Chapter 3 - Railway Alignment

CENG 5271 - Railway Engineering

Mequanent Mulugeta
(mequ2me@gmail.com ) 1
AAiT
 Plane design
Railway horizontal line is composed of straight or tangent
segments with curves (arcs of simple circles) connecting tangents
of differing directions. The horizontal alignment is a composition
of curves and straight lines, and rate of curvatures.

Composition of plane design

2
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Horizontal alignment component
combinations

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 Plane design

Locus of center of gravity position of car

body exists will take three trajectories:
curvature is zero: straight line
curvature is constant: circle curve
curvature is variable: transition curve

The main components of Plane design:

1. Curves
2. Tangent/ straight lines
3. Easement/spiral curves
4. superelevation

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 Constituent parts of the curve
The curve is set when the line turns or when
two straight lines intersect.
curve radius (R)
corner curve ()
curve length (L)
Tangent length (T)
easement curve length (Lo)
tangent length:

curve length:

External length:
R
Arc length of L: L m Single curve
180
5
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 When considering Easement curve:

2
= + 2 +
180 180

= +
2

= + +
2
3
= 2
2
2 240
2
= ()
24

Common curve

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 Principles of determining minimum radius

Relations between the swing Harmful effect of Curve Radius:

surface of steering wheel and the
longitudinal axle of car body
angle is zero
angle is constant
angle is variable
Limit the speed of train;
Increase wheel abrasion;
Increase rail equipment;
Increase maintenance costs.

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 Superelevation
Raising the outside rail a distance h(mm)
above the inside rail. Methods;
Elevate outside rail by h or
elevate outside rail by h/2 and lower
inside rail by h/2

Function of superelevation
To counteract the effects of
overturning force (Fc)
both wheels bear equally on the
rails
both rails will be equally stressed
and wear
acceptable traveling comfort
high track stability and safe train
operation
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Mequanent M.
Mequanent M. 9
Superelevation

Average speed
2
=

Standard gauge track, s=1500mm
= , (for new line)
, (0.65~0.8)
Take, =0.8,
2

= 7.6

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 Maximum allowable superelevation
From the requirements of safety operation and stability of train and
travelling comfort of passengers (when it negotiates the curve or stops at
the curve in case of emergency)
with some eccentricity factor of safety of center of mass of the
train, should be limited to some value
On any curve there is always unbalanced superelevation.
Safety factor,
Let = 2 :
When:
e=0, n=, absolute stable state;
= 1 2, n=1, critical stable state;
> 1 2, n<1, overturns due to
loss of stability;
< 1 2, n>1, stable state, the
greater the value of n, the stable
will be the cars. 11

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 Maximum allowable superelevation
Safety Requirement
Similarity of Triangle:

= = =


= =


(safety factor)

H- height of the center gravity of the car above
rail surface
Example: if H is 2220mm for freight trains and 2057.5mm for
Passenger trains. And n=3, then the superelevation to ensure safety:

= = . (freight train)


= , =218 mm (passenger train)
.
Riding comfort:
When train stop on the curved track with superelevation 200 mm.
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Vehicle dynamics at Maximum Speed

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 Maximum allowable superelevation- AREMA Calculation

Equilibrium cant
= 0.0007 2

Source: AREMA

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 Unbalanced Superelevation
Due to speeds up and down trains
On any curved track, once the superelevation is
fixed on the basis of average speed, it is
unalterable.
But the actual speed of the trains may be either
greater or smaller than its average value
It will not match with the superelevation and will
unavoidably give rise to the unbalanced centrifugal
acceleration.
Deficient Superelevation; (overbalance)
2

= 11.8

Surplus Superelevation: (underbalance)
2

= 11.8

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 Deficient superelevation
On lines for mixed service
In general condition, 70 mm
In difficult condition, 90 mm,
In existed line, 110 mm
On lines for passenger traffic

Surplus superelevation
Mixed Line:
For general condition (30 mm), difficult condition, 50 mm
Passenger Line: Allowable max. deficient cant (mm)
Condition well good general Difficult

hs 10-15 20 30 50
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 Minimum Radius of Curve
The maximum speed at equilibrium Cant
V - speed of trainkm/h
hR h - elevation of outer railmm
V
11.8 R - curve radius m

