ARTICLE IN PRESS

Crop Protection 26 (2007) 17231732

www.elsevier.com/locate/cropro

Review

A participatory farming system approach for sustainable broomrape

(Orobanche spp.) management in the Near East and North Africa
Mathew M. Abanga,, Bassam Bayaaa, Barakat Abu-Irmailehb, Amor Yahyaouia
a
Biodiversity and Integrated Gene Management (B-IGM) Project, International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas (ICARDA),
P.O. Box 5466, Aleppo, Syria
b
Faculty of Agriculture, University of Jordan, 11942 Amman, Jordan
Received 2 February 2007; accepted 14 March 2007

Abstract

Broomrapes (Orobanche spp.) are aggressive and damaging parasitic weeds which have a tremendous impact on agriculture in East
Africa, the Mediterranean region and the Middle East. Despite the availability of technologies to control broomrapes in economically
important crops, Orobanche infestation continues to increase, threatening the livelihoods of millions of farmers. Many of the
technologies developed have not been effectively disseminated and there has been little or zero adoption by farmerswho continue to use
ineffective management practices that exacerbate the problem. The adaptation and dissemination of appropriate management practices
are major priorities in broomrape control. However, such work must take into consideration the specic socio-economic characteristics
of individual farming systems. Orobanche is a community threat and effective management requires a community-based integrated
management approach. Recognizing the central role of farmers in parasitic weed management, a technical cooperation project (TCP)
involving FAO, ICARDA and seven countries in the Near East and North Africa (NENA) region was implemented to improve the
dissemination of knowledge and skills by using a farmer eld school approach: a form of education that uses experiential learning
methods to build farmers expertise. This paper reviews conventional Orobanche research and development approaches, and highlights
weaknesses in the management of the parasitic weed using these approaches as opposed to participatory approaches. The benets and
challenges of participatory farming system approaches in relation to integrated broomrape management (IBM) are also discussed.
Lessons learned from achieving community ownership of, and institutional support for, IBM could be applied to other sectors (e.g.
public health) in which there is a need for institutional learning and reform. Recommendations are made that include regional
collaboration within the framework of a proposed Near East and North Africa Orobanche Management Network (NENAOMAN).
r 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Broomrape; Community IPM; Farmer eld school; Farming systems research; Orobanche spp.; Sustainable management

Contents

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1724
2. Weaknesses of conventional Orobanche management strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1725
2.1. Research project design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1725
2.2. Quarantine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1725
2.3. Host resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1726
2.4. Chemical control. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1726
2.5. Biological control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1726
3. Participatory farming system approaches: a new model for IBM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1726
3.1. Decentralized participatory breeding and agronomy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1726

Corresponding author. Tel.: +963 21 2213433; fax: +963 21 2213490.

E-mail address: m.abang@cgiar.org (M.M. Abang).

0261-2194/$ - see front matter r 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.cropro.2007.03.005
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
1724 M.M. Abang et al. / Crop Protection 26 (2007) 17231732

3.2. Participatory biotechnology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1727

3.3. From research to implementation: the FFS approach for successful dissemination and adoption of IBM . . . . . . . . 1727
3.4. Regional collaboration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1729
4. Looking forward . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1729
Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1730
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1730

1. Introduction catch crops (Abu-Irmaileh, 1984; Abebe et al., 2005; Lins

Broomrapes (Orobanche spp.) are holoparasitic weeds
that depend wholly on their hosts for nutrition (Young
et al., 1999). They cause signicant yield and quality losses
in many important crops and affect the livelihoods of
millions of people worldwide (Sauerborn, 1991a, b; Parker
and Riches, 1993). The devastating effects of O. crenata
Forsk., O. ramose L., O. aegyptiaca Pers., O. cernua Loe.,
O. cumana Wallr., O. minor Sm. and O. foetida Poir are a
major constraint that limits the productivity of faba bean
(Vicia faba L.), chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.), lentil (Lens
culinaris Medick.), tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum Mill.),
potato (Solanum tuberosum L.), tobacco (Nicotiana taba-
cum L.), sunower (Helianthus annuus L.) and many other
crop species (Parker and Riches, 1993; Abu-Irmaileh, 1994;
Bayaa et al., 2000; Rubiales, 2001; Rubiales et al., 2003,
2006). Yield losses range from 5% to 100% depending on
host susceptibility, level of infestation and environmental
conditions.
Grain legumes are the primary source of protein in the
Near East and North Africa (NENA) (Graham and
Carroll, 2003) and peoples ability to rely on these crops
to provide food security is severely threatened by
Orobanche infestation (Sauerborn, 1991a, b; Abu-Irmaileh,
2004). In fact, Orobanche infestation means that many
countries that were once exporters of food legumes and
vegetables have been forced to become net importers of
these commodities in order to meet local demand.
The parasitic weed problem in NENA has been
aggravated by the intensication of host crop cultivation.
Increased population pressure in Syria, the Maghreb
(Algeria, Morocco and Tunisia) and Nile Valley countries
(Egypt, Sudan and Ethiopia) has increased the production
of strategic crops, many of which are Orobanche hosts. As
a result, the extent and intensity of parasitic weed
infestation (by both Orobanche and Striga species) has
increased rapidly and currently threatens food production.
Known control measures for Orobanche include hand
weeding, crop rotation (Thomas et al., 1998), adjustment of
sowing date (Mesa-Garcia and Garcia-Torres, 1986;
Rubiales et al., 2002), adjustment of soil nutrients (Abu-
Irmaileh, 1981; Nassib et al., 1992), soil fumigation
(Wilhelm et al., 1959), solarization (Sauerborn and Saxena,
1987; Abu-Irmaileh, 2003), use of herbicides (Jurado-
Exposito et al., 1997; Garcia-Torres et al., 1998; Hershen-
horn et al., 1998), the selection and breeding of resistant
crop varieties (Rubiales et al., 2006), the use of trap and
et al., 2006) and the use of biological control agents
(Amsellem et al., 2001; Klein and Kroschel, 2002; Kroschel
and Klein, 2004). A new approach involves the develop-
ment and use of herbicide-resistant crops (Valkov et al.,
1998; Kotoula-Syka and Economou, 2005).
While individual control options may lead to some
increases in crop yields and to some decreases in the
amount of Orobanche seed in the soil, none of the currently
available control measures have proved to be completely
effective methods of Orobanche management. Chemical
control of parasitic weeds is generally inappropriate in
subsistence or smallholder farming systems, for example,
because it requires herbicide application equipment and
skills which are either unavailable or unaffordable (Berner
et al., 1995; Garcia-Torres, 1998). Because Orobanche seeds
in the soil remain viable for long periods (Eplee et al., 1998)
and because of the genetic variability that occurs within
and between Orobanche species (Roman et al., 2001, 2002),
these parasites are well equipped to adapt to individual
control strategies such as host plant resistance and
herbicides. In addition, the highly diverse nature of
farming systems in NENA means that not all control
options will be universally acceptable, applicable or
effective. The diversity of host crop and Orobanche species
that exists means that an assortment of control options are
required to combat the parasite. As a result, sustainable
Orobanche control requires the rigorous and unremitting
implementation of integrated systems of control.
To put effective Orobanche control within the reach of
resource-poor farmers research institutions and multi-
disciplinary research teams have developed a range of
technologies designed to control parasitic weeds in NENA.
Joint research projects on Orobanche management have
been implemented by national and international agricul-
