.
Varieties of Bantams, 86. Wyandottes, description of, 69; noted
Varieties of egg breeds, 24. for utility, 70; origin of, 68; size of,
Varieties of meat breeds, 46. 68; varieties of, 70.
Varieties of pigeons for squab rearing,
301. Yards and parks, 135; cultivation of,

Varieties of Polish, 83. 138; fruit trees for, 140.

Vegetable and animal nitrogen com- Yolk, color of, affected by food, 176.
pared, 182. Young ducks, food for, 267.
Ventilation, 117; by means of straw Young fowls require more exercise, 8:
ceilings, 120; open-front houses, 121. more land required, 11.
The following pages contain advertisements of a
few of the Macmillan books on kindred subjects
"The Bible and Britannica of the Garden-folk" The Nation

The Standard
Cyclopedia of Horticulture
Edited by L. H. BAILEY
With the assistance of over 500 collaborators

New edition, entirely rewritten and enlarged with many features, with plates in
color, 96 full-page half-tones and over 4,000 text illustrations.
Complete in six volumes.

Set: Cloth, $36.00; Leather, $60.00

Sold only in sets in) subscription.

Two opinions of Volume I of the new Cyclopedia:

"No one who knows anything at all about the literature of garden-
ing needs to be told that the Cyclopedia is unique. It is the Bible
and Britannica of the garden-folk, amateur and professional alike.
And the remarkable thing is that, while it is fundamentally a work
of reference, it also contains limitless quantities of good reading of
the sort dear to the heart of the garden enthusiast." The Nation.

"It is no exaggeration to state that Bailey's new work is the best

cyclopedia obtainable for all who are connected, either remotely or
intimately, as amateurs or professionals, with horticultural pursuits.
It is the best for the student of botany who is investigating the subject
in a purely scientific way; best for the commercial grower who likes
to be well informed on matters in general and his own trade in par-
ticular, and best for the other sort of commercial grower, who does
not bother himself particularly about hunting for any information
except such as will give him immediate help in producing a better
crop." The Florist's Review.

THE MACMILLAN COMPANY

PUBLISHERS 64-66 Fifth Avenue NEW YORK
 CYCLOPEDIA OF
AMERICAN AGRICULTURE
Edited by L. H. BAILEY
With 100 full-page plates and more than 2,000 illustrations in the
text; four volumes; the set, $24-00; half morocco, $36.00.

Vol. I Farms Vol. Ill Animals

Vol. II Crops Vol. IV The Farm and the Community

This is unquestionably tne most important agricultural cyclopedic

work published in this country. The leading experts in the United
States and Canada, both investigators and practical farmers, con-
tribute to its chapters, which are arranged not alphabetically, but

topically, each subject being treated in its various aspects by men

especially familiar with it. It contains advice for the city man who
is seeking a home in the country, as well as for the professional

farmer. The book is strictly new and up-to-date in its methods and
advice, thoroughly readable, and a standard work of reference. It
is profusely illustrated, about one-third of the total space being
assigned to illustrations all original.

"Indispensable to public and reference libraries . . .

readily
comprehensible to any person of average education." The Nation.

"The completest existing thesaurus of up-to-date facts and

opinions on modern agricultural methods. It is safe to say that many
years must pass before it can be surpassed in comprehensiveness,
accuracy, practical value, and mechanical excellence. It ought to
be in every library in the country." Record-Herald, Chicago.

THE MACMILLAN COMPANY

PUBLISHERS 64-66 Fifth Avenue NEW YORK
 BOOKS ON AGRICULTURE
ON SELECTION OF LAND, ETC.
E. W. Hilgard's Soils: Their Formation, and Relations to
Climate and Plant Growth $4 00
ON TILLAGE, ETC.
Elwood Mead's Irrigation Institutions 1 25
William E. Smythe's The Conquest of Arid America .... 1 50
H. Snyder's Chemistry of Plant and Animal Life 1 50
H. Snyder's Soil and Fertilizers. Third edition 1 25
ON PLANT DISEASES, ETC.
A. S. Packard's A Text-book on Entomology 4 50
L. R. Hesler and H. H. Whetzel's Manual of Fruit Diseases . 2 00

ON PRODUCTION OF NEW PLANTS

L. H. Bailey's The Survival of the Unlike 2 00
W. S. Harwood's New Creations in Plant Life 2 00

ON GARDEN-MAKING
Bailey and Hunn's Practical Garden Book 1 10
A. French's Book of Vegetables 1 75
A. French's Beginner's Garden Book 1 00
ON FRUIT-GROWING, ETC.
L. H. Bailey's The Pruning-Book 2 00