The maximum speed allowed on curve V

hmax hq R
11.8

The minimum speed allowed on curve

Generally, the maximum permissible value of cant:

125mm for single trackand 150mm for double track.
Inadequate superelevation, 70mm for ordinary district and 90mm
for hard district.
170mm 180mm for passenger lines 17
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 Exercise 2

For a standard gauge track, minimum plane curve radius of

1000m, and equilibrium cant of 150mm.
a) Calculate the maximum speed if the allowable
maximum deficiency is 80mm.
b) Calculate the allowable minimum cant if the excess
cant is 30mm.
c) Calculate the maximum cant deficiency if the gauge
is broaden to 1670mm.
 Maximum Radius
Limit Conditions
After laying out and maintenance, the tracks precision shall meet the
requirements for running safety and riding comfort
Influenced factors
track regularity
Running speed
Running safety
The maintenance of track regularity is dependent on laying out for
a new construction line, and track state detection and repair for a
existed line.
Curve versine is proportion to the square of chord, and is in
inverse proportion to the curve radius, that is
Where, f Curve versine (mm)
l chord (m)
R circle curve radius (m)
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 Maximum Radius
When radius is larger than 8000m, the curve versine is very
small, then to maintain the surveying and maintenance
precision become very difficult which become hidden trouble
of track irregularity.
Practices (Japan, France and Germany) that on curve section, it
is necessary to set a basic control stake per 10 meter along the
line.
The maximum allowable error is 1mm.
The allowable maximum radius is 12000m for HS
For line of mixed service not larger than 10000m under general
condition, or 12000m under difficult condition for line of
passenger traffic,
In special difficult condition, it shall be not larger than 14000m.

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 Easement Curve
Characteristics of Easement Curve
Its curve radius decreased gradually from the infinite to circular
curve radius R, or on the contrary;
While running, the centrifugal force of train is gradually added
or gradually reduced;
The widen value of track gauge is also gradually added or
gradually reduced;
And so as to the elevation of outer rail.

easement
curve
circular
curve
outer rail
inner rail
(a) Without easement curve (b) With easement curve
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 Easement curve

Cubic Spiral coordinate Equations

Y - ordinate, m
X - abscissa, m
R - circular curve radius, m
Lo - easement curve length, m
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 Length of Easement Curve
The length of transition spiral is influenced by many factors-
the safety requirements of train operation
comfort requirement of passengers
1. According to the diminishing gradient of Cant:
the inside wheel which is impending cant climb up the rail.
point of outside If h and i0 are known, so :
h wheel
h
i0
L h
0
L
0
(m)
i k min i 0

point of inside 0
L max

wheel
To ensure the safety against
derailment, the slope of the
straight superelevation run-in
should not exceed 2.
=> = 2 ()
Kmin- the minimum height of wheel(mm);
Lmax- the maximum wheelbase(mm);
I0 -gradient of superelevation, usually 2;
L0 length of easement curve (m);
h superelevation (mm) .
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 Length of Spiral - Comfort requirement

2. According to the comfort level of passengers

wheels speed of up and down cannot be too fast.

h h Vmax
f (mm / s)
Where,
L0 Vmax 3.6 L0 f () speed of wheel
h Vmax L0 length of easement curve (m);
L0 3.6f
( m) h superelevation(mm) .

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 Length of Spiral - Comfort requirement
The rate of rise of the wheels on the outer rail is calculated as follows,

Where, --superelevation on circular curves, mm;

--maximum train speed, km/h;
02 --length of spiral, m
1
3.6conversion factor.

According to the long term practice in China, = 28 ~ 46 mm/sec

Under extra-ordinarily difficult Under ordinary conditions
conditions

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 Length of Spiral
Attentions :
Use the two methods to work out L0 , chose the bigger one
Length of L0 is usually between 20-150m.
The calculated length of the spiral should be also rounded to
multiples of 10 m.