tural research centres in the region since 1973. In Egypt, for
example, the Agricultural Research Program for the
Control of Parasitic Weeds (which ran between 1973 and
1980) tested several management practices including the
use of glyphosate, which was applied to 400 ha of faba bean
in Qena in 1980. However, the technology was not
disseminated to farmers, despite the fact that it increased
yields by 750 kg/ha.
A later project which also considered Orobanche control
was the ICARDA Nile Valley Project, which ran between
1979 and 1989 (Saxena and Stewart, 1983). Designed to
improve cereal and legume management, this project had
several components (breeding, pathology, weed management
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
M.M. Abang et al. / Crop Protection 26 (2007) 17231732
and entomology) and included on-farm demonstrations,
although there was no active involvement on the part of
farmers. Locally funded Orobanche research and develop-
ment (R&D) activities continued in Egypt from 2001 to
2004. During this period, similar programs dealt with
Orobanche management in Sudan, Morocco, Tunisia and
Algeria (see Dahan and El Mourid, 2004).
Many of the technologies developed in these research
projects have not been effectively disseminated to farmers
due to technical, institutional and socio-economic con-
straints. Such constraints have also contributed to Or-
obanche management being poorly implemented in affected
communities. They include (1) the lack of a reliable
extension infrastructure and the inefciencies of the top-
down R&D approach, (2) farmers poor knowledge of the
biology of parasitic weeds and the dynamics of weed-seed
banks, (3) farmers lack of access to Orobanche-resistant/
tolerant legume crop varieties, (4) poor understanding and
application (by researchers, extension agents and farmers)
of the joint learning activities needed to promote integrated
broomrape management (IBM), (5) the weakness of the
mechanisms available to scale up and scale out proven
IBM options, (6) weaknesses in the mechanisms used to
forge productive partnerships at the community level, (7)
ineffective project monitoring and evaluation and (8) a lack
of impact assessment (Anon., 2002; Meskine et al., 2004).
In recognition of the challenges associated with efforts to
improve the dissemination of Orobanche management skills
to farmers (Abu-Irmaileh, 2004; Labrada, 2004), farmer
eld schools (FFSs) were set up in Sudan, Algeria,
Ethiopia, Egypt, Morocco, Syria and Tunisia. These were
designed to help farmers learn the principles and practices
of integrated Orobanche management, and serve as an
essential part of a long-term and dynamic farming systems
approach for sustaining and enhancing agricultural pro-
ductivity in these countries (Abu-Irmaileh and Bayaa,
2005).
This paper reviews conventional Orobanche R&D
approaches and highlights weaknesses in sustainable
management efforts that use them rather than novel
participatory approaches. The benets and challenges
associated with participatory farming systems approaches
to IBM are also discussed, with emphasis being placed on
the use of FFSs, which should be seen as a step towards
effective community Orobanche management and not as an
end in itself.
2. Weaknesses of conventional Orobanche management
strategies
For any Orobanche management strategy to be success-
ful, it should target the two most important sources of
Orobanche infestation: the soil seed bank and contami-
nated seed. Previous Orobanche R&D projects were
characterized by major weaknesses in project design which
made inefcient use of a number of otherwise useful
1725
options, including quarantine, host resistance, agronomic
management, chemical and biological control.
2.1. Research project design
A common feature of most research projects that have
addressed Orobanche management is the emphasis that was
laid on on-station technology generation, i.e. the testing of
various management options and on-farm demonstrations
with only limited farmer involvement (Lutzeyer et al., 1994;
Abu-Irmaileh, 2004). Such projects were not designed to
encourage farmers to participate in project design and
execution, which would ultimately encourage community
ownership of Orobanche management techniques. More-
over, there was a lack of subject matter specialists with the
kind of full-time involvement needed to follow up and
guide the much-needed participatory experiential learning
process (Meskine et al., 2004). Clearly, much greater
impact would have been achieved if research (technology
generation) had been integrated with development (farm-
level application), and combined with the incorporation of
ex ante and ex post evaluation of successive Orobanche
management projects (Koppel, 1990).
2.2. Quarantine
The alarming local and cross-border spread of Oro-
banche that has occurred is mostly due to the effective way
in which the parasite spreads, aided by human-mediated
dispersal (Eplee et al., 1998). Once introduced to new areas,
broomrapes soon become an established pest. O. crenata,
for example, recently spread to Ethiopia and Sudan, where
farmers were not even aware of the newly introduced weed
or the options for its management (Abu-Irmaileh and
Bayaa, 2005). Orobanche infestation has also been reported
in the newly reclaimed areas in Egypt (Abu-Irmaileh, 1993,
2004), and O. foetida has now spread to Morocco (Zemrag
et al., 2004) and to new areas in Tunisia (Kharrat and
Souissi, 2004).
Preventing the parasite from spreading to parasite-free
areas is the most crucial step in broomrape management.
Avoidance (through the planting of clean, certied seed)
should therefore be considered the prime method of
protection, and containment and eradication the second
line of defence against the parasitic weed (Berner et al.,
1995; Eplee et al., 1998; Panetta and Roger, 2005).
In fact, the preventative methods that reduce the
dissemination of the parasitic weed are neglected by
farmers, and this can be considered the weakest link in
Orobanche management. Despite this, however, previous
research projects have made only very limited efforts to
mobilize communities. Clearly this is an error, as it must be
recognized that community support is essential even where
extension staff are actively involved in trace back and
trace forward strategies to monitor the spread of
Orobanche. Strong quarantine legislations and community
awareness/ownership of the problem are crucial if the
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
1726 M.M. Abang et al. / Crop Protection 26 (2007) 17231732
spread of Orobanche is to be successfully contained in high-
risk areas.
2.3. Host resistance
Host resistance/tolerance to Orobanche is characterized
(1) by the breakdown of major gene-controlled resistance,
as has occurred in the case of the sunower/O. cernua
interaction, where seven O. cernua races have been
reported (Fernandez-Martnez et al., 2000), or (2) by the
rarity and low heritability of resistance in many Orobanche/
legume pathosystems (Rubiales et al., 2006). Cubero (1991)
argued that in the future the discovery and transfer of
Orobanche resistance to agronomically suitable host
cultivars would only be possible if a multidisciplinary
approach were to be taken involving plant anatomists,
physiologists, pathologists, as well as agronomists and
breeders.
Although breeding for resistance has been slow and
difcult, the quantitative resistance already achieved as a
result of tedious selection procedures has led to the release
of cultivars with useful levels of incomplete resistance
combined with a degree of tolerance to Orobanche (Khalil
et al., 2004; Rubiales et al., 2006). Resistant varieties could
potentially form the cornerstone of sustainable Orobanche
management strategies. However, once developed, these
varieties have traditionally been released to farmers on a
take it or leave it basis, which has resulted in minimal or
no adoption.
2.4. Chemical control
Intensive research has identied herbicides which de-
monstrate good potential with regard to the control of
broomrape in specic crops, at the farm level, under diverse
agroecological conditions (Garcia-Torres et al., 1998; Al-
Hussien et al., 2002). However, low persistence, limited
availability, high costs, lack of herbicide registration for
Orobanche control, marginal crop selectivity and a lack of
application technologies are all major constraints that have
hampered the successful use of herbicides for broomrape
control in NENA countries. Glyphosate offers a good
example. This was the rst herbicide to show promise as a
control for O. crenata in faba bean (Schmitt et al., 1979);
however, like other effective herbicides, glyphosate is not
registered for Orobanche control in many NENA countries
(Zemrag et al., 2004). Despite limitations such as these,
however, many Orobanche R&D programs emphasized
chemical control with little or no regard for IBM or farmer
participation. This said, attempts have been made to
subsidize the cost of herbicides. However, resource-poor
farmers have beneted little or not at all from this, partly
because these measures were poorly implemented and were
not sustainable (Zemrag et al., 2004). In Morocco, the use
of glyphosate to control O. crenata in faba bean was
promoted for more than 15 years but only 15% of the
interviewed extension workers were able to give a correct
description of its application technology (Elzein and
Kroschel, 2003). This highlights the importance of training
extension staff to deliver effective advisory services, and the
need for direct involvement of farmers in the assessment
and adoption of integrated control measures using
participatory approaches.
2.5. Biological control
Biological control through inundation with locally
occurring pests and pathogens may be feasible and has
been pursued vigorously; however, it has never been
integrated with other options (Amsellem et al., 2001;
Kroschel and Klein, 2004). The broomrape y (Phytomiza
orobanchia) is a widely occurring insect pest of several
Orobanche species in NENA, and natural reduction of
Orobanche seed production of 1179% has been reported
from several NENA countries (Klein and Kroschel, 2002).
Biological control using P. orobanchia could help to reduce
the Orobanche seed bank in the soil (Kroschel and Klein,
2004). The insect bores into the bulb and stem of
Orobanche, attacks the capsules, and eats most of the
seeds. However, it never eats all of the seeds, and as a result
enough remain to replenish the seed bank and sustain the
weed population. Because the use of this insect often
conicts with the use of insecticides to control aphids, the
option has been quite unpopular (Gressel et al., 2004). The
use of P. orobanchia in combination with mycoherbicides
and other control measures in an integrated, participatory,
approach could yield better results. However, hurdles
related to the regulatory authorization of Orobanche-
pathogenic strains of the fungus Fusarium oxysporum
would have to be addressed rst (Gressel et al., 2004).
3. Participatory farming system approaches: a new model
for IBM
Broomrape management has been adopted by few
producers, especially among those in smallholder farming
systems. As result, there is an urgent need to re-evaluate
Orobanche research and management strategies based on a
holistic approach that incorporates recent developments in
crop breeding and agronomy, biotechnology and technol-
ogy dissemination. It must be acknowledged that farmers
are indispensable as partners if R&D strategies are to be
implemented successfully. As noted by Abu-Irmaileh and
Labrada (2006), FFSs recognize the diverse biophysical
and socio-economic challenges faced by farming commu-
nities, and make use of farm resources and farmers
capabilities to avoid or manage risks (such as Orobanche
infestation) that would otherwise have serious conse-
quences in the farming system.
3.1. Decentralized participatory breeding and agronomy
The drawbacks of top-down breeding approaches have
been well documented (Bellon and Morris, 2002), and
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
M.M. Abang et al. / Crop Protection 26 (2007) 17231732
participatory plant breeding (PPB) is seen as one way to
overcome them. PPB does not refer to a single, well-dened
method for plant genetic improvement. Rather, it is
characterized by many different potential forms of farm-
erbreeder interaction, all of which are designed to shift the
focus of crop improvement research towards the local level
by involving farmers more directly in the breeding and
selection process (Bellon and Morris, 2002).
Though the highly centralized breeding systems adopted
in the NENA region did have many advantages, they failed
to address end-user needs, resulting in poor levels of
adoption of improved, Orobanche-tolerant varieties and
their associated technologies. In subsistence-oriented farm-
ing systems, varietal performance and farmers preferences
often vary signicantly from location to location and
season to season. Because of this, most plant breeding
programs lack the resources needed to identify the many
different varieties preferred in different localities, and to
develop and test preferred varieties at the farm level.
Moreover, few systematic surveys have been conducted
to help researchers understand farmers perception of the
Orobanche problem from a farming systems perspective
(Lutzeyer et al., 1994; Ellis-Jones et al., 2004; Emechebe
et al., 2004). The recent emergence of the PPB movement
represents a response to these weaknesses in the traditional
approach taken to plant breeding.
Recognizing the need for PPB efforts, ICARDAs lentil,
chickpea and faba bean improvement programs now
emphasize pre-breeding research, which is dened as
the development of elite lines that will be used by other
plant breeders as a source of desired traits such as
Orobanche resistance (Khalil et al., 2004). Such superior
materials are distributed through ICARDAs multi-loca-
tion international nurseries networks, and can sometimes
be released directly to farmers, though this is often not the
case. More commonly, additional selection is needed to
ensure that the materials are well adapted to local
production conditions and end-user needs. To ensure
effective selection and the successful dissemination of
Orobanche-resistant varieties, local breeding programs
should involve farmers throughout the process of breeding
and selection for good agronomic characteristics, resistance
or tolerance to important diseases and pests, and superior
yield and quality.
Nadal et al. (2005) reported that Retaca, a new
faba bean cultivar of determinate growth habit, is
suitable for early harvest (the young pods can be consumed
fresh) and might serve as a protable catch crop.
Broomrape damage can be avoided by harvesting the
cultivars young pods earlyat, or even prior to, broom-
rape establishment. The crop is then removed, thus
destroying the established broomrapes before they ower.
Although pod yields are less per plant than standard
indeterminate cultivars, the market price of the young
green pods is much higher. By the same token, the small
size of the plants allows for an increased sowing density of
up to 30 plants=m2 . Innovative participatory approaches
1727
would result in cultivars like Retaca being widely
adopted by farmers.
FFSs offer unique opportunities for the validation of
new technologies in the eld and for the adoption of
promising Orobanche management technologies by farmers
(Abu-Irmaileh and Labrada, 2006). Initial concerns about
the cost-effectiveness of participatory approaches are
gradually being allayed by evidence which indicates that
there are no signicant cost differences between conven-
tional and decentralized participatory breeding (Mangione
et al., 2006).
3.2. Participatory biotechnology
The use of advanced biotechnology, including genetic
engineering, has recently opened up new avenues for
controlling Orobanche (Kotoula-Syka and Economou,
2005; Anon., 2005; Ameline-Torregrosa et al., 2006; Jorrn
et al., 2006). Abayo et al. (1998) and Kanampiu et al.
(2001), for example, have developed methods of coating
biotechnologically produced (non-transgenic) imidazoli-
none-resistant maize seed with small amounts of acetolac-
tate synthase-inhibiting herbicides. These techniques mean
that considerably less herbicide is required to control Striga
on a per hectare basis. This seed-based Striga control
technology is being promoted for use by resource-poor
farmers in sub-Saharan Africa (Kanampiu et al., 2002,
2003). It is hoped that ongoing efforts will lead to the
development and adoption of similar Orobanche control
strategies (Anon., 2005; Kotoula-Syka and Economou,
2005).
Machuka (2001) has shown that it is possible to develop
agricultural biotechnology with the participation of farm-
ers, which probably represents the best way of conducting
biotechnology research that is of direct benet to resource-
poor farmers. This enables scientists to make use of
indigenous knowledge in R&D. Machuka (2001) also
stressed the need for farmer representatives to be involved
at all stages of an agricultural biotechnology projects
design and appraisal, as well as in subsequent planning and
monitoring work. In such a scenario, community-based
feedback mechanisms allow research organizations to
rene their research agenda in a bottom-up manner that
responds to end-users needs.
3.3. From research to implementation: the FFS approach for
successful dissemination and adoption of IBM
The magnitude of the problem posed by Orobanche was
recognized by seven NENA countries (Algeria, Egypt,
Morocco, Ethiopia, Sudan, Syria and Tunisia) whose
representatives attended the FAO-Expert Consultation
Meeting on Orobanche management in Rabat, Morocco.
These countries have initiated an action plan (1) to train
technical eld personnel and farmers in Orobanche
management, and (2) to facilitate the exchange of
information and resistant germplasm (see Dahan and El
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
1728 M.M. Abang et al. / Crop Protection 26 (2007) 17231732