ON THE CARE OF LIFE-STOCK

W. H. Jordan's The Feeding of Animals 1 75
ON DAIRY WORK, FARM CHEMISTRY, ETC.
Harry Snyder's Dairy Chemistry 1 00
W. D. Frost's Laboratory Guide in Elementary Bacteriology . 1 60
Lincoln and Malton's Elementary Quantitative Chemical
Analysis 1 50
ON ECONOMICS AND ORGANIZATION
Henry C. Taylor's Agricultural Economics 1 25
S. E. Sparling's Business Organization 1 25
In the Citizen's Library. Includes a Chapter on Farming
L. H. Bailey's The State and the Farmer 1 25
ON EVERYTHING AGRICULTURAL
L. H. Bailey's Cyclopedia of American Agriculture. Com-
plete in four royal 8vo volumes, with over 2,000 illus-
trations. Price of sets: Cloth, &24; half morocco . . . 36 00

For further information as to any of the above, address the publishers

THE MACMILLAN COMPANY

PUBLISHERS 64-66 Fifth Avenue NEW YORK
 RURAL SCIENCE SERIES
Edited by L. H. BAILEY
Each volume illustrated Cloth, 12mo
A series of practical books for farmers and gardeners, sold as a set or sep-
arately. Each one is the work of a competent specialist, and is suitable for con-
sultation alike by the amateur or professional tiller of the soil, the scientist or the
student. Illustrations of marked beauty are freely used, and the books are clearly
printed and well bound.
ON SELECTION OF LAND, ETC.
Isaac P. Roberts' The Farmstead $1 50
T. F. Hunt's How to Choose a Farm 1 75
E. G. Cheyney and J. P. Wentling's The Farm Woodlot .... . 1 75
C. V. Piper and R. A. Oakley's Turf for Golf Courses ... 2 50
ON TILLAGE, ETC.
F. H. King's The Soil 50
Isaac P. Roberts' The Fertility of the Land . .
50
F. H. King's Irrigation and Drainage 60
Edward B. Voorhees* Fertilizers. New Edition ,-,()

Edward B. Voohees' Forage Crops 50

J. A. Widtsoe's Dry Farming 60
L. H. Bailey's Principles of Agriculture . . . .

ON PLANT DISEASES, ETC.

E. G. Lbdeman's The Spraying of Plants 1 50
ON GARDEN-MAKING
D. Lumsden's Greenhouse Construction and Heating Preparing
A. W. Gilbert's The Potato 1 50
L. H. Bailey's Garden-Making 1 60
L. H. Bailey's Principles of Vegetable-Gardening 1 60
L. H. Bailey's Forcing-Book . 1 25
L. H. Bailey and A. W. Gilbert's Plant Breeding. New Edition ... 2 00
P. H. Rolf's Subtropical Vegetable-Gardening 1 50
ON FRUIT-GROWING, ETC.
L.H. Bailey's Nursery-Book 50
1
L.H. Bailey's Principles of Fruit-Growing. New Edition 75
1
F.W. Card's Bush-Fruits 50
1
W. Paddock & O. B. Whipple's Fruit-Growing in Arid Regions .... 1 50
J. E. Coit's Citrus Fruits 2 00
S. W. Fletcher's The Strawberry in North America Preparing
S. W. Fletcher's Strawberry-Growing 1 75
ON THE CARE OF LIVE-STOCK
Nelson S. Mayo's The Diseases of Animals 1 75
I.P. Roberts' The Horse 1 35
M. W. Harper's Breaking and Training of Horses 2 00
George C. Watson's Farm Ppultry. New Edition 1 50
John A. Craig's Sheep Farming 1 50
E. F. Phillips' Beekeeping .' 2 00
E. L. Potter, G. A. Samson, O. M. Nelson and C. N. Kennedy's
Western Livestock Management Preparing
ON DAIRY WORK, FARM CHEMISTRY, ETC.
Henry H. Wing's Milk and Its Products. New Edition 1 50
J. G. Lipman's Bacteria in Relation to Country Life 1 50
ON ECONOMICS AND ORGANIZATION
William A. McKeever's Farm Boys and Girls 175
I. P. Roberts' The Farmer's Business Handbook 125
George T. Fairchild's Rural Wealth and Welfare 150
H. N. Ogden's Rural Hygiene 1 50
J. Green's Law for the American Farmer 1 50
G. H. Powell's Cooperation in Agriculture 1 50
J. B. Merman's Principles of Rural Credits 1 50
Glenn W. Herrick's Insects Injurious to the Household 1 75