Minimum circular arc length between spiral

The lengths of the circular arc between two transition curves

shall meet the comfort and safety condition, thus is

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 Spiral length Criteria (AREMA)
1. Comfort and smoothness (subjectively derived)
Ls = 1.17eaV up to 60 MPH
Ls = 1.26eaV 60-80 MPH
Ls = 1.30eaV > 80 MPH
For light rail operations; Ls = 1.13eaV
For HSR
Ls > 82.7ea for 60 < V < 125 MPH
Ls > 124ea for V > 125 MPH

2. Based on lateral acceleration

Ls = 1.63euV
3. Min length to prevent car warp/twist
Ls = 62ea Where, Ls = Length of spiral, ft
ea = actual superelevation, in
V = speed, MPH
eu = unbalanced cant, in
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Mequanent M.
 Exercise 3

The permissible running speed of the train at the curved

section with maximum curvature of 0.001 is 120 km/hr. If the
maximum cant gradient is limited to 1 to 500, Calculate the
length of spiral curve if the rate of cant is 30mm/s.

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 Principles of straight Line
Principles for straight line location
Selection of straight line position shall based on comprehensive
study of straight and curve on considering topographic conditions
In order to shorten distance, improve operation conditions, the
alignment shall be laid out longer straight line and reduce
intersection points.
Selection of straight position shall do all to reduce angle of
intersection point. A bigger angle or sharper curve will have a
longer distance of line, which lead to more curve resistances and
operation expenditure.
Merits:
- short distance, fast arrival, simple wheel rail force, and easy survey
Demerits:
- difficult topography to fit long straight line
- difficult to detour unfavorable geologic bodies and existed facilities.
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 Principles of straight Line

Straight lines shall be to reduce intersections, based on

topography
Intermediate straight line /b/n two adjacent curves
Track maintenance requirement (2-3 standard rail), orient
maintaining machine
prevent lateral swing of train-safety and comfort, to avoid
vibration
To reduce curve resistance which can be caused by angle on per
ton of train weight can be computed with the following formula:

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 Minimum length intermediate straight line
To ensure the lateral swaying of train shall not influence train
smooth-going
Vibration of rolling stock shall not affect riding comfort

= , , +
. .
Where,
t z = disappear time of spring vibration, (s)
n = number of cycles of truck vibration disappearing, take 1.52.0
T=cycles of car vibration, (s): (1.01.5 s)
Vmax = Design speed (km/h);
Lq = total wheel base of passenger car.

Let = then = + ()
3.6
Consider car isnt a rigid body, =0, then = ()
is a coefficient with time dimension, it can be determined according to
construction conditions, takes as 0.8 (general condition) and 0.5 (difficult
conditions)
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 Same direction adjacent curve, reverse curve & intermediate
straight line

two same directional curves are called

same direction adjacent curve;
two adverse directional curves are called
reverse curve;
The line between them is called
intermediate straight line.
The length of intermediate Straight line
Rail Ordinary Hard
level district district
80 40
60 30
50 25

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 Curve Widening
Reasons for widening
1) Geometry deviation of car from center of track
Where: R - radius of curve, m
L- the length of a car body
Z- distance between bogie
pivot centers

( 1 )2 +( 2)2 = 2
2
2 22 + 12 = 2 , 1 =
8
( 2)2 +[ 1 + 2 ]2 = 2
2 + 2 2 + + + 2 = 2
4 1 2 1 2
1 2
2 ( 2 )
8
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 Distance widening in curve sections
Example: The maximum length of standard car body get L26
m, distance between bogie pivot centers is Z get Z18 m, then

2) Deviation of car body caused by Superelevation

H- height of calculated point

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 value of widening calculation
1. If superelevation of outer curve (hW) is smaller than or equal
to that of inside curve hN, the widening value of distance
between centers of curve as follows:

2. If superelevation of outer curve (hW) is larger than that of

inside curve hN, the widening value of distance between
centers of curve as follows:

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 Method to widen
1) lengthen the transition spiral of inside curve

2) widen the distance of centers of lines D in straight line

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