Mourid, 2004). With the assistance of the FAO, an IBM Table 2

strategy has been formulated to reduce parasitic weed Sample of the agroecosystems analysis sheet (AESA) used by farmer eld
schools (FFSs) in the Syrian Orobanche Management on Food Legumes
infestation signicantly in the medium term (Table 1).
Project
Training and knowledge exchange programmes have also
been initiated in the form of FFS. FFS name:
The FFS is a form of education which uses experiential AESA no.: Date:
learning methods to build the expertise of farmers Group names: Week no.
(Gallagher, 1999; Bartlett, 2000; Pontius et al., 2002; Fakih Place of
et al., 2003; FAO, 2005; Braun et al., 2006). The concept demonstration plot:
and the essential elements of an FFS for parasitic weed Problem to be
addressed:
management have been described by Labrada (2004) and
Abu-Irmaileh and Bayaa (2005). In each of the seven General information Crop size and infestation
countries involved, 34 FFSs were conducted by expert Variety: Leaf length:
Sowing date: Leaf width:
facilitators during the cropping season, with 25 farmers Crop age: No. of leaves:
participating in each. The curriculum used was developed Plant spacing: Number of Orobanche shoots/plant:
in collaboration with farmers to ensure that their most Fertilizer used: Plant height:
relevant agroecological problems were addressed using Monitoring date: Plant drawing Orobanche species
solutions that were specically relevant to the location in Plant establishment: Exudates formation
date (approx.):
question. During a crop cycle, a group of neighbouring Germination %: Emergence date:
farmers met weekly to make a wide range of observations Flowering date:
about the agroecosystem, dividing into sub-groups to do so
Pests Natural enemies
(Table 2). Such work included sampling parasitic weed Pests to be Natural enemies to
populations and characterizing harmful and benecial monitored: be monitored:
organisms. These observations were recorded and pre- Observations Recommendations
sented for group discussion and critical analysis, leading to Weather conditions:
decision-making on the experimental action to be taken in Precipitation:
Temperature:
the following week. Humidity:
These weekly cycles of learning strengthened farmers Wind speed:
skills and increased their condence. Several additional Soil moisture:
Diseases:
Pests:
Table 1 Weeds:
Integrated Orobanche management in food legumesfarmer eld school Plant health:
(FFS) information sheet
Source: Orobanche Management in Leguminous Crops Project No. TCP/
FFS name INT/3004: nal project report of Training of Trainers (TOT) and FFS/
Field no. Syria 20042006. Extension Unit, Directorate of Agriculture, Syrian Arab
Location Republic Ministry of Agriculture.
Landholder
Type of landholder (owner, investor, etc.)
Cultivated area observations or experiments were conducted during the
Soil analysis results NPK
eld schools to study the life cycle and behaviour of
Level of previous Orobanche infestation: eld history or
Orobanche seed bank=m2
parasitic weeds, as well as the crop damage caused. Group
Seeding rate kg/donuma dynamics and communication exercises were used within
Sowing date the eld schools to strengthen group cohesion, maintain
Previous crop (cropping history) motivation and help participants to develop organizational
Cultural practices (ploughing, irrigation, etc.) skills. Group building is important in approaches such as
Management measures (deep tillage, crop rotation, delay
sowing, cultivation, use of trap crops, seed rate and
IBM, which benet from coordinated management by
mechanical and chemical control) many farmers over a large area. The successful establish-
Comments ment of FFSs in the seven NENA countries made farmers
FFS facilitators opinion (suggestions and recommendations) aware of Orobanche management and provided them with
FFS facilitators signature an opportunity to discover the complex issue of the
Source: Orobanche Management in Leguminous Crops Project No. TCP/ parasites biology. Probably for the rst time, farmers
INT/3004: Final project report of Training of Trainers (TOT) and FFS/ learned how the parasite propagates and how to avoid it
Syria 20042006. Extension Unit, Directorate of Agriculture, Syrian Arab spreading to un-infested areas. Once they appreciate the
Republic Ministry of Agriculture. economic benets, the improved system is rapidly adopted
a
The donum as a measure of area varies in size from place to place. For
example in Syria and Iraq it is 2500 m2 , while in Northern Cyprus the
by, and spread to, other farmers. It is expected that post-
donum is 1337:8 m2 . In Jordan, Lebanon, the Palestinian Authority and FFS support will be provided in participating countries in
Turkey it is 1000 m2 . order to facilitate the emergence of local, community-based
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
M.M. Abang et al. / Crop Protection 26 (2007) 17231732
projects for sustainable Orobanche management based on
the FFS experience (Pontius et al., 2002).
3.4. Regional collaboration
The systems currently used to deliver Orobanche control
options are handled primarily by national agricultural
research and extension services (NARES) in each NENA
country, often with some donor support. Delivery through
these systems has been piecemeal, primarily as a result of
the following: a lack of coordinated research, training and
extension efforts; poor farmer-extension communication;
and a lack of donor commitment to a unied and
comprehensive Orobanche control campaign. It has been
suggested that technological options developed for Oro-
banche control in Europe-wide projects such as the recent
COST Action 849 Project could be directly transferable to
developing countries (Anon., 2005). However, the diversity
of farming systems found in NENA means that any such
control options must be tested and adapted at the local
level by NARES using farmer participatory approaches.
To accomplish this, local research facilities will have to
be improved and staffed with trained research and
extension workers. Given current levels of funding for
agricultural research in NENA, local support for the
development of facilities and the training of personnel will
probably remain inadequate. Funds from various sources
(both public and private) should, therefore, be combined to
support a single coordinated control effort rather than a
multitude of ineffective, and often competing, projects. To
this end, a regional research, training and extension centre
should be established and expanded through linkages with
NARES, International Agricultural Research Centres and
other stakeholders (e.g. European partners) to obtain the
greatest benet from the resources invested in Orobanche
control in the region. It is proposed that a Near East and
North Africa Orobanche Management Network (NENAO-
MAN) be created to coordinate the activities and personnel
of such a regional centre.
4. Looking forward
To achieve effective control of Orobanche and reduce
crop losses in NENA, the following need to be achieved:
(1) the inux of Orobanche seeds into un-infested areas
must be prevented, (2) the amount of Orobanche seeds in
the soil must be reduced and (3) Orobanche reproduction
must be prevented. Meeting these targets in different
farming systems requires a participatory approach that
involves working with farmers to diagnose and prioritize
problems, and to identify and test solutions to overcome
them (Elzein and Kroschel, 2003). The benets of
empowering farmers groups and farming communities
through participatory approaches are well documented
(van den Berg, 2004; Braun et al., 2006). However, in order
to achieve such empowerment, an IBM program should be
1729
endorsed that can be implemented using participatory
farming systems approaches.
FFSs provide an important entry point for enhancing
farmers understanding of the ecological principles of good
Orobanche management. Running FFSs to help farmers to
learn the principles and practices of integrated Orobanche
management should be an essential part of any long-term
and dynamic strategy for sustaining and enhancing
agricultural productivity.
The need to build the capacity of facilitators and develop
curricula has been identied as a critical factor for the
success of the FFS approach when used for Orobanche
management. This is especially true in the case of farmer-
led FFSs, which are seen as the key to scaling-out the
approach (Abu-Irmaileh and Bayaa, 2005).
As an educational investment, IBM FFSs are expected to
have a lasting and profound effect on rural communities
and on their relationships with their environments (Braun
et al., 2006). In addition to the agricultural sector, the
techniques used to foster community and institutional
support/ownership of IBM could potentially spread to
other sectors that would benet from institutional learning
and reform (e.g. public health) (van den Berg and Knols,
2006). The costs of up-scaling and mainstreaming eld
school activities may not necessarily have to be met by
donor-funded projects or public funds. Instead, institu-
tional ownership and support could potentially be shared
by other stakeholders (such as non-governmental organi-
zations in the sectors of agriculture, education, irrigation
and the environment).
The challenges that face those working towards effective
agricultural extension and the sustainable management of
Orobanche reect many of the perennial problems that
have plagued integrated pest management (IPM) efforts
over the past 50 years. These include, but are by no means
limited to, the challenges associated with (1) becoming
truly responsive to local conditions and concerns;
(2) facilitating constructive inter-organizational collabora-
tion; (3) fostering greater local self-reliance through
individual capacity-building and local institutional devel-
opment; (4) addressing the nancial insecurity and low
educational levels of extension staff; and (5) the crucial
need to incorporate indigenous knowledge into IPM efforts
and encourage farmer-to-farmer communication (Olaniyan
et al., 2004; Oladimeji et al., 2004). Attention has
increasingly turned towards a loosely dened collection
of participatory approaches (Oladimeji et al., 2004; Abu-
Irmaileh, 2004; Labrada, 2004). It is hoped that govern-
ments, NGOs, National and International Agricultural
Research Systems and donors will support farmers and
producer associations implementing these approaches in
order to control Orobancheespecially in these early days
of their evolution.
To ensure the success of participatory approaches, the
following specic areas need to be addressed in the near
future. Governments need to invest in developing national
IBM policies and implementing comprehensive national
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
1730 M.M. Abang et al. / Crop Protection 26 (2007) 17231732
IPM programmes in order to provide an enabling
environment for promoting and implementing IBM. This
will involve building IBM capacities within extension
services and farmer-based organizations, in order to ensure
that farmers are able to gradually take over the imple-
mentation of IBM activities in the eld. There is also a need
to formulate national pesticide policies, strengthen regula-
tory and control schemes and undertake public awareness
programmes on IBM. To ensure an adequate ow of
information to policy and decision makers concerning the
impact that IBM has in terms of sustainable, and
environmentally friendly agricultural production, no effort
should be spared to get these key stakeholders involved: a
process that has been referred to as IPM immersion
(Dinham, 2003).
Acknowledgements
We gratefully acknowledge the nancial support that has
been provided by ICARDA, GTZ, and FAO, among
others, for Orobanche R&D in the NENA region. We
thank Dr. Ricardo Labrada (FAO Plant Protection
Service, Rome) for comments on the manuscript.
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