THE MACMILLAN COMPANY

PUBLISHERS 64-66 Fifth Avenue NEW YORK
NEWEST ADDITIONS TO THE RURAL SCIENCE SERIES
Edited by Professor L. H. BAILEY
Formerly Director of the New York State School of Agriculture at
Cornell University

The Potato
BY ARTHUR W. GILBERT, PH.D.
Professor of Plant Breeding, Cornell University, assisted by
MORTIMER F. BARRUS, PH.D.
Professor of Plant Pathology, Cornell University, and

.DANIEL DEAN
Formerly President of the New York State Potato Association
With illustrations, $1.50

The authors of this book are especially fitted to write

upon the potato. Professor Gilbert, as professor of

plant breeding at Cornell, has made a careful study of

potato breeding and varieties for several years. For-

merly teacher of farm crops and director of agricultural

extension work at the University of Maine, he has
become thoroughly familiar with potato growing in the

East, particularly in the famous Aroostook County

region. Dr. Barrus is considered one of the best
authoritieson potato diseases in the country. The
chapters he has contributed to the work deal with
disease and its control. Mr. Dean wrote the chapters
on field practice. He is a successful commercial
grower, and has given much attention to the different

systems of potato growing throughout the United

States.

THE MACMILLAN COMPANY

Publishers 64-66 Fifth Avenue New York
RURAL SCIENCE SERIES Continued

A Manual of Fruit Diseases

BY LEX R. HESLER
Assistant Professor of Plant Pathology in the New York State College of

Agriculture at Cornell University, and

HERBERT H. WHETZEL
Professor of Plant Pathology in the New York State College of Agriculture
at Cornell University

With illustrations; cloth, i2tno, $2.00

This manual contains a presentation of the known

facts and data with respect to the common diseases of

fruits. It has been prepared primarily for the modern

agriculturist, the farmer, the thinking fruit grower, but
it should also be of service to anyone who has an inter-

est in plant diseases. The fruits are taken up in alpha-

betical order. The discussion of the diseases proceeds

in order of their importance and prominence in the

United States. Particular attention is paid to the de-
scription and illustration of the symptoms, to the cause
and to the generally accepted measures of control.

Technical details are omitted as far as possible though

the effort has been made to present the matter in as

popular a fashion as possible.

THE MACMILLAN COMPANY

Publishers 64-66 Fifth Avenue New York
RURAL SCIENCE SERIES Continued

Strawberry Growing
BY S. W. FLETCHER
Professor of Horticulture at the Pennsylvania State College

24 full-page plates and 22 figures in the text, $1.75

The strawberry occupies a position among North American

fruits second only to the apple commercial importance. Pro-
in
fessor Fletcher here gives a clear outline of present commercial
practice, taking up all the important points in considerable detail
location of beds, most desirable soils, planting, rotation of
crops, treatment with fertilizers, tillage and irrigation, the train-
ing of the plant, mulching, pollination, picking, packing, market-
ing, varieties of berries, insects, diseases, and statistics on acreage,
production, and value.

TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER
I. Locations, sites, and soils.
II. Planting.
III. Rotations, manuring, and fertilizing.
IV. Tillage and irrigation.
V. Training the plant.
VI. Mulching.
VII. Pollination.
VIII. Packages.
IX. Picking and packing.
X. Marketing.
XI. Cost of production, yields, profits.
XII. Propagation and renewal.
XIII. Everbearing varieties, forcing and other special methods of
culture.
XIV. Insects, diseases, and frost.
XV. Varieties.

APPENDIX. Statistics on Acreage, Production, and Value.

THE MACMILLAN COMPANY

Publishers 64-66 Fifth Avenue New York
UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY
BERKELEY
THIS BOOK IS DUE ON THE LAST DATE
STAMPED BEliOW
Books""' feol? returned on tim$,are subject to a fine of
50c per Volume after the ttiira~aay overdue, increasing
to $1.00 per volume after the sixth day. Books not in
demand may be renewed if application is made before
expiration of loan period.

MAR 16 1919

APR 30

JUN 6 1922

22 1930

53 Uf

SENT ON ILL

APR 3 1996

U. C. BERKELEY

50m-7/16
 16314

380119

UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY