Master Steel

ESDEP Course
ESDEP Course
WG 1A : STEEL CONSTRUCTION: ECONOMIC & COMMERCIAL FACTORS
WG 1B : STEEL CONSTRUCTION: INTRODUCTION TO DESIGN
WG 2 : APPLIED METALLURGY
WG 3 : FABRICATION AND ERECTION
WG 4A : PROTECTION: CORROSION
WG 4B : PROTECTION: FIRE
WG 5 : COMPUTER AIDED DESIGN AND MANUFACTURE
WG 6 : APPLIED STABILITY
WG 7 : ELEMENTS
WG 8 : PLATES AND SHELLS
WG 9 : THIN-WALLED CONSTRUCTION
WG 10 : COMPOSITE CONSTRUCTION
WG 11 : CONNECTION DESIGN: STATIC LOADING
WG 12 : FATIGUE
WG 13 : TUBULAR STRUCTURES
WG 14 : STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS: BUILDINGS
WG 15A : STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS: OFFSHORE
WG 15B : STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS: BRIDGES
http://www.fgg.uni-lj.si/kmk/esdep/master/toc.htm (1 of 2) [17.07.2010 09:52:11]

ESDEP Course
WG 15C : STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS: MISCELLANEOUS
WG 16 : STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS: REFURBISHMENT
WG 17 : SEISMIC DESIGN
WG 18 : STAINLESS STEEL
http://www.fgg.uni-lj.si/kmk/esdep/master/toc.htm (2 of 2) [17.07.2010 09:52:11]

Course Contents
Course Contents
STEEL CONSTRUCTION: ECONOMIC &

COMMERCIAL FACTORS
Lecture 1A.1 : Introduction to Steel's Role in Construction in Europe
Lecture 1A.2 : Steelmaking and Steel Products
Lecture 1A.3 : Introduction to Structural Steel Costs
Lecture 1A.4 : The European Building Market
http://www.fgg.uni-lj.si/kmk/esdep/master/wg01a/toc.htm [17.07.2010 09:52:11]

Course Contents
Course Contents
STEEL CONSTRUCTION: INTRODUCTION TO

DESIGN
Lecture 1B.1 : Process of Design
Lecture 1B.2.1 : Design Philosophies
Lecture 1B.2.2 : Limit State Design Philosophy and Partial Safety Factors
Lecture 1B.3 : Background to Loadings
Lecture 1B.4.1 : Historical Development of Iron and Steel in Structures
Lecture 1B.4.2 : Historical Development of Steelwork Design
Lecture 1B.4.3 : Historical Development of Iron and Steel in Buildings
Lecture 1B.4.4 : Historical Development of Iron and Steel in Bridges
Lecture 1B.5.1 : Introduction to the Design of Simple Industrial Buildings
Lecture 1B.5.2 : Introduction to the Design of Special Industrial Buildings
Lecture 1B.6.1 : Introduction to the Design of Steel and Composite Bridges: Part 1
Lecture 1B.6.2 : Introduction to the Design of Steel and Composite Bridges: Part 2
Lecture 1B.7.1 : Introduction to the Design of Multi-Storey Buildings: Part 1
Lecture 1B.7.2 : Introduction to the Design of Multi-Storey Buildings: Part 2
Lecture 1B.8 : Learning from Failures
http://www.fgg.uni-lj.si/kmk/esdep/master/wg01b/toc.htm [17.07.2010 09:52:12]

Course Contents
Course Contents
APPLIED METALLURGY
Lecture 2.1 : Characteristics of Iron-Carbon Alloys
Lecture 2.2 : Manufacturing and Forming Processes
Lecture 2.3.1 : Introduction to the Engineering Properties of Steels
Lecture 2.3.2 : Advanced Engineering Properties of Steels
Lecture 2.4 : Steel Grades and Qualities
Lecture 2.5 : Selection of Steel Quality
Lecture 2.6 : Weldability of Structural Steels
http://www.fgg.uni-lj.si/kmk/esdep/master/wg02/toc.htm [17.07.2010 09:52:13]

Course Contents
Course Contents
FABRICATION AND ERECTION
Lecture 3.1.1 : General Fabrication of Steel Structures I
Lecture 3.1.2 : General Fabrication of Steel Structures II
Lecture 3.2.1 : Erection I
Lecture 3.2.2 : Erection II
Lecture 3.2.3 : Erection III
Lecture 3.3 : Principles of Welding
Lecture 3.4 : Welding Processes
Lecture 3.5 : Fabrication/Erection of Buildings
Lecture 3.6 : Inspection/Quality Assurance

Course Contents
Course Contents
PROTECTION: CORROSION
Lecture 4A.1 : General Corrosion
Lecture 4A.2 : Factors Governing Protection of Steelwork
Lecture 4A.3 : Practical Corrosion Protection for Buildings
Lecture 4A.4 : Corrosion Protection of Bridges
Lecture 4A.5 : Corrosion in Offshore and Sheet Piling

Course Contents
Course Contents
PROTECTION: FIRE
Lecture 4B.1 : Introduction to Fire Safety
Lecture 4B.2 : Background to Thermal Analysis
Lecture 4B.3 : Background to Structural (Mechanical Fire) Analysis
Lecture 4B.4 : Practical Ways of Achieving Fire Resistance of Steel Structures
Lecture 4B.5 : Calculation Examples

Course Contents
Course Contents
COMPUTER AIDED DESIGN AND

MANUFACTURE
Lecture 5.1 : Introduction to Computer Aided Design & Manufacture
Lecture 5.2 : The Future Development of Information Systems for Steel Construction

Course Contents
Course Contents
APPLIED STABILITY
Lecture 6.1 : Concepts of Stable and Unstable Elastic Equilibrium
Lecture 6.2 : General Criteria for Elastic Stability
Lecture 6.3 : Elastic Instability Modes
Lecture 6.4 : General Methods for Assessing Critical Loads
Lecture 6.5 : Iterative Methods for Solving Stability Problems
Lecture 6.6.1 : Buckling of Real Structural Elements I
Lecture 6.6.2 : Buckling of Real Structural Elements II

Course Contents
Course Contents
ELEMENTS
Lecture 7.1 : Methods of Analysis of Steel Structures
Lecture 7.2 : Cross-Section Classification
Lecture 7.3 : Local Buckling
Lecture 7.4.1 : Tension Members I
Lecture 7.4.2 : Tension Members II
Lecture 7.5.1 : Columns I
Lecture 7.5.2 : Columns II
Lecture 7.6 : Built-up Columns
Lecture 7.7 : Buckling Lengths
Lecture 7.8.1 : Restrained Beams I
Lecture 7.8.2 : Restrained Beams II
Lecture 7.9.1 : Unrestrained Beams I
Lecture 7.9.2 : Unrestrained Beams II
Lecture 7.10.1 : Beam Columns I
Lecture 7.10.2 : Beam Columns II
Lecture 7.10.3 : Beam Columns III
Lecture 7.11 : Frames
http://www.fgg.uni-lj.si/kmk/esdep/master/wg07/toc.htm (1 of 2) [17.07.2010 09:52:16]

Course Contents
Lecture 7.12 : Trusses and Lattice Girders
http://www.fgg.uni-lj.si/kmk/esdep/master/wg07/toc.htm (2 of 2) [17.07.2010 09:52:16]

Course Contents
Course Contents
PLATES AND SHELLS
Lecture 8.1 : Introduction to Plate Behaviour and Design
Lecture 8.2 : Behaviour and Design of Unstiffened Plates
Lecture 8.3 : Behaviour and Design of Stiffened Plates
Lecture 8.4.1 : Plate Girder Behaviour and Design I
Lecture 8.4.2 : Plate Girder Behaviour and Design II
Lecture 8.4.3 : Plate Girder Design - Special Topics
Lecture 8.5.1 : Introduction to Design of Box Girders
Lecture 8.5.2 : Advanced Design of Box Girders
Lecture 8.6 : Introduction to Shell Structures
Lecture 8.7 : Basic Analysis of Shell Structures
Lecture 8.8 : Design of Unstiffened Cylinders
Lecture 8.9 : Design of Stringer-Stiffened Cylindrical Shells

Course Contents
Course Contents
THIN-WALLED CONSTRUCTION
Lecture 9.1 : Thin-Walled Members and Sheeting
Lecture 9.2 : Design Procedures for Columns
Lecture 9.3 : Design Procedures for Beams
Lecture 9.4 : Design Procedures for Sheeting
Lecture 9.5 : Stressed Skin Design
Lecture 9.6 : Connections in Thin-Walled Construction
Lecture 9.7 : Application of Thin-Walled Construction

Course Contents
Course Contents
COMPOSITE CONSTRUCTION
Lecture 10.1 : Composite Construction - General
Lecture 10.2 : The Behaviour of Beams
Lecture 10.3 : Single Span Beams
Lecture 10.4.1 : Continuous Beams I
Lecture 10.4.2 : Continuous Beams II
Lecture 10.5.1 : Design for Serviceability I
Lecture 10.5.2 : Design for Serviceability - II
Lecture 10.6.1 : Shear Connection 1
Lecture 10.6.2 : Shear Connection II
Lecture 10.6.3 : Shear Connection III
Lecture 10.7 : Composite Slabs
Lecture 10.8.1 : Composite Columns I
Lecture 10.8.2 : Composite Columns II
Lecture 10.9 : Composite Buildings
Lecture 10.10 : Composite Bridges

Course Contents
Course Contents
CONNECTION DESIGN: STATIC LOADING
Lecture 11.1.1 : Connections in Buildings
Lecture 11.1.2 : Introduction to Connection Design
Lecture 11.2.1 : Generalities on Welded Connections
Lecture 11.2.2 : Welded Connections - Basis for Weld Calculation
Lecture 11.2.3 : Welded Connections - Applications of Fillet Weld Calculation
Lecture 11.3.1 : Connections with Non-Preloaded Bolts
Lecture 11.3.2 : Connections with Preloaded Bolts
Lecture 11.3.3 : Particular Aspects in Bolted Connections
Lecture 11.4.1 : Analysis of Connections I: Basic Determination of Forces
Lecture 11.4.2 : Analysis of Connections: Distribution of Forces in Groups of Bolts and Welds
Lecture 11.4.3 : Analysis of Connections: Transfer of Direct Tension or Compression and Shear
Lecture 11.4.4 : Analysis of Connections: Resistance to Moment by Combined Tension and

Compression
Lecture 11.5 : Simple Connections for Buildings
Lecture 11.6 : Moment Connections for Continuous Framing
Lecture 11.7 : Partial Strength Connections for Semi-Continuous Framing
Lecture 11.8 : Splices in Buildings

Course Contents
Course Contents
WG 12 : FATIGUE
Lecture 12.1 : Basic Introduction to Fatigue
Lecture 12.2 : Advanced Introduction to Fatigue
Lecture 12.3 : Effect of Workmanship on Fatigue Strength of Longitudinal and Transverse Welds
Lecture 12.4.1 : Fatigue Behaviour of Hollow Section Joints (I)
Lecture 12.4.2 : Fatigue Behaviour of Hollow Section Joints II
Lecture 12.5 : Improvement Techniques in Welded Joints
Lecture 12.6 : Fatigue Behaviour of Bolted Connections
Lecture 12.7 : Reliability Analysis and Safety Factors Applied to Fatigue Design
Lecture 12.8 : Basic Fatigue Design Concepts in Eurocode3
Lecture 12.9 : Eurocode 3 Classification of Constructional Details
Lecture 12.10 : Basics of Fracture Mechanics
Lecture 12.11 : Stress Analysis of Cracked Bodies
Lecture 12.12 : Determination of Stress Intensity Factors
Lecture 12.13 : Fracture Mechanics Applied to Fatigue
Lecture 12.14 : Fracture Mechanics: Structural Engineering Applications
Lecture 12.15 : Fracture Mechanics Applied to Fitness for Purpose

Course Contents
Course Contents
WG 13 : TUBULAR STRUCTURES
Lecture 13.1 : Application of Hollow Sections in Steel Structures
Lecture 13.2 : The Behaviour and Design of Welded Connections between Circular Hollow Sections
under Predominantly Static Loading
Lecture 13.3 : The Behaviour and Design of Welded Connections between Rectangular Hollow
Sections Under Predominantly Static Loading

Course Contents
Course Contents
WG 14 : STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS: BUILDINGS
Lecture 14.1.1 : Single- Storey Buildings: Introduction and Primary Structure
Lecture 14.1.2 : Single Storey Buildings: Envelope and Secondary Structure
Lecture 14.2 : Analysis of Portal Frames: Introduction and Elastic Analysis
Lecture 14.3 : Analysis of Portal Frames: Plastic Analysis
Lecture 14.4 : Crane Runway Girders
Lecture 14.5 : Space Structure Systems
Lecture 14.6 : Special Single Storey Structures
Lecture 14.7 : Anatomy of Multi-Storey Buildings
Lecture 14.8 : Classification of Multi-Storey Frames
Lecture 14.9 : Methods of Analysis for Multi-Storey Frames
Lecture 14.10 : Simple Braced Non-Sway Multi-Storey Buildings
Lecture 14.11 : Influence of Connections on Behaviour of Frames
Lecture 14.12 : Simplified Method of Design for Low-Rise Frames
Lecture 14.13 : Design of Multi-Storey Frames with Partial Strength and Semi-Rigid Connections
Lecture 14.14 : Methods of Analysis of Rigid Jointed Frames
Lecture 14.15 : Tall Building Design

Course Contents
Course Contents
WG 15A : STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS: OFFSHORE
Lecture 15A.1 : Offshore Structures: General Introduction
Lecture 15A.2 : Loads (I) : Introduction and Environmental Loads
Lecture 15A.3 : Loads (II) - Other Loads
Lecture 15A.4 : - Analysis I
Lecture 15A.5 : - Analysis II
Lecture 15A.6 : Foundations
Lecture 15A.7 : Tubular Joints in Offshore Structures
Lecture 15A.8 : Fabrication
Lecture 15A.9 : Installation
Lecture 15A.10 : Superstructures I
Lecture 15A.11 : - Superstructures II
Lecture 15A.12 : Connections in Offshore Deck Structures

Course Contents
Course Contents
WG 15B : STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS: BRIDGES
Lecture 15B.1 : Conceptual Choice
Lecture 15B.2 : Actions on Bridges
Lecture 15B.3 : Bridge Decks
Lecture 15B.4 : Plate Girder and Beam Bridges
Lecture 15B.5 : Truss Bridges
Lecture 15B.6 : Box Girder Bridges
Lecture 15B.7 : Arch Bridges
Lecture 15B.8 : Cable Stayed Bridges
Lecture 15B.9 : Suspension Bridges
Lecture 15B.10 : Bridge Equipment
Lecture 15B.11 : Splices and other Connections in Bridges
Lecture 15B.12 : Introduction to Bridge Construction

Course Contents
Course Contents
WG 15C : STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS:

MISCELLANEOUS
Lecture 15C.1 : Design of Tanks for the Storage of Oil and Water
Lecture 15C.2 : Structural Design of Bins
Lecture 15C.3 : Lattice Towers and Masts
Lecture 15C.4 : Guyed Masts
Lecture 15C.5 : Chimneys
http://www.fgg.uni-lj.si/kmk/esdep/master/wg15c/toc.htm [17.07.2010 09:52:21]

Course Contents
Course Contents
WG 16 : STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS:
REFURBISHMENT
Lecture 16.1 : Strengthening of Structures
Lecture 16.2 : Transformation and Repair
Lecture 16.3 : Re-use of Buildings
Lecture 16.4 : Traditional Residual Life Assessment for Bridges
Lecture 16.5 : Refurbishment of Bridges: New Approaches

Course Contents
Course Contents
WG 17 : SEISMIC DESIGN
Lecture 17.1 : An Overall View of the Seismic Behaviour of Structural Systems
Lecture 17.2 : Introduction to Seismic Design - Seismic Hazard and Seismic Risk
Lecture 17.3 : The Cyclic Behaviour of Steel Elements and Connections
Lecture 17.4 : Structural Analysis for Seismic Actions
Lecture 17.5 : Requirements and Verification of Seismic Resistant Structures
Lecture 17.6 : Special Topics

Course Contents
Course Contents
WG 18 : STAINLESS STEEL
Lecture 18.1 : Introduction to Stainless Steel
Lecture 18.2 : Structural Behaviour and Design
Lecture 18.3 : Corrosion of Stainless Steel
Lecture 18.4 : Fabrication

Workgroup Contents
Workgroup Contents
Lecture 1A.1 : Introduction to Steel's Role in

Construction in Europe
Top
1. INTRODUCTION
2. DEVELOPMENTS IN PRODUCTION AND DESIGN
2.1 Steel Production
2.2 Range of Steels
2.3 Design
2.4 Fabrication
3. ADVANTAGES OF STEEL
3.1 Speed of Execution
3.2 Lightness, Stiffness and Strength
3.3 Adaptability of Usage of Steel Frames for Refurbishment
3.4 Quality
4. THE FUTURE FOR STEEL: FURTHER DEVELOPMENTS
5. THE FUTURE FOR STEEL: TRAINING AND ESDEP
6. CONCLUDING SUMMARY
7. REFERENCES
http://www.fgg.uni-lj.si/kmk/esdep/master/wg01a/t0100.htm [17.07.2010 09:52:24]

Workgroup Contents
Workgroup Contents
Lecture 1A.2 : Steelmaking and Steel Products
Top
1. A BRIEF HISTORICAL ACCOUNT OF STEELMAKING
2. STEELMAKING TODAY (PERFORMANCE AND OUTPUT)
3. STEELMAKING IN THE WORLD AND IN EUROPE
3.1 Production
3.1.1 World production
3.1.2 International trade
3.2 Consumption
3.3 Steelmaking and the Environment
4. HOW IS STEEL PRODUCED?
4.1 General
4.2 Steelmaking
5. EUROPEAN STANDARDIZATION OF STEEL PRODUCTS
5.1 Standardization Process
5.1.1 The establishment of European Norms within member states for

steel products
5.2 Contents of the Euronorms (EN) for Steel
http://www.fgg.uni-lj.si/kmk/esdep/master/wg01a/t0200.htm (1 of 2) [17.07.2010 09:52:24]

Workgroup Contents
6. STEEL IN CIVIL ENGINEERING AND BUILDING ACTIVITIES
6.1 Steel in Construction

Workgroup Contents
Workgroup Contents
Lecture 1A.3 : Introduction to Structural Steel Costs
Top
1. INTRODUCTION
2. LIFE CYCLE COSTS
2.1 Attitude
2.2 Cost Elements
2.3 Energy Costs
2.4 Maintenance
2.5 ADAPTABILITY
2.6 Benefits and Financial Return
2.7 End of Life Costs
3. TOTAL CONSTRUCTION
3.1 Typical Breakdown of Costs and Interactions
3.3 Weather
3.4 Services, Cladding and Structure
3.5 Foundations
4. STEELWORK COSTS

Workgroup Contents
4.1 Erection
4.2 Fabrication
4.3 Corrosion and Fire Protection
6. ADDITIONAL READING

Workgroup Contents
Workgroup Contents
Lecture 1A.4 : The European Building Market
Top
1. INTRODUCTION
2. CURRENT SITUATION
3. LEGISLATIVE FRAMEWORK AND TIMETABLE FOR HARMONISATION
4. THE ROLE AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE EUROCODES
5. THE CE MARK
6. THE FUTURE FOR CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNIFIED EUROPEAN MARKET
ANNEX A: QUESTIONNAIRE - BUILDING

PROCUREMENT IN EUROPE
Austria
1. INTRODUCTION
2. CONTROLS
3. CONTRACTS
4. MAIN METHODS OF PROCUREMENT
5. RESPONSIBILITIES
6. INSURANCE AND GUARANTEES

Workgroup Contents
7. FUTURE IMPROVEMENTS
Belgium
1. INTRODUCTION
2. CONTROLS
3. CONTRACTS
5. LIABILITIES
Finland
1. INTRODUCTION
2. CONTROLS
3. CONTRACTS
5. RESPONSIBILITIES
France
1. INTRODUCTION
2. INSPECTIONS
3. CONTRACT
4. MAIN METHODS OF OBTAINING CONTRACTS
5. RESPONSIBILITIES

Workgroup Contents
7. FUTURE CHANGES
Germany
1. INTRODUCTION
2. CONTROLS
3. CONTRACTS
4. METHODS OF PROCUREMENT
5. RESPONSIBILITIES
Greece
1. INTRODUCTION
2. CONTROLS
3. CONTRACTS
5. RESPONSIBILITIES
Ireland
1. INTRODUCTION

Workgroup Contents
2. CONTROLS
3. CONTRACTS
5. RESPONSIBILITIES
7. FUTURE DEVELOPMENTS
Italy
1. INTRODUCTION
2. CONTROLS
4. RESPONSIBILITIES
Luxembourg
1. CONTROLS
2. CONTRACTS
4. RESPONSIBILITIES
Spain

Workgroup Contents
Sweden
1. INTRODUCTION
2. CONTROLS
3. CONTRACTS
4. RESPONSIBILITIES
United Kingdom
1. INTRODUCTION
2. CONTROLS
3. CONTRACTS
5. RESPONSIBILITIES

Workgroup Contents
Workgroup Contents
Top
1. DESIGN OBJECTIVES
2. HOW DOES THE DESIGNER APPROACH HIS NEW TASK?
3. HOW DOES THE DESIGNER DEVELOP HIS STRUCTURAL SYSTEM?
3.1 Pose an Initial Concept that may well Satisfy the Functions
3.2 Recognise the Main Structural Systems and Contemplate the Necessary Strength
and Stiffness
3.3 Assess Loads Accurately and Estimate Sizes of Main Elements
3.4 Full Structural Analysis, using Estimated Element Sizes with Suitable Modelling of
Joints, Related to Actual Details
3.5 Communicate Design Intentions through Drawings and Specifications
3.6 Supervise the Execution Operation
3.7 Conduct Regular Maintenance
3.8 Differences of Emphasis in Design Approach Compared to that of a Medium Sized

Building
3.8.1 Single houses
3.8.2 Bridges
3.8.3 Offshore oil rigs
http://www.fgg.uni-lj.si/kmk/esdep/master/wg01b/t0100.htm (1 of 2) [17.07.2010 09:52:26]

Workgroup Contents
5. REFERENCES

Workgroup Contents
Workgroup Contents
Top
1. INTRODUCTION
2. UNCERTAINTIES IN STRUCTURAL DESIGN
3. DESIGNING TO AVOID COLLAPSE
3.1 Historical Background
3.2 Stability
3.3 Robustness
4. OTHER DESIGN OBJECTIVES
4.1 Deformation
4.2 Vibration
4.3 Fire Resistance
4.4 Fatigue
4.5 Execution
4.6 Maintenance
5. DESIGN RESPONSIBILITIES
7. REFERENCES
http://www.fgg.uni-lj.si/kmk/esdep/master/wg01b/t0210.htm [17.07.2010 09:52:27]

Workgroup Contents
Workgroup Contents
Lecture 1B.2.2 : Limit State Design Philosophy and

Partial Safety Factors
Top
1. INTRODUCTION
2. PRINCIPLES OF LIMIT STATE DESIGN
3. ACTIONS
3.1 Characteristic Values of Actions (Gk, Qk and Ak)
3.2 Design Values of Actions (Gd, Qd and Ad)
4. MATERIAL PROPERTIES
4.1 Characteristic Values of Material Properties
4.2 Design Values of Material Properties
5. GEOMETRICAL DATA
6. PARTIAL SAFETY FACTORS
7. ULTIMATE LIMIT STATE
8. SERVICEABILITY LIMIT STATE
8.1 Deflections
8.2 Dynamic Effects
9. STRUCTURAL DESIGN MODELS

Workgroup Contents
11. GLOSSARY
12. REFERENCES

Workgroup Contents
Workgroup Contents
Top
1. INTRODUCTION
2. PERMANENT ACTIONS
2.1 Dead Loads
3. VARIABLE ACTIONS
3.1 Imposed Loads
3.2 Permitted Reductions in Imposed Load
3.3 Superimposed Bridge Loads
3.4 Crane Loads
3.5 Environmental Loads
3.6 Wind Loads
3.7 Snow Loads
3.8 Wave Loading
3.9 Temperature Effects
3.10 Retained Material
3.11 Seismic Loads
3.12 Accidental Loads

Workgroup Contents
5. REFERENCES

Workgroup Contents
Workgroup Contents
Lecture 1B.4.1 : Historical Development of Iron and

Steel in Structures
Top
1. PROPERTIES OF THE THREE FERROUS METALS: CAST IRON, WROUGHT IRON AND
STEEL
2. EVOLUTION OF FERROUS METALS
2.1 Blacksmith's Wrought Iron
2.2 Molten or Cast Iron
2.3 Industrialised Wrought Iron
2.4 Steel
3. ACHIEVEMENTS WITH STRUCTURAL IRON & STEEL
4. THE PERIOD OF CAST IRON (1780-1850)
4.1 Cast Iron Arched Bridges
4.2 Cast Iron in Buildings
4.3 Composite Cast and Wrought Iron in Building
4.4 Suspension Bridges
5 THE WROUGHT IRON PERIOD (1850-1900)
5.1 Wrought Iron in Bridges
5.2 Wrought Iron in Buildings

Workgroup Contents
6 THE STEEL PERIOD (1880-PRESENT DAY)
7. PRESENT TECHNIQUES AND FUTURE PROSPECTS

Workgroup Contents
Workgroup Contents
Lecture 1B.4.2 : Historical Development of Steelwork

Design
Top
1. HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF STEELWORK DESIGN: STATE OF STRUCTURAL

KNOWLEDGE IN THE 18TH CENTURY AND BEFORE
2. STATE OF STRUCTURAL KNOWLEDGE IN BRITAIN IN THE EARLY 19TH CENTURY
3. UNDERSTANDING OF TIMBER IN THE EARLY 19TH CENTURY
4. UNDERSTANDING OF CAST IRON IN THE EARLY 19TH CENTURY
5. UNDERSTANDING OF WROUGHT IRON IN THE EARLY 19TH CENTURY
6. THE YEARS OF TESTING 1820-1850
7. TERMINOLOGY: STRAIN, STRESS, COHESION, ETC.
8. STRUCTURAL DESIGN BETWEEN 1850 AND 1900
9. POSTSCRIPT ON THE 20TH CENTURY

Workgroup Contents
Workgroup Contents

Steel in Buildings
Top
1. INTRODUCTION
2. EARLY STRUCTURAL USES OF IRON IN BUILDINGS
3. INDUSTRIAL BUILDINGS AND MILLS
4. LONG SPAN ROOFS
5. MULTI-STOREY BUILDING FRAMES
5.1 Floor Construction
5.2 Beams and Columns
5.3 Frame Construction
5.4 Wind Braced Structures
6. DEVELOPMENTS IN DESIGN FOR STEEL FRAMED BUILDINGS

Workgroup Contents
Workgroup Contents

Steel in Bridges
Top
1. INTRODUCTION
2. ARCH BRIDGES
3. BEAM STRUCTURES INCLUDING TRUSSES AND PLATE/BOX GIRDER BRIDGES
4. SUSPENSION BRIDGES

Workgroup Contents
Workgroup Contents
Lecture 1B.5.1 : Introduction to the Design of Simple

Industrial Buildings
Top
1. TYPES OF INDUSTRIAL BUILDING
2. STRUCTURAL STEEL FOR INDUSTRIAL BUILDINGS
3. CHOICE OF INDUSTRIAL BUILDING
4. SHAPES OF INDUSTRIAL BUILDINGS
5. STABILITY OF INDUSTRIAL BUILDINGS
6. GLOBAL ANALYSIS

Workgroup Contents
Workgroup Contents
Lecture 1B.5.2 : Introduction to the Design of Special

Industrial Buildings
Top
1. TYPES OF SPECIAL INDUSTRIAL BUILDINGS
2. HANDLING METHODS
3. DAYLIGHTING
4. SERVICES
5. SPECIAL ROOF LOADING
6. MAINTENANCE
7. FIRE PROTECTION
8. SOME EXAMPLES OF SPECIAL BUILDINGS
8.1 Coal-Fired Power Stations
8.2 Aircraft Maintenance Hangar
8.3 Milk Powder Plant
8.4 Industrial Complex

Workgroup Contents
Workgroup Contents
Lecture 1B.6.1 : Introduction to the Design of Steel

and Composite Bridges: Part 1
Top
1. FUNDAMENTALS
2. THE SUBSTRUCTURE
3. INTRODUCTION TO THE SUPERSTRUCTURE
4. STEEL BRIDGES
4.1 General Aspects
4.2 Deck Systems
5. PLATE GIRDER BRIDGES
6. TRUSS GIRDER BRIDGES
7. BOX GIRDER BRIDGES
9. REFERENCES

Workgroup Contents
Workgroup Contents
Lecture 1B.6.2 : Introduction to the Design of Steel

and Composite Bridges: Part 2
Top
1. INTRODUCTION
2. FOOTBRIDGES
3. MOVING BRIDGES
3.1 General
3.2 Bascule Bridges
3.3 Swing Bridges
3.4 Lift Bridges
3.5 Other Types of Moving Bridge
4. SERVICE BRIDGES
5. GUIDANCE ON INITIAL DESIGN
5.1 Selection of Bridge Form
5.2 Selection of Span

Workgroup Contents
Workgroup Contents
Lecture 1B.7.1 : Introduction to the Design of Multi-

Storey Buildings: Part 1
Top
1. INTRODUCTION
2. THE STRUCTURAL SCHEME
3. COLUMNS
4. BEAMS
5. FLOOR STRUCTURES
6. BRACING
7. STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS
8. DESIGN REQUIREMENTS

Workgroup Contents
Workgroup Contents
Lecture 1B.7.2 : Introduction to the Design of Multi-

Storey Buildings: Part 2
Top
1. INTRODUCTION
2. FROM MULTI-STOREY TO HIGH-RISE BUILDINGS
3. THE MAIN FEATURES OF LOW-RISE STEEL BUILDINGS
4. STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS FOR HIGH-RISE BUILDINGS
5. CALCULATION MODELS
5.1 Basic Assumptions
5.2 The Pin-Ended Structure
5.3 The Truss Bracing
6. SEISMIC REQUIREMENTS OF STEEL STRUCTURES
7. BEHAVIOUR UNDER HORIZONTAL LOADS
9. REFERENCES

Workgroup Contents
Workgroup Contents
Lecture 1B.8 : Learning from Failures
Top
1. INTRODUCTION
2. ANALYSIS OF SOME STRUCTURAL FAILURES
2.1 General
2.2 Contractual Relationship
2.3 Structural Failures
2.3.1 Steel box girder bridges
2.3.2 Steel plate girders bridges
2.3.3 Shell structures
2.3.4 Buildings

Workgroup Contents
Workgroup Contents
Lecture 2.1 : Characteristics of Iron-Carbon Alloys
Top
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 Why Metallurgy For Civil and Structural Engineers?
1.2 The Scope of Lectures in Group 2
2. STRUCTURE AND COMPONENTS OF STEEL
2.1 Introduction
2.2 The Components of Steel
2.3 The Crystal Structure
3. IRON-CARBON PHASES
3.1 Influence of Temperature on Crystal Structure
3.2 Solution of Carbon in bcc and fcc Crystals
3.3 Nomenclature
3.4 The Iron-Carbon Phase Diagram
4. COOLING RATE
4.1 Cooling Rate During Austenite to Ferrite Transformation and Grain Size
4.2 Slowly Cooled Steels
4.2.1 Influence of carbon on the microstructure
http://www.fgg.uni-lj.si/kmk/esdep/master/wg02/t0100.htm (1 of 2) [17.07.2010 09:52:35]

Workgroup Contents
4.2.2 The need for control of grain size
4.2.3 Grain size control by normalising
4.2.4 Microstructural changes accompanying hot rolling of steels
4.3 Rapidly Cooled Steels
4.3.1 Formation of martensite and bainite
4.3.2 Martensite in welded structures
4.3.3 Quenching and tempering
4.3.4 Control of martensite formation
5. INCLUSIONS
5.1 Sulphur, Phosphorus and Other Impurities
5.2 Manganese in Structural Steels
7. REFERENCES

Workgroup Contents
Workgroup Contents
Lecture 2.2 : Manufacturing and Forming Processes
Top
1. STEELMAKING TECHNOLOGY
1.1 Introduction
1.2.1 The blast-furnace-basic oxygen converter route
1.2.2 The electric arc furnace route (Figure 4)
1.3 Secondary or Ladle Steelmaking
1.3.1 General Aspects
1.3.2 Ladle Steelmaking Process: Deoxidation and Refining (Figure 5)
1.4 Casting and Solidification
1.4.2 Casting Technologies
1.4.2.1 Ingot casting (Figure 6)
1.4.2.2 Continuous casting (Figure 7)
2. FORMING TECHNOLOGY AND HEAT TREATMENTS
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Hot Rolling

Workgroup Contents
2.2.1 Description of the Rolling Operation
2.2.2 Primary Rolling
2.2.3 Finish Rolling
2.2.4 Hot Rolling Processes

Workgroup Contents
Workgroup Contents
Lecture 2.3.1 : Introduction to the Engineering

Properties of Steels
Top
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 Nature of Metals
1.2 Structure-Sensitive and Structure-Insensitive Properties
2. STRENGTH
2.1 Dislocations and Plastic Deformation
2.2 Stress-Strain Curve for Simple Tension Specimen
2.3 Multi-axial Response
2.3.1 Poisson's ratio
2.3.2 Multi-axial stress states and their influence on yielding
2.3.3 Strain hardening under multi-axial stresses
2.4 Influence of Temperature and Strain Rate
2.4.1 Temperature
2.4.2 Strain rate
2.5 Means of Strengthening
2.6 Hardness

Workgroup Contents

Workgroup Contents
Workgroup Contents
Lecture 2.3.2 : Advanced Engineering Properties of

Steels
Top
1. TOUGHNESS
1.1 Types of Fracture
1.2 Influence of Temperature, Loading Rate, Multi-axiality and Geometry
1.3 Notched Impact Bend Test
1.4 Fracture Toughness
1.5 Fitness for Purpose
1.5.1 Wide plate testing
1.5.2 Fracture mechanics concepts
2. OPTIMAL COMBINATION OF STRENGTH AND TOUGHNESS
3. FATIGUE PROPERTIES
3.1 Initiation-Controlled Fatigue
3.1.1 Testing
3.1.2 Fatigue damage
3.1.3 Influences of various parameters
3.1.4 Fatigue limit under actual service conditions

Workgroup Contents
3.1.5 Prediction of cumulative damage
3.2 Propagation-Controlled Fatigue

Workgroup Contents
Workgroup Contents
Lecture 2.4 : Steel Grades and Qualities
Top
1. INTRODUCTION
2. DEFINITION OF STEEL
3. CLASSIFICATION OF STEEL GRADES
3.1 Classification by Chemical Composition
3.2 Classification by Main Quality Classes
4. QUALITY STANDARDS FOR STRUCTURAL STEELS
4.1 General Considerations
4.2 The Main Points
4.2.1 Steel Manufacturing Process
4.2.2 Delivery Conditions
4.2.3 Chemical Composition
4.2.4 Mechanical Properties
4.2.4.1 Tensile properties
4.2.4.2 Notch toughness properties (impact test)
4.2.4.3 Sampling direction
4.2.5 Technological Properties

Workgroup Contents
4.2.5.1 Weldability
4.2.5.2 Formability
4.2.6 Surface finish
4.2.7 Inspection and testing
4.2.8 Marking
5. STRUCTURAL STEEL GRADES
5.1 Hot-Rolled Products in Non-Alloy Steels for General Structural Applications to EN

10025 [4]
5.1.1 General Description
5.1.2 Designation of the Steels
5.1.3 Steel Grades
5.2 Hot-Rolled Products in Weldable Fine Grain Structural Steels to EN 10 113 [5]
5.2.3 Classification of Qualities
5.2.4 Designation
5.2.5 Steel Grades and Qualities
5.3 Structural Steels for Offshore Applications
5.4 Anti-lamellar Steel Grades
5.4.2 Anti-lamellar Qualities

Workgroup Contents
5.5 Weathering Steel to EN 10 155 [6]
5.5.2 Corrosion Resistance
5.5.3 Steel Grades
5.5.4 Welding
5.6 Steel Grades for Hot Dip Galvanizing
7. REFERENCES

Workgroup Contents
Workgroup Contents
Lecture 2.5 : Selection of Steel Quality
Top
1. INTRODUCTION
2. THE PHENOMENON OF BRITTLE FAILURE
3. FRACTURE MECHANICS CONCEPTS AND TESTING PROCEDURES
4. METHODOLOGIES FOR STEEL SELECTION
4.1 The French Approach
4.2 The British Approach
4.3 The Belgian Approach
5. METHODOLOGY ADOPTED IN EUROCODE 3
6. PRESENT STATUS OF THE EUROCODE 3 RULES
7. COMPARISON OF SPECIFICATIONS DERIVED FROM VARIOUS APPROACHES
8. DISCUSSION
9. COMMENT ON THE PRESENT EUROCODE 3 RULES
11. REFERENCES
http://www.fgg.uni-lj.si/kmk/esdep/master/wg02/t0500.htm [17.07.2010 09:52:38]

Workgroup Contents
Workgroup Contents
Lecture 2.6 : Weldability of Structural Steels
Top
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 A Brief Description of the Welding Process
1.2 The Main Welding Processes
1.3 Welded Joint Design and Preparation
1.4 The Effect of the Welding Thermal Cycle on the Microstructure
1.5 Residual Welding Stresses and Distortion
1.6 Residual Stress Relief
2. THE WELDABILITY OF STRUCTURAL STEELS
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Weld Metal Solidification Cracking
2.3 Heat Affected Zone (HAZ) Cracking
2.3.1 Liquation cracking (burning)
2.3.2 Hydrogen induced cracking
2.4 Lamellar Tearing
2.5 Re-Heat Cracking

Workgroup Contents
4. REFERENCES

Workgroup Contents
Workgroup Contents
Lecture 3.1.1 : General Fabrication of Steel

Structures I
Top
1. INTRODUCTION
2. FORMS OF CONTRACT AND ORGANISATION
2.1 General
2.2 Contract Procedures
2.3 Planning
2.4 Drawing Office
3. FABRICATION PROCEDURES
3.1 Workshop Layout
3.2 Material Handling and Preparation
3.3 Templates and Marking
3.4 Sawing Line and Rolled Sections
3.5 Drilling and the Beam Line System
3.6 Cropping, Guillotines and Punching
3.7 Flame Burning of Plates
3.8 Pressing and Forming

Workgroup Contents
3.9 Methods of Welding
3.10 Welding Design and Control of Distortion
3.11 The Role of the Welding Engineer
3.12 Automatic Production of Plate Girders
3.13 Machine Operations
3.14 Fabrication Tolerances
3.15 Trial Erection in the Fabrication Shop
3.16 Inspection and Quality Control

Workgroup Contents
Workgroup Contents
Lecture 3.1.2 : General Fabrication of Steel

Structures II
Top
1. INTRODUCTION
2. COST FACTORS
2.1 Material
2.2 Fabrication
2.3 Protection of the Steelwork
2.4 Delivery
2.5 Commercial Factors
3. IMPROVEMENT OF DESIGN: EXAMPLES

Workgroup Contents
Workgroup Contents
Lecture 3.2.1 : Erection I
Top
1. INTRODUCTION
2. TECHNICAL SPECIFICATION
3. SITE ORGANISATION
3.1 Principal Jobs on Site
3.2 Estimation of needs
3.3 Basic Installations and Site Conditions
3.4 Direct Manpower
3.5 Cranes, Tools and other Equipment

Workgroup Contents
Workgroup Contents
Lecture 3.2.2 : Erection II
Top
1. INTRODUCTION
2. ERECTION PROCEDURES
2.1. Reception, Unloading and Handling of Construction Material.
2.2 Foundations and Base Plates (Levelling, Measuring, etc.)
2.3 Assembly and Erection
2.4 Bolting Connections on Site
2.4.1 Ordinary bolts
2.4.2 High-strength friction-grip (HSFG) bolts
2.4.2.1 The torque-control method
2.4.2.2 The part-turn method
2.4.2.3 Load-indicating devices
2.4.2.4 Installation

Workgroup Contents
Workgroup Contents
Lecture 3.2.3 : Erection III
Top
1. INTRODUCTION
2. WELDING CONNECTIONS ON SITE
3. QUALITY CONTROL
3.1 Quality Assurance Manual
3.2 Quality Control Programme
3.3 Inspection Programme
4. SAFETY AT THE ERECTION-SITE

Workgroup Contents
Workgroup Contents
Lecture 3.3 : Principles of Welding
Top
1. INTRODUCTION
2. METHODS OF MAKING A WELDED JOINT
3. STRUCTURE AND PROPERTIES OF WELDS
4. EDGE PREPARATION FOR BUTT WELDS
5. WELDING PROCEDURES
5.1 Current
5.2 Welding Position
5.3 Environment
6. SHRINKAGE

Workgroup Contents
Workgroup Contents
Lecture 3.4 : Welding Processes
Top
1. INTRODUCTION - HEAT SOURCES AND METHODS OF SHIELDING
2. MANUAL METAL ARC WELDING
3. METAL ACTIVE GAS (MAG) WELDING
4. SUBMERGED ARC WELDING (SAW)
5. STUD WELDING
6. CHOICE OF PROCESS

Workgroup Contents
Workgroup Contents
Lecture 3.5 : Fabrication/Erection of Buildings
Top
1. INTRODUCTION - FABRICATION
2. COST STRUCTURE
3. PRODUCTION NETWORK
3.1 Primary/Secondary Production
3.2 Workshop Layout - Material Preparation
3.3 Workshop Layout - Assembly/Finishing
4. DESIGN/DETAILING ECONOMIES
5. GENERAL - ERECTION
5.1 Site Planning
5.2 Site Organisation
5.3 Setting Out
5.4 Operations
5.5 Single-Storey Buildings
5.6 Multi-storey Buildings
5.7 Timing
5.8 Safety

Workgroup Contents

Workgroup Contents
Workgroup Contents
Lecture 3.6 : Inspection/Quality Assurance
Top
1. INTRODUCTION/DEFINITIONS
2. OBJECTIVES
3. SAFETY MARGINS
3.1 Process Variations
3.2 Gross Error
4. RESPONSIBILITIES
4.1 Involvement
4.2 Evolution through Practice
4.3 Causes and Prevention of Failures
4.4 Timing
4.5 Specialisation
4.6 Records
5. MAIN TYPES OF INSPECTION
5.1 Design
5.2 Manufacture
6. STAGES OF INSPECTION

Workgroup Contents
7. METHODS OF INSPECTION, PURPOSE AND ACCEPTANCE CRITERIA
7.1 Identification
7.2 Chemical Analysis
7.3 Mechanical Tests
7.4 Dimensional Measurements

Workgroup Contents
Workgroup Contents
Lecture 4A.1 : General Corrosion
Top
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 Dry Corrosion
1.2 Wet Corrosion
1.3 Why Protect Steel?
2. PROTECTING STRUCTURAL STEELWORK
2.1 Effect of Environment and Surface Conditions
2.2 Protect with What?
2.3 Surface Preparation
2.4 Cathodic Protection
2.5 Stainless Steel
2.6 Weathering Steels
4. REFERENCES

Workgroup Contents
Workgroup Contents
Lecture 4A.2 : Factors Governing Protection of

Steelwork
Top
1. LIFE EXPECTANCY
1.1 Likely Time to First Maintenance
1.2 Life Between Maintenances
1.3 Assessment of Life Requirement
2. DESIGN
2.1 Design for Protective Systems
2.2 Where to Apply Protection
2.3 Special Areas
3. SURFACE PREPARATION
3.1 Degreasing
3.2 Removal of Scale and Rust
3.3 Blast Cleaning
3.4 Blast Cleaning Standard
3.5 Surface Roughness
3.6 Flame Cut Edges

Workgroup Contents
3.7 Other Methods of Surface Preparation
4. SURFACE COATINGS
4.1 Paint Systems
4.2 Metallic Coatings
4.3 Metal Spraying
4.4 Metal Plus Paint Systems
4.5 Guidance on Corrosion Prevention
5. MAINTENANCE OF STRUCTURES AND PLANT
7. REFERENCES

Workgroup Contents
Workgroup Contents
Lecture 4A.3 : Practical Corrosion Protection for

Buildings
Top
1. PRACTICAL DESIGN
2. TREATMENTS FOR CONNECTIONS
3. DEALING WITH WELDS
4. EXTERNAL ENVIRONMENTS AND THE BUILDING'S EXTERIOR
5. ENVIRONMENTS INSIDE BUILDINGS
5.1 Hidden Steelwork
5.2 Steelwork in Perimeter Walls
6. SPECIAL CASES
6.1 Steel in Concrete
6.2 Hollow Sections
6.3 Cladding
8. REFERENCES

Workgroup Contents
Workgroup Contents
Lecture 4A.4 : Corrosion Protection of Bridges
Top
1. INTRODUCTION
2. EXPOSURE CONDITIONS
2.1 Environments
2.2 Factors Influencing Corrosivity
2.3 Different Areas
3. PROTECTIVE SYSTEMS
3.1 Coating Systems for Bridges
3.2 Metallic Coatings (see Lecture 4A.2)
3.3 Stainless Steel
3.4 Weathering Steel
3.5 Closed Sections
4. PROTECTION OF DIFFERENT COMPONENTS
4.1 Load Bearing Structures
4.2 Cables and Devices
4.3 Secondary Elements
5. DESIGN

Workgroup Contents
6. MAINTENANCE

Workgroup Contents
Workgroup Contents
Lecture 4A.5 : Corrosion in Offshore and Sheet

Piling
Top
1. OFFSHORE
2. SHEET PILING
3. CORROSION IN SOILS
4. ELECTRICAL METHODS OF CORROSION CONTROL
5. AEROBIC AND ANAEROBIC ORGANISMS

Workgroup Contents
Workgroup Contents
Lecture 4B.1 : Introduction to Fire Safety
Top
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 Fire Losses
1.2 The Fire Risk
1.3 Objectives of Fire Safety
1.4 Fire Safety Concept
1.4.1 Structural fire safety concept
1.4.2 Monitoring concept
1.4.3 Extinguishing concept
1.5 Cost-Effectiveness
2. OVERVIEW ON ASSESSMENT METHODS OF STRUCTURAL FIRE RESISTANCE OF

LOAD- BEARING ELEMENTS
2.1 Current Fire Resistance Requirements = Assessment Method 1
2.2 Fire Resistance Requirements Based on T-Equivalent = Assessment Method 2
2.3 Engineering Design Methods Based on Natural Fires = Assessment Method 3
2.3.1 Introduction
2.3.2 Compartment fires = assessment method 3a

Workgroup Contents
2.3.3 Fire modelling - assessment method 3b
2.4 Some Thoughts on Fire Resistance Requirements Considering the Effect of Active
Fire Protection
4. REFERENCES

Workgroup Contents
Workgroup Contents
Lecture 4B.2 : Background to Thermal Analysis
Top
1. INTRODUCTION
2. HEAT TRANSFER EQUATION
3. HEATING OF STEEL SECTIONS
4. THERMAL RESPONSE OF COMPOSITE STEEL - CONCRETE ELEMENTS
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Thermal Response of Composite Columns
4.3 Thermal Analysis of Composite Slabs
6. REFERENCES

Workgroup Contents
Workgroup Contents
Lecture 4B.3 : Background to Structural (Mechanical

Fire) Analysis
Top
1. INTRODUCTION
2. APPLIED LOAD
3. DETERMINATION OF THE FIRE LOAD BEARING RESISTANCE
4. LOAD BEARING RESISTANCE OF STEEL MEMBERS
4.1 Tension Member
4.2 Columns
4.3 Beams
4.3.1 Simply Supported Beam
4.3.2 Continuous Beam
4.4 Beam Column
4.5 Main Parameters
4.6 Steel Elements with Non-uniform Temperature Distribution
5. LOAD BEARING RESISTANCE OF COMPOSITE MEMBERS
5.1 Composite Beam
5.2 Composite Slabs

Workgroup Contents
5.3 Composite Columns
6. CONNECTION BETWEEN MEMBERS
8. REFERENCES

Workgroup Contents
Workgroup Contents
Lecture 4B.4 : Practical Ways of Achieving Fire

Resistance of Steel Structures
Top
1. INTRODUCTION
2. BARE STEEL STRUCTURES
3. PROTECTED STEEL STRUCTURES
4. COMPOSITE CONSTRUCTION
5. PARTIALLY EXPOSED STEEL SECTIONS
6. PROTECTION BY SCREENS
7. EXTERIOR STEELWORK
8. WATER COOLING
10. REFERENCES

Workgroup Contents
Workgroup Contents
Lecture 4B.5 : Calculation Examples
Top
EXAMPLE 1 CRITICAL TEMPERATURE OF TENSION MEMBER
EXAMPLE 2 CRITICAL TEMPERATURE OF BEAM
EXAMPLE 3 CRITICAL TEMPERATURE OF COLUMN
EXAMPLE 4 FIRE PROTECTION TO STEEL BEAM
EXAMPLE 5 MOMENT RESISTANCE OF COMPOSITE BEAM
EXAMPLE 6 TIME-EQUIVALENT OF NATURAL FIRE

Workgroup Contents
Workgroup Contents
Lecture 5.1 : Introduction to Computer Aided Design

& Manufacture
Top
1. INTRODUCTION
2. COMPUTER HARDWARE
3. PRINTERS AND PLOTTERS
4. INPUT/OUTPUT AND STORAGE
5. INTERACTION
6. THE USER INTERFACE
7. PROGRAMMING COMPUTERS
8. STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS AND DESIGN SOFTWARE
9. COMPUTER-AIDED DESIGN: TWO-DIMENSIONAL DRAUGHTING
10. THREE-DIMENSIONAL STRUCTURAL MODELLING
11. NUMERICAL CONTROL IN FABRICATION
12. THE FUTURE

Workgroup Contents
Workgroup Contents
Lecture 5.2 : The Future Development of Information

Systems for Steel Construction
Top
1. INTRODUCTION
2. INFORMATION EXCHANGE IN THE CONSTRUCTION PROCESS
2.1 Information Exchange: The Present
2.2 Information Exchange: The Future
3. A FRAMEWORK FOR CHANGE
3.1 The Product Model
3.2 Information Exchange Between Software Products
3.2.1 Introduction
3.2.2 `Neutral' graphical exchange file formats
3.3 Management Information Systems (MIS)
4. IMPLEMENTATION
6. REFERENCES

Workgroup Contents
Workgroup Contents
Lecture 6.1 : Concepts of Stable and Unstable Elastic

Equilibrium
Top
1. INTRODUCTION
2. STABLE AND UNSTABLE EQUILIBRIUM STATES
3. MINIMUM POTENTIAL ENERGY
4. BIFURCATION BUCKLING
5. POSTCRITICAL BEHAVIOUR OF PERFECT AND IMPERFECT SYSTEMS
6. LIMIT POINT BUCKLING
7. COINCIDENCE OF SEVERAL INSTABILITY MODES

Workgroup Contents
Workgroup Contents
Lecture 6.2 : General Criteria for Elastic Stability
Top
1. INTRODUCTION
2. GENERAL
3. PRINCIPLE OF VIRTUAL WORK
4. PRINCIPLE OF STATIONARY TOTAL POTENTIAL ENERGY
5. STABILITY OF EQUILIBRIUM
6. NEUTRAL EQUILIBRIUM - CRITICAL LOADINGS
7. ILLUSTRATION ON BASIC EXAMPLES

Workgroup Contents
Workgroup Contents
Lecture 6.3 : Elastic Instability Modes
Top
1. INTRODUCTION
2. FLEXURAL BUCKLING OF COLUMNS
3. LATERAL BUCKLING
4. BUCKLING OF PLATES

Workgroup Contents
Workgroup Contents
Lecture 6.4 : General Methods for Assessing Critical

Loads
Top
1. INTRODUCTION
2. GENERAL ENERGY METHODS APPLIED TO ELASTIC SYSTEMS
3. RAYLEIGH COEFFICIENT
4. THE RAYLEIGH-RITZ METHOD
5. THE GALERKIN METHOD
6. NUMERICAL METHODS
7. SOME TYPICAL STRAIN ENERGIES
8. EXAMPLE USING THE DIFFERENT METHODS

Workgroup Contents
Workgroup Contents
Lecture 6.5 : Iterative Methods for Solving Stability

Problems
Top
1. INTRODUCTION
2. METHOD OF VIANELLO
3. REVIEW OF NEWMARK'S METHOD
3.1 Sign Conventions
3.2 Concepts
4. METHOD OF VIANELLO-NEWMARK
5. EQUILIBRIUM CONFIGURATIONS

Workgroup Contents
Workgroup Contents
Lecture 6.6.1 : Buckling of Real Structural Elements

I
Top
1. INTRODUCTION
2. EFFECT OF MATERIAL PLASTICITY
2.1 Ideal Rigid-Plastic Behaviour Model
2.2 Ideal Elastic-Plastic Behaviour Model
2.3 Strength Curve for an Ideal Strut
2.4 Effects of the Real Elastic-Plastic Behaviour of the Material
3. STRENGTH OF REAL STRUTS
3.1 Effect of Geometric Imperfections
3.1.1 Initial out-of-straightness
3.1.2 Eccentricity of loading
3.2 Effect of Residual Stresses
3.4 Combined Effect of Imperfections

Workgroup Contents
Workgroup Contents
Lecture 6.6.2 : Buckling of Real Structural Elements

II
Top
1. INTRODUCTION
3. TORSIONAL BUCKLING OF COLUMNS
4. FLEXURAL-TORSIONAL BUCKLING
5. LATERAL-TORSIONAL BUCKLING OF BEAMS
6. BUCKLING OF SHELLS
7. IMPROVING THE BUCKLING RESISTANCE
8. FRAME INSTABILITY
10. REFERENCES

Workgroup Contents
Workgroup Contents
Lecture 7.1 : Methods of Analysis of Steel Structures
Top
1. INTRODUCTION
2. ELASTIC GLOBAL ANALYSIS
3. PLASTIC GLOBAL ANALYSIS
4. ADDITIONAL COMMENTS

Workgroup Contents
Workgroup Contents
Lecture 7.2 : Cross-Section Classification
Top
1. INTRODUCTION
2. REQUIREMENTS FOR CROSS-SECTION CLASSIFICATION
3. CRITERIA FOR CROSS-SECTION CLASSIFICATION
5. REFERENCES

Workgroup Contents
Workgroup Contents
Lecture 7.3 : Local Buckling
Top
1. INTRODUCTION
2. DEFINITION OF THE "EFFECTIVE WIDTHS"
3. DESIGN OF MEMBERS
3.1 Columns in Compression
3.2 Beams in Bending
3.3 Beam-Columns
5. REFERENCES

Workgroup Contents
Workgroup Contents
Lecture 7.4.1 : Tension Members I
Top
1. INTRODUCTION
2. BEHAVIOUR OF CROSS-SECTIONS IN TENSION MEMBERS
2.1 General
2.2 Residual Stresses
2.3 Connections
3. ANALYSIS
3.1 Stiffness Requirements
3.2 Resistance of the Cross-Section
3.2.1 Net area
3.2.2 Resistance of the net sections
3.2.3 Verification
5. REFERENCES

Workgroup Contents
Workgroup Contents
Lecture 7.4.2 : Tension Members II
Top
1. INTRODUCTION
2. COMPOSITION OF ROPES AND CABLES
3. MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
4. DESIGN VALUES
5. CONNECTIONS
6. BEHAVIOUR OF A CABLE
7. MODULUS OF ELASTICITY DUE TO SAGGING

Workgroup Contents
Workgroup Contents
Lecture 7.5.1 : Columns I
Top
1. INTRODUCTION
2. MAIN KINDS OF COMPRESSION MEMBERS
2.1 Simple Members with Uniform Cross-Section
2.2 Simple Members with Non-Uniform Cross-Sections
2.3 Built-up Columns
3. PURE COMPRESSION WITHOUT BUCKLING
3.1 Stub Columns
3.2 Effective Area
4. STABILITY OF SLENDER STEEL COLUMNS
4.1 Euler Critical Stress
4.2 Buckling of Real Columns
5. THE EUROPEAN BUCKLING CURVES
5.1 Reference Slenderness
5.2 Basis of the ECCS Buckling Curves
5.3 Equivalent Initial Bow Imperfection
5.4 Design Steps for Compression Members

Workgroup Contents
7. REFERENCES

Workgroup Contents
Workgroup Contents
Lecture 7.5.2 : Columns II
Top
1. INTRODUCTION
2. ANALYTICAL FORMULATION OF THE EUROPEAN BUCKLING CURVES
2.1 Initial Deflection
2.2 Eccentricity of the Applied Load
2.3 Ayrton-Perry Formula
2.4 Generalized Imperfection Factor
2.3 European Formulation
3. TORSIONAL AND FLEXURAL-TORSIONAL BUCKLING
3.1 Cross-section Subjected to Torsional or Flexural-torsional Buckling
3.2 Torsional Buckling
3.3 Flexural-torsional Buckling
5. REFERENCES

Workgroup Contents
Workgroup Contents
Lecture 7.6 : Built-up Columns
Top
1. INTRODUCTION
2. THE EFFECT OF SHEAR DEFORMATIONS ON THE ELASTIC CRITICAL COLUMN LOAD
3. EVALUATION OF THE SHEAR STIFFNESS OF LACED AND BATTENED COLUMNS
3.1 Laced Columns
3.2 Battened Built-up Columns
3.3 Quantitative Comparison
4. THE ELASTIC CRITICAL LOADS OF BUILT-UP COLUMNS
5. THE BEARING CAPACITY OF STEEL BUILT-UP COLUMNS AND THE DESIGN

PHILOSOPHY OF EUROCODE 3
7. REFERENCES

Workgroup Contents
Workgroup Contents
Lecture 7.7 : Buckling Lengths
Top
1. INTRODUCTION
2. EFFECTIVE LENGTH OF COLUMNS
3. COLUMNS OF NON-SWAY FRAMES
4. COLUMNS OF SWAY FRAMES
6. REFERENCES

Workgroup Contents
Workgroup Contents
Lecture 7.8.1 : Restrained Beams I
Top
1. INTRODUCTION
2. BEAM TYPES
3. DESIGN OF BEAMS FOR SIMPLE BENDING
4. DESIGN OF BEAMS FOR SHEAR
5. DEFLECTIONS
6. BENDING OF UNSYMMETRICAL SECTIONS
7. BIAXIAL BENDING
8. BENDING AND TORSION
10. REFERENCES

Workgroup Contents
Workgroup Contents
Lecture 7.8.2 : Restrained Beams II
Top
1. INTRODUCTION
2. BEHAVIOUR OF STEEL BEAMS IN BENDING
2.1 Statically Determinate Beams
2.2 Statically Indeterminate Beams
2.3 Bending of I-Sections
2.4 Bending of Singly-symmetrical Sections
3. EFFECT OF SHEAR FORCE
4. PLASTIC BEHAVIOUR UNDER GENERAL COMBINED LOADING
6. REFERENCES

Workgroup Contents
Workgroup Contents
Lecture 7.9.1 : Unrestrained Beams I
Top
1. STRUCTURAL PROPERTIES OF SECTIONS USED AS BEAMS
2. RESPONSE OF SLENDER BEAMS TO VERTICAL LOADING
3. SIMPLE PHYSICAL MODEL
4. FACTORS INFLUENCING LATERAL STABILITY
5. BRACING AS A MEANS OF IMPROVING PERFORMANCE
6. DESIGN APPLICATION
7. METHOD OF EUROCODE 3
9. REFERENCES

Workgroup Contents
Workgroup Contents
Lecture 7.9.2 : Unrestrained Beams II
Top
1. INTRODUCTION
2. PHYSICAL SIGNIFICANCE OF THE SOLUTION
3. EXTENSION TO OTHER CASES
3.1 Load Pattern
3.2 Level of Application of Load
3.3 Conditions of Lateral Support
3.4 Continuous Beams
3.5 Beams Other than Doubly-Symmetrical I-sections
3.6 Restrained Beams
5. REFERENCES

Workgroup Contents
Workgroup Contents
Lecture 7.10.1 : Beam Columns I
Top
1. INTRODUCTION
2. CROSS-SECTIONAL BEHAVIOUR
3. OVERALL STABILITY
4. TREATMENT IN DESIGN CODES
5. EFFECT OF PATTERN OF PRIMARY MOMENTS
7. REFERENCES

Workgroup Contents
Workgroup Contents
Lecture 7.10.2 : Beam Columns II
Top
1. INTRODUCTION
2. FORMS OF BEHAVIOUR
4. DESIGN
5. BIAXIAL BENDING
6. DESIGN FOR BIAXIAL BENDING AND COMPRESSION
7. TREATMENT OF OTHER THAN CLASS 1 OR 2 SECTIONS
8. DETERMINATION OF k-FACTORS
9. CROSS-SECTION CHECKS
11. REFERENCES

Workgroup Contents
Workgroup Contents
Lecture 7.10.3 : Beam Columns III
Top
1. INTRODUCTION
2. METHODS OF VERIFICATION FOR ISOLATED MEMBERS
2.1 Beam-columns with Mono-axial Bending only
2.2 Beam-columns with Bi-axial Bending
3. METHOD OF VERIFICATION OF WHOLE FRAMES
3.1 General
3.2 Basic Assumption
3.3 Tools for the Procedure
5. REFERENCES

Workgroup Contents
Workgroup Contents
Lecture 7.11 : Frames
Top
1. INTRODUCTION
2. FRAMING SYSTEMS
3. SIMPLE CONSTRUCTION
4. CONTINUOUS CONSTRUCTION
5. METHODS OF ANALYSIS
5.1 First-Order Elastic Analysis
5.2 First-Order Rigid-Plastic Analysis
5.3 Elastic Critical Load
5.4 Second-Order Elastic Analysis
5.5 Second-Order Rigid-Plastic Analysis
5.6 First-Order, Elastic-Plastic Theory
5.7 Second-Order, Elastic-Plastic Analysis
5.8 Second-Order, Plastic Zone Analysis
6. COMMENTS
7. FRAME CLASSIFICATION
7.1 Braced Frames

Workgroup Contents
7.2 Unbraced Frames
7.3 Sway Frames
8. MEMBER CHECK AND FRAME DESIGN
10. REFERENCES

Workgroup Contents
Workgroup Contents
Lecture 7.12 : Trusses and Lattice Girders
Top
1. INTRODUCTION
2. TYPICAL MEMBERS
3. LOADS ON TRUSSES AND LATTICE GIRDERS
4. ANALYSIS OF TRUSSES
4.1 General
4.2 Secondary Stresses in Trusses
4.3 Rigorous Elastic Analysis
5. SECONDARY CONSIDERATIONS
5.1 Cross-Braced Trusses in Buildings
5.2 Lateral Bracing for Bridges
5.3 Deflection of Trusses
6. DESIGN OF TRUSS MEMBERS
6.1 Compression Members in Buildings
6.2 Compression Members in Bridges
6.3 Tension Members for Buildings
6.4 Tension Members for Bridges

Workgroup Contents
6.5 Members Subject to Reversal of Load
7. PRACTICAL DESIGN
9. REFERENCES

Workgroup Contents
Workgroup Contents
Lecture 8.1 : Introduction to Plate Behaviour and

Design
Top
1. INTRODUCTION
2. BASIC BEHAVIOUR OF A PLATE PANEL
2.1 Geometric and Boundary Conditions
2.2 In-plane Actions
2.3 Out-of-plane Actions
2.4 Determination of Plate Panel Actions
2.5 Variations in Buckled Mode
2.6 Grillage Analogy for Plate Buckling
2.7 Post Buckling Behaviour and Effective Widths
2.8 The Influences of Imperfections on the Behaviour of Actual Plates
2.9 Elastic Behaviour of Plates Under Lateral Actions
3. BEHAVIOUR OF STIFFENED PLATES

Workgroup Contents
Workgroup Contents
Lecture 8.2 : Behaviour and Design of Unstiffened

Plates
Top
1. INTRODUCTION
2. UNSTIFFENED PLATES UNDER IN-PLANE LOADING
2.1 Load Distribution
2.1.1 Distribution resulting from membrane theory
2.1.2 Distribution resulting from linear elastic theory using Bernouilli's

hypothesis
2.1.3 Distribution resulting from finite element methods
2.2 Stability of Unstiffened Plates
2.1.1 Linear buckling theory
2.2.2 Ultimate resistance of an unstiffened plate
3. UNSTIFFENED PLATES UNDER OUT-OF-PLANE ACTIONS
3.1 Action Distribution
3.1.1 Distribution resulting from plate theory
3.1.2 Distribution resulting from finite element methods (FEM)
3.2 Deflection and Ultimate Resistance
3.2.1 Deflections

Workgroup Contents
3.2.2 Ultimate resistance
4. INFLUENCE OF THE OUT-OF-PLANE ACTIONS ON THE STABILITY OF UNSTIFFENED

PLATES
6. REFERENCES

Workgroup Contents
Workgroup Contents
Lecture 8.3 : Behaviour and Design of Stiffened

Plates
Top
1. INTRODUCTION
2. STIFFENED PLATES UNDER IN-PLANE LOADING
2.1.2 Distribution resulting from linear elastic theory using Bernouilli's

hypothesis
2.2 Stability of Stiffened Plates
2.2.2 Ultimate resistance of stiffened plates
3. STIFFENED PLATES UNDER OUT-OF-PLANE ACTION APPLICATION
3.1.2 Distribution resulting from a grillage under lateral actions filled in

with unstiffened sub-panels

Workgroup Contents
4. INFLUENCE OF OUT-OF-PLANE ACTIONS ON THE STABILITY OF STIFFENED PLATES
6. REFERENCES

Workgroup Contents
Workgroup Contents
Lecture 8.4.1 : Plate Girder Behaviour and Design I
Top
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 Types
1.2 Proportions
2. DESIGN CONCEPTS
3. INFLUENCE OF BUCKLING ON DESIGN
3.1 Shear Buckling of the Web
3.2 Lateral-Torsional Buckling of the Girder
3.3 Local Buckling of the Compression Flange
3.4 Compression Buckling of the Web
3.5 Flange Induced Buckling of the Web
3.6 Local Buckling of the Web
4. POST-BUCKLING STRENGTH OF WEB
5. DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
7. REFERENCES

Workgroup Contents
Workgroup Contents
Lecture 8.4.2 : Plate Girder Behaviour and Design II
Top
1. INTRODUCTION
2. SHEAR BUCKLING RESISTANCE
2.1 Calculation of the Shear Buckling Resistance by the Simple Post-Critical Method
2.2 Calculation of the Shear Buckling Resistance by the Tension Field Method
3. INTERACTION BETWEEN SHEAR AND BENDING
3.1 Interaction between Shear and Bending in the Simple Post-Critical Method
3.2 Interaction between Shear and Bending in the Tension Field Method
5. REFERENCES

Workgroup Contents
Workgroup Contents
Lecture 8.4.3 : Plate Girder Design - Special Topics
Top
1. INTRODUCTION
2. TRANSVERSE WEB STIFFENERS
3. END PANELS AND POSTS
4. WEB CRIPPLING
5. LONGITUDINAL WEB STIFFENERS
6. GIRDERS WITH OPENINGS IN SLENDER WEBS
8. REFERENCES

Workgroup Contents
Workgroup Contents
Lecture 8.5.1 : Introduction to Design of Box Girders
Top
1. INTRODUCTION
2. MAIN FEATURES OF BOX GIRDERS
3. GLOBAL ANALYSIS
4. TORSION AND DISTORTION
4.1 Torsion and Torsional Warping
4.2 Distortion
5. FLANGE DESIGN
5.1 Tension Flanges
5.2 Compression Flanges
5.3 Orthotropic Steel Decks
6. WEB DESIGN
7. CROSS SECTIONAL RESTRAINTS
7.1 General Function and Description
7.2 Support Diaphragms
7.3 Intermediate restraints
7.4 Load-carrying transverse stiffeners

Workgroup Contents
8. ARTICULATION

Workgroup Contents
Workgroup Contents
Lecture 8.5.2A : Advanced Design of Box Girders
Top
1. INTRODUCTION
2. GLOBAL ANALYSIS METHODS
3. GRILLAGE
3.1 General
3.2 Grillage Modelling for Box Girder Bridges
3.3 Longitudinal Grillage Elements
3.4 Transverse Grillage Elements
3.5 Torsional Rigidities
3.6 Skew Bridges
3.7 Interpretation of the Output of a Grillage Analysis
4. ORTHOTROPIC PLATE ANALYSIS
5. FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS
6. FOLDED PLATE ANALYSIS
7. TORSIONAL WARPING
8. CROSS-SECTION DISTORTION
9. SHEAR LAG

Workgroup Contents
10. DIAPHRAGMS
12. REFERENCE

Workgroup Contents
Workgroup Contents
Lecture 8.6 : Introduction to Shell Structures
Top
1. INTRODUCTION
2. POSSIBLE FORMS OF BEHAVIOUR
3. IMPORTANCE OF IMPERFECTIONS
5. REFERENCES

Workgroup Contents
Workgroup Contents
Lecture 8.7 : Basic Analysis of Shell Structures
Top
1. INTRODUCTION
2. BENDING AND STRETCHING OF THIN SHELLS
3. BUCKLING OF SHELLS - LINEAR AND NON-LINEAR BUCKLING THEORY
4. POST-BUCKLING BEHAVIOUR OF THIN SHELLS
5. NUMERICAL ANALYSIS OF SHELL BUCKLING
6. BUCKLING AND POST-BUCKLING BEHAVIOUR OF STRUTS, PLATES AND SHELLS
7. IMPERFECTION SENSITIVITY
9. REFERENCES

Workgroup Contents
Workgroup Contents
Lecture 8.8 : Design of Unstiffened Cylinders
Top
1. INTRODUCTION
2. UNSTIFFENED CYLINDERS UNDER AXIAL COMPRESSION
3. UNSTIFFENED CYLINDERS UNDER EXTERNAL PRESSURE
4. UNSTIFFENED CYLINDERS UNDER AXIAL COMPRESSION AND EXTERNAL PRESSURE
6. REFERENCES

Workgroup Contents
Workgroup Contents
Lecture 8.9 : Design of Stringer-Stiffened Cylindrical

Shells
Top
1. INTRODUCTION
2. BUCKLING OF STIFFENED SHELLS
3. CYLINDRICAL SHELLS WITH LONGITUDINAL STIFFENERS AND SUBJECTED TO

MERIDIONAL COMPRESSION
4. LIMITATION OF THE IMPERFECTIONS
5. STRENGTH CONDITIONS
6. LOCAL PANEL BUCKLING
7. STIFFENED PANEL BUCKLING
8. LOCAL BUCKLING OF STRINGERS
10. REFERENCES

Workgroup Contents
Workgroup Contents
Lecture 9.1 : Thin-Walled Members and Sheeting
Top
1. INTRODUCTION TO THE DESIGN OF COLD- FORMED SECTIONS
1.1 Typical Products and Uses
1.2 Applications
1.3 Advantages
1.4 Manufacture
1.5 Materials
1.6 Effects of Cold Forming
1.7 Connections
1.8 Codes
2. CHARACTERISTIC BEHAVIOUR
2.1 General
3. LOCAL BUCKLING AND THE EFFECTIVE WIDTH CONCEPT
3.1 Doubly and Singly Supported Elements
3.2 Effective Cross-sections
3.3 Web Buckling and Crippling
3.4 Lateral-torsional Buckling

Workgroup Contents
3.5 Interaction of Local and Global Buckling
4. PRACTICAL CONSIDERATIONS
4.1 Good Practice Notes
4.2 Influence of Joint Flexibility
6. REFERENCES

Workgroup Contents
Workgroup Contents
Lecture 9.2 : Design Procedures for Columns
Top
1. INTRODUCTION
2. PREPARATION OF DESIGN PROCEDURES
3. DESIGN OF AXIALLY LOADED COLUMNS
5. REFERENCES

Workgroup Contents
Workgroup Contents
Lecture 9.3 : Design Procedures for Beams
Top
1. INTRODUCTION
2.1 Resistance Moment MRd
2.1.1 Plastic resistance moment
2.1.2 MRd with respect to buckling
2.2 Shear Lag
2.3 Flange Curling
2.4 Lateral and Torsional Restraints
3. DESIGN OF BEAMS
3.1 Design of Beams without Lateral-Torsional Buckling
3.2 Design of Beams with Lateral-Torsional Buckling
3.3 Design for Torsion
4. DESIGN OF PURLINS
4.1 Cross-Sections
4.2 Purlin Systems
4.3 Design Models

Workgroup Contents
4.4 Stability Check
4.5 Design of Special Purlin Systems
4.5.1 Single span systems
4.5.2 Double span systems with continuous cross-sections
4.5.3 Overlap and sleeve systems
4.6 Further Aspects in Design
4.7 Design by Testing
4.8 Some Practical Aspects
4.8.1 Connection of purlins to frames
4.8.2 In-plane forces in sheeting
4.8.3 Prevention of lateral-torsional buckling
6. REFERENCES

Workgroup Contents
Workgroup Contents
Lecture 9.4 : Design Procedures for Sheeting
Top
1. INTRODUCTION - TYPES OF SHEETING
2. DESIGN PROCEDURES
3. CALCULATION PROCEDURES FOR TRAPEZOIDAL SHEETING
3.1 Calculation Procedures for Bending
3.1.1 Effective portions of the web
3.1.2 Effect of flange curling
3.1.3 Effect of shear lag
3.1.4 Effect of intermediate stiffeners in flanges and webs
3.1.5 Effect of plasticity in the tension zone
3.2 Calculation Procedures for Shear
3.3 Calculation Procedures for Web Crippling
3.4 Calculation Procedures for the Interaction of Bending and Support Reactions
3.5 Calculation Procedures for Developing Moment Redistribution
3.6 Calculation Procedures for Estimation of the Bending Stiffness
5. REFERENCES

Workgroup Contents

Workgroup Contents
Workgroup Contents
Lecture 9.5 : Stressed Skin Design
Top
1. INTRODUCTION - DESIGN PRINCIPLES
1.1 Diaphragm Action
1.2 Suitable Forms of Construction
1.3 Benefits, Conditions and Restrictions
1.4 Types of Diaphragm
2. RESISTANCE OF SHEAR DIAPHRAGMS
2.1 Principles
2.2 Design Expressions
3. FLEXIBILITY OF SHEAR DIAPHRAGMS
3.1 Principles
4. APPLICATION OF STRESSED SKIN DESIGN
4.1 Shear Diaphragms Alone
4.2 Shear Diaphragms with Rigid Frames
4.3 Complex Diaphragms
4.4 Openings in Diaphragms

Workgroup Contents
4.5 Diaphragm Bracing
4.6 Simplified Design Method
6. REFERENCES

Workgroup Contents
Workgroup Contents
Lecture 9.6 : Connections in Thin-Walled

Construction
Top
1. INTRODUCTION
2. CONNECTION TYPES
3. TYPES OF FASTENERS
3.1 Mechanical Fasteners
3.2 Welds
4. CONNECTION DESIGN
4.1 General Requirements
4.2 Forces in the Connections
4.3 Failure Modes of Connections
4.3.1 Mechanical fasteners
4.3.2 Failure modes of welded attachments
4.4 Applications
4.4.1 Fastening of outer profiled sheeting to cassettes
4.4.2 Fastening of outer profiled sheeting to inner profiled sheeting via Z-

sections

Workgroup Contents
6. REFERENCES

Workgroup Contents
Workgroup Contents
Lecture 9.7 : Application of Thin-Walled

Construction
Top
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 Available Products
1.1.1 Profiled sheeting
1.1.2 Members
1.1.3 Sandwich panels
2.1 Cold-Formed Sections and Sheeting
2.2 Profiled Sheeting and Concrete
2.3 Fasteners
3. PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS
3.1 Acoustics
3.2 Fire Resistance
3.3 Condensation
3.4 Durability
4. USE IN SERVICE

Workgroup Contents
5. TYPES OF LIGHT-WEIGHT STRUCTURES
5.1 Industrial Buildings
5.2 Housing
5.3 Temporary Accommodation
5.4 Storage

Workgroup Contents
Workgroup Contents
Lecture 10.1 : Composite Construction - General
Top
1. INTRODUCTION
2. COMPOSITE ACTION IN BEAMS
3. COMPOSITE MEMBERS
3.1 Composite Beams
3.1.1 Propped construction
3.1.2 Resistance of section
3.1.3 Continuous beams and slabs
3.2 Shear Connection
3.3 Beam-to-Column Connection
3.5 Partially Encased Steel Sections
3.6 Composite Slabs
4. COMPOSITE FLOOR CONSTRUCTION
5. COMPOSITE BRIDGES
7. REFERENCES

Workgroup Contents

Workgroup Contents
Workgroup Contents
Lecture 10.2 : The Behaviour of Beams
Top
1. INTRODUCTION
2. COMPONENT BEHAVIOUR
3. DESCRIPTION OF A SIMPLY SUPPORTED COMPOSITE BEAM
3.1 General
3.2 Structural Behaviour
3.3 Practical Load Situations
3.4 Creep and Shrinkage
3.5 Propped and Unpropped Composite Beams
3.6 Partial Connection
4. CONTINUOUS COMPOSITE BEAMS

Workgroup Contents
Workgroup Contents
Lecture 10.3 : Single Span Beams
Top
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 Ultimate Limit State
1.2 Serviceability Limit State
2. DESIGN ASPECTS OF THE CONCRETE FLANGE IN COMPRESSION
2.1 Effective width
2.2 Maximum Longitudinal Shear in the Concrete Slab
3. DESIGN CALCULATION
4. PLASTIC DESIGN METHOD
4.1 Positive Bending Moment
4.2 Vertical Shear
4.3 Vertical Shear in Combination with Bending Moment
6. REFERENCES

Workgroup Contents
Workgroup Contents
Lecture 10.4.1 : Continuous Beams I
Top
1. INTRODUCTION
2. RIGID-PLASTIC GLOBAL ANALYSIS
3. BEHAVIOUR OF CONTINUOUS COMPOSITE BEAMS
4. ROTATION CAPACITY FOR PLASTIC ANALYSIS
5. RIGID-PLASTIC ANALYSIS IN EUROCODE 4
6. CLASSIFICATION OF CROSS-SECTIONS
7. PLASTIC RESISTANCE MOMENTS
8. DISTRIBUTION OF BENDING MOMENT
10. REFERENCES

Workgroup Contents
Workgroup Contents
Lecture 10.4.2 : Continuous Beams II
Top
1. INTRODUCTION
2. GENERAL PRINCIPLES
2.1 Effective Width of Concrete Flange
2.2 Modular Ratio
2.3 Load Arrangements and Load Cases
3.1 Cracked Section Analysis
3.2 Uncracked Section Method
3.3 Redistribution of Support Moments for Elastic Analysis
4. CLASSIFICATION OF CROSS-SECTIONS OF BEAMS
5. ELASTIC RESISTANCE MOMENT
6. LATERAL-TORSIONAL BUCKLING
6.1 Lateral Restraint
8. REFERENCES

Workgroup Contents
Workgroup Contents
Lecture 10.5.1 : Design for Serviceability I
Top
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 General
1.2 Serviceability Limit States
1.2.1 Explicit Methods
1.2.1.1 Criteria
1.2.1.2 Calculation of Ed
1.2.1.3 Limits for Cd
1.2.1.4 Design Procedure
1.2.2 Deemed-to-satisfy Provisions
2. ELASTIC ANALYSIS
2.1 General
2.2 Elastic Moduli
2.2.1 Young's modulus for steel
2.2.2 Elastic modulus for concrete - short-term
2.2.3 Elastic modulus for concrete - long term
2.2.4 Modular Ratio

Workgroup Contents
2.3 Geometrical Properties of the Section
2.3.1 Introduction
2.3.2 Effective Breadth
2.3.3 Second moment of area
2.3.4 Service stresses
2.4 Section stiffnesses
2.5 Simply supported and continuous composite beams
3. SERVICEABILITY LIMIT STATES: CRACKING
3.1 Explicit Methods
3.2 Deemed-to-satisfy approach
4. SERVICEABILITY LIMIT STATES: DEFLECTION
4.1.1 Criteria
4.1.2 Calculation of Deflection (Ed)
4.1.3 Limit for deflection (Cd)
4.1.4 Design procedure
6. REFERENCES

Workgroup Contents
Workgroup Contents
Lecture 10.5.2 : Design for Serviceability - II
Top
1. INTRODUCTION
2. CREEP AND SHRINKAGE
2.1 General
2.2 Creep
2.2.1 Creep: Influencing factors
2.2.2 Creep functions • and creep coefficient •
2.2.2.1 Definitions
2.2.2.2 Creep: Alternative formulations
2.2.2.3 Creep: Eurocode 2 formulation
2.3 Shrinkage
2.4 Methods of Analysis for Creep and Shrinkage
3.1 Deemed-To-Satisfy Approach
3.1.1 General
3.1.2 Minimum reinforcement areas
3.2 Explicit Calculation of Crack Widths

Workgroup Contents
3.2.1 Cracking: Limit state design
3.2.2 Maximum design crack widths: limits
3.2.3 Crack width calculations
5. REFERENCES

Workgroup Contents
Workgroup Contents
Lecture 10.6.1 : Shear Connection 1
Top
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 The Forces Applied to Connectors
1.2 Basic Forms of Connection
2. DESIGN VALUES FOR SHEAR CONNECTORS
3. APPLICATION OF DESIGN VALUES
4. SPACING OF SHEAR CONNECTORS
5. SHEAR CONNECTORS IN SLABS FORMED USING PROFILED STEEL SHEETING
6. ALTERNATIVE FORMS OF CONNECTION
8. REFERENCES

Workgroup Contents
Workgroup Contents
Lecture 10.6.2 : Shear Connection II
Top
1. INTRODUCTION
2. CLASSIFICATION OF SHEAR CONNECTORS
3. DESIGN WITH NON-DUCTILE CONNECTORS
4. DESIGN OF SIMPLY SUPPORTED BEAMS WITH DUCTILE CONNECTORS
4.1 Definition of Full and Partial Shear Connection
4.2 Design Method for Partial Shear Connection
4.3 Checking of the Serviceability Limit State
7. REFERENCES

Workgroup Contents
Workgroup Contents
Lecture 10.6.3 : Shear Connection III
Top
1. INTRODUCTION
2. SHEAR CONNECTION DESIGN IN CONTINUOUS COMPOSITE BEAMS
2.1 General Aspects
2.2 Continuous Beams with Critical Cross-Sections in Class1
2.2.1 Simple Case - Single Point Load Only
2.2.2 General Cases
3. CASE OF CONTINUOUS BEAMS WITH CRITICAL CROSS-SECTIONS IN CLASS 2 AT

INTERNAL SUPPORTS
5. REFERENCES

Workgroup Contents
Workgroup Contents
Lecture 10.7 : Composite Slabs
Top
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 Definition
1.2 Types of Profiled Sheet
1.3 Steel-Concrete Connection
2. DESIGN PRINCIPLES
2.1 Design Situations
2.2 Actions
2.3 Material Properties
2.4 Deflection Limits
2.5 Verification Conditions
3. BEHAVIOUR AND ANALYSIS
3.1 Behaviour of Profiled Sheeting
3.2 Behaviour of Composite Slabs
3.3 Analysis of Composite Slabs
4. RESISTANCES OF SECTIONS
4.1 Positive Bending Resistance

Workgroup Contents
4.2 Negative Bending Resistance
4.3 Vertical and Punching Shear Resistance
4.4 Longitudinal Shear Resistance
4.5 Elastic Properties of Cross-sections
5. VERIFICATIONS
5.1 Verification of the Ultimate Limit States
5.2 Verification of the Serviceability Limit State
7. REFERENCES

Workgroup Contents
Workgroup Contents
Lecture 10.8.1 : Composite Columns I
Top
1. INTRODUCTION
2. TYPES OF CROSS-SECTION FOR COMPOSITE COLUMNS AND THEIR ADVANTAGES
3. MATERIAL GRADES AND MATERIAL SAFETY
4. LOCAL BUCKLING FAILURE
5. RESISTANCE OF CROSS-SECTIONS TO AXIAL LOADS
6. RELATIVE SLENDERNESS AND STIFFNESSES
7. RESISTANCE OF MEMBERS TO AXIAL LOADS
8. RESTRICTIONS TO THE APPLICABILITY OF THE SIMPLIFIED METHOD ACCORDING

TO EUROCODE4
9. BEARING IN COMPOSITE COLUMNS
11. REFERENCES

Workgroup Contents
Workgroup Contents
Lecture 10.8.2 : Composite Columns II
Top
1. INTRODUCTION
2. GENERAL
3. ANALYSIS FOR BENDING MOMENTS
4. COMPRESSION AND UNIAXIAL BENDING
5. INTERACTION CURVE FOR COMBINED COMPRESSION AND BENDING
6. COMPRESSION AND BIAXIAL BENDING
7. INFLUENCE OF SHEAR FORCES
8. REGIONS OF LOAD INTRODUCTION
10. REFERENCES

Workgroup Contents
Workgroup Contents
Lecture 10.9 : Composite Buildings
Top
1. INTRODUCTION
2. COMPOSITE ACTION BETWEEN STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS IN BUILDINGS
3. BUILDING COMPONENTS
3.1 Floor Structures
3.1.1 Floors
3.1.2 Floor beam arrangement
3.1.3 Composite beams
3.1.4 The structural depth
3.1.5 Assessment criteria
3.2 Framing Systems to Resist Horizontal Loads
3.3 Connections
4. ERECTION METHODS
5. SEISMIC DESIGN
6. DYNAMIC SENSITIVITY
7. FIRE CONDITION

Workgroup Contents

Workgroup Contents
Workgroup Contents
Lecture 10.10 : Composite Bridges
Top
1. INTRODUCTION
2. COMPOSITE BRIDGES - PRINCIPAL TYPES
3. MAIN ADVANTAGES OF COMPOSITE BRIDGES
4. STRUCTURAL ACTION
4.1 Positive Bending Moment Regions
4.2 Negative Bending Moment Regions
4.2.1 Major factors to be considered
4.2.2 Conceptual aspects
5. SHEAR CONNECTION
6. FABRICATION AND ERECTION
8. REFERENCES

Workgroup Contents
Workgroup Contents
Lecture 11.1.1 : Connections in Buildings
Top
1. INTRODUCTION
2. COMPONENTS OF CONNECTIONS
3. TYPES OF CONNECTIONS
3.1 Column Splices (Figure 8)
3.2 Column Bases (Figure 9)
3.3 Simple Beam-to-Column Connections (Figure 10)
3.4 Moment Resisting Beam-to-Column Connections (Figure11)
3.5 Simple Beam-to-Beam Connections (Figure 12)
3.6 Moment Resisting Beam-to-Beam Connections (Figure13)
3.7 Horizontal Bracing Connections (Figure 14)
3.8 Vertical Bracing Connections (Figure 15)
4. REQUIREMENTS FOR ECONOMY

Workgroup Contents
Workgroup Contents
Lecture 11.1.2 : Introduction to Connection Design
Top
1. INTRODUCTION
2. REQUIREMENTS FOR STRUCTURAL BEHAVIOUR
3. CLASSIFICATION AS A BASIS FOR DESIGN
4. LOAD TRANSFER
6. REFERENCES

Workgroup Contents
Workgroup Contents
Lecture 11.2.1 : Generalities on Welded Connections
Top
1. INTRODUCTION
2. TYPES OF WELDS
2.1 Butt Welds
2.2 Fillet Welds
2.3 Plug and Slot Welds
2.4 Spot Welds
3. DESCRIPTION OF WELDS - DEFINITIONS
4. MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS
4.1 Parent Metal
4.2 Filler metal
5. EDGE PREPARATION AND FIT-UP
6. WELD QUALITY - DISCONTINUITIES
8. REFERENCES

Workgroup Contents
Workgroup Contents
Lecture 11.2.2 : Welded Connections - Basis for Weld

Calculation
Top
1. INTRODUCTION
2. BUTT WELD CALCULATION
2.1 Full Penetration Butt Welds
2.2 Partial Penetration Butt Welds
2.3 Stress Distribution in Butt Welds
3. FILLET WELD CALCULATION
3.1 Assumptions
3.2 Basic Method
3.3 Mean Stress Method
3.4 Long welds
4. SLOT AND PLUG WELD CALCULATION
6. REFERENCES

Workgroup Contents
Workgroup Contents
Lecture 11.2.3 : Welded Connections - Applications

of Fillet Weld Calculation
Top
1. INTRODUCTION
2. SIDE FILLET WELDS
2.1 Application of the Mean Stress Method
2.2 Application of the Alternative Method
2.3 Connection Strength Equal to Member Strength
3. END FILLET WELDS
4. OBLIQUE LOADING
5. LOAD-DEFORMATION BEHAVIOUR
6. WELD TO UNSTIFFENED FLANGES
7. BASE METAL CHECKING
9. REFERENCES

Workgroup Contents

Workgroup Contents
Workgroup Contents
Lecture 11.3.1 : Connections with Non-Preloaded

Bolts
Top
1. INTRODUCTION
2. PRINCIPLE OF LOAD TRANSMISSION
3. DIMENSIONS OF THE BOLTS
4. BOLT GRADES
5. DIAMETER OF THE HOLES
6. NOMINAL AND STRESS SECTIONS OF
7. SHEAR RESISTANCE
7.1 Normal Joints
7.2 Long Joints
8. BEARING RESISTANCE
9. TENSION RESISTANCE
10. BOLTS SUBJECT TO SHEAR AND TENSION
11. SPACING REQUIREMENTS
11.1 Basis
11.2 Connections of plates

Workgroup Contents
11.2.1 Minimum end distance
11.2.2 Minimum edge distance
11.3.3 Maximum end and edge distances
11.2.4 Minimum spacing
11.2.5 Maximum spacing in compression members
11.2.6 Maximum spacing in tension members
11.3 Angles Connected by One Leg
12. REFERENCES

Workgroup Contents
Workgroup Contents
Lecture 11.3.2 : Connections with Preloaded Bolts
Top
1. INTRODUCTION
2. LOAD TRANSMISSION
2.1 Friction Connections
2.2 Tension Connections
3. PRELOAD IN BOLTS
4. TIGHTENING BOLTS
5. NUTS AND WASHERS
6. HOLES
7. SLIP RESISTANCE
8. SHEAR AND TENSION RESISTANCE
9. PROVISIONS FOR FRICTION GRIP CONNECTIONS
11. REFERENCES

Workgroup Contents
Workgroup Contents
Lecture 11.3.3 : Particular Aspects in Bolted

Connections
Top
1. GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS
2. OVERSIZE AND SLOTTED HOLES
3. FIT OF CONTACT SURFACES
4. DETERMINATION OF THE SLIP FACTOR
5. FITTED AND INJECTION BOLTS
6. TC BOLTS - LOAD INDICATOR WASHERS
6.1 A "Tension Control" (TC) bolt has a torque control groove and a torque control
spline at the end of the threaded part as shown in Figure 6. When the torque reaches a
definite value determined by the groove, the end of the screw breaks and the tightening
is stopped.
6.2 A Load Indicator washer is a specially hardened washer with protrusions on one
face, illustrated in Figure 7. The protrusions bear against the underside of the bolt head
leaving a gap. As the bolt is tightened the protrusions are flattened and the gap reduced.
At a specified average gap, measured by feeler gauge, the induced shank tension will
not be less than the minimum required by Standards. Figure 8 shows a standard
assembly in place before and after tightening the bolt.
7. PLATES PROTECTED AGAINST CORROSION
8. PROTECTED BOLTS
9. HYDROGEN EMBRITTLEMENT - STRESS CORROSION

Workgroup Contents
12. REFERENCES

Workgroup Contents
Workgroup Contents
Lecture 11.4.1 : Analysis of Connections I: Basic

Determination of Forces
Top
1. INTRODUCTION
2. DETERMINATION OF FORCES
2.1 Forces on the Connection
2.2 Force Distribution in the Connection
2.3 Basic Load Cases for Local Elements
3. DISTRIBUTION OF FORCES
3.1 Influence of Stiffness Differences
3.2 Free Centre of Rotation and Forced Centre of Rotation
5. REFERENCES

Workgroup Contents
Workgroup Contents
Lecture 11.4.2 : Analysis of Connections: Distribution

of Forces in Groups of Bolts and Welds
Top
1.1 LONG CONNECTIONS
1.2 Distribution of Forces in Weld Groups
1.3 Non-Linear Distribution of Bolt Forces
1.4 Combination of Different Types of Fasteners
3. REFERENCES

Workgroup Contents
Workgroup Contents
Lecture 11.4.3 : Analysis of Connections: Transfer of

Direct Tension or Compression and Shear
Top
1. TRANSFER OF AXIAL TENSILE OR COMPRESSIVE FORCES
1.1 Butt Welds
1.2 Transfer of Axial Loads using Cover Plates
1.3 Connections to Gusset Plates
2. TRANSFER OF SHEAR FORCES
4. REFERENCES

Workgroup Contents
Workgroup Contents
Lecture 11.4.4 : Analysis of Connections: Resistance

to Moment by Combined Tension and Compression
Top
1. INTRODUCTION
2. TRANSFER OF TENSILE FORCES
2.1 Criteria
2.2 Plastic Failure of the Column Flange
2.3 Yield/Rupture of the Column Web
3. TRANSFER OF COMPRESSION FORCES
4. TRANSFER OF SHEAR FORCES (SHEAR ZONE)
6. REFERENCES

Workgroup Contents
Workgroup Contents
Lecture 11.5 : Simple Connections for Buildings
Top
1. INTRODUCTION
2. BEAM-TO-BEAM CONNECTIONS
3. BEAM-TO-COLUMN CONNECTIONS
4. COLUMN SPLICES
5. BRACING CONNECTIONS
6. COLUMN BASES
7. BEAM-TO-CONCRETE WALL CONNECTIONS
9. REFERENCES

Workgroup Contents
Workgroup Contents
Lecture 11.6 : Moment Connections for Continuous

Framing
Top
1. INTRODUCTION
2. RESUM OF WHAT 'CONTINUOUS' IMPLIES
3. RIGID AND FULL STRENGTH CONNECTIONS IN PRACTICE
3.1 Full Strength Connections
3.2 Rigid Connections
4. MEANS OF FORMING CONNECTIONS
5. STRENGTH DESIGN OF CONNECTIONS
5.1 Calculation of Bolt Tension
5.2 The Equivalent T-stub Concept
5.3 Multiple Bolt Rows
5.4 Justification for the Plastic Bolt Force Distribution
6. THE PITCHED-ROOF PORTAL FRAME
8. REFERENCES

Workgroup Contents
Workgroup Contents
Lecture 11.7 : Partial Strength Connections for Semi-

Continuous Framing
Top
1. INTRODUCTION
2. DEFINING TERMS
3. PLASTIC AND ELASTIC GLOBAL ANALYSIS
4. WHAT MAKES A CONNECTION SUITABLE?
5. THE NEED FOR RIGIDITY
6. STANDARDIZED CONNECTION DESIGNS
7. CALCULATION OF CONNECTION PROPERTIES
8. ECONOMICAL CONNECTION DESIGN
9. UNBRACED FRAMES
11. REFERENCES

Workgroup Contents
Workgroup Contents
Lecture 11.8 : Splices in Buildings
Top
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 Types of Splices
1.2 Loads in Splices
1.3 Scope of Present Lecture
2. SPLICES IN TENSION MEMBERS
2.1 Bolted Splice Plated Connections
2.1.1 Bearing-type connections
2.1.2 Slip Resistant Bolts
2.1.3 Tension bolted connections
2.2 Welded Splice Connections
2.3 Special Connections
3. SPLICES IN COMPRESSION MEMBERS
3.2 Bolted End Plated Connections
3.3 Fully Welded Connections
3.4 Additional Comments

Workgroup Contents
4. SPLICES IN MEMBERS SUBJECT TO BENDING
5. SPLICES IN MEMBERS SUBJECT TO COMBINED AXIAL FORCE AND BENDING

Workgroup Contents
Workgroup Contents
Lecture 12.1 : Basic Introduction to Fatigue
Top
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 Nature of Fatigue
1.2 How Welds Fatigue
1.3 Crack Growth History
2. FATIGUE STRENGTH
2.1 Definition of Fatigue Strength and Fatigue Life
2.2 Primary Factors Affecting Fatigue Life
2.3 S-N Curve
2.4 Effect of Mean Stress
2.5 Effect of Mechanical Strength
3. CLASSIFICATION OF DETAILS
3.1 Detail Classes
3.2 Detail Types
3.3 Commonly Used Detail Types
4. STRESS PARAMETERS FOR FATIGUE
4.1 Stress Area

Workgroup Contents
4.2 Calculation of Stress Range • •
4.3 Effects of Geometrical Stress Concentrations and Other Effects
4.4 Secondary Effects
5. LOADINGS FOR FATIGUE
5.1 Types of Loading
5.2 Cycle Counting
6. CALCULATION OF DAMAGE
8. REFERENCES

Workgroup Contents
Workgroup Contents
Lecture 12.2 : Advanced Introduction to Fatigue
Top
1. INTRODUCTION
2. CHARACTERISTICS OF FATIGUE FRACTURE SURFACES
3. NATURE OF THE FATIGUE PROCESS
4. FATIGUE LOADING
5. FATIGUE LIFE DATA
5.1 Fatigue Strength Curves
5.2 Fatigue Testing
5.3 Presentation of Fatigue Test Data
6. PRIMARY FACTORS AFFECTING FATIGUE LIFE
6.1 Material Effects
6.2 Mean Stress Effects
6.3 Notch Effects
6.4 Size Effects
6.5 Effects of Surface Finish
6.6 Residual Stress Effects
6.8 Effects of Corrosion

Workgroup Contents
7. CYCLE COUNTING PROCEDURE FOR VARIABLE AMPLITUDE LOADING
7.1 The Reservoir Method
7.2 The `Rainflow' Counting Method
7.3 Exceedance Diagram Methods
7.4 Block Loading
7.5 Frequency and Spectrum Aspects
9. REFERENCES

Workgroup Contents
Workgroup Contents
Lecture 12.3 : Effect of Workmanship on Fatigue

Strength of Longitudinal and Transverse Welds
Top
1. INTRODUCTION
2. LONGITUDINAL WELDS
3. TRANSVERSE BUTT WELDS
3.1 Effect of Internal Defects.
3.2 Effect of Welding Procedure
4. OTHER WELDS
4.1 General
4.2 Transverse Fillet Welds
4.3 Load-Carrying and Non Load-Carrying Attachments
5. INSPECTION
5.1 Inspection of Longitudinal Welds
5.2 Inspection of Transverse Butt Welds
5.3 Inspection of Other Welds
6. CHOICE OF QUALITY

Workgroup Contents
9. REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING

Workgroup Contents
Workgroup Contents
Lecture 12.4.1 : Fatigue Behaviour of Hollow Section

Joints (I)
Top
1. INTRODUCTION
2. GEOMETRIC STRESS OR HOT SPOT STRESS APPROACH
2.1 Definition of Geometric Stress and Stress Concentration Factors
2.2 Definition of Fatigue Life
2.3 Thickness Effect
2.4 Fatigue Limit
2.5 Fatigue Class and • • -N Curves
2.6 Low Cycle Fatigue
2.7 Design Procedure
3. CLASSIFICATION METHOD
4. OTHER METHODS
4.1 Failure Criterion Method
4.2 Punching Shear Method
4.3 Relation to Static Strength
5. EFFECT OF SECONDARY BENDING MOMENTS

Workgroup Contents
6. SIMPLE CONNECTIONS AND ATTACHMENTS
8. CUMULATIVE DAMAGE
10. REFERENCES

Workgroup Contents
Workgroup Contents
Lecture 12.4.2 : Fatigue Behaviour of Hollow Section

Joints II
Top
1. INTRODUCTION
2. MODELLING OF THE STRUCTURE
3. END-TO-END CONNECTIONS AND ATTACHMENTS
4. GEOMETRIC STRESS METHOD
4.1 Reference Curves
4.2 Determination of Geometric Stresses by F.E. Modelling
4.3 Stress Concentration Factors
4.4 Fatigue Life
6. GENERAL REQUIREMENTS FOR WELDING
8. REFERENCES

Workgroup Contents
Workgroup Contents
Lecture 12.5 : Improvement Techniques in Welded

Joints
Top
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 General
1.2 The Potential for Improving Fatigue Strength
2. IMPROVEMENT METHODS - OPERATING PRINCIPLES
3. SOME IMPROVEMENT METHODS AND THEIR EFFECT ON FATIGUE STRENGTH
3.1 Improved Welding Techniques
3.1.1 The AWS improved profile
3.1.2 Special electrodes
3.2 Grinding
3.3 Weld Toe Remelting
3.3.1 TIG dressing
3.3.2 Plasma dressing
3.4 Residual Stress Methods
3.4.1 Hammer peening
3.4.2 Shot peening

Workgroup Contents
3.5 Compounding
4. APPLYING IMPROVEMENT METHODS TO REAL STRUCTURES
5. IMPROVEMENT METHODS AND DESIGN RULES
5.1 Current design rules incorporating improvement techniques
5.2 Improved Welds and Size Effects
5.3 Future Modification to Design Rules
7. REFERENCES

Workgroup Contents
Workgroup Contents
Lecture 12.6 : Fatigue Behaviour of Bolted

Connections
Top
1. INTRODUCTION
2. FATIGUE BEHAVIOUR OF BOLTS LOADED IN TENSION
2.1 Location of Failure
2.2 Influence of Mean Stress and Material
2.3 The Fatigue Design Curve for Bolts in Tension
2.4 Comparison Between Ultimate and Fatigue Load Resistance of a Bolt
3. FATIGUE BEHAVIOUR OF BOLTED CONNECTIONS LOADED IN TENSION
3.1 The Principle of the Effect of Preloading
3.2 The Effect of the Location of the Contact Area
4. FATIGUE OF BOLTED CONNECTIONS LOADED IN SHEAR
4.1 The Principle of Load Transfer
4.2 Stress Concentration Around the Holes
5. FATIGUE DESIGN CURVES FOR CONNECTIONS LOADED IN SHEAR
5.1 Non Preloaded Bolts

Workgroup Contents
5.2 Preloaded Bolts
6. REMARKS CONCERNING THE MAGNITUDE OF THE PRELOAD
7. FATIGUE STRENGTH OF ANCHOR BOLTS
9. REFERENCES

Workgroup Contents
Workgroup Contents
Lecture 12.7 : Reliability Analysis and Safety Factors

Applied to Fatigue Design
Top
1. INTRODUCTION
2. STATISTICAL ANALYSIS OF S-N CURVES
3. SAFETY CONCEPT AND PARTIAL SAFETY COEFFICIENTS
3.1 Derivation of Partial Safety Factors
5. REFERENCES

Workgroup Contents
Workgroup Contents
Lecture 12.8 : Basic Fatigue Design Concepts in

Eurocode3
Top
1. INTRODUCTION
2. PRACTICAL IMPLICATION OF DESIGN CRITERIA
2.1 Main Factors Affecting the Fatigue Strength
2.2 Fatigue Failure Criteria
2.3 Design Stresses for Fatigue Assessment
3. DESIGN STRESS SPECTRUM
3.1 Stress History
3.2 Stress Histogram
4. FATIGUE DESIGN CURVES CLASSIFICATION CONCEPT
5. FATIGUE TEST RESULTS
6. CUMULATIVE DAMAGE RULE, EQUIVALENT STRESS RANGE CONCEPT
6.1 Palmgren-Miner Summation
6.2 Equivalent Stress Range
6.3 Equivalent Stress Range for an S-N Curve with a double Slopes Constant
7. RESIDUAL STRESS EFFECT

Workgroup Contents
9. REFERENCES

Workgroup Contents
Workgroup Contents
Lecture 12.9 : Eurocode 3 Classification of

Constructional Details
Top
1. INTRODUCTION
2. GENERAL PRESENTATION OF THE CASE STUDY
3. NOTES ON DETAILED FIGURES 2 - 7 OF THE CASE STUDY

Workgroup Contents
Workgroup Contents
Top
1. INTRODUCTION
2. BACKGROUND TO MODERN FRACTURE MECHANICS
3. EFFECTS OF MODE OF LOADING
4. EFFECTS OF CRACK GEOMETRY
5. EFFECTS OF FINITE COMPONENT GEOMETRY
6. LOCAL YIELDING EFFECTS AT A CRACK TIP
7. SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STRESS INTENSITY FACTOR
9. REFERENCES

Workgroup Contents
Workgroup Contents
Top
1. INTRODUCTION
2. BASIC SOLUTION FOR A STRESS FIELD IN A PROBLEM OF PLANE ELASTICITY
2.1 Method of Westergaard
2.2 Definition of z (or its derivatives) for the Case of a Through-Thickness Crack of
Length 2a in an Infinite Plate (Figure 2)
2.3 Determination of z in the Case of the Griffith Problem
3 CRACK TIP ELASTIC STRESS FIELD FOR GENERAL CRACKING CONDITIONS
4. PLASTICITY
4.1 Irwin's Model
4.2 Plastic Zone Contour from Von Mises and Tresca Criteria (Figure 5)
4.2.1 Von Mises Criterion
4.2.2 Tresca Criterion
5. FRONT CRACK YIELDING MODEL OF D S DUGDALE (1960) AND BAREN BLATT (1962)
5.1 Plastic Zone Dimension
5.2 Crack Tip Opening Displacement

Workgroup Contents
7. REFERENCES

Workgroup Contents
Workgroup Contents
Lecture 12.12 : Determination of Stress Intensity

Factors
Top
1. INTRODUCTION
2. ANALYTICAL SOLUTIONS
3. BUECKNER'S PRINCIPLE AND WEIGHT FUNCTIONS
4. FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS OF CRACKED BODIES
5. REFERENCE SOLUTIONS FROM PARAMETRIC EQUATIONS
6. PLASTICITY EFFECTS
8. REFERENCES

Workgroup Contents
Workgroup Contents
Lecture 12.13 : Fracture Mechanics Applied to

Fatigue
Top
1. INTRODUCTION
2. FRACTURE MECHANICS CRACK PROPAGATION BEHAVIOUR
3. DETERMINATION OF LIFE UNDER CONSTANT AMPLITUDE
4. VARIABLE AMPLITUDE LOADING
5. THRESHOLD EFFECTS
6. EFFECTS OF RESIDUAL STRESSES

Workgroup Contents
Workgroup Contents
Lecture 12.14 : Fracture Mechanics: Structural

Engineering Applications
Top
1. SAFETY, DURABILITY AND RELIABILITY
1.1 Introduction to Safety and Durability Concepts
1.2 Damage Growth Concepts
1.3 Design Concepts Accounting for Damage
1.4 Reliability and Risk Analyses
2. LIFE PREDICTION METHODOLOGY
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Crack Growth Behaviour Effects
2.2.1 Initial Crack Size
2.2.2 Loading
2.2.3 Material Properties
2.2.4 Structural Properties
2.2.5 Critical Crack Length
2.3 Fatigue Crack Growth Prediction Models
2.3.1 Initial Flaw Distribution

Workgroup Contents
2.3.2 Usage
2.3.4 Crack Tip Stress Intensity Factor Analysis
2.3.5 Damage Integration Models
2.3.6 Final Crack Length
4. REFERENCES

Workgroup Contents
Workgroup Contents
Lecture 12.15 : Fracture Mechanics Applied to

Fitness for Purpose
Top
1. INTRODUCTION
2. CRACK SHAPE DEVELOPMENT
3. MULTIPLE CRACK INITIATION
4. FINAL FAILURE CRITERIA
5. ADVANCED TREATMENTS
7. REFERENCES

Workgroup Contents
Workgroup Contents
Lecture 13.1 : Application of Hollow Sections in Steel

Structures
Top
1. INTRODUCTION
2. MECHANICAL AND GEOMETRICAL PROPERTIES OF HOLLOW SECTIONS
2.1 Mechanical Properties
2.2 Geometrical Properties
2.3 Tension Loading
2.4 Compression Loading
2.5 Torsion
2.6 Bending
2.7 Fatigue (see also Lectures 12.4.1 and 12.4.2)
3. OTHER ASPECTS OF APPLICATION OF HOLLOW SECTIONS
3.1 Drag Coefficients
3.2 Corrosion Protection
3.3 Use of Internal Void
3.3.1 Concrete filling
3.3.2 Fire protection by water circulation and concrete-filling

Workgroup Contents
3.3.3 Heating and ventilation
3.3.4 Other possibilities
3.3.5 Aesthetics
4.1 Aspects of Fabrication
4.2 Welding
4.3 End Preparation
4.4 Bending
4.5 Bolting
5. DESIGN APPLICATIONS
5.1 Columns
5.2 Uniplanar Trusses
5.3 Multiplanar Trusses
5.4 Space Structures
5.5 Composite structures
6. DESIGN PHILOSOPHY
7. DESIGN PROCEDURE FOR A HOLLOW SECTION (CHS OR RHS) TRUSS
8. REASONS FOR USING HOLLOW SECTIONS
10. REFERENCES

Workgroup Contents
Workgroup Contents
Lecture 13.2 : The Behaviour and Design of Welded

Connections between Circular Hollow Sections under
Predominantly Static Loading
Top
1. INTRODUCTION
2. CRITERIA AND MODES OF FAILURE
3. ANALYTICAL MODELS
3.1 Ring Model (Figure 3a)
3.2 Punching Shear Model
3.3 Shear Model
4. TEST EVIDENCE
5. STRENGTH FORMULAE FOR AXIALLY LOADED JOINTS
6. OTHER TYPES OF JOINTS OR OTHER LOAD CONDITIONS
6.1 Special Types of Welded CHS Joints
6.2 Plate or I-Section Connected to CHS Chords
6.3 CHS Joints Loaded by Bending Moments
6.4 Multiplanar CHS Joints (KK- and TT-Connections)
7. DESIGN CHARTS

Workgroup Contents
8. DESIGN PROCEDURE FOR JOINTS IN LATTICE GIRDERS
10. REFERENCES

Workgroup Contents
Workgroup Contents
Lecture 13.3 : The Behaviour and Design of Welded

Connections between Rectangular Hollow Sections
Under Predominantly Static Loading
Top
1. INTRODUCTION
3.1 Yield Line Model
3.3 Effective Bracing Width Model
3.4 Shear Failure Model of The Chord
3.5 Chord Wall Bearing or Local Buckling Model
4. TEST EVIDENCE
5. JOINT STRENGTH FORMULAE FOR AXIALLY LOADED JOINTS
6.1 Joints Between Circular Bracings and a Rectangular Chord
6.2 Plate or I-Section Connected to RHS Chords
6.3 RHS Joints Loaded by Bending Moments

Workgroup Contents
6.4 Multiplanar RHS Joints (KK- and TT-Connections)
7. DESIGN CHARTS
10. REFERENCES

Workgroup Contents
Workgroup Contents
Lecture 14.1.1 : Single- Storey Buildings:

Introduction and Primary Structure
Top
1. INTRODUCTION
2. ANATOMY AND CONCEPTION OF THE STRUCTURE
2.1 Cladding
2.3 The Main Frame of the Structure
2.3.1 Simplest Frames
2.3.2 Portal frames
2.3.3 Lattice Trusses
3. LOADING
3.1 External Gravity Loads
3.2 Wind Loads
3.3 Internal Gravity Loads
3.4 Cranes
3.5 Other Actions
4. FABRICATION

Workgroup Contents
5. TRANSPORTATION
6. ERECTION
8. REFERENCES
9. WIDER READING

Workgroup Contents
Workgroup Contents
Lecture 14.1.2A : Single Storey Buildings: Envelope

and Secondary Structure
Top
1. INTRODUCTION
2. CLADDING SYSTEMS
2.1 Roof Cladding
2.2 Wall Cladding
3. RESISTANCE OF CLADDING TO LOADS
4. SHAPES OF PURLINS AND RAILS
4.1 Cold-Formed Shapes
4.2 Hot-Rolled Shapes
5. RESISTANCE OF PURLINS AND RAILS TO LOADS
6. MAIN FRAME BRACING
8. REFERENCES

Workgroup Contents
Workgroup Contents
Lecture 14.2 : Analysis of Portal Frames:

Introduction and Elastic Analysis
Top
1. INTRODUCTION
2. ELASTIC ANALYSIS OF PORTAL FRAMES
2.2 Imperfections
2.3 Second Order Global Analysis
2.4 First Order Global Analysis
3. SPECIAL FEATURES OF BEHAVIOUR FOR TAPERED PORTAL FRAMES AND

ASSOCIATED DESIGN RULES
4. PRACTICAL DESIGN AND FABRICATION OF TAPERED PORTAL FRAMES
6. REFERENCES

Workgroup Contents
Workgroup Contents
Lecture 14.3 : Analysis of Portal Frames: Plastic

Analysis
Top
1. THE MODERN STEEL PORTAL FRAME
2. REQUIREMENTS FOR PLASTIC ANALYSIS
3. APPLICATION OF PLASTIC ANALYSIS TO A BEAM
4. APPLICATION OF PLASTIC ANALYSIS TO A FLAT TOP PORTAL FRAME
5. THE PRINCIPLE OF VIRTUAL WORK
6. PLASTIC ANALYSIS METHODS
7. APPLICATION OF THE SIMPLE RIGID-PLASTIC METHOD OF ANALYSIS TO THE

DESIGN OF A PITCHED PORTAL FRAME
9. REFERENCES

Workgroup Contents
Workgroup Contents
Lecture 14.4 : Crane Runway Girders
Top
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 The Crane Runway Girder and the Structure
2. TYPE OF CRANES
2.1 Classification of Cranes
3. CRANE RAILS
3.1 Rail Splices
3.2 Rail Fastenings
4. LOADS ON THE CRANE RUNWAY GIRDER
4.1 Transfer of Loads to the Top Flange
5. SELECTION OF THE CRANE RUNWAY GIRDER
5.1 Optimum Girder Proportions
6. DESIGN OF THE CRANE RUNWAY GIRDER
6.1 Crane Runway Girder-to-Column Details
6.2 Rigidity Requirements
6.3 Web Stiffeners
6.4 Lateral Forces and Lateral-Torsional Buckling

Workgroup Contents
6.5 Fatigue Considerations

Workgroup Contents
Workgroup Contents
Lecture 14.5 : Space Structure Systems
Top
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 Definitions
1.3 Different Types of System
1.3.1 Introduction
1.3.2 Two dimensional grids
1.3.2.1 Single layer grids
1.3.2.2 Double layer grids
1.3.3 Cylindrical vaults
1.3.4 Domes
2. DESIGN OF SPATIAL TRUSS SYSTEMS
2.1 Conceptual design
2.2 Design Method
2.3 Initial Sizing
2.4 Choice of the Structural System
2.5 Qualification Procedure

Workgroup Contents
3 ANALYSIS OF SPACE TRUSS SYSTEMS
3.1 Different Analysis Methods
3.2 Design Assumptions
3.3 Limit of Validity of the Methods Described
3.4 Displacement Method
4. FABRICATION OF SPACE TRUSSES
4.1 Introduction
4.2 The Structural System
4.3 Methods of Fabrication and Erection
6. REFERENCES

Workgroup Contents
Workgroup Contents
Lecture 14.6 : Special Single Storey Structures
Top
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 General
1.2 Safety
2. AN OUTLINE OF OLDER TYPES OF SPECIAL SINGLE STOREY STRUCTURES
2.1 The Saw-tooth Roof
2.2 The Umbrella and Butterfly Roofs
2.3 Arched Roofs
2.4 Prestressed Frames
2.5 Domes
3. CABLE AND TENSION STRUCTURES
3.1 General
3.2 Stiffness Under Transverse Loading
3.3 Anchorage
4. ADDITIONAL SPECIAL STRUCTURE CATEGORIES
4.1 Hangars

Workgroup Contents

Workgroup Contents
Workgroup Contents
Lecture 14.7 : Anatomy of Multi-Storey Buildings
Top
1. INTRODUCTION
2. PRIMARY STRUCTURE
2.1 Vertical Load-Bearing Elements
2.1.1 Floors
2.1.2 Structural frame
2.2 Horizontal Load-Bearing Elements
2.2.1 Braced systems
2.2.2 Frame systems
2.2.3 Tall buildings
3. SECONDARY ELEMENTS AND FINISHES
4. PERFORMANCE REQUIREMENTS
6. REFERENCES

Workgroup Contents
Workgroup Contents
Lecture 14.8 : Classification of Multi-Storey Frames
Top
1. INTRODUCTION
2. BRACING SYSTEMS
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Engineering Definition
2.3 Eurocode Definition
3. FRAMED SYSTEMS
3.1 Introduction
4. BRACED AND UNBRACED FRAMES
4.1 Introduction
5. SWAY AND NON-SWAY FRAMES
5.1 Introduction

Workgroup Contents
7. REFERENCES

Workgroup Contents
Workgroup Contents
Lecture 14.9 : Methods of Analysis for Multi-Storey

Frames
Top
1. INTRODUCTION
2. OBJECTIVES AND PRELIMINARY CONSIDERATIONS
3. ACTIONS
3.1 Permanent Actions
3.2 Variable Actions - Imposed Load
3.3 Variable actions - Wind Loads
3.4 Seismic Actions
3.5 Temperature
4. LIMIT STATES
5.1 Classification as Braced or Unbraced
5.2 Classification as Sway or Non-Sway
6. ALLOWANCE FOR IMPERFECTIONS

Workgroup Contents
7. ANALYSIS MODEL AND METHOD
7.1 Simple Framing
7.2 Continuous Frames
7.2.1 Elastic first order analysis
7.2.2 Plastic global analysis
9. REFERENCES

Workgroup Contents
Workgroup Contents
Lecture 14.10 : Simple Braced Non-Sway Multi-

Storey Buildings
Top
1. INTRODUCTION
2. ELEMENTS OF THE STRUCTURE
2.1 Bracing Systems
2.2 Simple Frames
2.3 Floors
3. DESIGN OF THE STRUCTURE
3.1 Loads and Their Combination
3.2 Beam Design
3.3 Column Design
3.4 Bracing System
3.5 Connections
4. ERECTION
6. REFERENCES

Workgroup Contents
Workgroup Contents
Lecture 14.11 : Influence of Connections on

Behaviour of Frames
Top
1. INTRODUCTION
2. CLASSIFICATION OF CONNECTIONS
2.1 Influence of Connection Flexibility on Elastic Frame Stability
2.2 Influence of Connection Flexibility on Frame Strength
2.3 Influence of Connection Strength on Frame Behaviour
3. MODELLING OF THE CONNECTION
5. REFERENCES

Workgroup Contents
Workgroup Contents
Lecture 14.12 : Simplified Method of Design for Low-

Rise Frames
Top
1. INTRODUCTION
2. THE METHOD
3. SCOPE
4. GLOBAL ANALYSIS FOR ULTIMATE LIMIT STATES
5. DESIGN OF BEAMS FOR ULTIMATE LIMIT STATES
6. DESIGN OF COLUMNS FOR ULTIMATE LIMIT STATES
7. DESIGN FOR SERVICEABILITY LIMIT STATE
9. REFERENCES

Workgroup Contents
Workgroup Contents
Lecture 14.13 : Design of Multi-Storey Frames with

Partial Strength and Semi-Rigid Connections
Top
1. INTRODUCTION
3. RELATION BETWEEN FRAME AND CONNECTION BEHAVIOUR
4. PLASTICALLY DESIGNED CONNECTIONS IN ELASTICALLY DESIGNED FRAMES
5. ELASTICALLY DESIGNED CONNECTIONS IN PLASTICALLY DESIGNED FRAMES
7. REFERENCES

Workgroup Contents
Workgroup Contents
Lecture 14.14 : Methods of Analysis of Rigid Jointed

Frames
Top
1. INTRODUCTION
2. EUROCODE 3 APPROACH TO ANALYSIS AND DESIGN
2.1 General Approach
2.2 Second Order Effects
2.3 Imperfections
2.3.1 Common practice
2.3.2 Definitions and Eurocode 3 provisions
3. METHODS OF GLOBAL ELASTIC ANALYSIS
3.1 Premise
3.2 First Order Elastic Global Analysis
3.3. Second Order Elastic Global Analysis
3.3.1 Local second order effects (P-delta)
3.3.2 Global second order effects (P-Delta)
3.3.3 Approximate evaluation of second order effects
3.4 Calculation of Internal Forces and Moments

Workgroup Contents
3.4.1 Effects of deformation
3.4.2 Braced frames
3.4.3 Non-sway frames
3.4.4 Design methods for the elastic analysis of sway frames (direct or
indirect allowances)
3.5 Cross-Section Requirements
4. METHODS OF GLOBAL PLASTIC ANALYSIS
4.1 Rigid-Plastic Analysis
4.1.1 Assumptions, limitations and cross-section requirements
4.1.2 Computation of collapse multiplier of loads
4.2 Elastic-Perfectly Plastic Analysis
4.2.1 Cross-section requirements
4.3 Elasto-Plastic Analysis
4.4.1 Plastic analysis of sway frames
6. REFERENCES

Workgroup Contents
Workgroup Contents
Lecture 14.15 : Tall Building Design
Top
1. INTRODUCTION
2. SYSTEMS EVOLUTION
2.1 Shear Frame Systems
2.2 Shear Truss and Frame System
2.3 Frames, Vertical Trusses, Belt and Outrigger Trusses
2.4 The Framed Tube
2.5 The Diagonalized Tube
2.6 Bundled Tube or Modular Tube System
2.7 Mixed Steel-Concrete Systems
2.7.1 Composite tube systems
2.7.2 Core braced systems
3. ULTRA HIGH-RISE STRUCTURES
3.1 Superframe or Megaframe
3.2 Super-Trussed Tubes
4. EXPOSED STEEL SYSTEMS

Workgroup Contents
6. REFERENCES

Workgroup Contents
Workgroup Contents
Lecture 15A.1 : Offshore Structures: General

Introduction
Top
1. INTRODUCTION
2. OFFSHORE PLATFORMS
2.1 Introduction of Basic Types
2.2 Environment
2.3 Construction
2.4 Codes
2.5 Certification and Warranty Survey
3. OFFSHORE DEVELOPMENT OF AN OIL/GAS FIELD
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Jacket Based Platform for Shallow Water
3.3 Jacket and Gravity Based Platform for Deep Water
4. JACKETS AND PILE FOUNDATION
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Pile Foundation
4.3 Pile Bearing Resistance

Workgroup Contents
5. TOPSIDES
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Jacket-based Topsides
5.2.1 Concepts
5.2.2 Structural Design for Integrated Topsides
5.2.3 Structural Design for Modularized Jacket-based Topsides
5.3 Structural Design for Modularized Gravity-based Topsides
6. EQUIPMENT AND LIVING QUARTER MODULES
7. CONSTRUCTION
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Construction of Jackets and Topsides
7.2.1 Lift Installed Jackets
7.2.2 Launch Installed Jackets
7.2.3 Topsides for a Gravity-Based Structure (GBS)
7.2.4 Jacket Topsides
7.3 Offshore Lifting
7.3.1 Crane Vessel
7.3.2 Sling-arrangement, Slings and Shackles
7.4 Sea Transport and Sea Fastening
7.5 Load-out

Workgroup Contents
7.5.1 Introduction
7.5.2 Skidding
7.5.3 Platform Trailers
7.5.4 Shearlegs
7.6 Platform Removal
8. STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS
8.1 Introduction
8.2 In-place Phase
8.3 Construction Phase
9. COST ASPECTS
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Capital Expenditure (CAPEX)
9.3 Operational Expenditure (OPEX)
10. DEEP WATER DEVELOPMENTS
12. GLOSSARY OF TERMS
13. REFERENCES

Workgroup Contents
Workgroup Contents
Lecture 15A.2 : Loads (I) : Introduction and

Environmental Loads
Top
1. INTRODUCTION
2. ENVIRONMENTAL LOADS
2.1 Wind Loads
2.2 Wave Loads
2.2.1 Wave theories
2.2.2 Wave Statistics
2.2.3 Wave forces on structural members
2.3 Current Loads
2.4 Earthquake Loads
2.5 Ice and Snow Loads
2.6 Loads due to Temperature Variations
2.7 Marine Growth
2.8 Tides
2.9 Sea Floor Movements

Workgroup Contents
4. REFERENCES

Workgroup Contents
Workgroup Contents
Lecture 15A.3 : Loads (II) - Other Loads
Top
1. PERMANENT (DEAD) LOADS
2. OPERATING (LIVE) LOADS
3. FABRICATION AND INSTALLATION LOADS
3.1 Lifting Forces
3.2 Loadout Forces
3.3 Transportation Forces
3.4 Launching and Upending Forces
4. ACCIDENTAL LOADS
5. LOAD COMBINATIONS
7. REFERENCES

Workgroup Contents
Workgroup Contents
Lecture 15A.4 : - Analysis I
Top
1. ANALYTICAL MODEL
2. ANALYTICAL MODEL
2.1 Stick Models
2.1.1 Joints
2.1.2 Members
2.2 Plate Models
3. ACCEPTANCE CRITERIA
3.1 Code Checks
3.2 Allowable Stress Method
3.3 Limit State Method
3.3.1 Load factors
3.3.2 Material factors
3.3.3 Classification of Design Conditions
4. PRELIMINARY MEMBER SIZING
4.1 Jacket Pile Sizes
4.2 Deck Leg Sizes

Workgroup Contents
4.3 Jacket Bracings
4.4 Deck Framing
5. STATIC IN-PLACE ANALYSIS
5.1 Structural Model
5.1.1 Main Model
5.1.2 Appurtenances
5.1.3 Foundation Model
5.2 Loadings
5.2.1 Gravity Loads
5.2.2 Environmental Loads
5.3 Loading Combinations
6. DYNAMIC ANALYSIS
6.1 Dynamic Model
6.2 Equations of Motion
6.2.1 Mass
6.2.2 Damping
6.2.3 Stiffness
6.3 Free Vibration Mode Shapes and Frequencies
6.4 Modal Superposition Method
6.4.1 Frequency Domain Analysis
6.4.2 Time Domain Analysis

Workgroup Contents
6.5 Direct Integration Methods

Workgroup Contents
Workgroup Contents
Lecture 15A.5 : - Analysis II
Top
1. FATIGUE ANALYSIS
1.1 Fatigue Model
1.1.1 Structural Model
1.1.2 Hydrodynamic Loading Model
1.1.3 Joint Stress Model
1.1.4 Fatigue Damage Model
1.1.5 Closed Form Expression
1.2 Deterministic Analysis
1.3 Spectral Analysis
1.4 Wind Fatigue
1.4.1 Wind Gusts
1.4.2 Vortex Shedding
2. ABNORMAL AND ACCIDENTAL CONDITIONS
2.1 Earthquake Analysis
2.1.1 Model
2.1.2 Ductility Requirements

Workgroup Contents
2.1.3 Analysis Method
2.2 Impact
2.2.1 Dropped Object/Boat Impact
2.2.2 Blast and Fire
2.3 Progressive Collapse
3. LOAD OUT & TRANSPORTATION
3.1 Load-Out
3.1.1 Skidding
3.1.2 Load-Out by Trailers
3.2 Transportation
3.2.1 Naval Architectural Model
4. INSTALLATION
4.1 Launching
4.2 Upending
4.3 Docking
4.4 Unpiled Stability
4.5 Piling
4.6 Lifting

Workgroup Contents
4.6.1 Model
4.6.2 Design Factors
4.6.2.1 Skew Load Factor (SKL)
4.6.2.2 Dynamic Amplification Factor (DAF)
4.6.2.3 Tilt Effect Factor (TEF)
4.6.2.4 Yaw Effect Factor (YEF)
4.6.3 Consequence Factors
5. LOCAL ANALYSES AND DESIGN
5.1 Pile/Sleeve Connections
5.2 Members within the Splash Zone
5.3 Straightened Nodes
5.4 Appurtenances
5.4.1 Risers, Caissons & J-Tubes
5.4.2 Conductors
5.5 Helidecks
5.6 Flare Booms
7. REFERENCES

Workgroup Contents
Workgroup Contents
Lecture 15A.6 : Foundations
Top
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 Classification of Soils
1.2 Granular Soils
1.3 Cohesive Soils
1.4 Multi-Layered Strata
2. DESIGN
2.1 Design Loads
2.1.1 Gravity loads
2.1.2 Environmental loads
2.1.3 Load combinations
2.2 Static Axial Pile Resistance
2.2.1 Lateral friction along the shaft (shaft friction)
2.2.2 End bearing
2.2.3 Pile penetration
2.3 Lateral Pile Resistance
2.3.1 P-y curves

Workgroup Contents
2.3.2 Lateral pile analysis
2.4 Pile Driving
2.4.1 Empirical formulae
2.4.2 Wave equation
3. DIFFERENT KINDS OF PILES
3.1 Driven Piles
3.2 Insert Piles
3.3 Drilled and Grouted Piles
3.4 Belled Piles
4. FABRICATION AND INSTALLATION
4.1 Fabrication
4.2 Transportation
4.2.1 Barge transportation
4.2.2 Self floating mode
4.2.3 Transport within the jacket
4.3 Hammers
4.3.1 Steam hammers
4.3.2 Diesel hammers
4.3.3 Hydraulic hammers
4.3.4 Selection of hammer size
4.4 Installation

Workgroup Contents
4.4.1 Pile handling and positioning
4.4.2 Pile connections
4.4.3 Hammer placement
4.4.4 Driving
4.5 Pile-to-Jacket Connections
4.5.1 Welded shims
4.5.2 Mechanical locking system
4.5.3 Grouting
4.6 Quality Control
4.7 Contingency Plan
6. REFERENCES

Workgroup Contents
Workgroup Contents
Lecture 15A.7 : Tubular Joints in Offshore

Structures
Top
1. INTRODUCTION
2. DEFINITIONS
2.1 Geometrical definitions
2.2 Geometrical ratios
3. CLASSIFICATION
3.1 T and Y Joints
3.2 X Joints
3.3 N and K Joints
3.4 KT Joints
3.5 Limitations
3.6 How to classify a joint
4. GAP AND OVERLAP
4.1 Definitions
4.2 Limitations
4.3 Multiplanar Joints

Workgroup Contents
5. JOINT ARRANGEMENT
6. STATIC STRENGTH
6.1 Loads taken into account
6.2 Punching shear
6.2.1 Acting punching shear
6.2.2 Allowable punching shear
6.2.3 The API method
6.3 Overlapping joints
6.4 Reinforced joints
6.4.1 Definition
6.4.2 Ring Stiffening
7. STRESS CONCENTRATION
7.1 Stress concentration factor
7.2 Kellog equation
7.3 Parametric formulae
7.3.1 Kuang equations for T/Y joints [4]
7.3.2 Kuang equations for K joints [4]
7.3.3 Kuang equations for KT joints [4]
8. FATIGUE ANALYSIS
8.1 Nominal stress range
8.1.1 Wave histogram

Workgroup Contents
8.2.2 Nominal stress ranges
8.2 Hot spot stress ranges
8.3 S-N Curves
8.4 Cumulative Fatigue Damage Ratio
10. REFERENCES

Workgroup Contents
Workgroup Contents
Top
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 Construction Phases
1.2 Construction Philosophy
2. ENGINEERING OF EXECUTION
3. FABRICATION
3.1 Fabrication Processes
3.2 Node Fabrication
3.3 Jacket Sub-assemblies
3.4 Dimensional Control
4. JACKET ASSEMBLY AND ERECTION
4.1 Jacket Assembly
4.4 Jacket Erection
6. REFERENCES

Workgroup Contents
Workgroup Contents
Lecture 15A.9 : Installation
Top
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 Project Phases
1.3 Installation Planning
2. LOADOUT AND SEAFASTENING
3. OFFSHORE TRANSPORTATION
4. OFFSHORE INSTALLATION
4.1 Removal of Jacket from Barge
4.1.1 Launch
4.1.2 Lift
4.2 Jacket Up-ending and Set-down
4.2.1 Up-ending by Ballast control and Flooding
4.2.2 Up-ending using the crane vessel
4.3 On-bottom Stability
6. REFERENCES

Workgroup Contents

Workgroup Contents
Workgroup Contents
Lecture 15A.10 : Superstructures I
Top
1. INTRODUCTION
2. BASIC ASPECTS OF DESIGN
2.1 Space and Elevations
2.2 Lay-out Requirements
2.3 Loads
2.4 Interface Control
2.5 Weight Engineering
3.1 Selection of Topside for a Main Jacket-Based Structure
3.2 Selection of Topsides for Gravity Based Structures
3.3 Floor Systems
3.4 Floor Panel Concept for Conventional Steel Floor
3.5 Floor Stabilization Concept
4. DECK FLOORING DESIGN
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Floor Plate

Workgroup Contents
4.3 Stringers
4.4 Deck Beams
4.5 Horizontal Bracing
6. REFERENCES

Workgroup Contents
Workgroup Contents
Lecture 15A.11 : - Superstructures II
Top
1. INTRODUCTION
2. MAIN STRUCTURE DESIGN
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Main Structure-Portal Frame Design
2.3 Main Structure-Truss Design
2.4 Main Structure-Stressed Skin Design
2.5 Non-Load Bearing Walls
2.6 Crane Pedestals
3. ANALYSIS OF DECK STRUCTURES
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Plate Girder Design
3.3 Strength of Joints
3.4 Lifting Points
3.5 Modelling of Floor Plates
3.6 Support of Modules
4. CONSTRUCTION

Workgroup Contents
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Fabrication
4.2.1 Operations
4.2.2 Design aspects
4.3 Weight Engineering
4.4 Load Out
4.4.1 Operations
4.4.2 Design aspects load out
4.5.1 Operations
4.5.2 Design aspects of sea transport and sea fastening
4.6 Installation
4.6.1 Operations
4.6.2 Design aspects of installation by lifting
4.7 Hook up
4.8 Commissioning
4.9 Inspection Maintenance and Repair (IMR)
4.10 Removal
6. REFERENCES

Workgroup Contents
Workgroup Contents
Lecture 15A.12 : Connections in Offshore Deck

Structures
Top
1. INTRODUCTION
2. CONNECTIONS IN OFFSHORE DECK MODULES
3. CONNECTIONS BETWEEN DECK STRINGERS AND BEAMS
4. CONNECTIONS BETWEEN INTERMEDIATE AND MAIN DECK BEAMS
5. BEAM TO DECK LEG CONNECTIONS
6. CONNECTIONS BETWEEN BEAMS AND COLUMNS
7. TRUSS CONNECTIONS
8. SPECIAL CONNECTIONS
10. REFERENCES

Workgroup Contents
Workgroup Contents
Lecture 15B.1 : Conceptual Choice
Top
1. INTRODUCTION
2. FUNDAMENTAL BRIDGE FORMS
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Bridges which Carry Loads Mainly in Flexure
2.3 Bridges which Carry their Loads Mainly as Axial Forces
2.4 Truss Bridges
3. THE PURPOSE AND FUNCTION OF A BRIDGE
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Clearance Requirements
3.3 Loading
3.4 The Topography and Geology of the Site
4. OTHER FACTORS INFLUENCING CONCEPTUAL CHOICE
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Methods of Erection
4.2.1 Assembly in situ
4.2.2 Launching

Workgroup Contents
4.2.3 Lifting
4.2.4 Cantilevering
4.2.5 Sliding or rolling-in
4.3 Local Constructional Skills and Materials
4.4 Future Inspection and Maintenance
4.5 Aesthetic and Environmental Aspects
5. DETAILED CONSIDERATIONS - GIRDER BRIDGES
5.1 Introduction
5.2 The Deck
5.3 Typical Layouts of Short and Medium Span Bridges
5.4 Long Span Girder Bridges
5.5 Minimum Cost or Minimum Weight?
5.6 Design For Construction

Workgroup Contents
Workgroup Contents
Lecture 15B.2 : Actions on Bridges
Top
1. INTRODUCTION
2. HIGHWAY DESIGN LOADINGS
2.1 Dead Load
2.2 Traffic Loads
2.3 Longitudinal Tractive Forces
2.4 Centrifugal Forces
2.5 Sidewalks and Parapets
3. RAILWAY DESIGN LOADINGS
3.1 Dead Load
3.2 Train Loads
3.3 Dynamic Effects (Impact)
3.4 Longitudinal Tractive and Braking Forces
3.5 Centrifugal Forces
3.6 Lateral Forces From Loads
4. OTHER LOADS ON BRIDGES
4.1 Wind Loads

Workgroup Contents
4.2 Thermal Effects on Bridge Structures
4.3 Shrinkage of Concrete
4.4 Settlements of Foundations
4.5 Earthquake Actions
4.6 Forces due to Water Currents or Ice
4.7 Collisions
4.8 Friction in Bearings
4.9 Construction and Erection Loads
5. CRITICAL LOAD CASES FOR DESIGN
5.1 Load Combinations
5.2 Modelling the Construction Process
5.3 Variable Actions on the Completed Structure
7. REFERENCES

Workgroup Contents
Workgroup Contents
Lecture 15B.3 : Bridge Decks
Top
1. INTRODUCTION
2. HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT
2.1 From Separation to Integration of Functions
2.2 Greater Simplicity
2.3 Evolution of the Stringer in Steel Decks
3. MODERN HIGHWAY BRIDGE DECKS
3.1 Reinforced Concrete Slabs for Composite Bridges
3.1.1 Spans and depths
3.1.2 Methods of construction
3.1.3 Methods of analysis and design
3.2.1 Introduction
3.2.2 Structural Behaviour of Orthotropic Steel Decks
3.2.3 The "European" orthotropic deck and methods of construction
3.2.4 Methods of analysis and design verification
4. MODERN RAILWAY BRIDGE DECKS

Workgroup Contents
4.1 Replacement Structures
4.2 New Alignments
6. REFERENCES

Workgroup Contents
Workgroup Contents
Lecture 15B.4 : Plate Girder and Beam Bridges
Top
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 General
1.2 Types of Application
1.3 Range of Application
1.4 Types of Through Girder Bridges
2. SPAN ARRANGEMENTS
2.1 Continuous or Simple Spans
2.2 Proportions of Main Girders
2.3 Profile of Main Girders
3. INITIAL DESIGN OF COMPOSITE GIRDER BRIDGES
3.1 Girder Spacing and Deck Slab Thickness
3.2 Initial Selection of Flange and Web Sizes
3.3 Economic and Practical Considerations
3.3.1 General considerations
3.3.2 Construction considerations
4. INITIAL DESIGN OF NON-COMPOSITE PLATE GIRDER BRIDGES

Workgroup Contents
4.1 Bridge Cross-Section
4.2 Main Girders
4.3 Deck
4.4 Initial Sizing of the Main Girder
5. GIRDER STABILITY AND BRACING
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Composite Plate Girder Bridges
5.3 Non-Composite Plate Girders
6. DETAILED DESIGN
6.1 Global Analysis
6.2 Actions and Combinations
6.3 Element and Connection Design
6.4 Effects Peculiar to Steel Open Grid Deck Configurations
6.4.1 Bending of the Stringers
6.4.2 Weak axis bending of the end cross girder
8. REFERENCES

Workgroup Contents
Workgroup Contents
Lecture 15B.5 : Truss Bridges
Top
1. INTRODUCTION
2. DIFFERENT TYPES OF TRUSS
2.2 Highway Truss Bridges
2.3 Choice of Truss Configuration For Railway Bridges
2.4 Particular Applications
3. GENERAL DESIGN PRINCIPLES
3.1 Span Range
3.2 Ratio of Span to Depth
3.3 Geometry
3.4 Grade of Steel
3.5 Compression Chord Members
3.6 Tension Chord Members
3.7 Vertical and Diagonal Members
3.8 Maintenance
4. LATERAL BRACING

Workgroup Contents
5. ANALYSIS
5.1 Global Load Effects
5.2 Local Load Effects
6. CONNECTIONS
6.1 General
6.2 Truss Joints
6.3 Cross Girder Connections
6.4 Lateral Bracing Connections
8. REFERENCES

Workgroup Contents
Workgroup Contents
Lecture 15B.6 : Box Girder Bridges
Top
1. INTRODUCTION AND HISTORY
2. GENERAL DESIGN PRINCIPLES
2.1 Span
2.2 Span-to-Depth Ratio
2.3 Cross-section
2.4 Grade of Steel
3. STRUCTURAL DETAILS
3.1 Longitudinal Stiffeners
3.2 Pier Diaphragms and Intermediate Cross Frames
3.3 Intermediate Transverse Elements Between Boxes
3.4 Bearings
4. ANALYSIS
4.1 General
4.2 Torsion
4.3 Braced or Unbraced Intermediate Cross Frames

Workgroup Contents
5. ERECTION METHODS
6. LEARNING FROM FAILURES
8. REFERENCES

Workgroup Contents
Workgroup Contents
Lecture 15B.7 : Arch Bridges
Top
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 General
1.2 Historical Development
1.3 Types of Application
1.4 Range of Application
2. TYPES OF ARCH BRIDGES
2.1 Arch Layout
2.2 Structural Arrangement
3. CHOICE OF ELEMENTS
3.1 The Arch
3.2 The Stiffening Girder
3.3 The Hangers
3.4 The End Portals
4. SPECIAL ASPECTS OF BEHAVIOUR AND ANALYSIS
4.1 Primary Effects
4.1.1 Full Loading

Workgroup Contents
4.1.2 Full Loading over Half the Length of the Bridge
4.1.3 Full Loading on One Side of the Bridge
4.1.4 Alternating Full Loading over Half the Length of the Bridge
4.2.1 Bending of Hangers
4.2.2 Local Effects in the Deck
4.2.3 Hanger Vibrations
5. COMPARISON BETWEEN THE TYPES OF ARCH BRIDGES
6. SPECIAL FEATURES OF CONSTRUCTION
8. REFERENCES

Workgroup Contents
Workgroup Contents
Lecture 15B.8 : Cable Stayed Bridges
Top
1. INTRODUCTION
2. TYPES
2.1 Arrangement of Stay Cables
2.2 Supporting Conditions for the Girder
2.3 Position of Cable Planes and Type of Girder
3.1 Stay Cable
3.2 Girder
3.3 Pylon
4. SPECIAL ASPECTS OF BEHAVIOUR AND ANALYSIS
5. CONNECTIONS

Workgroup Contents
Workgroup Contents
Lecture 15B.9 : Suspension Bridges
Top
1. INTRODUCTION
2. TYPES
3.1 The Main Cables
3.2 Pylons
3.3 Stiffening Girder
3.4 Anchorages
4. SPECIAL EFFECTS OF BEHAVIOUR AND ANALYSIS
4.1 Temperature
4.2 Aerodynamic Excitation
4.3 Analysis
5. CONNECTIONS
5.1 Hangers and Cable Bands

Workgroup Contents
Workgroup Contents
Lecture 15B.10 : Bridge Equipment
Top
1. BEARING SYSTEMS
1.1 Function
1.2 Layout
1.3 Types of Bearing
1.3.1 Steel bearings
1.3.2 Elastomeric bearings
1.3.3 Pot bearings
1.3.4 Spherical bearings
1.4 Setting Conditions for the Bearing Systems
2. FINISHES
2.1 Waterproofing Course
2.1.1 On a concrete slab
2.1.2 On an orthotropic slab
2.2 Wearing Course
2.2.1 On a concrete slab
2.2.2 On an orthotropic slab

Workgroup Contents
3. EXPANSION JOINTS
3.1 Characteristics of Expansion Joints:
3.1.1 Range of movement
3.1.2 Design characteristics
3.2 Types of Expansion Joints
3.2.1 Joints with continuous surfacing (Asphaltic plug joint)
3.2.2 Toothed joints
3.2.3 Elastomeric joints
3.2.4 Roller shutter joints
3.2.5 Multiple steel joints or bellow joints
4. PARAPETS
4.1 Pedestrian Parapets
4.2 Crash Barriers
4.3 Safety Fences
5. ANTI-CORROSION PROTECTION
6. DRAINAGE OF RAINWATER
7. FASCIA
8. INSPECTION FACILITIES
8.1 Fixed Installations
8.2 Movable Installations
8.3 Special Equipment

Workgroup Contents
9. INTEGRATION OF THE EQUIPMENT INTO THE GENERAL DESIGN

Workgroup Contents
Workgroup Contents
Lecture 15B.11 : Splices and other Connections in

Bridges
Top
1. INTRODUCTION
2. TYPES OF SPLICE
2.1 Welded Splices
2.2 Bolted Splices
2.3 Hybrid Splices
3. DESIGN
4. TYPES OF MEMBER
4.1 Beams and Plate Girders
4.2 Trusses
4.3 Secondary Members
4.4 Orthotropic Decks
5. FATIGUE
7. INSPECTION/QUALITY ASSURANCE

Workgroup Contents

Workgroup Contents
Workgroup Contents
Lecture 15B.12 : Introduction to Bridge Construction
Top
1. INTRODUCTION
2. INITIAL PLANNING
2.1 Promotion
2.2 Planning
2.3 Contract Arrangements
2.4 Independent Supervisor
3. TENDER PROCEDURES
4. ESTIMATION OF THE COST OF A STEEL BRIDGE
5. CRITERIA FOR CHOICE OF A TENDERER AS STEELWORK CONTRACTOR
5.1 Technical Ability
5.2 Programme
5.3 Costs
6. EXECUTION - GENERAL
7. MATERIALS
7.1 Steel Specifications
7.2 Steel Grade and the Fabricator

Workgroup Contents
7.3 Weldability and Welding Procedures
8. LAYOUT AND FACILITIES OF THE FABRICATION SHOP
8.1 General
8.2 Objectives
8.3 Fabrication Plant
8.4 Standardisation
9. FABRICATION IN PRACTICE
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Fabrication Information
9.3 Size of Fabricated Pieces
9.4 Procedures for a Typical Composite Bridge
9.5 Plate Girders
9.6 Truss or Lattice Girder Bridges
9.7 Box Girder Bridges
10. TRANSPORTATION
11. SITE ASSEMBLY AND ERECTION
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Methods of Erection
11.2.1 General
11.2.2 Assembly in situ
11.2.3 Launching

Workgroup Contents
11.2.4 Lifting
11.2.5 Cantilevering
11.2.6 Sliding
11.2.7 Choice of method
11.3 Control of Dimensional Tolerances
11.4 Wind Effects
11.5 Site Connections
12.1 General
12.2 The Site Agent
12.3 Junior Site Staff
12.4 Information Provided
12.5 Promoter's Site Staff

Workgroup Contents
Workgroup Contents
Lecture 15C.1 : Design of Tanks for the Storage of

Oil and Water
Top
1. DESIGN OF WELDED CYLINDRICAL TANKS
1.1 General
1.2 Design Standards
1.3 Design Pressure and Temperature
1.4 Material
2. DESIGN LOADING
2.1 Dead Load
2.2 Superimposed Load
2.3 Contents
2.4 Wind Loads
2.5 Seismic Loads
3. BOTTOM DESIGN
4. SHELL DESIGN
4.1 Circumferential Stresses
4.2 Axial Stresses in the Shell
http://www.fgg.uni-lj.si/kmk/esdep/master/wg15c/t0100.htm (1 of 2) [17.07.2010 09:54:14]

Workgroup Contents
4.3 Primary Wind Girders
4.4 Secondary Wind Girders
5. FIXED ROOF DESIGN
5.1 General
5.2 Membrane Roofs
5.3 Supported Roofs
5.4 Venting
6. DESIGN OF FLOATING ROOFS AND COVERS
6.1 Use of Floating Roofs and Covers
6.2 Floating Roofs
6.3 Floating Covers
7. MANHOLES, NOZZLES AND OPENINGS
7.1 Manholes
7.2 Nozzles
9. REFERENCES

Workgroup Contents
Workgroup Contents
Lecture 15C.2 : Structural Design of Bins
Top
1. INTRODUCTION
2. BIN CLASSIFICATION
2.1 Bin Size and Geometry
2.2 Type of Flow
2.3 Structural Material of the Bin Wall
3. CALCULATION OF PRESSURES ON BIN WALLS
3.1 General
3.2 Eurocode 1 - Rules for the Calculation of Loads from the Stored Material
3.2.1 Horizontal pressure and wall frictional pressure
3.2.2 Pressure increase for filling and discharge
3.2.3 Hopper and bottom loads
3.3 Other Loading Considerations
4. STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS AND DESIGN
4.1 Selection of the Bin Form
4.2 Design of Non-Circular Bins
4.2.1 Wall plates

Workgroup Contents
4.2.2 Plate Instability
4.2.3 Stiffener design
4.2.4 Support structure
4.3 Design of Circular Bins
4.3.1 Introduction
4.3.2 Cylinder wall stress
4.3.3 Wall buckling
4.3.4 Bottom and hopper
4.3.5 Transition ring beam
4.3.6 Supports
4.3.7 Connections
6. REFERENCES

Workgroup Contents
Workgroup Contents
Lecture 15C.3 : Lattice Towers and Masts
Top
1. INTRODUCTION
2. HIGH VOLTAGE TRANSMISSION TOWERS
2.1 Background
2.2 Types of Towers
2.3 Functional Requirements
2.4 Loads on Towers, Loading Cases
2.5 Overall Design and Truss Configuration
2.6 Structural Analysis
2.7 Detailing of Joints
4. REFERENCES
http://www.fgg.uni-lj.si/kmk/esdep/master/wg15c/t0300.htm [17.07.2010 09:54:15]

Workgroup Contents
Workgroup Contents
Lecture 15C.4 : Guyed Masts
Top
1. INTRODUCTION
2. THE DESCRIPTION OF A GUYED MAST
2.1 The Foundations
2.2 The Steel Mast
2.3 The Guy Ropes
2.4 Structural Accessories
2.5 Equipment
3. THE DESIGN OF GUYED MASTS
3.1 Initial Dimensioning
3.2 Final Dimensioning and Checking
4. SOME OTHER ASPECTS OF GUYED MASTS
4.1 In the Design Phase
4.2 In the Manufacturing Phase
4.3 In the Erection Phase
http://www.fgg.uni-lj.si/kmk/esdep/master/wg15c/t0400.htm [17.07.2010 09:54:16]

Workgroup Contents
Workgroup Contents
Lecture 15C.5 : Chimneys
Top
1. INTRODUCTION
2. ACTIONS
2.1 Permanent Load
2.2 Dust Load (Temporary load)
2.3 Wind
2.3.1 Basic wind speed Vb
2.3.2 Design wind speed
2.3.3 Mean hourly wind load in the direction of the wind
2.3.4 Design wind load in the direction of the wind
2.3.5 Vortex shedding
2.3.6 Ovalling
2.3.7 Aerodynamic stabilizers
2.4 Earthquake Loading
2.5 Thermal Effects
2.6 Chemical Effects
3. DESIGN OF THE STRUCTURAL SHELL

Workgroup Contents
3.1 Resistance Check
3.2 Serviceability Check
3.3 Fatigue Check
4. SOME SPECIFIC ITEMS OF STEEL CHIMNEY DESIGN
4.1 Connections Between the Different Sections of the Cylindrical Shell
4.2 The Support at the Base
4.3 Large Apertures
5. FABRICATION AND ERECTION TOLERANCES
7. REFERENCES

Workgroup Contents
Workgroup Contents
Lecture 16.1 : Strengthening of Structures
Top
1. INTRODUCTION
2. LEVELS OF RECONSTRUCTION
3. TEMPORARY WORKS
3.1 Needling and Propping
3.2 Stabilising Vertical Elements
4. SYSTEMS FOR STRENGTHENING (REPAIR AND REINFORCING)
4.1 Strengthening Masonry Structures
4.2 Timber Structures
4.3 Concrete Structures
4.4. Iron and Steel Structures
6. REFERENCES

Workgroup Contents
Workgroup Contents
Lecture 16.2 : Transformation and Repair
Top
1. INTRODUCTION
2. MODIFYING BUILDING STRUCTURES
2.1 Gutting
2.2 Insertion
2.3 Extension
2.4 Reducing Dead Load
3. GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS IN REFURBISHMENT
3.1 Construction
3.2 Replacement of Roofs
3.3 Corrosion of Existing Steelwork
4. CASE STUDY: THE HISTORICAL CENTRE OF ANCONA, ITALY
5. CASE STUDY: VAN LEER OFFICE BUILDING IN AMSTELVEEN, NETHERLANDS
5.1 Assembly of the Main and Support Construction
5.2 Lowering the Floor
5.3 Finishing Construction
6. CASE STUDY: OFFICE BUILDING, SEA CONTAINERS LIMITED, LONDON, GREAT

Workgroup Contents
BRITAIN
7. CASE STUDY: GYMNASIUM IN CANTU, COMO, ITALY
8. CASE STUDY: RUE DE L'OURCQ, PARIS, FRANCE
9. CASE STUDY: CHEMISTRY BUILDINGS OF TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY OF BERLIN,

GERMANY
10. CASE STUDY: ALTER BAHNHOF EXHIBITION HALL, ROSENHEIM, GERMANY
11. CASE STUDY: RUE ST. JACQUES - A MODERN APARTMENT ABOVE A LATE 19TH
CENTURY HOUSE
12. CASE STUDY: ABBEY OF VAL SAINT-LAMBERT SERAING, BELGIUM
13. CASE STUDY: EXTENSION TO THE IMPERIAL WAR MUSEUM, LONDON
15. REFERENCES

Workgroup Contents
Workgroup Contents
Lecture 16.3 : Re-use of Buildings
Top
1. INTRODUCTION
2. PRINCIPLES OF RESTRUCTURING
2.1 Typical Construction Sequence
2.2 New Internal Construction - Floor Systems
2.3 Connecting to the Facade
2.4 Retaining System for Facade as Part of Permanent Work
2.5 Restructuring Involving Modifications to Facade
2.6 General Considerations of Steel in Restructuring
3. CASE STUDY: WORKING QUARTERS AT FOLKWANG SCHOOL IN ESSEN-WERDEN,

GERMANY
4. CASE STUDY: KANNERLAND, LIMPERTSBERG, LUXEMBOURG
5. CASE STUDY: THE ROEMERHOF IN ZURICH, SWITZERLAND [2]
6. CASE STUDY: OFFICE BUILDING WETERINGSCHANS 165, AMSTERDAM,

NETHERLANDS
7. CASE STUDY: THE COURT OF JUSTICE IN ANCONA, ITALY
9. REFERENCES

Workgroup Contents

Workgroup Contents
Workgroup Contents
Lecture 16.4 : Traditional Residual Life Assessment

for Bridges
Top
1. INTRODUCTION
2. GENERAL ELEMENTS
2.1 The Wöhler Curves
2.2 The Palmgren - Langer - Miner Rule
2.3 Dynamic Coefficients for Actual Trains
2.4 Dynamic Coefficient for the UIC Loading
3. MAIN STEPS FOR THE ASSESSMENT OF THE FATIGUE SAFETY OF EXISTING

RAILWAY BRIDGES
4. STRENGTHENING OF STEEL BRIDGES
4.2 Methods of Strengthening
4.2.1 Direct Strengthening
4.2.2 Indirect strengthening
4.2 The Reinforcement of the "Angel Saligny" Bridge Over the Danube
6. REFERENCES

Workgroup Contents

Workgroup Contents
Workgroup Contents
Lecture 16.5 : Refurbishment of Bridges: New

Approaches
Top
1. INTRODUCTION
2. PROBLEM
3. UPDATING OR REPRODUCTION OF DRAWINGS AND STATIC ANALYSIS
4. THE BASIS OF THE TOUGHNESS VERIFICATION
4.1 "Brittleness" and "Ductility"
4.2 Determination of Vital Elements
4.3 Assumption on Initial Cracks
4.4 Basic Verification Principles
4.5 The Use of the J-Integral
5. PRACTICAL VERIFICATION PROCEDURE
5.1 General
5.2 Determination of acrit
5.3 Determination of the Minimum Service Time N(tp)
5.4 Example for the Application
6. VERIFICATION IN CASE OF STRENGTHENING

Workgroup Contents
7. PROCEDURE IF MEASURED MATERIAL PROPERTIES ARE NOT AVAILABLE
9. REFERENCES

Workgroup Contents
Workgroup Contents
Lecture 17.1 : An Overall View of the Seismic

Behaviour of Structural Systems
Top
1. PRESENTATION OF SLIDES OF EARTHQUAKE DAMAGE
2. DISCUSSION OF EARTHQUAKE DAMAGE
3. GROUND BEHAVIOUR
4. SOIL STRUCTURE INTERACTION
5. THE BEHAVIOUR OF FOUNDATIONS
6. THE RESPONSE OF STEEL FRAMED STRUCTURES
7. THE BEHAVIOUR OF FLOORS
8. THE BEHAVIOUR OF SECONDARY STRUCTURES AND APPENDAGES
9. THE BEHAVIOUR OF MASONRY AND CLADDING
10. TANKS

Workgroup Contents
Workgroup Contents
Lecture 17.2 : Introduction to Seismic Design -

Seismic Hazard and Seismic Risk
Top
1. INTRODUCTION
2. THE SEISMIC EVENT
2.1 General
2.2 Origins of Earthquakes
2.3 Earthquake Characteristic
2.4 Response Spectrum
3. EARTHQUAKE INPUT FOR STRUCTURAL DESIGN
4. FINAL REMARKS
6. REFERENCES

Workgroup Contents
Workgroup Contents
Lecture 17.3 : The Cyclic Behaviour of Steel

Elements and Connections
Top
1. INTRODUCTION
2. DUCTILITY
3. MATERIAL
4. LOADING HISTORIES
5. ECCS TESTING PROCEDURE
5.1 Complete Testing Procedure
5.2 Interpretation of Tests
6. BRACING ELEMENTS
7. BEAMS AND COLUMNS
8. CONNECTIONS
10. REFERENCES

Workgroup Contents
Workgroup Contents
Lecture 17.4 : Structural Analysis for Seismic Actions
Top
1. INTRODUCTION
2. DIRECT METHODS OF DYNAMIC ANALYSIS (TIME INTEGRATION)
3. RESPONSE SPECTRUM METHOD OF ANALYSIS
4. INELASTIC BEHAVIOUR AND ITS ROLE IN DESIGN
6. REFERENCES

Workgroup Contents
Workgroup Contents
Lecture 17.5 : Requirements and Verification of

Seismic Resistant Structures
Top
1. EUROCODE 8 - SAFETY VERIFICATIONS
2. GENERAL DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS FOR BUILDINGS IN EARTHQUAKE AREAS
3. DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES IN EARTHQUAKE AREAS
5. REFERENCES

Workgroup Contents
Workgroup Contents
Lecture 17.6 : Special Topics
Top
1. BRIDGES
1.1 Introduction
1.2 General Guidelines and Basic Requirements
1.3 Seismic Actions
1.3.1 Motion at a point
1.3.2 Spatial variability
1.4 Methods of Analysis
1.5 Non-Linear Behaviour and q-Factors
1.6 Deck Bearings and Longitudinal Restraints
1.7 Provisions for Steel and Composite Bridges
1.8 References
1.9 Additional Reading
2. LIQUID STORAGE TANKS
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Anchored Tanks
2.2.1 Horizontal Earthquake Excitation

Workgroup Contents
2.2.2 Vertical Earthquake Excitation
2.2.3 Stability and Strength Analysis
2.3 Unanchored Tanks
2.4 Current Design Codes and Recommendations
2.4.1 American Codes
2.4.2 Austrian Recommendations
2.4.3 Canadian codes
2.4.4 Japanese codes
2.4.5 New Zealand Codes
4. REFERENCES

Workgroup Contents
Workgroup Contents
Lecture 18.1 : Introduction to Stainless Steel
Top
1. INTRODUCTION
2. HISTORY
3. WHAT IS STAINLESS STEEL?
4. WHY USE STAINLESS STEEL?
4.1 Reasons
4.2 Further Favourable Properties of Stainless Steel
5. TYPES OF STAINLESS STEEL
5.1 Austenitic Stainless Steels
5.2 Further Stainless Alloys
6. DESIGNATION OF STAINLESS STEELS
6.1 Descriptive System
6.2 AISI System
6.3 Material Number System (Werkstoff No.)
6.4 Abbreviated System of Designation
6.5 Application in Standards
7. FABRICATION AND PRODUCTS

Workgroup Contents
7.1 Product Forms
7.2 Cold Working
7.3 Weldability
7.4 Finishes
8. BOLTS AND NUTS
9. TYPICAL APPLICATIONS

Workgroup Contents
Workgroup Contents
Lecture 18.2 : Structural Behaviour and Design
Top
1. INTRODUCTION
2. PRELIMINARY CONSIDERATIONS
2.1 General
2.2 Choice of Material Grade
2.3 Availability of Structural Forms
3. MECHANICAL BEHAVIOUR
3.1 Stress-Strain Relationships
3.1.1 Basic stress-strain behaviour
3.1.2 Factors affecting stress-strain behaviour
3.2 Cold Working
3.3 Effects of Temperature
3.4 Other Properties
4. STRUCTURAL ELEMENT BEHAVIOUR AND DESIGN
4.1 General
4.1.1 Elastic or plastic design
4.1.2 Effect of material non-linearity

Workgroup Contents
4.2 Classification and Local Buckling
4.2.1 Classification
4.2.2 Local buckling
4.3 Column Design
4.4 Beam Design
5. CONNECTIONS
5.1 General Aspects
5.2 Bolted Connections
5.3 Welded Connections
7. REFERENCES

Workgroup Contents
Workgroup Contents
Lecture 18.3 : Corrosion of Stainless Steel
Top
1. INTRODUCTION
2. BEHAVIOUR OF STAINLESS STEELS IN CORROSIVE ENVIRONMENTS
2.1 Pitting
2.2 Crevice Corrosion
2.3 Bimetallic Corrosion
2.4 Stress Corrosion Cracking
2.5 General (Uniform) Corrosion
2.6 Intergranular Attack and Weld Decay
3. GRADE SELECTION
4. DETAILING CONSIDERATIONS
5. STORAGE AND HANDLING
7. REFERENCES

Workgroup Contents
Workgroup Contents
Lecture 18.4 : Fabrication
Top
1. INTRODUCTION
2. MACHINING OF STAINLESS STEEL
2.1 Cutting
2.2 Drilling and Punching
2.3 Grinding
3. SHAPING AND JOINING OPERATIONS
3.1 Cold Forming
3.1.1 Press bending
3.1.2 Roll forming
3.1.3 Bending
3.1.4 Deep drawing
3.2 Welding
3.2.1 Fusion welding
3.2.2 Resistance welding
3.3 Bolts, Rivets and Screws
3.4 Adhesive Bonding

Workgroup Contents
4. INSPECTION
5. FINISHING

L1a_1rev
Previous | Next | Contents
ESDEP WG 1A
STEEL CONSTRUCTION:
ECONOMIC & COMMERCIAL FACTORS
Lecture 1A.1: Introduction to Steel's Role

in Construction in Europe
OBJECTIVE/SCOPE:
To inspire students with an enthusiasm for steel construction. To identify the advantages of steel for
construction in Europe, emphasising its future potential and the rewarding challenge it offers to able
students. To introduce ESDEP as a response to this potential.
PREREQUISITES
None
RELATED LECTURES
Lecture 1A.2: Steelmaking and Steel Products
Lecture 1A.3: Introduction to Structural Steel Costs
Lecture 1A.4: The European Building Market
SUMMARY
Steel has been produced for about 100 years. It is a modern material with an exciting future.
The advantages of steel are described together with recent developments which have enhanced them,
i.e. improvements in manufacture, enhanced range of properties, improvements in fabrication and
speed of construction, adaptability, consistent quality, lightness, stiffness and strength.
The future development of uses of steel, the associated training needs and the role of ESDEP in
meeting those needs are discussed.
http://www.fgg.uni-lj.si/kmk/esdep/master/wg01a/l0100.htm (1 of 32) [17.07.2010 09:54:36]

L1a_1rev
1. INTRODUCTION
Steel was first produced in the Middle Ages, but it was not until just over a century ago that it was
used for structural engineering.
Today, many remarkable structures demonstrate the possibilities of this well developed material in
their clear and transparent appearance, Slides 1 - 5.
Slide 1 : Centre Pompidou, Paris, France

L1a_1rev
Slide 2
Slide 3 : Olympic Stadium, Munich, Germany

L1a_1rev
Slide 4 : Faro Bridge, Denmark
Slide 5 : North Sea Oil Platform
The strength-to-volume ratio, the wide range of possible applications, the availability of many
standardised parts, the reliability of the material and the ability to give shape to nearly all
architectural wishes are some of the reasons to choose this material for the main structure and for
other elements of a building or other construction.
Safe and strong steel structures are assured by well-educated designers with a Quality Assured and
Quality Controlled production. A long life with a small amount of maintenance can be guaranteed by
using well designed details, a high level of pre-production in modern well-equipped shops with

L1a_1rev
skilled employees and modern corrosion-resistant systems.
2. DEVELOPMENTS IN PRODUCTION AND DESIGN

Many of the inherent advantages of steel have been considerably enhanced by the vigour with which
the steel construction industry has improved its performance in an increasingly competitive world.
Early steels were manufactured by a range of processes which produced a material of uncertain
composition and variable properties. Today almost all structural steel is produced by the BOS (Basic
Oxygen Steelmaking) process together with a modern purification process which produces a fine
grained, weldable material of consistent strength and toughness.
Whilst methods of steel production have improved since the first introduction of the material, the rate
of improvement has been most dramatic in the last decade or so. Since the mid-1970's steel
productivity has increased from 60-100 kg/man hour (depending on producer) to over 250 kg/man
hour for most modern plants. This improvement has had a significant effect on relative material costs,
Slide 6.
Slide 6 : Relative material costs showing the relative change in prices between steel and concrete in
recent years
Improvements in basic production have been matched by investment in better rolling mills. The latest
hot rolling mill can produce sections to a wider variety of shapes with close tolerances, good surface
finish and consistent, homogeneous composition. Slide 7 gives an indication of the range of sections
that are produced. Heat treatments in-line permit the greater control and enhancement of mechanical

L1a_1rev
properties. Cold rolling can be used to produce thin gauge strip material which can subsequently be
formed into a wide range of shapes, Slide 8.
Slide 7 : Range of typical standard hot-rolled sections manufactured by the steelmaking industry

L1a_1rev
Slide 8 : Range of typical cold-rolled profiles manufactured from thin galvanised sheet
This revolution in manufacturing techniques has been accompanied by, and has probably been
possible because of, a major restructuring of the entire industry. It is worth recalling that the
European Coal and Steel Community (one of the founding components of the European Community)
was established in 1952 to ensure the restructuring of these crucial industries after World War 2. It
has been a difficult and painful process for both traditional industries but a lean, fit and modern steel
industry has finally emerged.
2.2 Range of Steels
While cheap, good quality mild steel remains the backbone of the industry, it is now complemented
by a wider range of commercially available structural steels, Slide 9. High yield steel has increased in
popularity as designers strive for more cost effective structures. Where necessary, thermo-
mechanically controlled rolled steels can be specified. Slide 9 also shows the mechanical properties
that can be obtained with special steels, in this case a very high strength wire.

L1a_1rev
Slide 9 : Mechanical properties for a range of steels showing the wide range of characteristics which
different steels exhibit
Improvements in mechanical properties are best typified by a simple example. The Eiffel Tower was
undoubtedly an engineering triumph when it was completed in 1888. Making the best use of the
available materials, it contains around 7000 tonnes of iron. A redesign today would require just 2000
tonnes.
The breadth of steels also encompasses corrosion resistance. Weather resistant steels that can, in
appropriate circumstances, be left unpainted throughout the life of the structure are now used for
many bridges, Slide 10. Stainless steels are available in an almost bewildering range of compositions.
Appropriate choice of chemistry and finish produces a durable and attractive structure, Slide 11.
Coated steel products are very widely used for cladding, Slides 12 and 13.

L1a_1rev
Slide 10 : Footbridge - York University, UK
Slide 11 : Opera de la Bastille, Paris, France (1991).

L1a_1rev
Slide 12 : Use of cold rolled steel for cladding at Revigny, France
Slide 13 : Use of cold rolled steel for cladding: (Entrepot de la Societe Calberson, France).
2.3 Design
Design in steel used to be regarded as a 'black art' where one only reached a level of competence after
20 years of hardwon experience. Whilst, of course, experience is still very important, the designer is
now much better supported and is able to be more accurate. Computers have made routine, levels of
analysis that would otherwise have taken much manual calculation. Codes of practice have become
more comprehensive. The advent of limit state design concentrates the designer's mind on the most

L1a_1rev
important aspects of a particular design. The Eurocodes [1 - 4] are the culmination of many years'
hard work, drawing together the best information on steel and composite design.
Two example illustrate the refinements in structural form that have been achieved by the
improvements in understanding of structural behaviour, analysis and design. The portal frame, the
subject of much research from 1950 to the present day, is an elegant, minimalist structure, see Slide
14. Its inherent efficiency of shape (its centreline closely follows the thrust line that would be
associated with an axial equilibrium path, thus minimising bending moments) is enhanced by modern
plastic or elastic design. Plastic design permits redistribution of the moments so that the bending
moment envelope is the closest possible fit to the envelopes of uniform strength associated with
prismatic sections; a haunch is used to resist the peak moment at the eaves. Elastic analysis and
modern methods of fabrication permit the construction of a frame whose varying strength distribution
is a close fit to the elastic bending moment envelope.
Slide 14 : Evolution of portal frame design
The second example is the modern box girder bridge, see Slides 15 and 16. This elegant form of
construction permits the use of wide flanges, thus reducing structural depth. The inherent torsional
stiffness of the closed section is used to distribute the effects of eccentric loading over the full width
of the section, thus reducing maximum bending stresses. Internal diaphragms serve both to jig the

L1a_1rev
box during fabrication and to resist distortion of the cross-section which could reduce the torsional
resistance of the closed section.
Slide 15 : Box girder bridge near Nijmegen, Netherlands

L1a_1rev
Slide 16 : Behaviour of box girder bridges
2.4 Fabrication
In parallel with the improved efficiency of steel production, there have been significant increases in
the productivity of the steel fabrication industry, with roughly a doubling in output per man between
1980 and 1990. The introduction of numerically controlled machine tools has not only greatly
reduced the time in both preparing and handling the material but has also made an important
contribution to achieving higher quality. The shot blasting of steel sections and the process of
painting can now be carried out automatically, while sawing and drilling operations have also been
automated. In the most modern plants, conveyor systems are available which transfer material from
machine to machine.
A good example of a piece of modern fabrication equipment is the numerically controlled plant for
flame cutting castellated sections. Such equipment offers substantial improvements in quality and
productivity compared to traditional equipment, see Slide 17.

L1a_1rev
Slide 17 : Numerically controlled cutting of castellated beams
3. ADVANTAGES OF STEEL
There is increasing pressure on all civil and structural engineering projects to reduce the periods of
execution. Nowhere has this had a more dramatic impact on methods of execution than in the
streamlining and simplification of a modern composite building.
Much execution is now by management contract in which the conventionally sequential activities of
design, substructures execution, superstructure execution, envelope execution and finishing are
overlapped to reduce the overall contract period. The contractor becomes a member of the design
team at an early stage. In many cases the client becomes involved in the buildability of the project
which is divided into self-contained work packages.
Structural steel - fast, accurate, prefabricated - lends itself naturally to fast track execution. Key
elements are metal deck for shuttering and reinforcement; through-deck stud welding for composite
and diaphragm action and lightweight fire protection, Slide 18.

L1a_1rev
Slide 18 : Structural steel in fast track construction
Metal deck is easily hoisted in bundles and laid out by hand (Slide 19). Edge trims are available to
level concrete and prevent over-run (Slide 20). The shear studs which provide the key between beam,
deck and concrete can be placed by a single operative at 1000 per day (Slide 21).

L1a_1rev
Slide 19 : Metal decking ready to be laid by hand
Slide 20 : Edge trims for metal deck floor construction

L1a_1rev
Slide 21 : Fixing shear studs
Concrete is placed by pumping (Slide 22). Services are easily fixed to the underside of the decking
(Slide 23). Prefabricated stairs can be transported by crane and placed in position to give rapid and
safe access for construction workers (Slide 24). Cladding units - pre-cast granite faced or curtain
walling -can be lifted straight from the lorry and into position to avoid site storage (Slide 25).

L1a_1rev
Slide 22 : Concrete being placed by pumping
Slide 23 : Services fixed to underside of decking

L1a_1rev
Slide 24 : Pre-fabricated stairs

L1a_1rev
Slide 25 : Curtain walling
Steel frames with both metal deck and pre-cast concrete planks permit sequential execution with
following trades able to proceed in safety and with protection from the weather.
Traditionally, the greatest disincentives to the use of steel for multi-storey frames were the additional
costs and time for fire protection (Slide 26). However, the use of new, lower-cost, lightweight board
and spray systems have now largely replaced in-situ concrete encasement. Fire protection costs have
thereby been halved and the implications on execution programmes reduced substantially. (The
programme savings outlined above include the fire protection systems).

L1a_1rev
Slide 26 : Breakdown of steelwork construction costs
In many cases the benefits of faster speed of execution can be translated into substantial financial
savings for the client. These savings are particularly significant in situations where he has made
substantial initial investment in acquiring the site. Slide 27 shows the execution programme achieved
at the Finsbury Avenue Project in London. This programme represented a 40 week saving over
conventional construction in in-situ concrete. While, for a typical building the costs of the two
solutions are similar, at around 900 ecu/m2 at 1990 prices, studies of London development costs
suggest time-related savings of up to 7 mecu per week (for the whole building) for earlier completion
in a buoyant letting market, potentially dwarfing the total cost of the structure.
Slide 27 : Construction programme for No. 1 Finsbury Avenue, London (1985)

L1a_1rev
3.2 Lightness, Stiffness and Strength
Steel structures are generally lighter than those in other materials. In almost all cases this lower
weight leads to lower costs for foundations particularly for sites with poor ground. Smaller columns
increase effective floor utilisation and, where longer spans are required, the cost savings between
steel and other forms of construction increase considerably. For large column grids in buildings, steel
is the only feasible solution.
For multi-storey commercial offices a number of new design approaches are being introduced to
achieve clear spans of 12-18m or more (slides 28 and 29) . These approaches include composite
universal beam and lattice girder arrangements; parallel beam approaches; tapered, haunched and
notched beam and storey deep construction, Slide 30. These schemes can increase spans in office
buildings with only a small increase, in many cases less than 15%, in structural costs. Since the
structural cost is only a small proportion (< 20%) of the total development cost, clear span offices can
be achieved for less than 3% of total development cost. This cost is a very small premium to pay for
the increased flexibility in usage that results. Office activities are changing rapidly, following the
high rate of change of information technology; one can only speculate on the requirements 30 years
from now, well within the life of the structure. Clear, column-free space offers the best opportunity of
being able to adapt a building to these changing needs.
Slide 28 : Long span floor systems for office buildings - alternative solutions

L1a_1rev
Slide 29 : Long span floor systems for office buildings
Slide 30 : Long span floor systems for office buildings
For bridges, the strength and toughness of steel have led to the elegant solution of cable stayed and
suspension bridges and the tight tracery of modern truss bridges, Slides 31-33. Similar design
concepts have led to the development of striking structural solutions for long span roofs.

L1a_1rev
Slide 31 : Kohlbrand Bridge, Hamburg, Germany
Slide 32 : Humber Suspension Bridge, UK (1982)

L1a_1rev
Slide 33 : Tonegawa Bridge, Saitama Prefecture, Japan
In other contexts triangulated structures have been refined and lightened to the extent that they
become sculptures, Slide 34.

L1a_1rev
Slide 34 : Telecommunications mast, Barcelona, Spain
3.3 Adaptability of Usage of Steel Frames for Refurbishment
Structural steel provides maximum adaptability for changes in building use, because structural
alterations can be accommodated with relative ease. Where additional members are required,
connections can be made to the existing frame with minimum disturbance and cost. It is for this
reason that steel frames have been so popular with leading retail and industrial groups.
The importance of adaptability in use is also demonstrated by considering the widely differing life
spans of the components of a modern office building, Slide 35. The benefits of longer spans in this
context have already been discussed in the previous Section. It is likely that some part of the long-life
structure is going to require modification to accommodate some radical change in information
systems or services.

L1a_1rev
Slide 35 : Differing life spans of building components
The attribute of adaptability is of particular importance in refurbishment contracts, whether it is a

case of strengthening existing structures or complete re-construction behind retained facades (Slides
36 and 37). Steel is delivered to site pre-fabricated; it does not need propping once in position nor
does it suffer from shrinkage or creep. It can therefore take load immediately. When it is chosen for
the structure behind a retained facade, the frame can be inserted through pockets cut in the structure.
Modern techniques like metal deck floors can be used with advantage in accommodating irregular
floor plans and extensive services can be installed, just as in a new building.

L1a_1rev
Slide 36 : Strengthening existing concrete floors
Slide 37 : Reconstruction behind retained facades

L1a_1rev
Steel's adaptability can also be put to good use in bridges. The main towers of the Severn suspension
bridge, Slide 38, were strengthened to absorb a doubling of traffic loading since the structure was
initially designed 40 years ago.
Slide 38 : The Severn Bridge after completion of major strengthening
3.4 Quality
Employment patterns in construction have recently changed considerably. Most site work is now
carried out by small, labour-only subcontractors. These companies have little long-term involvement
in the construction sector and are too informal to make any investment in training. The striving for
further economy has reduced the overall level of site supervision.
In this environment it is difficult to maintain the quality of on-site construction. However, a steel
frame is a factory made, precise product, produced by a stable, well-trained workforce. Only the
erection of pre-fabricated members is left for the site - a process which is easily controlled.
4. THE FUTURE FOR STEEL: FURTHER DEVELOPMENTS

The previous section has drawn attention to the inherent advantages of steel and the way in which

L1a_1rev
recent developments are strengthening those advantages. It is remarkable that a material that is 100
years old should still be capable of such worthwhile development. It is more remarkable still that the
rate of development in many sectors appears to be increasing. Development is in response to the
greater rate of change of society's demands of its built environment and the greater willingness of an
increasingly competitive commercial industry to respond to the needs of society and its customers.
It is possible to speculate on some of the directions that further development might take.
● Quality Assured and Quality Controlled production methods will give cheaper and better
results with less time consuming repairs.
● An increasing role for computers will lead to a greater refinement of design both to minimise
fabrication and construction costs (for everyday structures) and to permit the more
adventurous use of steel (for monumental structures).
● Developments in steel production. At present very high strength steels (fy>500 N/mm2) carry
a substantial price premium. However further developments in on-line thermo-mechanical
treatment are likely to reduce this premium considerably. As the price of high strength steel
drops so designers will become more adventurous in using their full potential. This will tax
engineers' ingenuity to the full because the stiffness of steel (modulus of elasticity) does not
vary with strength. Structural forms with greater inherent stiffness will have to be developed if
these higher strengths are to be mobilised.
● Greater range of sections and products. Modern rolling techniques, for both hot and cold
products, are increasing in flexibility of use. Thus a greater range of sections will be made
available to the designer, a further spur to him to use his ingenuity for greater structural
efficiency.
● Fire and corrosion resistance. As techniques for fire and corrosion resistance improve further,
designers will have a greater opportunity to express the steelwork leading to more elegant and
exciting structures.
● The environment. As society pays greater attention to environmental issues, its demands for
buildings will evolve. Insulation standards will rise requiring more attention to details of
construction. There will be increasing usage of demountable, recyclable buildings and
components, for which steel is eminently suitable.
5. THE FUTURE FOR STEEL: TRAINING AND ESDEP

It is clear from the foregoing that the demands on engineers' skills and knowledge are going to
increase for the foreseeable future. Within the context of an increasing rate of change, society will
demand an increasing standard from its built environment. Both initial technical education and in-
career training are going to become even more important than they are today.
The greatest training resources for steel in Europe are in its widely distributed network of technical
skills. A particular strength of the steel construction industry is the existence of an infrastructure of
specialist personnel who have learnt to work together through the media of both the ECCS technical
committees and the drafting committees of Eurocode 3 and Eurocode 4.

L1a_1rev
ESDEP, the European Steel Design Education Programme, was established in 1988 to draw on both
resources to prepare a comprehensive set of teaching aids on steel design and construction. It
comprises nineteen working groups with an appropriate supporting network of steering committees.
Over 200 specialists from all countries of the European Community and the European Free Trade
Association have contributed to the project, Slides 39 and 40 summarise how the project was
managed and the distribution of contributors and working groups. The projects was sponsored by the
European Commission and the steel industry from every country in both the EC and EFTA.
Steelwork designers and constructors who will benefit from the improved quality and performance of
the industry, have much cause for gratitude for their farsightedness.
Slide 39 : ESDEP: Distribution of working groups throughout Europe

L1a_1rev
Slide 40 : ESDEP: Distribution of contractors throughout Europe
● Steel is a modern material, produced in large quantity with high and reliable quality.
● Steel is available in a wide range of hot and cold rolled products, as plates and profiles.
● Steel is easily manufactured into end products.
● Most of this manufacture takes place in quality controlled workshops.
● Site connections can easily be made and can carry load immediately.
● Given good corrosion protection and maintenance, steel has an indefinite life.
● Erection on site can take place quickly with little risk of delay.
● Steel structures are light and strong and only require simple foundations.
● Existing steel structures can easily be adapted to new demands.
● Quality Control and Quality Assurance will give a further guarantee of the economic
application of steel structures.
7. REFERENCES
[1] Eurocode 1: "Basis of Design and Actions on Structures", CEN (in preparation)
[2] Eurocode 3: "Design of Steel Structures": ENV 1993-1-1: Part 1.1: General Rules and Rules for
Buildings, CEN Brussels, 1992.
[3] Eurocode 4: "Design of Composite Steel and Concrete Structures": ENV 1994-1-1: Part 1:
General Rules and Rules for Buildings, CEN (in press).
[4] Eurocode 8: "Earthquake Resistant Design of Structures" CEN (in preparation)

ESDEP LECTURE NOTE [WG1A]
ESDEP WG 1A
STEEL CONSTRUCTION:
Lecture 1A.2: Steelmaking and Steel

Products
OBJECTIVE/SCOPE
To introduce the history of steelmaking and steelmaking today. To describe how steel is produced and the standardisation
of steel products. To summarise the consumption of steel in building and civil engineering worldwide.
PREREQUISITES
Lecture 1A.1: Introduction to Steel's Role in Construction in Europe
RELATED LECTURES
Lecture 1A.4: The European Building Market
SUMMARY
The history of steelmaking is introduced and the developments described which have led to modern steel production.
The essentials of modern production are summarised.
World production of steel is described and the European standardisation of steel products (Euronorms) is introduced. The
use of steel in civil engineering and building in the different regions of the world is discussed.
1. A BRIEF HISTORICAL ACCOUNT OF STEELMAKING

Of the construction materials in common use, steel is the one which offers the greatest load resistance for the smallest
section. It is primarily an alloy of iron and carbon.
The production of industrial steel is relatively recent, dating back only one hundred and twenty years or so. However,
ferrous metals, of which the main component is iron, have been known since antiquity. The first examples were of iron
found in its natural state in Sumer, capital of the ancient Babylonian civilization. The first proof of actual production of
iron goes back to the Chalybes, a tribe living on the South Coast of the Black Sea around the XVIIth Century BC.
The use of iron spread into Europe and Asia, but it was only in the Middle Ages that any significant improvements
in manufacturing can be noted with the introduction of tuyeres, which blew air from bellows powered by hydraulic
energy. Before the discovery of steel, iron was frequently used in the construction of buildings, bridges, railway stations, etc.
In the year 1855 an Englishman by the name of Bessemer improved the process of purifying pig iron by blowing air in at
great pressure. Over the next 25 years, a Frenchman Emile Martin then two Englishmen, Thomas and Gilchrist,
introduced further improvements which allowed us to make the transition from iron to the modern period of steel.
At the beginning of the 20th century, the use of iron in construction was prohibited; in accordance with the new
regulations only steel could be used. Nevertheless, to this day there exist numerous structures made of iron which are still
in service. Renovation of structures built in the second half of the 19th century is to be expected. The most important
question to address is whether the structural material is iron or steel. In order to answer this, a sample must be taken
and laboratory tests performed in order to determine the mechanical and chemical properties of the metal. These results
will enable us to define the techniques which need to be adopted, particularly in relation to welding.
Further developments in substituting coal and subsequently coke for charcoal prepared the way for industrial steel
production which began in the middle of the XIXth century AD.
2. STEELMAKING TODAY (PERFORMANCE AND OUTPUT)

Even though the same principles initially developed over 100 years ago are still used in the majority of steel
production, instruments and techniques have developed considerably:
● in less than a century, blast furnace capacity has been increased by a factor of 100;
● production of 6 to 10 million tonnes per year has become normal for a steelmaking plant;
● some operations, previously independent, are now linked into one uninterrupted operation;
● the intensive use of oxygen was one of the outstanding steps;
● the development of computers has enabled the automation of much of the production and control equipment.
The developments have resulted in:
● more sophisticated products with better control of grades and qualities;

● a notable improvement in productivity: 4 hours to produce a tonne of crude steel today, compared to 9,8 hours 15 years ago;
● a nearly constant price over a long period of years;
● pure and better weldable materials (no preheating);
● quenched and tempered steels with higher strengths;
● higher impact values and better LOD tests (for offshore structures).
● an ability to respond to the changing needs of customers;
● better management of products and flow of stock;
● improvements, through the creation of new jobs, in the qualifications of people working in the steelmaking industry.
Technical skills have taken over from physical effort. One of the results has been to provide a smaller but more
stable workforce and therefore reduced production costs. The cutbacks in the workforce amounted to about one third in
14 years (Figure 1);

● provision of a wide range of specifically dimensioned products for construction, with thicknesses ranging from 0,7 mm to
150 mm; increased lengths and weights of long products; with maximum imperfections (out-of-straightness) of 7 mm/m.
These factors have made it possible to simplify construction thus reducing fabrication, joining and assembly costs whilst at
the same time enabling improvements in aesthetic appearance.
For example in bridge construction, the main beam of a bridge made 100 years ago consisted of a riveted combination of
flats and universal sections. Today, a single plate with a variable thickness permits the optimisation of the section and hence
a saving in weight and manufacturing costs. In addition the maintenance of the bridge is reduced since surfaces are smooth
and encourage the rapid dispersal of water.
All of these factors have made it possible to maintain competitive prices and provide the quality demanded by users.
3. STEELMAKING IN THE WORLD AND IN EUROPE
3.1 Production
3.1.1 World production
In 1989, world crude steel output was approximately 784 million tonnes.
Note: "Crude steel" refer to products which appear either in a liquid form (ready to cast) or in the form of solid ingots
(obtained by liquid steel cast into a mould to be processed later on).
The world steel producers are found geographically as follows (Figure 2):

Far East: Japan (108 MT) - China (61 MT) - South Korea (22 MT)
191 MT 24,5%
Former USSR 161 MT 20,0%

EEC12 140 MT 18,0%
USA 89 MT 11,5%
Other countries 203 MT 26,0%
Total 784 MT
The graph of world raw steel production reflects the development of the world economy (Figure 3).

3.1.2 International trade
In 1988, more than a fifth of the steel produced in the world (167MT out of 780) was involved in international trade.
Because of its high specific value i.e., the ratio between the price per ton and the density, steel is a product that "travels"
more easily than other materials such as aluminium, wood, cement or glass. Nevertheless, most international steel trade is
over short and middle distances, and seldom over long distances. Exchanges are essentially intra-community exchanges -
41 MT out of the above-mentioned 167 MT were exchanged between the different EEC countries and, on a larger scale, 83
MT between continental European countries. Moreover, 23 MT of steel were exchanged between Asia and Australasia.
3.2 Consumption
The growth of apparent raw steel consumption shows that the need for steel is rising in the world (Figure 4).

Improvements in the making of steel and its intrinsic properties have led to a decrease in its specific consumption, i.e.
the weight of steel used for a specific purpose. Although Figure 4 indicates only a slow increase in raw steel
consumption, greater use occurs because the improved quality of products, reduces the weight of steel in them.
Global changes in the world economy, the possible growth of steel needs, the developing areas and the arrival of
"new" producers are all factors that influence the economy of the steel industry.
Certain patterns of production have gradually appeared:
● Developing countries disposing of raw materials, make and export semi-finished products and simple products for direct
use, such as rebars.
● Industrialized countries concentrate on the production of more sophisticated products with a higher added value due to
their appearance (for example coated sheets) or their composition (for example stainless steel).
3.3 Steelmaking and the Environment
The environmental nuisance created by the steel industry has been considerably reduced. Considerable investment has
been made in connection with environmental factors:
● industrial waters are recycled;

● air is filtered;
● gases are used as an energy source;
● slag is used for substructure construction;
● scrap steel is reprocessed.
4. HOW IS STEEL PRODUCED?
4.1 General
The basis for industrial production of steel is pig iron, and although the fundamentals of the production method are
largely unchanged, instruments and techniques of production have been greatly improved.
There are several types of steel. Depending on whether the metal will be used, for example, in building, electronics,
automobile or packaging industries, it will require suitable physical, chemical and mechanical properties for that
purpose. These properties are obtained through:
● the adjustment of the carbon content: the lower it is, the more malleable the steel is; the higher it is, the more resistant
and harder the steel is (the hardening or "mildening" can also be adjusted using some additional elements).
4.2 Steelmaking
Iron is, as a chemical element (Fe), the main constituent of pig iron (96% iron and 3-4% carbon). It provides the basis for
the refining of steel.
Iron, pig iron and steel are three manufactured products that appeared in this order in the history of materials. They
represent different chemical combinations of iron and carbon. The carbon content determines the nature of very
different products:
● Iron: minute carbon content. As a soft and malleable material it is the ancestor of "mild" steel (today: "low-carbon steel").
It was formed initially by forging and then later by rolling.
● Pig iron: high carbon content (from 2 to 5-6%). There are several qualities of pig iron, from "hard and resistant" to
"malleable and ductile". It is formed by casting.
● Steel: carbon content from about 0,03% to 2% maximum. It is malleable and resistant. It is formed, in its solid state, by
rolling (squeezing between two cylinders in order to make it thinner and stretch it) or forging.
There are three steps in the steelmaking process:
1. From raw materials to liquid steel

aim: to adjust the chemical content of the steel
two processes: "integrated" steelmaking
"electric" steelmaking.

2. From liquid steel to semi-finished products

aim: to solidify the steel into blanks
two processes: continuous casting
ingot casting.
3. From semi-finished products to finished products

aim: to shape and size through rolling, and finish for sale.
two groups of products: long products (beams, bars, wire)
flat products (plate, sheet, coil).
Note: Not all steels are formed by rolling; they may also be forged, cast or manufactured from alloy powders.
The process is described in Lecture 2.2.
5. EUROPEAN STANDARDIZATION OF STEEL PRODUCTS
5.1 Standardization Process
Steel products have been standardized in order to ensure a common language between producers and customers of
steel products. Since the beginning of the XXth century, countries have developed their own standards defining and
classifying steel products. The creation of the EEC has made it necessary to establish common standards named
"European Norms" (EN).
5.1.1 The establishment of European Norms within member states for steel products
The "Commission de Coordination et de Normalisation des Produits Sidérurgiques" COCOR, founded in 1953 to service
the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC), was commissioned to coordinate standards. Since 1965 COCOR has
been placed under the authority of the European Commission and has published about 175 Euronorms. Each country is free
to adopt or not, fully or partially, the Euronorms and Background Documents.
The completion of the European Single Market scheduled to occur at the end of 1992 has required the speeding up
of standardization. The Commission created and financed, within COCOR, an independent technical department
exclusively devoted to standardization activities: the ECISS (European Committee for Iron and Steel Standardization).
ECISS, with the assistance of Technical Committees (TC), has developed documents which are submitted to COCOR

for approval before being proposed to the CEN (Comite European de Normalisation) for adoption as Euronorms.
When a Euronorm (EN) is adopted by the CEN members, it must be fully applied as a national norm by all EEC
Countries (even if they voted against it) and by EFTA members which voted for it. The EN, once adopted, invalidates
and replaces the Euronorm and the corresponding national standard.
5.2 Contents of the Euronorms (EN) for Steel
The EN is concerned with the standardization of the manufacture, chemical composition and mechanical characteristics of
steel products. By way of illustration, consider one aspect of these norms, the way steels are designated.
The specification of steel quality is essentially composed of:
● the norm number;

● the Fe symbol;
● the minimum guaranteed tensile strength expressed in N/mm2.
Example: A hot-rolled non-alloy structural steel (for use in the manufacture of welded or assembled structural elements to
be used at ambient temperatures) is designated:
EN 10 025 S355
The designation may be followed by symbols concerning:
⋅ the weldability and guaranteed values of impact energy (B);
⋅ the deoxidation method used, if applicable (FU);
⋅ the steel's suitability for a particular application, if applicable (KP);
⋅ whether the steel is delivered in an effectively normalised condition (N).
The range of symbols is detailed, for this example, in the text of EN 10 025.
The relevant Euronorms and current national equivalents are shown in Table 1.
Table 1 Corresponding Table of Euronorms, ISO Standards and National Standards for EC Countries
European Euronorm ISO Germany Belgium NBN (2) Denmark Spain France Greece Italy Ireland Luxembourg Netherlands Portugal UK
Standard (I) Standard DIN DS UNE (3) NF UNI NEN NP BS (4)
EH
17-1970 8457 TI 59110 = 524 38 089 A 45-051 5598 EU 17 = 330

18-1979 377 50125 A 03-001 36 300 38 A 03-111 UNI-EU 18 EU 18 2451 4360

400
19-1957 657/8 1025 T5 533 38 526 A 45-205 5398 EU 19 2116
21-1978 404 17010 500- A 02-001 38 007 A 03-115 UNI-EU 21 EU 21 2149

49
22-1970 783 50145 A 11-201 7 223 A 03-351 3918 EU 22 3688/1
23-1971 642 50191 A 11-181 7 279 A 04-303 3150 4437
24-1962 DP 657/10 1025 T1 632-01 38 521 36 A 45-210 5879 EU 24 4

1028 522 5680
10025 (25-1986) 630-1052 17100 A 21-101 38 080 A 35-501 7070 EU 25 1729 / 4360
4995
27-1974 DIR 4949 147 38 009 A 02-005 UNI-EU 27 EU 27 1818
28-1985 883/1 17155 / 829 38 087/1 A 38-205 A 7070 EU 28 = 1501/1-2

2604/4 / 830 38-208
29-1981 7452 1543 = A 43-101 38 559 A 48-503 A UNI-EU 29 EU 29 1501/1 /4360

46-505
30-1969 17100 A 33-101 3063 EU 30

(= EU 25 =
EU 30)
31-1969 A 43-301 7063 EU 31 / 970/1
34-1962 657/13 1025 T2 T3 = 632-02 36 527 36 A 45-211 5397 EU 34 2117 4

et T4 528 36 529
36-1983 437 EU / 271 7 014 A 06-301 UNI-ISO 437 6200 5381
6. STEEL IN CIVIL ENGINEERING AND BUILDING ACTIVITIES
6.1 Steel in Construction
In construction, the penetration of steel in civil engineering and building activities is very variable across the regions of
the world. In 1988 steel consumption in three major regions of the world was as shown in Table 2.
Table 2 Steel consumption in major regions
(Kt) Kg/inhabitant

JAPAN 9050/10400(1) 74/85
USA 5200 21
WESTERN EUROPE 5700/6200 17/18
(1) with or without "composite construction"
For each type of work, these consumptions are spread across different types of construction as shown in Table 3.
Table 3 Steel consumption by type of construction
(% tonnages) JAPAN USA EUROPE
housing 21 4 2
industrial 34 33 58
other buildings 34 45 31
pylons 3 5 5
bridges and hydraulic 8 13 4

engineering
TOTAL 100 100 100
Table 3 shows, for all constructional steelwork, the particular importance of:
● housing in Japan;
● tertiary buildings in the USA;
● industrial buildings in Europe.
There are marked differences between countries in the consumption of constructional steelwork, for example in Europe in
1988 (Table 4).
Table 4 Consumption of constructional steelwork (1988)
(Kt) Kg/inhabitant

United Kingdom 1227 22
West Germany 1045 16
France 683 15
Italy 570 11
Spain 500 13
Netherlands 727 31
Luxembourg 100 28
Sweden 94 17
Finland 185 25
Switzerland 89 18
Portugal 100 10
Austria 94 11
Norway 80 20
Denmark 73 11
Greece 50 5
Ireland 60 17
Belgium 195 28
estimated TOTAL 5867 17
Source: European Convention for Constructional Steelwork
Several "small" countries have a very high constructional steelwork consumption/ inhabitant (Netherlands,
Belgium, Luxembourg, Finland, Norway). In the United Kingdom, which is the European country with the
largest constructional steelwork industry, the use of steelwork/inhabitant is higher than in any other major country.
Steel product tonnages of all construction steelwork are globally distributed as follows:
Steel products:
Hot rolled sections H, I, U, L about 60%
Plates about 20%
First processing products:
Coated sheets,
Cold rolled sections, pipes about 20%.
● Although iron has been in use for a very long time, steel production is relatively recent.
● Developments in production methods have improved both efficiency and quality. Energy consumption has been reduced
and environmental factors improved.
● European Norms are being established to achieve common standards throughout Europe.
● Steel consumption shows some marked difference between individual countries, worldwide and within Europe.

ESDEP WG 1A:
STEEL CONSTRUCTION:
Lecture 1A.3: Introduction to Structural

Steel Costs
OBJECTIVE/SCOPE
To introduce the different factors affecting the cost of a steel construction. To show how the factors are considered
in developing a design taking into account technical and recurrent and environmental costs.
PREREQUISITES
None.
RELATED LECTURES
Lecture 1A.1 : European Construction Industry
SUMMARY
Total costs of a steel construction are affected by technical and environmental factors and recurrent costs. The steel costs,
the energy, maintenance, adaptability and end of life costs must all be appreciated from the very beginning of a project in
order to lead to a well designed construction, which meets the requirements of the client. Different parameters such as speed
of construction, or choice of foundations are studied so that they may be taken into account in the design of the
construction and in determining its cost. Secondary activities such as erection, fabrication and protection against corrosion
and fire complete this analysis.
1. INTRODUCTION
Costs of construction works can be considered in various categories. Technical costs, relating to material and labour
in completing the project, are those which can most easily be quantified. Recurrent costs should also be considered in
studying whole life economics, and again these can be estimated. Environmental costs are more difficult to establish; there
are signs that an environmental audit will increasingly be required as a part of the consideration given to proposed
projects. Environmental aspects can be considered in terms of local and global effects and include issues such as
appearance, safety, local economics, use of natural resources, and energy consumption.
This lecture concentrates on the technical costs of steel construction. It deals with the topic in a broad way. Whole life
costing is dealt with first before examining the costs of execution, which are concerned initially with total construction,
leading onto structural costs and finally economic considerations applied to individual activities such as fabrication
and erection. This sequence has been chosen deliberately to emphasise the need to examine overall costs in an
integrated manner.
2. LIFE CYCLE COSTS
2.1 Attitude
Traditionally designers have considered only the initial cost of that part of the project for which they are responsible and
have sought the most cost-effective solution for it. There is increasing recognition that the sum of optimum cost components
do not necessarily lead to the most economic solution overall. However, there is still relatively little regard given to whole
life costs. This is in marked contrast to the consideration given to running costs when purchasing a new car, for instance.
Then fuel consumption, likely service costs, repair costs and depreciation are often carefully accounted for alongside
initial price, when making cost comparisons between different models.
2.2 Cost Elements
Initial costs of execution, including the fabric, structure, foundations and services, are an important and
immediate consideration. In addition to these items, the need to finance the construction, and the associated costs, should
be quantified and included as part of the debate on the form of the design. The way in which the cost of finance influences
the project is discussed in more detail in Section 3.2. In some cases, it might be a major factor.
Other recurrent costs, which should be considered in the overall economic discussions surrounding a proposed project,
include maintenance, future alterations and running costs associated with environmental control of building interiors
(heating, ventilation and lighting). Another factor which should be considered is the likely benefit or financial return.
For instance, projected traffic density will clearly be an important influence on required highway bridge capacity, whilst
clearer floor areas and greater flexibility in the use of floor space may attract higher revenue in commercial
developments. These factors are discussed in more detail in Section 2.6.
2.3 Energy Costs
Energy costs for lighting, heating and ventilation remain a significant recurrent cost item. For buildings, initial
expenditure related to energy requirements is concerned with such aspects as the balance of provision of natural and
artificial lighting, and the heating/ventilation requirements, which are clearly affected by the insulation specification for
the external skin.
Artificial lighting represents a surprisingly high proportion of energy consumption in commercial and residential
buildings. Adequate provision of windows and rooflights can therefore mean significant long-term savings. These
provisions need to be assessed against higher initial expenditure, and secondary considerations, such as security. Heat gain
and glare are two potential problems which should also be considered since they may effectively neutralise any
potential savings.
Space heating and ventilation are both related to insulation levels and the volume of air to be treated. One of the reasons
why low-pitch portal frames have become more popular than the traditional column and truss construction for
industrial applications is that the enclosed building volume is reduced and includes very little wasted space.
2.4 Maintenance
All structures (buildings, bridges and others) should be inspected and maintained on a regular basis. There is often a trade-
off between costs associated with these activities and initial costs. Areas which are difficult or impossible to inspect
need careful treatment. In many cases there is a trade-off between capital expenditure and life expectancy/
maintenance requirements.
For steels, corrosion and its prevention is a major concern. Cost factors associated with corrosion prevention relate to
exposure conditions, planned inspection and maintenance, design detailing, the protection specification, and the quality of
the first application.
Good detailing in fact has very little cost implication and is an important part of all designs. For instance, arrangements
which allow water to collect should be avoided and inaccessible areas sealed (Figure 1).


The specification for the corrosion protection system should be appropriate to the exposure conditions expected.
Although some extremely good systems are now available, there is little point in using such systems where corrosion risks
are low. This point is discussed in more detail in Section 4.3.
2.5 ADAPTABILITY
Although it is not always possible to predict future client requirements, alterations and extensions to projects are often
carried out subsequent to the initial development. Such projects can be disproportionately expensive. Specific provision
for future alterations can only be made if details are known at the outset, but significant savings are possible if the
original design takes account of possible changes. Although the initial development costs may be marginally increased,
long-term costs overall can be reduced.
The building life is always longer than the life expectancy of services, so the construction should be able to
accommodate likely changes in use. This capability can be provided by adopting a "loose fit" approach, giving additional
space without disproportionate increase in cost.
Shell and core construction, in which the building consists of the structure and major services only, with the more
specific services for floors installed by the tenant, is becoming increasingly popular for speculative commercial
developments. In such cases there is an even clearer need for a "loose fit" approach from the outset.
It is very common for the use of building to change. Change of use may require upgrading floor loadings, modifications
to floor layouts, installation of new lifts, or extending the structure to provide more usable space. Allowing for
such developments in the original design could lead to significant subsequent savings.
Steel structures can be adapted or extended without great difficulty. The potential exists for making connections to the
existing frame, and the strength of the existing structure, and any new attachments to it, can be determined with
confidence. Nevertheless, where future changes are envisaged, it is often more efficient to provide for these at the
outset. Where future extension is planned, simple modifications to the fabrication details and appropriate sizing of
critical members for the new conditions should be incorporated. For instance, pre-drilling of steelwork for new connections
at the interface with the possible extension and sizing columns for increased loads facilitates later construction.
If unforeseen changes arise, it is not difficult to strengthen individual beams and columns, for instance, by attaching
flange plates to the existing section. Strengthening connections is very much less simple, and some designers
therefore overspecify the shear capacity for connections to minimise the need for strengthening in subsequent alterations.
2.6 Benefits and Financial Return
Costs should not be considered in isolation but set against perceived benefit. The benefit may be clearly quantifiable in terms
of rental income or relate to the provision of additional facilities. In either case usable floor area is a key factor. This
might suggest fewer, smaller columns, and should certainly encourage the designer to avoid unusable space, for
instance between columns and adjacent perimeter walls. Minimising the thickness of partition walls and the external skin
may also yield an increased floor area, but their performance should not be compromised in doing so.
2.7 End of Life Costs
For many structures there comes a time when demolition is necessary. The cost associated with this activity can be offset
by income from the sale of recyclable materials. For steel structures the material can be re-used either as scrap in
the manufacture of liquid steel or as secondhand products which can be re-used in new structures. The nature of
steel construction lends itself to dismantling rather than demolition.
Some structures take this principle further and are designed as demountable. Such structures are generally for short-term
use such as exhibition facilities, temporary car parks and highway crossings. With careful design the complete structure can
be dismantled and erected elsewhere.
3. TOTAL CONSTRUCTION
Total building cost is a complex issue due to the interaction of various elements. Usually the best design of one aspect (e.
g. structure) conflicts with others (e.g. services or cladding). It is not, therefore, simply a case of optimising each to achieve
an optimum solution for the whole building, but rather the costings should be examined in an integrated, holistic manner.
Buildability is also important. It is concerned not simply with the development of new details or erection systems which
might facilitate work on site, but with an understanding of how design and construction can be dealt with in an
integrated fashion to produce a building which is simple, quick and cost-effective to execute and maintain. This
approach involves harmonisation of structural, service and planning grids.
At a more detailed level, standardisation, particularly of connection and fixing details, can lead to significant economies,
even if it implies some apparent wastage of materials. Co-ordination between different elements, such as cladding
and structure, achieved by simplicity of the interfaces between them, is particularly important. Non-typical areas such as
corner panels for cladding and edge details for floors need special consideration. All too often these areas are ignored
until execution is well under way and last minute solutions can be both inelegant and costly.
Bridges and other structures are much less sensitive than buildings to interactions between structural and non-
structural components. However, for offshore structures for instance, aspects such as appropriate construction sites
and transparency of the structure to wave loadings, installation procedures and fitting out all influence the total costing.
3.1 Typical Breakdown of Costs and Interactions

An important cost element in a steel framed building is that of the frame itself. Other major items include foundations,
flooring, cladding/external finishes and services. The relative contributions of these items vary considerably from one project
to another, but typical cost proportions are 9% for the steel frame compared with 25-35% each for cladding and services.
Land prices can sometimes be as high as the direct costs of the construction, in which case speed of execution becomes
a predominant factor as discussed in Section 3.2.
For multi-storey buildings, the importance of lateral bracing becomes a primary consideration. For low-rise construction,
a rigid jointed frame is often an economic solution, but as overall height increases, this system becomes too flexible.
Cross-bracing or shear walls might then be preferred, despite possible restrictions on internal planning imposed by the
location of the bracing. With greater building heights, more sophisticated lateral bracing systems become necessary.
These systems include derivatives of both rigid frames and cross-bracing such as outrigger trusses, braced tubes and
facade frames. Some of these systems are shown in Figure 5 which includes indications of their appropriate ranges of use.

A similar discussion of the use of rigid and simple frames can be held in relation to gravity loads. The effect of rigid
frame action is typically to reduce beam sizes but increase column sections. In general, whilst the total weight of steel is less
in rigid construction, savings are often more than offset by the increased complexity of the connections. However there may
be other considerations - reduced structural depth, the undesirability of bracing (if rigid frame action is not used to
provide lateral stability) and reduced deflections resulting from improved stiffness. For longer spans, material savings for
rigid construction are likely to be greater. Not only does the increased rigidity become more important in
controlling deflections, but the relative saving in steel weight of beams compared with the increased weight of
columns becomes more significant.
Important advantages of steel construction are speed of execution, prefabrication and lightness. To maximise the
advantages the concepts must be followed through in the design of the building as a whole, including cladding, finishes
and services. For example the use of smaller foundations can only be achieved if the lightness of the structure is reflected
in appropriate design of other building components. This example again emphasises the need for co-ordinating the design
of services, cladding and structure and associated with this approach, the discipline of producing the final design at an
early stage.
This approach also implies that the steelwork contractor should be involved at the earliest opportunity as part of the
project team and it also places additional responsibilities on other members of that team to avoid late changes.
The costs of financing a project may be a major consideration. High land prices and staged payments to the contractor
mean that the client may have to sustain a high borrowing requirement throughout the period of execution without any return
in terms of either rental income or use of the building. With high interest rates the borrowing requirement can represent a
major element in the total project cost and, under these circumstances, the speed with which the project can be
completed becomes an extremely important factor.
The importance of speed has been highlighted in a comparison of costs for typical 3, 7, and 10-storey office buildings
using three different building systems (steel frame and precast concrete floor, steel frame and composite floor, and in-
situ reinforced concrete). Construction programmes and cost estimates prepared independently for each building
clearly showed the importance of execution time. The study also demonstrated the benefits of steel deck composite flooring
in avoiding the need for temporary propping or scaffolding, the advantages of simplicity, and the need to ensure that
various trades are able to complete work at one level in a single operation. Providing access by programming staircases to
rise with the frame and installing floors as quickly as possible after the frame also streamlines site work.
The trend towards greater prefabrication and sub-assembly with reduced site work has spread from simply the steel frame
to include other elements such as cladding panels and accommodation modules. Prefabrication all helps to save execution
time but it places more pressure on the design phase. It also improves quality, reduces reliance on a skilled, mobile
workforce, and enables deficiencies to be rectified more easily than on site. Precommissioning should also produce a
greater awareness of, and provision for, future maintenance requirements.
Late changes and traditional reliance on resolving problems on site may be suitable for insitu construction. However,
more emphasis on prefabrication in modern construction means that the site becomes an assembly shop where the
components must fit first time if expensive delays and corrections are to be avoided.
Fast build rather than fast track is perhaps the optimum solution. In the latter the construction programme overlaps with
the design phase, implying incomplete information. In contrast fast build construction does not start until all design
is complete, and embodies the best features of efficient building.
3.3 Weather
Any construction can be affected by adverse weather. Execution programmes and methods themselves are generally
organised with this in mind. For instance when industrial sheds are built it is normal practice to complete the frame
and envelope at the earliest opportunity, with the concrete ground slabs subsequently being cast within a relatively
controlled and sheltered environment. Multi-storey construction utilising composite floor decks offers similar advantages
of rapid isolation from the worst effects of adverse weather.
Some building systems have been developed on the basis of providing a dry envelope for the work of execution.
3.4 Services, Cladding and Structure
The greatest cost interactions between building components are probably those between structure, main services and
cladding. The total floor depth includes the structure (slab and beam) and services. The greater this depth the greater will be
the total height of the building, increasing the area of cladding. Even for simple enclosure systems, increased costs will
result. For sophisticated curtain walling systems these increases could be very high. In extreme cases, where

planning constraints are particularly severe with regard to total building height, it is possible that the selection of a
shallow floor zone could result in the inclusion of an additional storey compared with the case for a deeper floor
construction depth.
Smaller scale services (electrics, telecommunication wiring) can be accommodated within raised floors, or in trunking set in
the screed or within the structural concrete slab. They have little implication for the structure. Large ducted air
conditioning systems involve greatest interaction. Here the objective is to produce an efficient floor structure, which
can accommodate the required size of ducts (including cross-overs), and which also allows the addition or increase of sizes
as servicing needs change.
Possible strategic solutions are separation or integration. Separation gives greatest flexibility and provision for future
changes. Allowing the services to pass through the structure may result in some savings in overall construction depth
but installation may be difficult and cause possible damage to paint and fire protection; future changes may also be limited.
Structural forms to facilitate accommodation of services relate particularly to different arrangements of beams. There
is generally much more space available between beams where only slab depth contributes to construction depth.
Possible solutions (Figure 2) include standard I beams, castellated beams (which, although deeper, provide limited
opportunity for accommodating service ducts), trusses and stub girders (both deeper again but with greater provision
for ductwork). The parallel beam arrangement, which separates on two levels both structure and service runs in two
directions, has proved to be a successful solution for a number of projects (Figure 3). Other possibilities include various
forms of tapered and haunched beams, used to optimise overall depth and structural efficiency, but at the expense of
greater fabrication costs (Figure 4).





3.5 Foundations
Foundation costs are an important factor in the overall economics of building construction. For small scale buildings on
sites with good foundation conditions, simple foundation solutions are likely to be suitable. Where foundation loads are
high and/or foundation conditions are poor, more sophisticated and expensive solutions such as piling may be necessary,
Figure 6. In such circumstances the weight of the superstructure may be critical and suggest a lighter, possibly less
efficient form. For instance closely spaced beams to reduce the thickness of floor slabs, which might themselves be
constructed using lightweight concrete can reduce foundation loads considerably. Steel as a structural material is also
lighter than other structural materials for a given load resistance.


4. STEELWORK COSTS
At a more detailed level the economics of steelwork construction can be affected by decisions regarding the precise form
of element, type of steel used and the method of connection. Some of these decisions are influenced by the purchase route
for the steel itself. For large projects, steel can be purchased directly from the mill in the exact lengths required and in
the desired grade. The price of individual structural products varies not only with type (hollow sections are generally
more expensive than open sections such as I-beams and H-columns) but also within a product range, with little
apparent rationale behind the pricing policy. Thus selecting a section of minimum weight does not guarantee an
optimum solution in terms of cost, even for an individual element. Specifiers should therefore be aware of pricing policies.
Small orders cannot be processed in this way and the steel is then purchased from stockholders. In this case the steel is
only available in a limited range of grades, (probably only mild steel) and a premium is payable to the stockholder. In
addition certain sizes of standard section may not be stocked and the sections will only be available in a limited range
of lengths.
These considerations clearly have important implications for the specifier.
Where higher grades of steel are available they may offer the opportunity for improved efficiency. For instance, high yield
steel has a yield strength approximately 25% higher than normal mild steel yet costs only about 10% more. However,
where strength is not a critical design condition, for instance in the case of very long span beams where deflection control
may be dominant, the use of high grade steel may simply be wasteful.
A breakdown of costs for structural steelwork in a multi-storey building might typically be as follows:
steel 47%
corrosion protection 5%
fabrication 22%
erection 8%
fire protection 18%
Clearly optimising the cost of the steelwork (within an optimum solution for structure and construction as a whole)
is dependent on minimising the total cost of these contributory elements, rather than optimising each independently. A
balance is needed between structural efficiency, simplicity of construction and building use.
It is clear that there is more potential for reducing costs in fabrication and erection than in the steel itself. In this respect,
work on site is of most importance - easier assembly is likely to lead to overall economy. Transport is also important, not as
a cost item in itself but as an aid to more efficient erection.
4.1 Erection
Because erection is carried out in the open, often under difficult conditions, and it is the essential interface with
other construction trades, it is in many ways the most important part of the design and execution process for a steel
structure. Problems at this stage can be costly to rectify and involve long delays to the programme. Apparently trivial
issues, such as steelwork delivered out of sequence, lack of bolts or fittings, long lead times for minor additional
items, extensive double handling of materials and misfit of members, can cause significant reductions in construction efficiency.
Much depends on good planning. Preparation of an erection scheme should be made on receipt of first construction
issue drawings prior to detailed drawing office work by the fabricator. At this stage items for delivery as sub-assemblies can
be identified and the need for temporary bracing assessed. Attachments for bracing should be incorporated within
initial fabrication drawings to avoid double handling of both drawings and materials.
The need for safe access for erectors must be recognised. Time can be saved and material re-used if temporary stagings are
pre-engineered and delivered with steelwork rather than relying on makeshift methods on site.
Loose temporary landing cleats under major beams and girders, shop-bolted to columns greatly facilitate erection.
Erection drawings should be clear, unambiguous and complete, including on a single drawing all details such as bolt
sizes, weights of members, presence of fittings, etc.
4.2 Fabrication
The size of individual components is limited by the lifting capacity of available cranes and transportation. This applies also
to other parts of the construction such as finishes and cladding. Within these constraints however the general principle is
to maximise work at the fabrication stage and minimise work on site, pre-assembling units in sections which are as large
as possible.
Connection design and detailing which standardises details, bolt diameters and lengths (HSFG and 8.8 bolts of same
diameter should never be used on the same job) simplifies erection and minimises risk of error. Although material
and fabrication costs may be increased marginally, savings on site far outweigh such increases. Simplicity and repetition
of frame components is related to design; for instance special fabricated sections such as tapered beams become
more economic in larger numbers.

Preferred details should be incorporated to facilitate site erection. For instance fin plates are preferable to end plates or
cleats since they enable beams to be swung directly into position (Figure 7). Moment connections should be avoided
if possible, but where necessary the erector should be consulted with regard to the preferred type of detail.
A loading schedule should be prepared by the erector showing when steel is to be delivered, how it is to be bundled, where
to be placed on the trailer for optimum off-loading and where to be set down in its correct location on the building frame.
Lack of vigorous production control often requires a buffer store on site to maintain the erection programme. This procedure
is inefficient in terms of storage space, cranage and multi-handling. Programmed site erection should be the control and
'pull' on fabrication, with delivery scheduled to accord with the daily erection programme. One of the most notable examples
of erection programming was the construction of the Empire State Building in New York.
There is a clear need for a production engineering philosophy in the design office, factory and on site. For example, a
careful study of the fabrication process can significantly reduce material handling. The productivity of the most efficient
shops is based on a labour content of 2 man hours per tonne for simple multi-storey construction compared with more than
20 man hours per tonne average for all steelwork.
Some structurally efficient solutions, even based on standard rolled sections, may be less efficient in terms of
fabrication. Column sections with bigger overall dimensions generally have larger radii of gyration and hence, for a

given application, have lower slenderness ratios and higher buckling strength; they may therefore be lighter in weight than
a comparable section of more compact shape. Where these sections are used as part of a moment resisting frame, however,
the reduced flange thickness of the bigger section may well mean that local stiffening is required, increasing fabrication costs.
Computer controlled cold sawing, punching and drilling machines mean that bolting for low to medium rise construction
is often cheaper than welding which involves more labour, cost and time. This is particularly so on site where special
access, weather protection, inspection and temporary erection supports are required.
Linking of CAD/CAM and management information systems avoids transcription of information, saving time and
eliminating possible errors.
4.3 Corrosion and Fire Protection
The cost of initial corrosion protection is unlikely to be greatly influenced by the steelwork details, although maintenance
costs and performance can be significantly affected. Appropriate specification of the corrosion protection system is
important. Steel within a heated building is unlikely to need any long term protection at all, whereas exposed steel or
steel within the external envelope may need a high level of protection. Detailed advice is available. Painting costs are
partly dependent on the area to be painted, whilst galvanising costs are related to the weight of steelwork. The latter
therefore becomes a more attractive alternative for lightweight structures with a large surface area such as trusses and
lattice girders.
Regulations relating to fire protection requirements now allow calculation methods to prove reduced or indeed the
elimination of such protection. A range of relatively cheap, lightweight proprietary systems is also available and, if
these systems are adopted, performance, appearance, and wet or dry application influence the final selection. Some
structural solutions such as slimfloor beams offer the potential for adequate fire resistance without protection. Although
the weight of steel is greater than for conventional systems, the overall effect may be some savings. In addition,
slimfloors offer a reduction in structural depth and are, therefore, attractive in terms of accommodation for services.
● Costing of construction projects is a complex issue and should include all aspects in an integrated fashion.
● Evaluation of whole life costs should be encouraged rather than focusing only on initial construction costs.
● Buildability and good planning are important aspects in minimising costs.
● Efficient integration of structural and non-structural items is dependent on detailed information being available at an
early stage, but is essential if efficient construction is to be achieved.

1. British Steel Corrosion Protection Guides.

2. Brett, P. Design of Continuous Composite Beams in Buildings; Parallel Beam Approach. The Steel Construction
Institute, 1989.
3. Owens, G.W. An Evaluation of Different Solutions for Steel Frames, ECCS International Symposium, "Building in Steel -
The Way Ahead", No: 57 September 1989, pp 6/1 - 6/28.
4. Glover, M.J. Buildability and Services Integration, Ibid.
5. Horridge, J.F. and Morris, L.J. Comparative Costs of Single-Storey Steel Framed Buildings, The Structural Engineer,
Vol. 64A, No. 7, July1986, pp. 177-181.
6. Iyengar, H. High Rise Buildings, ECCS International Symposium, "Building in Steel - The Way Ahead", No: 57
September 1989, pp 1/1 - 1/30.
7. Copeland, B., Glover, M.J., Hart, A., Haryott, R. and Marshall, S. Designing for Steel, Architects Journal, 24 & 31
August 1983.
8. Hayward, A.C.G. Composite Steel Highway Bridges, Constrado.
9. Customer Led - Construction Led, Steel Construction, Vol 7, No. 1, (BCSA), February 1991.
10. Horridge, J. F. and Morris, L. J., "Comparative Costs of Single Storey Steel Framed Structures", The Structural Engineer,
Vol 64A, No. 7, July 1986.

ESDEP WG 1A:
STEEL CONSTRUCTION:
Lecture 1A.4: The European Building

Market
OBJECTIVE/SCOPE
To explain both the need and the difficulty of harmonising construction in Europe in accordance with
the Single European Act.
PREREQUISITES
None.
RELATED LECTURES
None.
SUMMARY
Construction in Europe is a complex and important industry. At present legal, regulatory and
contractual frameworks vary significantly throughout the European Community. There are also
considerable differences in procurement methods. The framework and timetable for harmonisation is
presented, highlighting the importance of the Construction Products Directive. The role and
development of the Eurocodes, European Standards and the CE mark are summarised. The future
implications and development of harmonisation are postulated. Annex A provides a summary of
current practice in some Member States.
1. INTRODUCTION
European construction is an extremely complex industry encompassing a wide range of activities and
professions. It is also the largest employer in the European Community, employing 6,6% of the active
population and accounting for 9,1% of gross domestic product (GDP) in 1985, when the last survey
was conducted.

Major groups within the industry include public authorities such as local government or town
planning authorities, and private clients, contractors, specialist sub-contractors, design and technical
service professionals, consultants, building product manufacturers and specialists in the financial
sector dealing with construction and property.
The ways in which these groups operate and the controls and procedures they use vary considerably
throughout the European Community, according to a comprehensive study commissioned by the
Commission of European Communities (CEC) [1]. The study was originally instigated in response to
a resolution calling for the standardisation of contracts and controls in the construction industry and
the harmonisation of responsibility and standards governing after-sales guarantees on housing;
subsequently it was extended to encompass all building construction.
It has been widely recognised that construction presents the greatest challenge to European
harmonisation. The Commission decided to tackle this most difficult task first. Successful
harmonisation of the construction industry would be a major step towards the objectives of the Single
European Act, which calls for a Unified European Market by the end of 1992. A special terminology
has developed for harmonisation. Words are given specific meanings that may have legal
significance. For this reason a glossary of terms is given in Annex A.
2. CURRENT SITUATION
The report of the study examined the Construction Industry across Europe and found that most
Member States were in favour of harmonised controls and procedures [1]. Many also wished to see
more precise definitions of the responsibilities and liabilities of the participating parties.
The report found that there was wide support for more measures to protect the buyer of the final
product through an insurance scheme. This is consistent with the objectives of the Single European
Act, which are not just confined to the establishment of a free market for the trading of goods and
services, but also to improve consumer protection, health, safety and the environment throughout the
Community.
Information sheets containing details of the present methods of procurement, form of contracts,
controls and responsibilities used in the various Member States are given in Annex B. For these
methods to be successfully harmonised the report listed 14 "elements" which should be considered in
any common Community rules [1]. These elements included:
1. Definition of the role of the client and the task of the engineer,
2. Specific liability
3. Insurance (for professional liability)
4. Qualification of contractors,
5. Design codes and specifications
6. External inspections
7. Acceptance criteria
8. Contractual documents

9. Tenders
The Community already recognises the professional qualifications of its members under the Treaty of
Rome. However, there is much diversity between Member States in the length of university courses
and the amount of practical experience required to become a professional engineer. The requirements
for architects, on the other hand, are less diverse and they may be the first profession to be fully
harmonised within the Construction Industry.
3. LEGISLATIVE FRAMEWORK AND TIMETABLE FOR

HARMONISATION
The European Parliament is at the top of the legislative framework. It debates all legislation and has
the power to amend or add further details to the proposed action. A typical proposal passes through
the following stages:
1. One of the 25 Directorates General of the Commission (CEC), or a sub-division of it

responsible for the particular area of policy, e.g. DG III responsible for the Internal Market
and Industrial Affairs, will draw up the measures required to implement the proposed action.
2. The Council of Ministers agrees the proposal, often only by a majority vote.
3. The European Parliament debates the proposed legislation.
4. After the inclusion of any amendments or additions resulting from the debate, the Council of
Ministers agrees the legislation.
5. The Commission then implements the legislation through directives, which are then adopted
by each Member State through legislation in their national parliaments and associated
regulations, recommendations, guidelines or standards. This ensures that the autonomy of
individual Member States is not threatened.
The way the Commission implements the removal of technical barriers to trade was dealt with by the
European Parliament under the New Approach or "Nouvelle Approach" Resolution. It was conceived
to accelerate the completion of the Single European Market and consists of a framework of directives
that cover general principles only. This approach allows each Member State the freedom to use their
own design and manufacturing traditions and skills which have often been developed from centuries
of use.
The most fundamental directive affecting the Construction Industry is the Construction Products
Directive. It was conceived under the New Approach Resolution and applies to construction products
for permanent use in building or civil engineering works. A product is deemed fit for use and may
carry the CE mark if it complies with the Directive.
The Directive is implemented by relying on the product's conformity with harmonised standards or,
in the absence of such a standard, with European Technical Approvals (ETA) as proof of compliance
with its essential requirements.
The harmonised standards and guidelines to establish European Technical Approvals are initiated as a

mandate to CEN from the Commission's Standing Committee on Construction (SCC). They may be
accompanied by interpretive documents to assist in the preparation of standards. It is at this stage that
the first detailed technical requirements are considered. The preparation of harmonised standards is
undertaken by the European Committee for Standardisation (CEN). It produces standards through the
following structure:
Mandates for standards preparation are issued by the Commission of the European Communities
(CEC) to the European Committee for Standardisation (CEN). The CEN Technical Board
(responsible for controlling the standards programme and includes delegations from the CEN
members, i.e. the natural standards organisations, establishes Technical Committees (TC's) (formed
to prepare standards and includes representatives from the CEN members with relevant technical
expertise) and Technical Working Groups (TWG's) (formed to undertake specific short term tasks for
the committee and may include representatives from product manufacturers, trade associations and
standards authorities).
The timetable for the harmonisation process and the key legal steps are summarised in Table 1.
4. THE ROLE AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE EUROCODES

The Eurocodes and their associated European Standards provide a framework for the implementation
of the Construction Products Directive and the award of the CE mark. This is the reason for their
urgent introduction and their ENV status.
They will only be given full EN status after a period of trial use in Member States and incorporation
of comments through the Technical Committee. The timetable for the issue of the Eurocodes as EN is
not yet established but it is likely that the principal Eurocodes will achieve EN status during the
period 1995-1998.
The framework of European Standards will take a similar time to implement. In the interim,
Provisional Guides are available as Annexes to the main Eurocodes, e.g. Annex T to Eurocode 3:
Fabrication of Structural Steelwork - Provisional Guide.
During the ENV phase, it is intended that the Eurocodes are implemented in Member States by
National Application Documents. These documents provide national values of partial safety factors
and also incorporate any specific material requirements. For example:
● In the UK the requirements for providing minimum ties to ensure adequate structural integrity
and resistance to accidental damage are maintained.
● In France, there are certain clarifications on the detailed application of rules for calculating the
semi-rigid action of connections.
The Eurocodes present best available European design practice. They offer the opportunity of
superseding and improving upon traditional practices. They should therefore improve the overall
economy of construction as well as offering more consistent safety and reliability.

5. THE CE MARK
The CE mark may be used on products that comply with European Standards, or in the absence of
such standards, European Technical Approvals as demonstration of compliance with the Construction
Products Directive (CPD). The objective behind this approach is to ensure compatibility between
design, execution procedures and products. In the transitional stages before the full harmonisation of
standards, certain technical specifications which are recognised by the Community may also provide
compliance. In exceptional cases, certification of conformity by an approved body or a declaration of
conformity by the manufacturer (provided certain conditions are met involving approved bodies
during the testing) is acceptable.
The use of the CE mark implies compliance with the essential requirements of the CPD which relate
to:
1. mechanical resistance and stability

2. safety in case of fire
3. health, hygiene and the environment
4. safety in use
5. protection against noise
6. energy economy and heat retention
The use of the CE mark is not a guarantee of performance, only of minimum acceptable compliance
with the essential requirements listed above. Compared to other marks of quality it may well be a
levelling down to a lowest acceptable, safe quality. Other marks of quality, particularly those relating
to performance beyond the essential requirements are therefore likely to remain in operation
throughout Europe. However the situation is intended to be sufficiently transparent for the individual
purchaser to be able to weigh up quality versus price for a particular product or structure.
6. THE FUTURE FOR CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNIFIED

EUROPEAN MARKET
The emphasis on quality, even the lowest acceptable quality implied by the CE mark, gives greater
priority to the wishes of both the building owner and his tenant. For the designer and constructor it is
likely to lead to the development of minimum guarantees and associated provisions for damages.
Differential insurance premiums may develop, favouring more reputable contractors and offering
tangible benefit from quality. For the owner there will be responsibilities for `fair play' towards both
his contractors during construction and his tenants during the service life of the building.
Harmonised standards imply larger potential markets and greater opportunities for economies of
scale. Trade should be simpler with reduced certification, documentation and administration.
Minimum standards imply better consumer protection which should lead to greater consumer
confidence; this should act as a direct stimulus to investment.
Of course the greater formality of harmonised, regulated construction is likely to create some

problems, especially for small and medium enterprises. Generally, the cost of entry into steelwork
construction will increase because of the need to be conversant with the details of European
legislation prior to trading. To the benefit of the owner and tenant it will be more difficult to cut
corners either in product standards or in safety in execution.
There could be a concern that the introduction of harmonised construction may lead to a reduction in
the range and individuality of construction. In reality all the regulations are so general in nature that
they are unlikely to inhibit individuality or innovation in any way. What may happen is that the
establishment of a common design base makes it easier to export and import forms of construction.
Thus the only individual forms of construction at risk are those which are inherently uneconomic and
deserve to become extinct from commercial pressures.
● European construction in a complex and important industry, accounting for 9% of Europe's
GDP.
● Harmonisation of European construction is an important but difficult part of the establishment
of the Unified European Market.
● Currently there are significant differences in technical, legal, regulatory and contractual
frameworks between Member States.
● The Single European Act in 1987 and the implementation of the Construction Products
Directive in 1991 were important steps in the creation of the Unified European Market,
notionally to be established by December 1992.
● The Eurocodes and their associated European Standards provide the framework for the
implementation of the CPD and the award of the CE mark.
● A harmonised construction market is expected to improve minimum standards of quality and
assist the transfer of best construction practice throughout Europe.
REFERENCES
[1] Mathurin, C. Controls, Contracts, Responsibilities and Insurance in Construction in the European
Community, Commission of the European Communities, 1988.
Date Event Objective/Outcome
1957 Treaty of Rome EEC Established.
26.07.71 Public Works Directive Co-ordination of procedures for

the award of public works contract.
07.05.85 New Approach to Technical Proposals to accelerate the

Harmonisation and Standards completion of the Single European
Market.

10.07.85 Architects Directive Mutual recognition of

qualifications.
01.07.87 Single European Act Removal of internal barriers to

trade. Majority voting introduced.
01.10.88 Resolution calling for Standardisation of contracts and

Standardisation in the controls. Harmonisation of
Construction Industry responsibility and standards
governing guarantees.
21.12.88 Construction Products Directive Removal of technical barriers to

trade.
(CPD)
Essential requirements to establish
fitness for use.
12.07.89 Safety at Work Directive Encourage improvement in health

and safety at work.
18.07.89 Public Works Directive Amendment to 1971 Directive.
21.10.89 Testing and Certification Regulations & Approved Bodies.
27.07.91 CPD in force Implemented by Member States.
31.12.92 Deadline for Unified European

Market
TABLE 1 - Timetable for harmonisation
ANNEX A: QUESTIONNAIRE - BUILDING

PROCUREMENT IN EUROPE
Represented here are the following countries:
Austria
Belgium
Finland

France
Germany
Greece
Ireland
Italy
Luxembourg
Spain
Sweden
United Kingdom
AUSTRIA
1. INTRODUCTION
Technical Standards are generally complete and coherent. Requirements for certification and quality
marks sometimes could cause expensive implications.
There is a good framework for planning and controlling the maintenance of structures during their
lifetime.
2. CONTROLS
Town planning regulations are tightly controlled. Obtaining planning permission can sometimes
delay construction for a long time.
National technical building standards, e.g. ONORM and other rules and guidelines prepared by such
organisations as OIAV, OSTV in some cases are established by federal law.
There are different building laws "Bauordnungen" in the Austrian Federal Countries and some Towns
covering administrative regulations and execution of construction. In those laws, there are additional
directives for certain types of construction such as schools, warehouses, car parks, theatres, etc. and
for some actions, e.g. fire.
In addition to compulsory special rules for energy supply, environmental protection, technical and

mechanical services and installations, there are industrial guidelines which only have to be followed
when contractually agreed.
Where materials and components are not generally used, special federal country government approval
or test marks are required. In addition, formal quality assurance is necessary for some materials and
components that are incorporated into permanent works. Government approval, test marks and
quality assurance have to be executed by authorised organisations such as technical institutes,
consulting engineers, etc.
3. CONTRACTS
3. General
Public sector contracts always adopt specified standard forms. In the private sector modifications to
those standard forms are usual. The principal standard form is regulated in ONORM A 2050 and
consecutive standards. Multi-storey-buildings relate to the LB-H "Leistungsbeschreibung Hochbau".
Pre-qualification is only adopted for large, complex or unusual projects in order to check the
capability and craftsmanship of contractors. It is used in conjunction with the restricted tender
procedures.
2. Forms of Contract
(a) Unit Price Contract
Unit price contracts require a description of works with detailed technical specifications and a bill of
quantities. Fixed quantities are defined for all items on the bill.
(b) Lump Sum Contract
Lump sum contracts require a general description of the works with a programme of execution. This
type of contract is used in order to find the best technical, economic and functional solution.

Separation of Design and Construction is usual
(a) Individual Contracting
The client places separate contracts with the designer and several package contractors, in order to
separate design and construction responsibilities.
(b) General Contracting

(i) Design and construction arranged separately by the client. The general contractor is responsible
for the execution of the total scope of work and undertakes the main parts of the work itself. He also
places individual packages to subcontractors. Detailed design is sometimes the responsibility of the
general contractor.
(ii) 'Design and Build' construction: the general contractor takes responsibility for the complete
design and construction. He places several individual package contracts with subcontractors and
carries out the main part of the work himself.
(c) Management Contracting
The management contractor undertakes responsibility for all design and execution works, but does
not do any work directly. The work is carried out by a series of contractors who are contractually
bound to the management contractor.
The most popular forms in Austria are (a) and (b i).
5. RESPONSIBILITIES
There are general clear divisions of responsibilities.
The client is responsible for contract award, taking over the works when they are completed and
payments.
The architect or the master-building ("Baumeister") is responsible for pre-design, detailed design and
drawings, obtaining planning permission, defining bills of quantities, tendering and site management
including architectural and technical supervision. He has the principal responsibility for quality,
safety and compliance with the law.
Consulting engineers are responsible for the technical input in their specialised fields, such as
structural design, etc. The responsibilities cover detailed design, drawings, tendering and supervision.
The contractor is responsible to the client for carrying out the work, warranties, maintaining
programme and for some aspects of detailed design and shop drawings.

It is not general practice to insure against damage during execution. However, architects and
consulting engineers are constrained to carry professional insurance.
Generally, the client is offered a guarantee on the completion of the works for three to five years.
Grave defects can be asserted in thirty five years.

Unification of different building laws should be the main target for Austria.
BELGIUM
1. INTRODUCTION
Technical Standards are generally complete and coherent. However, requirements for certification
and quality marks are sometimes requested. Specifications are not always updated as frequently as is
desirable.
2. CONTROLS
The procedure of obtaining building permits can sometimes delay construction for a long period of
time.
National building standards, e.g. NBN, EN, ENV, and guidelines prepared by such organisations as
CSTC, Technical Agreement (Union Belge pour l'Agrement technique dans la Construction) have to
be respected.
For some buildings, special requirements in relation with workers safety have to be respected.
Testing by regional Authorities can be required in some cases (Charpy, welding tests ...).
3. CONTRACTS
1. Public Sector
Public sector contracts always adopt specified standard forms, e.g. "Cahier special des
charges" (Special conditions of contract).
There are 5 methods of tendering:
• open tender: the contract is awarded to the contractor offering the lowest price. Any
contractor certified for the type of construction work concerned may tender.
• limited tender: same procedure as open tender, however, reserved for a limited
number of selected contractors.
• general call for tender: the contract is awarded to the best bid in terms of price,
technical solution proposed and financial soundness of the contractor.

• restricted call for tender: same procedure as the general call for tender, however,
reserved for a limited number of contractors.
• by mutual agreement: the contract is awarded to a contractor who is asked to submit a

bid. This procedure is only used in a limited number of cases and remains an exception.
2. Private Sector
In the private sector the principal standard form is the "Cahier des charges" (conditions
of contract).
3. Forms of contract
Unit price contracts require a description of works with detailed technical specifications and a bill of
quantities. Fixed prices are defined for all items on the bill. The risk on quantities is with the client.
Lump sum contracts require a general description of the works with a programme of construction.
The risk on quantities is with the contractor. This type of contract is normally used for 'turnkey'
projects by general contractors in order to find the best technical, economic and functional solution.

The client places separate contracts with the designer and several package contractors. Design and
construction responsibilities are separate.
Usually the contracts are lump sum and fixed price.
The general contractor takes responsibility for the complete design and construction. He places
several individual package contracts with subcontractors and carries out the main part of the work
himself.
(c) Project Manager Contracting
The Project Manager undertakes responsibility for all design and construction works, but does not do
any work directly. The work is carried out by a series of contractors who are contractually bound to

the project manager who is acting on behalf of the client. Sometimes, these contracts are on a
percentage of global cost.
The most popular forms of contract are (a) and (b).
5. LIABILITIES
5. Contractors
(a) Liability Before Acceptance ("reception")
All contractors are subject to the principles of contractual liability in ordinary law.
Example: completion of execution within the contractual deadline.
(b) Liability After Acceptance
The contractor is liable for:
- Decennial liability
Civil code provides for a special liability of 10 years (for stability aspects only).
This liability is public policy which means that it is forbidden to attenuate it by conventional clauses.
• So-called latent defects considered minor which are not discovered at the time of acceptance. The
defects listed in this category are those which do not affect the stability of a building or of a
construction.
This liability if not public policy.
Conditions for liability are:
• a contract referring to the "gros oeuvre" must exist.
• a serious defect affecting the solidity or the stability of a building must be pointed out.
5. Architects
Architects are subject to liability under ordinary law applicable to contractors as well as to decennial
liability.
They are not liable for tasks assigned to a specialised design office (design and planning which is

outside their normal qualification) except for the incorporation of these designs into the entire plan.
5. Sharing out of liabilities
The architect is the project leader, in charge of designing the building. In principle, any design defect
is, therefore, the exclusive liability of the architect.
The contractor is responsible for any defects which stem from the implementation of the plans drafted
by the architect, or defects linked with the execution of the construction project.
4. Sub-contracting
Architects and contractors are solely liable to the contracting authority for any errors made by their
sub-contractors.
Sub-contractors are only liable to the contracting authority if a contractual relationship exists between
them.

Architects and contractors ordinarily subscribe to an insurance policy designed to cover their
commitments in connection with the decennial liability. Furthermore, the contractors are required to
subscribe to a civil liability insurance covering "company risks".
In the case of construction projects carried out on behalf of the State and for the majority of important
construction projects, the contracting authority specifies in its tender that two additional policies have
to be subscribed:
• An "all risks at the work site" insurance policy covering any risks inherent in a construction site. It
includes:
• financial compensation for damages incurred to insured property
• civil liability towards third parties
• proximity disturbances, i.e. any damage incurred by adjacent buildings
This insurance takes effect at the beginning of execution and ends when the building is occupied or
with the provisional acceptance.
It is ordinarily subscribed by the general contractor on his behalf and on behalf of the sub-contractors.
However, it may also be subscribed by the contracting authority or the developer.

• So-called "liability insurance and inspections" guaranteeing compensation for damage to the
building which occurs within the ten-year period following acceptance of the building irrespective of
the subscriber of the policy (contractor, sub-contractors, architects, engineers, contracting authorities).
The guarantee of the liability insurance and inspections may be implemented only on the condition
that the construction work which is the object of the guarantees is submitted for inspection to an
independent body - the SECO Bureau - which is in charge of inspecting design and execution of
works.
FINLAND
1. INTRODUCTION
Contractual methods have been long established, but their relative importance is changing.
Construction management agreements are becoming more popular and system unit procurement is
being introduced as a method of procurement.
In product approval, a change of policy is taking place. Rules that demanded an approval by one
specific body are being abolished in preparation for the European Economic Space Agreement. This
is most notably the case in electric appliances but also elsewhere.
2. CONTROLS
Every building needs a building permit admitted by the local authorities before it can be built. The
local authorities check that the building is designed in accordance with the valid technical and city
planning regulations. Hierarchically the highest level of regulation is incorporated into the Building
Law and Byelaw, which cover both the technical and city planning rules.
The technical regulations are given in the National Building Code, which the Ministry of the
Environment issues. The Building Code includes two kinds of regulations: requirements that are
compulsory and guidelines, which present one approved solution to a specific problem In practice,
the guidelines are semi-compulsory because it may be difficult to persuade the local authorities to
approve a solution not presented in the guidelines although they have the right to do so if the solution
satisfies the compulsory requirements.
Several ministries and National Boards (e.g. the National Board for Housing) have their own
technical rules governing special types of buildings (housing, hotels, etc.). These rules, however, are
being abolished and all technical regulations will be presented in the National Building Code.
The guidelines in the Building Code do not give guidance to all problems that arise in building. In
these cases it is customary to refer to recommendations issued by various industrial organisations or
to standards issued by SFS, the Finnish Standards' Organisation.

The local authorities can also make local rules additional to the national regulations. The local rules
mostly cover subjects related to city planning: the architecture of buildings, the size of building site,
sewage treatment, fire protection, etc. City plans have lagged behind in many major cities, which has
been an obstacle to building in these areas.
The Building Code specifies standards (SFS-standards) for several products that have to be met
before a product can be approved. Such materials are, for instance, heat insulation and fire protection
materials. The guidelines also specify quality control systems for steel, concrete and glued timber
structures. The producer has to be accepted and inspected by a special quality control organisation
(TLT for steel structures) or the satisfactory quality has to be proved by quality control documents in
every single case.
3. CONTRACTS
The standard form used in most contracts is the Contract Agreement (RT 16-10193) prepared by the
Association of Employers of Finland together with several other organisations. This form is used
together with General Contract Conditions (YSE 1983) prepared by the same organisations.

(a) Traditional Contracting
Design and building are separated in this form of procurement. The client has separate agreements
with architects, engineers and contractors. The main contractor is responsible for carrying out the
actual building work, procurement of labour and materials and for co-ordinating the work of sub-
contractors and material suppliers. The sub-contractors can have their contracts either directly with
the client or with the main contractor.
This form of contracting is the most widely used at the moment, but it is losing ground both to
management contracting and system unit procurement.
In traditional contracting, the contractor is payed either on a lump sum or unit price basis. Unit price
contracts are often used in industrial buildings and repair works, where the full extent of work is not
exactly known when the contract agreement is signed.
(b) Management Contracting
In this form of contracting, the client has an agreement with the management contactor who is
responsible for co-ordinating the design of the project and for co-ordinating the actual construction
work, which is carried out by sub-contractors. The sub-contractors are contractually bound to the
management contractor.
The management contractor is usually paid on a cost plus fee basis.

(c) Design and Build
The contractor is responsible both for the design and construction of the building.
The contractor may also enlarge his responsibilities to the procurement of the building site and
marketing of the building, in which case he becomes a developer. This is often the case in office
buildings and housing projects.
(d) System Unit Procurement
The disadvantage of traditional methods of procurement, where the work is carried out according to
detailed plans prepared by the client and his consultants, is that they do not fully utilise the building
component producers' and sub-contractors' know-how in developing the most cost-effective solutions
for a specific building project. A new form of procurement called "System Unit Procurement" has
been developed to overcome this disadvantage. In this form of procurement the client gives
functional specifications for the building units to be procured and the material supplier or sub-
contractor is responsible for the design and erection of the unit.
5. RESPONSIBILITIES
See items 4 and 6.

Unless the documents state otherwise, the contractor is obliged to take out a fire insurance that covers
the building materials, supplies and components that can be damaged by fire.
He is also obliged to given the client a guarantee for fulfilling the contract and refunding advance
payments. If not stated otherwise, the guarantee is 10% of the contract sum during the building
operations and 2% during the guarantee period.
The guarantee period is one year if not stated otherwise in the documents. The contractor is, after the
guarantee period, still responsible for such defects, omissions, inconveniences or incomplete work
that the client could not reasonably notice during the handing-over inspection or guarantee period.
This responsibility terminates 10 years after the handing-over inspection. There is a tendency for the
courts of law to include an increasing amount of defects within this extended period of guarantee.
The law or the General Contract Conditions for Consultants (KSE 1983) do not require a professional
insurance for the architects and engineers. It is common practice for them to take a voluntary
professional insurance.
The upper limit of the damages a consultant may have to pay for professional omissions is equal to
the consultants fee, if not stated otherwise in the contract documents. His responsibility covers the
same periods of time according to the same principles as those of the contractors.

FRANCE
1. INTRODUCTION
All buildings are subject to standards, technical instructions, standardised technical documents,
professional rules of application, or any other statutory tests which enable all the building clauses to
be defined.
2. INSPECTIONS
The construction of new buildings is subject to a building license being obtained, which is issued
today by the mayor of the district* where the project is located. The license application must contain
a description of the project (purpose, number of M2 ...) as well as the main architectural aspects (type
of structure, architectural concept ...).
After obtaining the licence, the main building contractor draws up a user file on the technical
specifications and the drawings of the operation. In this context the materials are chosen according to:
• standards for the products, e.g. steel sections
• technical instructions or standardised technical documents (DTU) for building systems, e.g. curtain
wall elevations, matching sheet with trapezoidal corrugations for flat floors and ceilings
• particular specifications for certain types of building (energy, buildings with public access)
• regional requirements for certain products, e.g. thatched roofing, bricks, etc.
For all public-sector contracts (Government, communes, departments and regions) there is a "public-
sector contracts code" giving the statutory reference texts, for example the computational regulations.
Certification (or label adoption) is not very widespread in France, except for certain products and
industries (e.g. nuclear power stations).
3. CONTRACT
1. General
(a) Public-sector Contract
All public-sector contracts are subject to a "public-sector contracts code". Furthermore, certain
managements or national enterprises (SNCF*, EDF**) have issued their own technical specifications

and material inspection procedures (stipulation of approved suppliers, administrative documents,

quality assurance procedure, qualifying firms).
The opening up of the European market means that today foreign firms are able to tender for this type
of contract, which was often not possible before.
(b) Private Contract
There is a "private contracts code" which defines relations between customers and firms. The clauses
of the contract are drawn up by the main building contractor in agreement with the building owner. It
is possible to issue only one call to tender to a limited number of firms, but it is also possible to
negotiate with only one firm (a so-called order "by private contract".
2. Form of Contract
Contracts usually include price review clauses defined by official formulae and indices. It is possible,
however, to come across contracts with firm, non-renewable prices. This is true for small, short-term
sites.
4. MAIN METHODS OF OBTAINING CONTRACTS

There are mainly three types of contract entered into:
4. General Firm
A firm commits itself to the building price and deadline. It is responsible for the whole site, sub-
contracts certain works to other firms and ensures co-ordination throughout.
It is an easy solution for the end customer and the architect because they only have dealings with a
single manager. In return, this gives the firm considerable power in negotiating with sub-contractors
for certain technical and economic choices and enables him in the end to increase his margin through
negotiation with sub-contractors. This type of contract corresponds to "turnkey" contracts.
4. Contract in Separate Lots
The building owner and architect define lots of works for which they issue separate calls to tender to
firms. This formula means that the most advantageous prices can often by obtained for each lot. It
requires in return great co-ordination on the site, which the architects are not always able to ensure
since there are a number of managers.
There are formulae which limit the number of lots and, therefore, the number of firms.
Moreover, general building firms are increasingly involved in property development. They buy land
on which they construct a building for a customer. This formula generally gives them better margins.

5. RESPONSIBILITIES
As a rule, responsibilities are clearly defined.
The building owner, who is often the building's customer, is responsible for paying the firms and the
main building contractor (architect + BBT*). He generally calls on an inspection office (e.g. Veritas,
Socotec) for the technical aspects to check that the building complies with regulations.
There are different types of tasks for the architect, but he is generally responsible for choosing and
following-up technical solutions. He chooses a BBT* who is responsible for the calculation of the
works, the technical design (electricity, fluids, etc.).
Finally, firms are responsible for performance on the site. They are responsible for assembly in
compliance with the rules and often for implementing the site plans (a task which can be devolved to
the architect in some cases).
6. INSURANCE AND GUARANTEE

In general, the customer is insured for damage during building. In addition, the architect and the
BBT* underwrite insurance covering risks associated with the design of the work.
One specifically French detail is the existence of the "ten-year" guarantee affecting certain parts of
the building. This guarantee period is the result of a law voted in 1978. The various guarantee periods
are, therefore, as follows (as from the date of acceptance of the works to the end of building):
• two years for parts which come under the design and completion of the building (e.g. paper wall
covering)
• ten years for the entire framework and functions of use of the building (roofing, floors)
• thirty years for parts which involve people's safety (balconies, structural elements)
This is a so-called "public liability" guarantee.
Furthermore, there is a one-year guarantee after acceptance of the works on the entire building called
a flawless completion guarantee. In fact, the situation is a complex one because the ten-year
guarantee affects both the assembly firms and the manufacturers of the materials.
In the event of disputes, the guarantees can be transferred from the firm to the manufacturer.
Manufacturers of products may, therefore, be responsible for the use of their own product.
7. FUTURE CHANGES

The future enactment of the European Construction Products Directive will change guarantee and
manufacturers' liability criteria.
In this instance, it is possible that the architects may be obliged to have a more technical vision of the
use of materials because their responsibility will be more heavily involved.
Finally, problems of maintenance, life cycle and demolition of future buildings will have to be
considered when building, which will bring about changes in building techniques.
GERMANY
1. INTRODUCTION
Technical standards are generally complete and coherent. However, requirements for certification and
quality marks sometimes have expensive implications. Specifications are not always updated as
frequently as is desirable.
There is a good framework for planning and controlling the maintenance of structures during their
life.
2. CONTROLS
Town planning regulations are tightly controlled. Obtaining planning permission can sometimes
delay construction for a long period of time.
National technical building standards, e.g. DIN, and other rules and guidelines prepared by such
organisations as DASt, DAf, StB, IfBT, Argebau and STLB are established by government edict.
There are also state building laws covering administrative regulations and execution of construction.
There are additional directives for certain types of construction such as schools, warehouses, garages,
assembly halls, etc.
In addition to compulsory special rules for energy supply, environmental protection, technical and
mechanical services and installations, there are industrial guidelines, e.g. AGI, VDI, ISO, which only
have to be followed when contractually agreed.
Where materials and components are not generally used special government approval or test marks
are required. In addition, formal quality assurance is necessary for some materials and components
that are incorporated into permanent works. Materials and components that require test marks or
quality assurance are listed in relevant government regulations. Government approval, test marks and
quality assurance have to be executed by authorised organisations such as technical institutes or
acknowledged academic experts.

3. CONTRACTS
2. General
Public sector contracts always adopt specified standard forms. In the private sector modifications to
these standard forms are possible. The principal standard form is the "Verdingungsordnung fur
Bauleistungen" (VOB). Part A defines the procedures prior to award of contract. Parts B and C
provide general conditions of contract and the technical requirements for construction.
Pre-qualification procedures are only adopted for large, complex or unusual projects in order to check
the capability and craftsmanship of contractors. They are used in conjunction with tender procedures.
Unit price contracts require a description of works with detailed technical

specifications and a bill of quantities. Fixed prices are defined for all items on the bill.
The risk on quantities is with the client.
Lump sum contracts require a general description of the works with a programme of
construction. The risk on quantities is with the contractor. This type of contract is
normally used for 'turnkey' projects by general contracts in order to find the best
technical, economic and functional solution.
4. METHODS OF PROCUREMENT
Here the client places separate contracts with the designer and several package
contractors. Design and construction responsibilities are separate.
Usually these contracts are lump sum and fixed price.
(i) Design and construction are arranged separately by the client. The general
contractor is responsible for the execution of the total scope of work and undertakes th
main parts of the work. He also places individual packages to subcontractors. Detailed
design is often the responsibility of the general contractor.

(ii) 'Design and build' construction
Here, the general contractor takes responsibility for the complete design and
construction. He places several individual package contracts with subcontractors and
carries out the main part of the work himself. The main field of application is for
industrial buildings.
The management contractor undertakes responsibility for all design and construction
works, but does not do any work directly. The work is carried out by a series of
contractors who are contractually bound to the management contractor who is fulfilling
the role of the client. Sometimes these contracts are on a cost plus fee basis.
The most popular forms of contract are (a) and (bi).
5. RESPONSIBILITIES
The client is responsible for contract award, taking over the works when they are
completed and payments.
The architect is responsible for pre-design, detailed design and drawings, obtaining
planning permission, defining bills of quantities, tendering and site management
including architectural and technical supervision. He has the principal responsibility for
quality, safety and compliance with the law.
Engineers are responsible for the technical input in their specialised fields, such as
structural design, services, etc. The responsibilities cover detailed design, drawings,
tendering and supervision.
The contractor is responsible to the client for carrying out the work, warranties,
maintaining programme and for some aspects of detailed design and shop drawings.
Subcontractors have the same responsibilities as the contractor.

It is not general practice to insure against damage during construction.
Architects are required to carry professional insurance. The contractors are required to
carry insurance for responsibilities under civil law.

Generally, the client is offered a two year guarantee on the completion of the works.
This is regarded as being too advantageous to the contractors and offering insufficient
protection to the client.
Means are being sought to make contractors more responsible.
More emphasis will be given to providing a practical education for designers and
builders. Specifications are becoming more practical and comprehensible.
It is likely that the law will be changed imposing more responsibility on the contractor
in the case of defects after construction.
More research is intended on the behaviour of buildings during their service lives so
that shortcomings in construction that lead to subsequent malfunction of the building
can be identified. The outcome of this work will be transmitted primarily to the
contractors to improve the effective quality of construction.
GREECE
1. INTRODUCTION
National technical codes are not generally complete for all kinds of structures, leading
to the use of foreign ones, e.g. DIN, etc. Some of them are not always updated as
frequently as is desirable.
2. CONTROLS
There are strict planning regulations for all kinds of areas (towns, villages, seasides,
etc.).
There are also additional directives for certain types of structures such as schools,
warehouses, garages, industrial buildings, hospitals, hotels, etc.
It is always necessary for all types of construction to obtain permission from public
authorities.
The whole design of structures is covered by compulsory national technical codes (or
in some cases by foreign ones, e.g. DIN). In addition, there are also guidelines which
only have to be followed when contractually agreed.
Formal quality assurance is necessary for some materials that are incorporated into

permanent works. All the test marks or quality assurance required have to be executed
by authorised organisations.
3. CONTRACTS
Public sector contracts adopt specified standard forms, while in the private sector any
different type of form is possible. The forms of contract are as follows:
Unit price contracts require a description of works with detailed technical

specifications and a bill of quantities. Fixed prices are defined for all items on the bill.
The risk on quantities is with the client.
Lump sum contracts require a general description of the works with a programme of
construction. The risk on quantities is with the contractor.
This type of contract is normally used for 'turnkey' projects by general contractors in
order to find the best technical, economic and functional solution.

Here the client places separate contracts with the designer and several package
contractors. Design and construction responsibilities are separate.
Usually these contracts are lump sum and fixed price.
(i) Design and construction are arranged separately by the client. The general
contractor is responsible for the execution of the total scope of work and undertakes the
main parts of the work. He also places individual packages to sub-contractors. Detailed
design is often the responsibility of the general contractor.
(ii) 'Design and build' construction
Here the general contractor takes responsibility for the complete design and
construction. He places several individual package contracts with subcontractors and
carries out the main part of the work himself.

The management contractor undertakes responsibility for all design and construction
works, but does not do any work directly. The work is carried out by a series of
contractors who are contractually bound to the management contractor, who is
fulfilling the role of the client.
The most popular forms of contract in the private or in public sector are (a) and (bi).
5. RESPONSIBILITIES
The client is responsible for contract award, taking over the works when they are
completed and payments.
The architect is responsible for pre-design, detailed design and drawings, obtaining
planning permission according to the laws, defining bills of quantities, tendering and
site management including architectural and technical supervision. He has the principal
responsibility for quality, safety and compliance with the law.
Engineers are responsible for the technical input in their specialised fields, such as
structural design, etc. The responsibilities cover detailed design, drawings, tendering
and supervision.
The contractor is responsible to the client for carrying out the work, warranties,
maintaining programme and for some aspects of detailed design and shop drawings.
Sub-contractors have the same responsibilities as the contractor.

There are no legal requirements, but in order to insure against damage during
construction, the client can buy a professional insurance for a two year period.
Generally, the client is offered a short period (one to five years) guarantee on the
completion of the works.
Means are being sought to make contractors generally more responsible.
IRELAND

1. INTRODUCTION
The construction industry in Ireland is effectively divided into three sectors, with
contractors tending to specialise in one of these:
(a) Civil engineering construction - mostly projects funded by central government in

the areas of roads, bridges, water supply, sewerage, etc.
(b) General building construction - mostly private developments, with exceptions such
as schools and hospitals. On local authority or government projects, there is an
increasing tendency for developers to construct and lease back.
(c) Housing construction - largely speculative. Local authority involvement has been
severely curtailed in recent years.
2. CONTROL
Planning is governed by a succession of Planning Acts and Planning Regulations
issued thereunder. These require local authorities to prepare and adopt development
plans. Most developments require the formal permission of the planning authorities.
Building Regulations (1991) were issued under the Building Control Act (1990) under
which the large local authorities were invested with the power of Building Control
Authorities, with powers of inspection and enforcement. These authorities are also Fire
Authorities. Certain aspects relating to the nature of and responsibility for, Certificates
of Compliance with the Building Regulations are still under discussion between
Building Control Authorities and the professional bodies representing consulting
engineers and architects.
Health and safety is governed by the Health, Safety and Welfare at Work Act (1989)
and EC safety directives embodied in the Safety, Health and Welfare at Work
Regulations (1993). These require employers to carry out an analysis of hazards in the
workplace, and include for casual, temporary as well as permanent employees.
Previous legislation on health and safety related in the main to industrial employment,
the principal acts being the Factories Act (1955) and Safety in Industry Act (1980)
under which regulations such as The Construction (Safety, Health and Welfare)
Regulations (1975) were enacted. These remain in force.
Design and materials are governed by standards issued by the National Standards
Authority of Ireland (NSAI). Where NSAI do not provide a standard, British Standards
(BS) or International Standards (ISO) are frequently substituted. NSAI have
responsibility for the issue of Eurocodes and associated National Application
Documents in Ireland.

3. CONTRACTS
(a) RIAI Contract conditions 1989 - with quantities/
- without quantities
Used in conjunction with:
• Subcontract conditions issued by the Construction Industry Federation for use in

conjunction with the RIAI conditions of contract
• Quantities measured in accordance with SMM6 (1976), SMM7 (1988) and PCMI.
(b) GDLA Contract conditions 1982 - with quantities/
- without quantities
• Subcontract conditions issued by the Construction Industry Federation for use in

conjunction with the GDLA conditions of contract
• Quantities measured in accordance with SMM6, SMM7 and POMI.
(c) IEI Conditions of contract 1980
• ICE subcontract conditions
• Quantities measured in accordance with CESMM2 or CESMM3.
also
RISI Short Form Contract - for minor works.
Abbreviations
RIAI - Royal Institution of Architects of Ireland.
GDLA - Government department and local authorities.

IEI - Institution of Engineers of Ireland.
ICE - Institution of Civil Engineers (UK).
SMM6 - Standard Method of measurement of Building Works, Sixth Edition (1979)
SMM7 - Standard Method of Measurement of Building Works, Seventh Edition (1988).
Royal Institution of Chartered Surveyors and Building Employers Federation (UK).
CESMM2 - Civil Engineering Standard Method of Measurement, Third Edition (1985)
CESMM3 - Civil Engineering Standard Method of Measurement, Third Edition (1992).
Institution of Civil Engineers and Federation of Civil Engineering Contractors (UK).
POMI - Principles of Measurement (International).
Royal Institute of Chartered Surveyors (UK).

(a) Negotiated tendering
(b) Open tendering
(c) Selective list
The IEI form of contract nearly always entails open tendering. Selected tendering is
frequently adopted with RIAI and GDLA contract conditions. The selected list
typically extends to 6 to 8 firms, and sometimes entails pre-qualification.
5. RESPONSIBILITIES
The various forms of contract are broadly similar in regard to responsibilities placed on
the parties to the tender - with the exception of 'Design and Build'.
In building contracts, the architect is generally responsible for development of the

design brief, for obtaining permissions, for managing the design through its stages, for
site supervision and budgetary control. To assist in the discharge of these
responsibilities the architect will usually recommend to the client the appointment of
civil or structural engineers, service engineers and quantity surveyors, reporting to the
architect.

In civil engineering contracts, the engineer has primary responsibility for all aspects of
design, site supervision and budgetary control.
In both types of contract, the main responsibility for safety during execution lies with
the contractor.
6. INSURANCES AND GUARANTEES

(a) Employees liability insurance
(b) Public liability insurance
(c) All-risk insurance
(d) Non-negligence insurance
(e) Contract guarantee bonds
(a) Introduction of Eurocodes into design practice.
(b) Implementation of EC safety legislation, e.g. the Construction Sites Directive 1992,
placing responsibilities for Health and Safety on engineering and architectural
consultants as well as on the contractor.
(c) Resolution of outstanding issues relating to Certificates of Compliance with the

Building Regulations.
(d) Greater prevalence of 'Design and Build'.
ITALY
1. INTRODUCTION
Technical standards are generally complete and coherent. There are problems about
quality marks of many products: this depends on the fact that in Italy CE marks are not
yet adopted and there is no law about the "Quality Mark".
Frameworks for controlling and planning the maintenance of structures are adopted for
some of the largest companies only, such as State Railways and State Highways.

2. CONTROLS
Town planning regulations are not often tightly controlled especially in the south of
Italy.
Quality marks are not yet defined by law but many products have a proper quality mark.
Obtaining planning permission is difficult.
National building standards, e.g. UNI, and other rules and guidelines prepared by
different organisations such as CAR, are established by government edict.
There are some other building laws covering administrative regulations and execution
of construction. There are additional directives for certain types of construction such as
schools, hospitals, garages, etc.
Where materials and components are not generally used, special government approval
is required. In addition, formal quality assurance is necessary for some materials and
components that are incorporated into permanent works.
Government approval, test marks and quality assurance have to be executed by

authorised organisations such as technical institutes.
3. General
Public sector contracts always adopt specified standard forms. In the private sector modifications are
frequent. The principal standard form is the "Capitolato generale e speciale per l'appalto dei Lavori
pubblici". The first part defines procedures prior to the award of the contract. The second and third
parts provide general conditions of contract and technical requirements for construction.
The weak point of many contracts concerns the requirements for drawings and the description of the
scope of work which are often imprecise. This lack of precision causes claims, delays, etc.
Pre-qualification procedures are widely adopted. In Italy there is a specific "Builders List" - "Albo
Nazionale dei Costruttori" - where the companies are included in relation to their capability to
undertake in different works, such as reinforced concrete, earth movements, buildings, etc. and in
relation to their financial means.
Unit price contracts require a description of works with detailed technical specifications and a rough
bill of quantities. The risk on quantities is with the client. Programme of execution is required.

Lump sum contracts require a description of works with detailed technical specifications. A
programme of execution is also required. The risk on quantities is with the contractor.
(c) A variant of the second type is the lump sum contract related to a bill of quantities with unit
prices. Variations required by the client are regulated in conformity to unit fixed prices: otherwise the
risk on quantities is with the contractor.

The client places separate contacts with the designers and several package contractors. Design and
construction responsibilities are separated
There are unit prices and lump sum contracts, depending on the scope of works.
(i) Design and Construction Arranged Separately by the Client
The general contractor is responsible for the execution of the total scope of work and undertakes the
main parts of the works himself. He also places individual packages to subcontractors. Workshop
design is often the responsibility of the contractor.
(ii) 'Design and Build' Construction
The general contractor takes responsibility for the complete design and construction. He places
several individual package contracts with sub-contractors and carries out the main part of the work
himself. This is the main field of application of industrial buildings.
(iii) Management Contracting
Rarely used in Italy
The most popular forms of contract are (a) and (bi)
4. RESPONSIBILITIES
Italian laws and regulations give a clear division of responsibilities. Problems arise with the
instructions for a complete, finished work. Often, in fact, drawings and specifications are incomplete

and not detailed enough; this causes, as mentioned before, controversies among the parties and delays.
The client is responsible for the contract award, tendering, taking over the works when they are
completed, and payments.
The architect is responsible for pre-design, detailed design and architectural drawings, obtaining
planning permission, architectural and technical supervision, quality, compliance with the law
relating to his role (architectural).
The clerk of works, often an engineer, has the responsibility for the site management and the erection
of the building according to the approved drawings, the control of the bill of quantities, the control of
the programme, safety and compliance with the law relating to his role.
The engineers are responsible for the technical inputs in their specialised fields, such as structural
design, services, etc.
The contractor is responsible to the client for carrying out the work, warranties, maintaining the
programme, and for shop drawings. The contractor is responsible to the client for the subcontractors.

Contractors are required to be insured against damage during the construction and for responsibilities
under civil law.
Architects and engineers are not required to carry professional insurance (if not carried by the
contractor).
The contractor must offer a guarantee valid for ten years as far as serious defects of the construction
are concerned.
Many changes are foreseen and requested in the future, as outlined below:
• Drawings and specifications must be ready " for construction" at the time of the award, in order to
avoid claims and disputes during execution and further delays and damages.
• Architects and engineers must be insured against damages.
• For public works, an independent surveyor dedicated to the control of quality and the bill of
quantities is strongly required.
LUXEMBOURG
1. CONTROLS
Apart from building permits, administrative approvals for building products are not required in
Luxembourg. As Luxembourg has no building standards, reference is normally made to Euronorms
(EN) and Eurocodes or to the standards of neighbouring countries. Quality certificates from an
acknowledged foreign testing institute are often requested.
2. CONTRACTS
Pubic sector contracts always adopt specific standard forms. In the private sector modifications to
these standard forms are possible. The German standard form "Verdingungsordnung fur
Bauleistungen" is commonly used as a basis for contracts.
Usually contracts are awarded in the form of unit price contracts. Lump sum contracts are rather an
exception.

In public works, individual contracting is the rule. The private sector may use general contacting as a
method of procurement.
4. RESPONSIBILITIES
The architect and the engineer are responsible for the design and the bill of quantities.
The contractor is responsible for the executed work or the delivered equipment according to
specifications, drawings and bill of quantities.

In addition to the insurance for responsibility under civil law, major contracts are executed under an
all-risks insurance, covering damage during construction.
Guarantees are at two levels, a two-year guarantee for secondary work and a ten-year guarantee for
the structural part of buildings.
SPAIN
1. Controls
1. Planning and Approvals

The seventeen autonomous communities (comunidad autonoma) or regional governments, not the
State, have ultimate responsibility for planning and control of construction. The powers are exercised
by the local authorities (ayuntamientos), of which there are some 8000 grouped into fifty-two
provinces. The responsibilities were set out in Law 19 of 2 May 1975.
All local authorities of over 50,000 inhabitants have to produce a structure plan (plan general), which
is approved by the planning commission of the autonomous communities. All urban areas each have
a more detailed town plan (plan parcial), which is approved by the local authority as and when new
areas are developed.
Each local authority grants building permits but does not exercise direct technical control. Control of
building regulations and initial control in the light of the structure plan and town plan are exercised
entirely by the architect via the local college of architects.
The building permit (licencia de construccion) is a legal requirement before construction can begin,
and is required before gas, water and electricity connection can be made. It is only given when the
developer or client presents the project documents together with a permit (visado) issued by the
college of architects.
As well as checking from the point of view of urban planning, the local authority also verifies where
appropriate that fire regulations, health regulations, or other specific local regulations are satisfied,
particularly for public buildings.
At the end of construction, the architect signs the acceptance certificate, which must be stamped by
the college of architects after the client has paid the architect's fees in full to the college. The
certificate is then submitted to the local authority for the occupation licence (licencia de apertura).
1. Standards and Regulations
Building regulations in Spain are passed principally by the national government, but since 1980 the
autonomous communities also have the power to do so.
The legislation has been divided since 1977 explicitly into two classes:
· The basic norms (normas basicas de la edificacion) (NBEs) which are the only obligatory standards.
· The technical norms (normas technologicas de la edificacion) (NTEs) which are advisory but not
obligatory.
An index to the legislation on building, the Indice de Disposiciones Relacionadas con la Edificacion
(latest edition 1987), is published by MOPU.
The Directorate-General of Architecture and Building Technology of MOPU produces or approves

codes of practice (Soluciones Homologadas de Edificacion) (SHEs) whose use guarantees meeting
the minimum requirements of the NBEs.

Product standards in Spain, for all industries, are set by the Spanish Association for the Normalisation
of Certification (Asociacion Espanol de Normalisacion y Certificacion) (AENOR).
There is, in general, no legal requirement to use approved products, and no import restriction on
products which do not meet or are not approved to UNE standards.
Testing for certification of suppliers and product approval is carried out by approved laboratories. In
1986 a new accreditation system for laboratories was set up as Red Espanola de Laboratorios de
Ensayo (RELE).
1. Contract Forms
In the private sector there are no regulated procurement practices or standard contract forms.
The public sector, on the other hand, is regulated tightly, as in other Napoleonic Code
countries.
Basic principles of contracts are laid down in the Civil Code and the Commercial Code. The
drafting of each contract is a matter for the parties involved. There are no standard forms.
· Fixed price lump sum contract (por ajuste alzado global y precio cerrado). This formula is
used rarely except for single family housing.
· Unitary quantities contract (por precio determinado en funcion de la unidad y cantidad).

This is the most common form of contract.
· Management contract (por administracion). This is used rarely.
Public contracts are regulated by:
· The Law of State Contracts (Ley de Contratos del Estado).
· The General Regulations for State Contracts (Regulacion General de Contratos del Estado).
· The General Administrative Clauses (Pliego de Clausulas Administrativas Generales)

(PCAG)
The autonomous communities have the power to pass their own public procurement
legislation, but have followed the State legislation.
Public contracts are normally based on a fixed price, subject to cost escalation formulae which
are laid down in considerable detail in the regulations.
2. PROCUREMENT PROCEDURES

2. Private Sector Procurement
The selection of a contractor by a private developer may often by influenced by the complex inter-
relationships of Spanish business.
2. Public Procurement
Further new legislation will need to be introduced to adopt the new EC directives on public
procurement. The existing EC directives were incorporated in decree 2528/1986. Existing procedures
are set out in the legislation on State contracts described in the previous section.
The existing legislation (as modified in 1986) specifies three types of tendering procedure as follows:
· Subasta (auction) in which the tender documents include a fully priced bill of quantities.
· Concurso (competition) in which the bill of quantities is unpriced or not included, and the contract
is awarded to the 'most advantageous offer'.
· Contratacion directa (negotiation) in which the price is negotiated directly with a candidate selected
on general technical criteria.
1. Responsibilities
4. Architects Responsibilities
The architect is totally responsible for ground investigations, design and site supervision and advises
on the appointment of a contractor.
4. Technical Architects Responsibilities
A technical architect is normally responsible for the bills of quantities, cost estimates, detailed
budgets and control of payments in the architect's service.
1. Insurance and Guarantees
The Spanish Civil Code adopted a simple approach to construction liability, similar to the Napoleonic
Code. The code is based on the following two basic principles.
· Ten-year strict liability for serious defects.
· Responsibility shared between the main contractor and two independent professionals acting in a
personal capacity - the architect and the technical architect, or aparejador.

Both architects and technical architects have public liability insurance arranged through their colleges.
There is no obligation to carry insurance cover, and some professionals who are not in independent
practice or have low workloads do not bother to insure.
SWEDEN
1. INTRODUCTION
The Swedish contractual situation within the building sector is standardised and well established
between the various parties. In 1992 a new general regulation, called AB 92, was established (the
former was AB 72).
There is a good framework for planning and maintenance of buildings during their lifetime.
2. CONTROLS
Planning regulations are tightly controlled by state and municipalities. Obtaining planning permission
can sometimes delay construction for a very long period of time.
Examples of various Swedish building-regulations and codes are "Boverkets

nybyggnadsregler" (regulations and general recommendations), BBK (concrete structures), BSK
(steel structures), etc.
There are also state building laws covering administrative regulations and execution of construction.
There are also additional laws and directives for certain types of constructions and installations.
There is a strong movement in Sweden to give the industry a higher degree of responsibility for its
products and works.
In addition to compulsory special regulations for energy supply, environmental protection and
mechanical services and installations, there are also industrial guidelines.
Where materials and components are not generally tested and used special government approval or
test marks are required. In addition, formal quality assurance is necessary for some materials and
components that are incorporated into permanent construction. Materials and components that require
test marks or quality assurance are listed in relevant government regulations. Testing and approvals
have to be executed by authorised bodies.
3. CONTRACTS
2. General

Public sector contracts always adopt specified standard forms according to the new "AB 92" (general
regulations for contractual works). The principal standard form is the "AB 92".
Pre-qualification procedures are seldom used for projects in order to check capability and
craftsmanship of contractors. They are now used in conjunction with restricted tender procedures and
their use will increase in the next few years.
(a) Lump Sum Contract
The parties agree on a fixed lump sum for the contractual work. If the extent of the
work does not change, the price is fixed. The fixed price can be subjected to price
adjustment.
This type of contract is normally used in turn-key and general contracting.
(b) Unit Price Contract
Unit price contracts require a description of the works with technical specifications and
a bill of quantities. Fixed prices are given by the contractor for all items on the bill. The
quantities given by the client are estimates. The final cost is determined when the work
is completed. This is a normal contract form in road projects.
(c) Cost-plus Contract
The contractor is paid in accordance with his actual costs.
3. Methods of Procurement
(a) Divided Contract
Here the client places separate contracts with the designer and several package contractors. Design
and construction responsibilities are separate.
Contracts are lump sum and fixed price with or without price adjustment.
(i) Design and construction is arranged separately by the client. The general contractor is responsible
for the execution of the total scope of work and undertakes the main parts of the work himself. He
also places individual packages to subcontractors. Detailed design is often the responsibility of the
general contractor.

(ii) 'Design and Build' Construction
Here, the general contractor takes total responsibility for the complete design and construction. He
places several individual package contracts with subcontractors and carries out the main part of the
work himself.
(iii) 'Design, Build and Operate' Construction
This is an extension of 'Design and Build' Construction where the contractor is also responsible for
the management of the finished building.
The contractor takes responsibility for all design and construction works, but does not do any work
directly. The work is carried out by a series of contractors who are contractually bound to the main
contractor, who fulfils the role of the client. Sometimes these contracts are on a cost plus fee basis.
4. RESPONSIBILITIES
There are generally clear divisions of responsibilities. The client is responsible for contract award,
taking over as the works are completed, and payments.
Engineers are responsible for the technical input in their specialised fields such as structural design.
The responsibilities cover detailed design, drawings, tendering and supervision by the rule of
"YOKEL 72".
The contractor is responsible to the client for carrying out the work, warranties, maintaining
programme and some aspects of detailed design and shop drawings. Sub-contractors have equal
responsibilities.

Sometimes contractors insure against damage during construction, e.g. "Contractors all risk".
Generally, the client is offered a two-year guarantee on completion of the work. It is under discussion
to establish an eight-year responsibility assurance for contracts, which is expected to increase
contract costs by 1-2%.
Means are being sought to make contractors more responsible, see above.
More emphasis will be given to providing a practical education for designers and builders.

UNITED KINGDOM
1. INTRODUCTION
The market is well developed with suitable technical standards available. There are various routes
used for building procurement depending on the size and type of building and the client preference.
In the particular case of steel frames, responsibility for frame design and the detail design of
connections is often split between different organisations. A Consulting Engineer is often employed
for the frame design, including selection of sections, while the Fabricator will normally detail design
the connections to resist the loads provided by the Designer. There are, therefore, separate contracts
involved for the different operations. An increasing number of jobs are carried out through the
"Design & Build" method where responsibility for the whole rests with one organisation. Some sub-
contracting is normal.
2. CONTROLS
In addition to the overall requirement to obtain planning permission for the whole works, it is
necessary to satisfy the Building Regulations. These regulations are administered by the local
authority where the building is to be built. For structural frames, this work will involve a check of the
calculations to ensure the regulations have been satisfied. This is normally achieved by conforming to
the appropriate European or national standard but exceptionally, the Building Control Officer can
accept alternatives.
For products for which the codes are not appropriate, test results verified by the British Board of
Agreement or other reputable independent bodies, such as Universities, will usually be accepted.
3. CONTRACTS
Most structural steelwork is carried out as a subcontract to the main or management contractor. The
form of contract is usually JCT 80, although many variants are used. Where the steelwork is
measured, as opposed to a lump sum arrangement, then the measurement will usually be to SMM7
(RICS Standard Method of Measurement 7th edition).
One of the problems in the industry is the lack of a standard approach and contract. Care must be
taken to understand the legal and technical requirements of each contract. The publication of the
"National Structural Steelwork Specification" assists this process.

The three main procurement routes are:
4. Traditional

In this method, the building is designed by the client's professional team who then select a main
contractor who organises the work and appoints his
Sub-contractors. The sub-contractors may be pre-selected and nominated by the Design Team.
4. Management Contracting
In this arrangement, a Management Contractor is appointed by the client in the early phases of the
work. He works alongside the Design Team and advises on the practical aspects of the design as well
as ensuring this work proceeds to programme. He also appoints and manages the work of the various
Sub-contractors.
The specialist Sub-contractors, of which the Steelwork Supplier is one, are responsible for the detail
design, fabrication and erection of the various work packages.
The steel sub-contract includes the frame and secondary members and, depending on the type of
work, the cladding, floors, hand railing, etc.
3. On Site Design and Build
The client provides, with professional assistance, an outline scheme and a performance specification.
The remainder of the design and its construction are then put out to competitive tender.
It is the job of each tendering contractor to manage the work. The structural steel frame is usually
provided by a subcontractor as before but with the additional responsibility for the frame design in
addition to the normal detail design, fabrication and erection.
5. RESPONSIBILITIES
The professional team, involving architects, engineers, quality surveyors are responsible for
producing the overall design of the building, How far they proceed with the detail design depends on
the form of contract being employed and the types of specialist sub-contractors.
The main or management contractor is responsible for organising the work on site, safely and to
programme, and for coordinating the various subcontractors. He is responsible to the client for their
work.

There are statutory insurance requirements such as Public Liability to cover damage and injury to
personnel. The completed work is subject to a contractual maintenance period, often of 12 months.
After that, responsibilities are covered by the law.

Guarantees of performance, particularly corrosion of some components, are sometimes requested but
are not normal.
The major improvements are likely to come from a less adversarial approach to construction. This
change is inhibited by the litigatious attitude of Contractors and
Sub-contractors at present, and the temptation to increase profits through claims.
A greater understanding by Designers and Quantity Surveyors of modern construction and fabrication
techniques would assist.

ESDEP LECTURE NOTE [WG1B]
ESDEP WG 1B
STEEL CONSTRUCTION:
INTRODUCTION TO DESIGN
Lecture 1B.1: Process of Design

OBJECTIVE/SCOPE
To introduce the challenge of creative design and to explain approaches by which it may be achieved.
PREREQUISITES
A general knowledge of basic applied mechanics is assumed and prior encouragement should be given to read J E
Gordon's three books [1,2,3].
RELATED LECTURES
Since this lecture deals with the process of design in general terms almost all other lectures are related to it in some way.
Those sections which are most closely associated with it are 1B:Introduction to Design, 14: Structural Systems:
Buildings, 15A: Structural Systems: Offshore, 15B: Structural Systems: Bridges, and 15C: Structural Systems: Miscellaneous
SUMMARY
The lecture begins by considering a definition of design and some objectives. It discusses how a designer can approach a
new problem in general and how a structural designer can develop a structural system. It concludes by considering
differences of emphasis in design approach for different classes of structure.
1. DESIGN OBJECTIVES
The results of successful design in structural engineering can be seen and used by everyone, see Figure 1.
http://www.fgg.uni-lj.si/kmk/esdep/master/wg01b/l0100.htm (1 of 35) [17.07.2010 09:54:58]
The question is: how can professional designers be developed and eventually produce better designs than those
previously encountered, to benefit and enhance the performance of human activities? In particular how can steel be
utilised effectively in structures for:
● travelling more easily over awkward terrain, requiring bridges.

● enabling basic industrial processes to function requiring, for example, machinery supports, docks and oil rig installations.
● aiding communications, requiring masts.
● enclosing space within buildings, as in Figure 2.
Design is 'the process of defining the means of manufacturing a product to satisfy a required need': from the first
conceptual ideas, through study of human intentions, to the detailed technical and manufacture stages, with the ideas
and studies communicated with drawings, words and models.
'Designers'? All people are capable of creative conceptual ideas - they are continuously processing information and
making conscious imaginative choices, e.g. of the clothes they wear, of the activities they engage in, and the development
of ideas they pursue, causing changes.
In structural design, prime objectives are to ensure the best possible:
● unhindered functioning of the designed artefact over a desired life-span.

● safe construction system, completed on time and to the original budget cost.
● imaginative and delightful solution for both users and casual observers.
These points could possibly be satisfied by either:
● simply making an exact copy of a previous artefact, or,

● 're-inventing the wheel', by designing every system and component afresh.
Both these extreme approaches are unlikely to be entirely satisfactory. In the former case, the problem may well be
slightly different, e.g. the previous bridge may have stimulated more traffic flow than predicted, or vehicle weights may
have increased. Economic and material conditions may have changed, e.g. the cost of labour to fabricate small built-up
steel elements and joints has increased compared to the production cost of large rolled or continuously welded elements;
also, corrosion resistant steels have reduced maintenance costs relative to mild steel. Deficiencies of performance may
have been discovered with time, e.g. vibrations may have caused fatigue failures around joints. Energy consumption
conditions may have changed, e.g. relating to the global discharge of certain chemicals, the cost of production of
certain materials, or the need for greater thermal control of an enclosed space. Finally, too much repetition of a visual
solution may have induced boredom and adverse cultural response, e.g. every adjacent building is produced in the
"Post Modern Style".
With the latter approach, 'life is often just too short' to achieve the optimal solution whilst the client frets.... Civil and
structural engineering projects are usually large and occur infrequently, so a disenchanted client will not make a
second invitation. Realisation of new theoretical ideas and innovations invariably takes much time; history shows
this repeatedly. Thus methodical analysis of potential risks and errors must temper the pioneering enthusiast's flair.
Positive creative solutions must be achieved for all aspects of every new problem. The solutions will incorporate
components from the extremes above, both of fundamental principles and recent developments. However, throughout
the Design Process it is prudent to maintain a clear grasp of final objectives and utilise relatively simple technical means
and solutions.

2. HOW DOES THE DESIGNER APPROACH HIS NEW TASK?

At the outset of a new task an "instant of blind panic" may occur. There are a variety of Design Methods to help progress [4,
5] with the new task, but the following methodical approach is suggested:
1. Recognise that a challenge exists and clearly define the overall objectives for a design, see Figure 3.
2. Research around the task and investigate likely relevant information (Analysis).
3. Evolve possible solutions to the task (Synthesis).
4. Decide on, and refine, the best solution (Evaluation), establishing clear priorities for action (in terms of
manufacture, construction, operation and maintenance).
5. Communicate decisions to others involved in the task.

At the outset, these five phases appear as a simple linear chain; in fact the design process is highly complex, as all factors in
the design are interdependent to a greater or lesser degree. Hence there will be many steps and loops within and between
the phases, as seen in Figure 4. The first rapid passage through phases 1, 2 and 3 will decide if there is 'any problem', e.g. is
the likely traffic flow adequate to justify a convenient but high cost bridge?

All factors and combinations must be explored comprehensively from idea to detail, with many compromises having to
be finely balanced to achieve a feasible solution. Ideas may be developed: verbally, e.g 'brainstorming' or Edward de
Bono's 'lateral thinking' approaches [6], graphically, numerically or physically. Always qualitative assessment should
proceed quantitative evaluation.
The starting point for Analysis may thus be the designer's current preconceived notion or visual imagination, but the
Synthesis will reveal the flexibility of his mind to assimilate new ideas critically, free of preconception.
A designer can prepare himself for the compromises and inversions of thought and interaction with other members of
the Design Team leading to successful synthesis, through 'Roleplay Games', e.g. see 'The Monkey House' game, in Appendix 1.
3. HOW DOES THE DESIGNER DEVELOP HIS STRUCTURAL SYSTEM?

An example of structural design, and the various decision phases, will be briefly considered for a simple two-lorry
garage building with an office, toilet and tea room, shown completed in Figure 2. It is assumed in this hypothetical case that
an initial decision has already been made by the client to have this set of requirements designed and built.
3.1 Pose an Initial Concept that may well Satisfy the Functions
It is invariably the best idea to start by looking at the functions (performance) required and their relationships. Make a list
of individual functions; then generate a 'bubble' (or flow) diagram of relationships between different functional areas to
decide possible interconnections and locations, see Figure 5. Find, or assume, suitable plan areas and minimum clear heights
of each three-dimensional 'volume of space'. A possible plan layout may then be indicated, noting any particular
complications of the site, e.g. plan shape, proximity of old buildings, slope or soil consistency.

Many other plan arrangements will be possible and should be considered quickly at this phase.
The requirements of each 'volume of space' and its interfaces must be examined for all functional, cost and aesthetic criteria,
e.g. what structural applied live loads must be resisted; what heating, ventilating, lighting and acoustic requirements are
likely to be desired, see Figure 6.

The main criteria can easily be recognised and then followed up and tested by numerical assessment. Incompatibilities may
be 'designed out' by re-arranging the planned spaces or making other compromises, see Figure 7, e.g. would you accept
an office telephone being very close to the workshop drill or lorry engine, without any acoustic insulation?

Prepare a set of initial assumptions for possible materials and the structural 'Frame', 'Planar' or 'Membrane' load-bearing
system [7] that might be compatible with the 'volumes of space' as shown in Figure 8. These assumptions will be based
on previous knowledge and understanding of actual constructions[8-13] or structural theory, see Figure 9 a, b, as well as
the current availability of materials and skills. Initial consultations may be needed with suppliers and fabricators, e.g. for
large quantities or special qualities of steel.








Steelwork, with its properties of strength, isotropy and stiffness, and its straight and compact linear elements, lends itself
to 'Frame' systems, see Figure 9 c-e, which gather and transfer the major structural loads as directly as possible to
the foundations, as a tree gathers loads from its leaves through branches and main trunk to the roots.
Next (and continuously) elucidate and test your ideas by making quick 3D sketches, or simple physical models, to explore
the likely compatibility and aesthetic impact.
A range of stimulating evocative patterns viewed at different distances from, all around, and inside the buildings must
be developed:
Long range the skyline silhouette or "landscape" pattern
Middle distance when the whole built object can be seen
Close up when a detail is clearly seen

Very close when the texture of the materials can be seen.
All these conditions should be satisfied, and especially for very large buildings for most of the time. Deficiencies may be
made up in some people's minds if their social conditions change for the better or natural or changing phenomena occur, e.
g. the rays of the setting sun suddenly give a completely different colour appearance or after sunset the interior lighting
creates patterns previously unnoticed.
Form, colour, warmth and definition can be achieved with skilful use of steel, especially with "human scale" elements
though repetition will soon induce boredom; but only as part of the complete sensory experience which must include
elegant solutions to all aspects - especially those easily visible - of the total building design.
It is very important that all principal specialists (architects, engineers for structure and environmental services, and also
major suppliers and contractors who should all have common education and understanding of basic design
principles) collaborate and communicate freely with each other - also with the client - at this conceptual design phase.
Bad initial decisions cannot subsequently be easily and cheaply rectified at the more detailed design phases.
Be prepared to modify the concept readily (use 4B pencils) and work quickly. Timescale for an initial structural
design concept: seconds/minutes. But hours will be needed for discussion and communication with others in researching
an initial complete design idea.
3.2 Recognise the Main Structural Systems and Contemplate the Necessary Strength and Stiffness
Consider the applied live loads from roofs, floors or walls, and trace the 'load paths' through the integral 3D array of
elements to the foundations, see Figure 10.

If the roof is assumed to be profiled steel decking, the rainwater should run to the sides, and a manufacturers' data table
will indicate both the slope angle to be provided (4° - 6° minimum) and the secondary beam (purlin) spacing required, e.
g. commonly 1,4m - 2,6m. The purlins must be supported, e.g. commonly 3m - 8m, by a sloped main beam or truss,
usually spanning the shorter direction in plan, and supported by columns stabilised in three dimensions.
Wind loads on the longer side of the building can be resisted by cladding that spans directly to the main columns, or
onto sidewall rails spanning between columns. The columns could resist overturning by:
● cross-bracing (in this case the large entry door would be impeded).
● or rigidly fixing the columns to the foundation bases ("linked cantilevers"); can the soil resist the extra overturning effect at
the base?

● or rigidly fixing the tops of the columns to the main beams (creating 'portals') and giving smaller, cheaper "pin"
base foundations.
Wind loads on the open short side of the building can be resisted by the opening door spanning top or bottom, or side to
side. At the closed short side the wind loads can be resisted by cladding that either spans directly between secondary end
wall columns, or onto rails to these columns.
At both ends of the building, longitudinal forces are likely to be induced at the tops of the columns. Trussed bracing can
be introduced, usually at both ends of the roof plate, to transfer these loads to the tops of a column bay on the long side -
which must then be braced to the ground.
Identify the prime force actions (compression C; tension T; bending B) in the elements and the likely forms of overall
and element deflections for all applied loadings both separately and when combined.
It is always useful to have the elements drawn to an approximate scale, which can be done using manufacturers' data tables
for decking and cladding, from observations of existing similar buildings, or using 'Rules of Thumb', e.g. the span/depth
ratio for a simply-supported beam equals about 20 for uniform light roof loading, see Figure 11.

At this phase the structural design becomes more definite (use B pencil) and takes longer. Timescale: minutes.
3.3 Assess Loads Accurately and Estimate Sizes of Main Elements
Establish the dead load of the construction and, with the live loads, calculate the following, see Figure 12:

● beam reactions and column loads (taking half the span to either side of an internal column).
● maximum bending moments, e.g. wL2/8 for a simply supported beam, under uniform load.
● maximum shearing forces in beams.
● deflection values, e.g. 5/384 wL4/EI for a simply supported beam with uniform load.
The size of columns carrying little moment can be estimated from Safe Load Tables by using a suitable effective
length. Significant bending moments should be allowed for by a suitable increase, i.e. twice or more, in section modulus for
the axis of bending.
Beam sizes should be estimated by checking bending strength and stiffness under limiting deflections. Structure/service duct
or pipe integration may require beams to be as shallow as possible, or deeper and with holes in the web.
Likely jointing methods must be considered carefully: is the beam to be simply supported or fully continuous and what are
the fabrication, erection and cost implications?
Structural calculations are now being performed (use HB pencil with slide rule, simple calculator or computer) and the
time involved is more significant. Timescale: minutes/hours.
3.4 Full Structural Analysis, using Estimated Element Sizes with Suitable Modelling of Joints,
Related to Actual Details
Carry out a full structural analysis of the framework, either elastically or plastically. A computer may well be used,
though some established 'hand' techniques will often prove adequate; the former is appropriate when accurate deflections
are required, see Figure 13.

For the analysis of statically indeterminate structures, an initial estimate of element stiffnesses (I) and joint rigidity must
be determined by the third phase above, before it is possible to find the disposition of bending moments and deflections.
If subsequent checking of the design of elements leads to significant changes in element stiffness, the analysis will have to
be repeated. The role of the individual element flanges and web in resiting local forces within connections must also
be considered very carefully when determining final element sizes. Excessive stiffening to light sections can be
prohibitively expensive.
The analysis cannot be completed without careful structural integration and consideration of the compatibility of the
entire construction system including its fabrication details.
Element joints will usually be prepared in the factory using welding, with bolts usually completing joints of

large untransportable elements at site. Bracings, deckings and claddings will usually be fixed on site with bolts or self-
tapping screws. It is important to remember that failures most frequently arise from poor jointing, details and their integration.
The structural calculations and details are now progressing (use HB pencil with slide rule, calculators and
computers). Timescale: hours/days.
Iteration of phases 1-4 above will undoubtedly be required, in particular to ensure that the early structural decisions
are compatible with the subsequent investigations concerning the functional, environment, cost and aesthetic aspects.
The effect of any change must be considered throughout the complete design. Changes usually necessitate a partial 're-design'.
3.5 Communicate Design Intentions through Drawings and Specifications
Prepare detail drawings and specifications for contractors' tenders, see Figure 14. Iteration of the design may again
be necessary, due to variations in contractors' prices and/or preferred methods, e.g. welding equipment available, difficulties
in handling steelwork in the fabricating shop or for transportation and erection. Changes and innovations in the design must
be communicated and specified very carefully and explicitly.


In many cases it is common practice for a Consulting Structural Engineer to prepare preliminary designs with choice of
main sections, leaving a Steelwork Fabricator to complete the detailed design and jointing system, before checking by
the Consultant.
The structural design is now being finalised (use 2 to 4 H pencils and pens, or computers). Timescale: days/weeks.
3.6 Supervise the Execution Operation
Stability of the structure must be ensured at all stages of the execution, see Figure 15. High quality components and
skilled erectors must be available at the right place and time, calling for very careful organisation. If 'all goes to plan'
every piece will fit into the complete jigsaw.

The design ideas are now being put into operation (use gumboots). Timescale: weeks/months.
3.7 Conduct Regular Maintenance
Only regular maintenance already thoroughly planned into the design will be needed, with occasional change and
renovation needed with change of use or occupation. Correction of design faults due to innovation and errors should not
be needed.
This is the operation phase. (Use a serene outlook on life!) Timescale: years/decades.

3.8 Differences of Emphasis in Design Approach Compared to that of a Medium Sized Building
3.8.1 Single houses
Most "traditionally" built timber and masonry houses include some standard steel elements, e.g. hot-rolled steel beams to
span larger rooms and support walls, hollow section columns for stair flights, cold-rolled lintels over window
openings, stainless steel wall ties and straps, also nails, screws and truss-rafter nail plates.
Cold-rolled galvanised or stainless steel sections can be made up into truss-rafters and replace timber in repetitive
conditions. Similar sections can be made up as stud walls, but fire protection of the thin-walled sections will require
careful attention, especially for multi-storey houses.
A main steel structural frame may be used for houses, but integration of services, thermal control, fire protection in
multi-storeys, corrosion and fabrication costs of elegant jointing must be designed appropriately. Various types of profiled
or composite panel cladding can be used for the exterior.
3.8.2 Bridges
The magnitudes of gravity loading are often relatively greater in bridges, and particular load patterns need to be assessed;
also trains of moving wheel loads will occur giving marked dynamic effects. Dynamic effects of wind loading are significant
in long-span structures. Accessibility of site, constructability of massive foundations, type of deck structure and
regular maintenance cost will govern the system adopted. Aesthetics for users and other observers are important; long
distance scale should be appropriately slender but psychologically strong; careful attention is needed for fairly close viewing
of abutments and deck underside.
3.8.3 Offshore oil rigs
The scale of the whole operation will be very many times that of an onshore building. Gravity loading, wind speeds,
wave heights and depth of water are significant design parameters for structure size and stability (here larger elements
cause larger wind and wave loads). The scale of the structure also poses special problems for fabrication control, floating
out, anchorage at depth by divers and, not least, cost, see Figure 1. Later when the design life is complete, the problems
of dismantling should be easy, if considered during the initial design.
● This lecture introduces the challenge of creative design and suggests a holistic strategy for designing structural steelwork.
It seeks to answer questions about what a designer is trying the achieve and how he can start putting pen to paper. It
illustrates how a successful design is iterated, through qualitative ideas to quantitative verification and finally execution.
● Creative and imaginative design of structures is most challenging and fun - now try it and gain confidence for yourself. Do
not be afraid of making mistakes. They will only be eliminated by repeating and exploring many other solutions. Make sure
the design is right before it is built, using your own personal in-built checking mechanisms.
5. REFERENCES
[1] Gordon, J. E. 'The New Science of Strong Materials', Pelican.
[2] Gordon, J. E. 'Structures', Pelican.
[3] Gordon, J. E. 'The Science of Structures and Materials', Scientific American Library, 1988.
[4] Jones, J. C. 'Design Methods', Wiley 2nd Edition 1981.
A good overview of general design methods and techniques.
[5] Broadbent, G. H. 'Design in Architecture', Wiley, 1973.
Chapters 2, 13, 19 and 20 useful for designing buildings.
[6] De Bono, E. eg: 'Lateral Thinking' or 'Practical Thinking' or 'The Use of Lateral Thinking', Pelican.
[7] LeGood, J. P, 'Principles of Structural Steelwork for Architectural Students', SCI, 1983 (Amended 1990).
A general introduction and reference booklet to buildings for students.
[8] Francis, A. J, 'Introducing Structures, Pergamon, 1980.
A good overview text, especially Chapter 11 on Structural Design.
[9] Lin, T. Y. and Stotesbury, S. D, 'Structural Concepts and Systems for Architects and Engineers', Wiley, 1981.
Chapters 1-4 give a very simple and thoughtful approach to total overall structural design, especially for tallish buildings.
[10] Schodek, D. L, 'Structures', Prentice Hall, 1980.

Good clear introductory approach to structural understanding of simple concepts, also especially chapter 13 on structural
grids and patterns for buildings.
[11] Otto, F, 'Nets in Nature and Technics', Institute of Light Weight Structures, University of Stuttgart, 1975.
Just one of Otto's excellent booklets which observe patterns in nature and make or suggest possible designed forms.
[12] Torroja, E, 'Philosophy of Structures', University of California Press, 1962.
Still a unique source book.
[13] Mainstone, R. J, 'Developments in Structural Form', Allen Lane, 1975.
Excellent scholarly historical work, also chapter 16 on 'Structural Understanding and Design'.
APPENDIX 1
'The Monkey House' roleplay game for a group of students at a seminar, Figure 16

Between 10 and 12 acting roles are created, one for each student in the group, to consider design requirements and
interactions. Each actor sees an outline sketch plan of a possible building and has about 3 minutes to prepare his
role's requirements, likes and dislikes. These requirements are propounded for about 2/3 minutes to his uninterrupting
fellow participants, who note points of agreement/disagreement. When all actors have spoken, the many conflicts are
then generally discussed and explored by the actors for about 30 minutes. Then the chairperson seeks a conclusion - who is
The Monkey House really for?


ESDEP WG 1B
STEEL CONSTRUCTION:
Lecture 1B.2.1: Design Philosophies

OBJECTIVE/SCOPE:
To explain the objectives of structural design and the uncertainties which affect it; to outline how different priorities
might influence the design, and to describe different approaches to quantifying the design process.
RELATED LECTURES:
Lecture 1B.3: Background to Loadings
Lecture 1B.8: Learning from Failures
Lecture 2.4: Steel Grades and Qualities
Lecture 2.5: Selection of Steel Quality
SUMMARY:
The fundamental objectives of structural design are discussed. The uncertainties associated with designing structures in
terms of loading and material properties are considered. The development of structural design methods for strength
and resistance is reviewed briefly and the importance of achieving structural stability is explained. Other design
considerations such as deflections, vibration, force resistance and fatigue are discussed. Matters of construction
and maintenance are included. The importance of considering these aspects and others, such as accommodating services
and cladding costs, in developing an efficient design is emphasised. The responsibilities of the designer and the need
for effective communication are considered.
1. INTRODUCTION
The precise objectives of structural design vary from one project to another. In all cases, the avoidance of collapse is
an important - if not the most important - requirement and an adequate factor of safety must be provided. In this context,
the structure must be designed in order to fulfil both strength and stability requirements. These concepts are illustrated
in Figure 1 in which a long thin rod is subject to tension (Figure 1a) and compression (Figure 1b). In the case of tension,
the load resistance of the rod is governed by strength, that is the ability of the material to carry load without rupturing. The
rod can only carry this load in compression if it remains stable, i.e. it does not deform significantly in a direction
perpendicular to the line of action of the applied load. The stiffness of the structure is yet another important
characteristic, concerned with resistance to deformation rather than collapse. This is particulary important in the case of
beams whose deflection under a particular load is related to their stiffness (Figure 1c). Large deformations are not
necessarily associated with collapse, and some brittle materials, such as glass, may rupture with little prior deformation.
Other considerations may also need to be included in the design process. They include: quantifiable behaviour such
as deformation, fatigue, fire resistance and dynamic behaviour; considerations such as corrosion and service
accommodation which may influence both detail and overall concept, but in a more qualitative way; and appearance, which
is largely a subjective judgement. In addition considerations of economy are likely to be a significant influence on the
great majority of structural designs. In this context questions of speed and ease of construction, maintenance and running
costs, as well as basic building costs, are all relevant. The relative importance of each of these aspects will vary depending
on circumstances.

The approach to structural design is dealt with in Lecture 1B.1, which describes how the designer might begin to
accommodate so many different requirements, many of which will exert conflicting pressures. In this lecture the focus is
on how a satisfactory structural design can be achieved through a rational analysis of various aspects of the
structure's performance. It is worth emphasising that the process of structural design can be considered as two groups of
highly interrelated stages. The first group is concerned with defining the overall structural form - the type of structure, e.g.
rigid frame or load bearing walls, the arrangement of structural elements (typically in terms of a structural grid), and the type
of structural elements and material to be used, e.g. steel beams, columns and composite floor slabs. A high degree of
creativity is required. The synthesis of a solution is developed on the basis of a broad understanding of a wide range of
topics. The topics include structural and material behaviour, as well as a feel for the detailed implications of design
decisions made at this stage - for instance recognising how deep a beam may need to be for a particular purpose.
Formalised procedures are of little use at this stage. A satisfactory solution depends more on the creative ability of the designer.

The later stages are concerned with the more detailed sizing of structural components and the connections between them.
By now the problem has become clearly defined and the process can become more formalised. In the case of steelwork
the process generally involves selecting an appropriate standard section size, although in some circumstances the designer
may wish to use a non-standard cross-section which, for execution, would then need to be made up, typically by welding
plates or standard sections together into plate girders or trusses.
Design regulations are largely concerned with this stage of detailed element design. Their intention is to help ensure
that buildings are designed and constructed to be safe and fit for purpose. Such design legislation can vary considerably
in approach. It may be based simply on performance specification, giving the designer great flexibility as to how a
satisfactory solution is achieved. An early example of this is the building laws published by King Hummarabi of Babylon
in about 2200BC. They are preserved as a cuneiform inscription on a clay tablet and include such provisions as 'If a
builder builds a house for a man and does not make its construction firm and if the house which he has built collapses
and causes the death of the owner of the house, then that builder shall be put to death. If it causes the death of the son of
the owner of the house, then a son of the builder shall be put to death. If it causes the death of a slave of the owner of the
house, then the builder shall give the owner a slave of equal value'. The danger, and at the same time the attraction, of such
an approach is that it depends heavily on the ability of the designer. Formal constraints, based on current wisdom, are
not included and the engineer has the freedom to justify the design in any way.
The other extreme is a highly prescriptive set of design rules providing 'recipes' for satisfactory solutions. Since these
can incorporate the results of previous experience gained over many years, supplemented by more recent research work
they might appear to be more secure. However, such an approach cannot be applied to the conceptual stages of design and
there are many cases where actual circumstances faced by the designer differ somewhat from those envisaged in the
rules. There is also a psychological danger that such design rules assume an 'absolute' validity and a blind faith in the results
of using the rules may be adopted.
Clearly there is a role for both the above approaches. Perhaps the best approach would be achieved by specifying
satisfactory performance criteria to minimise the possibility of collapse or any other type of 'failure'. Engineers should then
be given the freedom to achieve the criteria in a variety of ways, but also be provided with the benefit of available data to
be used if appropriate. Perhaps the most important aspect is the attitude of the engineer which should be based on
simple 'common sense' and include a healthy element of scepticism of the design rules themselves.
2. UNCERTAINTIES IN STRUCTURAL DESIGN

Simply quantifying the design process, using sophisticated analytical techniques and employing powerful computers does
not eliminate the uncertainties associated with structural design, although it may reduce some of them.
These uncertainties include the following:

● loading.
● constitutive laws of the material.
● structural modelling.
● structural imperfections.
Loading is discussed in more detail in Lecture 1B.3. Although it is possible to quantify loads on a structure, it is important
to recognise that in most cases these represent little more than an estimate of the likely maximum load intensity to which
a structure will be exposed. Some loads, such as the self weight of the structure, may appear to be more easily defined
than others, such as wind loads or gravity waves on offshore structures. However, there is a significant degree of
uncertainty associated with all loads and this should always be recognised.
Constitutive laws are typically based on the results of tests carried out on small specimens. For convenience, the
mathematical representation of the behaviour, for instance in the form of a stress-strain curve, is considered in a
simplified form for the purpose of structural design. In the case of steel the normal representation is linear elastic behaviour
up to the yield point with plastic behaviour at higher strains (Figure 2). Although this representation provides a
reasonable measure of the performance of the material, it is clearly not absolutely precise. Furthermore, any material will
show a natural variability - two different samples taken from the same batch will typically fail at different stresses when
tested. Compared with other materials, steel is remarkably consistent in this respect, but nevertheless variations exist
and represent a further source of uncertainty.

Methods of analysing structural behaviour have advanced significantly in recent years, particularly as a result of
developments in computing. Despite this, structural analysis is always based on some idealisation of the real behaviour.
In some cases, such as isolated beams supported on simple bearings, the idealisation may be quite accurate. In
other circumstances, however, the difference between the model and the real structure may be quite significant. One
example of this is the truss which is typically assumed to have pinned joints, although the joints may in fact be quite rigid
and some members may be continuous. The assumption that loadings are applied only at joint positions may be
unrealistic. Whilst these simplifications may be adequate in modelling overall performance the implications, at least
with regard to secondary effects, must be recognised.
Yet another source of uncertainty results from structural imperfections which are of two types: geometrical, i.e. out
of straightness or lack of fit, and mechanical, i.e. residual stresses due to fabrication procedures or inhomogenities in
the material properties. It is not possible to manufacture steel sections to absolute dimensions - wear on machinery
and inevitable variations in the manufacturing process will lead to small variations which must be recognised. In the same
way, although steel construction is carried out to much tighter tolerances than for most other structural materials,
some variations (for instance in the alignment of individual members) will occur (Figure 3).

In adopting a quantified approach to structural design, all these uncertainties must be recognised, and taken into account.
They are allowed for by the following means:
● specifying load levels which, based on previous experience, represent the worst conditions which might relate to a
particular structural type.
● specifying a sampling procedure, a test plan and limits on material properties.

● specifying limits or tolerances for both manufacture and execution.
● using appropriate methods of analysis, whilst recognising the difference between real and idealised behaviour.
These measures do not eliminate the uncertainties but simply help to control them within defined bounds.
3. DESIGNING TO AVOID COLLAPSE
Structural design is not something which is new. Ever since man started building - dwellings, places of worship, bridges -
some design philosophy has been followed, albeit often unconsciously. For many centuries the basis of design was simply
to copy previous "designs". Where "new developments" or modifications were introduced, trial and error techniques were
all that was available. As a result many structures were built, or partially built only to collapse or perform inadequately.
Yet these failures did have a positive value in that they contributed to the fund of knowledge about what is workable and
what is not.
This unscientific approach persisted for many centuries. Indeed it still forms part of the design approach adopted today.
Rules of thumb and empirical design recommendations are frequently used, and these are largely based on previous
experience. Nor is structural engineering today totally free of failures, despite the apparent sophistication of design
methods and the power of computers. The dramatic box girder bridge collapses in the early 1970s were a grim reminder
of what can happen if new developments are too far ahead of existing experience.
The emergence of new materials, notably cast and wrought iron, required a new approach and the development of
more scientific methods. The new approach included testing, both of samples of the material and proof testing of
structural components and assemblies. New concepts too were sometimes justified in this way, for instance in the case of
the Forth Rail Bridge.
The first moves to rationalise structural design in a quantitative way came at the beginning of the 19th century with
the development of elastic analysis. This type of analysis allowed engineers to determine the effect (on individual
structural components) of forces applied to a complete structure.
Testing of materials provided information concerning strength and, in the case of iron and steel, other characteristics such
as the elastic limit. Of course there were often great variations in the values measured, as indeed there are even today
with some materials. In order to ensure a safe design, a lower bound on the test results - a value below which experimental
data did not fall - was normally adopted as the 'strength'. Recognising some of the uncertainties associated with design

methods based on calculation, stresses under maximum working load conditions were limited to a value equal to the
elastic limit divided by a factor of safety. This factor of safety was specified in an apparently arbitrary fashion with values of
4 or 5 being quite typical.
This approach provided the basis of almost all structural design calculations until quite recently, and for some applications
is still used today. As understanding of material behaviour has increased and safety factors have become more rationalised,
so design strengths have changed. Changes in construction practice, and the development of new, higher strength
materials, have necessitated detailed changes in design rules, particularly with regard to buckling behaviour. However the
basic approach remained unchanged until quite recently when certain limitations in classical allowable-stress design
became apparent. The limitations can be summarised as follows:
i. there is no recognition of the different levels of uncertainty associated with different types of load.
ii. different types of structure may have significantly different factors of safety in terms of collapse, and these differences
do not appear in any quantifiable form.
iii. there is no recognition of the ductility and post-yield reserve of strength characteristic of structural steelwork.
The last of these limitations was overcome by the work of Baker [1] and his colleagues in the 1930s when plastic design
was developed. This method was based upon ensuring a global factor of safety against collapse, allowing localised 'failure'
with a redistribution of bending stresses. A comparison of elastic and plastic design is given by Beal [2].
In recognition of the disadvantages of the allowable stress design method, an alternative approach, known as limit state
design has been adopted. Limit state design procedures have now become well established for most structural types
and materials. The approach recognises the inevitable variability and uncertainty in quantifying structural
performance, including the uncertainties of material characteristics and loading levels. Ideally, each uncertainty is
typically treated in a similar manner using statistical techniques to identify typical or characteristic values and the degree
of variation to be expected from this norm [3]. It is then possible to derive partial safety factors, one for each aspect of
design uncertainty, which are consistent. Thus different load types, for instance, have different factors applied to them.
The structure is then examined for a variety of limit states. In that case the structure is designed to fail under factored
loading conditions, giving a clearer picture of the margins of safety than was previously the case with allowable stress design.
3.2 Stability
Inadequate strength is not the only cause of collapse. In particular the designer must ensure adequate stability, both of
the complete structure (a function of the overall structural form) and of each part of it (dependent on individual
member proportions and materials). The latter is generally dealt with by modifying the material strength to account
for individual conditions. Overall stability is very much more difficult to quantify and must be carefully considered at
the earliest stage of structural design. In this sense structural stability can be defined by the conditions that a structure
will neither collapse (completely or partially) due to minor changes, for instance in its form, condition or normal loading,
nor be unduly sensitive to accidental actions. Some examples are shown in Figure 4.

In designing for stability the positioning of the main load-bearing elements should provide a clearly defined path
for transmitting loads, including wind and seismic actions to the foundations. In considering wind loads on buildings it
is important to provide bracing in two orthogonal vertical planes, distributed in such a way as to avoid undue torsional
effects, and to recognise the role of the floor structure in transmitting wind loads to these braced areas (Figure 5). The
bracing can be provided in a variety of ways, for instance by cross-bracing elements or rigid frame action.

Consideration of accidental actions, such as explosions or impact, is more difficult, but the principle is to limit the extent of
any damage caused. Limitation of damage can be achieved by designing for very high loads (not generally appropriate)
or providing multiple load paths. Design requires consideration of local damage rendering individual elements of the
structure ineffective, and ensuring the remaining structure is able to carry the new distribution of loads, albeit at a lower
factor of safety. Alternative strategies are to provide for dissipation of accidental actions, for instance by venting
explosions, and to protect the structure, for instance by installing bollards to prevent vehicle impact on columns (Figure 6).

Structural stability must of course be ensured when alterations are to be carried out to existing structures. In all cases
stability during execution must be very carefully considered.
3.3 Robustness
In many ways robustness is associated with stability. Construction forms which fulfil the primary function of
accommodating normal loading conditions - which are highly idealised for design purposes - may not perform a
secondary function when the structure is subject to real loading conditions. For instance the floor of a building is
normally expected to transmit wind loads in the horizontal plane to the braced positions. Transmission of wind loads can
only be achieved if there is adequate connection between the floor and other parts of the structure and building fabric, and
the floor itself is of a suitable form of construction.
4. OTHER DESIGN OBJECTIVES

Although design against collapse is a principal consideration for the structural engineer, there are many other aspects
of performance which must be considered. None of these aspects can be quantified and only certain ones will normally
apply. However, for a successful solution, the designer must decide which considerations can be ignored, what the
most important criteria are in developing the design, and which can be checked simply to ensure satisfactory performance.
4.1 Deformation
The deflection characteristics of a structure are concerned with stiffness rather than strength. Excessive deflections may cause
a number of undesirable effects. They include damage to finishes, (particularly where brittle materials such as glass or
plaster are used), ponding of water on flat roofs (which can lead to leaks and even collapse in extreme cases), visual alarm
to users and, in extreme cases, changes in the structural behaviour which are sufficient to cause collapse. Perhaps the
most common example of deflection effects occurs in columns, which are designed for largely compressive loads but
may become subject to significant bending effects when the column deforms in a horizontal plane - the so called P-delta effect.
The normal approach in design is to check that calculated deflections do not exceed allowable levels, which are
dependent upon structural type and finishes used. For instance, deflection limits for roof structures are not normally as
severe as those for floor structures. In performing these checks it is important to recognise that the total deflection δmax
consists of various components, as shown in Figure 7, namely:

δmax = δ1 + δ2 - δ0
where δ1 is the deflection due to permanent loads
δ2 is the deflection due to variable loads
δ0 is the precamber (if any) of the beam in the unloaded state.
In controlling deflections it is often necessary to consider both δmax and δ2, with more severe limits applying in the latter case.
Although the calculated deflections do not necessarily provide an accurate prediction of likely values, they do give a
measure of the stiffness of the structure. They are therefore a reasonable guide to structural performance in this respect.
With the trend towards longer spans and higher strength materials, design for deflection has become more important in
recent years. In many cases this consideration dictates the size of structural elements rather than their resistance. In the case
of certain structures, deflection control is of paramount importance. Examples include structures supporting overhead
cranes and those housing sensitive equipment. Design for deflection is likely to be the critical condition in such cases.
4.2 Vibration
The vibration characteristics of a structure are, like deflection behaviour, dependent upon stiffness rather than strength.
The design principle is to adopt a solution for which the natural frequency of vibration is sufficiently different from any
source of excitation, such as machines, to avoid resonance. Longer spans, lighter structures and a reduction in the mass
and stiffness of partitions and cladding have all contributed to a general lowering of the natural frequencies for
building structures. Cases of human discomfort have been recorded and Eurocode 3 [4] now requires a minimum
natural frequency of 3 cycles per second for floors in normal use and 5 cycles per second for dance floors.
Wind excited oscillations may also need to be considered for unusually flexible structures such as very slender, tall
buildings, long-span bridges, large roofs, and unusually flexible elements such as light tie rods. These flexible structures
should be investigated under dynamic wind loads for vibrations both in-plane and normal to the wind direction, and
be examined for gust and vortex induced vibrations. The dynamic characteristics of the structure may be the principal
design criterion in such cases.
4.3 Fire Resistance
The provision for safety in the event of fire is dealt with in Group 4B. It is a common requirement that structural integrity
is maintained for a specified period to allow building occupants to escape and fire-fighting to be carried out without the
danger of structural collapse. For steel structures alternative design strategies can be adopted to achieve this requirement.
The traditional approach has been to complete the structural design 'cold' and to provide some form of insulation to
the steelwork. This approach can give an expensive solution and alternative methods have now been developed,
allowing reductions, and in some cases complete elimination, of fire protection. In order to implement these alternatives in
an effective manner, it is important that, at an early stage in the design process, the structural design considers how the
fire resistance of the steelwork is to be achieved. Adopting a design solution which may be relatively inefficient in terms of
the weight of steel for normal conditions may be more than offset by savings in fire protection (Figure 8).

Buildings close to a site boundary may require special consideration to prevent an outbreak of fire spreading to adjacent
sites due to structural collapse. Again quantitative design procedures have been developed for such circumstances [5].
4.4 Fatigue
Where structures, or individual structural elements, are subject to significant fluctuations in stress, fatigue failure can
occur after a number of loading cycles at stress levels well below the normal static resistance. The principal factors
affecting fatigue behaviour are the range of stresses experienced, the number of cycles of loading and the
environment. Structures which need particular consideration in this respect are crane gantry girders, road and rail bridges,
and structures subject to repeated cycles from vibrating machinery or wind-induced oscillations. Design guidance is included
in Eurocode 3 [4].
4.5 Execution
One of the principal advantages of steelwork is the speed with which execution can proceed. In order to maximise
this advantage it may be necessary to adopt a structurally less efficient solution, for instance by using the same profile for
all members in a floor construction, even though some floor beams are less highly loaded than others (Figure 9).
Temporary propping should be avoided as must late changes in detail which might affect fabrication.
It is important that the structure is not considered in isolation, but rather treated as one part of the complete construction,
along with services, cladding and finishes. By adopting a co-ordinated approach to the design, integrating the parts
and eliminating or reducing wet trades, speed of execution of the project as a whole can be maximised. A good example of
this is the two-way continuous grillage system used for the BMW Headquarters at Bracknell and other projects [6].
The installation of services can have significant implications for speed, cost and detail of construction. In buildings with
major service requirements, the cost of the services can be considerably greater than the cost of the structure. In
such circumstances it may well be better to sacrifice structural efficiency for ease of accommodating the services. The
design of the total floor zone including finishes, structure, fire protection and services also has implications for other aspects
of the building construction. The greater the depth of floor construction, the greater the overall height of the building and
hence the quantity of external cladding required. In many commercial developments very sophisticated and expensive
cladding systems are used. Savings in cladding systems may more than offset the use of shallower, but less efficient,
floor construction. Where there is strict planning control of overall building height, it may even be possible to
accommodate additional storeys in this way.

4.6 Maintenance
All structures should be inspected and maintained on a regular basis, although some conditions are likely to be
more demanding in this respect. For instance, steelwork within a dry, heated interior environment should not suffer
from corrosion, whilst a bridge structure in a coastal area will need rigorous maintenance schedules. Some structural forms
are easier to maintain than others, and where exposure conditions are severe, ease of inspection and maintenance should be
an important criterion. Principal objectives in this context are the avoidance of inaccessible parts, dirt and moisture traps,
and the use of rolled or tubular individual sections in preference to truss-like assemblies composed of smaller sections.
5. DESIGN RESPONSIBILITIES
One engineer should be responsible for ensuring that the design and details of all components are compatible and comply
with the overall design requirements. This responsibility is most important when different designers or organisations
are responsible for individual parts of the structure, such as foundations, superstructure and cladding. It should include
an appraisal of the working drawings and other documents to establish, inter alia, that requirements for stability have
been incorporated in all elements, and that they can be met during the execution stage.
Effective communication both within the design team and between the designer and constructor before and during execution
is essential. Good communication will help to avoid potential design conflicts, for instance when services have to penetrate
the structure, and also to promote safe completion of the structure in accordance with the drawings and specification.
The constructor may also require information concerning results of site surveys and soil investigations, design loadings,
load resistance of members, limits on positions of construction joints, and lifting positions on members to be erected as
single pieces. A statement accompanied by sketches detailing any special requirements should be prepared when necessary, e.
g. for any unusual design or for any particularly sensitive aspects of the structure or construction. This statement should
be made available to the contractor for appropriate action regarding temporary works and execution procedures.
The designer should be made aware of the proposed construction methods, erection procedures, use of plant, and
temporary works. The execution programme and sequence of erection should be agreed between the designer and constructor.
Full and effective communication between all parties involved will help not only to promote safe and efficient execution
but may also improve design concepts and details. Design should not be seen as an end in itself, but rather as an important
part of any construction project.
● There are very many uncertainties associated with structural design. However powerful the tools available, the engineer
should always recognise that the design model is no more than an idealisation and simplification of the real condition.
● A quantified approach to structural design can take different forms with a view to providing a framework for
satisfactory solutions. The application of design rules should be tempered with common sense and understanding.
● Structural design must consider many aspects of both performance and cost. The most efficient structural solution may
not result in the most efficient solution overall if other interdependent aspects of the construction are not considered in a
co-ordinated fashion.
7. REFERENCES
[1] Baker, J.F., and Heyman, J. "Plastic Design of Frames 1: Fundamentals", Cambridge University Press, 1969.
[2] Beal, A.N. "What's wrong with load factor design?", Proc. ICE, Vol. 66, 1979.
[3] Armer, G.S.T., and Mayne, J.R. "Modern Structural Design Codes - The case for a more rational format", CIB
Journal Building Research and Practice, Vol. 14, No. 4, pp. 212-217, 1986.
[4] Eurocode 3 "Design of Steel Structures" ENV1992-1-1: Part 1: General Rules and Rules for Buildings, CEN, 1992.
[5] Newman, G.J. "The behaviour of portal frames in boundary conditions", Steel Construction Institute.
[6] Brett, P.R. 'An alternative approach to industrial building", The Structural Engineer, Nov. 1982.

ESDEP WG 1B
STEEL CONSTRUCTION:
Lecture 1B.2.2: Limit State Design

Philosophy and Partial Safety Factors
OBJECTIVE/SCOPE
To explain the philosophy of limit state design in the context of Eurocode 3: Design of Steel Structures. To provide
information on partial safety factors for loads and resistance and to consider how the particular values can be justified.
RELATED LECTURES
SUMMARY
The need for structural idealisations is explained in the context of developing quantitative analysis and design
procedures. Alternative ways of introducing safety margins are discussed and the role of design regulations is introduced.
The philosophy of limit state design is explained and appropriate values for partial safety factors for loads and strength
are discussed. A glossary of terms is included.
1. INTRODUCTION
The fundamental objectives of structural design are to provide a structure which is safe and serviceable to use, economical
to build and maintain, and which satisfactorily performs its intended function. All design rules, whatever the philosophy, aim
to assist the designer to fulfil these basic requirements. Early design was highly empirical. It was initially based largely
upon previous experience, and inevitably involved a considerable number of failures. Physical testing approaches
were subsequently developed as a means of proving innovative designs. The first approaches to design based upon
calculation methods used elastic theory. They have been used almost exclusively as the basis for quantitative structural
design until quite recently. Limit state design is now superseding the previous elastic permissible stress approaches and
forms the basis for Eurocode 3 [1] which is concerned with the design of steel structures. In the following sections
the principles of limit state design are explained and their implementation within design codes, in particular Eurocode 3,
is described.
2. PRINCIPLES OF LIMIT STATE DESIGN

The procedures of limit state design encourage the engineer to examine conditions which may be considered as failure
- referred to as limit states. These conditions are classified into ultimate and serviceability limit states. Within each of
these classifications, various aspects of the behaviour of the steel structure may need to be checked.
Ultimate limit states concern safety, such as load-carrying resistance and equilibrium, when the structure reaches the
point where it is substantially unsafe for its intended purpose. The designer checks to ensure that the maximum resistance of
a structure (or element of a structure) is adequate to sustain the maximum actions (loads or deformations) that will be
imposed upon it with a reasonable margin of safety. For steelwork design the aspects which must be checked are
notably resistance (including yielding, buckling, and transformation into a mechanism) and stability against overturning
(Figure 1). In some cases it will also be necessary to consider other possible failure modes such as fracture due to
material fatigue and brittle fracture.


Serviceability limit states concern those states at which the structure, although standing, starts to behave in an
unsatisfactory fashion due to, say, excessive deformations or vibration (Figure 2). Thus the designer would check to ensure
that the structure will fulfil its function satisfactorily when subject to its service, or working, loads.

These aspects of behaviour may need to be checked under different conditions. Eurocode 3 for instance defines three
design situations, corresponding to normal use of the structure, transient situations, for example during construction or
repair, and accidental situations. Different actions, i.e. various load combinations and other effects such as temperature
or settlement, may also need to be considered (Figure 3).


Despite the apparently large number of cases which should be considered, in many cases it will be sufficient to design on
the basis of resistance and stability and then to check that the deflection limit will not be exceeded. Other limit states
will clearly not apply or may be shown not to govern the design by means of quite simple calculation.
At its most basic level limit state design simply provides a framework within which explicit and separate consideration is
given to a number of distinct performance requirements. It need not necessarily imply the automatic use of statistical
and probabilistic concepts, partial safety factors, etc., nor of plastic design, ultimate load design, etc. Rather it is a
formal procedure which recognises the inherent variability of loads, materials, construction practices, approximations made
in design, etc., and attempts to take these into account in such a way that the probability of the structure becoming unfit for
use is suitably small. The concept of variability is important because the steelwork designer must accept that, in performing
his design calculations, he is using quantities which are not absolutely fixed or deterministic. Examples include values
for loadings and the yield stress of steel which, although much less variable than the properties of some other
structural materials, is known to exhibit a certain scatter (Figure 4). Account must be taken of these variations in order
to ensure that the effects of loading do not exceed the resistance of the structure to collapse. This approach is
represented schematically in Figure 5 which shows hypothetical frequency distribution curves for the effect of loads on
a structural element and its strength or resistance. Where the two curves overlap, shown by the shaded area, the effect of
the loads is greater than the resistance of the element, and the element will fail.

Proper consideration of each of the limits eliminates the inconsistencies of attempting to control deflection by limiting
stresses or of avoiding yield at working load by modifying the design basis (formula, mathematical model, etc.) for an
ultimate resistance determination.
The procedure of limit state design can therefore be summarised as follows:
● define relevant limit states at which the structural behaviour is to be checked.

● for each limit state determine appropriate actions to be considered.
● using appropriate structural models for design, and taking account of the inevitable variability of parameters such as
material properties and geometrical data, verify that none of the relevant limit states is exceeded.
3. ACTIONS
An action on a structure may be a force or an imposed deformation, such as that due to temperature or settlement. Actions
are referred to as direct and indirect actions respectively in Eurocode 3.
Actions may be permanent, e.g. self-weight of the structure and permanent fixtures and finishes, variable, e.g. imposed,
wind and snow loads, or accidental, e.g. explosions and impact (Figure 6). For earthquake actions, see Lectures 17
and Eurocode 8 [2]. Eurocode 1 [3] represents these by the symbols G, Q and A respectively, together with a subscript - k or
d to denote characteristic or design load values respectively. An action may also be classified as fixed or free depending
upon whether or not it acts in a fixed position relative to the structure.


3.1 Characteristic Values of Actions (Gk, Qk and Ak)
The actual loadings applied to a structure can seldom be defined with precision; liquid retaining structures may
provide exceptions. To design a structure for the maximum combination of loads which could conceivably be applied would
in many instances be unreasonable. A more realistic approach is to design the structure for 'characteristic loads', i.e.
those which are deemed to have just acceptable probability of not being exceeded during the lifetime of the structure. The
term 'characteristic load' normally refers to a load of such magnitude that statistically only a small probability, referred to as
the fractile, exists of it being exceeded.
Imposed loadings are open to considerable variability and idealisation, typically being related to the type of occupancy
and represented as a uniform load intensity (Figure 7). Dead loads are less variable although there is evidence that
variations arising in execution and errors can be substantial, particularly in the case of in-situ concrete and finishes such
as tarmac surfacing on road bridges.

Loadings due to snow, wind, etc. are highly variable. Considerable statistical data on their incidence have been
collated. Consequently it is possible to predict with some degree of certainty the risk that these environmental loads will
exceed a specified severity for a particular location.
3.2 Design Values of Actions (Gd, Qd and Ad)

The design value of an action is its characteristic value multiplied by an appropriate partial safety factor. The actual values
of the partial factors to be used depend upon the design situation (normal, transient or accidental), the limit state and
the particular combination of actions being considered. Corresponding values for the design effects of actions, such as
internal forces and moments, stresses and deflections, are determined from the design values of the actions, geometrical
data and material properties.
4. MATERIAL PROPERTIES
Variability of loading is only one aspect of uncertainty relating to structural behaviour. Another important one is the
variability of the structural material which is reflected in variations in strength of the components of the structure. Again,
the variability is formally accounted for by applying appropriate partial safety factors to characteristic values. For
structural steel, the most important property in this context is the yield strength.
4.1 Characteristic Values of Material Properties
The characteristic yield strength is normally defined as that value below which only a small proportion of all values would
be expected to fall. Theoretically this can only be calculated from reliable statistical data. In the case of steel, for
practical reasons a nominal value, corresponding typically to the specified minimum yield strength, is generally used as
the characteristic value for structural design purposes. This is the case in Eurocode 3 which tabulates nominal values of
yield strength for different grades of steel.
4.2 Design Values of Material Properties
The design value for the strength of steel is defined as the characteristic value divided by the appropriate partial safety
factor. Other material properties, notably modulus of elasticity, shear modulus, Poisson's ratio, coefficient of linear
thermal expansion and density, are much less variable than strength and their design values are typically quoted
as deterministic.
In addition to the quantified values used directly in structural design, certain other material properties are normally specified
to ensure the validity of the design procedures included within codified rules. For instance Eurocode 3 stipulates
minimum requirements for the ratio of ultimate to yield strength, elongation at failure and ultimate strain if plastic analysis is
to be used [1].

5. GEOMETRICAL DATA
Geometrical data are generally represented by their nominal values. They are the values to be used for design purposes.
The variability, for instance in cross-section dimensions, is accounted for in partial safety factors applied elsewhere.
Other imperfections such as lack of verticality, lack of straightness, lack of fit and unavoidable minor eccentricities present
in practical connections should be allowed for. They may influence the global structural analysis, the analysis of the
bracing system, or the design of individual structural elements and are generally accounted for in the design rules themselves.

Instead of the traditional single factor of safety used in permissible stress design, limit state design provides for a number
of partial safety factors to relate the characteristic values of loads and strength to design values. ISO Standard 2394 [4]
suggests the use of seven partial safety factors but these are often combined to simplify design procedures. This is the case
in the Eurocodes [1,3] which include factors for actions and resistance. Further details are given in the Appendix.
In principle, the magnitude of a partial safety factor should be related to the degree of uncertainty or variability of a
particular quantity (action or material property) determined statistically. In practice, whilst this appears to be the case,
the actual values of the partial safety factors used incorporate significant elements of the global safety factor and do
not represent a rigorous probabilistic treatment of the uncertainties [5-8].
In essence the characteristic actions (Fk) are multiplied by the partial safety factors on loads (γF) to obtain the design loads
(Fd), that is:
Fd = γf Fk
The effects of the application of the design loads to the structure, i.e. bending moment, shear force, etc. are termed the
'design effects' Ed.
The design resistance Rd is obtained by dividing the characteristic strengths Rk by the partial safety factors on material
γM, modified as appropriate to take account of other considerations such as buckling. For a satisfactory design the
design resistance should be greater than the 'design effect'.
7. ULTIMATE LIMIT STATE

The following conditions may need to be verified under appropriate design actions:
a. Ed,dst ≤ Ed,stb
where Ed,dst and Ed,stb are the design effects of destabilising and stabilising actions respectively. This is the ultimate limit
state of static equilibrium.
b. Ed ≤ Rd
where Ed and Rd are the internal action and resistance respectively. In this context it may be necessary to check several
aspects of an element's resistance. These aspects might include the resistance of the cross-section (as a check on local
buckling and yielding), and resistance to various forms of buckling (such as overall buckling in compression, lateral-
torsional buckling and shear buckling of webs), as well as a check that the structure does not transform into a mechanism.
c. no part of the structure becomes unstable due to second order effects.
d. the limit state of rupture is not induced by fatigue.
8. SERVICEABILITY LIMIT STATE

The serviceability limit state is generally concerned with ensuring that deflections are not excessive under normal conditions
of use. In some cases it may also be necessary to ensure that the structure is not subject to excessive vibrations. Cases
where this is particularly important include structures exposed to significant dynamic forces or those accommodating
sensitive equipment. Both deflection and vibration are associated with the stiffness rather than strength of the structure.
8.1 Deflections
At the serviceability limit state, the calculated deflection of a member or of a structure is seldom meaningful in itself since
the design assumptions are rarely realised because, for example:
● the actual load may be quite unlike the assumed design load.
● beams are seldom "simply supported" or "fixed" and in reality a beam is usually in some intermediate condition.
● composite action may occur.
The calculated deflection is, however, valuable as an index of the stiffness of a member or structure, i.e. to assess
whether adequate provision is made in relation to the limit state of deflection or local damage. For this purpose,
sophisticated analytical methods are seldom justified. Whatever methods are adopted to assess the resistance and stability of
a member or structure, calculations of deflection should relate to the structure of the elastic state. Thus, when analysis to
check compliance with the strength limit is based on rigid-elastic or elastic-plastic concepts, the structural behaviour in
the elastic phase must also be considered.
Calculated deflections should be compared with specified maximum values, which will depend upon circumstances.
Eurocode 3 [1] for instance tabulates limiting vertical deflections for beams in six categories as follows:
● roofs generally.
● roofs frequently carrying personnel other than for maintenance.
● floors generally.
● floors and roofs supporting plaster or other brittle finish or non-flexible partitions.
● floors supporting columns (unless the deflection has been included in the global analysis for the ultimate limit state).
● situations in which the deflection can impair the appearance of the building.
In determining the deflection it may be necessary to consider the effects of precamber, permanent loads and variable
loads separately. The design should also consider the implications of the deflection values calculated. For roofs, for
instance, regardless of the limits specified in design rules, there is a clear need to maintain a minimum slope for run-off.
More stringent limits may need therefore to be considered for nearly flat roof structures.
8.2 Dynamic Effects
The dynamic effects to be considered at the serviceability limit state are vibration caused by machinery and self-
induced vibrations, e.g. vortex shedding. Resonance can be avoided by ensuring that the natural frequencies of the structure
(or any part of it) are sufficiently different from those of the excitation source. The oscillation and vibration of structures
on which the public can walk should be limited to avoid significant discomfort to the users. This situation can be checked
by performing a dynamic analysis and limiting the lowest natural frequency of the floor. Eurocode 3 recommends a lower
limit of 3 cycles per second for floors over which people walk regularly, with a more severe limit of 5 cycles per second
for floors used for dancing or jumping, such as gymnasia or dance halls [1]. An alternative method is to ensure
adequate stiffness by limiting deflections to appropriate values.
9. STRUCTURAL DESIGN MODELS

No structural theory, whether elastic or plastic, can predict the load-carrying resistance of a structure in all circumstances
and for all types of construction. The design of individual members and connections entails the use of an appropriate
structural theory to check the mode of failure; sometimes alternative types of failure may need to be checked and these
may require different types of analysis. For example, bending failure by general yielding can only occur when the
plastic moment is attained; however bending failure is only possible if failure does not occur at a lower load level by
either local or overall buckling.
Serviceability limit states are concerned with the performance of the structure under service loading conditions. The
behaviour should therefore be checked on the basis of an elastic analysis, regardless of the model used for the ultimate
limit state design.

● Limit state design procedures require formal examination of different conditions which might lead to collapse or
inadequate performance.
● The effect of various actions is compared with the corresponding resistance of the structure under defined failure criteria
(limit states).
● The most important failure critera are the ultimate limit state (collapse) and the serviceability limit state of deflection.
● In checking each limit state, appropriate design models must be used to provide an accurate model of the
corresponding structural behaviour.
● Separate partial safety factors are introduced for loading and material. These factors are variable quantities and the
precise values to be used in design reflect the degree of variability in the action or resistance to be factored.
● Different combinations of action may also require different values of safety factor.
● This flexible approach helps provide a more consistent level of safety compared with other design approaches.
11. GLOSSARY
A limit state is a condition beyond which the structure no longer satisfies the design performance requirements.
The ultimate limit state is a state associated with collapse and denotes inability to sustain increased load.
The serviceability limit state is a state beyond which specified service requirements are no longer met. It denotes loss of
utility and/or a requirement for remedial action.
Characteristic loads (Gk, Qk, Ak) are those loads which have an acceptably small probability of not being exceeded during
the lifetime of the structure.
The characteristic strength (fy) of a material is the specified strength below which not more than a small percentage
(typically 5%) of the results of tests may be expected to fall.
Partial safety factors (γ G, γ Q, γ M) are the factors applied to the characteristic loads, strengths, and properties of materials
to take account of the probability of the loads being exceeded and the assessed design strength not being reached.
The design (or factored) load (Gd, Qd, Ad) is the characteristic load multiplied by the relevant partial safety factor.
The design strength is the characteristic strength divided by the appropriate partial safety factor for the material.
12. REFERENCES
[1] Eurocode 3: "Design of Steel Structures" ENV 1993-1-1: Part 1.1: General Rules and Rules for Buildings, CEN, 1992.
[2] Eurocode 8: "Structures in Seismic Regions-Design", CEN (in preparation).
[3] Eurocode 1: "Basis of Design and Actions on Structures" CEN (in preparation).
[4] ISO 2394, General Principles for the Verification of the Safety of Structures, International Standards Organisation, 1973.

[5] Rationalisation of Safety and Serviceability Factors in Structural Codes, CIRIA Report 63, London, 1972.
[6] Allen, D. E., "Limit States Design - A Probabilistic Study", Canadian Journal of Civil Engineers, March 1975.
[7] Augusti, G., Baratta, A., and Casciati, F., "Probabilistic Methods in Structural Engineering", Chapman and Hall,
London 1984.
[8] Armer, G. S. T., and Mayne, J. R, "Modern Structural Design Codes - The Case for a More Rational Format", CIB
Journal Building Research and Practice, Vol. 14, No. 4, pp 212-217, 1986.

1. Pugsley, A., "The Safety of Structures", Edward Arnold, London 1966.
2. Thoft-Christensen, P., and Baker, M. J., "Structural Reliability Theory and its Application", Springer-Verlag, 1982.
3. "The Steel Skeleton", Cambridge University Press, Vol 1 1960, Vol II 1965.
4. Blockley, D., "The Nature of Structural Design and Safety", Ellis Horwood, Chichester, 1980.
5. Fukumoto, Y., Itoh, Y. and Kubo, M., "Strength Variation of Laterally Unsupported Steel Beams", ASCE, Vol 106,
ST1, 1980.
6. ISO 8930: General Principles on Reliability of Structures - List of Equivalent Terms, 1987.
APPENDIX - PARTIAL SAFETY FACTORS

Partial safety factors for actions
Eurocodes 1 and 3 define three partial safety factors as follows:
γG permanent actions
γQ variable actions
γA accidental actions
Two values are specified for γG. These are γG,sup and γG,inf representing 'upper' and 'lower' values respectively.
Where permanent actions have an adverse effect on the design condition under consideration, the partial safety factor should
be the upper value. However, where the effect of a permanent action is favourable (for instance in the case of loads applied to
a cantilever when considering the design of the adjacent span), the lower value for the partial safety factor should be used,
see Figure 8.

The treatment of load combinations is quite sophisticated, and involves the definition of 'representative' values, determined
by applying a further factor to the design loads, depending upon the particular combination considered. However,
simplified procedures are generally permitted. They are outlined below. Note that the values of partial safety factors
are indicative only. Although they are specified in Eurocode 3, their precise value may be adjusted by individual countries
for use within the country.
Load combinations for the ultimate limit state
Either, all permanent loads plus one variable load, all factored, i.e:
Σ γG Gki + γQ Qk1
where γG and γQ are taken as 1,35 and 1,5 respectively,
or, all permanent loads plus all variable loads, all factored, i.e:
Σ γG Gki + Σ γQ Qki

where γG and γQ are both taken as 1,35.
These values recognise the reduced probability of more than one variable load existing simultaneously. For instance, although
a structure may on occasions be subject to its maximum wind load, it is much less likely that it will be exposed to
a combination of maximum wind and imposed loads.
Load combinations for the serviceability limit state
Either, all permanent loads plus one variable load are considered. In each case the partial safety factor is unity, i.e. the loads
are unfactored characteristic values:
Σ Gki + Qk1
or, all permanent loads (partial safety factor unity) plus all variable loads (with a partial safety factor of 0,9), i.e:
Σ Gki + 0,9 Σ Qki
Where simplified compliance rules are provided for serviceability, there is no need to perform detailed calculations
with different load combinations.
Partial safety factors for material
Alternative partial safety factors for material are specified as follows:
γM0 = 1,1 for consideration of resistance of Class 1, 2 or 3 cross-section.
γM2 = 1,1 for consideration of resistance of Class 4 cross-section and resistance to buckling.
γM2 = 1,25 for resistance consideration of cross-section at holes


ESDEP WG 1B
STEEL CONSTRUCTION:

OBJECTIVE/SCOPE:
To provide an introduction to the sources of loads on structures and how loads can be quantified for the purpose of
structural design.
RELATED LECTURES:
SUMMARY:
Various types of loads (dead, imposed and environmental) and their classification as permanent, transient or accidental
within Eurocode 1: Basis of Design and Actions on Structures, is considered. Calculations for dead loads on the basis
of material densities and component sizes are explained. Means of estimating imposed loads based upon usage and
the implications of change of use are discussed. Loads due to snow, temperature and seismic effects are considered briefly.
The statistical treatment of wind and wave loads, and their dependence upon wind speed and wave height respectively,
are described. The importance of load characteristics, other than simply their magnitude, is considered. These
characteristics include fatigue, dynamic and aerodynamic effects. Simplified treatments for dynamic loads are described.
1. INTRODUCTION
Structures are subject directly to loads from various sources. These loads are referred to as direct actions and include
gravity and environmental effects, such as wind and snow. In addition deformations may be imposed on a structure,
for instance due to settlement or thermal expansion. These 'loads' are indirect actions. In applying any quantitative approach
to structural analysis, the magnitudes of the actions need to be identified. Furthermore, if the structure is to
perform satisfactorily throughout its design life, the nature of the loads should be understood and appropriate measures taken
to avoid problems of, for instance, fatigue or vibration.
The magnitude of loads cannot be determined precisely. In some cases, for instance in considering loads due to the self-
weight of the structure, it might be thought that values can be calculated fairly accurately. In other cases, such as wind loads,
it is only possible to estimate likely levels of load. The estimate can be based on observation of previous conditions
and applying a probabilistic approach to predict maximum effects which might occur within the design life of the structure.
(In fact, the extensive wind records which are now available mean that wind loads can often be predicted with greater
accuracy than self-weight). Loads associated with the use of the structure can only be estimated based on the nature of
usage. Insufficient data is available in most cases for a fully statistical approach and nominal values are therefore assigned.
In addition, problems of change of use and fashion can occur.
In analysing structures it is rare to consider all loadings acting simultaneously. This approach may be because the most
severe condition for parts of the structure occurs when some other combination of load is considered. Alternatively it may
be that the possibility of such a condition actually occurring is extremely small. However, the risk of coexistence of
apparently unrelated loads may be greater than is first imagined. Correlations can be produced from unexpected sources
or from coincidences which, although physically unconnected, are temporarily connected. For example, floor and wind
loads would normally be considered as unrelated. However, in hurricane areas residents on the coast might be expected
to move their ground floor contents to upper floors if a hurricane warning, with associated tidal surge, were given.
This circumstance could very easily produce extreme floor loads in combination with extreme wind loads. This case may be
a very special one but there are others. The risk of fire may not be considered correlated with high wind loads, yet in
many parts of the world high winds are more likely in winter, which is also the period of greatest fire risk.
For these reasons it is convenient to consider loads under various categories. The categories can then be ascribed
different safety factors and applied in various combinations as required. Traditionally, loadings have been classified as
dead, superimposed and environmental loads. These classes include a wide range of gravity effects, seismic action,
pressures due to retained material or liquids, temperature induced movement, and, for marine structures, water movement.
The Eurocodes on actions and steelwork design [1, 2] classify loads and other actions as permanent, variable and
accidental. These classes of action will be considered in more detail in the following Sections.
In limit state design, characteristic values of actions are used as the basis of all calculations. They are values which
statistically have only a small probability of being exceeded during the life of the structure. To provide a margin of
safety, particularly against collapse, partial safety factors are applied to these characteristic values to obtain design
quantities. In principle, different partial safety factors can be applied depending on the degree of uncertainty or variability of
a particular type of action. In practice, whilst this appears to be the case, the actual values of partial safety factors
used incorporate significant elements of the global safety factor and do not represent a rigorous probabilistic treatment of

the uncertainties of the actions.
2. PERMANENT ACTIONS
Permanent actions, as the name implies, are always present and must be considered in all cases. They comprise what
are traditionally referred to as dead loads, but may also include permanent imposed loads due, for instance, to machinery
or stored material.
2.1 Dead Loads
Dead loads are gravity loads due to the self weight of the structure and any fixtures or finishes attached to it (Figure 1).
Their magnitudes can be estimated with reasonable confidence based on prescribed dimensions and a knowledge of
material density. Even so, variations due to constructional tolerances and natural variations in materials, will
exist. Furthermore, fixtures, fittings and finishes may be replaced or modified during the life of the structure. This
possibility has been recognised in calculating loads on bridge decks, for which a separate load category of 'superimposed
dead load' is included to allow for surfacing which is likely to be replaced a number of times during the life of the bridge.
For this situation there is consequently a much greater potential for variability than for other dead loads.

A similar condition exists within certain types of building with respect to partitions (Figure 2). Where the position of walls
is predetermined their weight can simply be included as a dead load. For more speculative development, internal partitions
will be the responsibility of the client and their layout is likely to change many times during the life of the building.
An allowance, as an equivalent uniformly distributed load, is therefore normally made.

Schedules of densities for common building materials are listed in Eurocode 1 [1] and manufacturers of proprietary
products, such as cladding, blockwork, raised floors, etc. provide information on weights. Together with specified
dimensions, these data enable dead loads to be calculated. Where dead loads are not strictly evenly distributed over a plan
area, such as timber floor joists located at discrete intervals, they are often represented as an equivalent uniformly
distributed load for convenience in design calculations. As long as the equivalent magnitude is determined in a rational
manner, any differences between this simplified approach and a more rigorous analysis taking account of the actual location

of the joists will be negligible.
To determine dead loads, consider, for example, the case of a floor consisting of a 150mm thick reinforced concrete slab
with 50mm lightweight screed and a 15mm plaster soffit. Details are shown in Figure 3 together with densities for
each material. The total dead load per square metre of floor plan can be calculated as follows:
lightweight screed 15 x 0,05 = 0,75 kN/m2
rc slab 24 x 0,15 = 3,60
plaster 12 x 0,015 = 0,18
total dead load = 4,53 kN/m2
In addition an allowance would normally be made for any services or fittings (electric lighting, pipework, etc.) fitted to
the underside of the slab or located within the screed or under a raised floor (Figure 4). This case is another where
an equivalent uniformly distributed load is used to represent load sources distributed in an uneven manner. A value between
0,1 and 0,3 kN/m2 is normally adequate to cover such installations.


The weight of walls can be treated in a similar manner to floors by considering the various component parts and summing
the weights per square metre on elevation. For example, consider a cavity wall consisting of a tile-hung brick outer
leaf (100mm thick) and a plastered blockwork inner leaf (150mm thick) as shown in cross-section in Figure 5.
The total dead load is determined as follows:
tiles 0,6 kN/m2

brickwork 2,1
blockwork 1,4
plaster 0,2
total dead load of wall 4,3 kN/m2
By multiplying this value by the height of the wall, the load intensity as a line load on the supporting structure can
be determined.
Loads due to internal lightweight stud or blockwork partitions cannot normally be treated in such a rigorous manner since
their location is often not known at the design stage and in any case may change during the life of the building. Instead
an allowance is made within the assessment of imposed loads which is described under variable actions.
3. VARIABLE ACTIONS
Variable actions comprise loads which are not always acting but may exist at various times during the normal use of
the structure. They include loads due to the occupation of a building and traffic on bridges (imposed loads), snow and
wind loads (environmental loads), and temperature effects (Figure 6). They do not include accidental conditions such as
fire, explosion or impact.

3.1 Imposed Loads
Imposed loads - sometimes referred to as "superimposed", "super" or "live" loads - are those loads due directly to the use of
the structure. For buildings, they are concerned with the occupancy by people, furniture, equipment, etc. For bridges they
are due to traffic, whether pedestrian or vehicular.
Clearly these conditions will be almost constantly changing and are rather more difficult to quantify than dead loads.
For buildings, the approach has therefore been to relate imposed load levels to occupancy, and to base them on observation
and sensible deduction. Eurocode 1: Basis of Design and Actions on Structures [1] distinguishes between four classes of
loaded floor area as follows:
● areas of dwellings, offices, etc.

● garage and traffic areas.
● areas for storage, production machinery and filing.
● areas serving as escape routes.
The first class is further subdivided into four categories according to their specific use. They are residential (including
hospital wards, hotel bedrooms etc.), public premises (such as offices, hotels, hospitals, schools, leisure centres etc.),
public premises susceptible to overcrowding (including assembly halls, conference rooms, theatres, shopping areas
and exhibition rooms), and public premises susceptible to overcrowding and accumulation of goods (including areas
in warehouses and department stores).
The characteristic values of the imposed loads for these different categories are given in Table 1. Thus domestic
residences attract a lower imposed load than office accommodation; areas of public assembly, where large numbers of
people could gather at any one time, are prescribed a high superimposed load. Storage areas must be particularly
carefully considered and Eurocode 1 includes details of densities for a range of stored materials. Some of these, such as
steel strip, will generate high loads, but even apparently innocuous conditions, such as filing stores, can experience very
high loading levels. Escape routes must be designed for relatively high imposed loads.
Although such loads are used in limit state design in a semi-probabilistic way and are referred to as characteristic
values (implying a statistical basis for their derivation) little data is available. A proper statistical analysis is not
therefore possible and values specified are nominal quantities. One study which was conducted into office accommodation
in the UK [4] revealed a wide variation in actual load levels for similar building occupancies. In all cases the load
levels measured were considerably less than the characteristic values specified for the structural design. However,
this observation must be viewed with some caution since design must allow for extreme conditions, misuse and panic situations.
Note that, although imposed loading will rarely be evenly distributed, a uniform distribution of load intensity is
normally assumed (Figure 7).

3.2 Permitted Reductions in Imposed Load
The nominal values of imposed load associated with different classifications of building occupancy and use represent
extreme conditions. In many cases the probability of such conditions existing simultaneously throughout a building is
remote. In recognition of this remote possibility some reductions in imposed load intensity may be permitted.
Reduction applies particularly to columns in multi-storey buildings where it increases with the number of floors supported by
a particular length of column. Typical reductions range from 10% to 30% and apply to imposed loads only. No reductions
are permitted in dead load or for certain types of imposed load - notably in the case of storage areas, crane loads, and
loads explicitly allowed for such as those due to machinery or due to people in public premises susceptible to overcrowding.

3.3 Superimposed Bridge Loads
In practice a highway bridge is loaded in a very complex way by vehicles of varying sizes and groupings. In order to
simplify the design process this real loading is typically simulated by two basic imposed loads - a uniformly distributed
load and a knife edge load - representing an extreme condition of normal usage (Figure 8). The design is then checked for
a further load arrangement representing the passage of an abnormal load. The magnitudes of all these loads are
generally related to the road classification, the highway authority's requirements and the loaded length of the bridge.
For vehicular traffic within buildings, lightweight conditions (less than 16 tonnes) can be dealt with in categories such as
cars, light vehicles and medium vehicles. For heavier traffic, highway loading must be considered.
Railway bridge design must take account of static loading and forces associated with the movement of vehicles. As
for highway bridges, two models of loading are specified for consideration as separate load cases. They represent
ordinary traffic on mainline railways and, where appropriate, abnormal heavy loads. They are expressed as static loads due
to stationary vehicles and are factored to allow for dynamic effects associated with train speeds up to 300km/h. Eurocode 1
also gives guidance on the distribution of loads and their effects and specifies horizontal forces due to vehicle
motion. Centrifugal forces associated with the movement around curves, lateral forces due to oscillation of vehicles
(nosing) and longitudinal forces due to traction and braking are included.
Other aspects of bridge loading which need to be considered include accidental loads and the possibility of premature
failure due to fatigue under traffic loading.
3.4 Crane Loads

For buildings fitted with travelling overhead cranes, the loads due to the crane itself and the lifted load are
considered separately. The self weight of the crane installation is generally readily available from the manufacturer, and
the load lifted corresponds to the maximum lifting capacity of the crane. When a load is lifted from rest, there is an
associated acceleration in the vertical direction. In the same way that gravity loads are equal to mass multiplied by
the acceleration due to gravity, so the lifting movement causes an additional force. If the load is lifted very gently - that is
with little acceleration - this force will be very small, but a sudden snatch, i.e. a rapid rate of acceleration, would result in
a significant force. This force is of course in addition to the normal force due to gravity, and is generally allowed for
by factoring the normal static crane loads.
Movements of the crane, both along the length and across the width of the building, are also associated with accelerations
and retardations, this time in the horizontal plane. The associated horizontal forces must be taken into account in the design
of the supporting structure. The magnitude of the forces will depend, as before, on the rates of acceleration. The
normal procedure is to calculate the magnitudes on the basis of a proportion of the vertical wheel load.
The approach yields an equivalent static force which can be used in designing the structure for strength. However, the nature
of crane loads must also be recognised. The possibility of premature failure due to fatigue under the cyclic loading
conditions should be considered.
3.5 Environmental Loads
Environmental loads are clearly variable actions. For bridges and buildings the most important environmental loads are
those due to snow and wind. For marine structures, particularly offshore installations such as oil platforms, loads due to
water movements are often dominant. The action of waves generally represents the most severe condition. In
certain geographical locations, the effects of earthquakes must be included in the structural analysis. All of these loads
from environmental sources are beyond the control of man. It has therefore been recognised that a statistical approach must
be adopted in order to quantify corresponding design loads.
The approach is based on the 'return period' which is a length of time to which recorded environmental data, such as
wind speeds, snowfall or wave heights, is related. If records are only available over a relatively short period, data for the
'return period' may be predicted. The most severe condition on average over the return period then represents the design
value. For a return period of 100 years, for example, it is referred to as the 1 in 100 year wind speed or wave height, etc.
The return period normally corresponds to the design life of the structure. Clearly there is a degree of uncertainty about
the process of predicting the most severe conditions likely to be encountered. Further simplifications are implicit in
translating measured environmental data such as wind speeds or wave heights into loads.
3.6 Wind Loads

Wind forces fluctuate with time but for many structures the dynamic effect is small and the wind load can be treated
using normal static methods. Such structures are defined as 'rigid' and Eurocode 1 [1] provides guidance on this
classification. For slender structures the dynamic effect may be significant. Such structures are classified as 'flexible'
structures and their dynamic behaviour must be taken into account.
The most important parameter in quantifying wind loads is the wind speed. The basis for design is the maximum wind
speed (gust) predicted for the design life of the structure. Factors which influence its magnitude are:
● geographical location; wind speeds are statistically greater in certain regions than others. For many areas
considerable statistical data is now available and basic wind speeds are published usually in the form of isopleths (Figure
9) which are lines of equal basic wind speed superimposed on a map. The basic wind speed is referred to in Eurocode 1 [1]
as the reference wind speed and corresponds to the mean velocity at 10m above flat open country averaged over a period of
10 minutes with a return period of 50 years.
● physical location; winds gust to higher speeds in exposed locations such as coasts than in more sheltered places such as
city centres (Figure 10), because of varying surface roughness which reduces the wind speed at ground level. This variation
is taken into account by a roughness coefficient which is related to the roughness of the terrain and the height above
ground level.
● topography; the particular features of a site in relation to hills or escarpments are taken into account by a topography coefficient.
● building dimensions; height is important in particular because wind speeds increase with height above ground level (Figure 11).
● the mean wind velocity is determined by the reference wind velocity factored to account for the building height,
ground roughness and topography. The wind pressure is proportional to the square of the mean wind speed. In addition
the following parameters are important:
● structural shape; it is important to recognise that wind loads are not simply a frontal pressure applied to the facade of a
structure but are the result of a complex pressure distribution on all faces due to the movement of air around the
whole structure. The distribution is further complicated by adjacent structures and natural obstructions/variations such as
hills, valleys, woodland which may all influence the pattern of air movement and associated pressure distribution.
● roof pitch; this parameter is really a special aspect of structural shape. It is worth noting that roofs with a very shallow
pitch may be subject to uplift or suction, whilst steeper roofs - say greater than about 20° - are likely to be subject to
a downwards pressure (Figure 12).
● wind direction; pressure distributions will change for different wind directions (Figure 13).
● gust response factor; this factor is used to take into account the reduction of the spatial average of the wind pressure
with increasing area due to the non-coincidence of maximum local pressures acting on the external surface of the
structure. Thus small parts of a building, such as cladding units and their fixings, must be designed for higher wind
pressures than the whole structure. The gust response factor is related to an equivalent height, which
corresponds approximately to the centroid of the net wind force on a structure.





Tabulated procedures enable the above parameters to be accounted for firstly in calculating the design wind speed,
and secondly in translating that wind speed into a system of forces on the structure. These equivalent static forces can then
be used in the analysis and resistance design of the structure, as a whole. However, certain additional features of wind
should also be taken into account:
● local pressures, particularly at corners and around obstructions in an otherwise 'smooth' surface, can be significantly
higher than the general level (Figure 14). High local pressures particularly affect cladding and fixing details, but can also be
a consideration for structural elements in these areas.
● structures sensitive to wind should be given a more sophisticated treatment. It might involve wind tunnel testing and
include the influence of surrounding buildings. Structures which might need to be treated in this way include high-
rise buildings, long or slender bridges, masts and towers.
● aerodynamic instability may be a consideration for certain types of structure or component, for example chimneys and
masts. Vortex shedding can normally be avoided by the use of strakes (Figure 15). Galloping may be a problem in cables.

3.7 Snow Loads
Loads due to snow have traditionally been treated by specifying a single load intensity, with possible reductions for steep
roof slopes. This approach takes no account of such aspects as the increased snowfall at higher altitudes or of locally
higher loads due to drifting. Cases of complete or partial collapse due to snow load are not unknown [5]. A more
rational approach is to use a snow map giving basic snow load intensities for a specified altitude and return period similar to
the treatment for basic wind speeds (Figure 16). Corrections for different altitudes or design life can then be applied as
shown in Table 2. At present the European snow map is provisional and further work is under way to acquire more data.

Allowance for different roof configurations can be dealt with by means of a shape coefficient. It provides for conditions such
as accumulations of snow behind parapets, in valleys and at abrupt changes of roof height (Figure 17). In addition to
snow falling in calm conditions, it may be necessary to consider the effects of wind. Wind may cause a redistribution of
snow, and in some cases its partial removal from roofs. Any changes in snow distribution on roofs due to excessive heat
loss through part of the roof or snow clearing operations should be accounted for if such loading patterns are critical.
Eurocode 1 [1] does not cover additional wind loads due to the presence of snow or the accretion of ice, nor loads in
areas where snow is present throughout the year.

3.8 Wave Loading
For offshore structures in deep and hostile waters, wave loads can be particularly severe. The loads arise due to movement
of water associated with wave action. These movements can be described mathematically to relate forces to physical
wave characteristics such as height and wavelength.
The treatment is therefore similar to wind loads in that these physical characteristics are predicted and corresponding forces
on the particular structural arrangement then calculated. These calculation procedures are, however, very complicated and
must realistically be performed on a computer.

3.9 Temperature Effects
Exposed structures such as bridges may be subject to significant temperature variation which must be taken into account in
the design. If it is not provided for in terms of allowing for expansion, significant forces may develop and must be included
in the design calculations. In addition, differential temperatures, e.g. between the concrete deck and steel girders of a
composite bridge, can induce a stress distribution which must be considered by the designer.
3.10 Retained Material
Structures for retaining and containing material (granular or liquid) will be subject to a lateral pressure. For liquids it is
simply the hydrostatic pressure. For granular material a similar approach can be adopted, but with a reduction in
pressure depending on the ability of the material to maintain a stable slope - this is the Rankine approach. Ponding of water
on flat roofs should be avoided by ensuring adequate falls (1:60 or more) to gutters.
3.11 Seismic Loads
In some parts of the world earthquakes are a very important design consideration. Seismic actions on structures are due
to strong ground motion. They are a function of the ground motion itself and of the dynamic characteristics of the structure.
Strong ground motion can be measured by one of its parameters, the maximum ground acceleration being the parameter
most usually adopted for engineering purposes. These parameters are expressed on a probabilistic basis, i.e. they are
associated with a certain probability of occurrence or to a return period, in conjunction with the life period of the structure [3].
3.12 Accidental Loads
Accidental actions may occur as a result of accidental situations. The situations include fire, impact or explosion. It is
very difficult to quantify these effects. In many cases it may be preferable to avoid the problem, for instance by providing
crash barriers to avoid collision from vehicles or roof vents to dissipate pressures from explosions.
Where structures such as crash barriers for vehicles and crowds must be designed for 'impact' the loading is treated as
an equivalent static load.
● There are many sources of structural loads, notably dead loads, those due to the use of the structure and environmental
effects such as wind, earthquake, snow and temperature. The loads must be quantified for the purpose of structural
design. Dead loads can be calculated. Imposed loads can only be related to type of use through observation on other
similar structures. Environmental loads are based on a statistical treatment of recorded data.
● Calculated or prescribed values of loads are factored to provide an adequate margin of safety. The nature, as well as
the magnitude, of the loads must be recognised, particularly in terms of dynamic and fatigue behaviour.
5. REFERENCES
[1] Eurocode 1: Basis of Design and Actions on Structures, CEN (in preparation).
[2] Eurocode 3: Design of Steel Structures: ENV 1993-1-1: Part 1.1, General principles and rules for buildings, CEN, 1992.
[3] Eurocode 8: Structures in Seismic Regions - Design, CEN (in preparation).
[4] Floor Loadings in Office Buildings - the Results of a Survey, BRE Current Paper 3/71, Building Research
Establishment, Watford, 1971.
[5] Design Practice and Snow Loading - Lessons from a Roof Collapse, The Structural Engineer, Vol 64A, No 3, 1986.
1. Monograph on Planning and Design of Tall Buildings, Volume CL, Tall Building Criteria and Loading, American Society
of Civil Engineers, 1980.
2. Civil Engineer's Handbook, Butterworths, London, 1974.
3. Bridge Aerodynamics Conference, Institute of Civil Engineers, Thomas Telford, London, 1981.
4. On Methods of Load Calculation, CIB Report No 9, Rotterdam, 1967.
5. BRE The Designer's Guide to Wind Loading of Building Structures
Part 1 Butterworths, 1985
Part 2, Butterworths, 1990.

Loaded α
Areas
[kN/m2]
Category - general 2,0

A
- stairs 3,0
- 4,0
balconies
3,0
Category - general
B 4,0
- stairs,
balconies
4,0
Category - with 5,0

C fixed
seats
- other 5,0
Category
D - general
Table 1 Imposed loads on floors in buildings
Snow load so [kN/m2]

Altitude [m]
Zone 0 200 400 600
1 0,40 0,49 0,70 0,95
2 0,80 0,98 1,40 1,89
3 1,20 1,47 2,09 2,84
4 1,60 1,97 2,79 3,78
5 2,00 2,46 2,49 4,73
Table 2 Snow loads for zones given in Figure 16
so = 0,412z
where:
A is the altitude of the site above mean sea level [m]
z is a constant, depending on the snow load zone.

ESDEP WG 1B
STEEL CONSTRUCTION:
Lecture 1B.4.1: Historical Development of

Iron and Steel in Structures
OBJECTIVE/SCOPE
To appreciate how steel became the dominant structural material that it is today, it is essential to understand how it relates
to cast iron and to wrought iron, both in its properties and in the way that all three materials evolved.
PREREQUISITES
None.
RELATED LECTURES
SUMMARY
The properties of the three ferrous metals, cast iron, wrought iron, and steel, are described and the evolution of their
production is summarized. The evolution of their structural use is also given and the prospects for further
development introduced.
1. PROPERTIES OF THE THREE FERROUS METALS: CAST IRON,

WROUGHT IRON AND STEEL
Cast iron, as the name implies, is "cast" or shaped by pouring molten metal into a mould and letting it solidify; a wide
variety of often very intricate forms is thus possible. It is very strong in compression, relatively weak in tension, much
stiffer than timber, but brittle.
Wrought iron is strong both in tension and compression and ductile, thus making it a much safer material for beams than
cast iron. Its main disadvantage is that, never reaching a fully molten state, it can only be shaped by rolling or forging,
thus limiting its possible structural and decorative forms.
The properties of mild steel are similar to those of wrought iron but it is generally stronger and can be cast as well as
rolled. However, it has a lower resistance to corrosion than wrought iron and is less malleable and thus not so suitable
for working into elegant, flowing shapes.
These properties, in terms of strength and carbon content, are shown in Figure 1; the values shown should be considered
as indicative rather than absolute limits. They do not include malleable or ductile cast irons which have strengths in
tension considerably above those shown.

2. EVOLUTION OF FERROUS METALS
2.1 Blacksmith's Wrought Iron
Iron has been known and used for more than three thousand years, but it was not until the development of the blast
furnace around 1500 AD that it could be produced in molten form. In China, molten iron goes back much earlier but this is
not generally thought to have been known in the Western World until well after the independent invention of the blast
furnace. There is slender evidence that the Romans knew how to produce cast iron but, if they did, the knowledge was
certainly lost.

Before the blast furnace, iron was extracted from ore by chemical reduction in simple furnaces or hearths. Inevitably, the
scale of the operation was small and the process quite laborious, the iron coming in a hard pasty form, far from liquid,
which was then refined and shaped by hammering. Essentially, this was 'blacksmith's iron'.
2.2 Molten or Cast Iron
Although possible in the 16th Century, molten or cast iron was hard to produce on a large scale before the change
from charcoal as a fuel to coke. With charcoal, the practical size of furnace was limited by the crushing of the fuel by
the weight of the charge of the ore and thus the stifling of the blast. Abraham Darby I is generally credited with the mastery
of coke smelting and, even though this was in 1709, coke smelting did not dominate the industry until about 1750 in
Britain and considerably later in other parts of Europe.
2.3 Industrialised Wrought Iron
Large scale wrought iron, as opposed to blacksmith's iron, became possible mainly as a result of the developments
culminating in Henry Cort's puddling furnace patented in 1793. In this furnace, the carbon in cast pig iron was burnt off in
a reverbatory furnace while the impurities were drawn off by 'puddling'. As the process continued and the iron became
purer, its melting point rose and the furnace charge became more viscous, eventually being removed in a stiff plastic form
for rolling or forging. It was the enlarged scale of the operation which was significant rather than any change in the
actual material which was effectively the same as the blacksmith's variety.
The modernising of wrought iron depended not only on the puddling process, but the idea of grooved rollers which
made possible the economic production of angle and tee sections, and later channels and joists. Here again, Henry Cort,
who patented the grooved rollers in 1784, gets the credit although the due financial rewards eluded him.
2.4 Steel
Although steel-type iron had existed for many centuries, steel as used today dates from the 18th Century. It was produced
either by cementation, a process by which bars of pure wrought iron absorbed carbon during prolonged heat treatment, or
after about 1750 in molten form by Hunsman's crucible process. Cementation was largely confined to the cutlery and
tool trades and has no real relevance to construction. Crucible steel continued to be made, although at a decreasing level
of production, until after the Second World War; however it is uncertain how much of this was used structurally in
construction works.
It is a common fallacy that the use of steel dates from Bessemer's converter of the mid 1850s; not only did Kelly in
America get there first with an almost identical process, but the amount of steel already being produced was quite
substantial. Some 60,000 tons of steel were produced each year around 1850 in Britain alone which is far from
negligible, except perhaps when compared with an annual world production of 2,5 million tons of iron in the same
period. Bessemer's steel was certainly cheaper and could be made in larger quantities, but its quality was uncertain. It was
not until the perfection of the Siemens-Martin open-hearth process in the 1880s that steel moved in a big way into
the construction and shipbuilding industries.
Today, very little truly structural cast iron is being used and no wrought iron is being made. Steel is wholly dominant.
There are, however, some signs of a limited revival of cast iron, particularly in the new ductile form only available since
the 1940s.
3. ACHIEVEMENTS WITH STRUCTURAL IRON & STEEL

In looking at the structural achievements with iron and steel in the last 250 years, it is convenient to class these in relation
to the period, or age, when each of the three ferrous metals was dominant. Inevitably, these periods overlap and it is
significant that in each case it took quite a long time - up to 50 years - before what was found to be possible
became commercially widespread. The periods are broadly as follows:
Cast Iron Period 1780-1850 (Columns up to 1900)
Wrought Iron Period 1850-1900
Steel Period 1880 - Present Day
These dates are essentially based on Britain where the iron industry was more developed in the first half of the 19th
Century than elsewhere. In France, there was no real cast iron period, while in America both cast iron and wrought iron
were comparatively little used before the middle of the 19th Century, after which there was a positive explosion in
their application. Steel on the other hand, became popular at roughly the same time throughout Europe and America. Figure
2 emphasises how short the overall period of structural use of iron and steel has been in relation to man's knowledge of iron.


4. THE PERIOD OF CAST IRON (1780-1850)

Given availability, new materials are introduced either for greater economy or to solve specific problems.
4.1 Cast Iron Arched Bridges
All the early cast iron bridges were arched forms in which cast iron merely replaced masonry, the advantages being
greatly reduced weight and horizontal thrust, economy and speed of erection. The first iron bridge of any magnitude was
the famous Coalbrookdale one completed in 1779 and spanning some 33 metres (Slide 1), a structure full of
apparent illogicalities mixing carpenter's and mason's detailing but still standing proudly today. The construction of this
bridge was followed by a whole succession of cast iron arch bridges in Britain, including Thomas Wilson's Wear Bridge
of 1792-6 with wrought iron strapping to the cast voussoirs and a span of 72 metres (Slide 2) and Rennie's Southwark Bridge
of 73 metre span completed in 1819. The climax, but by no means the last, cast iron bridge, was perhaps Telford's
Mythe Bridge at Tewkesbury (1823-26) with a span of only 52 metres but great lightness and total structural logic (Slide 3).

Slide 1

Slide 2
Slide 3
In other parts of Europe, cast iron arch bridges were a rarity until well into the 19th Century, the number of schemes
greatly exceeding the number built. Le Pont des Arts in Paris of 1801-3 by Cessart was, perhaps, the most famous, now,
alas, replaced by a not wholly convincing welded lookalike. There were several early cast iron arch bridges in Russia.
4.2 Cast Iron in Buildings
With all buildings, fire was a recurring problem with timber structures. It was almost certainly the reason for one very
early application of cast iron, the columns supporting the vast cooker hood and chimney of 1752 at the Monastery of
Alcobaca in Portugal. In Britain, cast iron was used in the early 1770s in churches, partly for the cheap reproduction of
Gothic ornament, but also for structural columns. In Russia architectural cast iron was used extensively throughout the
18th Century but it is not clear to what extent it was also used to support floors and roofs.

It is hard to see any trend arising from these early applications of iron to buildings. It was in the multi-storey textile mills
in Britain in the 1790s that cast iron was first shown to have a major future in building structures. The disastrous fire at
Albion Mill in 1791 was perhaps the biggest incentive for change. Bage and Strutt were the great pioneers. Between them,
they developed totally incombustible interiors in cast iron and brick but with floor spans still of only about 2,5 to 3,0 metres
in each direction, as had been the case with timber interiors. Later, this iron mill construction spread to warehouses with
a gradual increase of spans.
While fire was the main reason for change in the mills, there was a growing desire in public buildings and large houses for
long-span floors which did not sag or bounce. Timber had generally proved inadequate for spans above 6-7 metres.
Between about 1810 and the early 1840s there was an increasing interest in cast iron floor beams, some with spans of 12
metres or more such as those in the British Museum of the early 1820s (Figure 3). Sometimes these castings were used
as simple substitutes for the main timbers in essentially timber flooring, but in other cases brick jack arches, as in the mills
of around 1800, or stone slabs were combined with long span cast iron beams to give rigidity, sound insulation and
fire protection. Another form of 'fire proofing' consisted of wrought iron plates within the ceiling space arching between
the cast iron beams. The climax of the development of cast iron flooring was reached in Barry's Palace of Westminster of
the 1840s. Up to the mid 1840s, cast iron was seen as the wonder material everyone was looking for.

It is tantalising how little is known about who actually fixed the size and shape of the beams used by Nash, Barry and
other architects of this period. Thomas Tredgold's book on cast iron of 1824 was undoubtedly influential but dangerously
in error in some respects. In most cases, it is probable that proof-loading of beams, which was widely used, provided the
main safeguard against misconceptions and poor workmanship.
Apart from the mills and the long span floors, there was a whole range of new uses of cast iron between 1810 and
1840, sometimes on its own for complete structures as in Hungerford Market of 1836, or Bunning's highly decorated
Coal Exchange of 1847-49. In Russia, there was also a considerable quantity of cast iron building construction in the first
half of the 19th Century, as in the Alexandrinsky theatre of 1829-32 and the Dome of St Isaacs Cathedral (1837-41).
Towards the close of the 1840s, cast iron had lost much of its golden image and was being seen as an unreliable
material, especially for beams. The progressive collapse of five storeys of Radcliffe's Mill in Oldham in 1844 and the failure
of the Dee Bridge in 1847 were both highly damaging to its image.
4.3 Composite Cast and Wrought Iron in Building
Not all iron in the 'cast iron period' was cast. Some of it was composite cast and wrought iron and some simply wrought
iron. There is little evidence of steel being used structurally in this period.
In Britain, cast iron was sometimes used in combination with timber as at New Tobacco Dock of 1811-14 or with wrought
iron, as in the 1837 roof at Euston Station (Slide 4).

Slide 4
After 1840, the scale of iron construction and the proportion of wrought to cast iron in composite structures,
increased substantially. The Palm House at Kew 1844-47, by Richard Turner and Decimus Burton, was a marked advance
on earlier glasshouses and arguably incorporates the world's first rolled I sections. Wrought iron roofs of increasing span
on cast iron columns proliferated both in the naval dockyards and for railway stations culminating in Turner's roof of 47
metres span at Lime Street, Liverpool (1849).
In France, some highly innovative wrought iron floors and roofs had been built before the Revolution, such as Victor
Louis's 21 metre span roof of 1786 at the Palais Royal Theatre in Paris (Figure 4). In this roof, as in the case of the bridge
at Coalbrookdale, the structural logic is not altogether clear. However, the flooring system of arched wrought iron flats
devised by M. Ango in the 1780s (Figure 5) is clearly understandable and derivatives of this system continued in use until
they were largely replaced by a number of 'fire-proof' systems, still based on wrought iron, in the late 1840s. Cast
iron impinged in France to quite an extent in the 1830s and after, notably in the great iron roof of 1837-38 at Chartres
Cathedral and the Bibliotheque St Genevieve 1843-50, but it seems that wrought iron always retained its dominance.


Composite construction featured quite widely in Russia. In St Petersburg, a form of riveted plate girder was devised in 1838
for the repair of the Winter Palace after the fire of 1837. This development was just ten years before the
independent development of riveted wrought iron beams in Britain.
4.4 Suspension Bridges
Some of the most creative work on the suspension bridge dates from the 'cast iron period' but is wholly related to wrought
iron, although Tredgold did have the temerity to suggest cast iron support cables. In most fields of construction, America
clung to timber rather than iron in the first half of the 19th Century, but must be given credit for introducing the level
deck suspension bridge, as patented by James Finley in 1808 with wrought iron chassis (Slide 5). Thereafter, there was a
minor battle of principles on the form of cable. Britain favoured wrought iron chains with eye-bar links, as had Finley,
while the French preferred wire cables, the difference being largely due to the states of the iron industries in the two countries.
Slide 5
By 1850, France had built several hundred suspension bridges, mainly due to the enterprise of the Seguin brothers,
while Britain could claim scarcely more than a dozen. If the French had confined the wires to the sections of the cables
above ground, all might have been well, but they did not. Corrosion became a major problem brought to a head by the
collapse in 1850 of the Basse-Chaine suspension bridge with a death toll of 226. Thereafter, substantial remedial
works followed and the building of suspension bridges all but stopped in France for many years. Nevertheless, based on
French influence, wire cables did take over from eye bar chains in America and became virtually standard throughout the world.
5 THE WROUGHT IRON PERIOD (1850-1900)
5.1 Wrought Iron in Bridges
The wrought iron period was primarily the period of the riveted wrought iron beam which dates from the late 1840s,
although by then wrought iron had established a fairly firm position in composite construction. Seen in the long term,
wrought iron beams owe their birth, in part, to growing doubts both on the safety of cast iron in bending and in part
to successful experience with iron ships. However, by far the biggest single contribution, not only to the development of
riveted beams, but to the whole establishment of wrought iron as the dominant material of the period, was the design
and construction of the Britannia and Conway tubular bridges, particularly the former.
The key figures here were Robert Stephenson, engineer to the Chester and Holyhead Railway; William Fairbairn, the
practical man with experience of iron ships; and Eaton Hodgkinson, the theorist and experimenter.
Faced in 1845 with the then seemingly impossible task of taking trains over the Menai Straits, when shipping interests ruled
out arches and suspension bridges as they had been shown to be inadequate for railway loads, they developed a new
structural form, the box girder, and demonstrated it on a large enough scale for trains to run inside (Slide 6). However, it
was not the bridges which mattered so much as the understanding which resulted from the crash programme of research
and testing which made them possible.
Slide 6
Between them, these three men dispelled the initial belief that wrought iron was weaker in compression than in tension,
proved that a rectangular tube was stronger in bending than a circular or oval one, isolated the problem of plate buckling,
and showed how to counteract this behaviour with cellular flanges and web stiffeners. Thus, these three men and
their assistants established riveted wrought iron as a calculable material for beams of almost limitless size. Further,
they demonstrated the benefits of continuity in beams, even for deadload (based on theoretical work from France) and
proved that the strength of rivets depended on clamping as much as on dowel action. The extent of material and model
testing for these bridges was prodigious.
The speed of the work was almost as remarkable as the result. The problem of crossing the Menai straits was posed early
in 1845, the Conway Bridge was opened in December 1848 and the Britannia Bridge in March 1850. In both cases, work on
the supporting masonry started in the spring of 1846 well before all the problems of the spanning structures had been
solved. Other smaller wrought iron bridges of the same period, with cellular compression flanges were, it seems, all spin-
offs from this basic development.
It is, perhaps, worth noting that concurrently with this major innovative work, Stephenson was responsible for a mass of
other railway construction, including the six-span Newcastle High Level Bridge with cast iron tied arches of 1846-49 (Slide
7) and the ill-conceived Dee Bridge at Chester based on trussed
Slide 7

cast-iron beams, which collapsed disastrously in 1847 soon after it was opened. The pressure on the leaders of the
engineering profession at this time are hard to imagine and it is no surprise that, sometimes, relationships became strained,
as they did between Stephenson and Fairbairn.
The evolution of the plate girders of today from these beams with cellular compression flanges took place largely in the
1850s. Figure 6 shows some steps in this transformation.

The rationalisation of truss forms and their full structural evolution is another feature of the 1850s. Many of these
forms derived from timber construction in America but given riveting and wrought iron the scope opened up enormously.
The Britannia Bridge has been criticised for wasting material in comparison to an equivalent structure with open trussed
sides, but this is unfair when one considers how little was known about true truss action in the mid 1840s. Figures 7a and
7b show typical intuitive and mathematically rational truss forms of this period. There were many variations on these forms.

Numerous wrought iron bridges of all forms and sizes followed in all countries. In Britain, I.K. Brunel's Saltash
Bridge completed in 1859 and Thomas Bouch's fatal Tay Bridge opened in 1878, stand out for very different reasons.
In France, Gustave Eiffel's great arches at Oporto and Garabit, of 1875-7 and 1880-84 respectively, are now world famous.
In America, Charles Ellet's Wheeling Suspension Bridge of 1847-9, Roebling's Niagara Bridge completed 1855, and
James Ead's St Louis Arch Bridge of 1867-1874 are all rightly famous, although one must add that the last of these is partly
of steel.
5.2 Wrought Iron in Buildings
In buildings the scope for drama in the use of iron was generally more modest, the largest outlet being in flooring systems
both in Britain and in other parts of Europe. It was almost certainly the development of these flooring systems in France in
the late 1840s and early 1850s which provided the impetus for the commercial development of rolled joists, regardless
of whether the first ones of all were rolled there or in Britain. The size of the joist sections gradually increased but until
liquid steel took over, size was limited by the problems of handling large quantities of puddled iron.
Cast iron continued to be used extensively for columns well after 1850. In America there was a great vogue for cast
iron facades which lasted for several decades. Bogardus and Badger were the two main suppliers. Internally, the
structures vary, with iron, masonry and timber all represented.
Apart from these useful, but often unseen, applications of iron to traditional buildings, some spectacular iron build
structures, mainly long span roofs, were built in all countries. Most commonly, but far from exclusively, they were
over railway stations. They included the ribbed iron dome of the British Museum Reading Room (1854-57), the 73
metre wrought iron arches at St Pancras Station (1868) and the dome of the Albert Hall (1867-71). These buildings
were matched in France, for instance, by the Bibliotheque National (1868), Les Halles (1854-68) and the Bon
Marche Department Store (1867-78); and in America by the dome of the Capitol in Washington (1856-64).
Throughout this period most buildings, particularly those of more than one storey, depended on masonry walls for
stability, whether or not the floors and roof were of iron. The route to full structural framing in iron or steel is uncertain. It
is often stated that the Home Insurance Building in Chicago of 1884-85 was the first fully framed tall building which
formed part of a continuing development. Perhaps the earliest example of a stiff-jointed frame was Godfrey Greene's
four-storey Boat Store at Sheerness of 1858-60. The Great Exhibition Building in London of 1851 and the Chocolat
Menier Factory outside Paris of 1870-71 have also been claimed for this 'first', but they both had diagonal bracing and,
anyway, had no apparently direct influence on the multi-storey steel construction of today.
6 THE STEEL PERIOD (1880-PRESENT DAY)

Steel is not only stronger than wrought iron, but being produced in a molten state made larger rolled or forged units
practicable. However, it is not easy to identify which is which; for several decades, steelwork was fabricated by riveting in
the same way as wrought iron and, when riveted, the two look almost exactly the same. The Forth Bridge in steel and the
Eiffel Tower in wrought iron, were completed at almost exactly the same time (1889-90). Looking at them, who could tell
the difference?
Figure 8 shows how steel took over in quantity from wrought iron in Britain. Figure 9 shows how the proportion of open-
hearth steel increased until it had all but cornered the market by 1920. The biggest incentive for change to steel lay in the
ship-building industry. Lloyds Register allowed steel plating of 4/5 the thickness of wrought iron and, by 1908, Lloyds
was insisting that all steel for shipbuilding should be produced by the open-hearth process.


In bridges, the steel period was mainly one of increasing size and span. Here the initiative shifted away from Britain mainly
to America where the need for major bridges, was greatest at this time. All the great suspension bridges up to 1945
(Golden Gate, George Washington, Transbay, etc.) were built of riveted steel with spun cables of high tensile steel wire.

In buildings the 'Skyscraper' came of age in steel, again with the initiative mainly in America. Long span roofs also took a
leap in scale with steel both in France and America. First there were the great three-pin arch structures over the
Philadelphia railway stations of 1893 (79 and 91 metre spans) followed by the Galerie des Machines for the 1889
Paris Exhibition of 111 metres span - over 50% up on St Pancras. These spans, in turn, have been dwarfed by the post-
war domes over sports arenas. The span of the Louisiana Superdome of 1975 at 207 metres is more than 3½ times that of
the Albert Hall.
The one big change in technique with steel was the introduction of welding, mainly from the 1930s, although possibly
earlier. Today, the rivet is as dead as the production of wrought iron. Now welds and bolts dominate all construction in steel.
In all fields, new developments tend to follow new needs and this certainly seems to have been the case with bridges. Since
the Second World War, most new thinking on suspension bridges, especially aerodynamic design and weight-saving, has
been in Britain while Germany has led the field on the design of cable-stayed bridges.
7. PRESENT TECHNIQUES AND FUTURE PROSPECTS

One of the most noticeable moves in construction in the last ten years, in Britain certainly, but it seems elsewhere in Europe
as well, has been towards a revival of structural steel for bridges and buildings. Fashions change in constructions, as
in clothing, and so do needs and costs. It is, thus, interesting to look at some of the recent variants on normal structural
steel and at rival materials to see how they have fared and to speculate on what may happen in the future.
Weathering steel (unpainted with stabilised corrosion) and exposed steelwork fire-proofed by water in hollow sections are
both innovations of the 1960s but neither shows signs of wide adoption. On the other hand, stainless steel, although in
itself much more expensive than mild steel or even high tensile steel, is being found to be increasingly worthwhile when
the cost of maintenance is considered.
Plastics have yet to make any significant impact except as a protective coating or for architectural trim.
Aluminium was once thought to be a dangerous rival to structural steel but, so far, it has made little impact in bridge
or building structures. Reinforced concrete - still dependent on steel - has been a strong and growing competitor of
fabricated steelwork since the 1890s, largely because of its in-built fire resistance, helped in the 1950s and 1960s by
an architectural desire to 'expose the structure'. This trend is now being reversed and, since 1980, there has been a
vigorous rebirth of structural steel. The increasing use of structural steel has been encouraged by the pursuit of 'fast-
track' construction and the realisation that reinforced concrete is not a maintenance-free material. There has also been a
swing in taste from visually expressed concrete to 'high tech' styling or to the complete wrapping of buildings in glass
or masonry.
Future developments with structural steel in buildings are likely to be associated with fire protection. Thin intumescent
coatings which froth up when heated and form a protective layer, are becoming still thinner - more like paint - but the need
for such protection may be substantially reduced by the development of fire engineering. This development could lead to a
new era of exposed steelwork with increasing attention to the shape and form of members and the appearance of
joints. Castings of steel or ductile iron could well be in demand once more.
● The use of iron and steel in structures evolved through development in the production and properties of the three
ferrous metals, cast iron, wrought iron and steel.
● Cast iron is formed into its final shape from molten metal a liquid which is poured into a mould and solidifies. Wrought
iron never reaches a fully molten state and is shaped by rolling and forging. Mild steel can be cast as well as rolled but has
a lower resistance to corrosion than wrought iron.
● Iron has been known and used for more than three thousand years but it is only in the last 250 years that new
production methods have allowed the large scale use, first of cast iron, then wrought iron and finally steel. Cast iron was
widely used in bridges and buildings in the period between 1750 - 1850.
● Wrought iron became popular during 1850 - 1900 allowing the construction of many novel bridges and building structures
of increasing size and span.
● Steel came into increasing use from about 1880, and being stronger than wrought iron, has been used to build even
larger structures. The introduction of welding of steel was a major innovation in connection techniques which facilitates
the wider use of steel.
● For the future, stainless steel is being found to be increasingly attractive despite its greater cost. The development of
fire engineering may lead to a new era of exposed steelwork together with a wider use of coatings of steel or ductile iron.

ESDEP WG 1B
STEEL CONSTRUCTION:
Lecture 1B.4.2: Historical Development of Steelwork Design

OBJECTIVE/SCOPE
To outline the developments in the design of iron and steel for structures.
PRE-REQUISITES
Lecture 1B.4.1: Historical Development of Iron and Steel in Structures
RELATED LECTURES
Lectures on the metallurgy of steel; a useful background to many other lectures, notably those dealing with the design
of particular structural types.
SUMMARY
Structural theory as known today owes most of the intellectuals of France while in the late 18th Century and the early part
of the 19th, Britain took the lead in practical design and application. 18th Century empiricism was replaced first by large-
scale proof-loading and tentative calculation, followed after 1850 by component testing allied to elastic analysis with
testing soon relegated to quality control. In the late 19th Century, the powerhouse of engineering thought shifted gradually
to France, Germany and America. Elasticity and graphical analysis held sway for about 100 years until they were challenged
by plastic theory and the computer, with automation replacing hand work in production and erection.
The developments in materials, theory and technique were all related but varied from country to country due to different
needs, shortages and opportunities. This lecture outlines the developments in design methods for structural
steelwork, illustrating this with a number of examples of iron and steel structures.
1. HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF STEELWORK DESIGN: STATE

OF STRUCTURAL KNOWLEDGE IN THE 18TH CENTURY AND BEFORE
Up to the late 18th Century, structures were designed essentially on the basis of proportion. To some extent, this meant no
more than deciding whether sizes looked right - that is, familiar - but in many, perhaps almost all periods, there were
some rules or statements by authorities which were almost as firm as our codes of practice today. The difference is that
they were not based on strength or stress but on shape and scale. Stress, in the sense that the word is used in engineering
today, did not exist. The materials were essentially masonry and timber with a little iron.
With masonry the real problem has almost always been one of stability rather than crushing of the material and, until
quite recently, stability was usually established visually. Early tie-bars of iron in masonry construction were, it seems,
also sized by eye.
With timber in the 18th and early 19th Centuries, deflection was the main problem. If it was stiff enough, it must be
strong enough. This may seem illogical to us today but with timber, which tends to indicate its distress by creaking,
sagging and even splitting long before failure, stiffness was not a bad criterion for adequacy. Nevertheless, timber floors
did sometimes collapse, perhaps most often due to ill-conceived joints.

Until the early 19th Century it is far from clear who fixed the sizes of timbers or the connections in trusses. Probably, it was
the carpenters working on experience, observation and possibly copy books of details. In spite of growing knowledge of
the strength and stiffness of different materials, this unscientific approach sufficed for the majority of construction until
well into the 19th Century - at least in Britain, but perhaps less so in other parts of Europe.
2. STATE OF STRUCTURAL KNOWLEDGE IN BRITAIN IN THE EARLY

19TH CENTURY
In the early 19th Century, intuition gave way to calculation for all materials and theory took over to an ever increasing
extent. However, the aim of this lecture is not to outline the development of structural theories for which most credit must go
to the intellectuals of France, but to show how, in Britain particularly but also elsewhere, these theories were
gradually incorporated in the work of ordinary engineering designers.
The fact that some of the theories were incorrect was of no importance provided that these were related to tests and that
like was being compared with like. For instance, having established that for a rectangular beam the bending strength
was proportional to:
(bd2) x (a constant depending on the material)
where b and d are breadth and depth of section, respectively, it did not matter whether you used Galileo's or Mariotte's
incorrect theories of the 17th Century or Parent's elastically correct one of the 18th, provided that the constant was
derived from bending tests and used in comparable circumstances for the assessment of the bending strength of other
cross-sections. In 1803, Charles Bage developed a perfectly valid method of designing cast iron beams on the basis of tests
and Galileo's bending theory.
Among the earliest mathematical design handbooks in Britain, if not actually the first, were Peter Barlow's book on
timber, originally issued in 1817, and Thomas Tredgold's books on timber and cast iron, first issued in 1820 and
1822, respectively. Both Barlow and Tredgold made acknowledgements to earlier work by Girard and others on the
Continent. It is worth looking quickly at the methods advocated in these books to get some idea of how at least a
British engineer could have tackled the problems of fixing the sizes of structural members in the 1820s. The extent to
which these handbooks were actually used is uncertain.
3. UNDERSTANDING OF TIMBER IN THE EARLY 19TH CENTURY

Much of the present practice with steel derived originally from timber which makes a good starting point.
In the simple case of direct tension, Barlow used the word 'cohesion' which is 'proportional to the number of fibres or to
the area of section'. He tabulated 'cohesion on a square inch', as did Tredgold, both basing their values on their
own experiments or those by Musschenbroek, Emerson, Rondolet and others. Thus, for direct force, the concept of stress
was there in all but the name.
For timber, Barlow stated in relation to 'absolute strength' that 'practical men assert that not more than one fourth of this
ought to be employed' but implied that so large a reduction was not necessary. Neither the effect of knots and other defects
nor the concept of an overall factor of safety to cover all variables seemed to come into his thinking. Tredgold merely
accepted a factor of safety of 4 on the ultimate strength of timber as disclosed by tests.
With timber, there was little need to consider beams of anything other than rectangular section. Barlow and Tredgold
gave practical rules both for strength and deflection. For instance, for a rectangular beam of length L with a load of
W, Tredgold's rule for strength amounted to:
W=
where the constant C allowed for the strength of the material, the loading conditions and different units for length and
cross-section. There was no reference to bending moments or section moduli. All was direct, the tabulated values of C

being derived from tests on small sections of comparable timber loaded in the same way.
It is notable that both Barlow and Tredgold devoted as much space to deflection as to strength, a clear follow-on from the
time when sagging was the first and, perhaps the only, indication of inadequacy.
Tredgold suggested 1 in 480 as a reasonable limit for deflection in relation to span.
When considering floor joists, Tredgold's emphasis on deflection was particularly strong. He gave a rule, again controlled by
a mysterious constant, which rightly relates the span, spacing and breadth of the joists to the cube (not the square) of their
depth but, curiously, is independent of the load. He explained that the constant was based on scantlings 'found to be
sufficiently strong' whereas 'it is difficult to calculate the weight that a floor has to support'. Thus, in this field anyway,
the dominance of strength rather than proportion was not yet complete.
4. UNDERSTANDING OF CAST IRON IN THE EARLY 19TH CENTURY

For cast iron, Tredgold, who certainly produced the first real calculator's guide to the material, moved closer to
modern thinking than in his book on timber, but in some respects went very wrong, although pardonably so.
Again, he advocated a deflection limit of 1 in 480 for beams but also what we would call a safe working stress (f) of
the frighteningly high value of 106 N/mm2 (6,8 tonf/in2). This value he considered to be the elastic limit in bending (based
on tests on 25 x 25mm bars of cast iron). He also found the 'absolute strength of cast iron bars to resist a cross-
strain' (modulus of rupture) of these small bars to be 280-400 N/mm2 and thus thought he had what amounted to a factor
of safety of 2,6 to 3,8.
He then assumed, or so it seems because he said very little directly about it, that using the same working stress (f) in
direct tension he would have a similar margin of safety as in bending. He assumed further and with more justification that
using this stress (f) again in compression, the safety margin would be at least as high. Thus all one needed to do was to
design to the elastic limit as a working stress and all would be well.
In the case of direct tension, Tredgold discounted the testing techniques which had given ultimate tensile strengths of
around 110-120 N/mm2 and had no reason to know that later bending tests on larger beam castings were to show a modulus
of rupture of as low as 110 N/mm2 for comparable iron. The last of these errors was specially understandable because
the variation in the modulus of rupture with size of casting has still not been fully explained. Nevertheless, his thinking led to
a potentially dangerous set of assumptions. He even suggested cast iron links at his universal working stress of 106 N/mm2
as more robust than wrought iron ones for suspension bridges.
It must not be implied that Tredgold got it all wrong. His method of calculating deflection appears to be generally
correct. Further, with cast iron, there was a demand for cross-sections other than rectangular and Tredgold went into
the properties of these sections at some length, getting the right answer with the symmetrical ones, but possibly not for
quite the right reason, and going only slightly astray on the position of the neutral axis with T-sections and similar shapes.
On cast iron columns, as on timber ones, Tredgold's recommendations were basically sound. He was certainly aware of
the problem of buckling and Timoshenko gives him credit for being the first to introduce a formula for calculating safe
stresses for columns (see comparison in Figure 1). However, for ties he got into a tangle once more on the effect of length.
He thought long ties to be stronger than short ones, visualising them as being subject to something like buckling in
reverse which increased their strength with length.

The sad point about Tredgold's safe working stress, apart from his curious error on direct tension which had only a
limited effect, is that if it had been applied to wrought iron it would have been almost universally sound. Also it would
have been well ahead of any other practical guidance of the time, at least in Britain. The detailed thinking behind some
of Tredgold's methods is not always easy to understand today, and it is doubtful whether many of his contemporary
readers succeeded or even tried to follow this in detail. It is even more doubtful how many engineers in Britain read
or understood the writings of men like Thomas Young or John Robinson or the works of the vast galaxy of theorists in
other parts of Europe. Some certainly tried and the level of success would be hard to measure today.
Tredgold's book on cast iron was translated into French and German and ran into five editions, with the same
errors perpetuated, the last being issued in 1860. However, from the 1830s onwards his practical advice was challenged
by Eaton Hodgkinson's advocacy of his 'ideal section' for cast iron beams and his simple formula related to this.
Eaton Hodgkinson showed by direct loading tests that cast iron was about six times as strong in compression as in tension
and proportioned his beam accordingly. His simple formula (Figure 2) has been repeated in engineering handbooks until
well into this century.

All was derived from bending tests and would be equivalent to saying:

Ultimate resistance moment = N.D.A.t
where t is the ultimate tensile strength of cast iron. If N = say 0,9, the value of t derived from his formula would be 6,7 to
7,2 tonf/in2 which is a very plausible range. The significant point is that even Eaton Hodgkinson was not thinking in terms
of stress but of a constant relating tests under one set of conditions to practical use in the same form. Eaton Hodgkinson
also made extensive tests on cast iron columns and published the results with practical advice in 1840. This advice formed
the basis for further recommendations for many decades.
5. UNDERSTANDING OF WROUGHT IRON IN THE EARLY 19TH CENTURY

Until towards the middle of the 19th Century, wrought iron was used almost exclusively in tension for such applications
as chains, straps, tie rods and boiler plates.
The tensile strength of wrought iron was fairly well understood throughout Europe from early in the 19th Century, the
mean value being about 400 N/mm2. Thus, even allowing for quite wide variations, its tensile strength could be relied upon
to be about three or four times that of cast iron and with an incomparably greater ductility.
It was the behaviour of wrought iron in bending which eluded engineers until towards the middle of the 19th Century.
There were, of course, the French wrought iron flooring units associated with Ango and St. Fart but these units were really
tied arches.
Discounting the seemingly empirical wrought iron beams of 1839 (Figure 3) used in the Winter Palace at St Petersburgh
which had no wider influence, the wrought iron beam dates from the mid 1840s when small rolled I beams were produced
both in Britain and France. However, the really important breakthrough came from the research and testing for the
Britannia and Conway tubular bridges. This work was a major achievement which, more than any other event, established
the technique of building up structural sections of all sizes from rolled angles and plates by riveting. It made riveted
wrought iron the premier structural material for almost 50 years. It also marked the climax of an era of component testing
and proof-loading and heralded its end.
6. THE YEARS OF TESTING 1820-1850

Whatever may have been written about the strength of materials, engineers in this period tended to feel happier with tests
than theory when facing new or uncertain conditions.
Proof-loading was widely applied to cast iron beams, in many cases all beams being individually tested. Records of
important buildings indicate that the modulus of rupture under test often approached Tredgold's high figure of 106N/

mm2. However unwise this figure may have been if the beams passed with a central point load, with the usual
distributed loadings they must have had a factor of safety of 2 against the proof load.
Not only were full-size components such as beams and columns tested, but also small sections of different materials
to establish their properties. Further, the development of new forms depended almost entirely on tests. Effectively the tubes
for the Menai and Conway bridges were designed by experiment (Figure 4). Starting from the concept that wrought iron
was just a less brittle form of cast iron, initial calculations were based on Eaton Hodgkinson's formula for cast iron
beams. Tests then showed that unlike cast iron, wrought iron was apparently weaker in compression than in tension.
Further tests proved that this was not a property of the material but due to plate buckling, a phenomenon not found in cast
iron beams because of their heavy section. Other tests proved that for tubular beams, a rectangular shape was more
efficient structurally than a circular or elliptical one, provided that its top and sides were stiff enough.

The tubes were designed for continuity over the intermediate supports even for self-weight (Figure 5) but it is not clear
whether the continuity analysis in Edwin Clark's book of 1850 was used in the design or in retrospect. Here again,
modelling and testing probably paid a large part in the decision making. Irrespective of how the thinking may have
developed, it led to the seemingly perfect form of a continuous tube with cellular top and bottom flanges, web stiffeners on
its sides and trains running through the middle. At this stage, the form of web and flange stiffening seems to have been
arrived at empirically. The tubular form of compression member gradually evolved into the simple I beam of today. Figure
6 shows some steps in this transition. It would, perhaps, be unfair to speculate on the amount of iron which might have
been saved if the sides of the tubes had been open and triangulated. Such trusses could not then have been analysed, but
nor, when work started, could riveted wrought iron box or I beams.

There is no space here to go into all the advances in understanding which accrued from the two year development
programme for this seemingly impossible structure nor to try to disentangle the disputed contributions of Stephenson,
Fairbairn and Eaton Hodgkinson. The more one looks at this stupendous achievement, the clearer it becomes that it was
the testing which came first and showed 'how' and the theory which followed up and explained 'why'. Engineers in
Britain throughout the 19th Century were frightened of mathematics.
It is notable that in this same book with the analysis of continuity, Edwin Clark still felt constrained to say of 'transverse strain':
"The complete theory of a beam, in the present state of mechanical science, is involved in difficulties. The comparative
amount of strain at the centre of the beam where the strain is greatest, or at any other section, is easily achieved but the
exact nature of the resistance of any given material almost defies mathematical investigation".
Because of the magnitude of the achievement, we may be overestimating the understanding of those responsible. Certainly
the dispute over the Torksey Bridge in 1850 showed that continuity was not widely understood.
7. TERMINOLOGY: STRAIN, STRESS, COHESION, ETC.

This may be the point where a short diversion on terminology is appropriate. In the first half of the 19th Century the
word 'stress' virtually did not exist in engineering. What is referred to as stress today was called strain or sometimes, if
tensile, cohesion, but 'strain' also seems to have been used to denote a force (e.g. a strain of 10 tons). There was
some uncertainty in the use of these terms.
The relationship which really meant something was the proportional one between member size and load. If, in
Tredgold's words, "the strain in lbs. a square inch which any material would bear was x then four square inches would bear
4x". That was alright for direct tension and compression but with bending, the explanations are less clear.
According to Timoshenko the concept of 'stress on an infinitesimal plane' was due to Augustin Cauchy and published in
1822. Cauchy also developed the valuable concept of principal stress but again, according to Timoshenko, it was St.
Venant who first defined stress in its final form in 1845. Both Todhunter and Pearson, Timoshenko and others give W.J.
M. Rankine the credit for being the first to provide rigorous definitions of stress, strain, working stress, proof strength, factor

of safety and other phrases which are now commonplace in engineering.
8. STRUCTURAL DESIGN BETWEEN 1850 AND 1900

While there is a danger of over-elevating the Menai Bridge designers today, there is an even greater risk of assuming that
their new-found understanding was immediately absorbed by all other engineers. It was not, but there was a very great
change in attitude mainly in the years between 1850 and 1870. This was the period when ordinary engineers learnt to
calculate the sufficiency of most simple structural forms, beams in particular, and to believe in their calculations - even
for major structures - without testing.
1850-1870 was also the period when it became possible to analyse the forces in trusses with certainty. Several
researchers contributed to the understanding of the forces in complex but determinate trusses. Practical textbooks
were published in different countries and translated into other languages, all telling roughly the same story. Rankine's
"Manual of Civil Engineering" (1859) was very widely read and frequently reprinted. W.C. Unwin's "Wrought Iron
Bridges and Roofs" of 1869 showed how graphical statics now dominated truss analysis (Figure 7). Unwin and others
also showed how to build up flanges and cover plates to match the bending moments (Figure 8). Another interesting
practical textbook is that written by Professor August Ritter of Aix-La-Chapelle Polytechnic and published in 1862. This
book gives complete analyses of several notable British structures of wrought iron and was considered worth translating
into English in 1878. Many of the methods of the 1850s and 1860s, although perfectly practicable, proved tedious until R.
H. Bow introduced his famous notation in 1873. This was exactly the sort of systematic and almost foolproof graphical
method to appeal to engineers. It has retained its popularity through many generations and has been superseded only
recently for speed by the computer.

In spite of growing confidence, load testing took some time to die. Large scale tests were still being used around 1850-
60 although possibly as much to satisfy clients as to reassure designers. In the late 1840s three of the crescent trusses of
47m span for the first Lime Street Station in Liverpool were erected as a unit in Turner's works in Dublin and tested first for
a uniform load of almost 2kN/m2 and then for eccentric loading. These trusses have a record span and the need for
assurance was understandable.
The proving of the 65m trusses for New Street Station in Birmingham (another record span completed in 1854) was even
more elaborate, as show in Figure 9. Apart from testing the performance of a complete section of the roof, each tie member
was proved to 139 N/mm2 before incorporation.

After about 1860, confidence in wrought iron had grown enough for testing even of major building structures to be
played down, although bridge testing continued.
Provision was made for testing in the contract for St Pancras Station (completed 1868) but it was never used. The Albert
Hall roof (1867-71) was erected in Fairbairn's works in Manchester to make sure it fitted together but was not load-
tested. These are just examples. One could cite others to illustrate the change from intuition and physical verification to
the calculation of sizes with confidence.
One reason for this change was, of course, the displacement of cast by wrought iron. Wrought iron was now recognised as
a reliable material and, with rivets of definable strength it could be built up into structures virtually limitless in scale in spite
of restrictions on the sizes of plate and angle which could be rolled. Further, and most important of all, by 1850 or soon after,
it had become a calculable material, not just for ties and struts but also for beams.
While it was mainly the triumvirate of Stephenson, Fairbairn and Hodgkinson who established the riveted wrought iron
beam, it was the 'elasticians' of the mid-century like Rankine who translated this knowledge into practical advice and
showed engineers how to design with it.
With increased understanding of structural behaviour, there was a swing at this time from intuitive feelings that strength

and stiffness could be increased by redundancy to simplification of forms so that they would be more amenable to
precise calculation and thus to more economical sizing.
The reality of the known behaviour of wrought iron was limited to the range of stress within which the theorists were
thinking. With a working stress generally not exceeding 77 N/mm2 (the Board of Trade figure in Britain) there is no doubt
that wrought iron behaved elastically and that the theory of elasticity, which became the gospel for engineers in the
third-quarter of the 19th Century, was wholly relevant.
Hooke's law held. Young's modulus was a constant. There was no need to think about factors of safety. You had a
working stress to control your design, even though you might still have been calling it a strain, and you had every reason to
feel confident.
Stress, as we understand it, had not only been born but, by now, was the controlling factor in almost all structural design,
at least with iron, and iron was becoming increasingly dominant where a high level of performance was needed. Elastic
theory, graphical analysis and definite rivet strengths were all that the designer required for full confidence. Around
1850, Britain had such confidence and was still leading the field in iron construction, although much was being done in
parallel elsewhere, in particular in France, Germany and America. As the century progressed, the initiative moved from
Britain with engineers like Moisant (Chocolat Menier Factory) and Eiffel and his colleagues catching much of the limelight.
The commercial transition from wrought iron to steel roughly between 1880 and 1900, permitted higher working
stresses (generally 93 N/mm2 instead of 77N/mm2) and the use of larger rolled sections. Initially, it had virtually no effect
on design and detailing.
Cast iron columns continued to be used widely until about 1890-1900 but were then superseded first by wrought iron
but mainly by steel. Further theoretical work on buckling went in parallel with more advanced formulae for safe loads. It
seems that amongst practising engineers the question of buckling of struts and of thin plates remained the least well
understood aspect of structural design throughout the 19th Century.
It is not the intention of this lecture to chart the development of theoretical knowledge but rather to show how this related to
the ordinary engineer in the design office. To follow the understanding of bending, shear and instability in more detail,
the works referred to in the list of Additional Reading should be consulted.
9. POSTSCRIPT ON THE 20TH CENTURY

In the early part of the present century, the greatest advances both in theoretical understanding of structures and in
practice were associated with the airship and aircraft industries. For bridges, buildings and other 'heavy' structures the
changes were mostly associated directly or indirectly with welding.
The general introduction of welding in the 1930s (with Britain lagging behind other parts of Europe and America)
radically altered techniques of fabrication and introduced the possibility of joints as stiff as the members they connected.
This development in turn had its effect on design with more emphasis on 'portal framing' for buildings and stability
through stiff joints rather than diagonal bracing.
The big change in design thinking came with plasticity in the late 1930s although ultimate-load thinking with the concept of
the plastic hinge has taken some time to replace elastic theory. In fact, it has not wholly done so yet. Safe stresses are still
quite dominant after a reign of nearly 150 years, but their use is declining.
In the future, engineers are likely to be able to achieve far greater efficiency by considering 'whole structure'
behaviour including the effects of cladding and partitions especially for stiffness. This approach only becomes practicable
with computers but offers attractive possibilities for the years to come. The disadvantage could be a reduction in
adaptability. Also the understanding of designers needs to keep pace with the growing sophistication of the design aids at
their disposal.

● Up to the late 18th Century, structures were designed essentially on the basis of proportion.
● Intuition gave way to calculation for all materials and theory took over to an increasing extent in the 19th century.

● Much of the present practice in steel design derived originally from timber in the 19th century. At that time the
understanding of cast iron and wrought iron grew largely on the basis of component testing and proof loading. Rigorous
definitions of stress, strain, working stress, proof loading and factor of safety appeared in the mid 19th century and
gradually ordinary engineers learnt to calculate simple structural forms on the basis of assumed elastic behaviour and
believe in the calculations without testing.
● In the 20th century, the greatest advances in the theoretical understanding of structures were associated with the airship and
aircraft industries.
● The introduction of welding in he 1930s and the development of the theory of plasticity led to major changes in design
thinking.
● For the future, the wider use of computers offers the possibility of achieving greater efficiencies in structures by
considering 'whole structure' behaviour including the effects of cladding and partitions.

I Those who wish to delve deeply into the way in which structural theory as we know it today first emerged in the late 18th
and early 19th Centuries, would do well to go straight to the classic authors: Coulomb, Bernouli, Euler, Navier and others.
For a more general view of structural theory and how it developed, the following books are recommended:
1. Timoshenko S P. "History of the Strength of Materials", McGraw-Hill, New York, 1953.
2. Todhunter I & Pearson K. "A History of the Theory of Elasticity and of the Strength of Materials from Galileo to the
Present Time", Cambridge University Press; 3 volumes 1886-93.
3. Charlton T M. "A History of the Theory of Structures in the Nineteenth Century", Cambridge University Press 1982.
4. Mazzolani F. "Theory and Design of Steel Structures" Chapman & Hall, London.
5. Heyman J. "Coulomb's Memoir on Statics: an essay in the history of civil engineering", Cambridge University Press 1972.
II For a guide to practice with iron and later steel, there were many guides and text books published, especially after 1850.
Taken as a sequence, the following books give some idea of how this advice developed:
1. Tredgold T. "Elementary Principles of Carpentry", London: Taylor 1820.
The major British work on the structural use of timber, first published in 1820 and being reprinted as late as the 1940s.
There are some details on the use of iron with timber, particularly for the lengthening and strengthening of timber beams.
2. Tredgold T. "Practical essay on the strength of cast iron and other metals", London: Taylor 1822.
Also several later editions.
3. Barlow P. "A Treatise of the Strength of Timber, Cast Iron, Malleable Iron & Other Materials", London: J Weale, 1837.
The 1837 and later editions were extensively revised and added to to take account of developments in the science of
the strength of materials in the railway age.
4. Unwin W C. "Wrought Iron Bridges & Roofs", 1869.
Originally lectures to the Royal Engineer Establishment, Chatham.
5. Rankine W J M. "A Manual of Civil Engineering", London 1859, and later editions.
Rankine's manuals mark the turning point in Britain, of engineering as a science founded on theory as against an art founded
on practical experience and observation. They summarise and extend earlier theoretical texts, notably on theory of

structures and strength of materials, and remained standard works throughout the 19th Century.
6. Warren W H. "Engineering Construction in Iron, Steel & Timber", Longmans, London 1894.

ESDEP WG 1B
STEEL CONSTRUCTION:

Iron and Steel in Buildings
OBJECTIVE/SCOPE
To review developments in steel building construction, demonstrating how improvements in material

and understanding have enabled greater achievements in terms of height, clear spans and building
efficiency.
PREREQUISITES
None.
RELATED LECTURES
Lecture 1B.4.4: Historical Development of Iron and Steel in Bridges
SUMMARY
Iron was originally used for the principal components in building structures in order to achieve fire
resistant construction. Initial forms followed traditional patterns, but gradually the characteristics of
iron, and subsequently steel, were more fully utilised. Various building categories are considered -
mill buildings, long span roofs, and multi-storey buildings. Significant technical innovations and
design approaches are highlighted.
1. INTRODUCTION

Although the history of iron and steel dates back several hundred years, their use in the main
components of building structures is relatively recent. The Industrial Revolution provided both the
means and the need. Coke smelting and steam power enabled greatly increased production of iron,
and the industrial mill buildings were foremost in the structural use of the material to replace timber.
Inevitably, the adoption of a new material is spasmodic, and at times may even become
unfashionable. Wrought iron, for instance, never totally replaced cast iron, any more than cast iron
replaced timber. Any historical review will, therefore, include discontinuities rather than be a smooth
sequential development. To simplify this review, the history is, therefore, subdivided by building type
- mills and industrial buildings, long span roofs such as conservatories, railway stations and
exhibition halls, and multi-storey frames. The development of new design forms to take advantage of
improvements in material characteristics is traced for each type.
2. EARLY STRUCTURAL USES OF IRON IN BUILDINGS

Steel and before that iron, have been used in building construction for a very long time. The first uses
were as secondary components - connectors, shoes and straps, mainly in combination with timber as
the principal structural material. As early as the 6th Century, iron tie bars were incorporated in the
main arcades of the Haghia Sophia in Istanbul. Domes often relied on tie bars to reinforce their base,
such as in Jacques Germain Soufflot's portico of the Pantheon in Paris (1770-72). However, the most
prominent early application of the material was in the decorative use of wrought iron, for instance, in
balustrades and gates. An outstanding example is to be found in the White Gates at Leeswood in
Clwyd, Wales (1726) (Slide 8). Thomas Rickman combined the structural utility of cast iron columns
with delicate ornament in the gallery fronts and ceilings to the nave and aisles of St George's Church,
Everton, UK (1812-14) (Slide 9). In France, the architect Henri Labrouste designed two notable
libraries. The Bibliotheque Sainte Geneviève (1843-50) (Slide 10) utilises cast iron for columns and
arches to support both roof and floor, whilst at the Bibliotheque Nationale (1858-68) (Slide 11), the
same decorative use is made of cast iron, but this time in combination with wrought iron.

Slide 8
Slide 9

Slide 10

Slide 11
These and some other early examples of public buildings which used iron exposed the structure in the
interior but gave no sign of it from outside. J.B. Bunning's Coal Exchange in the City of London
(1849) incorporated an iron framed galleried atrium behind two palazzo office blocks, while the
Bibliotheque Sainte Geneviève had a scholarly Renaissance stone facade. Dean and Woodward used
iron and glass extensively for their Oxford Museum (1860) (Slide 12) creating a dramatic interior.

Slide 12
3. INDUSTRIAL BUILDINGS AND MILLS

The introduction of iron components as principal structural elements is a relatively recent
development, inspired by the desire for fire resistant construction. Earlier timber framed construction
was always vulnerable to fire, particularly in textile mills where cotton fibres were processed in an
oily, candle-lit atmosphere. By the end of the 18th Century iron was beginning to replace timber for
the main structure. Initially, this was for the columns only, the first examples being a cotton mill in
Derby, UK and a warehouse in Milford, UK (1792-93). The designer William Strutt used brick jack
arches in place of the traditional timber floor. The jack arches sprang from iron plated timber beams
with a plastered soffit to provide increased fire resistance. The beams were supported externally on
the masonry walls and internally on cast iron columns.
The next logical progression was to use iron instead of timber for the beams. The first example of
such a building frame was Charles Bage's Flax Mill at Shrewsbury, built in 1796 (Slide 13). The
external masonry is loadbearing, but internally slender cast iron columns support cast iron lattice
girders enclosed within brick arch floors. The building still stands today, having been used most
recently as a maltings. The beams were cast in two sections, bolted together, with a skewback base,
designed to carry brick arches. Their profile, which was concealed by the brickwork, rises at mid-

span.
Slide 13
The combination of an external loadbearing masonry envelope and an internal iron frame became a
common form in Britain, particularly for industrial buildings, such as the Albert Dock buildings in
Liverpool (Slide 14). These buildings were constructed in 1845 and have recently been refurbished to
provide office and residential accommodation. This period of structural design using iron was
characterised more by evolution of form than by revolutionary new systems. Beam cross-sections
saw the development of first the inverted T section (the bottom flange carrying the arch) and later the
I section. Column sections also altered. Cruciform sections were superseded by circular hollow
sections which could also accommodate steam heating or rainwater flow.

Slide 14
In 1856, Gardener's store (Slide 15) - an elegant furniture warehouse - was erected in Jamaica Street,
Glasgow. This building used a cast iron frame system patented by a local ironfounder, Robert
McConnel, for the facade, but the flooring system was based on a timber structure. The framing
system allowed a rich expression of the fenestration, and was similar in principle to those first used in
St Louis, USA.
Slide 15
The first building with a true rigid iron frame, making no structural use of loadbearing masonry, was
Greene's Boat House completed in 1858 (Slide 16) at the naval dockyard, Sheerness, UK. This
building was a four storey, three bay frame 64m by 41m by 16m high. The primary beams are of
riveted wrought iron and span 9m. The secondary beams are cast iron and span 4m. Corner columns
are hollow cast iron and are used as down pipes, whilst others are of H-section. The frame not only
carried the full vertical loads but also provided the lateral stability.

Slide 16
In France, the first fully framed building was the Menier Chocolate Factory (Slide 17) at Noisiel-sur-
Marne, completed in 1872. The most distinctive feature of this building, which is constructed over
the River Marne which powered its machinery, is the diagonal bracing which is so elegantly (Slide
18) expressed on the exterior. This bracing provides the necessary lateral rigidity to the slender
wrought iron skeleton, the decorative brick infill walls serving no structural purpose.
Slide 17

Slide 18
In Germany, an octagonal steel frame was used by Bruno Taut to support a gold coloured sphere in
his design for the pavilion at the Leipzig Fair (1913) and Peter Behrens designed a steel three pin
arch for the AEG turbine hall in Berlin (1909) (Slide 19).

Slide 19
The introduction of bracing systems freed the structure from its dependence on masonry walls for
stability, and other materials began to be employed. Corrugated iron, the ancestor of today's profiled
steel sheet (Slide 20) was patented in 1829. Forming iron into thin sheets with undulations to give
stiffness was the idea of Henry Robinson Palmer who worked for the London Dock and Harbour
Company. The corrugated sheets were manufactured by Richard Walker and were used on warehouse
and storage buildings at the docks.

Slide 20
The combination of steel frame and lightweight cladding has continued to be a popular solution for
industrial buildings. Many of the structural forms have been developed to create longer roof spans,
and here the historical development merges with that of other building types.
4. LONG SPAN ROOFS

The developments in iron bridge construction were paralleled by those in long span roof forms. In
1786, Victor Louis designed a tied arch roof using wrought iron to span 21m over the Theatre
Francais. He introduced many sophisticated features such as shaping fabricated elements to provide
greatest resistance to bending and buckling and achieving a form which was both elegant and daring:
qualities which characterised French iron structures for more than a Century afterwards.
Many of the early clear span iron structures borrowed ideas and principles from contemporary
masonry and timber construction, such as the stone arch on which many cast iron bridges were based.
Often timber structures destroyed by fire were replaced by iron structures of a similar form.
Examples include the cupola of the Granary in Paris (destroyed by fire in 1802 and replaced in 1811)
and the roof of Chartres Cathedral (1836) (Slide 21). Here cast iron was used by Emile Martin for the
curved frames of the arching roof, but the tie rods at the springing were wrought iron. The roof spans
14,2m with a clear height of more than 10m from vaulting to apex.

Slide 21
In the first half of the nineteenth Century many innovative iron structures were built in France where
technical, educational and scientific understanding were most advanced. Wrought iron was used for
other long span roof structures in France, such as La Bourse (1823) (Slide 22). It is interesting to note
that in Britain cast iron remained the favoured material for buildings constructed during the same
period - for instance, the floors of Buckingham Palace and the floors and roof of the British Museum.

Slide 22
In both Britain and France, iron and glass were married in the construction of numerous glasshouses
and conservatories, the slender glazing bars making iron an ideal material. Early examples include a
palm house at Bicton, Devon (1816) (Slide 23) which uses a wrought iron glazing bar system devised
by Loudon. This system established a pattern for glasshouse construction, and a later example is
Turner and Burton's Palm House at Kew (c. 1847) (Slide 24) which uses curved ironwork throughout.
Both of these examples have recently been restored. The latter is 110m long with a maximum clear
span of 15,2m and raised to 19m at its centre. The structure of the main ribs is of curved wrought iron
beams, as used in the construction of ships decks. The purlins, also of wrought iron, consist of a
tensioned rod running within a pipe between ribs. The decision to substitute wrought iron for cast
iron substantially reduced the weight of the structure and allowed greater light penetration into the
building - a very important consideration in glasshouse construction.

Slide 23
Slide 24
Similar forms were used to build very long span roofs over railway termini. The roof at Euston
station (1835-39) consisting of two 13m spans supported on slender cast iron columns, is believed to
be the first example of all iron roof truss construction. The designer, Charles Fox, working under
Robert Stephenson, used rolled iron T sections for the rafters and the compression members and
rolled bar for the tension members. The connections were made by forging and drilling ends to the
bars for bolting, with wedges used for adjustment. However, an accident at this station in which a
derailed train demolished an internal column causing a partial roof collapse, led to the need for clear
spans. Notable examples include Turner's Liverpool Lime Street, spanning 47m (1849) and Barlow's

St.Pancras spanning 73m (1868) (Slide 25).
Slide 25
At Liverpool Lime Street the structure took the form of arched trusses, sliding joints at the supports
preventing lateral thrusts being transferred to the supports and thus avoiding arching action. The
construction of the roof was completed in 10 months. In contrast, St. Pancras uses a trussed arch with
the outward thrusts at the springing contained by ties located below platform level. It is interesting to
note that many of the designs for these long span roof structures were regarded as so innovative that
the railway companies demanded full scale tests to demonstrate their integrity.
In France, Camille Polonceau developed a simple trussed rafter system using iron, sometimes in
combination with timber. This system was widely used in a variety of building types, including the
roofs over the Paris-Versailles Railway (1837). These trusses had timber principals, cast iron struts
and wrought iron ties.
Paxton's Crystal Palace (1851) (Slide 26) was another remarkable structure built during this period.
His design for the exhibition hall was a rectangular building 564m long by 22m wide and rising to a
maximum height of 32m. It consisted of a framework of cast iron columns with cast and wrought iron
trusses, connected using wrought iron and wood keys. However, much of the credit for this structure
must go to the ironwork contractors Fox Henderson & Co. They were responsible for the structural
analysis, working drawings and construction, bringing their experience on bridges, dockyard roofs
and prefabricated buildings to enable completion of the building within a period of four months.
Other major buildings by them include the trainsheds at Paddington (1851-4) and Birmingham New
Street (1854).

Slide 26
In France, one of the most spectacular exhibition halls, the Galerie des Machines (Slide 27) was built
for the 1889 Paris exhibition. It was the architect Dutert whose idea it was to enclose the 420m long,
110m wide hall with a single span. In conjunction with engineers Contamin, Pierron and Charton he
developed the three-pinned, trussed steel portal frame, rising at its apex to a height of 43m. Like the
Eiffel Tower (Slide 28), it was constructed from many small sections and plates riveted together in
truss-like form. The purlins, too, were of lattice construction. The scale of the detail was enormous.

Slide 27

Slide 28
In America, too, the iron truss gradually gained favour, an early example being the Library of
Congress in the Capitol Building, Washington (1854). However, it was the emergence of the mass
production industries in the 1920s and their highly developed factory layouts which provided the
opportunities for new structural forms, pioneered by Albert Kahn. The need for production flexibility
dictated wide span industrial buildings. Deep lattice truss construction had been used for some time
in bridge design and Kahn adopted this for many of his buildings. Natural lighting was provided in
the production areas by adopting a monitor roof form. This improved lighting compared with north
light roof forms, but avoided excessive heat gain.
Examples of this form of construction include the press shop for Chrysler at Detroit (1936) and the
Assembly Building for the Glenn Martin Aircraft Company at Baltimore (1937). Trusses 9m deep
spanned over 90m to give a column-free floor area of 150m by 100m. The monitor roof light was
achieved by bridging alternately between the top and bottom chords of these trusses.
As spans became longer, so lateral stability of the trusses became more critical. This was countered
by using box or triangular cross-section trusses. The trend towards longer spans led to the
development of space frame construction which allowed advantage to be taken of the ability of such
structures to span in two directions. In fact, the development of this has its origins in the work of

Alexander Graham Bell at the beginning of the 20th Century. However, the first system widely
available commercially, the MERO system, was not introduced until the 1940s. This structural form
has proved a popular method for roofing long spans very efficiently, and other commercial systems
have developed and continue to be used up to the present.
5. MULTI-STOREY BUILDING FRAMES

Just as iron was becoming more popular as a structural material for mill buildings and long span
roofs, so too was it being increasingly used for multi-storey building construction. It was in North
America and, in particular, Chicago that most development took place. Two important influences
were the need to build higher to overcome the chronic overcrowding of cities of the period, and the
terrible fire of 1871 which completely devastated the commercial quarter of Chicago. Another vital
element in the development of high-rise construction was the introduction of the passenger lift by
Elisha Otis in 1853.
Just as with industrial building development, changes in the form of construction took place in
several steps. By the 1860s cast iron columns and wrought iron girders were commonly used to
support brick arch floors, but with external loadbearing masonry still carrying a proportion of the
vertical loads and providing lateral stability. William le Baron Jenney's First Leiter building (Slide
29), completed in 1879 in Chicago, for instance, is basically a hybrid with timber secondary beams,
wrought iron primary beams, cast iron columns (internal) and masonry piers on the perimeter.
Slide 29

Before their general use for commercial buildings, tall iron frame structures began to appear towards
the end of the 19th Century. Perhaps the most famous of these is the Eiffel Tower which remains as
one of the most potent symbols of iron construction. Built as a temporary monument to crown the
1889 Paris Exposition, at 300m it was the highest structure of its time (although other similar towers
had been proposed in cast iron as early as 1833). The design of the tower was, in fact, developed
initially by Koechlin and Nougier, two engineers working in Eiffel's office. An architect, Sauvestre,
also working for Eiffel, made important modifications including joining the first level and the four
main legs with monumental arches. Eiffel, however, assumed responsibility for its construction.
Other notable structures of this type include the Latting Observatory Tower (1853) and Statue of
Liberty (1886), both in New York.
It was not until about 1880 in the USA that the full potential of iron and steel frames was realised and
they became standard for high buildings. The advantages of a frame structure can be seen by
comparing the loadbearing masonry Monadnock Building, Chicago (1885) with the second
Monadnock Building completed in 1891 using a steel frame. The walls of the earlier building
measure 4,5m thick at their base. However, as late as 1890 loadbearing masonry was used for the
Pullitzer Building, New York with walls 2,7m thick.
5.1 Floor Construction
It was recognised that substituting iron or steel for timber was not the complete answer to providing
fire safety since unprotected iron beams would lose their strength at high temperatures and cast iron
columns could fail when suddenly cooled by water from fire hoses. Some form of additional fire
protection was, therefore, necessary. This requirement was clearly demonstrated by a plaster encased
building structure which survived the Chicago fire.
The jack arch floor construction methods used earlier for mill buildings were largely unsuitable for
resisting fire, partly because of their weight and partly because the lower flange of the iron beam
would be exposed in the event of a fire. Terracotta flooring, in which hollow blocks of terracotta
formed 'flat arches' to span between the lower flanges of the beams, overcame both of these
problems. An early example of this form of floor construction is the 7-storey Tribune Building in
New York (1869) which was also one of the first buildings to incorporate a passenger lift. Various
systems based on this principle were developed. The blocks were arranged to project below the lower
flange of the beam which was afforded fire protection either by projecting flanges of terracotta, or by
cover slips of terracotta supported on small nibs. Floor finishes were either terracotta floor tiles or
concrete, and their weight was about half that of the brick and concrete arch floors. This meant a
significant reduction in the self weight of the structure and hence the load to be carried by the walls,
columns and foundations, which was particularly important in Chicago with its poor subsoil
conditions.
Other floor systems were developed using expanded metal as permanent shuttering but these needed
separate ceilings. In 1846 the first iron beam was rolled in France, with the subsequent development
of floor systems such as Système Vaux and Système Thuasne. These consisted of wrought iron

beams at about 600-900mm centres connected by iron rods with a thick (70mm) plaster ceiling
encasing the lower part of the beam. In Britain 'filler joist' floors, comprising closely spaced joists
with concrete cast between, became common during the early part of the 20th Century. In many
respects these floors can be seen as the precursor to the composite and reinforced concrete floor slab
systems in current use.
5.2 Beams and Columns
The iron beams supporting the floors were initially formed as truss-like girders by riveting small cast
or wrought iron elements. These girders were relatively deep and the planning was generally arranged
so that they could be incorporated within partition walls. It was not until much later that rolling of
wide flanged beams became possible, allowing shallower construction depth and hence greater
planning freedom.
Cast iron columns remained popular for some time. It was not until the recognition of the need for
bending strength within columns to deal with eccentric loads, that wrought iron, and subsequently
steel, really took over. Like beams, the columns were initially formed by riveting a number of small
sections to form a cross-section with similar bending strengths about both axes.
5.3 Frame Construction
The first move towards a fully framed form of construction was the introduction of columns within
(or in front of) the external walls so that the masonry carried only its self weight and none of the floor
loads. Only when the frame carried not only the floor loads but also the external wall was the height
of construction no longer limited by the ability of the wall to carry its own weight. This arrangement
also solved the problem of the differential thermal expansion of masonry and iron.
Jenney's 10-storey Home Insurance Building, Chicago (1885) is considered to be the first fully
framed building to adopt this form of construction and as such was the first skeletal skyscraper. Cast
iron columns support wrought iron beams for the lower floors and Bessemer steel beams above the
sixth floor. The frame was fire protected throughout by masonry and fire clay tiles. The external
walls were carried on angles attached to the spandrel beams, although this detail was not revealed
until the demolition of the building in 1931.
Another early example was the 11-storey Tower Building in New York designed by Bradford Lee
Guilbert in 1887 for a very narrow site. Loadbearing masonry walls would have been so thick at their
base that no useable space would have been left.
5.4 Wind Braced Structures
Although these developments led to structural framing systems designed to carry the full vertical load
including the self weight of the external walls, the structure was still dependent on the walls for
lateral stability. The cross bracing used in the exterior of the chocolate factory at Noisiel-sur-Marne
was generally regarded as inappropriate for commercial buildings, and the stiffness of the

connections utilised in the Crystal Palace to provide stability was recognised as being inadequate for
the more onerous demands of high-rise buildings.
The first Monadnock Building, although of loadbearing masonry construction, used a combination of
portal frame bracing and masonry cross walls. Many other buildings used a mixture of methods.
Jenney's 16-storey Manhattan Building, Chicago (1890) was the first with a wind braced frame. This
frame consisted of a combination of portal bracing and diagonal wrought iron rods tightened with
turnbuckles. This building also provides an interesting commentary on the relative material costs at
the time. Steel was used only for the major beams because of its high cost, with wrought iron for
secondary beams and cast iron for columns.
Burnham and Root's 22-storey Masonic Temple (1892) was braced with diagonal wrought iron rods
placed in the transverse walls, whilst the Colony Building (1894) used portal frames to provide
stability.
The freedom from dependence on the external masonry to provide lateral stability created new
opportunities for the treatment of the facade and architects used a variety of approaches. Ground
floors were often given a light form to accommodate stores, whilst the office floors above had a
traditional, heavy form. The Guaranty Building (1895) and the Stock Exchange Building (1894) both
by Adler and Sullivan, and the Gage group of buildings (1896/8) by Holabird and Roche (Slide 30)
are typical of this approach. One of the most simple yet successful expressions of the structural frame
at the time is to be seen in the Carson Pirie Scott store by Sullivan (1904) (Slide 31). More
adventurous forms, however, were possible and the bay window, supported by frames cantilevered
from the spandrel girders, became a common feature, providing a means of getting light into the
upper floors. This feature is perhaps best seen in the Reliance Building of 1894 (Slide 32) which used
terracotta cladding over the frame to give a lightness to the form. Designed by Burnham and Root it
is a notable example of the slender, glazed skeletal building. The steel frame above the first floor was
erected in little more than two weeks and the external envelope was completed within six months.

Slide 30
Slide 31

Slide 32
The greater strength of steel compared with iron enabled greater heights and longer spans to be
achieved but it was relatively expensive so that it only gradually replaced wrought and cast iron, as
seen in the Manhattan Building. The first all steel building was the 2nd Rand McNally Building,
Chicago, built in 1889-90 and demolished in 1911.
6. DEVELOPMENTS IN DESIGN FOR STEEL FRAMED

BUILDINGS
In Europe the developments at the turn of the Century were less concerned with tall multi-storey
buildings, but imaginative use was made of the potential for expressing the new structural material,
particularly in France. Chedanne's office block at 124 Rue Reaumur, Paris (1904) (Slide 33) is
perhaps the very first example of a true multi-storey facade in structural steelwork. In Belgium, too,
Horta made extensive use of iron and steel, for instance, in the light wells he introduced in the deep
sides of his buildings in Brussels, such as the Hotel Solay (1894). He also used it in both the
elevations and the interior of the Maison du Peuple. Others used it in a highly decorative way, for
instance the bridge, entrances, pavilions and canopies for the new railways in Paris and Vienna. A
notable example is the Karlsplatz Station (1898) by Otto Wagner (Slide 34). The same designer
combined glass and iron with considerable success in the Post Office Savings Bank, also in Vienna
(1906) (Slide 35).

Slide 33

Slide 34
Slide 35
The first steel framed building of distinction in Britain was the Ritz Hotel, (Slide 36) London by

Mewes and Davies and Sven Bylander. The main columns were of steel box section formed by
connecting two channels lip-to-lip with cover plates. Foundations took the form of steel grillages
encased in concrete, an unusual system outside the USA. The fire-proof floors were of a patented
form comprising twin concrete slabs forming a floor over and a flat soffit below the steel beams. The
large clear span over the restaurant necessitated the use of steel trusses. Fire protection to the steel
was provided throughout by encasing in concrete or other incombustible material. The attraction of
using steel was in speed of construction compared with traditional forms, even though building
regulations in force at the time required the external walls to be 775mm thick. Thus, like many of its
iron framed predecessors, the building displays nothing of its frame structure but instead has the
appearance of loadbearing masonry.
Slide 36
Subsequent relaxations in building regulations allowed thinner wall construction and designers began
to express the frame structure behind, such as at Kodak House (1911) (Slide 37) by Sir John Burnet
and Heal's (1916) by Smith and Brewer, with Sven Bylander as engineer.

Slide 37
Building in the USA became even higher and architects used various design/stylistic approaches to
break down their austerity such as the romantic medievalism typified by the 52 storey Woolworth
Building (1913) (Slide 38) and both Gothic and Art Nouveau styles seen in the Chicago Tribunal
Tower (1922) (Slide 39).

Slide 38

Slide 39
The following years saw the race to establish ever increasing height records with first the 320m high
Chrysler building (Slide 40) with its famous stainless steel clad finial and the 380m high Empire
State Building (1930) (Slide 41), which still holds the record for speed of construction, which at one
stage reached one floor per day. The 70 storey RGA Radio Tower (Slide 42) which formed part of the
Rockefeller Centre (1939) is notable since it represented the first development in which a skyscraper
was planned as an integral part of a group of buildings rather than as a single structure.

Slide 40
Slide 41

Slide 42
Meanwhile, in Europe construction heights remained modest. In 1928 the Empire Theatre, Leicester
Square, London providing almost 4000 seats, was constructed. Steel framing was used to span up to
36m clear over the auditorium to support a balcony with tea rooms underneath. The floor of the
balcony was supported on an arrangement of raking steel beams. Other notable buildings constructed
during the 1930s include de la Warr's pavilion at Bexhill-On-Sea (Slide 43), the first all-welded steel
frame in Britain, and Simpson's Department Store in Piccadilly, London (Slide 44). It was the first
building to have a completely clear shop front achieved by using a Vierendeel girder across the front
elevation.

Slide 43
Slide 44

In France, Jean Prouvé pioneered many new applications and technical developments in the use of
steelwork. Trained as a blacksmith, and specialising in metal furniture at his factory in Nantes, he
collaborated with many leading architects on designs for cladding, many in cold formed steel. The
Maison du Peuple, Clichy, Paris (1939) is one of his most famous works, utilizing pressed steel
components throughout, not only for cladding, but also for windows, floors, partitions and staircases
(Slide 45).
Slide 45
Following a lull in steel construction due to material shortages incurred as a result of the Second
World War, architectural styles developed. Foremost amongst these was the influence of Mies van
der Rohe and his use of a facade composed of prefabricated units and suspended in front of the
structural frame. Early examples include the Illinois Institute of Technology (1950) (Slide 46), Lake
Shore Drive apartments (1951) (Slide 47) and the Lever Building, NewYork (1953) (Slide 48). This
new approach saved space and weight and speeded up construction, as well as allowing full visual
expression to be given to glass and metal. One of the best known examples is the bronze coloured
Seagram Building (1957) (Slide 49).

Slide 46
Slide 47

Slide 48

Slide 49
The evolution of form and the endeavour for increased height has continued, and these developments
are chartered in Group 14.
● The use of iron and steel in the main components of building structures is relatively recent.
The adoption of these new materials was spasmodic rather than a smooth sequential
development.
● A historical review of the introduction of these materials may best be illustrated by the
different building types - mills and industrial buildings, long span roofs and multi-storey
frames.
● The first uses of iron were as secondary components - connectors, shoes and straps. Iron tie
bars were incorporated in Renaissance domes. Cast iron and wrought iron were gradually
adopted in structures in the 18th Century.
● Principal structural elements of iron were first introduced to achieve fire resistant
construction, especially in mills.
● The developments in iron bridge construction in the 18th Century were reflected in long span
roof forms.

● Over the same period iron was increasingly used in multi-storey building construction. Tall
iron frame structures began to appear towards the end of the 19th Century.
● Some additional fire protection was necessary since unprotected iron beams would lose their
strength at high temperatures and cast iron columns could fail when suddenly cooled by water
from fire hoses.
● The introduction of the fully framed form of construction carrying the floor loads and the
external wall removed the limitation of height resulting from the requirement for the wall to
carry its own weight. Bracing freed the structure from dependence on external masonry to
provide lateral stability. Such structures built towards the end of the 19th Century and the
beginning of the 20th Century were progressively of increasing height.
1. Collins, A. R. ed., (1986) Structural Engineering - Two Centuries of British Achievement,
Tarot Print, Christlehurst, Kent (1983).
2. Gloag, J. and Bridgewater, D., A History of Cast Iron in Architecture, London, 1948.
3. Lemoine, Bertrand, L'Architecture du Fer: XIXe Siecle, Paris, 1986.
4. Mainstone, R. J, Developments in Structural Form, Allen Lane 1977, London.
5. Sheppard, R., Cast Iron in Building, London 1945.
6. Jones, E, Industrial Architecture in Britain 1750-1939, London, 1985.
7. Biney, M., Great Railway Stations of Europe, Thames and Hudson, 1984.
8. Giedion, S., Space, Time and Architecture, Harvard, 1940 and 1966.
9. Russel, B., Building Systems, Industrialisation and Architecture, Wiley, 1981.
10. Guedes, P. (ed.) Macmillan Encyclopaedia of Technology.
11. Walker, D. (ed.) Great Engineers, Academy Editions, London 1987.
12. Hildelerand, G., Designing for Industry, MIT Press, 1974.
13. Ogg, A., Architecture in Steel: The Australian Context, Royal Australian Institute of
Architects, 1987.
14. Strike, J., Construction into Design, Butterworth, 1991.

ESDEP WG 1B
STEEL CONSTRUCTION:

Iron and Steel in Bridges
OBJECTIVE/SCOPE
To review the development of steel bridge construction, demonstrating how improvements in

methods and understanding of structural behaviour have enabled greater efficiency and longer spans.
PREREQUISITES
None.
RELATED LECTURES
Lecture 1B.4.3: Historical Development of Iron and Steel in Buildings
SUMMARY
The historical development of bridges throughout the world is used to illustrate developments in
structural engineering. Three categories of bridges are considered - arches, beam structures and
suspension bridges. The precedence of masonry and timber construction are considered briefly,
showing how these older forms have become adapted to take advantage of the characteristics of
firstly iron and then steel. Significant technical innovations concerning materials, analytical methods
and design concepts are highlighted. Some notable failures, and the lessons to be learned from them,
are discussed.
1. INTRODUCTION

The historical development of bridges is the field which best illustrates the progress of structural
engineering from ancient times up to the present century. In particular the development in steel
bridges equates with the progress in structural analysis, theory of strength of materials and materials
testing, since all of them were increasingly stimulated by the need for bridging larger spans and
building more economically with the new construction method. Fortuitously, mechanics and
mathematics had reached the threshold of modern engineering science just when the technology of
constructional steelwork was being developed.
However, at the time when the new material, iron, and later steel, was ready for use in larger
structures there already existed a quite highly developed technology in bridge building, namely for
bridges in timber and bridges in stone. During the years 1750 - 1770 approximately, a new method of
coke smelting produced larger amounts of iron at a cost which provided the basis for application of
iron in engineering practice.
It is important to mention that the technologies of bridge building at that time were based on
individual intuition of outstanding "masters" and on the experience passed down through the
generations rather than on rules of mechanics and mathematics. The significance of preserving the
knowledge of bridge building and of extending it was closely connected with military purposes and
the interests of trade in ancient times. The Romans even established a separate caste - the
"pontifices" (bridge makers) - who later were raised into the rank of priests, headed by the "pontifex
maximum", which was also one of the titles of the Roman emperors. Similar reasons motivated the
French kings, e.g. Louis XIV, and later Napoleon, to support the new engineering schools (Ecole de
Ponts et Chaussés and Ecole Polytechnique).
Thus, the building of steel bridges was founded at the beginning on the then well-tried principles and
construction methods of timber and stone bridges. Stone bridges provided the arch type while
wooden bridges demonstrated mainly fine-structured trusses. According to the typical material
properties of cast iron -the first type of iron available - iron bridges were first built as arches. Later,
when steel was available, which is capable of acting in tension, various structural systems were
developed on the basis of the principles of wooden trusses. Due to the superior material properties of
steel and the advantages of the new construction method, a rapid development of bridge structures led
to a large variety of efficient, inventive systems for any kind of span.
In this Lecture, the history of steel bridges is subdivided according to three types of bridge:
● Arch bridges
● Beam structures, including trusses, plate/box-girder bridges, and all kinds of supported
bending structures, such as cable-stayed bridges and tied arches.
● Suspension bridges.
There is, of course, much overlap in chronological order concerning the three types of bridge through
the period of time considered. However, this classification seems to be most appropriate to an
engineer's understanding, being based on the main bearing behaviour of bridges rather than on
aspects of shape or statical system.

2. ARCH BRIDGES
Arches transfer distributed vertical loads to the foundation mainly by compression. Due to the
specific material properties of masonry they are basically the appropriate form of structure for stone
bridges.
Such arch bridges are known to have existed in the Hellenistic period of Asia Minor. However, they
reached their "flowering period" in Roman times, when the typical arch-type aqueducts were
extensively used all over the Roman empire, e.g. the "Pont du Gard" near Nimes in Southern France,
built in 18 B.C. (Slide 50). Up to that time arch bridges were formed in the semi-circular shape only,
which did not allow spans greater than about 35 to 40 m.
Slide 50
In the Middle Ages the construction of flat arches was developed in order to build lighter bridges and
larger spans. Later on, particularly in the newly founded engineering academies of France, this
construction method was cultivated by using experience as well as mathematical aids. J.R. Perronet
was the master of masonry bridges of that type, e.g. the "Pont de la Concorde" in Paris of 1791 (Slide
51). The technical basis for the application of iron in bridge building was therefore in place.

Slide 51
In 1779 Abraham Darby III, an English iron founder, succeeded in building the first iron bridge in
Coalbrookdale. Some earlier attempts in France and England had failed because the cast iron of the
time which had low tensile and flexural tensile strength, and was also brittle, had been used with
inappropriate structural systems. The Coalbrookdale Bridge was constructed as an arch bridge like
the examples in stone before, however, the arch was structured in 5 light ribs following the
constructional principles of wooden structures. The bridge has a span of about 30 m and is still in use.
Such cast iron bridges soon became common structures in Britain and were exported to other
countries (Slide 52).

Slide 52
In the following years, iron casting was developed to supply different bridge building methods. Pre-
fabricated, block-shaped elements were used like large "bricks" in patented iron arch bridges. The
largest of these was the "Sunderland Bridge", built in England in 1796 with a span of 72 m.
Another method was developed by the German engineer Reichenbach, who used cast iron tubes for
the compression member of the arch. This economical system was widely used, an excellent example
being the "Pont du Caroussel" in Paris, which was built by Polonceau in 1839 with three spans of
48m each (Slide 53).

Slide 53
The largest cast iron arch ever built was the "Southwark Bridge" by John Rennie over the Thames in
London (1819) with a span of 73 m (Slide 54).
Slide 54
A similar bridge, notable for its marvellous latticed design and the great name of Thomas Telford
connected with it, had been built some years previously (1812) in Scotland with a span of 50 m.
Other arch bridges of the same typical design were built later and can be found in many places, e.g.
over the River Rhine in Germany or over the River Loire in France.

Thomas Telford (1757 - 1834) - originally being a mason - became one of the most notable engineers
of his time. After educating himself in architecture he built 3 bridges over the River Severn, after
which he worked for the canal companies, building about 900 miles of road and two gigantic
aqueducts to carry the canals over valleys. Between 1819 and 1826 Telford built the two famous
chain suspension bridges over the Menai Straits and the River Conway. Telford was made the first
President of the Institution of Civil Engineers when it was founded in 1828.
The "Mississippi Bridge" in St. Louis was built in 1874 by J.B. Eads (Slide 55). He used tubular
members partly of iron and partly of steel to form the latticed arch of 159 m in span. It was the first
bridge he built and surprisingly became the largest arch span in the world.
Slide 55
Steel arch bridges cannot be discussed without appreciating the contribution of Gustave Eiffel, one of
the greatest engineers of his century. Eiffel (1832 -1923) founded and led the "Société Eiffel", an
engineering and steel fabricating company, well known throughout the world, with agencies in the
Middle East, Eastern Asia and South America. Its main field of production was various kinds of steel
bridges, of which the arch bridges were the most important. Eiffel also used trussed construction. He
was the first engineer to develop the preparation of steelwork design up to full detailing and drawing
of every element or single rivet. His first big success was the railway bridge over the Duoro in
Portugal (1878) with an arch span of 160 m. His most beautiful bridge was the "Viaduc de Garabit"
in the South of France, built in 1884 with a span of 165 m (Slide 56). The buildings which made him
most famous are the 300 m high "Eiffel Tower" (1889) and the "Statue of Liberty" (1886).

Slide 56
With the development of steel the size of structures increased. The largest arch spans were built in the
years up to 1930:
● the "Bayonne Bridge" in New Jersey by O.H. Ammann in 1931 with a span of 504 m (Slide
57)
Slide 57
● the "Sydney Harbour Bridge" by R. Freeman in 1932 with a span of 503 m (Slide 58).

Slide 58
Both bridges are two-hinged trussed arches with the deck suspended.
3. BEAM STRUCTURES INCLUDING TRUSSES AND PLATE/

BOX GIRDER BRIDGES
It was indicated at the beginning of the section "Arch Bridges" that iron in the first period of bridge
building could only be used in compression. It was not until more than fifty years later when larger
bridge structures were built that bending structures were adopted using the newly developed wrought
iron, and later steel, which were capable of acting in tension as well. At that time there already
existed a highly developed technology of building such bridges in timber, in particular trusses of
various shapes and systems. Since constructional steelwork at the start used a great deal of this
knowledge a short overview is given below of the development of wooden bridges.
Wooden bridge structures
In Roman times (during the reigns of Caesar and Trajan) individual wooden bridges of impressive
dimensions were built over the River Rhine and the Danube. Wooden bridges then became very
common in the Middle Ages, although few of them have survived. The first methodical studies of
statical systems were performed by the Italian architect Andrea Palladio (+ 1580), demonstrating
different types of trusses and strutted frames, which were then called "Palladian bridges".
The heyday of bridge building in timber took place in the second half of the 18th century, when
individual master builders like Grubenmann and Ritter in Switzerland, Gauthey in France and

Wiebeking in Germany developed outstanding structures with spans up to 100 m. From that time on
the development of wooden bridges moved to the USA, where - due to the lack of trained carpenters -
simplified structures came into use. Standardized and prefabricated elements and simple connections
were made with unskilled labour, but nevertheless produced large bridge structures, especially for the
railways. The main types of bridges resulting were trestle bridges (Slide 59) and truss bridges.
Slide 59
The latter - among others - comprised patented systems like the widely used crosswise-pretensioned
truss girder by Town (Slide 60). Many of the structural ideas were transferred to trussed steel bridges
at the beginning. Due to the superior material behaviour of steel, wooden bridges were replaced step
by step up to the end of the 19th century.

Slide 60
During the first half of the 19th century, steel bridges were frequently designed as trusses,
particularly in the USA. This was mainly due to their economical load-carrying behaviour. However,
in Europe this same development was interrupted by a short period, when tubular bridges were made
of large plated girders.
Development of plated girders - Robert Stephenson
When in 1844 the Chester & Holyhead Railway Company decided to build a railway line from
London to the Isle of Anglesey in Northern Wales, two big obstacles had to be bridged, namely the
Menai Street and the River Conway. Robert Stephenson (1803 -1859), the son of the great George
Stephenson, was in charge of the project. He, in contrast to his father who had been self-taught, was
well educated. He became leader of his father's locomotive factory at the age of twenty-seven and
was at that time well renowned as a railway and bridge engineer in Britain.
After several studies of bridging the Menai Strait with an arch bridge or using a chain suspension
bridge, which Thomas Telford had built about 20 years previously in the same place for the railway,
Stephenson decided to build a bridge in the shape of two rectangular tubes (each 4,4 m wide and 9 m
deep) through which the two railway tracks ran (Slide 61 and 62). He performed the design on the
basis of extensive experimentation on models in the scale 1 : 6 with circular, elliptic or rectangular
cross-section. The research was done in a team together with W. Fairbairn, responsible for the testing,
and E.Hodgkinson, performing the theoretical work. It showed that the closely stiffened plate-girders
made of wrought iron combined with the cellular upper and lower deck construction were strong
enough to carry the load over the spans of 142 m without additional support by stays from the top of
the piers. Such stays had originally been provided when erecting the towers, which then gave the
bridge its unique appearance.

Slide 61
Slide 62

The bridge, which consisted of 4 spans of 70 + 142 + 142 + 70 m, used 10.600 tons of iron and
incorporated 3,5 million rivets. It was fabricated near the site in equal pieces for each single span, and
each of them was floated to the site and lifted to its final position. Both fabrication and erection were
masterpieces. When the "Britannia Bridge" as it was known, was opened in 1850, Stephenson could
not have known how much he had contributed to the development of plate girder construction. It was
about 90 years before plate girder bridges of similar spans could be built again. The Britannia bridge
carried the railway traffic well for 120 years until 1970 when it was damaged by a fire.
A second bridge of this type, but with somewhat smaller spans, was built by Stephenson over the
River Conway at the same time.
Truss bridges (parallel girders)
As already mentioned the building of steel truss bridges was highly influenced by the examples of
wooden trusses, built using various systems in the USA. In the first period especially, when only flat
members were available, the latticed girders by Town were copied in steel, resulting in fine-mesh
lattice girders since flat sections can resist compression forces only with reduced buckling length.
Nevertheless, the lattice girders showed good statical behaviour and soon were built with
considerable spans.
The largest beam bridge of this type in Europe, the "Dirschau Bridge" over the River Weichsel
(Vistula) in Germany, was completed in 1857 (Slide 63). The single-track railway bridge was built by
the great bridge engineer Karl Lentze (1801 - 1883) with six spans of 131 m each, using closely
spaced lattice girders. His design was largely influenced by the Britannia bridge, showing a similar
tubular cross-section as well as similar tower-like pillars. This bridge moreover shows a "speciality"
of some Germany bridges, i.e. a castle-like entrance building, which was sometimes ironically
criticized in other countries. Nevertheless, considerable economies in the use of steel resulted, the
Dirschau bridge needing 8,3 tons of iron per metre compared with the 12,5 tons of the Britannia
bridge.

Slide 63
The first iron truss bridge to be made of struts was the "Grandfey Viaduct" near Fribourg in
Switzerland, opened in 1862 (Slide 64). Although similar in type to the wooden trestle viaducts in the
USA (see Slide 59), it was the first true modern trussed girder with appropriate compressive
members. The bridge had seven spans of 49 m and was erected by launching the girder over the high
steel piers.
Slide 64
Further progress in building truss girders was encouraged by new methods of structural analysis. Karl
Culmann (1821 - 1881), then a young German engineer, was sent to the USA in 1849 by the Royal
Bavarian Government in order to report on the novel wooden and iron bridge types which he found
there. His studies led to the development of graphic methods of structural analysis, which he
published by 1860, when he was professor at the ETH Zurich. From that time a full theory existed for
the design of trusses.
A typical truss bridge of that time was the Danube Bridge near Stadlau in Vienna. It was built in 1870
as a continuous beam with five spans of 80 m each. The picture (Slide 65) shows the process of
launching.

Slide 65
Building truss girders was developed to perfection by G. Eiffel - as already described in the section
"Arch bridges". Eiffel built a great number of truss bridges for the railway in France and Portugal; an
example (Slide 66) is taken from the Beira-Alta line (1879 - 1881) in Portugal. Eiffel's largest bridge
of this type was the bridge over the Tardes near Evaux, with a main span of 105 m (72 + 105 + 72 m),
built in the same period.
Slide 66
Truss bridges of the parallel-girder type were built in great variety, especially for the railways in
Europe, with a tendency towards simpler statical systems, e.g. the triangular truss. The Rhine Bridge

near Maxau in Germany, built in 1938, is a good example (Slide 67). It is a combined railway/road
bridge with spans of 175m and 117m.
Slide 67
Pauli girder, Saltash Bridge, Lohse girder
(fish-belly or parabolic girders)
The objective of obtaining an optimum distribution of the chord forces in trusses led to new shapes of
girders, the parabolic-truss girder with a curved upper chord and the fish-belly type girder with both
chords curved in opposite directions. The latter, called the "Pauli girder" in Germany, turned out to be
very economical with chord forces being approximately constant along the length of the bridge. This
system was developed by Friedrich August von Pauli (1802 - 1883), a railway engineer of the Royal
Bavarian Government and later Professor at the Technical University of Munich.
The first Pauli girder, built in 1857, was the railway bridge over the Isar near Groβ hesselohe
(Germany) with spans of 53 m (Slide 68). It was built under the direction of the young Heinrich
Gerber (1832 - 1912), who afterwards became one of the great bridge engineers in Germany. Gerber
contributed much to the design and analysis of the Pauli girder. However, his wide reputation resulted
from the development of the cantilever bridge.

Slide 68
In order to summarize the great German bridge engineers of the 19th century also Johann Wilhelm
Schwedler (1832 - 1912) has also to be mentioned. He contributed much to the progress of German
constructional steelwork. One of his ideas was a specific parabolic truss girder, frequently used in
Germany and called the "Schwedler Girder", which was designed so that none of the diagonals would
be subjected to compression.
A gigantic bridge of the fish-belly type was the "Saltash Railway Bridge" near Plymouth, also known
as the "Royal Albert Bridge" (Slides 69 and 70). Completed in 1859 and having two spans of 139 m
each, the Saltash Bridge had a tubular upper chord with a high elliptic cross-section (5,2 m × 3,7 m),
made of riveted curved plates, and a lower chord consisting of chains. Constructional difficulties
prevented this type of bridge being built again. The builder was Isambard Kingdom Brunel (1806 -
1859), a renowned railway engineer in Britain and one of the most ingenious engineers of his time,
whose father built the first tunnel below the River Thames in London. Brunel, after finishing his
studies in France, became assistant engineer on the project of the Thames Tunnel. Although he also
later built two chain suspension bridges, his greatest railway work was the Royal Albert Bridge.
Brunel also designed both the first and the largest steam ships for transatlantic voyages and was also
involved in the construction of many docks, piers and hospitals.

Slide 69
Slide 70
Fish-belly type girders of Pauli's design had a lot of constructional advantages and were used in
German bridges again and again. For example the second "Dirschau Bridge" over the River Vistula
built by J.W. Schwedler in 1891 had six spans of 131 m. The amount of structural steel used for the
new bridge which carried two railway tracks, was the same as for the first bridge built in 1857 having
only a single track (Slide 71).

Slide 71
A similar type of bridge was the double bow girder bridge, called "Lohse Girder" after its originator,
the German bridge engineer Hermann Lohse. The structural system, somewhere in between the fish-
belly type and the tied-arch type, consisted of two trussed chords connected with vertical members.
The most important examples are the five Elbe Bridges near Hamburg built in the period from 1872 -
1892; one railway bridge over the Southern Elbe and a road bridge and three railway bridges over the
Northern Elbe. All are of similar shape, having three or four spans of about 100 m each (Slides 72
and 73) and, again, the large entrance buildings typical for that time.
Slide 72

Slide 73
Parabolic truss systems were also widely used, particularly for railway bridges across the large rivers
in Germany. The "Lek Bridge" near Culenborg in the Netherlands had the longest span of such
girders for a long time. It was built in 1868, using steel for the first time in bridges, by the German
engineer and fabricator J. Caspar Harkort. The truss had a span of 155 m and a depth at midspan of
20,5 m (Slide 74).
Slide 74
Cantilever bridges, Gerber beams
Nearly all bridges of the first half of the 19th century were single span beams, which means that

multi-span bridges were divided into single spans on the piers. Of course, engineers of that time were
aware of the beneficial statical behaviour of the continuous beam. However, they knew also of the
disadvantages in relation to foundation settlements. It was the idea of the German H.Gerber to
introduce hinges into continuous beams at statically favourable locations, which eliminated the
drawbacks of settlements. This idea was patented in 1868 and such beams were called "Gerber
beams".
Heinrich Gerber (1832 - 1912) was one of the most important bridge engineers in Germany. After his
time in the Royal Bavarian Railway Authority he became the head of a significant German steelwork
company and contributed much to the development of steel bridges. He was the first to introduce
Wöhlers design principles for fatigue in railway bridge construction.
A special type of truss structure following Gerber's principle of hinged beams is the cantilever bridge.
By making the truss girder deeper at the piers, cantilevers may be built far into the middle of the span
without the need for any centring (falsework). This technique is of great importance when bridging
deep or rough water.
One of the greatest cantilever bridges is the "Firth of Forth Bridge" in Scotland. When built in 1883 -
1890 with main spans of 521 m, it gained the world record for the longest span bridge (Slide 75).
Some historical background of the specific design realised by the two engineers Sir John Fowler
(1817 - 1898) and his partner Benjamin Baker (1840 - 1907) is given below.
Slide 75
When construction of the bridge was about to start, the design was that made by Sir Thomas Bouch, a
renowned bridge engineer, who had just finished the railway bridge over the Firth of Tay with a total
length of 3200 m. This was a multiple-span truss bridge with main spans of 75 m, which collapsed in
a heavy storm on 27 December 1879 just when a train was crossing, causing the death of 72 people

(the German poet Theodore Fontane wrote a famous poem about this accident). As a result, Thomas
Bouch lost all credibility with the railway company, his successors, J Fowler and B Baker, having to
illustrate the statical principles of their design to the public (Slide 76).
Slide 76
The bridge, which today is considered to be a unique and gigantic construction, is a masterpiece of
engineering work. The depth of the truss above the piers is 106 m, the main tubular members are 3,7
m in diameter, and the whole bridge used 42.000 tons of steel and at times required up to 4.600
workers at the site to undertake the complex method of construction (Slide 77).
Slide 77

J Fowler was a notable civil engineer, mainly involved in railway construction. He was a pioneer of
the London Underground and later elected President of the Institution of Civil Engineers. Just how
much the builders of the Forth Bridge accomplished can be recognized by comparisons with the "St
Lawrence Bridge" near Quebec. This cantilever bridge, very similar in type, became the longest
hinged beam bridge when built in 1917, with a span of 549 m. However, although only 27 m longer
in span than the Forth Bridge, it took 12 years to build, two major failures having occurred during
construction, indicating that theoretical and practical limits had been reached.
The "Hooghly River Bridge" in Calcutta, built in 1940 with a span of 455 m, is the fourth largest
cantilever bridge (Slide 78). Although a late example of this successful type of bridge, the design
seems not to be so clear as that of its predecessors.
Slide 78
Truss Bridges in the USA
Based on a good tradition of wooden truss bridges, it was Squire Whipple who first developed the
method of analysing and designing trusses made of cast and wrought iron. He was called the "Father
of iron truss bridges" and built his first bridge in 1841, a bow-string type truss (parabolic girder),
which was patented and successfully built many times in the years following. In 1847 he published a
book on bridge building and developed the trapezoidal truss bridge, called the "Whipple-truss".
Whipple built two of these bridges with spans of about 45 m for railroad use in 1852-54. These
bridges have chords with forged wrought iron links, which were in later years modified step-by-step
by Linville into eye-bars made of steel and accordingly allowed increased spans. The longest bridge
of this type, with a main span of 155 m, was built for the railway in 1876 over the Ohio River near
Cincinnati. The longest simple span truss of this time was a bow-string truss with spans of 165 m also
over the Ohio River in Cincinnati, built by Bouscaren in 1888.

There were also cantilever bridges built in the USA during the period 1877 - 1889, which have main
spans of 165m. They were erected by use of falsework, e.g. the "High Bridge" across the Kentucky
River and the "Hudson River Bridge" at Poughkeepsie.
Plate/Box Girder Bridges
After the exceptional example of the Britannia Bridge, plate girder bridges remained within spans of
about 30 m. Fresh impetus was given by the development of welding in constructional steelwork. The
use of welding began in about 1925 and considerably influenced the building of steel bridges,
particularly road bridges. After setbacks in the 1930's due to brittle fracture failures, a very rapid
increase in the size of spans took place. A typical example of large spans is the "Rhine Bridge" in
Bonn (1948) with spans of 99 + 196 + 99 m (Slide 79).
Slide 79
Tied Arches
A tied arch bridge acts like a beam structure, which is assisted in carrying load by an arch behaving
similarly to a curved upper chord of a truss, while the deck girder acts like the lower chord. Arch and
deck girder are simply connected by hangers and form a structure which has considerable
constructional advantages compared to true trusses when bridging wide single spans or carrying
heavy loads. Tied arch bridges have been incorporated in this section because their main statical
behaviour resembles beams rather than arches, e.g. transmitting vertical reactions to the abutment
when subjected to vertical loads.
Such bridges were frequently used in the past, especially for heavy railway bridges. The first long
span bridges were built in Hamburg over the Southern Elbe (1899) with four spans of 100 m. In 1906
- 1910 in Cologne the "Hohenzollern Bridge" was built with spans of 102 + 165 + 102 m (Slide 80).

When the old Lohse girders in Hamburg had to be replaced (1915) tied arch bridges were also used
(Slide 81).
Slide 80
Slide 81
Cable Stayed Bridges
Similarly, to tied arch bridges, cable stayed bridges are classified under the topic of beam structures.
They actually behave like elastically supported continuous beams rather than like suspension bridges,

although are often considered as being related to them. The cable stays provide a more or less elastic
support at individual points along the deck girder. This arrangement allows bridges of considerable
span to be built with relatively slender girders. Only vertical reactions are transmitted to the
abutments as a result of vertical loading.
The cable stayed bridge was the most recently developed of all the types of bridges. It originated in
Germany (about 1950) and the first bridge completed in 1957 was the "Theodor Heuss Bridge" in
Düsseldorf (spans of 108 + 260 + 108 m). A great number of such bridges, mainly different in the
type of pylon and the cable design, were built along the River Rhine, e.g. the harp-shaped design in
Düsseldorf/Oberkassel (Slide 82) or the closely spaced, fan-shaped design in the North of Bonn
Bridge (Slide 83).
Slide 82

Slide 83
4. SUSPENSION BRIDGES
The predecessors of iron and steel suspension bridges were pedestrian bridges made of rope utilising
different materials during the early centuries in China, India and South America. Iron chain
suspension bridges are of Chinese origin, the oldest known bridges having been built about 500 years
ago. None of them were stiffened. They swayed violently under traffic and their thin decks were
directly secured onto the chains.
The first proposal for a chain suspension bridge with a horizontal traffic deck suspended from three
chains was published by Faustus Verantius (1551 - 1617), a Renaissance scholar, but it was not until
the late 18th Century that such bridges were built (Slide 84).

Slide 84
The first of them was built by James Finley (1762 - 1828) in 1796 in the United States, followed by a
large number of the same type, Finley having been granted a patent. Finley's bridges were relatively
stable and could therefore be used by wheeled traffic.
Chain Suspension Bridges
The first chain bridges in Europe were erected in Great Britain.
In 1819 Samuel Brown (1776 - 1852) built the "Union Bridge" near Berwick with a span of 120 m
after having invented a new type of chain, the so-called "Eye-bars". (Following this invention the
fabrication of chains moved from the manufacturing of ordinary anchor cable type chains in
blacksmiths' shops to wrought iron fabricators).
Brown built further chain bridges, e.g. in 1820/21 the "Trinity Pier Bridge" in Newhaven near
Edinburgh (3 chainbridges in a row, each 64 m in span) and in 1822/23 the larger "Chain Pier" in
Brighton, which was designed as four chain bridges of 78 m span in line. This bridge suffered from
wind-induced vibrations and parts of it were destroyed twice in major storms.
It is interesting to know that, even in 1823, Marc Isambard Brunel (1769 - 1849), the builder of the
Thames tunnel in London and father of the great railway engineer I K Brunel, built two chain bridges
on the Isle of Réunion which were effectively stiffened against wind by additional counter-curved
chains located below the bridge deck.
A milestone in bridge building was the chain bridges built by Thomas Telford, who has already been
mentioned in the section on arch bridges.

The Chain Bridge over the Menai Straits in North Wales (Slide 85), being a road bridge with a free
span of 177 m, was the bridge with the longest span of the time. Built in 1819 to 1826 (Telford was
60 years old when it was finished), it was an outstanding structure which also influenced Navier
when working out his theory on suspension bridges. Telford used eye-bar chains with special
improved links. There were 16 chains for each of the two cables. Originally built without stiffening
elements it was reinforced during the first year of use after a heavy storm had caused large
deflections of about 1 m.
Slide 85
A similar bridge, but of smaller span, was built by Telford over the River Conway near Conway
Castle. It should be mentioned that in the case of both the Menai Straits and the River Conway,
famous railway bridges were built by Robert Stephenson, close to those of Telford, about 25 years
later.
The name of another great engineer, Isambard Kingdom Brunel (1806 - 1859), is also connected with
suspension bridges. Brunel, well known for his Royal Albert Bridge, a tubular-type bridge at Saltash,
built the "Clifton Suspension Bridge" near Bristol (Slide 86). This chain bridge with a span of 214 m
was not finished before 1864. It used the same chains as the "Hungerford Bridge" (span 206 m) in
London, which had been built by Brunel in 1845.

Slide 86
Another British engineer, W T Clark, built chain bridges during this period, e.g. the "Hammersmith
Bridge" in London (1827, span 122 m) and the bridge across the Danube in Budapest (1845, span 203
m).
The oldest suspension bridge in Germany was the chain bridge in Malapane (Schlesien), built in 1827
with a span of 31 m. It was followed in 1829 by the "Ludwigs Bridge" across the Regnitz in Bamberg
with a free span of 64 m. This carefully designed bridge is of some interest, since it made a deep
impression on the young Johann Roebling when he was studying in Berlin. In later years he became
the most important suspension bridge engineer.
Further old chain bridges, which are not referred to here in detail, were built in France, e.g. in Paris
across the Seine by De Verges (1829, span 68 m) and in Langon over the Garronne by P D Martin
(1831, span 80 m). Chain bridges were also built by the Czech B Schnirch in Prague (1842, span 133
m) and in Vienna (1859, span 83m).
Wire Cable Suspension Bridges
Whilst the building of chain bridges continued in Great Britain and Germany, in France, Switzerland
and America wire cables began to be used, based on the experience that wires have considerably
higher strength than iron chains. Following trial structures built by the French Séguin brothers, the
Swiss engineer G H Dufour (1787 - 1875) and Marc Séguin (1786 - 1875) built the first wire cable
suspension bridge in the world. This bridge, the "Pont St. Antoine" situated in Geneva, was, when
completed in 1823, also the first permanent suspension bridge on the European continent. Six cables
of 90 wires each supported the two 40 m spans.
The main problem in the manufacture of parallel wire cables is to guarantee that all wires carry the
same amount of tension. While Séguin, being more an entrepreneur than an engineer, tried to achieve

this by using cables of different curvatures, Dufour solved the problem by prestressing all wires so
that none remained slack. This meant prestressing the cables in a special device and lifting them
afterwards onto the saddles. The best solution, i.e. spinning the cables in situ wire by wire was first
suggested by the French engineer L J Vicat and developed as a mechanized spinning method by J
Roebling.
Although Séguin founded a bridge construction company and built more than 80 suspension bridges
of about 100 m in span, the most important example of this generation of wire cable bridges was
completed in 1834 by the French engineer J Chaley (1795 - 1861) in Gribourg, Switzerland. It
crosses the Saane Valley in a single span of 273 m. It was called "Grand Pont Suspendu" (Slide 87)
and was the longest bridge in the world until the "Ohio Bridge" in Wheeling was opened in 1849.
Chaley provided 4 cables, each with 1056 wires, and prestressed them like Dufour had done before
him. The cables were layed out on the bottom of the valley and lifted up to the top of the towers.
Slide 87
An interesting design was realized with a 'row' of suspension bridges crossing the Dordogne near
Cubzac (Slide 88). This consisted of 5 spans, each 109 m in span, having, in addition to the main
cables, separate stays which are secured on the top of a tower and land on the next tower at the height
of the traffic deck. This bridge was completed in 1839 and was built by de Verges and Emil Martin.

Slide 88
After this period further development of large suspension bridges moved from Europe to the United
States, partly due to the expansion of the railway to the west of the country, and also thanks to the
emigration of European engineers to America and the transfer of technical knowledge. Two names
dominated the major progress of this time, namely Ellet and Roebling. Whilst Ellet is thought of as a
rather efficient engineer and clever entrepreneur, the Roeblings, both father and son, with their
excellent scientific knowledge and technical skills, gave a major impetus to the art of building
suspension bridges.
Charles Ellet (born 1810), being of poor origin, was an example of a self-made engineer. After
working as assistant engineer and saving money he decided to study in Europe at the Ecole
Polytechnique in Paris. He completed his studies successfully and after that travelled throughout
France, Great Britain and Germany visiting the newest bridges and engineering works. On returning
to the United States he became very active as an entrepreneur, working on projects for large
suspension bridges and proposing them efficiently. During this time he came in contact with J A
Roebling, who suggested cooperation, but was rejected, this being the beginning of their subsequent
rivalry for life.
After building a number of successful bridges, the biggest success of Ellet was the suspension bridge
over the Ohio near Wheeling. Finished in 1849 with a free span of 308m it was the longest bridge of
that time. The two cables consisted of 6 ropes each, each of them comprising 550 wires, grouped side
by side so that, if strengthening the bridge became necessary for railway operation, further ropes
could be added. Before it could be demolished (having insufficient clearance for steamboats), it was
destroyed in 1855 in a heavy storm. Six years later it was rebuilt by Roebling.
Railway Suspension Bridges
Before discussing the Roeblings in detail, some remarks should be made concerning the use of

suspension bridges for railways. The first attempt was made in 1830 by building a chain bridge over
the River Tees near Stockton for an extension of the Stockton-Darlington line. The free span was 86
m, the calculated live load 150 tons, but disappointingly under less than half of the load the
deflections were intolerably high. This behaviour accounted for the ill repute of such bridges for
bridging railways. However, the suspension bridge engineers in the United States, like Ellet and
Roebling, were optimistic or even convinced that suspension bridges for railways could be achieved.
Their first major test came with the crossing of the Niagara gorge (see below). Following this, the
Brooklyn Bridge was also designed to carry railways. Very few railway suspension bridges have been
built since then. An exception was the railway chain bridge built in Vienna by Schnirch across the
Danube canal with a span of 83 m (1859).
The Roeblings
The main development of suspension bridges up until the work of the Roeblings had been carried out
by British and French engineers. Johann August Roebling (1806 - 1869) was born in Thüringen,
Germany, studied at the then famous engineering school, the "Royal Polytechnic Institute" in Berlin,
and emigrated in 1831 to the United States. There he became one of the greatest bridge building
engineers of that continent as well as the leading fabricator of wire rope. Working first as a surveyor
for canal companies he invented machines for manufacturing ropes from wires and then developed an
efficient wire rope firm, which later, under the management of his sons, had 8000 employees.
Between 1844 and 1850 he built 5 Cabak crossings over Rivers, i.e. aqueducts, as well as one road
bridge which were all supported by wire cables. These aqueducts, carrying the high mass of water of
the canal in wooden troughs made him a notable engineer. Some of them are still in use even today
after having been converted into road bridges.
He developed a mechanized cable spinning method in which wires were carried by a wheel back and
forth over the towers and anchorages. Using this method the requirement that all wires should be
under the same amount of tension could be realized in a natural way giving every wire the same
curvature (sag). Modern methods of manufacturing suspension cables are, in principle, still the same.
Some of the operations executed manually in Roebling's time have since been mechanized.
The idea of a railway crossing the Niagara gorge (Slide 89) near the falls was a great challenge to
American and European bridge builders. While European engineers like Samuel Brown and Robert
Stephenson thought a free span of 250 m for the load of railway traffic to be too risky or even
impossible, the Americans Ellet, Roebling, Serrel and Keefer - all being competitors - applied for the
project. The first to be successful in winning the contract was Ellet in 1847, but he only built a
temporary pedestrian bridge and failed to realize a railway bridge. The next was Roebling in 1851
and he succeeded, building a double-deck bridge for railway and road traffic. The girder was a
wooden Howe truss and the four cables consisted of 3640 wires each. When the bridge was opened in
1855, being the first railway bridge of a span of 250m, it made Roebling a very respected engineer.
Serrel and Keefer also built suspension bridges across the Niagara, the first one a road bridge (1851
with 318m span, destroyed in 1861 in a storm), the second a footbridge very close to the falls (1868,
span 388 m) called the "Honeymoon Bridge", which was also destroyed in a storm in 1889.

Slide 89
The main innovation of Roeblings work was his efficient conceptual design, which allowed for the
effect of storms through stiffening by diagonal stays as well as additional stays beneath the roadway.
Roebling was also the first to build suspension bridges with systematic rigidity of the deck girder. He
published his theories stressing the importance of considering wind effects in the design. It is perhaps
surprising that many engineers later forgot the importance of wind effects, culminating in the famous
accident at Tacoma Narrows of 1940 (see later).
In the period 1857 - 1866 Roebling built the "Allegheny suspension bridge" in Pittsburgh and then
the large "Ohio River Bridge" in Cincinnati with a span of 322 m, which made it the longest in the
world when completed in 1866. In this bridge, wrought iron beams and trusses were used for the deck
girders. During construction of both bridges Roebling's son, Washington A Roebling (1837-1926),
worked as assistant to his father. The Roeblings dream, or even obsession, was to build a bridge over
the East River, between Brooklyn and New York. Their idea was for a suspension bridge for railway
and road traffic with a span of 486 m. But J A Roebling was not able to realize the project himself
due to a mortal accident on site during surveying work, only 3 years after winning the contract. His
son took over his position, but during the work in the pneumatic caissons for the foundation of the
towers he suffered a serious collapse from caisson disease. From that time on he was an invalid,
bound to his bed and suffering from a nervous disorder. He ran the project from his sickroom, located
close to the site, watching the progress of the work through a field glass from his window.
His wife, Emily Warren Roebling dedicated her life to the bridge, became his assistant and kept
contact with the workers and fellow engineers. When the Brooklyn or East River Bridge (Slides 90
and 91) opened in 1883 it was a masterpiece of engineering work, the largest bridge in the world. The
towers, built of masonry, were 107 m in height; the anchor blocks 60.000 tons in weight each; the 4
cables 40cm in diameter, consisting of 5358 wires each; stiffened by a deep trussed deck girder and a
large number of diagonal stays.

Slide 90
Slide 91
After more than 100 years since it was opened, the Brooklyn Bridge is still in use.
Increasing the Spans
After the Brooklyn bridge, which reached roughly 500m in span, the spans of suspension bridges still
continued to increase in size. Fifty years later the previous record span had doubled.

In 1931 the "George Washington Bridge" (Slide 92) in New York was the first structure to span over
1000 m. Othmar H Amman, an emigrated Swiss engineer who became one of the great bridge
builders in the United States, used 4 cables of 91 cm diameter and over 20.000 wires each. The bridge
carried the greatest live load of any bridge, consisting of two traffic decks and 14 lanes and has a
span of 1067 m.
Slide 92
Certainly the most famous of all suspension bridges is the "Golden Gate Bridge" (Slide 93) across the
entrance to San Francisco. It was built by Joseph Strauss in 1937 with a span of 1281m. Besides the
marvellous shape of the bridge it is interesting to note that the colour of the bridge was carefully
selected, resulting in "International orange". Any attempt to change it has been fiercely opposed by
the people of San Francisco.

Slide 93
The "Tacoma Narrows Bridge" (Slide 94) near Seattle, with a then average span of 853 m, sadly
became renowned when it collapsed in 1940 under wind. The failure was recorded on film.
Engineers, dedicated to the opportunities of statical calculations, made continual efforts in building
more economical and more slender structures, not being aware of the lectures Roebling had given
before on stiffening bridges against wind. The Tacoma bridge was caused to oscillate by wind,
although the statical theories - as then known - had been correctly applied. Design methods were
revised after this accident and, as a result, new directions developed in the design of suspension
bridges:

Slide 94
● One direction was taken by O Amman in the United States when designing the "Verrazano
Narrows Bridge" (Slide 95), the largest span of that time at 1298 m, crossing the entrance to
New York Harbour. He chose a very stiff box girder to withstand torsional vibrations due to
the dynamic influences of wind.
● Another direction was taken in Europe, where profound knowledge of aerodynamic problems
led to the use of decks similar in shape to the wings of aeroplanes. The newest bridges in
Great Britain have been built in this way and one of them - the "Humber Bridge" - established
the world record for free spans of 1410 m (Slide 96).
Slide 95
Slide 96

● Early iron bridge construction assumed similar forms to those traditionally used for masonry
and timber bridge construction.
● Significant developments in iron and subsequently steel bridge construction have enabled
longer spans, improved efficiency and greater elegance.
● These developments are associated with an improved understanding of structural behaviour
and better material properties.
● Also critical in this development has been the engineers' ability to create new design concepts
and to perform sophisticated analyses.
● Developments in bridge construction have not been without failures.
1. Robins, F. W., The Story of the Bridge, Birmingham, Cornish 1948
2. James, J. G., The Evolution of Iron Bridge Trusses to 1850, Transactions of New Common
Society, Vol 52 (1980-81), pp 67-101.
3. Walker, J. G., Great Engineers, Academy Editions, London 1987

ESDEP WG 1B
STEEL CONSTRUCTION:
Lecture 1B.5.1: Introduction to the Design

of Simple Industrial Buildings
OBJECTIVE/SCOPE
To describe the reasons for the use of steel and to present common forms of structure for industrial buildings.
PREREQUISITES
None.
RELATED LECTURES
Lecture 1A.1: European Construction Industry
Lecture 7.12: Trusses and Lattice Girders
Lecture 14.1.1: Single Storey Buildings: Introduction and Primary Structure
Lecture 14.1.2: Single Storey Buildings: Envelope and Secondary Structure
Lecture 14.2: Analysis of Portal Frames: Introduction and Elastic Analysis
Lecture 14.3: Analysis of Portal Frames: Plastic Analysis
SUMMARY
The reasons for the wide use of steel for industrial buildings are discussed. The advantages of steel include its high strength-
to-weight ratio, speed of erection and ease of extension. Steel is used not only for members but also for cladding.
Common types of structure are described. These types include portal frame, lattice girder and truss construction. It is shown
that overall stability is easily achieved. The wide variety of sections used in industrial buildings is presented. Possible
approaches to global analysis are identified.
1. TYPES OF INDUSTRIAL BUILDING

A wide variety of building types exists, ranging from major structures, such as power stations and process plants, to small
manufacturing units for high quality goods.
The most common type is the simple rectangular structure (Figure 1), typically single-storey, which provides a
weatherproof and environmentally comfortable space for carrying out manufacturing or for storage. First cost is always an
overriding consideration, but within a reasonable budget a building of good appearance with moderate maintenance
requirements can be achieved. While ease of extension and flexibility are desirable, first cost usually limits the provisions
which can be usefully included in the design for these potential requirements. Although savings in the cost of specific
future modifications can be achieved by suitable provisions, for example by avoiding the use of special gable frames
(Figure 2), changes in manufacturing processes or building use may vary the modifications required.

When, for reasons of prestige, the budget is more liberal, a complex plan shape or unusual structural arrangement may
provide a building of architectural significance.
While many features are common to all industrial buildings, this lecture deals mainly with single-storey buildings of
straightforward construction and shape.
2. STRUCTURAL STEEL FOR INDUSTRIAL BUILDINGS

Compared to other materials, particularly reinforced or prestressed concrete, steel has major advantages. Its high strength-
to-weight ratio and its high tensile and compressive strength enable steel buildings to be of relatively light construction.
Steel is therefore the most suitable material for long-span roofs, where self-weight is of prime importance. Steel buildings
can also be modified for extension or change of use due to the ease with which steel sections can be connected to existing
work.
Not only is steel a versatile material for the structure of a building, but a wide variety of cladding has been devised utilising
the strength developed by folding thin sheets into profiled form (Figure 3). Insulated cladding systems with special coatings
are now widely used for roofing and sidewall cladding. They have good appearance and durability, and are capable of being
speedily fixed into position.

The structure of a steel building, especially of an industrial building, is quickly erected and clad, providing a weatherproof
envelope which enables the floor and installation of services and internal finishes to proceed at an early stage. Since the
construction schedule is always tied to the earliest handover date fixed by production planning, time saved in construction
is usually very valuable.
In a dry closed environment steel does not rust, and protection against corrosion is needed only for the erection period. For
other environments protection systems are available, which, depending on cost and suitable maintenance, prevent corrosion
adequately.
Single storey industrial buildings are usually exempt from structural fire protection requirements. Spread of fire beyond the
boundary of the building must not occur as a result of collapse of the structure. This requirement can be met by the
provision of fire walls and through the restraint which arises in practice between the bases and the columns which they
support.
3. CHOICE OF INDUSTRIAL BUILDING

A prospective owner may have a fully detailed design brief derived from the construction of industrial plants elsewhere.
More usually the owner is assisted in the choice of a suitable building by the completion of a detailed list of requirements
so that a design brief can be prepared. Initial options in respect of preferred location, site acquisition and environmental
needs must first be decided. Then main dimensions, process operation, plant layout, foundation needs, handling systems,
daylighting, environmental control, service routes, staffing level and access all require definition.
The preliminary selection must be made between a building specially designed for the owner, a new factory largely built of
standard structural components, or the adaptation of an existing building. The latter may be either an advance unit built as a
speculative development, or a unit which has been vacated.
The location of internal columns and the internal headroom are always important, and consideration of these requirements
alone may determine the choice. The advantage of freedom to plan the building to suit requirements closely and allow for
future development is very valuable. However, unless there are exceptional reasons such as permanence of specific use, it is
unwise to design an industrial building exclusively for a single process, since special features appropriate to the process
may make redevelopment difficult.
4. SHAPES OF INDUSTRIAL BUILDINGS

Because of its economy, the most widely used building shape is the pin-based single or multi-bay pitched roof portal frame,
typically of 20-30m span at 6m centres (Figure 4). Hot-rolled I, welded or cold-formed sections are usually used for the
members.
During recent years an increasing use of welded sections has occurred. This increase is the result of progress achieved in
making welding automatic and the ability to adapt the cross-section to the internal forces.
Since internal columns sterilise an appreciable space around them, their spacing may be increased by using spine I-beams
to support the portal rafters. For this type of roof the cladding is usually insulated metal decking, which may also be used
for the upper sidewalls. Daylight is provided by profiled translucent sheeting in the roof.
When hot-rolled sections are used, haunches (Figure 5) are usually provided at the eaves and the ridge. These haunches
deepen the overall section, thereby reducing bolt forces. By extending the haunched regions along the rafter the frame is
also strengthened and stiffened.

Lattice girders (Figure 6) are lighter than portal frame rafters for wider spans, but the additional workmanship increases
fabrication costs. Based on structural requirements alone, lattice systems are likely to be cost-effective for spans above
20m. Roof trusses may also be used for structures which support heavy cranes (Figure 7).

A wide variety of structural sections may be used for lattice girders and roof trusses, including single angles, angles back-
to-back, tees, H-sections or hollow sections (Figure 8). For light loading, cold-formed sections may be used as booms, with
reinforcing bars as the web members (Figure 9).


The disadvantages of multi-bay pitched roofs are that internal gutters and rainwater disposal are required, which are a
possible source of leaks, and access to plant mounted externally on the roof is difficult.
The most versatile roof shape is the nominally flat roof, covered with an insulated membrane on metal decking (Figure 10).
This shape allows wide freedom in plan form, and eliminates the need for internal gutters, although some internal rainwater
disposal may be necessary if the extent of the roof is large. The mounting and weather protection of external plant on the
roof is simply achieved, and access can readily be provided.
Flat roofs can be supported by rolled or cold-formed purlins on main I-beams or lattice girders. For smaller structures the
deck may span directly from one frame to another, without the need for purlins.

When services are extensive and there are many external plant units on the roof, castellated beams or double-layer grid
space frames (Figures 11 and 12) can be very suitable for flat roofs. The two-way grid distributes local loads better than any
other structural form. The support for the roof deck is provided directly by the top layer and support for the services by the
bottom layer of the grid. Castellated beams have a much higher moment of resistance than I-beams.

The provision of daylighting in flat roofs is expensive, since either dome or monitor lights must be used. Flat roofs are most
common for industries where daylighting requirements are minimal.
5. STABILITY OF INDUSTRIAL BUILDINGS

It is essential to ascertain the loads applied to the structure and to determine the load paths from the cladding to the purlins
and side rails, through the main frames to the foundations. The loads may arise from dead load, wind load and snow load,
and sometimes from cranes or impact caused by fork-lift trucks.
The overall resistance of simple single-storey industrial buildings to horizontal loading is usually easy to achieve. One of
the attractions of portal frame buildings is that in-plane stability follows from the rigidity of the frame connections.
Stabilising bracing between the portals is therefore only required in line with corresponding rafter bracing in the roof plane.
For short buildings, bracing in one end bay may be sufficient. For longer buildings, bracing of two or more bays may be
necessary.
The rafter bracing itself provides restraint to the heads of the gable stanchions. The braced end bays provide anchor points
to which the longitudinal rafter stabilising ties, which are usually the purlins, are attached. During erection, bracing
facilitates plumbing and squaring of the building, as well as providing essential stability.
For frames with lattice girders (Figure 6), in-plane stability can be provided by connecting both top and bottom booms to
the column.
If the building has roof trusses (Figure 7), or if only the top booms of the lattice girders are connected to the column (Figure
13), the frame is effectively pinned at eaves level. To provide in-plane stability, either the column bases should be fixed or
longitudinal girders should be provided in the plane of the roof (Figure 14). These girders span between the gable ends,
which must be braced appropriately. If the building is long, or is divided by expansion joints, longitudinal bracing may not

be practicable and the columns must have fixed bases.

Buildings using lattice girders or truss roofs also need bracing to provide longitudinal stability.
Bracing members for industrial buildings commonly use circular hollow sections, rods or angles.
When cranage is provided the stability requirements need further examination, since longitudinal and transverse surge from
the crane increases the forces in the bracing systems.
6. GLOBAL ANALYSIS
The structure may be treated either as a 2-D or 3-D system.
Bracing systems are analysed as if pin-jointed. When cross-bracing is used, for example in vertical bracing, only the
members in tension are assumed to be effective (compression members are assumed ineffective because of buckling).
The choice of the method of global analysis, either plastic or elastic, of portal frames at the ultimate limit states depends on
the class of the cross-section.
An example of the plastic collapse mechanism of a frame with haunches is given in Figure 15. Buildings with cranes should
always be analyzed elastically. Elastic analysis should always be used to determine deflections under service loading.
● Steel construction is widely used for industrial buildings, including structural members (like frames, purlins, side
rails) and cladding systems.
● Overall stability is obtained from the rigidity of connections and the use of bracing systems.
● The buildings may be analyzed using 2-D or 3-D modelling and elastic or plastic analysis, depending on their cross-
sections.
● A wide variety of hot-rolled shapes are available for structural members. More flexibility can be obtained using
welded sections. Purlins and side rails may be formed from cold-rolled sections.


[WG1B]
ESDEP WG 1B
STEEL CONSTRUCTION:

of Special Industrial Buildings
OBJECTIVE/SCOPE
To outline the principal features of the design of special industrial buildings.
PREREQUISITES
None.
RELATED LECTURES
Lecture 1B.5.1: Introduction to the Design of Simple Industrial Buildings
SUMMARY
Special industrial buildings are of two kinds - those which are of unusual construction and those which are designed for
a special industry. Several features, such as handling methods, maintenance and fire protection, are briefly discussed.
Examples of special buildings, e.g. power stations, hangers, are presented.
1. TYPES OF SPECIAL INDUSTRIAL BUILDINGS

Special industrial buildings are of two kinds - those which are of unusual construction and those which are designed for
a special industry. The main characteristic of such buildings is that they are invariably designed for a particular purpose
or process, and are consequently virtually impossible to adapt for another kind of use.
Among the former are industrial buildings which, for reasons of prestige rather than economy, utilise unusual structural
forms which provide architectural expression and thereby contribute to the visual quality of the building. Because buildings
of this kind are unique they cannot be considered generically. Some examples are briefly described later in this lecture.
Among buildings designed for specific industries are heavy engineering works, aircraft hangars, power stations, process
plants, steel rolling mills and breweries. Many of these buildings have similar features which are considered in principle below.
2. HANDLING METHODS
Overhead cranes with capacities of 10 tonnes and more are a characteristic of heavy engineering works and power
stations. They require the support of compound columns and runway beams to carry the vertical and surge loads (Figure
1). Light overhead cranes with capacities of 1 to 5 tonnes, are a characteristic of aircraft hangars and light industries. They
can be attached to the roof structure and be designed for multiple supports for wide coverage, or they can be arranged
to transfer laterally from bay to bay (Figure 2). Roof flexibility may become important for roof-mounted cranes used
for assembly.

[WG1B]

[WG1B]
Some years ago, so-called NoRail cranes were developed.
The NoRail crane concept inverts the overhead crane principle. Short rails are mounted in the endtrucks of the crane.
These rails run along a series of stationary wheels. The rails are designed to be somewhat longer than the maximum

[WG1B]
distance between three adjacent support points, so that the crane is always supported by at least two wheels on each
side (Figure 3). As a result of this design, the long conventional crane track becomes superfluous. The benefits of
this innovative design arise both in cost savings (up to 20%) on the steel structure of the building and in material
handling. Crane travel "tracks" that cross each other are feasible.
Conveyors can be either floor or roof mounted. Conveyors for assembly purposes may carry appreciable weights, and are
of necessity suspended from the roof (Figure 4). Power roller conveyors are also used for transport of bulky items and
are usually floor mounted.
As a result of advances in design, motorised floor transport vehicles including fork-lift and pallet trucks are now very
common. The main influence they have on design is on the floor quality and on headroom.
Automated pallet stacking by fork-lift trucks of specialised design may require very stringent control of fabrication
and erection of the stacking racks. The racks may be incorporated in the structure of the building (Figure 5).

[WG1B]
3. DAYLIGHTING
Few industries now have particular needs in respect of daylighting, since shift work is often provided for. Sidewall and
roof daylighting is usually described as a percentage of the plan area, 5% giving sufficient light for bulk storage, 20% for
a working process. Since artificial lighting is usually employed to establish a consistent high level of illumination,
daylighting may be provided for visual comfort or for architectural effect.
4. SERVICES
The amount of services can vary in different parts of a building, from an exacting standard of air conditioning appropriate to
a "clean room" to extensive process ductwork. The support and passage of services can be facilitated or hindered by the
roof construction (Figure 6). The heating of high single-storey structures is always a problem, particularly when fire
safety places stringent control on the temperature of the heat source. Inevitably provisions for cranage, lighting, heating
and services such as air and electric power, will conflict. They each influence the structural design. Sometimes, if services
are particularly extensive, it is advantageous to use a structural form which provides abundant support for services.

[WG1B]
5. SPECIAL ROOF LOADING

Whilst it is usual in advanced factory units to allow in the design of the roof a nominal overall loading for services and a
single point load on the main members, this provision may not be sufficient for special buildings. Roof loading may
be determined by provision for future developments of the process for which the building is designed, or for developments
in handling methods or access platforms designed for improved productivity. These provisions may cause major loads on
the roof. Whilst it is not possible to take into account every possible development which can influence the building
design without incurring large additional cost, it is much cheaper to incorporate surplus strength in a building at the
design stage than to add additional strength after completion, particularly if intensive use of the building would conflict
with the strengthening operation. The ability of the structure to laterally distribute local loads may influence the choice
of structure. Space frames, for example, have exceptional capabilities in this respect.
6. MAINTENANCE
Every material used in construction has a limited life, which can usually be extended by appropriate maintenance.
Maintenance is likely to be particularly important in special buildings. The design of the building should allow suitable
access for the maintenance required. Maintenance may conflict with the planned usage of the building, which can easily
occur if usage is intensive, as, for instance, if maintenance requires dismantling or opening up, or if radiography requires
areas cleared for safety.
Roof maintenance is particularly important. The possible results of overflow due to rainwater outlets being blocked, either
by process emissions or by snow or hail needs to be considered in assessing the merits of the roof design, the routes

[WG1B]
for rainwater disposal and the maintenance necessary. The deterioration of the roof covering due to weather or to
aggressive effluent also needs consideration.
7. FIRE PROTECTION
Due to the characteristics of the process to be carried out in a special building, it may require exceptional measures in
respect of fire and explosion prevention, and in fire protection and damage limitation. Sprinkler installations of
exceptional capacity may be required, as well as carbon-dioxide injection.
Dust explosion is a risk in processes dependent on the transport of finely divided powders by conveyor or air duct.
Controlling the results of an explosion is often achieved by strategically placed blow-out panels. Gas explosions can be
far more destructive and difficult to control.
8. SOME EXAMPLES OF SPECIAL BUILDINGS
8.1 Coal-Fired Power Stations
A typical medium-sized power station (Figures 7 and 8) consists of a 38,6m span turbine hall, flanking a 13m span bunker
bay beside a 31,5m span boiler house and 12m wide air heater building. The height of the turbine hall is typically
30m, determined by the servicing requirements of the turbines and generators. The height of the bunker bay, which
stores several hours fuel, and that of the boiler house are similar, determined by the height of the boiler and the size of the
fuel mill below, and is typically 60m. The length of the building depends on the number of generators installed, each having
its own boiler.

[WG1B]
This type of power station is constructed almost entirely of structural steelwork and steel cladding. Steel construction is
chosen because the completion of the boiler house is always on the critical path of the execution schedule. The execution of
the boiler frame, designed to suit the boiler and from which the boiler is suspended, is central to the schedule. The
stanchions of the boiler frame, often six in number, are typically compound H-section, carrying up to 1000 tonnes each, and
the boiler is suspended from heavy plate girders spanning across the stanchions. The external steelwork to the boiler house
is relatively light, being mainly supported by the boiler frame which also braces the building.
In the bunker bay, which is also a steel structure, are large feed bunkers of 600 tonnes capacity constructed of steel
plate, supported at high level, to which fuel is supplied by conveyors. There is a fire and explosion hazard in the
feed conveyors and the ductwork connecting the bunker to the fuel mill and the latter to the boiler. Sprinkler and
carbon-dioxide fire protection is therefore required in this part of the plant, and fire protection is also applied to the steelwork.
In the turbine hall the generator sets are supported 10m above floor with condensers fitted below. Due to the weight of
the generator sets the supporting structure, which is usually of steel but may be of concrete, is of heavy construction. To
carry out maintenance of the generator sets a 100 tonne overhead crane travelling the length of the hall is provided,
requiring heavy compound sidewall stanchions to support the runway beams. The roof structure is of light lattice girders
except where additional strength is required to facilitate the installation of the crane.
Provision for extension of the turbine hall can be made, but extension of the boiler house depends on the choice of boiler,
so that the ease of joining to existing steelwork has to be relied upon.
Maintenance of the generating plant is an important consideration in the design of a power station. Maintenance of the

[WG1B]
building is reasonably straightforward, since generation does not create aggressive conditions or waste. Corrosion is not
a major problem, so that it is adequate to shot-blast and coat the steelwork.
The construction of power stations of this type displays the versatility of steel, its use varying from heavy steelwork for
the support of plant to light roof steelwork and sheeting. Allied to this versatility is speed of execution on site, which off-
site fabrication allows. It is therefore understandable that steel is used almost exclusively in this field of application.
8.2 Aircraft Maintenance Hangar
A typical hangar bay for the maintenance of Boeing 747 aircraft (Figures 9 - 11) is 76m wide and 97,5m long, and the
hangar may consist of one, two or three bays. The maximum clear height is usually 23,5m to allow clearance over the 20m
high tail fin of the aircraft, but only 17m is required over the body and main wings. The roof may therefore have two levels,
the height in the tail area being 23,5m, the remaining area 17m. The two-level roof restricts the attitude of the aircraft to
nose-first, whereas a full-height hangar allows either nose-first or tail-first attitude. At the rear of the hangar is the 2-3
storey workshop and administration block, 10m deep and the same width as the hangar. The roof slope is usually small to
avoid excessive height, utilising either an insulated roof membrane on metal decking or insulated two-layer cladding. The
roof structure is usually comprised of lattice trusses, girder or portal frames, but double-layer grid space frames have also
been used.

[WG1B]
The main door is usually 21m high, and can be a sliding-folding or slab-sliding design. The full opening width required is
80m. If bunching space for the doors overlaps the door opening the bay width is increased correspondingly. Some hangar
doors are only 14m high with a 7m high tail gate, or they may have a vertically folding 21m high centre section.
Whilst some smaller hangars have been constructed in prestressed concrete, virtually all are now constructed in
structural steelwork with insulated steel cladding.
Hangars are specialised for maintenance of one type of aircraft or a mix of types. Access to an aircraft, because of its shape
and size, is a problem which is best solved by specially designed docking tailored to suit the particular aircraft.
This arrangement enables a large workforce to carry out maintenance. Typically the docking consists of main wing docks, a
tail dock and body dock. They are moved into place after the aircraft has been placed in a fixed position. Since aircraft
are jacked up 1,5m for landing gear overhaul, it is usually necessary for the docks to have vertical adjustment. The use of
wheel pits can make jacking unnecessary, but these add considerably to cost as well as adding to specialisation.
Unless they can be moved out of the hangar, docks occupy a large amount of floor space. They obstruct the placing
and maintenance of other types of aircraft when not in use. Consequently tail docks and body docks are sometimes
suspended from the hangar roof. Since tail docks weigh 12-50 tonnes and body docks 50-100 tonnes, provision for them
must be incorporated in the roof design.
Hangars are usually provided with light overhead cranes covering the full area. They are used to handle dismantled parts up
to 1 tonne weight. Isolated engine hoists up to 10 tonne capacity may also be provided. Alternatively the overhead cranes
may be of 10 tonne capacity. Conflict can arise between cranes and suspended docking. If a two-level roof is adopted,
separate cranage is required in the tail bay.

[WG1B]
Electric power, air and other services may be from roof-mounted motorised reels or in the floor. Heating is by embedded
floor coils or high-power blowers suspended from the floor. Blowers are large units appropriate to the height of the
hangar. Sprinklers may be installed, depending on the extent of the maintenance carried out and the safety procedures
adopted regarding on-board fuel.
Except for roof maintenance, the maintenance requirements for a hangar are usually slight, since aggressive emissions
are confined to drainage from the hangar floor where painting is carried out, or from cleaning or chemical process shops.
Due to the large roof area and its height, and to the characteristically exposed environment of an airport, storm damage
is always possible. Roof leaks can have very serious consequences, because of the high value of aircraft parts.
Developments in aircraft design and increased competition for contract maintenance make it necessary to allow
for modifications to a hangar. The introduction of the 747 type and other wide-body aircraft compelled the extension of
many of the hangers in use at that time. However, the intensive usage of a hangar and the strict fire and safety
regulations applied when aircraft are inside makes modification difficult to carry out. Flexibility therefore needs to be
allowed for at the design stage.
The superiority of structural steelwork for aircraft hangars is now well established. The speed of construction, suitability
for large-span roofs, versatility for the mounting of various services and docks, and the adaptability for future
development virtually exclude other structural materials.
8.3 Milk Powder Plant
A typical milk powder plant (Figures 12 - 14) consists of a spray-drier tower 18m by 17m by 32m high with an external
boiler house, a silo and packing plant annex 16m by 18m, and a storage warehouse for packaged powder 54m by 54m with
7m clear height for fork-lift transport and stacking.

[WG1B]
The tower and annex are framed in structural steelwork, with composite concrete floor and steel cladding. The
warehouse typically has multi-bay short-span portal frames carrying pressed steel purlins and asbestos cement or single-
skin metal cladding.
The spray drier is a 10m dia. stainless steel drum 14m high, supported at several floors. Milk and hot air are injected at the

[WG1B]
top, and the dry milk powder collects in the hopper bottom. From there it is conveyed to the silos of the packing plant.
The floors are lightly loaded except for ancillary plant and the spray drier, which in operation weighs 60 tonnes.
There is an appreciable explosion risk from the finely divided milk powder. Strong explosion ducting with an exterior blow-
out panel, intended to control the direction and result of an explosion, is incorporated in the drier, and provision for this
facility is made in the tower steelwork.
The large amount of air injected in the process requires outlet cyclones to extract milk powder from the exhaust air. Even
with regular maintenance, cyclones are never 100% efficient, so that some powder, which can accumulate quickly,
escapes. Deposits of powder can cause problems with roof drainage, which therefore requires appropriate design. Milk
powder contains lactic acid which is moderately aggressive particularly to flat roof coatings such as asphalt and
felt. Consideration of the durability of the roof is therefore required.
Internally a biologically clean environment is required in order that the plant complies with process regulations.
Easily cleanable surfaces are required internally. This requirement is best met by high quality internal sheeting. Avoidance
of crevices which can cause lodgement of material affects the choice and detailing of any steelwork exposed internally.
Competition in milk powder production requires that first cost and running cost are carefully controlled. Since development
of driers occurs, a change of drier may be necessary involving major alterations to the tower. The use of structural
steelwork and cladding facilitates cost control in both construction and modification.
8.4 Industrial Complex
Some major industrial projects provide both the scale and the opportunity for adopting unusual structural forms which
have particular advantages. A good example of an unusual structure form is the Renault Parts Distribution Centre in
Swindon (Figures 15 - 17).

[WG1B]
The requirement was for a single-storey building of 25.000sq.m containing a warehouse, training school, showroom and
office, with provision for 50% expansion. To suit the storage arrangements for the warehouse a 24m x 24m bay was
adopted, with 8m internal height, with 2,8% roof lighting and sidewall glazing in some areas. The main area is 4 bays wide

[WG1B]
and 9 bays long, with an additional 6 bays at one end.
The structure consists of skeleton portal frames on both rectangular and diagonal axes. The main verticals are 16m high
457mm dia. circular hollow sections with rod stiffeners. The roof members are simple trusses formed from shaped I-
beams cambered 1,4m stiffened on the underside with rod bracing and short tubular verticals. Continuity between the
main verticals and the trusses is established by rod bracing connecting the heads of the main verticals to the quarter-points
of the trusses. Whilst the internal verticals are balanced by trusses on each side, the perimeter verticals, which have
transverse and diagonal trusses on one side only, are balanced by ground anchors bracing short beam members connected to
the verticals at the same level as the trusses.
Macalloy bars are used for the rod stiffeners to the main verticals, and S355 steel is used for the main rod bracing. The rods
are connected to the main verticals by purpose-made cast-iron eyes pinned to lugs welded to the 457mm dia. hollow
sections, and to the trusses through sleeves set into the beam sections.
In each bay the trusses are cambered to a central 4m x 4m dome rooflight. The roofing consists of an insulated membrane
on metal decking, which is carried on purlins between the trusses. Valleys formed by the cambered trusses are drained
by downpipes incorporated in the main verticals. Both main vertical and bracing rods pass through the roof covering.
The overall appearance is unusual, resembling a large marquee due to the tent-like profiles of the cambered trusses and
the main verticals and bracing rods protruding through the roof.
● Special structures are needed for some industries. They may also be provided for reasons of prestige.
● Cranes and conveyors carry appreciable weights and may be suspended from the roof.
● If services are extensive, it is advantageous to use a structural form which provides abundant support.
● Speed of construction, suitability for large spans, versatility for the mounting of services and adaptability all favour the use of
structural steelwork for industrial buildings.

ESDEP WG 1B
STEEL CONSTRUCTION:

of Steel and Composite Bridges: Part 1
OBJECTIVE/SCOPE
To introduce steel and composite bridges. To discuss bridge components and structural systems. To describe the common
types of steel bridge - plate girder, box girder and truss girder bridges.
PREREQUISITES
None.
RELATED LECTURES
Lecture 1B.6.2: Introduction to the Design of Steel and Composite Bridges: Part 2
Lectures 15B: Structural Systems: Bridges
SUMMARY
The fundamentals of bridges are described. The basic components of a bridge structure are given and the types of
bridge structural systems are discussed in the context of their uses. General aspects and deck systems of steel bridges
are described prior to discussion of plate girder, box girder and truss girder bridges.
1. FUNDAMENTALS
Bridges have been built by man in order to overcome obstacles to travel caused by, for example, straits, rivers, valleys
or existing roads. The purpose of a bridge is to carry a service such as a roadway or a railway.
Bridges play an outstanding role in structural engineering, deserving the denomination of "ouvrages d'art" in latin languages.
The choice between a steel bridge and a concrete bridge (reinforced concrete or prestressed concrete) is a basic decision to
be taken at a preliminary design stage. Several factors influence this decision, for example:
● spans required
● execution processes
● local conditions
● foundation constraints.
The decision should be based on comparisons of:
● structural behaviour
● economic aspects
● aesthetics.
In comparing costs, both initial costs and costs associated with maintenance during the life of the structure should
be considered. The time required for execution, which in steel bridges is generally shorter than in prestressed concrete
bridges, may also influence the decision.
In the past, concrete bridges could not compete with steel bridges for medium and long spans due to the lower
efficiency (strength/dead load) of concrete solutions. With the development of prestressed concrete it is not a
straightforward decision to decide between a concrete and a steel solution for medium span (about 40 to 100m) bridges.
Even for long spans between 200 and 400m, where cable stayed solutions are generally proposed, the choice between
a concrete, steel or composite bridge superstructure is not an easy task.
The choice between a steel and a concrete solution is sometimes reconsidered following the contractors' bids to undertake
the bridge works.
Generally speaking, steel solutions may have the following advantages when compared to concrete solutions:
● reduced dead loads

● more economic foundations
● simpler erection procedures
● shorter execution time.
A disadvantage of steel when compared to concrete is the maintenance cost for the prevention of corrosion. However it is
now recognised that concrete bridges also have problems relating to maintenance, i.e. relating to the effects of the corrosion
of steel reinforcement on the durability of the structure.
Although maintenance costs and aesthetics play a significant role in the design decision, the initial cost of the structure
is generally the most decisive parameter for selecting a steel or a concrete bridge solution. Solutions of both types are
generally considered, at least at a preliminary design stage.
In Figure 1 the principal components of a bridge structure are shown.

The two basic parts are:
● the substructure
● the superstructure.
The former includes the piers, the abutments and the foundations.
The latter consists of the deck structure itself, which support the direct loads due to traffic and all the other permanent
and variable leads to which the structure is subjected.
The connection between the substructure and the superstructure is usually made through bearings. However, rigid
connections between the piers (and sometimes the abutments) may be adopted, particularly in frame bridges with tall
(flexible) piers.
2. THE SUBSTRUCTURE
Piers may be made of steel or concrete. Even in steel and composite bridges, reinforced concrete piers are very often
adopted. In some cases, e.g. very tall piers or those made by precast concrete segments, prestressed concrete may be
adopted. Piers are of two basic types:
● columns piers
● wall piers.
Concrete column piers may have a solid cross-section, or a box section may be the shape chosen for the cross-section
(Figure 2) for structural and aesthetic reasons.

Wall piers are generally less economical and less pleasing from an aesthetic point of view. They are very often adopted in
cases where particular conditions exist, e.g. piers in rivers with significant hydrodynamic actions or in bridges with tall
piers where box sections are adopted.
Piers may be of constant cross-section or variable cross-section. The former solution is usually adopted in short or
medium piers and the latter in tall piers where at least one of the cross-section dimensions varies along the length of the pier.
The abutments establish the connection between the bridge superstructure and the embankments. They are designed to
support the loads due to the superstructure which are transmitted through the bearings and to the pressures of the soil
contained by the abutment.
The abutments must include expansion joints, to accommodate the displacements of the deck, i.e. the longitudinal
shortening and expansion movements of the deck due to temperature.
Two basic types of abutments may be considered:
● wall (counterfort) abutments

● open abutments.
Counterfort wall abutments (Figure 3 and 4) are adopted only when the topographic conditions and the shapes of the
earthfill are such that an open abutment (Figure 5) cannot be used. They are generally adopted when the required height of
the front wall is above 5,0 to 8,0m (Figure 4). If the depth is below this order of magnitude, counterfort walls may not
be necessary and a simple wall cantilevering from the foundation may be adopted.




The connection between the abutments and the earthfill may include a transition slab (Figure 4) which ensures a
smooth surface of the pavement even after settlement of the adjacent earthfill.
3. INTRODUCTION TO THE SUPERSTRUCTURE

It is common in bridge terminology to distinguish between:
● the longitudinal structural system

● the transverse structural system.
It should be understood that bridge structures are basically three-dimensional systems which are only split into these two
basic systems for the sake of understanding their behaviour and simplifying structural analysis.
The longitudinal structural system of a bridge may be one of the following types which are illustrated in Figure 6:
● beam bridges
● frame bridges
● arch bridges
● cable stayed bridges
● suspension bridges.


The types of girder incorporated in all these types of bridges may either be continuous i.e. rolled sections, plate girders or
box girders, or discontinuous i.e. trusses.
Beam bridges are the most common and the simplest type of bridge (Figure 6a), whether they use statically determinate
beams (simply supported or Gerber beams) or continuous beams. Simply supported beams are usually adopted only for
very small spans (up to 25m). Continuous beams are one of the most common types of bridge. Spans may vary from small (10
- 20m) to medium (20 - 50m) or large spans (> 100m). In medium and large spans continuous beams with variable
depth section are very often adopted for reasons of structural behaviour, economy and aesthetics (Figure 1).
Frame bridges are one of the possible alternatives to continuous beams (Figure 6b). Avoiding bearings and providing a
good structural system to support horizontal longitudinal actions, e.g. earthquakes, frames have been adopted in modern
bridge technology in prestressed concrete bridges or in steel and composite bridges. Frames may be adopted with vertical
piers (the most common type) or with inclined struts (Figure 6b).
Arches have played an important role in the history of bridges. Several outstanding examples have been built ranging
from masonry arches built by the Romans to modern prestressed concrete or steel arches with spans reaching the order of 300m.
The arch may work from below the deck, from above the deck or be intermediate to the deck level (Figure 6c). The
most convenient solution is basically dependent on the topography of the bridge site. In rocky gorges and good
geotechnical conditions for the springings, an arch bridge of the type represented in Figure 6(c) is usually an
appropriate solution both from the structural and aesthetic point of view.
Arches work basically as a structure under compressive stress. The shape is chosen in order to minimise bending
moments under permanent loads. The resultant force of the normal stresses at each cross-section, must remain within
the central core of the cross-section in order to avoid tensile stresses in the arch. Arches are ideal structures to build in
materials which are strong in compression but weak in tension, e.g. concrete.
The ideal "inverted arch" in its simplest form is a cable. Cables are adopted as principal structural elements in
suspension bridges where the main cable supports permanent and imposed loads on the deck (Figure 6(e)).
Good support conditions are required to resist the anchorage forces of the cable. In the last few years, a simpler form of
cable bridges has been used - the cable stayed bridge.
Cable stayed bridges (Figure 6(d)) have been used for a range of spans, generally between 100m and 500m, where
the suspension bridge is not an economical solution. The range of spans for cable stayed bridges is quite different from
the usual range of spans for suspension bridges - from 500m to 1500m. Cable stayed bridges may be used with a deck made
in concrete or in steel. Generally, cable stayed bridges are designed with very slender decks which are
"continuously" supported by the stays which are made of a number of strands of high strength steel.
Three main types of transverse structural system may be considered:
● slab
● beam-slab (slab with cross-girders)
● box girders for longitudinal structural system which contribute to the transverse structural system.
Slab cross-sections are only adopted for small spans, generally below 25m, or where multiple girders are used for
the longitudinal structural system, at spacings of 3 - 4,5m. Beam-slab cross-sections (Figure 1) are generally adopted
for medium spans below 80m where only two longitudinal girders are provided. For large spans (> 100m), and also for
some medium spans (40 - 80m), box girder sections are very convenient solutions leading to good structural behaviour
and aesthetically pleasing bridge structures. Box girders are used in prestressed concrete or in steel or composite bridges.
4. STEEL BRIDGES
4.1 General Aspects
During the industrial revolution of 19th century steel products became more competitive and structural steel began to
be adopted for bridge construction. From then on, large truss bridges and suspension bridges where developed.
Unfortunately this development was accompanied by several accidents, e.g. the railway bridge over the Tay [1] in 1879 and
the Quebec bridge in 1907. The former was rebuilt (1890) with spans of 521m; the Quebec bridge was only rebuilt in 1917.
Truss girders or arches built by truss systems have been widely adopted. An example of an arch-truss bridge designed by
G Eiffel (the designer of the famous Paris tower) is presented in Figure 7. This bridge, built in 1868 in Oporto over the
Douro River, Portugal, has a central span of 160m.
It is interesting to note that one of the commonest types of modern steel bridge - the box girder bridge was first introduced
in bridge engineering in 1846 by Stephenson with the "Britannia Bridge" (a cast iron 142m span box girder bridge), yet
was only fully developed after the Second World War. The knowledge of aeronautical engineering of thin-walled
structures was used. Between 1969 and 1971 several accidents occurred to box girder bridges, e.g. Vienna bridge over
the Danube (1969), Milford Haven bridge in the United Kingdom (1970), Melbourne bridge in Australia (1970) and
Coblenz bridge in Germany (1971). As a result a large research effort was made over the last two decades to investigate
the basic structural element of these bridges - the stiffened plate. The behaviour of stiffened plates is now sufficiently
known for safe large box girder bridges to be designed in steel. Special consideration during erection and execution phases
is given to all aspects of structural stability.
Three basic types of structural elements are adopted for steel bridge superstructures:
● Beam and Plate Girders

● Truss Girders
● Box Girders.
Plate girder bridges with only two girders, even for very wide decks (Figure 8), are very often preferred for the sake
of simplicity [2]. However, in bridge construction, a classical solution consists in adopting several I beams (hot rolled
sections for small spans - up to 25m) with 3,0 to 4,5m spacing. Diaphragms may be provided between the beams
(transverse beams) to contribute to transverse load distribution and also to lateral bracing. The top flanges of the beams
have continuous lateral support against buckling provided by the deck.

4.2 Deck Systems
There are two basic solutions for the deck [3] - a reinforced concrete or partially prestressed concrete slab and an
orthotropic steel plate (Figure 9). In the former the slab may act independently of the girders (a very uneconomic solution
for medium and large spans) or it may work together with the girders (composite bridge deck). The composite action
requires the shear flow between the slab and the girders to be taken by shear connectors.


Concrete decks are usually more economic than orthotropic steel plates. The latter are only adopted when deck weight is
an important component of loading, i.e. for long span and moveable bridges.
The orthotropic plate deck, acting as the top flange of the main girders, gives a very efficient section in bending. The deck
is basically a steel plate overlain with a wearing surface which may be concrete or mastic asphalt. The steel plate
is longitudinally stiffened by ribs which may be of open or closed section. Transversally, the ribs are connected through
the transverse beams (Figure 9) yielding a complex grillage system where the main girders, the steel plate, the ribs and the
floor beams act together.
Top flanges of box girders, e.g. in Niteroi bridge (Figure 10) with a 300m span [4] (the largest in the world for a box
girder bridge) or in the deck of cable stayed bridges (Figure 11) [5] or suspension bridges like the Humber bridge (Figure
12) with a lightweight wearing surface give a deck of very low dead load which makes this type of solution very suitable
for long spans [4,8]. The biggest disadvantage of orthotropic steel plate decks is their initial cost and the maintenance
required when compared to a simple concrete slab. However, for box girders the maintenance cost may be lower than for
an open orthotropic deck.




5. PLATE GIRDER BRIDGES

Plate girder bridges can provide a very competitive solution for short and medium span bridges. They are almost
always designed to act compositely with the concrete slab.
The plate girders are fabricated with two flanges welded to a thin web which usually has transverse stiffening and may
have longitudinal stiffening.
Three types fo bridge cross-section may be used. For shorter spans, up to 60m, multiple girders at spacings of 3 to 4,5 m
enable a simple reinforced concrete slab to be used, as shown in Figure 13(a).

For medium spans (50 to 100 m) it is usually more economic to use only two plate girders, Figure 13(b). A prestressed
concrete slab, usually of varying depth, may be used that sits directly on the two girders.
Alternatively cross girders may be adopted with twin longitudinal girders that support the slabs at 3 to 4,5 m centres.
The complexity of fabrication of the plate girder is primarily controlled by the web slenderness (depth/thickness ratio).
For short spans a low slenderness is feasible with a web that is unstiffened except at cross bearing positions and supports.
For medium spans the web will usually need to be of intermediate slenderness and require vertical (transverse) stiffening.
For larger spans the web is likely to require both transverse and longitudinal stiffening, as shown in Figure 13(b).
The distance between transverse stiffeners is of the order of magnitude of the depth of the girder. Where they are required, 1
to 3 longitudinal stiffeners are usually provided.
In sections at supports, it is essential to adopt vertical stiffeners to resist the high reaction forces.
One of the basic requirements when designing plate girder bridges is the bracing system (Figure 13b and 14), which is
required for all but the simplest structures. The bracing:

● provides lateral stability to the girders, particularly during erection

● supports the horizontal shear forces due to horizontal actions (wind, earthquakes)
● works as a transverse load distribution system.
● takes part in the shear flows due to torsion from eccentric loading or plan curvature.

The bracing system generally includes:
● horizontal lateral bracing

● intermediate cross frames - diaphragms.
The former (Figure 14) consists of a set of crossing diagonal members and is located near the bottom or near the top and
the bottom flanges; the bridge deck may act as a horizontal bracing.
The latter are a set of bracings (trusses) normal to the bridge axis - Figure 13 - which provide resistance to the deformation
of the overall cross-sections of the bridge.
In modern bridge construction several simplifications have been tried in order to reduce, as much as possible, the complexity
of the bracing systems. In some cases, the horizontal bracing system located near the bottom flanges has been eliminated.
The ultimate simplification consists in avoiding the intermediate cross frames completely. This is only possible if the
lateral stability of the girders is guaranteed and the horizontal forces are taken by other elements of the superstructure.
6. TRUSS GIRDER BRIDGES

A truss girder may be adopted in some cases as an alternative to a plate girder. Although less commonly used in
modern construction because of their high fabrication content, they may still be an economic solution for large spans,
say between 100 and 200 metres.
A plane truss girder may be considered as a deep beam where the flanges are the compression and tension chords of the
truss and the web of the beam is replaced by an open triangular system which resists the shear forces.
Several types of truss girders are used in bridge design. Some typical examples are shown in Figure 15. Truss girders may
be adopted in simply supported (Figure 15) or continuous spans (Figure 16 and 17).



Bracing systems are required in truss girder bridges, since truss girders can only resist forces in their planes.

Truss girders working from above the deck (Figure 16) have been extensively used in railway bridges, even for medium
spans of the order of 40 to 100 metres [6].
From an aesthetic point of view, it is important to reduce as far as possible the number of bar elements in the truss girder.
If possible the simplest triangular system (Warren type) yields the best appearance when the bridge is viewed from skew
angles (Figure 16).
Truss chords and diagonals are made using hot rolled sections generally of an open shape for simplicity of
connections. However, tubular cross-sections may be adopted, for example, for the chords.
An example is shown in Figure 17 which represents the bridge over the river Fulda in Germany, near Kassel [7]. In this
bridge, a Warren type truss was used with a maximum span/depth ratio of 23,8. The deck is an orthotropic plate giving
a reduced dead weight for the superstructure.
7. BOX GIRDER BRIDGES

For long spans (say, in excess of 100m) box girders are, in general, the most common and efficient type of
bridge superstructure. Built with an orthotropic plate deck to reduce the dead weight of the bridge, or with a concrete slab
to obtain a composite cross-section, box girders have many structural advantages when compared to plate girders and
truss girders. Some of the advantages are:
● high torsional rigidities

● wide top and bottom flanges to carry longitudinal forces
● large internal space to accommodate services
● simple maintenance due to easy access to the interior of the superstructure
● better appearance due to high slenderness and smooth bottom surfaces.
Due to the high torsional rigidity of this type of cross-section, box girders are a very convenient solution for bridges curved
in plan.
For large spans, the depth of continuous box girder bridges may vary along the span giving improved structural efficiency
to accommodate the large bending moment at the supports (Figure 10).
The cross-section may consist of a single cell box, with vertical or inclined webs, or of a multiple cell box (Figure 18).
Other possibilities consist of using, for example, a single cell with inclined struts to support large overhangs (Figure 19).


For medium spans, a type of box girder deck very common in bridge construction, e.g. in North America, is the composite
box girder deck made of several parallel boxes interconnected by a reinforced concrete slab deck (Figure 20). Composite
action between the box girders and the reinforced concrete slab is obtained through shear connectors.

The two flanges associated with each web in composite box girder bridges may be quite narrow because they only need
to transfer the load to the web and to accommodate the shear connectors. A minimum flange width may therefore be defined
by edge distances and clearances for automatic welding of shear connectors.
Load bearing diaphragms are necessary at supports to transfer the reaction forces. In addition, even in small box girders, it
is good practice to adopt intermediate cross frames (say, at 10m to 15m apart) to avoid distortion of the cross-section
under eccentric loading (Figure 21). It should be noted that during construction some "box" girders have open sections and
so will be subjected to distortion under eccentric loading. Figure 22 summarises the distortions that can occur in open
topped boxes during construction. A top bracing between the top flanges and/or a cross diagonal bracing between the webs
is generally convenient to overcome the distortion effects during execution. The diagonal bracing may consist of small
size angles welded to plate stiffeners.


The use of composite box girders in wide bridges with long spans is possible with single cell boxes. Internal cross trusses
may be used, not only to maintain the shape of the cross-section (avoiding distortion) but also to support longitudinal
stringers for the reinforced concrete slab. A solution of this type is shown in Figure 23 [7].

For long spans an orthotropic plate deck is preferred to reduce the dead load of box girder bridges. A solution with
a rectangular box girder bridge with a main span of 200m is given in Figure 24 which shows the "Europe Bridge" in Austria [7].


The use of box girders is not restricted to beam bridges. Slender box girders in cable stayed bridges have been used
with orthotropic plate decks (Figure 11). Although, in the last few years, concrete box girder decks have been shown to be
an economic solution for some cable stayed bridges, steel box girders are the most convenient solution for long
spans. Compared to open sections, box girder decks in cable stayed bridges present a significant advantage in respect
of aerodynamic stability. The advantage is associated with a higher natural frequency of torsional vibration of the
deck avoiding an interaction with the fundamental mode corresponding to vertical vibrations (flexure mode). The risk of
flutter instabilities is thus eliminated.
For reasons similar to those given for cable stayed bridges, slender steel box girders with orthotropic plate decks have
been adopted in modern suspension bridges.
The cross-section of the Humber bridge, where a steel box girder was adopted weighing only 2,6 kN/m2 is shown in Figure
12. The same aerodynamic advantages pointed out for box girder decks of cable stayed bridges, are valid for
suspension bridges.
● A wide range of factors should be considered when deciding on the type of bridge for use at a particular location, e.g.
spans, execution processes, local conditions, foundation constraints.
● Steel bridges generally have the following advantages: reduced dead loads, economic foundations, simple erection
procedures, short execution times.
● The basic parts of a bridge are the superstructure consisting of the deck structure and the sub-structure consisting of the
piers, abutments and foundations.
● The longitudinal system of a bridge may be one of the following types: beam, frame, arch, cable stayed or suspension.
● There are three main types of bridge transverse systems, slab, beam-slab or box girder.
● Bridge superstructures may use the beam and plate girder, truss girder or box girder structural systems.
● Deck systems use a reinforced concrete slab, with or without cross-girders, or a partially prestressed concrete slab, or
an orthotropic steel plate.
9. REFERENCES
[1] Wittfoht, H., Triumph der Spannweiten, (Spanish ed. - Puentes - Ejemplos Internacionales) Ed. Gustavo Gili,
Barcelona, 1975.
[2] Vevey, Bulletin Technique, 1978.
[3] Alvarez, R., La estructura metalica hoy, Libreria Tecnica Bellisco, 1975.
[4] Pfeil, W., "Pontes" Ed. Campus Ltd, Rio de Janeiro, 1983.
[5] Walther, R., Ponts Haubanés, Presses Polytechniques Romandes, 1985.
[6] Reis, A. and Abecasis, T., Railway Bridge over the River Zezere, preliminary Design Report, Grid Consulting
Engineers, 1990.
[7] O'Connor, C., Design of Bridge Superstructures, John Wiley & Sons, 1971.
[8] Gimsing, Niels, Cable Supported Bridges, John Wiley & Sons, 1983.
Note: A general list of wider reading is given at the end of Lecture 1B.6.2.

ESDEP WG 1B
STEEL CONSTRUCTION: INTRODUCTION TO DESIGN

of Steel and Composite Bridges: Part 2
OBJECTIVE/SCOPE
To continue the introduction to steel and composite bridges. To describe footbridges, moving bridges and service bridges.
To provide initial guidance in selection of bridge form and span.
PRE-REQUISITES
Lecture 1B.6.1: Introduction to the Design of Steel and Composite Bridges: Part 1
RELATED LECTURES
Lectures 15B: Structural Systems: Bridges
SUMMARY
This lecture continues the introduction to steel and composite bridges started in Lecture 1B.6.1. It describes three types
of special bridge, highlighting some of the features in design. Footbridges are narrow, lightly loaded structures frequently
in visually sensitive locations. Moving bridges are subject to particular constraints of geometry and mass. Services
bridges offer special opportunities for innovative design. The lecture concludes with some guidance on the
appropriate selection of bridge form and on the determination of optimum spans for viaducts.
1. INTRODUCTION
In Lecture 1B.6.1 attention was concentrated both on the principal design parameters and the various structural forms that
a designer may consider when carrying out the preliminary or conceptual design of a bridge. It is probably safe to say that
the large majority of bridges are fixed structures carrying a road or railway and it is easy to see how the types discussed can
be used for such bridges. In this second part of the Lectures 1B.6, attention will first be given to particular
considerations affecting some special types of bridge. Three types will be discussed - footbridges, moving bridges and
service bridges (pipelines, etc.). Some guidance on choice of bridge type and span is also provided.
2. FOOTBRIDGES
Footbridges are needed where a separate pathway has to be provided for people to cross traffic flows or some physical
obstacle, such as a river. The loads they carry are, in relation to highway or railway bridges, quite modest, and in
most circumstances a fairly light structure is called for. They are, however, frequently required to give a long clear span,
and stiffness then becomes an important consideration. These bridges are often very clearly on view to the public and then
the appearance merits careful attention. Steel offers economic and attractive forms of construction which suit all
the requirements demanded of a footbridge. Figure 1 gives schematic views of a range of structural forms in steel.

Like any other bridge, footbridges must be long enough to clear the obstacle which is to be crossed and high enough not
to interfere with whatever passes beneath the bridge. However, the access route onto the footbridge is often quite different
from that which is familiar to the designer of a highway bridge: there is no necessity for a gentle horizontal alignment
(indeed the preferred route may be sharply at right angles to the span). Structural continuity is, therefore, less common;
the principal span is often a simply supported one.
Provision of suitable access for wheelchairs and cyclists is often specified for footbridges, see Figure 2. Access ramps must
be provided and restricted to a maximum gradient. The consequent length of ramps where access is from the level of the
road over which the bridge spans is generally much longer than the bridge itself. The form of construction suitable for
the ramps may have a dominant influence on the form of the bridge.
As shown in Figure 3, the width of a footbridge is usually quite modest, just sufficient to permit free passage in both
directions for pedestrians. Occasionally the bridge will have segregated provision for pedestrians and cyclists, in which case
it will need to be wider.


Parapets are provided for the safety of both the pedestrians and traffic below. Footbridges over railway lines may be required
to have higher parapets and be provided with solid panels directly over the rail tracks.
3. MOVING BRIDGES
3.1 General
A fixed bridge to take a highway or railway over a navigable waterway in flat country will require very long approach
works. Even a typical highway with a limiting approach gradient of 4%, will require an approach length of 750m each side
to give 30 metres clearance (not an unusual figure for a waterway which can be navigated by seagoing ships). This would
be increased by the construction depth of the bridge. The length for a railway bridge, with its shallower gradients, would
be even longer.
An alternative is to keep the bridge at low level and design it to open to allow the passage of ships. The primary advantage
is that the construction cost of an opening bridge is almost invariably much less than that of a high level bridge (and very
much less than that of the other possibility, a tunnel). In addition, in flat country for which the comparison is being made,
a high level bridge can be visually very intrusive. The main disadvantage of a moving bridge, of course, is the delay to
traffic when a bridge is opened to shipping; further disadvantages include the need for manning and maintenance of
the opening system, the risk of failure thus disrupting either shipping or surface traffic, and the risk of ships colliding with
and damaging the structure.
When the highway and waterway are main routes, there may be no alternative to using either a high level bridge or a
tunnel. However, where an element of delay is acceptable, moving bridges are commonly used. The Netherlands and the
flat eastern counties of the UK are two regions where there are many such structures.
The design of moving bridges is a highly specialised subject and can only be covered very briefly in general terms in
this lecture. Modern moving bridges are likely to be one of three types - bascule, swing or lift, with bascule bridges
probably being the most common. The main features of each are discussed briefly below.
3.2 Bascule Bridges
A bascule bridge consists of one or two cantilever arms (or "leaves") which either pivot about horizontal axes at abutment
piers (Figure 4a, b and d) or roll backwards on a track (Figure 4c). Normally, such bridges on railways or major highways
are of single leaf construction, since they then behave as simply supported girders for carrying traffic loads; if a double
leaf configuration is used, even the traffic loads are carried on cantilever structures which, in consequence, have to be of

much stronger construction.

The main advantage of a bascule bridge is its efficiency in operation. Bascule leaves are fast to raise and lower, and for
the passage of small vessels, need only be raised to part height, thus speeding the operation still further. Furthermore, unlike
the swing bridge (see Section 3.3) they operate within the shadow area of the structure.
One disadvantage of the simple pivoting bascule bridge, as shown in Figures 4 (a) and (b), is that the mass of the cantilever
has to be balanced whilst pivoting in order to keep the power requirements to a reasonable level,. This means either
a significant backspan, with a very deep abutment pier to accommodate it after raising, or the use of a very
substantial counterweight. This problem is partly overcome with the "Dutch drawbridge" type (Figure 4(d)) in which
the counterweight is mounted on an overhead structure and thus does not need deep abutments to accommodate it.
A further disadvantage is the high power requirement for operating in adverse weather conditions. High winds blowing across
a river cause very large forces on the bascule leaves, and snow loading will of course increase the raised mass without
any compensating counterweight; additional demands arise on the drive and braking systems. It must be pointed out, of
course, that the high reserve of power required for these conditions contributes materially to the efficient operation
under normal conditions.
Whilst structurally efficient in most locations, a wide bascule bridge can give problems for a highly skewed crossing since
the non-symmetrical shape of the leaves results in unbalanced forces during raising.
3.3 Swing Bridges
A swing bridge pivots about a vertical axis until the superstructure is aligned clear of shipping lanes (Figure 5). The
main advantage of a swing bridge is that it probably has the lowest power requirements of any form of moving bridge. If
the bridge is symmetrical (equal length swinging arms), wind effects during swinging are small since they will be
largely balanced on the two arms and snow loading does not require additional power - the increased inertia merely results in
a slightly longer time for swinging due to slower acceleration and braking.


Structurally, a swing bridge is efficient, in that it can be made as a simple girder (either plated or truss) which cantilevers
each side of the pivot pier during swinging, but rests on the abutments to give a two-span continuous beam when
carrying traffic; if the cantilever span during swinging is excessive it is comparatively easy to design it as cable-stayed with
a tower above the pivot pier. The primary purpose of the stays is to carry the dead load during swinging. A skew crossing is
no problem for a swing bridge - indeed, it can even be an advantage since it reduces the arc of swing.
The main disadvantages of a swing bridge are the comparatively long time required for swinging from the traffic to
the shipping position, and the large plan area required to accommodate the structure when opened for shipping; once swung,
of course, it has the advantage that the vertical clearance ("air draught") is unlimited. A swing bridge will normally have to
be fully swung for any vessel, regardless of size, since a partial opening will result in the risk of the vessel striking
the structure. In addition, since there is usually only one shipping channel, the "backspan" is operationally unnecessary, and
the additional structure is expensive. The extra structural cost can be minimised by making the backspan shorter
and counterweighting it, but this will reduce some of the advantages listed above - for example, the wind load will no longer
be balanced and hence more power will be needed to drive the bridge in high winds. Furthermore, snow loading will put
an unbalanced vertical load on the structure. Perhaps the "ideal" location for a swing bridge is in a river with an island
exactly in the middle, and shipping lanes either side!
3.4 Lift Bridges
In lift bridges the span is lifted up towers at each end to clear a shipping channel (Figure 6). Structurally, lift bridges are
very efficient, since they are simply supported spans both in-service and during the raising operation. They are designed
as girders (either plated or truss) and since they do not have to operate as cantilevers in any condition they can provide
much longer opening spans than bascule or swing bridges.

The main disadvantage of a lift bridge is that it can only give as much vertical clearance as is provided by the height of
the towers; hence, if very large clearances are required, the towers become very expensive. As for bascule bridges,
however, there is no need to raise the span fully for small vessels, thus improving the efficiency of operation.
Furthermore, although the dead weight of the lift span will, of course, be counterweighted, an allowance in the drive system
has to be made for the possibility of snow on the deck during raising.
3.5 Other Types of Moving Bridge
Other types of moving bridge which have been used in the past (and occasionally at present) are:
● Floating bridges, in which a section can be floated out on pontoons to enable the passage of vessels.
● Transporter bridges in which a car carrying vehicles is suspended from a trolley on, and traverses, a beam at a high
enough level to clear shipping.
● Sliding bridges, in which the bridge structure is slid back from the river in line with itself.
All these types have serious operational and other disadvantages for almost all present-day applications.
4. SERVICE BRIDGES
Many, if not most bridges, whether road, rail or footbridges, also carry at least some public utility services
(electricity, telephone, water, gas, etc.). Provision for carrying these services varies with the type of bridge - for instance,
box girders provide an obvious area for routing them (although care must be taken to provide for accidents - a flooded
box girder arising from a fractured internal water main could be disastrous!) On plate girder bridges it may prove possible
to carry the services within the footpath, or hanging from cross-girders if the bridge is of that form of construction.
In this section, however, attention is focused on pure service bridges, whose purpose is only to carry a utility. Clearly, a
service bridge may be of any of the fixed bridge types already described, but there are certain special considerations.
The loading is usually very light compared with road or rail traffic, and hence some of the problems of footbridges arise
here also. Perhaps the commonest form of service bridge is a simple light truss, although aesthetic considerations can rule
this out in certain locations.
An interesting variation of the simple truss has been employed on occasion for services which require pipelines, e.g. gas
or water. This involves making the truss chords from tubular members which service as the actual pipelines - one example
of this is a tubular space truss of triangular cross-section carrying high pressure gas in its chords (Figure 7). A small
problem occurred in that the tubular chords gave rise to a low level of aerodynamic excitation; whilst this was no
immediate problem, there was concern over long term fatigue effects. A simple aerodynamic change to the section was
devised to eliminate the excitation.

The use of cable structures is also common for service bridges. Sometimes the service itself provides this - an
overhead electricity transmission line is, in effect, a large series of spans using the conductors as bridges. On long
electricity crossings, it may be necessary to take special measures to remove any tendency to aerodynamic oscillation.
Cable structures can also be sued for pipeline ridges, where the length is too great to allow the pipe to span unaided. In such
a case, both suspension and cable-stayed bridges have been used, sometimes using the pipeline itself as the stiffening
girder, and sometimes providing a separate girder.

It is likely, however, that if a suspension bridge type is chosen the dead weight will be so low that the structure will
be unacceptably flexible. Furthermore, it will be very weak in the transverse direction when subjected to wind loading.
A simple way of correcting both faults is to introduce two further cables on either side of the pipeline (or separate girder
if provided), inclined downwards from it, and tensioned against the main suspension cable (Figure 8). This form of structure
is very light, and well suited for use in areas where access is difficult for transporting heavy pieces.

5. GUIDANCE ON INITIAL DESIGN
5.1 Selection of Bridge Form
Each form of bridge is suited to a particular range of spans, see Figure 9, which also records the longest span for each type
of construction.

Suspension or cable stayed bridges are the only forms capable of achieving the longest spans. They are clearly less suitable
for road or rail bridges of short or medium span. However, they can be appropriate for shorter span footbridges, partly
because they do not have any concentrated loading that requires an expensive stiffening girder and partly for
aesthetic considerations. (It should be noted that the same special consideration which is needed for long spans, such
as aerodynamic stability, needs to be applied to steel footbridges).
Suspension bridges are still used for the longest spans where intermediate piers are not feasible. The cables are subjected
to very high tension and are tied to the ground, usually by gravity foundations sometimes combined with rock anchors.
Thus ground conditions with rock at or close to the surface of the ground are essential.
Cable stayed bridges are of suspension form with normally straight cables which are directly connected to the deck.
The structure is self anchoring and, therefore, less dependent on good ground conditions. However, the deck must be
designed for the significant axial forces from the horizontal component of the cable force. The construction process is
quicker than for a suspension bridge because the cables and the deck are erected at the same time.
Bridge types, such as arches or portals, may be suitable for special locations. For example, an arch is the logical solution for
a medium span across a steep-sided ravine. A tied arch is a suitable solution for a single span where construction depth
is limited and the presence of curved highway geometry or some other obstruction conflicts with the back stays of a
cable stayed bridge.
Portal frame bridges are usually suitable for short or medium spans. In a three span form with sloping legs, they can provide
an economic solution by reducing the main span; they also have an attractive appearance. The risk of shipping collision
must be considered if sloping legs are used over navigable rivers.
Cantilever trusses were used during the early evolution of steel bridges. They are rarely adopted for modern construction.
Haunched girders are frequently used for continuous structures where the main span exceeds 50m. They are more attractive
in appearance and the greater efficiency of the varying depth of construction usually more than offsets the extra
fabrication costs.
Flat girders, i.e. girders of constant depth, are used for all shorter span bridges of both simple spans and
continuous construction up to spans of around 30m. Rolled sections are feasible and usually offer greater economy. Above
this span fabricated sections will be required.
Both haunched and flat girders can be either plate girders or box girders. Development in the semi-automatic manufacture
of plate girders has markedly improved their relative economy. This form of construction is likely to be the preferred
solution for spans up to 60m or so, if depth of construction is not unduly limited. Above 60m span, and significantly below
that figure if either depth of construction is limited or there is plan curvature, the box girder is likely to give greater economy.
5.2 Selection of Span
For major crossings, the governing span is likely to be controlled by the local topography. Even for minor crossings
the physical size of the obstacle to be crossed will be the biggest determinant of span.
However, for multispan viaducts a range of spans is possible and the engineer should seek to make the most economic
choice. The table below summarises the factors which influence this choice.
Factor Reasons
Location of Pier positions

obstacles are often
dictated by
rivers,
railway
tracks and
buried
services.
Construction Span length

depth may be
limited by the
maximum
available
construction
depth.

Relative Poor ground

superstructure conditions
and require
substructure expensive
costs foundations;
economy
favours
longer spans
Feasibility of (a) Tidal or

constructing fast-flowing
intermediate rivers may
piers in river preclude
crossings intermediate
piers
(b) For
navigable
waterways,
accidental
ship impact
may preclude
mid-river
piers.
Height of Where the

deck above height
ground exceeds
about 15m,
costs of piers
are
significant,
encouraging
longer spans

Loading Heavier
loadings such
as railways
encourage
shorter spans
Table 1 Factors which influence choice of span for viaducts
For long viaducts it is worthwhile to carry out initial costed designs for different spans to determine the most
economical combination of superstructure and substructure costs. The outcome of a typical study is shown in Figure
10. Typical optimum spans are shown below.

Conditions Highway Railway
Simple 25-45 20-30

foundations
(spread
footing or
short piles)
Difficult 35-55 25-40

foundations
(piles 20m
long)

Piers 15m 45-65 30-45

high
Table 2 Typical optimum span ranges for viaducts
● Steel footbridges are light and economic structures that offer considerable opportunities for attractive and innovative design.
● In flat countries moving bridges offer considerable economies over fixed bridges or tunnels.
● Moving bridges are usually bascule bridges, swing bridges or lift bridges. Each offer particular advantages and
disadvantages and require attention in design to key features.
● The limited performance specifications for service bridges can result in exceptional structural solutions.
● Suspension, cable-stayed, arch, portal, cantilever and girder bridges all have preferred span ranges. Choice of structural form
is one of the most important initial design decisions.
● Although many spans are dictated by outside constraints, it is possible to optimise the choice of spans for viaducts.
1.The Steel Construction Institute. The Steel Designers Manual, 5th Edition, Blackwell Scientific Publications, Oxford, 1992.
2.Iles, D C. The Design of Footbridges. British Steel General Steels, London, 1993.
3.Alvarez, R. La Estructura Metálica Hoy, Librería Técnica Belliso, 1975.
4.Mason, J. Pontes Metlicas e Mistas em Viga Recta, Livros Tcnicos e Cientificos, Rio de Janeiro, 1976.
5.Homberg, H., Trenks, K. Drehsteife Krenzwerke, Sprinzer Verlag, 1962.
6.Hambley, E. Bridge Deck Behaviour, London Chapman and Hall, John Wiley & Sons, 1976.
7.Cusens, A., Pama, R. Bridge Deck Analysis, John Wiley & Sons.
8.Badoux, J. Conception des Structures Metaliques, Partie D, Dimensionnement des ponts. ICOM-Institut de la
Constructin Metalliques cole Polytechnique Federale de Lausanne.
9. Johnson, R P. Composite Structures of Steel & Concrete, Volume 2 - Bridges, SCI P-051, Collins, 1986.
10. 2nd International Symposium on Steel Bridges, Paris, April 1992.
11. The Steel Construction Institute Design Guides for Bridges:
SCI P065 Design Guide for Continuous Composite Bridges: 1 Compact Sections, Iles DC, 1989
SCI P066 Design Guide for Continuous Composite Bridges: 2 Non-Compact Sections, Iles DC, 1990
SCI P084 Design Guide for Simply Supported Composite Bridges, Iles DC, 1991

SCI P204 Replacement Steel Bridges for Motorway Widening (SCI in association with BCSA and British Steel
General Steels), Iles DC, 1992
SCI P208 Motorway Widening: Steel Bridges for Wider Highway Layouts, Iles DC, 1993.
12. Brown, CW. Constructional Steel Design: An International Guide, Elsevier Applied Science, London, 1992.
13. Godfrey, G B. Jointless Bridges in Composite Construction, Steel Construction Today, Volume 3 No. 1, Blackwell
Scientific Publications, Oxford, 1989.
14. Tatsumi, M. Long Span Steel Bridges in Japan prsented at Pacific Structural Steel Conference, Japanese Society of
Steel Construction, 1992.

ESDEP WG 1B
STEEL CONSTRUCTION:

of Multi-Storey Buildings: Part 1
OBJECTIVE/SCOPE
To present preliminary topics in designing multi-storey buildings.
PREREQUISITES
An understanding of design philosophies and structural arrangements.
RELATED LECTURES
Lecture 1B.2.2: Limit State Design Philosophy and Partial Safety Factors
SUMMARY
The lecture gives a brief description of the fundamental components of a building frame. It presents different structural
arrangements to resist horizontal and vertical loadings. Finally, consideration is given to the question of fire protection.
1. INTRODUCTION
A multi-storey building must resist the combined effects of horizontal and vertical loads; it is composed of foundations,
frameworks and floor slabs.
The framework comprises columns and beams together with horizontal and vertical bracings, which stabilise the
building by resisting horizontal actions (wind and seismic loads).
Floor slabs are supported by beams so that their vertical loads are transmitted to the columns. They are made of
reinforced concrete or composite slabs using profiled steel sheets. Columns are commonly made of H or hollow hot-
rolled steel sections. The use of hollow sections filled with concrete can improve their fire resistance. Beams are
commonly made of I and H profiles. Nevertheless, the use of welded built-up sections can offer more rational solutions
in some cases.

The usual structural systems belong essentially to two categories: moment resisting frame systems and braced-frame
systems, the second being the simplest and, therefore, the most economic solution.
In braced frames, vertical bracings are formed by diagonal members within the steel frame. These bracings may be of
different form (cross-braced X shaped; V or inverted V shaped; symmetrical or unsymmetrical portal). Alternatives to
steel bracings are the reinforced concrete shear walls or cores.
These main components of multi-storey buildings and their design are described in the following section:
2. THE STRUCTURAL SCHEME

A multi-storey building includes the following structural components (Figure 1):
a. foundations
b. framework
c. floor structures.

Foundations are made of reinforced concrete. The type of foundation is selected according to the features of the ground
and the ground conditions.
The framework is the steel skeleton which provides the load-bearing resistance of the structure and supports the
secondary elements such as the floor slab and cladding.
All external loads, both vertical and horizontal, are transmitted to the foundations by means of the steel framework. It is
mainly composed of vertical elements (columns) and horizontal elements (beams), which may be connected together in
different ways. According to the degree of restraint at the beam-to-column connections, the framework can be
considered as 'rigid', 'semi-rigid' or 'pin-ended'. For the pin-ended case, the framework must incorporate bracing
elements which are located in the rectangular panels bounded by columns and beams.
The floor slabs are required to resist the vertical loads directly acting on them and to transmit these loads to the
supporting floor beams. They also transfer the horizontal loads to the points on the framework where the bracing
members are located.
The structural arrangement of multi-storey buildings is often inspired by the shape of the building plan, resulting in
different solutions (Figure 2). The plan can be rectangular (Figure 2a), L-shaped (Figure 2b), curved (Figure 2c),
polygonal (Figure 2d) or perhaps composed of rectangular and triangular elements (Figure 2e).

3. COLUMNS
Columns are the structural components which transmit all vertical loads from the floors to the foundations. The means
of transmission of vertical load is related to the particular structural system used for the framework (Figure 4).

The location of columns in plan is governed by the structural lay-out. The most common grid arrangements are square,
rectangular, or occasionally triangular, according to the choice of the global structural system (Figure 3). The spacing of
columns depends upon the load-bearing resistance of the beams and floor structures. It can vary from 3 to 20m, but is
typically in the range of 6 to 10m.

Load transmission from floors to columns may occur directly from the floor beams to the column (Figure 4a), or it can
be indirect. Indirect transmission involves the use of major 'transfer' beams (Figure 4b), which resist all the loads
transmitted by the columns above.
In suspended systems (Figure 4c), the transmission of vertical loads is much more complicated. It is directly provided
by tensile members (ties), hung from the top beam elements which support the total vertical load of all floors. A limited
number of large columns provide the transmission of the total load to the foundations.
The choice of location and spacing of columns depends on the structural system which has to harmonize functional and
economical requirements.
The shapes of cross-section commonly used for columns can be subdivided into (Figure 5):

● open sections.
● hollow sections.
Open sections are basically standard hot-rolled I and H profiles (Figure 5a). Double-T sections can be also built up by
welding. Cross-shaped sections can be obtained by welding L profiles, plates or double-T profiles (Figure 5b).
Hollow sections are tubes of circular, square or rectangular cross-section (Figure 5c). They can also be made from plates
or double-T profiles by welding (Figure 5d).
Circular and square hollow sections have the advantage that they have the same resistance in the two principal

directions, enabling the minimum section dimensions to be obtained. Sometimes hollow sections are filled with
concrete, giving an increase in strength and, at the same time, achieving significant fire resistance (> 60 minutes)
(Figure 5e). However the beam-to-column connections are more complicated than between I-sections.
4. BEAMS
Beams support the floor elements and transmit their vertical loads to the columns.
In a typical rectangular building frame the beams comprise the horizontal members which span between adjacent
columns; secondary beams may also be used to transmit the floor loading to the main (or primary) beams.
In multi-storey buildings the most common section shapes for beams are the hot rolled I (Figure 6a) or H shapes (Figure
6c) with depth ranging from 80 to 600mm. In some cases channels, (either single or double) can also be used (Figure
6b).

Where a greater depth is necessary, built-up sections can be used. Sections fabricated by welding can have double-
symmetrical (Figure 6d) or non-symmetrical (Figure 6e) shape, the latter being advantageous for composite steel-
concrete sections. By combining plates and/or profiles, box-sections (Figure 6f) or open sections (Figure 6g) can be
fabricated.
Sometimes openings in the webs of beams are required in order to permit the passage of horizontal services, such as
pipes (for water and gas), cables (for electricity and telephone), ducts (for air conditioning), etc. The openings may be
circular (Figure 6h) or square with suitable stiffeners in the web. Another solution to this problem is given by using
castellated beams (Figure 6i), which are composed by welding together the two parts of a double-T profile, whose web
has been previously cut along a trapezoidal line.
For buildings, the common range for the span to depth ratio is 15 to 30 in order to achieve most efficient design.
In addition to the strength, beams must provide enough stiffness to avoid large deflections which could be incompatible
with non-structural components (such as partition walls). For this purpose the maximum mid-span deflection of a beam
is usually limited to a fraction of the span equal to 1/400 - 1/500. Where this limitation is too severe, an appropriate
initial deformation (camber) equal and opposite to that due to the permanent loads can be pre-formed into the beam.
Steel sections can be partly encased in concrete by filling between the flanges of the section. Partly encased sections are
fire resisting without conventional fire protection (Figure 5e). For longer periods of fire resistance, additional
reinforcing bars are required.
5. FLOOR STRUCTURES
Floor are required to resist vertical loads directly acting on them. They usually consist of slabs which are supported by
the secondary steel beams. The spacing of supporting beams must be compatible with the resistance of the floor slabs.
Floor slabs may be made from pre-cast concrete, in-situ concrete or composite slabs using steel decking. A number of
options are available:
● conventional in-situ concrete on temporary shuttering (Figure 7a).

● thin precast elements (40 - 50mm thick) with an in-situ structural concrete topping (Figure 7b).
● thicker precast concrete elements which require no structural topping (Figure 7c).
● steel decking acting as permanent shuttering only (Figure 8b).
● steel decking with suitable embossments/indentations so that it also acts compositely with the concrete slab
(Figure 8c).


Typical spans for concrete slabs are 4m to 7m, thus avoiding the need for secondary beams. For composite slabs,
various cross-section shapes of steel decking are available (Figure 8a). They are classified in three categories according
to their load-carrying resistance:
● profiles with a plain trapezoidal shape without stiffeners with a depth up to 80mm (Figure 8c);
● profiles with a trapezoidal shape with longitudinal stiffeners both in web and flange with a depth up to 100mm
(Figure 8d);
● profiles with both longitudinal and transverse stiffeners with a depth up to 220mm (Figure 8c).

Deck spans range in length from 2 to 4m for the first category, from 3 to 5m for the second category, and from 5 to 7m
for the third category. Secondary floor beams can be avoided in the last case.
Permissible spans for steel decking are influenced by conditions of execution, in particular whether temporary propping
is used. Such propping is best avoided since the principal advantage of using steel decking, i.e. speed, is otherwise
diminished.
To increase the strength and stiffness of the floor beams, a composite steel-concrete system can be obtained by means of
appropriate studs welded on the top of the flange (Figure 8f). In this case the slab and beam may be designed
compositely using conventional theory.
6. BRACING
Bracing systems are used to resist horizontal forces (wind load, seismic action) and to transmit them to the foundations.
When a horizontal load F (Figure 9a) is concentrated at any point of the facade of the building, it is transmitted to two
adjacent floors by means of the cladding elements (Figure 9b).

The effects of loads H acting in the floor slab are distributed to the vertical supporting elements which are located in
strategic positions of the structural layout (dotted lines in Figure 8c) by means of an appropriate horizontal resisting
element in the floor.
The vertical supporting elements are called vertical bracings; the horizontal resisting element is the horizontal bracing
which is located at each floor.
Where horizontal bracings are necessary, they are in the form of diagonal members in the plan of each floor, as shown
in Figure 9c).
If steel decking is used, the diagonal bracing can be replaced by diaphragm action of the steel sheeting if it is fixed
adequately.
Both horizontal and vertical bracings represent together the global bracing system, which provides the transfer of all
horizontal forces to the foundations.
Vertical bracings are characterised by different arrangements of the diagonal members in the steel frame. They are
(Figure 10):

a. Single diagonal
b. Cross-braced (X-shaped bracing)
c. Inverted V-shaped bracing
d. Unsymmetrical portal
e. Symmetrical portal

f. V-shaped bracing.
An alternative to steel bracings is provided by reinforced concrete walls or cores which are designed to resist the
horizontal forces (Figure 11). In these systems, so-called dual systems, the steel skeleton is subjected to vertical forces
only. Reinforced concrete cores are usually located around the stairway and elevator zones.
Normally, the floor slab can be designed to resist in-plane forces to avoid the use of horizontal diagonals. This is the
case for in-situ reinforced concrete slabs, or composite slabs with appropriate shear connectors.

To provide resistance to the combined effects of horizontal and vertical loads in a multistorey building, two alternative
concepts are possible for the structural system.
The first, so-called 'moment resisting frame system', is a combination of horizontal (beams) and vertical (columns)
members which are able to resist axial, bending and shear actions. In this system no bracing elements are necessary. The
moment resisting frame behaviour is obtained only if the beam-to-column connections are rigid, leading to a framed
structure with a high degree of redundancy. As a consequence of this choice:
● the connections or joints between members are complicated.

● the interaction between axial forces and bending moments is critical in column design.
● the overall sway deformability of the structure can be too large, as it depends only on the inertia of the columns.
Typical details of beam-to-column joints for rigid framed systems are shown in Figure 12. They are called 'rigid joints'
and their task is to transfer bending moment from the beam to the column. Type (a) can transfer limited bending
moments only because the column web can buckle due to local concentration of effects. The presence of horizontal
stiffeners in the column web (Type (b)) recreates the cross-section of the beam and the column web panel has to resist
the shear force only.

Types (a) and (b) require the execution of welding operations on site. Such operations are not completely reliable and
they are also expensive and can cause delay in erection.
A better alternative is to use bolted connections which allow rigid joints to be made without the disadvantages of site
welds. Two typical solutions for rigid frame structures, shown in Figures 12c and 12d, are:
● Type (c) is the extended end plate joint.

● Type (d) is the cover plate joint.
These solutions allow the most suitable use of connecting methods, i.e. welding in the shop to build up prefabricated
elements and bolting in site for connecting them together. This type of joint can be, therefore, called 'shop-welded field-
bolted'.
To avoid the practical problems of rigid frame construction, a more convenient solution can be obtained by conceiving
the structural behaviour in a different way. The functions of resistance to vertical and horizontal loads are separated in
the different 'families' of members, which are grouped in two sub-structures (Figure 13):
a. a simple frame composed by beams pinned together, which is capable of transferring the vertical loads to the
foundation (Figure 13a).
b. a cantilever fixed to the ground which resists horizontal forces and transfers their effects to the foundation (Figure
13b).

Sub-structure a. is hyperstatic; beams are bent in the vertical plane, columns are simply compressed, the hinged joints
between beams and columns absorb shear forces only.
Sub-structure b. is isostatic; its bracing function can be obtained by means of steel trusses or by reinforced concrete
walls. These bracing structures are mainly loaded in shear and bending and their deformability must be checked under
serviceability conditions in order to limit sway.
The combination of both sub-structures a. and b. provides the complete structure (Figure 13c), which is able to resist
both vertical and horizontal loads.
The main advantages of this solution, the so-called 'braced-frame system', are:
● construction details of joints are very simple, because they act as hinges.
● sway deformability of the structure is limited by the bracing system (sub-structure b).
● interaction between axial forces and bending moments in the column is virtually absent.
In contrast, some complications arise in the foundation of bracings which must resist the overall horizontal forces with a
very small amount of axial compression. High values of eccentricity occur which require large dimensions of the
contact area under the foundation.
In these structural systems beam-to-column joints must resist only axial and shear forces. Some typical solutions of
joints for pin-ended structures are shown in Figure 14; they are 'shop-welded field-bolted' joints. The most commonly
used is the bolted connection between the beam web and the column flange (or web) by means of double angles (Figure
14e, f). They are more economic than the fully welded solutions (Figure 12a, b) for rigid structures and allow simple
erection.

8. DESIGN REQUIREMENTS
The design of a structural system for a multi-storey building must to take into account its spatial behaviour.
For the 'braced frame system', which seems to be most convenient for economy and reliability, it is necessary to locate a
sufficient number of bracings to allow any horizontal loads however directed to be resisted. For this purpose, the
requirements are:
(1) it must be possible to consider any floor system as a plane structure, restrained by the vertical bracings.
(2) bracings, as external restraints of the floor system, must provide a system of at least three degrees of restraint.
(3) the floor system must be capable of resisting the internal forces due to the applied horizontal loads.
To fulfil requirement (1), diagonal bracings must be introduced in the plane of the floor, thus transforming the floor
system itself into a horizontal truss.
As an alternative, the slab of prefabricated concrete elements in the floor system can be assumed to resist directly the
horizontal forces as a plane plate structure, because its deformability is normally negligible.
Where concrete slabs are used, the erection of the steel skeleton requires particular care, because it is unstable until the
floor elements are placed. Temporary bracing is therefore necessary during this phase of execution.
To fulfil requirement (2) the steel truss bracings are active only in their own plane and therefore represent a simple
restraint for the floor system. When reinforced concrete bracings are used, they can have one, two or three degrees of
restraint, depending upon their resistance to one plane bending (wall), bi-axial bending or bi-axial bending and torsion
(core), respectively.
Finally, requirement (3) is fulfilled by evaluating internal forces in the floor elements due to the horizontal loads by
considering the location of the vertical bracings.
Figure 15 shows a three-dimensional structure for a multi-storey building with steel bracings. Every point of the floor

system is fixed in two directions. In particular, the diagonals connecting points A and B restrain all the points in line '1'
in the 'x' direction. The floor bracing is able to receive external forces from both direction 'x' and 'y' and to transmit them
to the vertical bracings.

The spatial structure can be reduced to plane sub-structures whose static schemes are shown in Figure 16. The
longitudinal facade along row '3' is directly braced in its plane as well as the lateral facades by the transverse bracings of
axes 'a' and 'b'.

The pinned joints of the intermediate transverse frames and of the longitudinal frames of axes '1' and '2' are prevented
from any horizontal displacement because they are all connected to the vertical bracings by means of the floor bracings.
Thus they can be considered as non-sway frames.
Figure 17 represents the spatial structural scheme of a multi-storey building with a reinforced concrete bracing core. It
can be considered as an alternative solution of the previous example for the same building, in which the concrete core
substitutes both longitudinal and transverse steel bracings.

Two floor bracing systems can be considered:
If all the four walls of the staircase core are structurally effective, the solution of Figure 17a is correct. If only three
sides of the staircase core are structurally effective, the transmission of the horizontal forces acting in the longitudinal
direction to the longitudinal wall requires the use of additional floor diagonals, as shown in Figure 17b.
● Structural frames for multi-storey buildings consist of an appropriate arrangement of slabs, beams, columns,
foundations and bracing.
● There is a wide variety of forms which each of these elements can take to satisfy different detailed requirements.
● Structural arrangements are influenced by the plan shape of the building; the column layout must take account of
economic and functional considerations.
● Frames may be moment-resisting (with rigid beam-column connections), but more commonly use simple 'pinned'
beam-column connections, lateral stability being provided by an independent bracing system.
● Bracing is required in three orthogonal planes - typically these planes are two non-parallel vertical planes and
horizontally within floors, either by the floor slab itself or diagonal bracing.
● Bracing in the vertical plane is most commonly achieved by cross-bracing, or by shear walls for buildings of
modest height.

1. Hart, F., Henn, W. and Sontay, H., "Multi-storey Buildings in Steel" Crosby Lockwood Staples, London, 1985.
2. Owens, G. W., Steel Designers' Manual, Blackwell Scientific Publications, Oxford, 1992.

ESDEP WG 1B:
STEEL CONSTRUCTION:

of Multi-Storey Buildings: Part 2
OBJECTIVE/SCOPE
To discuss structural arrangements in multi-storey buildings with particular reference to resisting lateral loads.
PREREQUISITES
An understanding of design philosophies, structural arrangements and static and dynamic structural analysis.
RELATED LECTURES
Lecture 1B.2.2 : Limit State Design Philosophy and Partial Safety Factors
Lectures 1B.4 : Historical Development
Lecture 14.8: Classification of Multi-Storey Frames

Lecture 14.9: Methods of Analysis for Multi-Storey Frames
Lecture 14.10: Simple Braced Non-Sway Multi-Storey Buildings
Lecture 14.14: Methods of Analysis of Rigid Jointed Frames
SUMMARY
This lecture discusses different structural systems (shear frame, shear truss-frame, steel-concrete, tube, etc.).
Particular comment is made with regard to ultra high-rise buildings and seismic effects.
1. INTRODUCTION
The use of structural steels in the last century permitted a great increase in the height of building constructions leading
to modern high-rise buildings.
For low-rise buildings the most common structural solution is obtained by integrating two different load resisting systems
in the same structure:
● semi-rigid or pinned frames, which resist vertical actions only.

● steel bracings or concrete walls and cores, which resist horizontal actions.
By means of the so-called 'fourth dimension of steel construction' (which introduces, besides the three geometrical
dimensions, the range of available material strength), it is possible to unify the cross-sections of members and, therefore,
to obtain optimum and economic solutions for a range of building forms.
For high-rise buildings (up to 120 storeys), different structural systems are used according to the height range:
● up to 30 storeys, concrete wall or core systems.

● from 30 to 60 storeys, frame systems.
● above 60 storeys, tube systems.
For 'braced' steel frames, different types of bracing can be used according to the structural and functional requirements.
Appropriate calculation models for multi-storey buildings can be used for pin-ended structures and truss bracings.
For seismic resistant steel structures, an excellent performance in terms of strength and ductility can be obtained. The
design requirements in such cases correspond to three given limit states: serviceability, resistance to damage, and prevention
of collapse.
2. FROM MULTI-STOREY TO HIGH-RISE BUILDINGS

In the last hundred years man has accepted the challenge to increase the size of multi-storey buildings. Height has
been increased successfully thanks to the use of structural steels which give suitable mechanical properties in terms of
strength and ductility.
The resulting range of buildings extends from multi-storey buildings to tall buildings, and to 'skyscrapers'. The increase
in height is gradually changing the skyline of many cities (Figure 1). The development of taller buildings has stimulated
the creation of new structural systems, which are more able to provide the increasing resistance needed due to the effects
of height. The dynamic action of wind is no longer negligible as the number of storeys increases and becomes as important
as the horizontal seismic actions due to earthquakes. Examples of this situation may be found in the high-rise buildings of
the United States. In 1965 the John Hancock Center in Chicago was considered the tallest building in the world with
100 storeys and 335m height (Figure 2), excluding the traditional Empire State Building in New York built in 1931 using
the structural engineering practice of the time. The innovative structural system of the John Hancock Center consists of
a bearing structure around the perimeter which behaves as a framed and diagonal tube.



From 1970, the erection of the twin towers of the World Trade Center in New York commenced which surpassed in
height, both the John Hancock Center and the Empire State Building. The twin towers have a square plan and their
structural system is called a 'tube in tube', because it is made of an external skin with very close steel columns (framed
tube) and an internal core where all vertical facilities are concentrated (stairs, elevators and so on). This concept allowed
the building to reach 104 storeys and 411 metres of height (Figure 3).

The supremacy in height of the John Hancock Center was of very short duration. In 1974 the 'Sears Tower' in Chicago
became the tallest building in the world, it being 110 storeys and 442m in height (Figure 4a). Its structural system consists of
an external framed tube located on the perimeter together with three horizontal trusses, which act as ring belts. A feature of
the building is the reduction of its plan area with the height, which transforms the base square into a quasi-rhombic shape,
a cross shape and finally a rectangular shape at the top of the building. The variation of the resisting cross-section makes
this structure similar to a big cantilever with variable section. It is interesting to observe that the perimeter structure is made
of completely prefabricated elements of three spans and two storeys in height which characterise the facade (Figure 4b).

The Sears Tower has now been passed by the Petronas Towers in Kuala Lumpar at 452m and will also be passed in 2001 by
the World Financial Centre, Shanghai at 460m. In the last twenty years, many types of multi-storey and high-rise
buildings have been erected not only in the USA, but also in Europe and Japan.
3. THE MAIN FEATURES OF LOW-RISE STEEL BUILDINGS

The simplest way to resist both vertical and horizontal loads is to use moment resisting frames (cases 1 and 5 of Figure 5),
with floor structures oriented in transverse and longitudinal directions, respectively. This solution is not rational, and
therefore not the most economical, because it requires beams and columns with different cross-sections at the various levels.
In addition, it is susceptible to too large sway deflections when the number of storeys is greater than 4 or 5.





A better solution is obtained by the use of two different structural systems in the same building (cases 2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 8 of
Figure 5), i.e.:-
● semi-rigid or pinned frames, which resist vertical actions only.

● steel bracings or concrete walls and cores, which resist horizontal actions.
Both systems are connected together by means of floor structures, which provide a rigid diaphragm at each storey level.
The main advantage of this solution is that it makes it possible to unify the shapes of all beams independently of the floor level.
The unification of column sections is also possible, provided that different grades of steel are used (S235, S275,
S355) according to the magnitude of stress in the columns. This use of different steel grades is commonly called 'the
fourth dimension of steel construction', because it allows, in addition to the three geometrical dimensions, the adjustment of
the steel strength in order to optimise the working conditions of the structural members. The unification of the shape of
the structural elements is a fundamental pre-requisite for reducing the costs of fabrication and erection.
The first example of the use of the 'fourth dimensions of steel construction' was the IBM Building in Pittsburgh, built in
1965 with three different kinds of steel for the bars of the external lattice bracing, (Figure 6).


4. STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS FOR HIGH-RISE BUILDINGS

The structural system of a high-rise building must resist both gravity and lateral loads, due to phenomena such as wind
and earthquake. As the height of the building increases, the lateral loads gradually dominate the structural design.
Figure 7 systematically compares some frequently used steel structural systems on the basis of the structural efficiency,
which is measured by the weight of the building [1]. Framed tube structures could be conveniently used in high-rise
buildings up to 20 storeys.

Lateral loads due to wind and earthquake produce lateral accelerations. As people normally perceive these accelerations
during service conditions, stiffness rather than strength tends to become the dominant factor in buildings of great height.
The serviceability limit state can, therefore, be more important than the ultimate limit state.
Four overall groupings of structural systems may be identified (Figure 8). They are:
a. bearing wall system
b. core system
c. frame system
d. tube system.

Each system has different lateral load resisting properties and thus tends to be 'efficient' over a different height range.

The bearing wall system due to the self weight of the structural components (usually concrete), normally becomes
inefficient for buildings above 15-30 storeys in height.
The concrete core system has the same disadvantage as the bearing wall system, namely self weight is a limiting factor.
The efficiency of the framed system depends upon the rigidity of the connections and the amount of bracing. Stiffening can
be achieved by use of a solid core, shear walls or diagonal bracing. As more bracing is incorporated into the spatial frame,
the range of efficient height is increased. The upper limit is in the range of 60 storeys.
The tube system can be thought of as a spatial frame with the vertical elements positioned at the exterior. The range of
height efficiency is influenced by the type and the amount of bracing employed in the tube. In general a tube structure
is considered the most efficient form for the tallest buildings, i.e. above 60 storeys in height.
From the four basic structural systems, six secondary systems can be derived from a combination of the basic ones (see
Figure 8).
The four basic systems are assumed as the prime groups which can be associated to the levels of the structural system
hierarchy as proposed by Falconer and Beedle. These primary systems are:-
1. A bearing wall structure is comprised of planar vertical elements, which form all or part of the exterior walls and in
many instances the interior walls as well. They resist both vertical and horizontal loads and are mainly made in concrete
(see Figure 9).
2. A core structure is comprised of load bearing walls arranged in a closed form where the vertical transportation systems
are usually concentrated. This arrangement allows flexibility in the use of the building space outside the core. The core can
be designed to resist both vertical and horizontal loads. Figure 10 shows some examples of this system. In the upper part of
the figure, there is a central core from which floors are either suspended or cantilevered. In the lower part the cores
are separated and connected by the floor structures.
3. A frame structure is usually made of columns, beams and floor slabs arranged to resist both horizontal and vertical loads.
The frame is perhaps the most adaptable structural form with regard to material and shape, due to the many ways of
combining structural elements in order to give adequate support to the given loading. In the examples of Figure 11, steel
frames are combined with concrete walls and cores, or with steel bracings and horizontal trusses.
4. A tube structure is normally characterised by closely spaced exterior structural elements, designed to resist lateral loads as
a whole, rather than as separate elements. Alternative schemes could include braced tubes and framed tubes (see Figure
12). Besides the simple tube, tube-in-tube solutions can be also used. These systems allow for more flexibility in the use
of interior space, due to the lack of interior columns.






Wall structures as well as cores are usually made of reinforced concrete.
Steel frames can be used together with concrete cores, and/or walls, leading to composite structures, which may be called
also 'dual structures'.
When steel frames are braced, different types of bracing can be used according to structural and functional
requirements (Figure 13).

The most common are:
● single or double diagonal bracing

● vertical or horizontal K-bracing
● lattice bracing.
Both K- and single diagonal bracings can be 'eccentric', i.e. the diagonal members do not meet in the nodes.
5. CALCULATION MODELS
5.1 Basic Assumptions

In the design of multi-storey buildings it is usual to refer to a calculation model, which corresponds to an ideal structure
having perfect constraints. In contrast, the actual construction details show that the connections between the various
members which comprise the structure are considerably different from the assumed idealisations. It is therefore important
to point out that any approach to structural design must be based on simplified hypotheses and schemes which make
the correlation between the actual structure and model possible. Only the model can be studied by the methods of
structural analysis. The results of the analysis will more closely predict the actual behaviour of the structure, the nearer
the model represents the structure itself.
A question to ask is whether the introduction of simplifying hypotheses leads to a model whose behaviour is on the safe side
or not. It is necessary to check whether the results obtained from the model and, in particular, the ultimate load
carrying resistance at collapse, are safe or unsafe.
To answer this question it may be helpful to apply the basic design static theorem. In a structure subject to a set of
external forces Fj, αuFj are the values of the loads that, if applied, would produce the collapse of the structure, αu being
the actual collapse multiplier. If, for a generic load αFj it is possible to find a distribution of internal forces which balances
the external forces, and if the structure also complies everywhere with a given plasticity criterion, then α ≤ αu.
This theorem is valid if the following hypotheses are satisfied:
● Effects of local buckling are absent.

● Second order effects have no influence.
● Strain values at each point of the structure are lower than those corresponding to material rupture.
A calculation model will be able, therefore, to predict actual behaviour more nearly as the compatibility conditions are
more strictly satisfied.
Any solution is however on the safe side, even though compatibility is not complied with, provided that:
● It represents the equilibrium between internal and external forces

● It observes the material strength.
● The structure has enough ductility, which is necessary to avoid localised fractures, for load values below those for local
or overall structural collapse.
Clearly, once the calculation model has been defined, the stability of members must be checked and, in the case of
highly deformable structures, the influence of second order effects on vertical loads must be assessed. Some typical
examples of calculation models of steel structures are described below.

5.2 The Pin-Ended Structure
The model of a generic pin-ended structure (Figure 14) can be studied with reference to various positions of the ideal
hinges. They can be located, for example, in any one of the three positions shown in Figure 14. Results will be on the safe
side provided the dimensions of the various structural elements comply with the assumed model. From the three cases
shown, the following criteria can be deduced for calculating the moments and forces in the columns, beams and
connections (sections X-X and Y-Y).

Scheme 1
Columns A and B are simply compressed.
L is the span for calculating the beam moment.
The joint section X-X must resist not only a shear force V = R1, but also a moment M = R1a.
The joint section Y-Y must resist not only a shear force V = R1, but also a moment M = R1 (a + e).
Scheme 2

Column B is compressed (N = R1B + R2B) and subject to a moment M = a (R1B -R2B) concentrated at the central axis.
Column A is compressed (N = R1) and subject to a moment M = R1 a concentrated at the central axis.
L - 2a is the span for calculating the beam moments.
The joint section X-X must resist a shear force V = R1 only.
The joint section Y-Y must resist not only a shear force V = R1, but also a moment M = R1e.
Scheme 3
Column B is compressed (N = R1B + R2B) and subject to a moment M=(R1B -R2B) (a + e) concentrated at the central axis.
Column A is compressed (N = R1) and bent by a moment M = R1 (a + e) concentrated at the central axis.
L - 2 (a + e) is the span for calculating the beam moments.
The joint section X - X must resist a shear force V = R1 and a moment M = R1e.
The joint section Y - Y must resist a shear force V = R1 only.
Each of these three models is on the safe side and can therefore be assumed for calculation. The choice between them is
made considering the structural element or the joint which is the weakest part of the structure. The model which minimises
the internal forces in that part is chosen, because it is the most safe.
In the first scheme the state of stress in the column is the lowest. It can, therefore, be chosen when columns are
oriented according to their weak axis (Figure 15a). Bending effects in the columns are, in fact, eliminated in spite of
slight moments in the joints due to a relatively small eccentricity of the bolted connection.


The second scheme is often conservative if the columns are oriented according to the strong axis (Figure 15b). In this case,
in fact, eccentricity is greater than half the column depth and it could require an increase in the resistance of the
connection. The eccentricity also entails a greater stress in the columns due to bending moments. Their distribution can
be evaluated by assuming hinges at the mid-point between floors and by considering the columns fixed by the bracing
structure (Figure 16a). Thus, each vertical row can be considered by means of the isostatic scheme shown in Figure 16b.
The horizontal reaction Hi is given by rotational equilibrium around the hinge number i:

Hi =
The effects of forces Hi, for each floor and for each column, are resisted by vertical bracings through the floor system.
Their intensity is approximately ∆R e/h, wherein ∆R is the difference between the reactions of two beams connected at
the column and e/h is the ratio between the hinge eccentricity and the floor height. In the types of structure being considered,
as the beam spans are comparable, ∆R depends mainly on any unbalanced accidental loads. Furthermore, as e/h is
essentially small, these effects are generally negligible compared with those due to external loads. In contrast, bending
moment effects on the columns are not negligible. The corresponding increase in stress must be considered in the calculations.
5.3 The Truss Bracing
Forces acting on bracing structures, such as the effects of wind, earthquakes and geometric imperfections, do not act in
a particular direction. Therefore, the scheme of a bracing system has to be designed and calculated for a range of
loading conditions.
Referring to the simple truss bracing shown in Figure 17a, the behaviour of a single diagonal system is considered (Figure 17b).

The structure is hyperstatic. Its solution to determine sway displacements is determined by the compatibility condition
(Figure 17c), assuming member as rigid. This assumption imposes the equality ∆AB = ∆CD between the elongation of
the tension diagonal AB and the shortening of the compression diagonal CD. If the N-∆ relationship between the axial load
N and variation ∆ in the length (Figure 18a) is equal in both tension and compression, then the axial force in both diagonals
has the same absolute value. The structure can be considered as the superposition of two isostatic structures working in
parallel (Figure 18b) and its solution is straightforward.

The diagonals, however, differ substantially in their behaviour. The compressed bar CD may not have a linear
behaviour because, although it remains elastic, it is subjected to buckling and the variation from linear behaviour increases
as its slenderness λ increases (Figure 19a). For high slenderness (Figure 19b), the geometric condition ∆AB = ∆CD requires
an axial load Nc in the strut which is substantially lower than the axial load Ni in the tie.

There are, therefore, two ways of dealing with bracing. It can be dimensioned so that both diagonals can resist both tension
and compression. For this purpose a low slenderness is required (λ ≤ 100), so that the difference in behaviour between
tension and compression bars is negligible. This solution is illustrated in Figure 18b: both diagonals cooperate in resisting
shear forces. Alternatively, the bracing can be dimensioned by considering the tension diagonal alone. High slenderness
is required (λ ≥ 200) in order to ensure that, when the stress reverses and the diagonal becomes a strut, it will remain
elastic even if it buckles. Under this condition the bar in compression is redundant and the forces are wholly resisted by
the tension bar. Bracings designed in this way are generally more economical, but deformation of the structure is
greater. Furthermore, the possibility of buckling of compression diagonals makes this solution inadvisable whenever
the bracing is located in the plane of facades or partition walls.
The above considerations are applicable also to other types of bracings.
The bracing shown in Figure 20a, for example, consists of two inclined bars connected to a beam which resists bending.
The beam can be calculated by the method indicated in Figure 20b or by that of Figure 20c, according to whether
the compression bar is taken into consideration or not. The bracing in Figure 20b, corresponds to members of a truss
bearing axial loads only. One diagonal member is one in tension and one in compression. As both members are identical,
a check must be made that they can satisfactorily resist the compressive load. In Figure 20c only the tension bar is
considered operative. Consequently the beam must also resist bending due to the external force H. In this case also the
bracing can be economical, provided the compression bar is sufficiently slender to buckle whilst remaining elastic.


The same approach can be followed for the bracing system shown in Figure 21a. In Figure 21a the bracing bars are designed
to act in both tension and compression. This design minimises bending in the beam. Alternatively, in Figure 21c the bracing
is designed to take tension only, the member in compression being ignored. This design increases bending in the beam.

6. SEISMIC REQUIREMENTS OF STEEL STRUCTURES

Multi-storey steel buildings are used more and more extensively in regions of high seismic risk because of their
excellent performance in terms of strength and ductility. Their performance is due to the mechanical behaviour of
materials, structural elements and non-structural components, which is required by the design. The design
requirements correspond to the imposition of three given limit states. They are the serviceability, resistance to
damage (damageability) and collapse limit states which are included in the new generation of seismic codes, such as the
ECCS Recommendations for Steel Structures in Seismic Zones [2] and the Eurocode 8 [3].
The serviceability limit state corresponds to minor frequent earthquakes. It requires that the structure together with the
non-structural components should suffer no damage and that discomfort to the inhabitants should be minimal. The
first requirement (to avoid structural damage) is fulfilled by designing the structure in elastic range. The second requirement
(to avoid non-structural damage and inhabitants' discomfort) is obtained by providing sufficient stiffness to prevent
significant deformations.
The "damageability" limit state allows some minor damage to non-structural components due to local large deformations
in certain zones. Such damage may occur under less frequent moderate earthquakes.
The collapse limit state is related to severe ground motions due to very infrequent earthquakes. Both structural and
non-structural damage is expected, but the safety of the inhabitants has to be guaranteed. The structure must be able to
absorb and dissipate large amounts of energy. Different ways can be used to absorb and dissipate energy under very
strong ground motions in order to prevent collapse.
7. BEHAVIOUR UNDER HORIZONTAL LOADS

Traditionally, two families of structural systems have been used in multi-storey buildings to resist important horizontal
loads (both wind and earthquakes). They are the concentrically braced frames and the moment-resisting frames.
The concentrically braced frame system is widely used both for normal and seismic-resistant steel structures.
Vertical cantilever trusses are formed by diagonal bracing elements with coincident centrelines. They resist lateral forces
(both winds and horizontal earthquakes) by means of axial forces in the bracing elements, leading to a large stiffness in
the elastic range. In these structures the dissipative zones are mainly located in the tensile diagonals, because it is
usually assumed that the compression diagonals are buckled.
The inelastic cyclic performance of concentric bracings is rather unsatisfactory due to the repeated buckling of the
diagonal members. This buckling produces a progressive reduction of the area of the hysteresis loops, which corresponds to
a significant decrease in the capability of the structure to absorb and dissipate energy. This behaviour is illustrated by the
shape of the hysteresis loops of a concentric bracing (Figure 22).

Different behaviour arises according to the type of bracing. The types can be classified into three categories: diagonal
X-bracings (Figure 23a, b, c), V-bracings (Figure 23d, e, f) and K-bracings (Figure 23g). The X-bracings (Figure 23a)
dissipate energy by means of the plastification of both compression and tension diagonals and the degradation is due to out-
of-plane buckling, which interacts with local buckling of the cross-section. From this point of view, symmetrical
sections (double C, hollow sections) exhibit a better performance than unsymmetrical ones (back-to-back angles). In the
V-bracings, the horizontal forces are resisted by both tension and compression diagonals, the last being necessary
for equilibrium. From the cyclic loading point of view, only the compression diagonal dissipates energy, whereas the
tension diagonal remains elastic.


K-bracings (Figure 23g), on the contrary, cannot be considered as dissipative because the diagonals intersect the column in
an intermediate point, thereby including the column in the yielding mechanism.
In summary, for all types of concentrically braced frames, unacceptable large interstorey drifts causing non-structural
damage can occur due to the failure of bracings.
The moment-resisting frames have a large number of dissipative zones which are located near to the beam-to-
column connections. They resist horizontal forces essentially by bending and energy can be dissipated by means of
cyclic bending behaviour.
Beam-to-column connections are usually designed according to the four main types of joints (Figure 24):

Type A, where three plate splices are welded to the column and bolted to the flanges and to the web of the beam.
Type B, where angle splices are bolted both to the column and to the beam.
Type C, with end plate joint with symmetrical extension.
Type D, which is a fully welded joint.
The performance of all types has been found by testing to exhibit sufficient ductility.
Moment resisting frames are widely used for low-rise buildings, but they are generally more expensive than the
concentrically braced system for a given height. For medium and high-rise buildings (from 6 to 40 storeys) framed
structures exhibit too large elastic deformations under the action of low earthquakes or wind, producing damage to
non-structural elements. Sufficient stiffness can be obtained by adding diagonal bracings to the rigid frame.
From a comparison between the behaviour of concentrically braced and moment-resisting frames, it is concluded that neither
of these two traditional systems fulfil contemporary requirements for the three limit states: serviceability, damageability
and collapse.
A suitable harmonisation between the lateral rigidity of bracings and the ductility of frames can be obtained using the
hybrid framing system of eccentrically braced frames (Figure 25). In this system the horizontal forces are resisted mainly
by axially loaded members, but the eccentricity of the layout allows the energy dissipation by means of cyclic bending
and shear behaviour in an element known as an active link.

The common type of eccentrically braced frame can be classified as D-brace (Figure 25a), K-brace (Figure 25b) and V-
brace (Figure 25c) according to the shape of the diagonal elements. Eccentrically braced frames belong to the group
of dissipative structures and their level of energy absorption is similar to the moment-resisting frame system.
In addition, the eccentrically braced frame system has advantages in terms of drift control. It provides an economic solution
in the range of medium and high-rise buildings. The active link is the main energy dissipator in the structural system. It must
be designed so that its bending and shear limit strength is reached prior to the attainment of tension and compression
limit strengths of other bars.
The length of the active link is responsible for the collapse mechanism which dissipates energy. The short links
dissipate energy mainly by inelastic shear deformation in the web (shear link). The long links dissipate energy mainly
by inelastic normal strains in the flanges (moment links). A careful design of these links can lead to very satisfactory
hysteresis loops with high energy absorption, while maintaining satisfactory rigidity (Figure 26).
Eccentrically braced frames meet the requirements of all three limit states which the seismic design of steel
structures considers. In particular they provide excellent strength and rigidity in the elastic range so that non-structural
damage and occupant discomfort are avoided. They also have enough ductility to dissipate large amounts of energy in
the inelastic range.
● As building height increases, so the dynamic action of wind and seismic loading become more important considerations
in design.
● For low-rise buildings, lateral stability can be provided by moment-resisting frames, cross-bracing or shear walls; for high-
rise buildings more efficient systems are normally used.
● Four basic categories can be defined - wall, core, frame and tube - and these can be combined to provide more effective
bracing systems.
● Appropriate analytical models should be used to determine the performance of lateral bracing systems.
9. REFERENCES
[1] New Structural Systems for Tall Buildings and Their Scale Effects on Cities, Khan, Fazlur R. "Tall Building Plan,
Design and Construction", Symp, Proc, Vanderbilt University, Civ Eng Program, Nashville, Tennessee, 1974.
[2] Eurocode Convention of Constructional Steelwork : "Recommendations For Steel Structures in Seismic Zones",
ECCS, Publication 54, 1988.
[3] Eurocode 8 : "Structures in Seismic Regions - Design", CEN (in preparation).

1. Steel Designers Manual, Owens G.W.
Blackwell Scientific Publications, Oxford. 1992

ESDEP WG 1B
STEEL CONSTRUCTION:

OBJECTIVE/SCOPE:
To report the lessons from past failures which may improve the safety of future design and methods of execution.
PREREQUISITES
None
RELATED LECTURES
None.
SUMMARY
In this lecture nine failures are examined. The analysis of these particular cases allows identification of the lack of
knowledge or the type of error for the structures concerned. From the analyses, the lessons for future design and execution
are highlighted.
Examples of failures due to seismic action are not dealt with, see the lectures of Group 17.
1. INTRODUCTION
In pre-industrial societies, technology and architecture were based largely on a craft approach. The design of objects
and buildings changed very slowly over time as gradual improvements were made.

Concepts of progress are not therefore a new idea, but in medieval society builders were restrained to build very carefully,
both figuratively and literally, on what had been done before. Failures occurred when they tried to go too far beyond the
"state of the art" reached through centuries of slow development.
Cases of failure can be found in the most important and most visible constructions built at that time, the cathedrals. In
their desire to have the tallest nave or the widest span in Christendom, the cathedral authorities and builders sometimes
strayed beyond the limits of their knowledge and technology. As a result some buildings or parts of buildings collapsed.
This was the case with the cathedral of Beauvais. The collapse occurred because the builders had overreached themselves
and taken the Gothic structural system beyond its natural limits.
The growth of interest in scientific method and reasoning which started in the seventeenth century led to the
industrial revolution. It included development of the ability to predict in advance the forces to which a structure might
be subjected when in use. The same process of industrialisation also allowed the production of new materials whose
properties were more regular and predictable than those of the natural materials which they replaced. The combined increase
in knowledge and improvement in materials might have been expected to have caused a reduction in the occurrence
of structural failures. However, the growth of industrialisation produced a demand for many types of structure for which
there was no historical precedent, such as railway stations, covered markets, and exhibition halls.
With the progress of technology came an expectation of novelty from the public and a desire to create it on the part
of designers; suddenly it seemed as if almost anything was possible as development accelerated. Each successive structure
was for a time the longest, tallest, or had the greatest span. The nineteenth century was a time when designers were
faced continuously with trying to solve problems for which there was no precedent.
Without changing demands from society and progress in technology, failures would be caused only by carelessness. By
the study of failures, it is possible to learn how to make structures safer as technology develops. This is the subject of
the present lecture.
2. ANALYSIS OF SOME STRUCTURAL FAILURES
2.1 General
Failure is by no means the prerogative of ignorance or incompetence. It is more often the consequence of a rare lapse,
which team work and vigilance have for once failed to remedy. This lapse may be compounded by ill-luck, by
inadequate communication, by safety margins too small to allow for human fallibility, by inexact methods of calculation
or construction, etc.
It would be foolish to attempt in a single lecture to make a complete list of reasons for failure and to try to present examples
of each. However there are two recurrent themes, most failures occur during erection and one of the most important reasons
for structures failing is lack of communication. Poor communication may manifest itself in many different ways. The
best guard against it is for all the engineers involved in a job to know each other, to regard each other as friends as well
as colleagues involved in a joint enterprise, and most of all to maintain sympathy for one another's views. The difficulty
of achieving and maintaining these relationships in a complex contractual situation is discussed in the following section.
Only a very few of the many other reasons for failures recur sufficiently often to warrant specific discussion. Poor
detailing may be caused by lack of understanding or by omissions in checking. Numerical error in calculation rarely leads
to failure. The inclination to minimise material use, or maximise stresses may also be carried too far, producing only small
gain in terms of cost, greater cost in terms of the required accuracy of analysis and/or increased risk of failure. One very
clear danger lies in using designs which have proved successful at one scale as a basis for larger structures. The main
problem here lies in omissions which were unimportant at the smaller scale becoming significant at the larger scale.
2.2 Contractual Relationship
Usually a job starts with a client who employs an architect to design the structure and control all the other input. The latter
will ask a consultant to design the structure. Frequently the consultant produces an outline and member sizes but no
joint details. Tender documents will be sent out for the complete structure and each main contractor will ask for
subcontract prices for many items of work. Usually the steel frame would be one of these items. In bridgework the
architect would not control the work but the main contract/subcontract relationship would still exist.
Once the contracts are let, the steelwork subcontractor will design the connections and begin fabrication. Sometimes even
this task is subdivided, with the steelwork subcontractor on the main contract subletting the fabrication work and only doing
the erection himself. All of the people mentioned, including "The Engineer"*, who may or may not be the consultant/
designer, are bound in a contractual relationship with one another. The contract is very important but is sometimes allowed
to disrupt personal relationships between individuals. If ever a breakdown in the friendships between professionals can be
seen in a job, then it may be regarded as a clear indication of danger. It is not possible for everyone to carry out their
job effectively if there is animosity at any level.
To complicate the problem further, the work is carried out by a labour force which has a corporate identity but which is also
a gathering of skilled groups made up of individuals. Safe and economical completion of a job depends on all the members
of the team. Mutual respect of skills and interests is needed. If that is maintained, the chances of failure are reduced
to negligible proportions. The courage to question the work of others must be matched by a willingness to accept questions
and help from others. Similarly the courage to resist pressure for undesirable change is always necessary.
2.3 Structural Failures
2.3.1 Steel box girder bridges

Four failures of steel box girder bridges of somewhat similar design took place during construction in different parts of
the world during the years 1969-1971. It is remarkable that no two of these failures were really alike. Two of the bridges
were in the cantilever condition when collapse occurred, one of these failed as a result of bottom flange weakness, the other
by collapse of a load-bearing diaphragm. One of the other two failed as a result of top flange weakness. The other buckled
at the bottom due to temperature differential. All four failures were, however, associated with instability of thin plates
in compression.
The main causes of these accidents were:
a. the application of buckling theory with inadequate factors of safety;
b. poor detailing rules and the absence of adequate fabrication tolerances.
The bridges that failed were, in chronological order:
● The Fourth Danube Bridge in Vienna (Austria, 6 November 1969)

● The Milford Haven Bridge (United Kingdom, 2 June 1970)
● The West Gate Bridge in Melbourne (Australia, 15 October 1970)
● The Rhine Bridge in Koblenz (West Germany, 10 November 1971).
A brief description of two of these failures is given below:
Milford Haven Bridge
A local failure during erection of the cantilever on the south side of the bridge led to global collapse. The member
concerned was a load bearing diaphragm.
The bridge (Figure 1) was originally designed as a single continuous box girder of welded steel. (It was rebuilt as a
cantilever and suspended span in the main span). The spans measured from the south 77m, 77m, 77m, 149m, 213m, 149m
and 77m. The span that collapsed was the second 77m span on the south side, the first having been erected with the aid of
a temporary support. The collapse occurred when the last section of box for the second span was being moved out along
the cantilever. When the collapse occurred this section slid forward down the cantilever killing four men.

It is clear from the reports of the failure that it was initiated by buckling of the support diaphragm at the root of the
cantilever being erected (Figure 2). The diaphragm was torn away from the sloping webs near the bottom of the box,
allowing buckling of the lower web and bottom flange to take place. As the diaphragm buckled, it shortened, reducing
the overall depth of the box girder; the tendency of the bottom flange to buckle was inevitably increased by this reduction
of the distance between flanges which increased the force needed in each flange to carry the moment with a reduced lever arm.

The support diaphragm was in fact a transverse plate girder, which carried heavy loads from the webs at its extreme ends,
and was supported by the bearings as shown in Figure 2, some distance from its ends. It was therefore subjected to a
hogging bending moment and a large vertical shear force. The diaphragm plate near the outer bottom corners was subject to
a complex combination of actions. The shear of the transverse girder and diffusion of the point load from the bearings
was compounded with the effects of inclination of the webs of the main bridge girder which produced an additional
horizontal compression action, and out-of-plane bending effects caused by bearing eccentricity.

The load sustained by the diaphragm just before failure was reported to be nearly 9700kN, which agrees tolerably well
with independent calculations of strength made after the accident. The calculated design resistance, using design rules that
were drafted subsequently and making allowance for likely values of distortion and residual stresses would be
considerably less, possibly as low as 5000kN.
Rhine Bridge, Koblenz
The centre span of the Koblenz bridge over the Rhine collapsed during construction on 10 November 1971, when erection
had almost reached the mid-point of the 235m span (Figure 3). The bridge was a single steel box, 16,4m wide at the top
plus cantilevers, and 11m wide at the bottom (Figure 4). The box was erected by cantilevering, 85 tons being lifted at a time.

The bottom flange was stiffened longitudinally by T-stiffeners, and the box was stiffened transversely by frames with
diagonals made of 300mm diameter steel tubes. All site joints were welded, a comparatively new technique in Germany at
the time. As shown in Figure 5, a 460mm gap was provided in the longitudinal T-stiffeners of the lower flange to permit
the passage of automatic welding equipment making the transverse butt weld splicing the flange plate. The T-stiffener was
then itself spliced by welding in two plates, the plate splicing the web of the T being just 460mm long and butt welded.
To avoid a local concentration of residual welding stresses, this plate was not welded to the bottom flange of the box, but
was set with its bottom edge 30mm clear of the flange. The plate splicing the table of the T was lapped on top of the ends of
the two Ts.

Thus it will be seen that:
● The bottom flange plate, which carried large compressive stresses during construction, was unsupported over a 460mm
length at each site splice.
● The main butt weld in the bottom flange plate was at the centre of this 460mm length, possibly introducing a slight lack
of straightness.
● The centroid of the splice of the T was almost certainly further from the flange than that of the T itself, thus causing
an eccentricity that put the flange plate under a larger compressive stress at this point.
Subsequent investigation showed that the bottom flange plate could carry its stress safely if out-of-straightness was no
more than 0,95mm on the 460mm unsupported length. In fact the plate was out-of-straight by as much as 2mm at some points.
On the afternoon of 10 November 1971, preparations to lift the last section of the cantilever from the Koblenz side
were complete. Lifting cables were tightened, thus taking part of the weight. A metallic click was heard. The tip of
the cantilever settled slightly. A few seconds later the bottom flange splice 50m from the pier buckled and the nose of
the cantilever collapsed into the water. The click was undoubtedly the sudden folding up of the flange plate at the splice
into the 30mm recess. Much of the stress that should have been carried by the plate was consequently thrown off onto the
T stiffeners. They were then taking three times their proper stress, and they buckled too (Figure 6). Thirteen men were killed.

The inquiry concluded that there had been no negligence. The design calculations had all been done correctly according to
the methods then normally used in Germany. Rather it was the case that the methods needed revision.
2.3.2 Steel plate girders bridges
King's Bridge in Melbourne
The collapse of the King's bridge in Melbourne is one of the relatively few examples of failure in service. The bridge
was opened in 1961 but only 15 months later, on 10 July 1962 (Melbourne's winter), it failed by brittle fracture when a 45
ton vehicle was passing over it. Total collapse was prevented by walls which had been built to enclose the space under
the affected span. Investigation showed that many other spans of the bridge were in danger of similar failure.
The foundations were in good order. The superstructure consisted of many spans in which each carriageway was supported
by four steel plate girders spanning 30m, topped with a reinforced concrete deck slab. Figure 7 shows a typical girder.
The bottom flange of each plate girder consisted of a 400mm x 20mm plate, supplemented in the region of high
bending moment by an additional cover plate which was either 300 x 20mm or 360 x 12mm. The cover plate was attached
to the flange by a continuous 5mm fillet weld all round.


The steel specified was to comply with BS968: 1941, an earlier version of BS4360 Grade 50 or Fe E 355. BS968 at that
time contained no requirement for low temperature notch ductility, but the specification writer for the bridge did add
some special requirements of this type. Despite these additional clauses, those who built and inspected the bridge did
not understand that high strength steel needed special care in welding when compared with mild steel (grade 43 or Fe E 275
as it is now called). Difficulties were experienced with welding but an expert was not called in at the time.
Subsequent inspection showed that cracks existed in the main flange plate under 7 of the 8 transverse fillet welds in the
span which failed. One crack had extended partly by brittle fracture and partly by fatigue until the tension flange
was completely severed, and it had extended half way up the web. All 7 cracks developed into complete flange failures
when the failure occurred under a load that was well within the design load. In some instances the entire girder was severed
and there was no loss of life. Total collapse was averted by the supporting walls.
Thus the failure of King's Bridge was due to a poor detail which would not be reproduced now, compounded by
poor communication which led to a lack of necessary inspection.
Quinnipiac River Bridge
A less dramatic accident occurred in 1973 on the Quinnipiac river bridge near New Haven (USA). A large crack
was discovered in a fascia girder of a suspended span.
The structure is non-composite and the girders are 2,8m deep at the crack location. The structure had been in service
for approximately 9 years at the time the crack was discovered.
The crack was situated approximately 10m from the west end of the suspended span which is 50m long.
Figure 8 shows the crack that developed in the girder web. The crack propagated to the mid-depth of the girder and
had penetrated the bottom flange surface when discovered.

Examination of the fracture surface indicated that crack growth had occurred in a number of stages and modes. These
stages are shown schematically in Figure 9.

During fabrication a crude partial penetration weld was placed across the width of the longitudinal stiffener. It is probable
that some crack extension from the unfused section occurred during transport, erection and early service. Assuming
normal random traffic and approximately 6mm of the 9,5mm thick longitudinal stiffener were unfused, fatigue cracking
would require between 2 000 000 cycles and 20 000 000 cycles (depending on the proximity to a free surface) to
propagate through the longitudinal stiffener thickness. If the crack had only been fused about 3,8mm on one plate surface
so that an edge crack resulted, only about 1 000 000 cycles of random traffic would be needed to propagate the crack
through the longitudinal stiffener. Fatigue crack growth (Stage II) would develop mainly after the stiffener was cracked in
two. Electron microscope studies of the fracture surface confirmed the presence of fatigue crack growth striations during
stage 2.
Stage 3 was the brittle fracture of the web during a time of low temperature. It was initiated in a zone of high residual
tensile stresses. Once the crack became unstable, it propagated through the zone of lower stresses in the web and
was eventually arrested in the flange. Further fatigue crack growth (Stage 4) developed thereafter and continued until the
crack was discovered and repaired.
In this case the failure was due to a weld containing an internal defect (lack of fusion) which initiated a fatigue crack.
Total failure was avoided by the detection of the crack during regular inspection.
Bridge on the Sainte Marguerite River in Sept-Iles (Quebec)
As in the Milford Haven bridge a local failure led to global collapse. The bridge on the Sainte Marguerite River consisted
of five steel plate girders made composite with the deck. As shown in Figures 10 and 11, each girder had four supports, two
on the abutments and two on cross-beams joining the top of the inclined legs at an angle of 45° strut.


The cross-beams were supported by a group of three braced struts at the same inclination. The bridge deck consisted of
a concrete slab (220mm) with an asphalt layer of 65mm. The composite behaviour was provided by stud connectors welded
on the steel girders.
The bridge failed during the asphalt surfacing. The failure was initiated by a local buckling of the webs of the struts on the
Sept-Iles side (Figure 12). The support provided by these struts vanished and, as a result, the span increased from 54,0m
to 95,8m. The bending moment in the main girders was multiplied by a factor of 5. The composite girders and deck were
not able to resist and failed.

The main reason for the failure was found in the assembly between cross-beam and struts. Without stiffeners the webs of
the struts (WWF 900 x 293) were too slender and not able to resist the axial loads transmitted by the cross-beam. The width
to thickness ratio of the webs had a value of 76,7 while the limiting value is about 34 for the steel considered
(following Eurocode 3: b/t ≤ 42 ε and ε = ). In this condition, the maximum axial load which could be carried by
the strut was about 3300 kN, a value later confirmed by test. The strut load at the moment of failure had a value of
3500kN while the calculated service load was 5780kN.
To carry the service loads with a reasonable safety factor it was necessary to place stiffeners on the web of each strut in order
to obtain full collaboration of the web (Figure 13).

This failure can be attributed to an insufficient knowledge of the behaviour in compression of struts with slender webs.
2.3.3 Shell structures

The Seneffe Water Tower (Belgium)
A type of steel water tower which is rather popular in Belgium and abroad, is shown in Figure 14a. The main shell, where
the water is stored, is theoretically axisymmetrical about the vertical axis and is often compared to a golf ball with its
Tee support. Such a water tower with a capacity of 1500 cubic metres was built in 1972 near the industrial park of Seneffe;
the main dimensions are shown in Figures 14a. and b. Two conical shells made of 8 and 15mm thickness steel formed the
main part of the water tower.

The initial design was made using membrane theory. Assessment of local bending stresses at the shell intersection was
derived from an axisymmetrical analysis using finite elements. Both computation methods were of the first order but they
did not take account of any instability phenomena. Indeed, due to internal pressure, the hoop stresses in the part AB of
the water tower (which were found later to be critical) are tensile; in spite of the fact that the meridional stresses in the
upper part are compressive, no analysis of a possible buckling of the conical shells was undertaken.
During the first filling test the water tower collapsed when the water level corresponded to a volume of 1130 cubic metres, i.
e. when the water had risen to 1,74m below the overflow level (Figure 14). Failure occurred by buckling on the thin cone
near the junction of the two cones. The collapsed structure is shown in Figure 15.

After the accident the available literature was carefully scrutinized and the following conclusions emerged:
a. Imperfections, which may be geometrical or structural. The welding procedure, used quite generally to assemble the
various components of a branched shell such as that shown in Figure 14, produced both local geometric imperfections and
high residual stresses. The residual stresses are never reduced by an annealing treatment except in steel nuclear vessels.
b. Discontinuity stresses, which have high local peaks at the intersections of branched shells.
At that time, even using the most advanced information on stability of isolated shells, it was only possible to have an idea
of the collapse resistance of a very perfect shell under idealised boundary conditions. The available literature
disregarded entirely the effect of imperfections and discontinuity stresses.
The failure of the Seneffe water tower was the starting point for important experimental research in the fields of liquid-
filled conical shells and of nonlinear computer analysis taking into account geometrical imperfections.
The last edition (1988) of the ECCS Recommendations on the Buckling of Steel Shells gives much information for a
wide range of cylindrical, conical and spherical shells. Current design recommendations relating to the buckling
of manufactured shell structures now take account of realistic levels of geometric imperfections and residual stresses.
Wind effects on a steel chimney
After a five-year service period a 25,81m high steel chimney in a group of four chimneys partially failed during a storm
with windspeeds of between 120 and 150km/h.
The four chimneys consisted of conical and cylindrical shells of 800mm diameter assembled by bolted flanges or by
welding (Figure 16). In the bolted connection of an external flange located at a height above ground of 13,575m, 13 of the
24 bolts broke. The deformation of the flange led to a perceptible slope of the upper part of the chimney, which did not fall.

At the moment of the accident the wind blew along the line of the four chimneys, from West to East. The fourth
chimney (down wind) was damaged and the failure of the bolts affected the South part of the flange. This
position corresponded to bending of the chimney perpendicular to the wind direction which is a characteristic of
vortex shedding.
Where cylinders are in line, the effects of vortex shedding are greater on and after the second cylinder than on an
isolated cylinder when the distance from axis to axis is less than 10 diameters. The effects can be doubled.
The forces on the bolts due to the bending perpendicular to the wind direction were unfortunately underestimated and
the flanges were not stiff enough. The failure of the bolts was due to fatigue in bending and was initiated in an overloaded
bolt. The overloading was due to inadequate tightening of adjoining bolts and to deformation of the flange.
The main reason for the failure was because the amplification of vortex shedding in the case of chimneys in line was not
taken into account. In Eurocode 1: Basis of Design and Actions on Structures, special attention will be given to the
additional dynamic effects of wind on structures.
2.3.4 Buildings
Zoology Block, Aberdeen University
The Zoology Block was a rectangular six-storey building with a steel frame and a plan area of 13 metres x 65 metres. The
steel columns were placed along both sides of the building at 2,82 metre centres and carried steel beams 686mm deep
which spanned the full 13 metres. Figure 17 shows the simple angle brackets that were fixed to the external face of the
columns and supported horizontal 152mm x 152mm steel universal column sections; these were to carry the proposed
cladding of precast concrete panels. The floors were precast concrete planks bearing directly onto the 13 metre span
main beams.

After erecting the steelwork, the contractor decided to install the floors to facilitate later work. Unfortunately, with
the additional weight of the precast concrete planks, the columns of the building were on the point of buckling in the
long direction of the building and a light wind provided the necessary disturbing force. The whole building collapsed in
the longitudinal direction with the floors stacked one above the other. Four men were found dead in the wreckage and one
died later. Several others were injured.
The wind was not unusually strong on the day of the collapse, but it was enough to put the building out of plumb. Once
the structure moved out of the vertical, the mass of the concrete floors created a large overturning moment. The only
stiffness in the plane of the collapse was in the cleats which attached the cladding rails to the frames formed by the
main columns and beams. The cladding rails passed outside the plane of the columns and the fixing cleats were virtually
pin joints and allowed the rails to rotate relative to the columns.
The main reason for the collapse was the lack of sway restraint, which would have been provided once the cladding
panels were in place to stiffen the structure. It could be concluded therefore that the mistake lay in the process of erection;
the cladding should have gone in before the floor panels. However the contractor had no reason to assume that the steel
frame could not support all the possible loads applied to the building. He should have been told if this was the case. This
would mean that the mistake was one of communication. If the connections between the cladding supports and the columns
had been designed to be somewhat stiffer, the collapse would have been unlikely to have happened. Tests and
calculations made subsequently showed that collapse of the building in the long direction was much more likely than
collapse in the short direction, although it is the latter, with the longer face exposed to the wind load, that would generally
be thought more likely. Under the steelwork design code, Eurocode 3, the contractor should be informed if the steel frame
is not stable in its own right before the cladding is put on it, so that he can then plan the erection sequence accordingly.
During the investigation into the collapse, it was discovered that the original cleat detail for the cladding rails, which
would have provided some stiffness in the plane of the collapse, had been revised when erecting the frame because the
cleats were "awkward" to construct on site. In the end both the designers of the steel frame and the contractor who erected
it were found liable for the collapse because of their "most unfortunate and quite unintentional misunderstanding" due to
lack of communication.
Hyatt Regency Hotel, Kansas City
On the 7 July 1981, a dance was being held in the lobby of the Hyatt Regency Hotel, Kansas City. As spectators gathered
on suspended high level walkways, the supports gave way and two levels of bridge fell to the crowded dance floor.
One hundred and eleven people died and nearly two hundred were seriously injured. Failure occurred at a simple but
critical detail.
The walkways crossed the lobby at second and fourth floor levels and were supported above one another by hanger rods
from the fifth floor (Figure 18). Floor to floor height was 5m and the walkways hung from three sets of hangers at 9m
centres. In the original design single 15m long rods supported the two walkways (Figure 19(a)). At each level a cross-
beam made from two channels welded toe to toe rested on a nut and washer on the rod. This detail would not have failed
under the loading imposed even though its strength was only one quarter of that required by local design codes.



In the furore which followed the collapse it became obvious that the design had been changed to reduce the cost of
the connection. The second floor walkway was actually suspended from the fourth floor one (Figure 19(b)). As a result
the connection between the fourth floor cross-beam and the hanger supported double the load originally intended, or
rather failed to do so. The alteration seems to have been recommended by an engineer, not party to the original design,
who specialised in reducing costs. Unfortunately he failed to understand the importance of the details changed: nor was
the effect of the changes spotted by any of the other parties involved.
Once again, a gross underdesign of a detail would not have caused failure had not another factor resulted in a
significantly increased load. Here, as in most failures, lack of communication was the most important reason why failure
was not prevented.
● Society rightly demands a high standard of safety from civil engineering structures. When a structure fails, it may claim
many lives, and its reinstatement may require considerable resources.
● Structures rarely fail from a single cause; there are usually several contributory factors to failure.
● Structures are frequently at greatest risk during construction.
● The structures described in this lecture failed from one or more of the following causes:
⋅ poor communication.
⋅ design error or lack of understanding of structural behaviour.
⋅ a material-related problem causing failure in a structure even though its behaviour is reasonably well understood by
the designer.
⋅ errors in detailing or poor detailing rules caused by lack of understanding or checking.
⋅ inadequate temporary works, lack of thought about a temporary condition or about the process of erection.
● Failure is by no means the prerogative of ignorance or incompetence. Even in routine work according to recognised
codes, failure is more often the consequence of a rare lapse which team work and vigilance have for once failed to
remedy. This lapse may be compounded by ill-luck, by inadequate consideration of the fundamental behaviour of the
proposed structure, by safety margins too small to allow for human fallibility, and by inexact methods of calculation
or construction.
● The study of some accidents stimulates research such as, for example, into the buckling behaviour of plate and shell
structures. Some case histories indicate the need to review the bases of codes or design methods.
● Success or failure is ultimately the work not of codes but people; success depends primarily on the engineer and his team.
1. Smith, D. W., Bridge Failure, Proc. Instn. Civ. Engrs., Part 1, 1976, 60, August, pp 367-382.
2. Roik, K., Betrachtungen über die Bruchursachen der neuen Wiener Donaubrücke, Tiefbau, Vol. 12, p 1152, 1970.

L2_1
ESDEP WG 2
APPLIED METALLURGY
Lecture 2.1: Characteristics of

Iron-Carbon Alloys
OBJECTIVE/SCOPE
To introduce important aspects of the metallurgy of steel required for the understanding of the engineering properties of steel.
PREREQUISITES
None.
RELATED LECTURES
Lecture 2.2: Manufacturing and Forming Processes
Lecture 2.3.1: Introduction to Engineering Properties of Steels
Lecture 2.3.2: Advanced Engineering Properties of Steels
Lecture 2.6: Weldability of Structural Steels
http://www.fgg.uni-lj.si/kmk/esdep/master/wg02/l0100.htm (1 of 54) [17.07.2010 09:57:08]

L2_1
SUMMARY
This lecture commences with a discussion of the need for civil and structural engineers to have a basic knowledge of
the metallurgy of steel. Then the crystalline nature of irons and steels is described together with the influence of grain size
and composition on properties. The ability of iron to have more than one crystalline structure (its allotropy) and the
properties of the principal crystalline forms of alloys of iron and carbon are discussed.
The metallurgy and properties of slowly cooled steels are reviewed, including the influence of grain size, rolling,
subsequent heat treatment and inclusion shape and distribution. Rapidly cooled steels are treated separately; a brief
description of quenching and tempering is followed by a discussion of the influence of welding on the local thermal
history. Hardenability, weldability and control of cracking are briefly discussed. Finally the importance of manganese as
an alloying element is introduced.
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 Why Metallurgy For Civil and Structural Engineers?
The engineering properties of steel, i.e. strength, ductility and resistance against brittle fracture, depend on its
crystalline structure, grain size and other metallurgical characteristics.
These microstructural properties are dependent on the chemical composition and on the temperature-deformation history of
the steel. Heat treatments that occur during welding may also have a large influence on the engineering properties.
When selecting steel for welded structures, it is important to have at least a basic knowledge of metallurgy. This knowledge
is required especially when large and complicated structures are being designed, such as bridges, offshore structures, and
high rise buildings.
Selecting materials, welding processes and welding consumables usually requires consultation of "real" metallurgists
and welding specialists. A basic knowledge of metallurgy is essential for communication with these specialists.
Finally, a basic knowledge of metallurgy also enables civil and structural engineers to have a better understanding of
the engineering properties of steel and the performance of welded structures.
1.2 The Scope of Lectures in Group 2

L2_1
Lecture 2.1 deals with the characteristics of iron-carbon alloys. Where possible, direct links are indicated to the
engineering properties and weldability of steel. These subjects are covered in Lectures 2.2 and 2.6 respectively.
Lecture 2.3 describes steelmaking and the forming of steel into plates and sections. The various processes for controlling
the chemical composition and the different temperature-deformation treatments are discussed. Most of the
underlying principles described in Lecture 2.1 are applied.
Steels are available in various grades and qualities. The grade designates the strength properties (yield strength and
ultimate strength), while the quality is mainly related to resistance against brittle fracture. Grades and qualities are explained
in Lecture 2.4. A system for choosing the right quality according to Eurocode 3 (Annex C) [1] is presented. Some
guidelines for the selection of steel grade are given.
2. STRUCTURE AND COMPONENTS OF STEEL
2.1 Introduction
To get an impression of the metallurgical structure of steel, a piece of steel bar can be cut to expose a longitudinal section,
the exposed surface ground and polished and examined under a microscope.
At modest magnifications, a few particles are seen which are extended in the direction of rolling of the bar, see Slide 1.
These particles are inclusions. They are non-metallic substances which have become entrained within the metal during
its manufacture, mostly by accident but sometimes by design. Their presence does not affect the strength but has an
adverse effect on ductility and toughness. Particular types of inclusion can greatly enhance the machinability of steels and
may therefore be introduced deliberately.

L2_1
Slide 1 : Longitudinal stringers of inclusions in hot rolled steel. (x 500)
To reveal the true structure of the metal, the polished surface must be chemically etched. When this is done, a wide diversity
of microstructure may be seen which reflects the composition of the steel and its processing, see Slides 2 - 5.
The microstructure has a significant effect on the engineering properties as described in later sections of this lecture.
2.2 The Components of Steel
Steels and cast irons are alloys of iron (Fe) with carbon (C) and various other elements, some of them being
unavoidable impurities whilst others are added deliberately.
Carbon exerts the most significant effect on the microstructure of the material and its properties. Steels usually contain
less than 1% carbon by weight. Structural steels contain less than 0,25% carbon: the other principal alloying element
is manganese, which is added in amounts up to about 1,5%. Further alloying elements are chromium (Cr), nickel
(Ni), molybdenum (Mo) etc. Elements such as sulphur (S), phosphorus, (P), nitrogen (N) and hydrogen (H) usually have
an adverse effect on the engineering properties and during the steel production, measures are taken to reduce their
contents. Cast irons generally contain about 4% carbon. This very high content of carbon makes their microstructure
L2_1
and mechanical properties very different from those of steels.
Each of the microstructures shown in Slides 2, 3, 4 and 5 is an assembly of smaller constituents. For example, the 0,2% C
steel of Slide 2 is predominantly an aggregate of small, polyhedral grains, in this case <20µm in size. Closer examination
of one of these grains shows it to be a single crystal. However, unlike crystals of quartz or silicon or copper sulphate,
crystals of iron (Fe) are soft and ductile. The internal structure of these crystals is discussed later.
Slide 2 : Microstructure of hot rolled steel containing 0,2% carbon showing ferrite (white) and pearlite colonies (dark). (x 200)

L2_1
Slide 3 : Microstructure of hot rolled steel containing 0,36% carbon showing increased proportions of pearlite (dark). (x 500)

L2_1
Slide 4 : Microstructure of heat treated hot rolled steel containing 0,36% carbon showing spheroidised pearlite (dark) in
a ferrite matrix. (x 750)
Slide 5 : Microstructure of quenched hot rolled steel containing 0,36% carbon showing bainite (x 200)
The steel of Slide 2 is an example of a polycrystalline substance which has been made visible by polishing and etching.
(a) The surface is polished but not etched.
(b) The surface is polished and etched. Different reflections of the light indicate different orientation of crystals
(polycrystalline structure).
(c) Some etchants affect only the grain boundaries. These etchants are used when it is required to investigate the
grain structure, e.g. to estimate the grain size.
(d) The appearance of etched grain boundaries of Figure 1c.
(e) The appearance of a steel with 0,15% carbon (enlargement 100x). The dark areas are pearlite. The grain boundaries
L2_1
are clearly indicated. The dark areas indicate the presence of carbon.
By adjusting the history of rolling and heating treatment experienced by the steel during its production, the grain size can
be altered. This technique is useful because the grain size affects the properties. In particular, the yield strength is
determined by the grain size, according to the so-called Petch equation:
σy = σo + kd-1/2
where σy is the yield strength
σo is effectively the yield strength of a very large isolated crystal: for mild steel this is ≈ 50N/mm2
d is the grain size in mm
k is a material constant, which for mild steel is about 20N/mm-3/2
Thus, if the grain size is 0.01 mm, σy ≈ 250N/mm2.
2.3 The Crystal Structure
The internal structure of the crystal grains is composed of iron atoms arranged according to a regular three-dimensional
pattern. The pattern is illustrated in Figure 2. This pattern is the body-centred cubic crystal structure; atoms are found at
the corners of the cube and at its centre. The unit cell is only 0,28nm along its edges. A typical grain is composed of about
1015 repetitions of this unit.

L2_1

L2_1
This crystal structure of iron at ambient temperature is one of the major factors determining the metallurgy and properties
of steels.
Steels contain carbon. Some of it, a very small amount, is contained within the crystals of iron. The carbon atoms are
very small and can fit, with some distortion, into the larger gaps between the iron atoms. This arrangement forms what
is known as an interstitial solid solution: the carbon is located in the interstices of the iron crystal.
In the steels of Slides 2, 3 and 4, most of the remaining carbon has formed a chemical compound with the iron, Fe3C,
iron carbide or cementite. Iron carbide is also crystalline but it is hard and brittle. With 0,1%C, there is only a small amount
of Fe3C in steel. The properties of such steel are similar to those of pure iron) [2]. It is ductile but not particularly strong and
is used for many purposes where ability to be shaped by bending or folding is the dominant requirement.
For a steel of higher carbon content, say 0,4%, as shown in Slide 5, a low magnification shows it to be composed of light
and dark regions - about 50:50 in this case. The light regions are iron crystals containing very little dissolved carbon, as in
the low carbon steel. The dark regions need closer examination. Slide 6 shows one such region at higher magnification. It
is seen to be composed of alternate layers of two substances, iron and Fe3C. The spacing of the laminae is often close to
the wavelength of light and consequently the etched structure can act as a diffraction grating, giving optical effects
which appear as a pearl-like iridescence. Consequently, this mixture or iron and iron carbide has acquired the name
'pearlite'. The origin of the pearlite and its effect on the properties of steel are revealed by examining what happens
during heating and cooling of steel.
L2_1
Slide 6 : Polycrystalline structure of steel containing 0,4% carbon. (x 400)
3. IRON-CARBON PHASES
3.1 Influence of Temperature on Crystal Structure
The crystal structure of steel changes with increasing temperature. For pure iron this change occurs at 910° C. The
body-centred cubic (bcc) crystals of Figure 2 change to face-centred cubic (fcc) crystals as illustrated in Figure 3. For
fcc crystals the atoms of iron are on the cube corners and at the centres of each face of the cube. The body-centred position
is empty.

L2_1

L2_1
A given number of atoms occupy slightly less volume when arranged as fcc crystals than when arranged as bcc crystals.
Thus the change of the crystal structure is accompanied by a volume change. This change is illustrated in Figure 4. When
a piece of pure iron is heated, expansion occurs in the normal way until the temperature of 910° C is reached. At
this temperature there is a step contraction of about ½% in volume associated with the transformation from the bcc to
fcc crystal structure. Further heating gives further thermal expansion until, at about 1400°C the fcc structure reverts to the
bcc form and there is a step expansion which restores the volume lost at 910°C. Heating beyond 1400°C gives
thermal expansion until melting occurs at 1540°C. The curve is reversible on cooling slowly.

L2_1
The property that metals may have different crystal structures, depending on temperature, is called allotropy.
3.2 Solution of Carbon in bcc and fcc Crystals
When the atoms of two materials A and B have about the same size, crystal structures may be formed where a number of the
A atoms are replaced by B atoms. Such a solution is called substitutional because one atom substitutes for the other.
An example is nickel in steel.

L2_1
When the atoms of two materials have a different size, the smaller atom may be able to fit between the bigger atoms. Such
a solution is called interstitial. The most familiar example is the solution of carbon in iron. In this way the high temperature
fcc crystals can contain up to 2% solid solution carbon at 1130°C, while in the low temperature bcc crystals, the
maximum amount of carbon which can be held in solution is 0,02% at 723°C and about 0,002% at ambient temperature.
Thus a steel containing 0,5% carbon, for example, can dissolve all the carbon in the higher temperature fcc crystals but
on cooling cannot maintain all the carbon in solution in the bcc crystals. The surplus of carbon reacts with iron to form
iron carbide (Fe3C), usually called cementite. Cementite is hard and brittle compared to pure iron.
The amount of cementite and the distribution of cementite particles in the microstructure is important for the
engineering properties of steel.
The distribution of cementite is highly dependent on the cooling rate. The distribution may be explained by considering the
so-called iron-carbon phase diagram, see Section 3.4.
3.3 Nomenclature
The following nomenclature is used by the metallurgist:
Ferrite or α -Fe The bcc form of iron in which up to 0,02%C by weight may be dissolved.
Cementite Iron carbide Fe3C (which contains about 6,67%C).
Pearlite The laminar mixture of ferrite and cementite described earlier. The overall carbon
content of the mixture is 0,8% by weight.
Austenite or γ -Fe The fcc form of iron which exists at high temperatures and which can contain up to
approximately 2%C by weight.
Steel Alloys containing less than 2% carbon by weight.
Cast Iron Alloys containing more than 2% carbon by weight.
Steel used in structures such as bridges, buildings and ships, usually contains between 0,1% and 0,25% carbon by weight.
3.4 The Iron-Carbon Phase Diagram

L2_1
The iron-carbon phase diagram is essentially a map. The most important part is shown in Figure 5. More details are given
in Figure 6.

L2_1

L2_1

L2_1
Any point in the field of the diagram represents a steel containing a particular carbon content at a particular temperature.
The diagram is divided into areas showing the structures that are stable at particular compositions and temperatures.
The diagram may be used to consider what happens when a steel of 0,5%C is cooled from 1000°C (Figure 6).
At 1000°C the structure is austenite, i.e. polycrystalline fcc crystals with all the carbon dissolved in them. No change occurs
on cooling until the temperature reaches about 800°C. At this temperature, a boundary is crossed from the field
labelled Austenite (γ) to the field labelled Ferrite + Austenite (α + γ), i.e. some crystals of bcc iron, containing very
little carbon, begin to form from the fcc iron. Because the ferrite contains so little carbon, the carbon left must concentrate
in the residual austenite. The carbon content of the austenite and the relative proportions of ferrite and austenite in
the microstructure adjust themselves to maintain the original overall carbon content.
These quantities may be worked out by considering the expanded part of the iron-carbon diagram shown in Figure 7.
Imagine that the steel has cooled to 750°C. The combination of overall carbon content and temperature is represented by
point X.

L2_1

L2_1
All the constituents of the microstructure are at the same temperature. A line of constant temperature may be drawn through
X. It cuts the boundaries of the austenite and ferrite field at F and A. These intercepts give the carbon contents of ferrite
and austenite respectively at the particular temperature.
If, now, the line FA is envisaged as a rigid beam which can rotate about a fulcrum at X, the 'weight' of austenite hanging at
A must balance the 'weight' of ferrite hanging at F. This is the so-called Lever Rule:
Weight of ferrite × FX = Weight of austenite × AX
The ratio of ferrite to austenite in the microstructure is then given by:
Thus, as the steel cools, the proportion of ferrite increases and the carbon content of the remaining austenite increases,
until cooling reaches 723°C. At this temperature the carbon content of the austenite is 0,8% and it can take no more. Cooling
to just below this temperature causes the austenite to decompose. It decomposes into the lamellar mixture of ferrite and
Fe3C identified earlier as pearlite.
The proportions of ferrite and pearlite in the microstructure, say at 722°C, are virtually the same as the proportions of
ferrite and austenite immediately before the decomposition at 723°C. Thus, referring to Figure 7 and using the Lever Rule:
Weight of ferrite × F′ X′ = Weight of pearlite × F′ P
In this case, there should be about twice as much pearlite as ferrite.
For other steels containing less than 0,8%C, the explanation is identical except for the proportions of pearlite in
the microstructure below 723°C. This varies approximately linearly with carbon content between zero at 0,02%C and 100%
at 0,8%C. A typical mild steel containing 0,2%C would contain about 25% pearlite.
For steels containing a greater percentage of carbon than 0,8%, the structure is fully austenitic on cooling from
high temperatures. The first change to occur is the formation of particles of Fe3C from the austenite. This change reduces
the carbon content of the residual austenite. On further cooling, the carbon content of the austenite follows the line of
L2_1
the boundary between the γ field and γ + Fe3C field. Once again, on reaching 723°C the carbon content of the austenite is
0,8%. On cooling further, it decomposes into pearlite as before. Therefore, the final microstructure consists of a few particles
of Fe3C embedded in a mass of pearlite, see Figure 6.
4. COOLING RATE
4.1 Cooling Rate During Austenite to Ferrite Transformation and Grain Size
During cooling of austenite, the new bcc ferrite crystals start to grow from many points. The number of starting
points determines the number of ferrite grains and consequently the grain size. This grain size is important because
the engineering properties are dependent on it. Small grains are favourable. By adding elements like aluminium and
niobium, the number of starting points can be increased. Another important factor is the cooling rate. When cooling is slow,
the new ferrite grains develop from only a few most favourable sites. At high cooling rates, the number of starting points
will be much higher and the grain size smaller. Slides 7 - 9 shows steels with various grain sizes, produced at different
finish rolling temperatures.

L2_1
Slide 7 : Microstructure of pearlite. (x 1000)
Another important factor is that, when a fine grained steel is heated to a temperature in excess of about 1000°C, some of
the austenite grains grow while neighbouring grains disappear. This grain growth occurs during welding in the so-called
heat affected zone (HAZ). This is a 3-5 mm wide zone in the plate adjacent to the molten metal. Microstructural changes in
the heat affected zone usually give rise to a deterioration of the engineering properties of the steel.
4.2 Slowly Cooled Steels
4.2.1 Influence of carbon on the microstructure
The iron-carbon phase diagram in Figures 5 and 6 shows that, for structural steel (between 0,1% and 0,25% carbon),
the formation of ferrite starts at about 850°C and ends at 723°C. It will be remembered that ferrite can contain hardly
any carbon. Consequently, the austenite phase transforms to ferrite and cementite (Fe3C).
When the cooling rate is slow, the carbon atoms have time to migrate to separate "layers" in the microstructure and to form
the structure called pearlite, as shown before in Slides 2, 3, 4 and 5. The ferrite in this mixture is soft and ductile. The
cementite constituent is hard and brittle. The mixture (pearlite) has properties between these two extremes.
The tensile strength properties of a steel containing both ferrite and pearlite roughly scale according to the proportions of
these constituents in the microstructure as seen in Figure 8.

L2_1

L2_1
The dramatic effect of carbon content on toughness is shown in Figure 9. Increasing pearlite content decreases the upper
shelf toughness and increases the ductile-brittle transition temperature.

L2_1

L2_1
Figures 8 and 9 illustrate one of the difficulties in the choice of carbon content. Increasing the carbon content is beneficial
in that it improves yield strength and ultimate tensile strength, but is undesirable in that it reduces ductility and toughness.
A high carbon content may also cause problems during welding, see Section 4.3.
In European Norm 10025, Table 3, [3] the chemical composition for flat and long products is given. An extract is presented
in Figure 10. The designation S235 JR, for example, indicates that the yield strength is at least 235 N/mm2. It is
emphasised that the compositional values in the table are maximum values. Many steelmakers achieve much lower
levels, resulting in better ductility, resistance against brittle fracture, and weldability.

L2_1
The lowest carbon content that can be achieved easily on a large scale is about 0,04%. This content is characteristic of sheet
or strip steels intended to be shaped by extensive cold deformation, as in deep drawing.
Carbon contents of more than 0,25% are used in the wider range of general engineering steels. These steels are usually put
into service in the quenched and tempered state (see below) for a great multiplicity of purposes in mechanical
engineering. High strength bolts for some structural applications would also be steels of this type.
4.2.2 The need for control of grain size
The mechanical properties of steel are affected by grain size. Slides 8 and 9 show microstructures of two samples of the
same batch of mild steel which have been treated, by methods outlined in Section 4.2.3, to give different grain sizes.
Reduction in grain size improves yield strength but also has a profound effect on the ductile/brittle transition temperature,
see Figure 11. Thus, there are several benefits from the same microstructural charge. This is an unusual circumstance
in metallurgy where adjustments to improve one property often mean a worsening of another and a compromise is
necessary. An example of such compromise relates to carbon content, already discussed above.

L2_1

L2_1
Slide 8 : Microstructure of typical hot rolled structural steel containing 0,15% carbon and showing white ferrite grains
and pearlite colonies. (x 200)

L2_1
Slide 9 : Refined microstructure of controlled rolled structural steel containing 0,15% carbon (white ferrite grains and
pearlite colonies. (x 200)
4.2.3 Grain size control by normalising
In Section 4.2.1 the transformations that can occur when steels are cooled slowly are described. To form ferrite and
pearlite from austenite, the carbon atoms in the steel must change their positions. The diffusion processes which transport
the atoms within the solid occur at rates which depend exponentially on temperature. The rate of cooling also affects
these transformations.
If the cooling rate is increased the transformations occur faster. In addition, the diffusional processes cannot keep up with
the falling temperature. Thus, a steel cooled very slowly in a furnace keeps close to the requirements of the phase diagram.
But the same steel, removed from the furnace and allowed to cool in air, may undercool before completing its sequence
of transformations. This more rapid cooling has two effects. First it tends to increase slightly the proportion of pearlite in
the microstructure. Secondly it produces ferrite with a finer grain size and pearlite with finer lamellae. Both of
these microstructural changes give higher yield strength and better ductility and toughness.
Furnace cooled steels are known as fully annealed steels. Air cooled steels are known as normalised steels.
L2_1
Grain size can also be affected by the temperature to which the steel is heated in the austenite range. The grains of
austenite coarsen with time, the rate of coarsening increasing exponentially with temperature. The coarsening is
important because the transformation to ferrite and pearlite on cooling starts at the grain boundaries in the austenite. If the
new structures start growing from points which are further apart in a coarse grained austenite, the grain size of the
resulting ferrite is itself coarser. Thus, steels should not be overheated when austenitising before normalising.
The temperature to which the steel is heated before cooling in air is usually referred to as the normalising temperature.
The requirements of the last paragraph mean that this temperature should be as low as possible, as long as the structure is
single phase austenite. A glance at the phase diagram of Figure 5 shows that the normalising temperature decreases as
the carbon content increases from zero to 0,8%. It should lie in the hatched band shown in Figure 12.

L2_1
4.2.4 Microstructural changes accompanying hot rolling of steels
Structural steel sections are produced by hot rolling ingots or continuously cast strand into the required forms. The
rolling processes have important effects on the development of the microstructure in the materials.
The early stages of rolling are carried out at temperatures well within the austenite range, where the steel is soft and
easily deformed. The deformation suffered by the material breaks up the coarse as-cast grain structure but, at these
high temperatures, the atoms within the material can diffuse rapidly which allows the deformed grains to recrystallise
and reform the equiaxial polycrystalline structure of the austenite.
Heavy deformation at low temperatures in the austenite range gives finer recrystallised grains. If the rolling is finished at
a temperature just above the ferrite + austenite region of the equilibrium diagram and the section is allowed to cool in air,
an ordinary normalised microstructure having moderately fine-grained ferrite results. Modern controlled rolling techniques
aim to do this, or even to roll at still lower temperatures to give still finer grains.

L2_1
If the temperature falls so that the rolling is finished in the ferrite + austenite range, the mixture of ferrite and austenite grains
is elongated along the rolling direction and a layer-like structure is developed. If now, the section is air-cooled, the
residual austenite decomposes into fine-grained ferrite and pearlite, with the later being present as long, cigar shaped, bands
in the material, as in Slide 10. Structural steels are not harmed by microstructures of this sort.
Slide 10 : Microsection through a fillet weld on structural steel showing three distinct regions: the coarse grained cast
structure of the weld deposit, the heat affected zone, and the unaffected microctructure of the parent steel. (x 200)
If the finish rolling temperature drops further, to below 723°C, the equilibrium diagram shows that the structure should be
a mixture of ferrite and pearlite. Rolling in this range is usually restricted to low carbon steels containing less than 0,15%
C because the presence of pearlite makes rolling difficult.
If the temperature is above about 650°C, the ferrite grains recrystallise as they are deformed, as was the case with
austenite. The carbide laths (Fe3C) in the pearlite become broken and give rise to strings of small carbide particles extending
in the direction of rolling, see Slide 11. The ferrite from the pearlite becomes indistinguishable from the rest of the ferrite.

L2_1
Slide 11 : Macrosection through a butt weld on hot rolled steel plate, typical of line pipe weld.
If rolling is done at ambient temperature, the pearlite is broken up in the same way, but the ferrite can not recrystallise. It
work-hardens, i.e. the yield and ultimate tensile strength of the steel increase, and the ductility decreases, see Figure 13.
As cold rolling continues, the force required to continue deformation increases because of the increasing yield
strength. Furthermore, the steel becomes less ductile and may begin to split. The amount of cold rolling that can be done
is therefore very much smaller than that which can be achieved when the steel is hot.

L2_1

L2_1
Of course, cold working need not be applied by rolling. Any way of deforming the material causes work hardening.
For example, high strength steel wire is made by cold-drawing, imparting large deformations. In another example, one type
of reinforcing bar is made by twisting square section bar into a helical form. The cold-deformation produced in this way is
not large but causes significant work hardening.
To restore the ductility and at the same time reduce the work hardened state of the material, it is necessary to reform
the isotropic, polycrystalline structure of the ferrite. Re-heating to temperatures between about 650°C and 723°C allows
the ferrite to recrystallise. The carbide particles are unaffected by this treatment.
Thus, there is another technique for controlling the grain size of steel. The greater the amount of deformation before
the recrystallisation treatment and the lower the temperature of the treatment, the finer is the final grain size. Because this
type of treatment does not involve the formation and decomposition of austenite, it is known as sub-critical annealing.
The resulting microstructure has good ductility and deep drawing characteristics. Sheet steels of low carbon content (< 0,1%
C) are usually supplied in this condition. Objects such as motor car body panels are formed from such steels by cold pressing.
If the material is heated into the austenite range, subsequent cooling reforms the normalised microstructure.
4.3 Rapidly Cooled Steels
4.3.1 Formation of martensite and bainite
Normalising causes steels to undercool below the requirements of the phase diagram before the austenite transforms into
fine ferrite and pearlite. Still further increases in cooling rate give further undercooling and still finer microstructures.
Very rapid cooling by quenching into cold water, causes the formation of ferrite and pearlite to be suspended. The
internal diffusion-controlled rearrangement of atoms needed to form those products cannot occur sufficiently rapidly.
Instead, new products are formed by microstructural shear transformations at lower temperatures. Very fast cooling
L2_1
gives martensite: its microstructure is shown in Slide 12. When martensite forms, there is no time for the formation
of cementite and the austenite transforms to a highly distorted form of ferrite which is super saturated with dissolved
carbon. The combination of the lattice distortion and the severe work hardening resulting from the shear deformation
processes necessary to achieve the transformation cause martensite to be extremely strong but very brittle.
Slide 12 : Longitudinal section of hot rolled structural steel showing dark bands of pearlite in a ferrite matrix. (x 200)
Less rapid cooling can give a product called bainite,. This is similar to tempered martensite where much of the carbon
has come out of solution and formed fine needles of cementite which reinforce the ferrite.
4.3.2 Martensite in welded structures
Civil engineering structures are not heat-treated by heating to, say, 900°C and quenching into water. However, there is
one important circumstance which can produce martensite in localised parts of the structure, and that is welding. The weld
zone is raised to the melting temperature of the steel and the immediately adjacent solid metal is heated to temperatures
well within the austenite range. When the heat source is removed, the whole region cools at rates determined mainly be
thermal conduction into the surrounding mass of cold metal. These rates of cooling can be very large, exceeding 1000°C
per second in some cases and can produce transformation structures such as martensite and bainite. The properties of
L2_1
rapidly cooled steels and the influence of carbon content on the nature of the transformation product - ferrite and pearlite,
or bainite, or martensite - are discussed below.
Figure 14 shows the hardness of martensite as a function of its carbon content. Reheating martensite to temperatures up
to about 600°C causes cementite to precipitate which causes the steel to soften and become much tougher. This reheating
is known as tempering. The extent of these changes increases as the reheating temperature increases, as shown in Figure
15. Tempering at 600°C produces an extremely tough material. What is more, its ductile-brittle transition temperature is
lower than for the same steel in the normalised condition. Bainite has properties similar to those of tempered martensite.

L2_1

L2_1
4.3.3 Quenching and tempering
The process of quenching and tempering, when allied to changes of steel composition, can produce a bewilderingly wide
L2_1
range of properties. Steels heat-treated in this way are used for a multiplicity of general engineering purposes which
demand hardness, wear resistance, strength and toughness. Once again, compromises must be struck between these
desirable properties but generally quenched and tempered steels exhibit optimum combinations of strength and toughness.
For structural purposes quenched and tempered plate is used in large storage tanks, hoppers, earthmoving equipment, etc.
Martensite produced in a weld heat-affected zone as a result of single pass welding would be in its hard and brittle
untempered condition. Furthermore, the formation of martensite from austenite is accompanied by a volume expansion
of approximately 0,4%. This expansion, together with the uneven thermal contractions taking place as a result of
uneven cooling, can produce local stresses of sufficient magnitude to crack the martensite. Because this type of cracking
occurs after the HAZ has cooled, it is referred to as cold cracking. The cracking problem can be further aggravated if the
weld has picked up hydrogen. Sources of hydrogen during welding might include moisture from the atmosphere or
damp welding electrodes. Hydrogen dissolved in the weld metal diffuses to the hard HAZ where it initiates cracks at sites
of stress concentration. This diffusion can lead to cracking which occurs some time, even days, after the welding is
completed. Hard HAZs of low ductility are less able to cope with this problem than are softer and more ductile materials.
This type of cracking is called delayed cracking or hydrogen cracking.
Avoidance of cold cracking and hydrogen cracking requires that the material should not be overhardened. As a rule of
thumb, as-welded hardnesses of less than about HV = 350 are considered to be acceptable. In modern fine grain low
carbon steels the "allowable" hardness may be increased to HV = 400 or even HV = 450.
The danger of hydrogen cracking may also be present in high strength quenched and tempered steels, e.g. 10.9 bolts (Re ≥
900 N/mm2 and Rm ≥ 1000 N/mm2). When such bolts are electroplated with zinc or cadmium, hydrogen may be picked
up from the plating bath. Usually cracking does not occur until sometime after tightening bolts when the hydrogen has
diffused to the sites of stress concentration at the thread roots.
4.3.4 Control of martensite formation
Martensite forms because ferrite and pearlite did not! If follows that metallurgical factors which promote the formation
of ferrite and pearlite inhibit the production of martensite. The ability of a steel to form martensite rather than ferrite
and cementite is called hardenability. Note that this term does not refer to the absolute value of hardness obtained, but to
the ease of formation of martensite.
The most convenient method of assessing hardenability is the so called Jominy end quench. A rod-shaped sample
is austenitised and then quenched by spraying water onto one end face such that different cooling rates are produced along
L2_1
the length of the bar. Thereafter, a flat is ground along its length and the hardness measured as a function of distance from
the quenched end.
Some typical results are shown in Figure 16 for three different steels. For a carbon steel containing 0,08%C and 0,3%
Mn, cooling rates at 700°C of greater than about 50°C s-1 are necessary to form martensite. On the other hand in the 0,29%
C, 1,7%Mn steel, martensite forms at much slower cooling rates. It is mainly the increased carbon content that causes
this difference. In the alloy steel illustrated, martensite is formed even at very slow cooling rates.

L2_1
The significance of these curves depends very much on what is being produced. If it is a thick-section gear wheel, the
alloy steel would be ideal. It could be cooled gently and still produce martensite, the gentle cooling being an advantage
because it would reduce stresses arising from differential contraction rates, and hence reduce the possibility of
quench cracking. Thereafter, it could be tempered to achieve the desired combination of strength and toughness. On the
other hand, for a welded joint, the plain carbon steel would be preferable in which it is difficult to form martensite and
the hardness of any martensite produced would be relatively low.
Welding presents particular problems for the metallurgist. Slide 13 shows a micro section through a typical structural weld.
The micro structures range from the coarse grained cast structure of the weld deposit, to the heat affected zone (HAZ) and
to the unaffected microstructure of the parent metal. Both the deposited weld metal and the HAZ must have adequate
strength and toughness after welding.

L2_1
Slide 13 : Microstructure of martensite (x 500)
For welding, a steel of low hardenability is therefore required. Hardenability is affected by steel composition, including
not only carbon content but other alloying elements as well. To take all of these factors into account, the concept of the
carbon equivalent value is used. There are a number of ways of calculating carbon equivalents for use in
different circumstances. In the context of welding:
C.E. =
If the CE is lower than about 0,4%, the steel can be welded with little or no trouble from martensite and HAZ
hydrogen cracking. As indicated before, the cooling rate is also an important factor, which means that during welding,
thick plates are more susceptible to hydrogen cracking than thin plates. To reduce susceptibility to martensite formation,
the cooling rate (between 800°C and 500°C) can be reduced by preheating the plates before welding.
5. INCLUSIONS
L2_1
5.1 Sulphur, Phosphorus and Other Impurities
One tonne of steel, a cube with sides of about 0,5m, contains between 1012 and 1015 inclusions which can occupy up to
about 1% of the volume. The total content is largely determined by the origins of the ores, coke and other materials used
to extract the metal in the first place, and by the details of steelmaking practice.
The principal impurities which worry steelmakers are phosphorus and sulphur. If not at very low concentrations,
these impurities form particles of phosphide and sulphide which are harmful to the toughness of the steel. Typically, less
than 0,05% of each of these elements is demanded. Low phosphorus contents are relatively easily attained during the
refining of the pig iron into steel, but sulphur is more difficult to remove. It is controlled by careful choice of raw materials
and, in modern steelmaking, by extra processing steps to remove it.
Manganese is always added to steels. It has several functions but the important one in this context is that it combines with
the sulphur to form manganese sulphide (MnS). If the manganese were not present, iron sulphide would form which is
much more harmful than MnS.
Some of the inclusions are too small to be seen with optical microscopes and must be detected by more elaborate
methods. Among this group, which are mainly equiaxial in shape, are nitrides of aluminium and titanium which are
deliberately introduced in order to inhibit the processes which lead to coarsening of grain size.
Other inclusions, large enough to be seen readily with the optical microscope, include entrained particles of slag,
deoxidation products and manganese sulphide. At hot rolling temperatures, these inclusions are plastic and are elongated in
the rolling direction. The result is shown in Figure 1. The properties of steels containing such inclusions reflect both the
volume of the inclusions and the anisotropy of their shapes, see Figures 17 and 18.

L2_1

L2_1

L2_1
In recent years, a number of practices have been introduced which aim to reduce the inclusion content in the molten
steel before it is cast into ingots. Sulphur contents of 0,01% or less are now regularly produced. These processes produce
what have become known as 'clean steels'. The expression is relative. Clean steels still contain many inclusions, but
are significantly tougher than ordinary steels. Inclusion shape control is also practised in better quality steels. Additions
of calcium or cerium and other rare earth elements to the refined molten steel combine with the sulphur in preference to
the manganese. Sulphides of these elements appear in the final microstructure as equiaxial particles and are not so
deleterious to the through-thickness ductility of the material as elongated MnS inclusions. Steels treated in these ways are
used in applications where toughness is of paramount importance and where the extra cost can be justified. Examples
include high integrity pressure vessels, oil and gas pipelines and the main legs of offshore platforms. The introduction
of continuous casting has also improved the quality of conventional structural steels.
5.2 Manganese in Structural Steels
It has been noted earlier that the residual sulphur impurity in steel is less harmful when formed into particles of MnS
rather than iron sulphide. The presence of small amounts of manganese in the steel confers several other benefits. In
normalised steels, it tends to increase the amount of undercooling before the start of the formation of ferrite and pearlite.
L2_1
This gives finer grained ferrite and more finely divided pearlite. Both of these changes improve strength and reduce the
ductile/brittle transition temperature. The dissolution of the manganese atoms in the ferrite crystals also improves the
strength of the ferrite. These effects on properties are summarised in Figures 19 - 21.

L2_1

L2_1

L2_1
If the manganese content is increased too much, its effect ceases to be beneficial and can become harmful because it
increases hardenability, i.e. promotes martensite formation. It is for this reason that a maximum manganese content
is specified: For S355 in Table 3 of EN 10025 this maximum is 1,7% by weight, see Figure 16. A convention has also
grown that distinguishes between plain carbon steels, i.e. steels containing < 1%Mn, and carbon manganese steels i.e. >1%Mn.
L2_1
● Steels used for structural purposes generally contain up to about 0,25%C, up to 1,5%Mn and with carbon equivalents of up
to 0,4%. They are mostly used in the hot-rolled, normalised or controlled-rolled conditions, although low carbon steels
might be used in the cold-rolled and annealed condition. Production processes aim to produce low inclusion contents and
small grain size to improve strength, ductility, toughness and reduce the ductile/brittle transition.
● The elastic modulus of steel is virtually independent of composition and treatment.
● The upper limits on the proportions of carbon and other alloying elements are determined by the effect of carbon equivalent
on weldability, and by the effect of carbon on the ductile/brittle transition temperature. All steels contain manganese, partly
to deal with impurities, such as sulphur, and partly because its presence has a beneficial effect on the ductile/brittle
transition and strength.
● In recent years the development of so-called micro-alloyed steels or HSLA (high strength low alloy) steels has taken
place. These steels are normalised or controlled rolled carbon-manganese steels which have been 'adjusted' by micro-
alloying to give higher strength and toughness, combined with ease of welding. Small additions of aluminium,
vanadium, niobium or other elements are used to help control grain size. Sometimes, about 0,5% molybdenum is added
to refine the lamellar spacing in pearlite and to distribute the pearlite more evenly as smaller colonies. These steels are
used where the improved properties justify the extra cost.
7. REFERENCES
[1] Eurocode 3: 'Design of Steel Structures' ENV 1993-1-1: Part 1.1: General Rules and Rules for Buildings, CEN, 1992.
[2] Rollason, E. C., 'Metallurgy for Engineers', 4th Edition, Arnold, 1973.
[3] Euronorm 10025
1. Honeycombe, R. W. K., 'Steels. Microstructure and Properties'. Arnold.
2. Knott, J. F., 'The relationship between microstructure and fracture toughness' in 'Steels for line pipe and pipeline fittings'
The Metals Society, London 1981.

ESDEP LECTURE NOTE [WG2]
ESDEP WG 2
APPLIED METALLURGY
Lecture 2.2: Manufacturing and Forming

Processes
OBJECTIVE/SCOPE
Presentation of the most recent steelmaking and rolling technologies.
RELATED LECTURES
Lecture 2.1: Characteristics of Iron-Carbon Alloys
Lecture 2.3.1: Introduction to Engineering Properties of Steels
Lecture 2.3.2: Advanced Engineering Properties of Steels
SUMMARY
The blast furnace process, the oxygen steelmaking process and the electric arc furnace process are described.
Ladle steelmaking and casting technologies are also introduced.
Finally, the different rolling processes and rolling conditions are presented, as well as the usual heat treatments.
1. STEELMAKING TECHNOLOGY
1.1 Introduction
Steelmaking technology has greatly changed during the last two decades under the pressure of increased demand,
new specifications and the need to reduce energy and material consumption. Production efficiency has been improved
by increasing the melt capacity of furnaces, implementing on-line computer control modules, and introducing
new technologies, such as the combined blowing process for LD (Linz Donawitz) converters, the Ultra High Power
(UHP) electric furnace, the ladle steelmaking processes and continuous casting.
Steel is produced by two process routes (Figure 1):

● The Blast Furnace-Basic Oxygen Converter (BOF)

● The Electrical Arc Furnace (EAF)
In both routes the process consists of producing refined iron to which is added the required alloying elements to produce
the finished steel specification.
Their respective shares in crude steel production are 70% (BOF) and 30% (EAF). High production rates and low impurity
steel production give a dominant role to the first process route. Low energy costs and an ample supply of recycled scrap
ensure a competitive market share for the second process route, especially when using the UHP furnace.
Before casting, the steel can be refined in the ladle by various processes according to the specification with respect to
its deoxidation state, inclusion content and level of phosphorus, sulphur, nitrogen and hydrogen. At the same time, its
content of carbon, manganese and microalloying elements such as niobium, vanadium and titanium can be adjusted.
This process step is generally referred to as Secondary or Ladle steelmaking.
During the last step of steelmaking, the steel is cast either into slabs, blooms or billets on a continuous casting machine or
into ingots, depending on the final product. Flat products and light shapes are normally produced from continuous
cast feedstock; whereas heavy beams and plates are more likely to follow the ingot route.
1.2.1 The blast-furnace-basic oxygen converter route
Sintered iron ores are reduced to raw iron in the blast-furnace. The raw iron is then transformed into crude steel in the
oxygen converter. As this operation yields energy, additional scrap is introduced in order to control temperature.
Sinter plant
The iron feedstock of the blast furnace is the sinter, which is produced in the sinter plant. In the sinter process, a mix of iron
ore fines, lime and coke (almost pure carbon) is charged in a 45 cm thick layer onto a moving conveyor (Dwight
Lloyd process) and partially melted to form a porous mixture of iron oxides and gangue. Coke consumption is about 50 kg/
t sinter product.
Blast furnace process (Figure 2)


The blast-furnace is a shaft type furnace operating by the counterflow technique: the descending burden of sinter and
coke, charged from the top of the furnace, is heated and reduced by the combustion gases ascending from the tuyere
zone where a hot air blast is injected to burn C to CO. The air blast is compressed by a blower and heated in special stoves
to 1100°C by combustion of the cleaned furnace exhaust gases.
The iron oxides (FeO, Fe2O3) and some of the elements present in the gangue of the sinter are reduced by CO gases to
produce hot metal.
The blast furnace flue dust containing about 40% Fe is recycled by the sinter process.
The high permeability of the sinter and the even distribution of the charge produced by revolving chutes help to
improve productivity of the blast furnace. Coke consumption can be reduced to 470 kg/t of hot metal. The use of
tuyere injectant such as powdered fuel (120 kg/t) or oil (60 kg/t) further reduces the coke consumption of the furnace and so
the cost.
Below the tuyere zone, where the temperature is highest, the molten material collects on the furnace hearth where the
liquid iron (pig iron) separates from the slag by difference in density. The slag and liquid pig iron are tapped from
separate tapholes. The tapped slag is granulated by water jets and removed for use in other products including road
construction materials, fertilizers, etc. The liquid pig iron (hot metal) is tapped into ladles or torpedo cars (capacity: 300 - 400
t) and conveyed to the steel plant for refinement and conversion into steel.
A typical analysis of the hot metal produced at a temperature of 1400°C is:
4,7% carbon (C); 0,5% manganese (Mn); 0,4% silicon (Si); 0,1% phosphorus (P) and 0,04 % sulphur (S), the remainder
being iron (Fe).
Sulphur removal from the melt needs low oxygen activities. Desulphurization is therefore achieved in the hot metal
by injection of calcium carbide fluxes to form calcium sulphide (CaS) or fluxes containing metallic magnesium to form
MgS and CaS.
The oxygen steelmaking process (Figure 3)


The basic oxygen furnace or LD converter (originating from the Linz-Donawitz process started in 1956) is based on
oxygen injection by a lance into the melt of hot metal. Scrap and lime are charged into the converter to cool the melt
and remove phosphorus, silicon and manganese.
The converter is lined with dolomite or magnesite refractory which best resists erosion by slag and heat during
oxygen blowing. The life of a converter lining is about 800 to 1400 heats.
The oxygen burns out the carbon as carbon monoxide CO and carbon dioxide CO2 gas which is collected in the chimney
stack and cleaned of its dust (Fe203, and lime particles, etc.). The elements Mn, Si and P are oxidized and combine with
lime (CaO) and FeO formed by the oxidation of Fe to form a molten slag.
As these oxidation reactions are highly exothermic, the process needs cooling in order to control the temperature of the
melt. This cooling is done by charging scrap (recycled plant and mill scrap) and by adding iron ore during the blowing process.
The oxygen blowing takes 15 to 20 minutes, regardless of the size of the converter (70 to 400 t) because the oxygen flow
rate of the lance is adjusted to the melt weight. The charging and discharging of steel and slag, including sampling
for temperature and analysis of the melt, extends the tap to tap time of a converter to 40 - 60 minutes. The process
is characterized by high productivity and steel of low impurity content.
The steel is tapped to the ladle through a taphole by tilting the furnace. During this operation ferro-alloys for control of the
steel composition are added to the ladle. The oxidized slag containing 12 to 16% of Fe is poured into a cast iron slag pot
after the tapping and is disposed of in a slag yard.
A major development in the oxygen lance blowing technique, known as Lance Bubbling Equilibrium (LBE) was developed
in the mid-seventies and has been widely adopted. Neutral gas, typically argon, is injected through permeable elements in
the bottom of the converter, stirring the melt and slag. This significantly increases metallurgical efficiency (lower Fe losses
and lower P content), productivity, and the heat and mass-balance of the process (cost reduction).
1.2.2 The electric arc furnace route (Figure 4)


Technology
In the electric arc furnace process, the cold metallic charge, mainly scrap, is melted by the energy of electric arcs
generated between the tips of graphite electrodes and the conductive metallic charge.
The three electrodes and the furnace roof are raised and swung away from the furnace shell to allow the charging of scrap.
The electrodes maintain the arc in accordance with the voltage and current level selected to produce the desired power input
at the desired arc length for melting and refining. As the noise generated by the arcs is high during the melt-in-period,
with levels up to 120 dBA, special protection is provided to the operators cabin and the furnace has a special enclosure.
The three phase alternating current is supplied by the low voltage side (300 - 700V) of a high power transformer. The
nominal transformer rating, expressed as KVA/t, extends from 300 to 500 KVA/t for high power furnaces and from 500 KVA/
t upwards for Ultra High Power (UHP) furnaces. These furnaces have an inner diameter of 6 to 9 metres with a capacity of
100 to 200 tons of steel. The tap-to-tap time for these furnaces is 90 to 110 minutes.
The traditional role of the EAF process is producing alloy, tool and carbon steels, and it has been extended by the UHP
furnace to mass steel production. Thus, the concept of the Mini-Mill was born. As the size and productivity of the
furnace increased, the operation of continuous casting for billet and bloom production became possible. Flat
products specification, however, require low residual impurity levels and even higher production rates which cannot
be satisfied by the UHP-furnace.
The share of steel production produced by electric arc furnace is about 30%, at which level it seems to be stabilized as scrap
of acceptable quality becomes more scarce. Pellets and sponge iron of higher price have to be used for critical steel grades
to control the level of injurious elements, i.e. copper, nickel, tin, etc..
Metallurgy
The traditional high power furnace produces high quality carbon and alloy steels by the two slag technique. After melt down
of the scrap charge, a first oxidizing slag removes the elements P and Si and reduces carbon to the required level.
After deslagging, a second basic reducing slag is formed to lower the sulphur and oxygen contents and the steel composition
is adjusted by ferro alloy additions.
The UHP furnace operates with only a lime based oxidizing slag. The melt down of the scrap charge is accelerated by the
use of oxy-fuel burners positioned to reach the cold spots of the large hearth furnace. Oxygen lancing and carbon additions
are used to make a foaming slag which yields better energy input from the arcs and improves dephosphorization. After
this period, the melt is discharged by a taphole. Deoxidation and refining under reducing slag takes place in the steel
ladle (secondary steelmaking). The 100% scrap charge makes the process more vulnerable to injurious "tramp elements",
such as copper, nickel and tin which cannot be removed by the process, their stability being higher than that of iron. To
control these "tramp elements", it is of great importance to identify the sources of the incoming scrap and to make provision
to keep the different qualities separate.
1.3 Secondary or Ladle Steelmaking
Achieving the required properties of steel often requires a high degree of control over carbon, phosphorus, sulphur,
nitrogen, hydrogen and oxygen contents. Individually or in combination, these elements mainly determine material
properties such as formability, strength, toughness, weldability, and corrosion behaviour.
There are limits to the metallurgical treatments that can be given to molten metal in high performance melting units, such
as converters or electric arc furnaces. The nitrogen and phosphorus content can be reduced to low levels in the converter
but very low carbon, sulphur, oxygen and hydrogen contents (< 2 ppm) can only be obtained by subsequent ladle treatment.
To ensure appropriate conditioning of steel before the casting process, the alloying of steel to target analysis and
special refining treatments are carried out at the ladle metallurgy stand.
The objectives of ladle steelmaking can be summarized as follows:
● refining and deoxidation

● removal of deoxidation products (Mn0, SiO2, Al2O3)
● desulphurization to very low levels (< 0,008%)
● homogenisation of steel composition
● temperature adjustment for casting, if necessary by reheating (ladle furnace)
● hydrogen removal to very low levels by vacuum treatment.
1.3.2 Ladle Steelmaking Process: Deoxidation and Refining (Figure 5)

The high oxygen content of the converter steel would result in large blow-hole formation during solidification. Removal of
the excess oxygen ("killing") is therefore vital before subsequent casting of the steel. Steels treated in this way are described
as killed steels. All secondary steelmaking processes allow deoxidising agents to be added to the ladle so that deoxidation
in the converter vessel is not necessary.
Deoxidation can be performed by the following elements classified by increasing deoxidation capacity; carbon - manganese
- silicon - aluminium - titanium. The most popular are silicon and aluminium.
After addition, time must be allowed for the reaction to occur and for homogeneity to be achieved before determination of
the final oxygen content using EMF probes (electro-chemical probe for soluble oxygen content).
As most of these deoxidation agents form insoluble oxides, which would result in detrimental inclusions in the solid steel,
they have to be removed by one of the following processes during the subsequent refining stage:
1. Argon stirring and/or injection of reactants (CaSi, and/or lime based fluxes) achieves:
⋅ homogeneous steel composition and temperature
⋅ removal of deoxidation products
⋅ desulphurization of aluminium-killed steel grades
⋅ sulphide inclusion shape control.
2. Ladle furnace
Stirring of the melt by argon or by an inductive stirring equipment and arc heating of the melt (low electric power, typical
200 KVA/t) allows:
⋅ long treatment times
⋅ high ferro-alloy additions
⋅ high degree of removal of deoxidation products due to long treatment under optimized conditions
⋅ homogeneous steel composition and temperature

⋅ desulphurization, if vigorous stirring by argon.
3. Vacuum-Treatment: RH process (Ruhrstahl-Heraeus) and tank degassing unit.
In the RH process the steel is sucked from the ladle by gas injection into one leg of the vacuum chamber and the treated
steel flows back to the ladle through the second leg. In the tank degasser process, the steel ladle is placed in a vacuum tank
and the steel melt is vigorously stirred by argon injected through porous plugs in the bottom of the ladle.
Vacuum treatment achieves:
⋅ reduction of the hydrogen content to less than 2 ppm
⋅ considerable decarburization of steel to less than 30 ppm when oxygen is blown by a lance (RH - OB)
⋅ alloying under vacuum
⋅ homogeneous steel composition, high degree of cleanness from deoxidation products
High temperature losses (50 - 100°C) are a disadvantage, therefore high superheat of the melt prior to this process is essential.
For most secondary steelmaking techniques it is either desirable or essential to stir the liquid steel. Gentle stirring is
sufficient for inclusion removal; non-metallic inclusions are brought into contact with liquid slag on top of the melt where
they can be fixed. For degassing and desulphurization however, violent stirring is necessary to increase the surface of
steel exposed to vacuum (H-removal) or to mix the steel and slag for good desulphurization efficiency.
1.4 Casting and Solidification
For solidification, steel is cast into moulds either of cast iron for the ingot casting route or into copper moulds for
the continuous casting process.
The heat of liquid steel is extracted by the cold mould surface so that crystals can form and grow. A solid shell is formed
and solidification progresses by maintaining the cooling.

During solidification, the density of metals rises and causes shrinkage. This favours the stripping of the cast from the
mould. However, this contraction also causes internal shrinkage which tends to leave a hollow core in the cast product.
In continuous casting this is prevented by the continuous flow of molten metal to the mould. For ingot casting an
adequate liquid metal pool has to be maintained at the head of the mould by the provision of exothermic material (hot-top).
A second concern during the solidification process is segregation due to the fact that some solute elements have a much
lower solubility in the solid than in the liquid phase. The segregation tendency is most pronounced for sulphur,
phosphorus, oxygen and hydrogen. As has been described, these elements can be controlled to sufficiently low levels by
the metallurgical process steps. The manganese content of steel also combines with sulphur to form manganese
sulphide inclusions which are elongated during rolling and become detrimental to steel properties if significant stresses
are applied perpendicular to the rolling direction. For such applications, shape and content of the sulphide inclusions have to
be controlled closely during the refining stage.
1.4.2 Casting Technologies
1.4.2.1 Ingot casting (Figure 6)

The casting of ingots is a discontinuous process in which the ingot moulds are filled individually by top pouring or in
batches by a central feeder through runners in the base plate. This up-hill teeming technique is characterized by a low
rising speed of the steel in the mould, which reduces cracks and surface defects when casting critical steel grades.
The teeming operation is done directly from the steel ladle through a sliding gate valve at the bottom that regulates the
steel flow, and a nozzle that gives a concentric steel jet.
The ingot weights and sections are fixed by the capacity of the primary rolling mill. The ingot size may vary from 4 to 30 t,
or even higher for forging.
The ingot remains in the mould until solidification is complete. Then the mould is stripped off by crane and left to cool in
the mould yard. The ingot is charged into the soaking pit furnace to equalize and raise the temperature for the rolling process
(≈ 1300°C).
The solidification of an ingot progresses from the bottom (cooled by the base plate and the mould) to the top of the ingot.
In the case of a fully killed (Si + Al) steel melt, with a low free oxygen content, the solidification shrinkage is concentrated
at the upper centre of the ingot. To minimise the development of shrinkage porosity in this region, the top of the ingot
is insulated (hot top) to provide a reservoir of liquid metal to fill up the hollow core. The hot top is subsequently cropped.
This scrap amounts to approximately 12% of the ingot weight.
By deoxidation with silicon alone, the free oxygen content of the melt can be set to a well defined level so that towards the
end of solidification it will react with the carbon of the melt to form CO gas. The formation of these small gas bubbles, or
blow holes, compensates for the shrinkage of steel and top crop losses are small (≈ 2%). The blow-holes are eliminated
during primary rolling. Such steels are referred to as 'balanced' steels.
Ingot casting is very flexible as regards product specifications and the production of small orders on relatively short
delivery terms. It is also indispensable for the forming of heavy shaped profiles like beams, heavy plate or heavy forging pieces.
1.4.2.2 Continuous casting (Figure 7)


The continuous casting process has become the major casting technology for steel plants. The reasons are:
● yield improvement
● energy conservation (direct production of semi-finished products)
● savings in manpower.
The ratio of continuous cast steel has reached 80 - 90% of total raw steel production in the Western World. The advent
and rapid growth of mini-mills could not have occurred without continuous billet casting technology.
The essential feature of the continuous casting process is the oscillating water-cooled copper mould. The main function of
this mould is to form a solidified steel shell having sufficient strength to prevent breakouts below the mould. This is
achieved by the high heat extraction in the mould system. The mould walls are tapered to accommodate the strand
shrinkage over the mould length of 700 mm and to maintain a high heat flux.
The oscillation creates a relative movement between strand and mould, and prevents metal sticking to the mould
surface. Stripping is facilitated by providing an adequate lubricant (casting powders or oil) at the steel meniscus. This
lubricant is also essential to maintain a high heat extraction and prevent breakouts.
On leaving the mould, the strand is cooled by water sprays and is supported by rolls to prevent bulging until solidification
is complete. Strand sections cover the range of semi-finished products, such as billets, blooms or slabs, for the hot
finishing mills. Depending on the section to be cast, a continuous caster is laid out with two (slab), four (bloom or round
caster) or six strands (for billets below 180 mm2 in size).
Modern casters are curved type machines which are cheaper and easier to accommodate in the plant than the original
vertical machines. The curved strand is straightened by rollers after complete solidification and cut to the required length
for further processing in the rolling mills.
Continuous casting technology makes the process continuous so that a number of molten steel batches are cast in sequence.
To achieve a continuous supply of steel to the mould, the steel in the ladle is first cast into a tundish which acts as a
reservoir during ladle changing and distributes the steel to the different moulds of the machine. Tundishes are equipped
with stoppers or sliding gates to regulate the flow rate to the casting speed of the strand. To prevent oxidation by air
exposure, the ladle and tundish streams are shrouded by refactory tubes.
2. FORMING TECHNOLOGY AND HEAT TREATMENTS

2.1 Introduction
There are various methods of forming steel into finished products, including hot forging, hot and cold rolling, seamless
tube making and welded tube making. The most widely used process is hot rolling, which accounts for over 90% of all
steel production.
2.2 Hot Rolling
2.2.1 Description of the Rolling Operation
Hot rolling involves reheating of ingots, slabs, blooms or billets to the region of 1200 - 1300°C and passing the
material between two rolls (Figure 8). The piece of steel may be passed repeatedly back and forth through the same rolls
with the roll gap being reduced progressively.

This operation is done in the hot state because the yield strength of steel decreases as temperature rises. Large deformations
can thus be obtained with modest roll forces. It is necessary to control both the total reduction, which defines the degree
to which the steel is worked, and the reduction in each pass in order to avoid excessive deformation leading to metal
cracking or breakage.
The number of passes depends upon the input material and the size of the finished product; it can be as high as 70 before
the material becomes too cold to roll down further. Plain barrel rolls are used for flat products such as plate, strip and
sheet, while grooved rolls are used for structural sections, rails, rounds, squares, beams, sheet piles, etc.
The basic rolling unit is called a stand and consists of the rolls and a support structure (housing). The rolling mill comprises
the stand or group of stands, complete with auxiliary facilities for control and regulation, such as roll drive motors, roller
tables for entering and removing the metal, shears, scarfers, etc.
The simplest type of mill consists of a two-high stand. Generally, the two rolls can turn in both directions, which
permits reversible operation such that the hot metal is passed repeatedly through the mill in opposite directions
achieving progressive reduction in thickness.
When large reductions are required, four-high stands are used to achieve the required high roll forces. The cylindrical
work rolls, through which the hot metal passes, are of relatively small diameter and are supported above and below by a
second set of larger diameter backing rolls that transmit the force to the work rolls. A four-high stand may also be reversible.
The reduction in thickness of the hot material results in both length increase and sideways spread. The spreading,
which depends mainly upon the amount of reduction, temperature, and roll diameter, must be controlled to give the
correct dimensions and cross-section. Universal Mills have a set of vertical rolls at the delivery side of the horizontal rolls.
In parallel face beam mills, they serve to provide a good dimensional finish to the final product and, in flat product mills,
to edge the plates, improving finish and mechanical characteristics.
In addition to its function of shaping the steel into the required size, hot rolling improves the mechanical properties.
Correct control of the cast steel chemical composition, final rolling temperature and amount of material reduction is
necessary to give products the required physical properties. For certain steel qualities (e.g. high strength with good
impact properties at low temperatures) "controlled rolling" or the QST process of quenching and self-tempering of the
material during rolling is employed. This process involves either delaying or cooling until a specified lower temperature
is reached before the final passes through the mill.
The main product routes for structural steel grades are summarized in Figure 9.

2.2.2 Primary Rolling
The first hot-rolling operation is to convert ingots into the basic shapes shown in Figure 10. This is generally carried out on
a large single-stand, two-high reversing mill, known as a primary or roughing mill. In between the steelmaking plant and
the primary mill there is a bay for stripping moulds from the ingots and a battery of soaking pits. Each pit may hold up to
150 tons of ingots and serves to bring the ingots up to a uniform temperature for rolling and to act as a reservoir
to accommodate fluctuations in the flow of ingots. Normal practice is to charge ingots into the soaking pits immediately
after stripping from the moulds whilst they are still hot. Soaking pit temperatures are generally controlled at 1300°C.


Primary mills are equipped with manipulators for positioning and turning the ingots to enable work to be done on each face
as rolling proceeds. Roll grooves (Figure 11) are arranged to enable a variety of basic shapes to be made. Leaving the
primary mill, the ends of the bar must be removed (cropping), as they have an irregular shape and this zone
concentrates segregation, piping and other defects. The amount to be cropped varies depending on the type of steel
(rimmed, killed, etc), the type of casting (direct, bottom casting, hot topping, etc.) and above all on the quality of the
finished product.
The bar or beam blank, after cropping, is fed in some cases is directly for rolling into another mill to produce billets or
finished sections such as rails or structural sections. More usually the bar is sheared to a set length and passed into stock to
be inspected and conditioned, prior to reheating and rolling into finished products at other mills.
Primary mill outputs typically range from 500.000 tonnes to 5 million tonnes per year.
2.2.3 Finish Rolling
The finish rolling of products for construction work divides broadly into four groups: plates, structural sections, merchant
bar and strip. Structural sections comprise standard shapes, e.g. beams, channels, angles, bulb flats, and special sections. As
a general rule, large sections are rolled directly from ingots, intermediate-size ones from reheated blooms, and small
sections from reheated billets. In all cases the process begins with roughing down, in which the initial square or
rectangular cross-section is gradually shaped in successive roll passes into an outline of the required product. This process
is followed by finish rolling in successive passes to give the final standard shape and dimensions after cooling. Finishing
mill rolling temperatures are usually in the region of 900 - 1000°C. An example of the pass sequence for angle rolling is
given in Figure 12. The rather more specialized method for universal beams and columns is shown in Figure 13. Subject to
mill size and type, section mill outputs are typically from 200.000 to 1 million tons per year.


Merchant bar is a traditional term for small cross-sections such as rounds, squares, hexagons, flats, etc. which are rolled
from reheated billets from continuous in-line mills with as many as 23 rolling stands. Feedstock is generally 100 mm
square billet and pass sequences are of a square, diamond, or oval type, culminating at the last mill stand with the
finished cross-section.
The production of hot-rolled strip is, in many aspects, an extension of plate rolling, with thicknesses in the range of 2-16
mm and widths up to 2 m. Modern mills are fully instrumented and computer-controlled to give a high standard of
dimensional accuracy and finished properties.
2.2.4 Hot Rolling Processes
These processes can be divided into two basic groups, traditional hot rolling and controlled rolling. In traditional hot

rolling, the object is to produce the required shape with the minimum number of roll passes. In controlled rolling, the
objective is to increase the strength and toughness of the steel by careful control of temperature and deformation during rolling.
Hot rolling
In traditional hot rolling, temperatures are kept to a maximum so as to reduce the hot strength of the steel and allow
large reductions in each roll pass. Because of the high temperature, rapid recrystallization and grain growth occurs
between consecutive passes and consequently no grain refinement is achieved. Today, this process is only used for
primary reduction and for low-quality steels where there are no specific requirements for strength and resistance against
brittle fracture.
Controlled rolling
In the 1960's and 1970's, new application fields, such as nuclear power stations and offshore platforms, demanded
structural steel components having improved properties and higher reliability than had been previously available. For
North Sea offshore structures, erected in hostile environments including deep waters, severe storms and low
service temperatures, not only was strength important, but so was resistance to brittle fracture. Attention was also focused
on fabrication properties; easy weldability of steel components under difficult conditions had to be guaranteed. At that time,
it became clear that the traditional hot rolling process was unlikely to achieve these requirements and so new
production technologies, such as controlled rolling, appeared.
Controlled rolling is a generic term for rolling procedures in which the temperature and deformation during rolling
are controlled to achieve desired material properties.
Controlled rolling includes:
● Normalizing rolling (N).

● Thermomechanical controlled rolling (TMCR). This procedure includes the following processes which employ
increased cooling rates, with or without tempering:
⋅ Accelerated cooling
⋅ Quenching and Self-Tempering
Normalizing Rolling

Normalizing rolling is a thermomechanical treatment during which the final deformation is carried out in the
normalizing temperature range (≈ 950°C). The austenite phase completely recrystallises between passes but, because of
the reduced temperature, does not experience grain growth. Consequently, after the final pass, air cooling produces a
material condition equivalent to that obtained after normalizing. The abbreviated designation of this delivery condition is N.
Normalizing rolling can be performed on nearly all mills because the final rolling takes place at relatively high temperatures
(≥ 950°C) such that the power and load capacity of the rolling mill is not exceeded.
Thermomechanical Controlled Rolling
Thermomechanical Controlled Rolling (TMCR) is a thermomechanical treatment in which the final deformation is carried
out in a temperature range where austenite does not recrystallise significantly. On subsequent cooling, the deformed
austenite grain structure leads to a final fine grain ferrite-pearlite microstructure. Usually, the final forming takes place
at temperatures just above that at which austenite begins to transform into ferrite. Thermomechanical controlled rolling leads
to a material condition which cannot be achieved by heat treatment alone. The resulting grain refined steel shows very
desirable toughness properties down to low temperatures for a medium range of product thicknesses and yield strengths.
For several years there has been an increased demand for rolled steel products with yield strengths up to 500 N/mm2 and
in large thicknesses, combined with improved fabrication properties. As TMCR cannot be exploited any further because
the mechanical power of the rolling mills is limited, new production technologies have had to be introduced.
Accelerated Cooling
Accelerated (water) cooling is performed after the final deformation in order to improve mechanical properties by refining
the microstructure. This process has a positive influence on strength as well as on toughness properties and allows the
alloy content to be lowered compared to TMCR alone. The microstructure of accelerated cooled steels consists mainly of
fine-grained ferrite + pearlite and ferrite + bainite, showing low ductile to brittle transition temperatures, i.e. good toughness.
Quenching and Self-tempering
In the Quenching and Self-Tempering (QST) process, intense waterspray cooling is applied to the surface of the product
after the last rolling pass, so that the skin is quenched. Cooling is interrupted before the core is affected by quenching and
the outer layers are then tempered by the heat flow from the core to the surface during a temperature equalization phase.
The QST process has resulted in the creation of a new generation of steel products with high yield strengths up to 500 N/
mm2 and excellent low temperature toughness properties, which are weldable without preheating. Such steels offer
important advantages in terms of weight savings and fabrication costs compared to conventionally produced grades.
Influence of rolling conditions on mechanical properties of the steel
The dominant mechanical properties of steel are tensile properties, i.e. yield strength, tensile strength and elongation,
and toughness or resistance against brittle fracture. Both properties can be influenced to a large degree by the applied
rolling conditions which determine the final grain size and structure (ferrite/pearlite or tempered martensite/bainite).
The main parameters which influence the microstructure and properties are as follows:
● the finish rolling temperature, combined with the deformation rate per pass, influences the grain size of the finished
product: fine grain results if this temperature is situated in the non-recrystallising region (TMCR process) and coarse grain
if the rolling temperature is above that region (Hot rolling)
● the cooling rate of the finished product immediately after the last rolling pass decides its structure and grain size.
Three different types of cooling can be distinguished:
⋅ slow (air) cooling at a rate of less than 1°C/s has little influence on mechanical properties: grain size and structure
are determined by the preceding rolling
⋅ accelerated (water) cooling at a rate higher than 1°C/s but not high enough to quench the product to form martensite.
This process produces a further refinement of the grain size of the ferrite/pearlite structure, substantially improving
toughness and increasing tensile properties
⋅ quenching and self-tempering (QST), which produces tempered martensite in the surface layers and a fine-grained
bainite/ferrite/pearlite structure in the core area. This process increases tensile strength by 120 to 150 N/mm2 relative to
the untreated state and substantially improves toughness.
Depending on the rolling process, the chemical composition of the steel has to be adjusted to obtain the different steel
grades. Figure 14 shows, in terms of carbon equivalent, the alloy content of the steel necessary to reach yield strengths of
255 to 500 N/mm2 for product thicknesses up to 140 mm. The traditional hot rolling process demands not only the
highest alloy contents but it is also not able to cover the whole range of product thicknesses. A lower alloy content
and practically the whole range of product thicknesses can be obtained by combining TMCR rolling and accelerated
cooling.The lowest alloy content, as well as the full range of modern structural steel products, can be obtained by
a combination of TMCR rolling and quenching and self-tempering (QST). By this process route it is not only possible
to produce high strength steels in a most economic way but these steels also have excellent weldability due to their low
alloy content.


Concerning toughness or resistance to brittle fracture, the poorest characteristics are obtained by traditional hot rolling,
which produces steels with ductile to brittle transition temperatures limited to 0°C and higher. Such material characteristics
are inadequate for many applications in modern steel construction, especially in cases of larger product thicknesses and
higher yield strengths. By combining TMCR rolling with accelerated cooling or with quenching and self-tempering, it is
now possible to fulfil these demands. With the accelerated cooling route, and especially the TMCR/QST route, steel can
be produced with yield strengths up to 500 N/mm2 and transition temperatures lower than -60°C. These characteristics
are sufficient to cover the most stringent specifications arising from high technology areas such as the offshore industry or
high-rise building construction.
● Steel production involves the refining of molten iron, the removal of impurities and the addition of alloying elements.
● The process may take place in an oxygen converter, yielding low impurity steel from molten iron (derived mainly from
iron ore) at high rates of productivity. Alternatively, electric arc furnaces may be used to process scrap steel.
● Further refinement of the steel to achieve the required composition is carried out in the secondary or ladle steelmaking unit
by the addition of appropriate elements and removal of unwanted products.
● Molten steel is solidified using either continuous casting into semi-finished products or by casting ingots.
● Structural steel products are most commonly manufactured by hot rolling - squeezing the steel between rollers to achieve
the required cross-section shape.
● Cold rolling produces a wide range of thin steel products, often with surface coatings, that have good surface quality
and forming qualities.
● Special techniques are required for the manufacture of structural hollow sections.
● By controlling the temperature regime during rolling, improved steel characteristics can be obtained.
1. The Making, Shaping and Treating of Steel Edited by Harold E McGannon USS (United States Steel) 10th Edition
Published 1985.
2. Brockenbrough, R. L., Metallurgy Chapter 1.1 Constructional Steel Design, an International Guide, 1992.
3. Alexander, W., Metals in the Service of Man, Penguin Books, London, 1989.
4. Tamura, I, Theromechanical Processing of High Strength Low Alloy Steels, Butterworths, 1988.

ESDEP WG 2
APPLIED METALLURGY
Lecture 2.3.1 Introduction to the

Engineering Properties of Steels
OBJECTIVE/SCOPE
To present the essential engineering properties of structural steels, introducing their principal metallurgical characteristics.
PREREQUISITES
None
RELATED LECTURES
SUMMARY
This lecture provides a brief introduction to the crystalline nature of metals and the structure-sensitivity of the
material properties. It explains the effect of dislocations on mechanical strength and demonstrates the use of the tensile
stress/strain curve as the main means of characterizing strength. It introduces the concept of Poisson's ratio, multi-axial
stress states, strain hardening and the influences of temperature and strain rate. It describes the metallurgical and
mechanical means of improving strength. It introduces the concept of hardness.
1. INTRODUCTION

1.1 Nature of Metals
Metallic bonding is a consequence of the metal atoms giving up valence electrons to a 'free electron gas'. Metallic structures
at the atomic level are then envisaged as almost close-packed arrays of metal ions surrounded by the electron gas. The
bonding is, in most cases, non-directional. As a consequence the common metallic crystal structures are face-centred cubic, e.
g. Cu, Al, Ni, or body-centred cubic, e.g. Fe. (Some metals exist with a hexagonal close-packed structure, e.g. Zn, Cd, but
these are not commonly used for structural applications.)
Metals (and alloys) with cubic structures exhibit four characteristic metallic properties, namely:
● good ductility (or malleability).

● high thermal conductivity.
● high electrical conductivity.
● metallic lustre.
Ductility is a consequence of the lack of directionality in the bonding of the atoms and the close-packed nature of the
crystal structures which normally allows profuse crystallographic slip to occur under stress. The non-directionality in
the bonding also allows thermal vibrations to be readily transmitted from one vibrating atom to its neighbours, hence the
high thermal conductivity. The existence of free electrons provides for high electrical conductivity. These free electrons
are also responsible for metallic lustre since incident light of a wide range of wavelengths can be readily absorbed and
re-radiated.
1.2 Structure-Sensitive and Structure-Insensitive Properties
Before embarking on an examination of the properties of interest, the meaning of structure-sensitivity and
structure-insensitivity, in the context of material properties, must be clarified.
Structure-insensitive properties are those which are not influenced significantly by changes in microstructure
or macrostructure. It is recognised that many of the physical properties of a material, e.g. elastic modulus, bulk density,
specific heat, and coefficient of thermal expansion, do not vary other than by small amounts from specimen to specimen of
a given material, even if the different specimens have been subjected to very different working and/or heat treatment
processes. This insensivity is present despite the fact that these processes may have produced quite substantial
microstructural and macrostructural modifications. On the other hand most of the mechanical properties are very dependent
on these modifications. Thus, for instance, the yield strength, ductility and fracture strength are seen to be structure-sensitive.
2. STRENGTH

2.1 Dislocations and Plastic Deformation
For an understanding of the mechanical behaviour of metals, it is necessary to consider both elastic and plastic
deformation. Elastic deformation is reversible, i.e. deformation lasts only as long as load is applied. Hooke's laws
connect elastic strain with stress as follows:
σ=E.ε
τ=G.γ
where
σ and ε are the uniaxial stress and strain respectively
τ and γ are the shear stress and shear strain.
E is the Young's modulus (210000 N/mm2)
G is the shear modulus (80000 N/mm2)
Response of a simple lattice to shear loading is shown in Figure 1. Initially the response is elastic, Figure 1(b), i.e. when
the load is removed all the deformation is recovered. Beyond a limiting stress known as the yield stress, the
deformation becomes elastic-plastic, Figure 1(c); when the load is removed only the elastic deformation reverses and the
plastic deformation remains, Figure 1(d). This figure shows that crystallographic planes have moved against each other.
Simple equations for plastic deformation (corresponding to Hooke's law for elastic deformation) do not exist.

Theoretical estimates of the critical shear stress required to move a crystallographic plane one slip unit give τcrit ~ G/
(2π). Measurements show that the highest strength steels attain approximately 10% of the theoretical strength.
However structural steels have strengths which are two orders of magnitude less than the theoretical value. Therefore,
there must be a mechanism which facilitates the slipping of crystallographic planes. This mechanism is the presence of
lattice defects called dislocations. Figure 2 shows an example of a simple dislocation. During plastic deformation, a
dislocation moves through the atomic lattice within the crystal, Figure 3.

A simple analogy for dislocation motion is to consider a carpet containing a ruck. By applying a small force to the ruck, it
can be moved over the length of the carpet resulting in an overall displacement of the carpet by a small increment. In
the absence of the ruck, a very large force would be required to overcome the friction between the complete carpet and
the floor.
Dislocations distort the surrounding lattice elastically. Some areas are compressed whilst others are stretched. These
elastically deformed regions interact with other defects, i.e. with solute atoms, with other dislocations, with grain
boundaries and precipitates. These obstacles impede dislocation movement making plastic deformation more difficult.
2.2 Stress-Strain Curve for Simple Tension Specimen
The mechanical properties of materials are determined using standardised test pieces and testing procedures. For
ductile materials like most steels, tensile tests are the commonly applied testing method. Brittle materials are usually tested
by bending or compression.

Tensile properties are usually measured using long and narrow specimens (Figure 4) which guarantee a uniaxial stress
state. Round cross-sections are preferred, although rectangular specimens are employed for plate and strip and for
the determination of deep drawing properties. Important parameters that have to be controlled during tensile tests are strain
rate and testing temperature. The strain rate is controlled by the cross-head speed of the testing machine; the temperature can
be regulated by a furnace or a cooling chamber.
Load (F) and elongation (∆L) are measured during testing, from which the stress (σ)-strain (ε) curve can be obtained by

taking the test piece dimensions into account. The nominal or engineering stress σn is the load F divided by the original
cross-section area So:
σn = F/So (1)
The nominal or engineering strain εn is the ratio of the change in length (L-Lo) to the original length Lo:
εn = (L - Lo) / Lo = ∆L / Lo (2)
Figures 5 and 6 show the stress-strain curves obtained by Equations (1) and (2) for two types of steel.


The engineering stress-strain curve can be divided into three regions: elastic deformation, uniform plastic elongation
with continuously increasing stress (ε ≤ εu) and non-uniform plastic elongation (ε >εu).
In most metals there is a gradual transition from elastic to plastic behaviour and it is necessary to define a proof stress,
usually Rp0,1 or Rp0,2 in order to characterise the onset of yielding. These are stresses at which a permanent elongation of 0,1
or 0,2% of the initial gauge length is obtained.
Some metals and especially mild steels show a discontinuity between the elastic and plastic regimes with a marked yield
point followed by a short period of non-uniform plastic strain (Figure 6). This yielding phenomenon is described by:
● the upper yield stress ReH at the initiation of yielding.

● the lower yield stress ReL, which is the stress value during propagation of the Lüders bands.
● the Lüders strain εLüd (about 1-2% for mild steels).
The reason for this behaviour is that the dislocations are pinned by interstitially dissolved Carbon and/or Nitrogen atoms.
These dislocations have to be unpinned by the upper yield stress. Once the dislocations are released they can continue to
move at the lower yield stress. This process does not take place homogeneously over the whole specimen. Markings, known
as Lüder's bands indicating plastically deformed regions, appear at 45° to the direction of loading and expand across the
whole gauge length of the specimen.
In the range of uniform elongation, further plastic deformation is only possible by a continuously increasing load.
The dislocation density grows with increasing deformation, making further deformation more difficult due to the
interaction between the dislocations. This effect is referred to as strain or work hardening. The rate of strain hardening (dσ/
dε) is high initially but decreases as plastic deformation increases.
In the third region of deformation the specimen continues to become narrower, but this now takes place locally resulting in
the necking shown in Figure 7.

The stress at which necking begins is the ultimate tensile stress Rm=Fmax/So, the corresponding strain is the ultimate strain
εu. Following the onset of necking, the load necessary to maintain elongation decreases although the local stress within
the necking region continues to increase. Continued deformation leads to fracture, which is characterised by the fracture
stress σf and the fracture strain εr. The percentage reduction of area at fracture
Z = 100 (So - Su)/So
is a measure of the material's ductility, where Su is the minimum cross-section area at fracture in the necked region.
For the engineering stress-strain curve, both stress and stain are related to the initial specimen dimensions (So, Lo). Because
the cross-section and length change continuously during deformation, these equations do not give a true indication of the
stress and strain history. For a better description of the material properties, the change of the cross-section area must be
taken into account. The true stress and the true strain are defined as follows:
σt = (4)

where S is the instantaneous cross-section area.
εt = for ε ≤ εu. (5)
Considering that plasticity takes place under conditions of constant volume, the relation between true and engineering
stress and strain in the region of uniform elongation can be derived:
σt = σn (1 + εn) (6)
εt = ln (1 + εn) (7)
In the region of necking, the instantaneous cross-section of the specimen must be measured to obtain the true stress and the
true strain. The true strain (Figure 8) is:
εt = for 0 ≤ ε ≤ εr (8)

For the determination of the true stress, a correction factor km must be taken into account because of the multiaxial stress

state resulting from necking.
Figure 9 shows the engineering stress-strain curve (1) and the corresponding true stress-true strain curve without (2) and
with (3) consideration of the multiaxial stress state. Note that the true strain becomes much larger than the engineering
strain due to necking and that strain hardening is always positive.

2.3 Multi-axial Response
2.3.1 Poisson's ratio
The previous section discussed the longitudinal response of a simple tensile specimen. If measurements of transverse
strain (εtrans) had also been taken it would have been found that the specimen became narrower as it extended. In the
elastic region εtrans = υε, where υ, called Poisson's Ratio, has the value of about 0,3. This implies that the volume of
the elastically deformed material is increasing because = ε - 2εtrans = 0,4ε. In the plastic region, with much higher
strains, the volume of material does not change significantly and εtrans ≈ 0,5ε which implies that Poisson's ratio has a value
of 0,5. This constant volume condition is most clearly illustrated in the necked region as rupture approaches. The locally
higher longitudinal strains, are accompanied by high transverse strains giving the local necking.
2.3.2 Multi-axial stress states and their influence on yielding
In many engineering situations stresses exist in more than one direction. Examples are shown in Figure 10. The direction
and magnitude of these stresses influence the onset of yielding. In the balanced triaxial compression shown in Figure 10a,
the material cannot yield because it has "nowhere to go" until there is a breakdown in the atomic structure of the crystals
at several orders of magnitude of stress greater than the uniaxial yield stress. In the two-dimensional pure shear case of
Figure 10b the tendency to expand in the x-direction from the tensile stress σ1 is "encouraged" by the y-direction
compression stress σ2, and vice versa.


Different mathematical expressions have been developed to describe this interactive yield, and different formulations prove
to be more accurate for different materials. Figure 11a illustrates the two most common criteria for metals under a
two-dimensional stress state. The Hencky-von Mises expression which is usually used for steel and for three
dimensional stresses, is given by:
σy = (1/√2) {(σ1 - σ2)2 + (σ2 - σ3)2 + (σ3 - σ2)2}½
where σ1, σ2 and σ3 are the three principal stresses.

2.3.3 Strain hardening under multi-axial stresses
Figure 11b shows the most common model for work hardening in the presence of multi-axial stresses. In isotropic
work hardening the yield surface expands uniformly, as shown.
2.4 Influence of Temperature and Strain Rate
Most engineering structures operate at ambient temperatures and are subject to loading rates that are sufficiently slow not
to influence response significantly. However, elevated temperatures can be encountered in service (boiler plant) or by
accident (fire). Impact and other accidental loading can lead to strain rates whose influence cannot be ignored.

2.4.1 Temperature
The movement of dislocations is facilitated by increasing temperature. Both yield and ultimate strengths are reduced as a
result. In structural steels there is little loss of strength up to about 300°C. Thereafter there is a progressive loss of strength
with increasing temperature. At 600°C the strength is typically 50% of that at ambient temperature.
Creep, i.e. increasing strain at constant stress, in structural steels can be discounted at ambient temperature. However
at temperatures in excess of about 500°C creep deformation becomes significant. The influence of elevated temperatures
on both stiffness and strength is illustrated in Figure 12.

2.4.2 Strain rate
Dislocation movement is a time-dependent process. It is therefore understandable that high strain rates make yielding
more difficult which is reflected in increased yield stress. The most widely accepted model for strain rate effects is the
Cowper-Symonds expression given below. The significance of this effect on the tensile stress/strain behaviour is illustrated
in Figure 13.


σ/σs = 1 + {έ/D}1/q
where:
έ = strain rate
σ = dynamic yield stress
σs = static yield stress.
D and q are dimensionless curve fitting coefficients.
D = 40.4 s-1 and
q = 5 for mild steel
2.5 Means of Strengthening
The strength of a steel can be described as the resistance against the onset of plastic deformation under an external load.
Plastic deformation occurs by the movement of dislocations through the metal lattice which enables single lattice planes to
slip consecutively over one another. If this motion is hindered by lattice defects, a higher external load must be applied so
that the dislocations can overcome the obstacles. It is for this reason that means of increasing the strength of steels always
aim at hindering dislocation movement. Obstacles to dislocation motion can be classified according to Table 1.
TABLE 1
Dimension Generator Mechanism
0 (point) solute solid solution

atoms hardening
1 (linear) dislocations strain

hardening
2 (plane) grain grain

boundaries refinement

3 (spatial) particles precipitation/

dispersion
hardening
Strengthening of Steels
● Solid solution hardening
The increase of strength is produced by foreign atoms which are dissolved in the metal matrix. Since foreign atoms differ
in size, physical and electrical properties compared to the metal matrix, they cause a lattice distortion that hinders
the movement of dislocations. The increase of yield stress depends on the kind, amount and distribution of the foreign
atoms, Figure 14. It can be seen that the increase of strength caused by C and N is especially high. This is due to the fact
that these atoms dissolve interstitially between the atoms of the matrix, which results in a high lattice distortion. The
other elements shown in Figure 14 dissolve substitutionally and occupy regular lattice positions producing less distortion.

Increasing strength by solid solution hardening leads to a decrease in toughness. (Toughness is the ability of a material to
avoid brittle fracture - see Lecture 2.3.2.) Therefore, the potential level of strength attainable by solid solution hardening
is usually not sought because of the possibility of brittle fracture.

● Strain hardening
Linear lattice defects are the dislocations themselves. The lattice distortion surrounding the dislocation disturbs the
movement of other dislocations. This interaction increases with increasing dislocation density.
When cold forming steel, e.g. cold rolling, dislocations must continuously be produced because they permanently block
each other. The dislocation density rises and increases the strength of the steel by strain hardening (Figure 15). Such
hardening is accompanied by a pronounced reduction in toughness.

● Grain refinement
Grain refinement is the most important strengthening mechanism in structural steels because it is the only method
of strengthening which is accompanied by an increase in resistance to brittle fracture.
The grain boundaries are barriers to dislocation motion. Consequently as the grain size is decreased, the number of
barriers increases and this is reflected in increased yield strength. The effect of grain size on yield stress is described by
the Hall-Petch equation:
ReL = σiy + ky . d-1/2
where
ReL is the minimum yield strength
σiy is the friction stress; the stress at which yielding begins in a material with very large grains
ky is the grain boundary resistance
d is the mean grain diameter.
● Dispersion and precipitation hardening
When a moving dislocation encounters a particle it can pass by only two mechanisms:
⋅ cutting through the particle, or
⋅ bowing between and around particles, leaving a section of the dislocation as a ring around the particle.
In steels, the dominant particle hardening mechanism is dislocation bowing. Strength is then inversely related to
the interparticle spacing. Consequently strength increases as the particle size decreases and as the volume fraction
of precipitates increases.
Strengthening particles are obtained most usually by the precipitation process in the matrix during heat treatment. In steel
this is most familiar during tempering of quench hardened medium carbon steels, but it also occurs in structural steels
during cooling after controlled rolling or during subsequent tempering treatments.
2.6 Hardness
"Hardness" is a measure of resistance to deformation when a loaded indenter is forced to penetrate the surface of the
metal under test. The penetration of the indenter into the specimen leads to a local deformation which is both elastic and plastic.
Testing methods can be either static or dynamic. Both elastic and plastic deformation are considered for the evaluation
of dynamic hardness, expressed in terms of the absorbed energy. Dynamic testing methods include impact hardness testing
and Shore hardness testing. Their advantage lies in the possibility of quick testing which can be performed at any
location. Compared to static hardness testing methods, the dynamic methods are less precise.
The common static testing methods of indentation hardness differ in the type of indenter forced into the metal. The Brinell
test uses a hardened steel ball (EN 3), the Vickers test (EN 5) a square-based diamond pyramid (included angle = 136°),
and the Rockwell test (EN 10004) is performed with a diamond cone indenter (included angle = 120°).
The indenter is slowly (almost statically) pressed into the specimen. After removing the load, the size of the indentation
is measured. Compared to dynamic testing, only the plastic deformation is taken into account. Static testing methods
are favoured in industry and research because of the consistency of test results.
The different hardness measurements correlate quite closely, especially at lower values. The correlation of hardness values
with other measures of resistance to deformation, such as tensile properties, is more complicated but a useful engineering
rule of thumb is that the tensile strength in units of Nmm-2 is approximately 3 times the Vickers hardness.
● Most engineering properties of metals are structure sensitive.
● The principal quantities defining the mechanical properties of metals under non-repeating loading are:
⋅ Young's modulus.
⋅ Poisson's ratio.
⋅ Yield stress, or proof stress for metals without a defined yield point.
⋅ Ultimate strength.
⋅ Hardness.
● These properties may be influenced by:
⋅ temperature.
⋅ strain rate.
⋅ multi-axiality.
⋅ geometry.
● The optimal combination of strength and toughness may be achieved by controlling:
⋅ alloying content.
⋅ level of impurities.
⋅ physical treatment.
1. Leslie, W.L., The Physical Metallurgy of Steels, Hemisphere Publishing Corporation, Washington, New York, London, 1981.
2. Dahl, W., Steel - Handbook of Materials Research and Engineering Volume 1, Springer-Verlag, Düsseldorf 1990.
APPENDIX 1
Typical mechanical property data for weldable structural steels
Steel Condition Yield Ultimate %

(Grade Stress Tensile Elongation
according to (N/mm2) Strength to Fracture
EN10025) (N/mm2) (Lo =
5,65√So)
Grade Fe430B hot-rolled 275 470 22

(0,25%
carbon)
Grade Fe430D normalised 275 470 22

(0,19%
carbon)

Grade Fe510B hot-rolled 355 550 20

(0,23%
carbon)
Grade Fe510D normalised 355 550 20

(0,18%
carbon,
0,10%
vanadium)
Typical mechanical property data for some common non-ferrous metals and alloys
Metal or alloy 0,2% Ultimate %

Proof Tensile Elongation
Stress Strength to fracture
(N/mm2) (N/mm2) (Lo -

5,65√So)
Aluminium 34 77 47
(annealed)
Aluminium (cold 94 115 13

worked)
Duralumin 123 231 15

(annealed)
Duralumin (age- 278 432 15

hardened)
Cooper (annealed) 54 223 56
Copper (cold 285 316 13

worked)
70-30 brass 85 320 65

(annealed)

70-30 brass (cold 378 463 20

worked)
Typical values of Young's modulus for metals
Metal Al Au Ti Cu Fe Ni
kN/ 70 79 120 130 210 200

mm2

ESDEP WG 2
APPLIED METALLURGY
Lecture 2.3.2: Advanced Engineering

Properties of Steels
OBJECTIVE/SCOPE
To provide a sequel to Lecture 2.3.1, introducing toughness as an important engineering property.
PREREQUISITES
Lecture 2.3.1: Introduction to the Engineering Properties of Steels
RELATED LECTURES
Lecture 2.1: Characteristics of Iron Carbon Alloys
SUMMARY
This lecture introduces the phenomena of ductile and cleavage fracture and the engineering property of toughness.
It summarizes the influences of temperature loading rate, multi-axial stress conditions and geometry on toughness. It
introduces the notched impact bend test as the most common means of monitoring toughness. It introduces linear-elastic
and elastic-plastic fracture mechanics. It presents the wide plate test and assessment techniques based on fracture mechanics.
It summarizes the means of obtaining an optimum combination of strength and toughness. It introduces the concept of
fatigue, the principal influences on fatigue behaviour, and the means of ensuring adequate fatigue endurance.
1. TOUGHNESS
Metals often show quite acceptable properties when small smooth bar specimens are tested in tension at ambient
temperature and at slow loading rates. However they fail in a brittle manner when large components are loaded or when
the loading is performed at low temperatures or applied rapidly. Susceptibility to brittle fracture is enhanced if notches or
other defects are present. Resistance to brittle fracture is commonly referred to as toughness.
Metals with a body-centred cubic lattice, e.g. pure iron and ferritic steels have the unfortunate characteristic that their
fracture mechanism undergoes a dramatic transition with decreasing temperature from a tough ductile mode in the
higher temperature region to a brittle cleavage mode at lower temperatures. Face-centred cubic metals, e.g. copper,
aluminium and austenitic steels, do not fail by cleavage under all loading conditions and at all temperatures.
1.1 Types of Fracture
Ductile fracture involves the formation, growth and coalescence of voids. A simple analogy is the fracture of plasticene
or putty containing particles of sand. The voids form around precipitates or non-metallic inclusions, Figure 1. The ductility
or toughness of the material is basically dependent on the volume fraction of the void nucleating particles, i.e. the proportion
of sand in the previous analogy. The amount of deformation prior to rupture and thus the toughness of the material
increases with its purity.

The macroscopic orientation of a ductile fracture surface may vary from 90° to 45° to the direction of the applied stress.
In thick sections most of the fracture surface tends to be oriented at 90° to the direction of the applied tensile stress.
However, ductile fractures commonly have a "shear-tip" near a free boundary as the transverse stresses reduce to zero
causing the plane of maximum shear to be at 45° to the direction of the applied stress.
Cleavage fracture occurs in body-centred cubic metals when the maximum principal stress exceeds a critical value, the
so-called microscopic cleavage fracture stress σ∗f.
Certain crystallographic planes of atoms are separated when the stress is sufficiently high to break atomic
bonds. Crystallographic planes with low packing densities are preferred as cleavage planes. In steels the preferred
change planes are the bee cube planes.
The fracture surface lies perpendicular to the maximum principal stress and appears macroscopically flat and crystalline.
When viewed by eye a cleavage fracture usually displays characteristic chevron markings which point back to the origin of
the fracture. When brittle fracture occurs in a large structure, such markings can be invaluable in identifying the site of
crack initiation. When viewed in the microscope, cleavage cracks can be seen to pass through the grains along
preferred crystallographic planes (transgranular cleavage).
If grain boundaries are weakened by precipitates or by the enrichment of foreign atoms, cleavage cracks can also
propagate along grain boundaries (intergranular cleavage).
1.2 Influence of Temperature, Loading Rate, Multi-axiality and Geometry
Temperature influences fracture behaviour mainly due to its effect on yield strength and the transition from ductile to
cleavage fracture. Figure 2 shows schematically the yield strength and the microscopic cleavage fracture stress as a function
of temperature for a ferritic steel. The yield strength falls with increasing temperature, whereas the cleavage fracture stress
is hardly influenced. The transition temperature is defined by the intersection between the yield strength and cleavage
fracture strength curves. At lower temperatures specimens fail without previous plastic deformation (brittle
fracture). Somewhat above the transition temperature, cleavage fracture can still occur due to the effect of deformation
induced work hardening. At higher temperatures cleavage is not possible and the fracture becomes fully ductile.

The yield strength rises with increasing loading rate (marked with dashed line in Figure 2) whereas the microscopic
cleavage fracture stress shows almost no strain rate dependence. This rise causes the ductile-brittle transition temperature
to move to higher values at higher rates of loading. Thus, an increase of loading rate and a reduction of temperature have
the same adverse effect on toughness.
A multi-axial stress state has an important influence on the transition from ductile to cleavage fracture. A triaxial state of
stress, in which the three principal stresses σ1, σ2 and σ3 are all positive (but not equal), inhibits or constrains the onset
of yielding. Under these conditions, yielding occurs at a higher stress than that observed in a uniaxial or biaxial state of
stress. This situation is illustrated in Figure 3 where it can be seen that the transition temperature arising from the
intersection of the cleavage and yield strength curves is shifted to a higher temperature, i.e. the metal has become more brittle.

The most familiar situation in which multi-axial states of stress are encountered in steel structures is in association with
notches or cracks in thick sections. The stress concentration at the root of the notch gives rise a local region of triaxial
stresses even through the applied loading may be uni-directional (Figure 4).

1.3 Notched Impact Bend Test
The notched impact bend test is the most common test for the assessment of susceptibility to brittle fracture because it
is inexpensive and quickly performed. 10mm square bars with a machined notch, (ISO-V or Charpy specimens), are struck by
a calibrated pendulum. The energy absorbed from the swinging pendulum during deformation and fracture of the test
specimen is used as a measure of the impact energy. The notch impact energy consists of elastic and plastic deformation
work, fracture energy and kinetic energy of the broken pieces.
Figures 5 and 6 show the notch impact energy as a function of testing temperature. At low temperatures the failure of
ferritic steels occurs by cleavage fracture giving a lustrous crystalline appearance to the fracture surface. At high
temperatures failure occurs by ductile fracture after plastic deformation. In the transition range small amounts of
ductile fracture are found close to the notch but, due to the elevated stresses near the crack tip, the fracture mechanism
changes to cleavage. Throughout the transition range the amount of cleavage fracture becomes less and the notch
impact energy rises as the testing temperature increases.


In order to characterise the transition behaviour, a transition temperature is defined as the temperature at which:
● a defined value of the notch impact energy is reached (eg. T27J, T40J),
● half of the maximum impact energy value is reached (T50%), or
● 50% ductile fracture is observed on the fracture surface (FATT 50: Fracture Appearance Transition Temperature, 50%
ductile fracture).

The impact energy values obtained show a high amount of scatter in the transition area because here the results depend on
the local situation ahead of the crack tip. Beyond this area, scatter becomes less because there is no change of
fracture mechanism.
The notched impact bend test gives only a relative measure of toughness. This measure is adequate for defining different
grades of toughness in structural steels and for specifying steels for well established conditions of service. For the
assessment of known defects and for service situations where there is little experience of brittle fracture susceptibility,
a quantitative measure of toughness which can be used by design engineers is provided by fracture mechanics.
1.4 Fracture Toughness
Fracture mechanics provides a quantitative description of the resistance of a material to fracture. The fracture toughness is
a material property which can be used to predict the behaviour of components containing cracks or sharp notches. The
fracture toughness properties are obtained by tests on specimens containing deliberately introduced cracks or notches
and subjected to prescribed loading conditions.
Depending on the strength of the material and the thickness of the section, either linear-elastic (LEFM) or elastic-
plastic fracture mechanics (EPFM) concepts are applied.
The Linear-Elastic Fracture Mechanics Approach
The stress intensity factor KI describes the intensity of the elastic crack tip stress field in a thick, deeply cracked
specimen loaded perpendicular to the crack plane.
KI = Y σ (1)
where
σ is the nominal stress
a is the crack depth

Y is the correction function dependent on the crack and test piece geometry
The critical value of the stress intensity factor for the onset of crack growth is the fracture toughness KIC.
Another material property obtained from linear-elastic fracture mechanics is the energy release rate GI. It indicates how
much elastic strain energy becomes free during crack propagation. It is determined according to Equation (2):
GI = π Y2 σ2 a / E = K12 / E (2)
where
E is the Young's modulus
Analogous to the stress intensity factor, crack growth occurs when GI reaches a critical value GIc.
The fracture toughness properties KIc and GIc are determined with fracture mechanics specimens, generally as shown
in Figures 7 and 8.



The great value of the fracture toughness parameters KIc and GIc is that once they have been measured for a particular
material, Equations (1) and (2) can be used to make quantitative predictions of the size of defect necessary to cause a
brittle fracture for a given stress, or the stress which will precipitate a brittle fracture for a defect of known size.
As the designation implies, linear elastic fracture mechanics is applicable to materials which fracture under elastic conditions
of loading. The fracture phenomena in high strength quenched and tempered steels are of this type. In lower strength
structural steels, extensive plasticity develops at the notch root before failure occurs. This behaviour invalidates many of
the assumptions of linear elastic fracture mechanics and makes testing difficult or not meaningful. In such cases elastic-
plastic fracture mechanics must be applied.
There are two alternative techniques of elastic-plastic fracture mechanics:
1. Crack Tip Opening Displacement (CTOD)

2. J Integral
Their essential features are summarised below.
The Elastic-Plastic Fracture Mechanics Approach
A consequence of plasticity developing at the tip of a previously sharp crack is that the crack will blunt and there will be
an opening displacement at the position of the original crack tip. This is the crack tip opening displacement (CTOD).
As loading continues, the CTOD value increases until eventually a critical value δc is attained at which crack growth occurs.
The critical crack tip opening displacement is a measure of the resistance of the material to fracture, i.e. it is an
alternative measurement of fracture toughness.
For materials which exhibit little plasticity prior to failure, the critical CTOD, δc, can be related to the linear elastic
fracture toughness parameters KIc and GIc as follows:
KIc2 = E.Gk / (1 - υ2) = m.E.σy.δc / (1 - υ2)
where
E is Youngs modulus
σy is the uniaxial yield strength
υ is Poissons ratio
m is a constraint factor having a value between 1 and 3 depending on the state of stress at the crack tip.
Another way of taking account of crack tip plasticity is the determination of the J-integral. J is defined as a path-
independent line-integral through the material surrounding the crack tip. It is given by:
J=- (3)
where
U is the potential energy

B is the specimen thickness
a is the crack length
U= (4)
F is the load
Vg is the total displacement
Since the determination of J is difficult, approximate solutions are used in practice.
J=η (5)
where
b=w-a
η = 2 (for SENB-specimens)
η = 2 + 0,522 b/w (for CT-specimens)
The critical value of J is a material characteristic and is denoted JIc. For the linear elastic case, JIc is equal to GIc.
1.5 Fitness for Purpose
Conventional assessment of components is based on a comparison of design resistance with applied actions. Toughness
criteria are generally satisfied by the appropriate selection of material quality, as discussed in Lecture 2.5. However there
are situations where a more fundamental assessment has to be carried out because of:
● onerous service conditions.

● defects during manufacture.
● defects, e.g. fatigue cracks, developing during previous service life.
Such assessments can be performed by different methods. If the component is small, it may be possible to test it. For large
or unique structures, such as bridges or offshore platforms, this method of producing the most realistic data has to be
excluded. Tests on representative details of a component may be performed, if the simulation of the real structure is
done carefully, e.g. accounting for specific service conditions including the geometry of the structure and
discontinuities, loading rate, service temperature and environmental conditions. A typical example of such a test method is
the wide plate test, which is discussed below.
Fracture mechanics concepts have been developed to assess the safety of components containing cracks. Depending on
the overall behaviour of the component (linear-elastic or elastic-plastic) different methods can be used for failure assessment.
1.5.1 Wide plate testing
During the last 20 years, large flat tensile specimens, so-called wide plates, have been used to simulate a relatively
simple detail of a tension loaded large structure. A main objective of wide plate testing is the evaluation of the deformation
and fracture behaviour of a specimen under service conditions. The second reason for this kind of test is the application of
test results for the development and checking of failure assessment methods, e.g. fracture mechanics methods.
Wide plate tests require testing facilities with high loading capacities due to the fact that such tests are usually carried out at
full thickness. The maximum dimensions of wide plates tested on large test rigs with a load capacity of up to 100MN are
as follows:
● specimen width W ≤ 3000mm

● specimen thickness to ≤ 300mm
● specimen length l ≤ 5000mm
Figure 9 shows different types of specimen containing discontinuities for tests on the base metal or welded joints.
The discontinuities may be through-thickness or surface notches or cracks. The configuration of the plate is usually
chosen according to the specific structural situation to be assessed.

Stress or strain criteria can be used as safety criteria which must be fulfilled to assure the safety of a specific structural
element. The production of a given amount of overall strain is in some cases used as the failure criterion. The gross-
section-yielding concept requires that gross-section-yielding (GSY) occurs prior to fracture. Based on this concept, wide
plates with different crack lengths are tested under similar loading conditions to determine a critical crack length just
fulfilling the GSY-criterion. Figure 10 shows the ratio of the maximum gross-section stress in the structure to ultimate
tensile strength as a function of the crack length ratio 2a/W of centre-notched wide plates. The upper limit line describes
the theoretical maximum stress, if the ultimate tensile strength is reached in the cross-section containing the discontinuity.
All test results show lower values than are implied by the theoretical line, resulting from the important influence of
toughness in the presence of discontinuities. Only in the case of infinite toughness can the theoretical line be reached.
The intersection of the experimentally determined curve and the yield strength line marks the critical crack length ratio 2ac/
W. As long as the 2a/W ratio is smaller than the critical ratio, the GSY-criterion is fulfilled. Unfortunately, the critical 2ac/
W ratio depends strongly on the dimensions of the crack and the plate, so that different types of cracked components
always require a series of specific wide plate tests. This concept is therefore only used if other concepts cannot be applied.

1.5.2 Fracture mechanics concepts
The basis of a fracture mechanics safety analysis is the comparison between the crack driving force in a structure and
the fracture toughness of the material evaluated in small scale tests. The application of one of the concepts depends on
the overall behaviour of the structure which may be linear-elastic (K-concept) or elastic-plastic (CTOD- or J-
Integral-concepts). For a safe structure the crack driving force must be less than the fracture toughness. In general
the toughness values of the material are evaluated according to existing standards. The crack driving force can be calculated
on the basis of analytical solutions (K-concept), empirical or semi-empirical approaches (CTOD-Design-Curve
approach, CEGB-R6-procedures) or using numerical solutions (indirectly: EPRI-handbook, directly: finite-
element calculations). The different methods are explained briefly below:
● K-concept
The K-concept can be applied in the case of linear-elastic component behaviour. The crack driving force, the so-called
stress intensity factor KI, defined in Section 1.4, has been evaluated for a large range of situations and calculation formulae
are for example given in the stress-analysis-of-cracks handbook.
Usually the critical fracture toughness KIc of the material is evaluated according to the ASTM standard E399 or the
British Standard BS5447. Brittle failure can be excluded as long as:
KI < KIc
For a given fracture toughness the critical crack length or stress level can be calculated from:
ac =
σc =
● CTOD-Design-Curve approach
A critical crack length or stress level can be determined using the limit curve of the CTOD-Design-Curve approach for
the driving force assessment together with measured values of CTODcrit for the material. The limit curve has been adopted
by standards, e.g. the British Standard BS-PD 6493. The latest version of the limit curve is shown in Figure 11 and can be
used for:
2a/W ≤ 0,5 and σnet ≤ σYS.


Analysis can only be performed under global elastic conditions (σnet ≤ σYS) although local plastic deformation may occur
in front of a crack tip which is accounted for in the CTOD-value of the material.
● CEGB-R6-routines
The CEGB-R6-routines can be used to assess the safety of structures for brittle and ductile component behaviour.
The transition from linear-elastic to elastic-plastic behaviour is described by a limit curve in a failure analysis diagram
(Figure 12). The ordinate value Kr can be regarded as any of three equivalent ratios of applied crack driving force to
material fracture toughness as follows:

Kr = =
● Other methods
Other methods are emerging. The Electrical Power Research Institute (EPRI) in New York has used a detailed analysis
by finite elements to determine limiting J contour values for standard geometries. Alternatively the J contour values may
be obtained by direct finite element analysis of the particular situation.
2. OPTIMAL COMBINATION OF STRENGTH AND TOUGHNESS

Preceding sections have described the influence of the micro structure on strength and toughness using
metallurgical mechanisms. Chemical and physical metallurgy can change microstructural characteristics so that
optimum strength and toughness requirements may be obtained. By combining the various treatments it is possible to achieve
a wide range of steel properties (Figure 13):

● Chemical metallurgy treatments
Variation of the chemical composition of a steel by adding alloying elements aims to increase strength and/or
increase resistance to brittle fracture. Solid solution hardening generally lowers toughness and is not widely
employed. Precipitation hardening also increases strength and decreases toughness. The addition of manganese and
nickel produces a small increase in strength due to solution hardening but a more significant reduction is impact
transition temperature due to grain refinement (Figure 14). Alloying with the micro-alloying elements Niobium,
(Nb) Vanadium (V) and Titanium (Ti) producing carbides and nitrides simultaneously raises strength by
precipitation hardening and toughness by grain refinement. Decreasing the content of elements such as S and P improves
the degree of purity, which has positive effects on toughness and weldability.

● Physical metallurgy treatments
The microstructure of a steel can be greatly affected by heat treatment or forming. Correctly chosen temperature, degree
of deformation, time between deformation steps and cooling rate can reduce the grain size and control the state of
precipitation, thus raising toughness and strength (Figure 15).

This combination of heat treatment and forming known as thermo-mechanical treatment leads to even better results if
micro-alloying elements such as V or Nb are added, causing additional grain refinement with improved toughness and
strength properties.
3. FATIGUE PROPERTIES
When considering the response of metallic materials to cyclic loading, it is essential to distinguish between components such
as machined parts, which are initially free of defects, and those such as castings and welded structures, which
inevitably contain pre-existing defects. The fatigue behaviour of these two types of component is quite different. In the
former case, the major part of the fatigue life is spent in initiating a crack; such fatigue is 'initiation-controlled'. In the
second type of component, cracks are already present and all of the fatigue life is spent in crack propagation; such fatigue
is 'propagation-controlled'.
For a given material, the fatigue strength is quite different depending on whether the application is initiation- or
propagation-controlled. Also the most appropriate material solution may be quite different depending on the application.
For example with initiation-controlled fatigue, the fatigue strength increases with tensile strength and hence it is
usually beneficial to utilise high strength materials. On the other hand, with propagation-controlled fatigue, the
fatigue resistance may actually decrease if a higher strength material is employed.
3.1 Initiation-Controlled Fatigue
3.1.1 Testing
The fundamental diagram in fatigue testing is the Wöhler or S-N-diagram (Figure 16). Specimens are exposed to cyclic
loading with a constant amplitude and the number of cycles to fracture is recorded. This parameter is plotted against
the corresponding stress amplitude with a double- or semi-logarithmic scale. The diagram is divided into two parts. In the
first part, life time increases with decreasing alternating stress amplitude. In the second part for most-ferritic steels the
curve becomes horizontal and defines a 'fatigue limit' stress below which failure can never occur. The transition or
'knee' between the two parts of the curve lies between 3 and 10 x 106 cycles, depending on the material. For other alloys, e.
g. fcc-metals, which do not show a fatigue limit, an 'endurance limit' is defined as the stress amplitude corresponding to a
life of 107 cycles.

One characteristic feature of fatigue properties is the wide scatter of results under constant testing conditions. Therefore 6-
10 experiments must be performed for each stress amplitude. The analysis is done by means of statistical evaluation leading
to different S-N curves for various life time probabilities (10%, 50%, 90% curves).
3.1.2 Fatigue damage
● Crack-free stage
During the first 104 stress cycles, although the loading is nominally elastic, dislocation activity occurs in localised areas
and leads to the formation of bands of localised plastic deformation known as "persistent slip bands" (PSB).
● Crack initiation
Crack initiation generally takes place within the persistent slip bands. In the case of pure metals, crack initiation usually
occurs at the surface. In commercial quality materials, crack initiation usually occurs at non-metallic inclusions or
other impurities which act as microscopic sites of strain concentration.
● Crack propagation
Once initiated the crack propagates through the first few grains in the direction of maximum shear stress, i.e. at 45° to
the normal stress. When the crack has attained a length of a few grain diameters, continued propagation is controlled by
the cyclic stress intensity field at the crack tip and the crack path becomes oriented at 90° to the maximum principal
stress direction. Although the major part of the fatigue life is spent in crack initiation, this is not apparent from examination
of the fracture surface where only the final propagation stage can be seen.
3.1.3 Influences of various parameters
The relationships between initiation-controlled fatigue strength and other parameters are complex and sometimes only
known qualitatively. Nevertheless they are of great importance for material selection and dimensioning of structural
parts. Therefore a number of different parameters are discussed below with respect to their influence on fatigue properties.
● Loading: Different loading conditions include cyclic tension and compression, cyclic torsion, cyclic bending and any
possible combination of these. As discussed in the context of yielding in Section 2.3 of Lecture 2.3.1, such complex
stresses can be combined by means of the Hencky-von Mises expression to generate an equivalent stress which can
be compared with the fatigue strength obtained from uniaxial loading.
● Mean stress: Fatigue strength is reduced by tensile mean stress and increased by compressive mean stress.
● Frequency: For most materials no influence is observed over a wide range. Some alloys show a smaller life time for
lower frequencies because corrosion effects interfere.
● Microstructure: The influence of microstructural modification on fatigue strength is similar to that on tensile strength.
In general fatigue strength increases in proportion to tensile strength. For example, for a wide range of wrought steels,
the fatigue strength is between 40% and 50% of the tensile strength. Improved purity raises fatigue strength.
● Residual stresses: As with mean stress effects, compressive residual stress improves fatigue strength, whereas internal
tensile stress has the opposite effect. To optimise fatigue strength, surface compressive residual stress is generated
by techniques such as shot peening, and surface rolling.
● Surface: Surface finish has a large influence on fatigue; the smoother the surface the better the fatigue strength. The
treatment of surfaces during manufacturing often causes strain hardening and compressive residual stresses which both
increase fatigue strength. The influence of notches is described under "Geometry".
● Geometry: Notches and changes of section act as sites of stress concentration and hence have a considerable influence
on fatigue properties. For large smooth notches, the stress concentration must be evaluated and incorporated in the
fatigue analysis. Sharp notches behave as crack-like defects and cause the fatigue behaviour to be propagation-controlled.
● Welding: Welding inevitably generates small crack-like defects which greatly lower the fatigue strength and cause the
fatigue to be propagation- controlled.
● Corrosion: Exposure to a corrosive environment facilitates both crack initiation and propagation. Consequently the
fatigue strength is reduced. The fatigue limit in steels may be eliminated in a corrosive element.
3.1.4 Fatigue limit under actual service conditions
The S-N diagram characterises material behaviour under single-amplitude loading. For weight-saving constructions exposed
to complex stresses, the parameters determined by such tests are not sufficient.
For testing under realistic conditions, an analysis of the actual stresses has to be obtained. For that purpose the sequence
and duration of different stress levels, as well as their rise or fall, are recorded. This stress-time function is either
reproduced under laboratory conditions, or special testing programmes are calculated from these data and used in
experiments. Results obtained by this method cannot be transferred to different materials and loading conditions.
3.1.5 Prediction of cumulative damage

The fundamental method of life time cumulative damage prediction was formulated by Miner. The damage from each cycle
at a certain stress level is defined as the reciprocal value of the number of cycles to fracture (1/Ni). Fracture occurs when
the sum of cycles at each level (ni) related to the number of cycles to failure (Ni) is equal to unity. The mathematical
expression is:
Since this is a very simple equation, results are widely scattered. In reality the values form a Gaussion distribution with
a maximum around 1. To guarantee safe construction, calculations are made with factors smaller than 1 and stresses
below their maximum values. Furthermore it is possible to take the effects of different loading levels into account with
respect to their number, maximum stress and sequence.
3.2 Propagation-Controlled Fatigue
Steel castings, rough forgings and welded structures invariably contain surface imperfections which behave as minute
crack-like defects which effectively eliminate the crack-initiation stage in fatigue. Consequently the whole of the fatigue life
is concerned with crack propagation. The rate of crack advance is determined by the cyclic stress intensity ∆ Kr which is
the cyclic equivalent of the stress intensity factor KI defined in Section 1.5.
∆KI = Y ∆σ
where
∆σ is the cyclic stress range
a is the crack depth
Y is the correction function dependent on the crack and test piece geometry.

The rate of crack propagation is then given by the following relationship which is known as Paris' Law:
= C ∆KIm
N = Number of cycles
C is a material constant which is inversely proportional to Young's modulus E. The power m has a value of about 3 for
most metallic materials.
The advantage of the fracture mechanics description of crack propagation is that the rate equation can be integrated
to determine the number of cycles required for a crack to propagate from some initial length ai to same final length af. Thus
for m = 3;
Nf = 2 (1/ai½ - 1/af½ ) / (CY3∆σ3π3/2)
ai may be a known crack size or an NDT limit, af may be a critical defect size for unstable fracture or a component
dimension such as the wall thickness of a vessel.
In the above equation for the fatigue life, the constant C is dependent on the type of material but is not sensitive to variations
in microstructure or strength level. Consequently, for a given cyclic stress range, ∆σ, the fatigue life is independant of
the strength of the material. If, however, the stress range increases in proportion to the material yield strength, then the
fatigue life will be less for the higher strength material. For example, a two-fold increase in stress range produces almost a
ten-fold reduction in fatigue life. This is a major constraint on the utilisation of higher strength structural steels for
fatigue dominated applications.
The fatigue behaviour of welded joints is propagation-controlled. However it is impracticable to apply a fracture
mechanics analysis because the initial defect size cannot be evaluated and the cyclic stress range is amplified by local
stress concentration effects associated with the weld profile. Instead the fatigue strength is determined experimentally for
the range of weld types and welding processes which are commonly employed in welded structures. This data is presented as
a series of S-N curves for different weld classifications as shown in Figure 16.

The fatigue strength of welded joints is not sensitive to the strength of the parent plate. Consequently, as explained
previously, it is difficult to take full advantage of higher strength steels in welded structures where there is significant
exposure to cyclic loading.
● Steels may fail by unacceptable brittle fracture.
● Satisfactory ductility has generally to be achieved by ensuring ductile rather than cleavage fracture.
● The tendency for brittle fracture increases in:
⋅ Reducing temperature
⋅ Increasing strain rate
⋅ Multi-axial tension
⋅ Geometric discontinuities causing stress concentrations.
● Fracture mechanics is a valuable means of quantifying the resistance of a material to fracture.

● The notched impact bend test (Charpy test) is a cost effective means of qualitatively monitoring toughness.
● More accurate methods of monitoring toughness, e.g. CTOD testing, have developed from the understanding of
fracture mechanics.
● The optimal balance of strength and toughness can be achieved by a combination of chemical and physical
metallurgical treatments.
● Structures under repeated loading may fail by fatigue.
● Resistance to fatigue is influenced by stress range, number cycles, mean stress, geometry, residual stresses and
defects, especially those associated in welding.
1. Griffith, A.A., Phil. Trans. Royal Society A221 (1921).
2. Wells, A.A., Unstable Crack Propagation in Metals: Cleavage and Fast Fracture, Proc. Symp. Crack Propagation,
Cranfield 1961, Vol. 1.
3. E 813-81 Standard Test Method for JIC, A Measure of Fracture Toughness, ASTM 1981.
4. Method for crack opening displacement testing, BS5762, British Standard Institution, London 1979.

5. Methods of tests for plain strain fracture toughness (KIc) of metallic materials, BS5447, British Standard Institution,
London 1977.
6. Milne, I. et al, Assessment of the integrity of structures containing defects, CEGB-R/H/R6-Rev. 3, Central
Electricity Generating Board, London, 1986.
7. Guidance on Methods for assessing the acceptability of flaws in fusion welded structures, PD 6493: British
Standards Institution, London 1991.
8. Kumar, V. et al, An Engineering Approach for Elastic-Plastic Fracture Analysis, Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI),
NP 1931, Project 1237-1, Final Report, General Electric Company, New York.
9. Dahl, W. et al, Application of Fracture Mechanics Concepts to the Failure of Wide Plates, Nuclear Engineering Design 1985.
APPENDIX 1
Fracture toughness values of different materials
Material Kc (MNm-3/2) Material Kc (MNm-3/2)
Ductile metals, e.g. Cu 200 cast iron 15

Grade Fe430B structural steel (room 140 glass reinforced 40
temperature)
plastic 12
Grade Fe 430B structural steel (-100° C) 40

Pressure vessel steels 170

ESDEP WG 2
APPLIED METALLURGY

OBJECTIVE/SCOPE
Presentation of the present classes of structural steels.
RELATED LECTURES
Lecture 2.3.1: Introduction to the Engineering Properties of Steel
SUMMARY
The lecture approaches classification of materials in terms of chemical composition, mechanical and technological
properties, and defines the main specifications applicable to different classes of structural steels.
1. INTRODUCTION
Due to its high strength, its good machineability and its high economic efficiency, steel is one of the most
important construction materials. By changes in the chemical composition and in the production conditions, it is possible
to vary steel properties over a wide range and the steel manufacturer is able to adapt the properties to the specific
requirements of users (Appendix 1) [1].
As well as chemical and mechanical properties, internal soundness, surface quality, form and geometrical dimensions can
be important criteria for steel product users.
The steels used for structural applications are mainly hot rolled in the form of sections, plates, strip, wide flats, bars and
hollow sections. Such products may have undergone cold forming operations after hot rolling. Cast and forged material is
also sometimes used.
In order to facilitate production, ordering and use of steel products, steel grades and qualities are listed in quality standards
and specifications, giving chemical composition, mechanical and technological properties.

This lecture deals with the classification of steel grades and gives an overview of the main grades used for structural steelwork.
2. DEFINITION OF STEEL
According to European standard EN 10 020 [2], steel is a material which contains by weight more iron than any other
single element, having a carbon content generally less than 2% and containing other elements (Figure 1). A limited number
of chromium steels may contain more than 2% of carbon, but 2% is the usual dividing line between steel and cast iron.

3. CLASSIFICATION OF STEEL GRADES

The European standard EN 10020 [2] classifies steel grades into:
● non-alloy and alloy steels by chemical composition

● quality classes defined by main property or application characteristics for non-alloy and alloy steels.
3.1 Classification by Chemical Composition
Classification is based on the ladle analysis specified in the standard or product specification, and is determined by
the minimum values specified for each element.
Non-alloy steels are steel grades for which none of the limit values in Appendix 2 is reached.
Alloy steels are steel grades for which at least one of the limit values given in Appendix 2 is reached.
3.2 Classification by Main Quality Classes
Steel grades can be classified into the following quality classes:
● Classes of non-alloy steels
⋅ Non-alloy base steels

⋅ Non-alloy quality steels
⋅ Non-alloy special steels
● Classes of alloy steels
⋅ Alloy quality steels

⋅ Alloy special steels
For this classification, the following points have to be taken into consideration:
● Chemical composition
● Mechanical properties
● Heat treatment
● Cleanness in terms of non-metallic inclusions
● Particular quality requirements, e.g. suitability for cold forming, cold drawing, etc.
● Physical properties
● Application
Details of this classification are given in the standard EN 10020 [2].
4. QUALITY STANDARDS FOR STRUCTURAL STEELS
This section describes the form of a quality standard for structural steels and analyses the main points.
Generally the content of such a standard is the following:
● Object and field of application.

● Classification and designation of qualities.
● Steel manufacturing process.
● Delivery conditions.
● Chemical composition.
● Mechanical properties.
● Technological properties.
● Surface finish.
● Inspection and testing.
● Product marking.
4.2 The Main Points
4.2.1 Steel Manufacturing Process
The steel manufacturing process (Basic-Oxygen-Furnace, Electric-Furnace, etc.) is generally the option of the manufacturer.
For the deoxidation method, the following are possible:
● Optional: method at the manufacturer's option.

● Rimming steel (no addition of deoxidation elements). This type of steel is used only for steels with low yield strengths and
no special toughness requirements.
● Rimming steel not permitted: the manufacturer may deliver either semi-killed or killed steel.
● Fully killed steel containing nitrogen binding elements in amounts sufficient to bind the available nitrogen, e.g.
minimum 0,020% Al.
Several supply conditions are allowed:
● Supply at the manufacturer's option.

● Hot-rolled i.e. as-rolled.
● Thermomechanical treatment: Normalizing forming (N),
Thermomechanical forming (TM).
● Normalized (N).
It should be noted that quenched and tempered steels are not discussed in this lecture.
The definitions for thermomechanical treatment of steels are given in Appendix 3.
The supply condition of the product is very important with respect to the application of the steel. This condition
should, therefore, be clearly stated in the order. Particular attention must be paid to normalized (N), or normalizing formed
(N) products and thermomechanically formed steels (TM). Thermomechanically formed material, unlike N-material, is
not suitable for subsequent heat-treatment (except stress-relieving) or hot deformation (1100°C). Treatment of TM-steels
at high temperatures leads to a decrease in strength.
It should be noted that TM-treated material has the following advantages compared to N-steels of the same grade:
● Lower content of alloying elements.

● Better weldability due to a lower carbon equivalent.
● Lower cost.
● Time saving due to the in-line treatment.
● No product length limitations.
4.2.3 Chemical Composition
The requirements are based on the ladle analysis and not on the product analysis. If a product analysis is specified,
the permissible deviations of the product analysis from the specified limits of the ladle analysis have to be considered.
4.2.4 Mechanical Properties
Quality standards generally specify tensile and notch toughness properties.

4.2.4.1 Tensile properties
Yield strength ReH minimum value
Tensile strength Rm minimum and maximum values
Elongation minimum value
The required values depend on the material thickness. Yield strength and tensile strength decrease with increasing
thickness, which can be explained by the fact that for thicker material the grain refinement during rolling is smaller.
4.2.4.2 Notch toughness properties (impact test)
The test temperature and the minimum absorbed energy are specified.
4.2.4.3 Sampling direction
The mechanical properties can be specified for the longitudinal and/or for the transverse direction. Longitudinal means
parallel to the rolling direction; transverse is perpendicular to the principal rolling direction. During the hot rolling of
long products the deformation takes place mainly in one direction creating an anisotropy which results in different
mechanical properties in the longitudinal and the transverse directions. The difference is most marked in ductility
(elongation, notch toughness).
4.2.5 Technological Properties
Technological properties include weldability and formability.
4.2.5.1 Weldability
Weldability, which is a very important property of structural steels, is judged on the basis of:
a. tendency to cold cracking
b. toughness of the heat affected zone
Weldability is influenced by the chemical composition and by the metallographic structure of the steel. By increasing
the content of alloying elements the weldability is decreased. An improvement in weldability is obtained by grain refinement.
Weldability generally decreases with increasing tensile strength which is related to the higher content of alloying elements
in the higher strength steels.

Figure 2 shows the influence of composition on weldability. Rate of cooling increases susceptibility to cold cracking and
is controlled by the combined thickness of the heat paths away from the weld, the vertical axis on the graph. Arc energy,
the horizontal axis on the graph, also influences cooling rate; the higher the heat input the longer it will take to cool. The
graph shows how reducing the carbon equivalent increases the range of conditions which can be welded with a
particular preheat, in this instance 100°C, and a particular welding process, in this instance MAG with conventional
wire electrodes.

4.2.5.2 Formability
Structural steels are suitable for hot and cold forming. It should be noted that thermomechanically treated steels should not
be used for hot forming (see also Delivery Conditions in Section 4.2.2).
Cold formability includes flangeability, roll forming and drawing of bars. Cold formability is evaluated by bend tests.
The specified inside bending radius increases with increasing material thickness and tensile strength. The bend test samples
can be taken in the longitudinal or transverse direction.
4.2.6 Surface finish
The steel product should be free from such defects as would preclude its use for the purpose for which it is intended.
4.2.7 Inspection and testing
The quality standards specify:
● Type of test (tensile, impact, bend, chemical analysis, etc.).

● Batching: the verification of the mechanical properties can be carried out by lot (e.g. one test for every 20, 40 or 60
products) or by melt.
● Inspection units: number of tests per batch.
● Position of the test samples: according to Euronorm 18 [3] (see Figure 3).
● Selection and preparation of test pieces.


4.2.8 Marking
Steel products shall be marked by painting, stamping or durable adhesive labels with the following information:
● Steel grade.
● Heat number.
● Manufacturers name or trademark.
5. STRUCTURAL STEEL GRADES

In this section the following structural steel grades are described:
● Hot-rolled products in non-alloy steels for general structural applications to EN 10 025 [4].
● Hot-rolled products in weldable fine grain structural steels to EN10113 [5].
● Structural steels for offshore applications.
● Weathering steels to Euronorm 155 [6].
● Anti-lamellar steel grades.
● Steel grades for hot dip galvanizing.
5.1 Hot-Rolled Products in Non-Alloy Steels for General Structural Applications to EN 10025 [4]
This standard specifies the requirements for long products (such as sections and bars) and flat products (such as plate, sheet
and strip) of hot-rolled non-alloy general purpose (base) and quality steels. These steels are intended for use in welded,
bolted and riveted structures for service at ambient temperature.
5.1.2 Designation of the Steels
The designation consists of:
● The number of the European standard (EN 10025).

● The symbol FS.
● The indication of the minimum specified yield strength for thicknesses ≤ 16mm expressed in N/mm2.
● The quality designation in respect of weldability and resistance to brittle fracture JR, J0, J2 and K2.
● If applicable, an indication of the deoxidation method (G1 or G2).
● If applicable, the letter symbolic for the suitability for cold flanging, cold rolling or cold drawing.
● If applicable the indication + N when the products have normalizing rolling.
Example: Steel with a specified minimum tensile strength at ambient temperature of 510 N/mm2, quality grade J0 and with
no requirements for deoxidation and suitable for cold flanging (designation C) is given by:
Steel EN 10 025 S355 JO C
Grade Impact @ 0° C Suitable for Cold forming
5.1.3 Steel Grades
There are three standard grades of structural steel.
These are summarized in the following table:
Steel grade Yield strength min. Quality Impact test temperature (° Type of
[N/mm2] 1) C) deoxidation 2)
S235 235 JR +20 optional FU,FN
J0 0 FN
J2 -20 FF
S275 275 JR +20 FN
J0 0 FN
J2 -20 FF
S355 355 JR +20 FN
J0 0 FN
J2 -20 FF
K2 -20 FF

1) based on material thickness ≤ 16mm
2) FU = rimming steel
FN = rimming steel not permitted
FF = fully killed
All these grades are C-Mn steels, which can be supplied in the as-rolled, thermomechanically treated or normalised
condition. Steel grade S355 has the highest manganese content and can also be microalloyed.
5.2 Hot-Rolled Products in Weldable Fine Grain Structural Steels to EN 10 113 [5]
This standard applies to hot rolled, weldable structural steels of special quality, which are delivered in the form of flat and
long products.
The steels are used in heavily loaded parts of welded structures such as bridges, storage tanks, etc.
The minimum yield strength of these steel grades lies between 275 and 460N/mm2 and the chemical composition is chosen
in such a way that good weldability is guaranteed. The steels are fully killed and contain nitrogen binding elements in
amounts sufficient to bind the available nitrogen. The steels have a fine grain structure.
The supply condition for all products is normalized or normalizing formed (N) or thermomechanically formed (M) as
defined in Appendix 3.
5.2.3 Classification of Qualities
All grades can be delivered in the following qualities:
KG: for qualities with specified minimum values of impact energy at temperatures not lower than -20°C.
KT: extra low temperature with specified minimum values of impact energy at extra low temperatures not lower than -50°C.
5.2.4 Designation
The designation of the steels consists of the following:
● The number of the standard EN 10 113.

● The symbol S.
● The indication of the minimum specified yield strength for thicknesses ≤ 16mm expressed in N/mm2, preceded by S.
● The delivery condition N or M.
● The capital letter for the quality with specified minimum values of impact energy at temperatures not lower than -50°C.
Example: Steel with a specified minimum yield strength at ambient temperature of 355 N/mm2, thermo-mechanically
formed, which is appropriate for the application at -50°C:
EN 10 113-3 S355 M L
Standard Grade Supply condition Impact test at -50°C
5.2.5 Steel Grades and Qualities
The steel grades and qualities of this standard are summarized as follows:
Steel grade Quality Yield strength minimum [N/ Impact test temperature [°
mm2] 1) C]
S275 M or N 275 -20
ML or NL -50
S355 M or N 355 -20
ML or NL -50
S420 M or N 420 -20
ML or NL -50
S460 M or N 460 -20
ML or NL -50
1) for thickness ≤ 16mm
It should be noted that for the impact test, values are specified for the longitudinal and for the transverse direction, whereas
for EN 10 025 [4] only values in the longitudinal direction are required. Minimum values are also quoted for higher
test temperatures but, unless specified at the time of the enquiry and order, the impact value shall be verified with
longitudinal test pieces tested at either -20°C or -50°C according to quality.
5.3 Structural Steels for Offshore Applications
In the last ten years, specifications for steel grades for the offshore industry have developed mainly for applications in
the North Sea where the steel specifications are at present the most demanding in the world. Quality improvements have
been required by more challenging operations, e.g. drilling and production in deeper waters and arctic areas, or as a result
of more demanding safety philosophies.
Structural steels have had to be developed in order to guarantee the following properties:
● High yield strength (≥ 355 N/mm2).

● Good resistance to brittle fracture in both longitudinal and transverse directions.
● Excellent weldability.
● Unchanged properties after stress-relieving and flame-straightening.
● Resistance to lamellar tearing
● Good internal soundness.
In order to obtain a combination of all these properties, considerable progress has had to be made in steelmaking and in rolling.
A European standard for offshore steel grades does not exist at present. These grades are specified in material
specifications established mainly by the oil companies. As each oil company has its own specifications, the requirements for
a particular offshore steel grade may differ from one company to another.
The requirements for offshore steels are much more severe than for all other structural applications. To demonstrate this
point, the requirements for chemical composition and toughness of the following four structural steel grades each with
a minimum yield strength of 355 N/mm2 are compared in Appendix 4:
● S355 K2 G3 to EN 10 025 [4]

● S355 N to EN 10 113-2 [5]
● S355 M to EN 10 113-3 [5]
● Offshore grade 355 (typical for the North Sea).
It can be seen in Appendix 4 that with the increasing toughness requirements the maximum carbon content is reduced and
is very low (0,12% maximum) for the offshore steel grade. Note that the loss of strength due to the reduced carbon content
is mainly balanced by the use of microalloys and/or by thermomechanical rolling.
Furthermore offshore steel specifications require very low phosphorus and sulphur contents.
As weldability is one of the most important properties of an offshore steel grade, a maximum carbon equivalent is specified
for these steels (as is the case for most structural steels).

In order to guarantee high resistance against brittle fracture, the toughness requirements for offshore steel grades are
extremely high. For this type of steel, the requirements for the transverse direction are even higher than those for
the longitudinal direction of the other structural steel grades, see Figure 4.
5.4 Anti-lamellar Steel Grades
Anti-lamellar steel grades are structural steels having a high resistance to lamellar tearing, which is a cracking
phenomenon occurring especially beneath welded joints, Figure 5.

Three factors contribute to the occurrence of lamellar tearing:
(a) Poor ductility in the thickness direction, i.e. perpendicular to the surface.
(b) Structural restraint.
(c) Joint design.
As (b) and (c) are not related to steel quality, they are not discussed in this section.
In general, rolled steels have ductility properties in the thickness (Z-direction) which are inferior to those in the
rolling direction. The main reason for low through-thickness ductility is non-metallic inclusions, mainly of manganese
sulphide and manganese silicate which are elongated in the direction of rolling.
A high level of through-thickness ductility is obtained by special ladle treatment during steelmaking that ensures a very
low sulphur content and a controlled shape of non-metallic inclusions.
5.4.2 Anti-lamellar Qualities
Resistance to lamellar tearing is expressed in terms of reduction in area of through-thickness tensile tests.
According to EN 10 164 [7], three anti-lamellar quality levels can be ordered:
Quality Reduction in area in through-thickness

direction (%)
Z15 15 (minimum)

Z25 25 (minimum)
Z35 35 (minimum)
Recommendations for use are:
Z15: for welded joints subjected to moderate stresses
Z25: for welded joints subjected to severe stresses
Z35: for heavily stressed welded joints and substantial restraint.
5.5 Weathering Steel to EN 10 155 [6]
A disadvantage of non-alloyed structural steels is their corrosion tendency under atmospheric conditions. They usually have
to be coated or painted in order to protect the surface against moisture, oxygen and aggressive chemicals. To reduce
rust formation and thus avoid painting, weathering steels have been developed.
Weathering steels belong to a family of atmospheric corrosion resistant low alloy steels intended for applications requiring
long service life and low maintenance costs.
These steels are produced by the addition of small amounts of alloying elements, especially copper, to ordinary steel. A
copper content of 0,2 - 0,3% improves the corrosion resistance up to 50% compared with copper-free steel.
Phosphorus reinforces the action of copper. A further improvement in the corrosion resistance of copper-containing steels
can be obtained by small additions of chromium and nickel. These two elements are very effective in industrial
atmospheres polluted by sulphur dioxide.
Weathering steel can be used in the unpainted condition. Due to natural changes in the weather, the steel surface
is progressively covered by a protective layer, red-brownish in colour, which results in a decrease in the corrosion rate.
Weathering steels are used for architectural, decorative and industrial applications. The main industrial uses are in
applications requiring minimum maintenance, such as halls, bridges and electric transmission towers.
5.5.2 Corrosion Resistance
During the early period of atmospheric exposure, rust forms on weathering steel just as in the case of ordinary steel. As the
rust layer grows, it becomes a dense protective oxide film or patina which adheres tightly to the base metal. This patina forms
a protective barrier between the steel and the atmosphere, thereby inhibiting further corrosion.
The formation of the patina is strongly dependent on local environmental and climatic conditions. In order to acquire a
tight protective oxide coating, the steel surface must generally be alternately dry and wet. In no case should the steel surface
be continuously moist.
In marine atmospheres the protection given by the patina is less effective. However the weight loss of weathering steel
remains at a lower level than ordinary steel, Figure 6. In such an environment, supplementary protection can be obtained
by painting. This paint coating will be far more durable on weathering steels than on normal steels.

In industrial atmospheres containing a significant amount of sulphur dioxide, the patina is quickly formed and the
corrosion rate of the steel is decreased, Figure 6.
Places where the weather coating is ineffective are:
● warm and damp sites

● in railway track
● in water
● places regularly subject to flowing water
● places where the protective layer is removed by physical contact.
5.5.3 Steel Grades
The principal steel grades of EN 10 155 [6] are:
Steel grade Alloying Minimum Impact test temperature

Yield strength (°C)
2)
N/mm2 1)
S 235J0W Cu-Cr 235 0
S 235J2W -20

S 355J0WP Cu-Cr-P-(Ni) 355 0
S 355J2WP -20
S 355J0W Cu-Cr-(Ni)-(Mo)-(Zr) 355 0
S 355J2W -20
1) for thicknesses ≤ 16 mm
2) W is the designation for weathering steels
3) P is for the class with the greater phosphorus content (only in the case of grade S355)
Chemical composition, mechanical and technological properties are given in Appendices 7 and 8.
Weathering steels can be delivered as sections, bars and flats in the as-rolled condition. Other delivery conditions can be agreed.
5.5.4 Welding
Weathering steel can be welded with all manual and automatic welding processes as long as the general rules for welding
are followed.
The weld metal should be adapted to the mechanical properties of the base metal. The atmospheric corrosion resistance of
the weld metal should be equal to or better than that of the steel.
The colouring of the weld surface under atmospheric corrosion is dependant on the chemical composition of the weld metal.
A good matching of colours may however be achieved by using weld metal of about the same composition as the steel.
5.6 Steel Grades for Hot Dip Galvanizing
For certain structural applications, corrosion protection by hot dip galvanizing is needed, requiring the use of an
appropriate steel grade.
In general, all ordinary structural steel grades can be hot dip galvanized provided that the silicon content of the steel is at
the right level. Silicon has a strong influence on the iron and zinc reaction during galvanizing, Figure 7. Steels with a
low silicon content (≤ 0,03%) or with a silicon content in the range of 0,13 to 0,30% can be satisfactorily galvanized. For
steels with a silicon content between 0,04 and 0,13% or above 0,30%, the zinc layer may be excessively thick and present a
risk of brittleness or lack of adherence.

Recent investigations have shown that the action of silicon is favoured by phosphorus.
These aspects must be taken into consideration by the steel users and the galvanizers when choosing the chemical
composition of material ordered for galvanizing.
● A wide range of steels is available for structural applications. This range allows designers and constructors to optimize

steel structures in relation to cost saving, weight saving, safety, machinability, and thus overall economic efficiency.
● Strong competition between steel producers and the manufacturers of alternative materials has accelerated the development
of advanced technologies for further general improvement of both the quality and the economics of steel.
● Technical progress in steelmaking and especially in thermomechanical rolling has been extensive during the last decade.
● The developments have resulted in the economic production of a new generation of high strength low alloy steels
combining properties formerly supposed to be incompatible, i.e. high strength, excellent weldability, and good resistance
to brittle fracture.
● For the users these developments have given new opportunities for cost savings and easier fabrication and in this way
have contributed to a considerable improvement in the competitiveness of steel structures.
7. REFERENCES
[1] Stahlsorten und ihre Eigenschaften J. Degenkolbe
Stähle für den Stahlbau, Eigenschaften, Verarbeitung und Anwendung
Berichtsband Stahl Eisen
Herausgeber: Verein Deutscher Eisenhüttenleute (VDEh)
[2] EN 10 020 Definition and classification of grades of steel, November 1988.
[3] Euronorm 18-79 Sampling and preparation of samples for steel products.
[4] EN 10 025 Hot rolled products in non-alloy steels for general structural applications, March 1990 (+ A1, August 1993).
[5] EN 10 113 Hot rolled products in weldable fine grain structural steels, March 1993.
[6] EN 10 155 Weathering steels, June 1993.
[7] EN 10 164 Steel products with improved deformation properties perpendicular to the surface of the product, June 1993.
APPENDIX 1: REQUIREMENTS FOR STRUCTURAL STEELS

Strength
● Deformation resistance
● Fatigue resistance
Toughness
● Ductility
● Resistance to brittle fracture
Weldability

● Resistance to cold cracking

● Good toughness in the heat affected zone (HAZ)
Corrosion resistance
● Minimal rust formation

● Resistance to hydrogen induced cracking
Homogeneity
APPENDIX 2: DEFINITION AND CLASSIFICATION OF STEEL GRADES TO

EN 10 020
Boundary between non-alloy and alloy steels
Specified element Limit Value (% by

weight)
Al Aluminium 0,10
B Boron 0,0008
Bi Bismuth 0,10
Co Cobalt 0,10
Cr Chromium(1) 0,30
Cu Copper(1) 0,40
La Lanthanides (each) 0,05

Mn Manganese 1,65(3)
Mo Molybdenum 0,08
Nb Niobium(2) 0,06
Ni Nickel(1) 0,30
Pb Lead 0,40
Se Selenium 0,10
Si Silicon 0,50

Te Tellurium 0,10
Ti Titanium(2) 0,05
V Vanadium(2) 0,10
W Tungsten 0,10
Zr Zirconium(2) 0,05
Others (except carbon, phosphorus, sulphur, nitrogen) (each) 0,05

(1) Where elements are specified in combinations of two, three or four and have individual alloy contents less than those
given in the table, the limit value to be applied for classification is that the sum of their total contents must be less than 70%
of the sum of the individual limit values.
(2) The rule in (1) above applies to this group of elements.
(3) Where manganese is specified only as a maximum, the limit value is 1,80% and the 70% rule does not apply.
APPENDIX 3: DEFINITIONS FOR THE

THERMOMECHANICAL TREATMENT OF STEEL
Thermomechanical treatment is a hot forming procedure in which the variation in time of both temperature and deformation
is controlled in order to achieve a certain material condition and thus certain material properties.
Thermomechanical treatment is subdivided into the following procedures:
Normalizing forming
Normalizing forming (1) is a thermomechanical treatment in which the final deformation is carried out in a temperature
range so that the austenite completely recrystallises leading to a material condition equivalent to that obtained after normalizing.
The designation of this condition of delivery is N.
Thermomechanical forming
Thermomechanical forming (1) is a thermomechanical treatment in which the final deformation is carried out in a
temperature range which permits little, if any, recrystallisation of the austenite. The final forming occurs at a temperature
above Ar3 or between Ar1 and Ar3. Thermomechanical forming leads to a material condition with certain material
properties. This material condition cannot be achieved or repeated by heat treatment alone.
The designation of this condition of delivery is TM.

NOTE 1: Thermomechanical forming can be combined with accelerated cooling - intensive cooling, direct quenching - and/
or with tempering after forming. Again the resulting material condition cannot be achieved or repeated by heat treatment alone.
NOTE 2: Normalizing forming can also be followed by accelerated cooling, with or without quenching, or with quenching
and auto-tempering or with quenching and tempering. Although this procedure is closer to controlled normalizing forming
than thermomechanical forming, it leads to a material condition which cannot be reproduced by heat treatment alone.
Therefore the designation of this condition of delivery is also: TM.
(1) For both terms, "Normalizing forming" and "Thermomechanical forming" the term "controlled rolling" is common. In
view of the use of the different steel grades, it is necessary to distinguish the conditions of delivery by special terms.
APPENDIX 4: COMPARISON OF THE CHEMICAL

COMPOSITION (LADLE ANALYSIS) FOR STRUCTURAL
STEEL GRADES PROVIDING A MINIMUM YIELD STRENGTH
OF 355N/mm2
Element (%) S 355K2G3 S 355N S 355M according to Offshore

according to according to EN EN 10113-3 [5] Grade 355
EN10025 [4] 10113-2 [5]
C max 0,20 0,20 0,14 0,12
Mn max 1,60 1,65 1,60 1,60
Si max 0,55 0,50 0,50 0,50
P max 0,035 0,035 0,030 0,015
S max 0,035 0,030 0,025 0,008
Cu max 0,35 0,30
Ni max 0,50 0,30 0,40
Cr max 0,30 0,20
Mo max 0,10 0,20 0,08
V max 0,12 0,10 0,08

Nb max 0,060 0,050 0,04
Ti max 0,03 0,050 0,05
Al 0,20 0,020 0,06
N max min min max
Sb max 0,020 0,020 0,009
Pb max 0,010
Sn max 0,003
B max 0,020
Ca max 0,002
CEV 1) max 0,43 0,39 0,39
1) Carbon equivalent =

ESDEP WG 2
APPLIED METALLURGY

OBJECTIVE/SCOPE
To describe the selection of steel quality in relation to requirements of toughness.
PRE-REQUISITES
Lecture 2.3.1: Introduction to the Engineering Properties of Steels
Lecture 2.3.2: Advanced Engineering Properties of steels
RELATED LECTURES
SUMMARY
Selection of the right steel quality for a structure is a matter of major significance as regards both the safety and the economy
of constructional steelwork. This lecture surveys procedures which have been proposed for this purpose and presents the
new rules which are included in Annex C of Eurocode 3 [1]. All these express, as a function of extreme service
conditions applicable to a structure, a toughness level specified in terms of performance in the Charpy V test that the
selected steel should fulfil, with a transition temperature at the level of 28J for instance. Numerous comparisons between
the output of different procedures are reported which, on the one hand highlight their consistency, while on the other hand
the possible sources of discrepancies among the various material requirements determined using these procedures.
Such procedures are based on fracture mechanics concepts such as those of the Stress Intensity Factor, the Crack Tip
Opening Displacement or the Full Yield Criterion. As an introduction the lecture reviews the main aspects of resistance
to brittle failure, with reference to basic documents which the reader may find it useful to consult for more detail.
1. INTRODUCTION
There are circumstances when the integrity of a structure is governed not by the strength of the metal but by another
property, namely toughness.
Such situations generally imply the presence of defects in the structure such as cracks or sharp notches and are favoured by
the occurrence of low temperature. The incidence of dynamic loads is another parameter enhancing the risk of so-called
brittle fracture.
Thus the engineer has to consider that the concept of ultimate boundary states and the fulfilment of the related criteria
may apply and lead to a safe design only if the pre-requisite conditions that prevent brittle failure are met.
In normal circumstances, it is impracticable to undertake a detailed 'fitness-for-purpose' analysis involving

sophisticated fracture mechanics tests either at the design stage or during fabrication and erection of conventional
structures. For such constructions, simple rules have to be developed and specified in building codes to define which
qualities of steel should be selected to ensure a safe design.
This lecture is divided into sections devoted respectively to:
● A brief survey of brittle failure.

● A review of different fracture mechanics concepts.
● A presentation of the different approaches on which a methodology for steel selection may be based.
● An illustration of the present solution adopted for Eurocode 3 [1] and of the work planned on this subject in the near
future under the auspices of the International Institute of Welding.
2. THE PHENOMENON OF BRITTLE FAILURE

A material is generally said to be brittle if it cannot be deformed to any appreciable degree prior to fracture. This
behaviour does not imply that the ultimate tensile strength measured on a smooth specimen during a tensile test is low. On
the contrary, the opposite phenomenon is usually observed. Hardening treatments which aim to increase strength are
usually accompanied by a dramatic degradation of ductility and tend to enhance brittleness.
Brittleness is neither an absolute nor a simple concept. As a rule, the susceptibility to brittle behaviour in a given material
is increased by:
● the lower the temperature to which it is exposed.

● the more rapid the loading to which it is submitted.
● the more disturbed the stress distribution it experiences.
Brittleness is influenced by ductility, i.e. the capacity of a material to strain plastically, and by strain-hardenability, i.e.
the property of developing a higher strength while undergoing plastic deformation.
Ductility can easily be appraised in a bend test under strain-controlled conditions where the material is bent round a
mandrel with large plastic strains being induced in the outer fibres of the specimen (Figure 1). The more ductile material can
be bent round a smaller mondrel without fracture.


Strain-hardenability is appraised in a tensile test and is quantified by the slope of the stress-strain curve in the plastic
regime. Strain hardening governs the amount of uniform elongation a material may undergo before necking or
fracturing (Figure 2).

A material showing no ductility is intrinsically brittle and produces, even in a defect-free situation, negligible plastic
elongation during a tensile test and no strain hardening. Such a material is glass.
Steel usually exhibits ductile behaviour in the tensile test and the presence of some defect is necessary to induce
brittleness. The defect may be a geometrical discontinuity with sharp edges constituting a stress raiser, or an area in which
the mechanical properties are locally impaired such as the heat affected zone of a weld, or a region of local plastic
deformation which may undergo subsequent strain ageing. Often, both geometrical and metallurgical defects are
present together; weldments may undergo lack of penetration or contain cold cracks, while punches or shears may create
burrs or notches. A large embrittling effect may thus be induced.
Should the ductility of the metal at the tip of the notch be very poor, then no possibility would exist to blunt the notch by
plastic deformation. The result would be a brittle failure occurring at a load which can be calculated from linear elastic
theory as a function of the component dimensions, the notch size and the toughness characteristics of the metal.

In the case where a degree of ductility is available, crack blunting occurs and is reflected in a degree of crack opening.
The fracture behaviour is then significantly influenced by the strain hardenability of the metal. If little strain hardening
is available, then the crack may propagate through the component at a rather constant stress level, either by ductile tearing
or brittle cracking.
Different fracture behaviour can be observed with a ductile metal which is capable of sustained strain hardening
since propagation of the defect after crack blunting requires an increasing load to be applied to the component. Such
conditions give rise to stable crack propagation.
3. FRACTURE MECHANICS CONCEPTS AND TESTING PROCEDURES

Several specific tests have been developed to assess the fracture behaviour of materials in various loading conditions and
defect configurations. It is not the scope of this lecture to detail the testing procedures or review the methods for derivation
of toughness values. However, it is worth listing the main concepts and types of test as well as the assumptions on which
they rely.
Fracture Mechanics has been approached in a rigorous way on the basis of linear elastic theory which led to the well-
known concept of stress intensity factor, KI [2]. This parameter defines completely the stress field in the vicinity of a
crack. Fracture occurs when it attains a critical value which is a characteristic of the material. The main assumption of
this theory is the presence of minimal plastic strain at the crack tip. With steel, such conditions may be met with very
high strength products or when the thickness is large. Table 1 defines the basic equations of Linear Elastic Fracture
Mechanics (LEFM) together with the conditions of applicability.
In many circumstances significant plasticity takes place at the crack front prior to failure and crack opening may be
observed before fracture initiation (Figure 3). The concept of Crack Opening Displacement (COD) or more precisely
(CTOD) defines the amplitude of the crack tip plasticity under a given stress situation. Fracture initiates when this
parameter reaches a critical value (δcrit) which is a characteristic of the material and a measurement of its toughness [3].

The theory of the J integral is based on the same assumptions as above but computes a specific fracture energy whose value
is independent of the contour of integration and which is an alternative measurement of the material toughness [4].
It is important to mention that both the CTOD and the J concepts are designed to assess situations in which fracture occurs
in the elasto-plastic region, but imply nevertheless a relatively small extent of plastic strain at the crack tip. To assess the risk
of failure by brittle fracture, means have been provided to estimate the CTOD or J values in a large structure containing
a defect, as a function of the overall applied loads. These estimated values are then compared with the critical failure values
for the relevant material. A well known design curve for such fitness-for-purpose analysis is based on the CTOD
approach (Figure 4).

All the above procedures normally require that the product be tested with its full thickness so as to derive a suitable
toughness index. Although this condition may involve test specimens having rather large dimensions, it can never
be considered as appraising the overall fracture behaviour of a structural component. Therefore, the relevance of
the transferability of the test data for the appraisal of large structures has to be verified by comparing the computed
fracture behaviour to that experimentally observed during tests on a very large piece whose size is similar to the parts of a
real structure.
The Wide Plate test has been designed with this aim. It involves tensile testing, possibly at lowered temperature, of a
wide specimen (1m wide for instance) containing deliberate through-thickness or surface cracks. A convenient evaluation
of performance in the Wide Plate test is provided by the Yield criterion [5]. When full yield occurs, then all sections of
the specimen, even those not affected by the defect, develop plastic strains so that the overall elongation is sufficient to
prevent a sudden failure. Full yield also ensures that the structure can reach its maximum elastic design load, i.e. the product
of the material yield stress and the gross section, as if it were not affected by the defect, which is an obvious asset for safety.
A critical defect length can be defined above which the criterion can no longer be fulfilled; then only net section yielding
or contained yielding are achieved. Table 2 summarises the main concepts relating to the Wide Plate test.
There are situations in which resistance to failure is not governed by toughness but by the load bearing capability of the

net section in the part affected by a defect. This situation may occur with quite ductile materials affected by cracks.
Plastic collapse corresponds to the achievement of unlimited displacements in the net section when the applied load induces
a net section stress equal to the material flow stress. A ratio Sr may be defined to express the safety against plastic collapse
for a given loading condition. It is sometimes more convenient to use the material yield stress as a reference and think in
terms of plastic yield load. A ratio Lr is then considered. Table 3 defines the parameters.
Although the assumptions associated with Linear Elastic Fracture Mechanics and Plastic Collapse lead to quite
opposite fracture mechanisms, both concepts may actually apply to the same material and even the same structure
depending on the defect size. Figure 5 illustrates this situation for the simple example of a wide plate containing a
through-thickness defect. For small defect sizes the lowest fracture resistance is dictated by plastic collapse concepts,
whereas for larger defects the lowest fracture resistance is obtained from linear elastic theory.

This interactive behaviour supports the so-called two-criteria approach developed by CEGB in 1976, and known as the
R6 procedure, whose latest 3rd revision is now well developed [6]. A Failure Assessment Diagram (FAD) expresses the risk
of failure in a two-dimensional space using the Sr or Lr parameter as the abscissa and a Kr variable as the ordinate. Kr is
the ratio between the applied and critical KI stress intensity factors. Safe and unsafe conditions are discriminated by a
curve quantifying the interaction. The main aspects of this method are summarised in Table 4.
4. METHODOLOGIES FOR STEEL SELECTION

Toughness properties of structural steels are generally classified in material standards such as the new EN 10025 [7] and
EN 10113 [8] in terms of performance in the Charpy V test. While levels of absorbed energy may be defined for different
test temperatures, a simple and classical characteristic often encountered is the Transition Temperature at the level of 28J: TK28
Any methodology for steel selection applicable to standardised steel grades must involve the following steps:
i. A definition of extreme service conditions against which to address the resistance to fracture of a structure, i.e. a size
of defect, a mode of loading (static or dynamic) and a level of internal or external stress.
ii. A method of fracture analysis leading to the derivation of toughness requirements as a function of the above conditions.
iii. A relationship between the toughness requirements and a transition temperature or energy in the Charpy V test.
The different methods that are available are reviewed below.
4.1 The French Approach
This procedure was designed by Sanz and co-workers at IRSID in the late seventies, elaborated by a Working Group of
ATS and published in 1980 [9].
It is based on a set of experimental relationships between the transition temperatures in KIC and Charpy V tests, which
are illustrated in Figure 6, which is reproduced from the original publication.

The analysis of the risk of brittle failure is based on Linear Elastic Fracture Mechanics, and toughness requirements are
derived in agreement with this theory. Some modifications which were introduced for simplification purposes are
highlighted in the document and result in more conservative assumptions.
A particular feature of the method lies in the fact that defect sizes are defined in relation to plate thickness so as to match
with the conditions of plane strain and thus ensure the applicability of a LEFM approach.
The main steps involved in the definition and application of the SANZ method are summarised in Table 5. The final
formula leading to the definition of steel quality in terms of a TK28 index takes account of the service temperature and
the strain rate to which the structure may be exposed, as well as the scatter in the experimental relations.
Some predictions of the necessary transition temperature at the Charpy V level of 28J are illustrated in Table 6 for
the condition of a structure operating at a minimum service temperature of 0°C and possibly loaded up to the material
yield stress at a slow strain rate (έ = 0,1s-1).
4.2 The British Approach
This method conceived by George in the United Kingdom was first proposed to the International Institute of Welding in
1979 [10].
It relies on an elasto-plastic analysis of the fracture resistance using the CTOD design curve for a structure containing a
surface flaw of 0,2 times the plate thickness, in a field having a high level of residual stress and loaded to 0,67 times the
yield stress. The steel quality is defined in terms of the required Charpy V energy at the service temperature assuming
a relationship between this energy and the critical CTOD value. The formula derived in this way was calibrated against
results from wide plate tests and practical experience.
Table 7 reviews the main assumptions supporting the method and the mathematical relationships which are derived.
Toughness requirements for a range of steel grades and thicknesses are listed in Table 8.
4.3 The Belgian Approach
Developed in the late 1980's, this method directly links the fracture behaviour of wide plates containing through-
thickness defects which are tensile tested at temperatures between -10 and -50°C, to the following metal characteristics:
tensile strength or tensile-to-yield ratio and Charpy V energy at the same temperature [11].
Net fracture stress of the wide plate is first expressed as a function of defect size in terms of a linear decreasing function
whose ordinate at the origin precisely equals the tensile strength of the metal and whose slope is inversely proportional to
the toughness expressed by the Charpy V energy. Figure 7 illustrates these relationships. Net fracture stress is then
converted into gross section stress using the specimen width as a correction parameter. At that stage the critical defect
size according to the full yield criterion is computed as the smaller positive root of a second order equation.


Table 9 lists the principal rules of the model which was originally developed to document the fracture behaviour of
parent metal and later extended to appraise butt welded wide plates. In the latter case, local values of tensile strength
and toughness of the metal at the crack tip are considered by using Charpy specimens with the notch root positioned in
either the weld metal or the heat affected zone. Hardness measurements are carried out and converted into a proper Rm
when this parameter cannot be directly derived from a tensile test. For plain or welded plates, the yield stress used in
the formulae is always that of the base metal away from the crack.
5. METHODOLOGY ADOPTED IN EUROCODE 3

The method for steel selection adopted in Eurocode 3 [1] results from a combination and a synthesis between the
concepts proposed in the French method and the recommendations of CEGB [6]. The Eurocode procedure is described
in recent publications [12, 13] and can be summarised as follows:
This approach considers three alternative stressing conditions (S1, S2, S3), two possible levels of strain rate (R1, R2) and
two consequences of failure (C1, C2) which respectively allow distinction between:
(a) Lower or higher stresses, monolithic elements or welded joints, stress-relieved or as-welded structures, weaker or
stronger effects induced by stress raisers.
(b) Quasi-static or rapid stressing conditions corresponding, on the one hand to permanent loads, actions of wind, waves
or traffic, and on the other hand to impacts, explosions, collisions.
(c) Either ruptures leading only to localised damage not affecting human life and the stability of the whole structure, or
failure whose local occurrence implies disastrous consequences for the global resistance of the structure or impairs the safety
of people.
The Failure Assessment Diagram according to the R6 Rev. 3 [6] method which is taken into consideration is that
corresponding to the so-called Option 2 which takes account of the actual tensile stress-strain curve of the steel. Figure
8 illustrates this diagram which in Eurocode 3 terminates at an abscissa having a value of unity [1].

It is then supposed that the structure may contain semi-elliptical surface flaws whose size is proportional to the
natural logarithm of the thickness (depth=ln t, length = 5ln t).
Critical Kr values are derived from the failure assessment diagram after computation of the relevant Lr for the different
stress conditions. The necessary toughness, KIC that the material should display at the relevant service temperature can thus
be readily defined.
The conversion of this requirement into a Charpy V TK28 transition temperature is finally carried out according to the
French procedure.
Table 10 summarises the major aspects of the successive derivations. It highlights the fact that the strict application of
this procedure for a given situation would first require a detailed fracture analysis according to the two-criteria approach so
as to derive the necessary level of toughness required from the material in terms of a critical stress intensity factor here
denoted Kmat. Such an analysis, which must include the respective contributions of the mechanical and residual stresses,
as well as the correction factor for crack tip plasticity generated by the residual stress, should be carried out carefully
according to a well-documented procedure such as that prescribed in British Standard PD6493 [14]. The critical stress
intensity factor at the minimum design service temperature then has to be converted to a 28J transition temperature of a
Charpy specimen. Here the rules defined by the French method are followed [9] so as to account for thickness and strain
rate effects and the scatter in the relationship linking TKIC and TK28.
The procedure presented above should only be applied by specialists in fracture mechanics. On the other hand, the
rules included in Eurocode 3 need to be applied by design engineers who require a more convenient formulation. With this
aim in mind, the authors of the present Eurocode 3 rules have analysed a limited number of cases simulating the
various loading conditions for different plate thicknesses, so as to derive, after a statistical analysis, a simplified formulation
of the rules. The parameters of thee rules for practical application are listed in Table 11.
As an illustration of the rules, Tables 12 and 13 list a set of requirements for different values of yield stress and
thickness corresponding to the S1, S2 and S3 load conditions as well as the C1 and C2 failure consequences.
6. PRESENT STATUS OF THE EUROCODE 3 RULES

Establishing a common basis for steel selection applicable internationally as a substitute for the existing national rules is
a difficult task. Unifying a set of divergent specifications leads to new rules that are inevitably either less or more
constraining than those defined in one or other of the national codes. On the one hand, concern may be raised against
the reliability of the new rules with regard to a safe design, while on the other hand, criticism will be expressed towards
an excessive degree of conservatism liable to spoil the economic competitiveness of constructional steelwork.
The present rules in Eurocode 3 [1] have informative status. To encourage as much as possible the concept of unified rules
for steel selection, cooperation has been set up between the CEN/TC 250/SC3 Committee of Eurocode 3 and the
International Institute of Welding who will study the problem on a multidisciplinary basis coordinated by Commission X
with the support of Commission IX. An introductory article prepared by Professor Burdekin, Chairman of Commission X,

was presented at the IIW 1992 annual assembly in this regard [15].
To contribute to the debate covering this important question, comparisons between the toughness requirements derived
from the different approaches mentioned in this paper have been carried out and are presented below.
7. COMPARISON OF SPECIFICATIONS DERIVED FROM

VARIOUS APPROACHES
Available methods for steel selection differ in several respects: one of the most apparent is the form of the Charpy
requirement which can be expressed either as a transition temperature or as a level of energy. Suitable conversion formulae
are needed so as to perform comparisons between such methods.
Another factor of divergence is the definition of the flaw size as a function of plate thickness. Account must be taken of
these differences when attempting to compare the various requirements.
Nevertheless, the main difference between the different approaches may arise from the assumptions which are
made concerning the definition of the fracture model. The French approach is based on a purely linear elastic analysis,
while the British and Belgian ones assume respectively elasto-plastic and full plastic behaviour of the structure. Another
source of discrepancy could arise from the fact that the available methods were set up at different times and thus
were calibrated on populations of steels which could differ widely in terms of chemical composition and processing route.
A major result that should emerge from the comparative exercises is therefore verification of whether the different
concepts governing the existing approaches are able to generate consistent conclusions or, on the contrary, lead to
contradictory outputs. It is clear that, if the latter situation should apply, little confidence could be shown in those models.
Their significance would be restricted to the limited set of conditions and the generation of steels which were used during
their formulation.
If consistent specifications can be derived from several models, another dimension would be conferred to the problem
since, not only the overall reliability of the specifications would be enhanced, but sources of minor deviations could be
better documented.
A significant step in highlighting the possible coherence of Charpy V based specifications was achieved by de Meester
who presented valuable comparisons between the French and British approaches in 1986 [16]. An illustration of that work
is reproduced in Figure 9.

A similar approach can be used to expand this evaluation to other methodologies. It will be recalled that some
procedures express the necessary toughness in terms of a transition temperature while others require a level of energy at
the service temperature. Means of conversion are, therefore, necessary in such cases. Table 14 reproduces the equations
which were adopted in [16] on the basis of extensive comparisons reported in the 1970's [17].
Further information is necessary in order to make comparisons with the Belgian method since this procedure requires, as
an entry parameter, the tensile-to-yield stress ratio of the relevant steel. This parameter depends, among other things, upon
the processing route undergone by the material. A characteristic value cannot therefore be defined for a given steel
grade. Typical values may, however, be considered on a statistical basis as a function of the guaranteed yield stress, such
as those illustrated in Figure 10 which were proposed by Dahl and his co-workers [18]. Such a relationship is used in
the present analysis to establish the necessary comparisons. Taking into account that thicker plates generally display a
higher Rm/Re ratio than thinner products, data corresponding to the lower boundary or those closer to the upper side of
the relationship of Figure 10 are selected depending on the thickness.
Table 15 lists the toughness requirements obtained from the Belgian method applied with same defect sizes as those
considered in the French procedure (cf Table 6). TK28 transition temperatures required by both models are compared in
Figure 11, which highlights the coherence of the respective specifications, especially in the significant field of
negative transition temperatures, which represent the most severe conditions to be fulfilled by the material.


A comparison between the French and British methods is provided in Figure 12 using data which were generated in Tables
6 and 8. Here again specifications from both models are consistent. It will, however, be noticed that the French
procedure considers smaller defect sizes (as a function of thickness) than the British method, for instance 8mm against
12mm for a 30mm thick member. This means that, for the same flaw size, the elasto-plastic fracture analysis developed
by George on the basis of the design curve and Charpy COD relationships would lead to steel toughness requirements that
were somewhat less stringent than those defined by the linear elastic approach of Sanz and the TKIC-TK28 relationships.

A similar conclusion is reached when roughly comparing, on a same defect size basis, the British rules to the
Belgian procedure. Considering, however, that the George model assumes a design stress of only 2/3 of the yield stress
and implementing this stress level in the CRM model, quite consistent requirements between both methods would be
obtained. This is highlighted in Figure 13 which is drawn with data extracted from Tables 8 and 16.

Requirements derived from the present Eurocode rules are compared to those from the French rules using the data listed
in Tables 6 with Table 17 (S1 loading and failure condition C1) and Table 18 (S3 loading and failure condition C2). It
is important to note that for the sake of consistency regarding the effect of strain rate, the same value of 0,1s-1 has been
adopted for all procedures. Figures 14 and 15 illustrate that, depending on the loading conditions and failure
consequences, Eurocode 3 rules are either less stringent or, on the contrary, significantly more constraining than
the specifications of the French standard from which they are partly derived.



8. DISCUSSION
The comparison exercises reported above have demonstrated that, although the models were derived from quite different
basic assumptions and fracture concepts, and were validated at different periods on different steel qualities and
steel generations, the French, British and Belgian models lead to consistent Charpy requirements. This agreement is
reached when the procedures are compared to each other on a carefully balanced basis, i.e. adopting the same defect size as
a function of plate thickness and the same stress level. The strain rate is an important factor, which is an explicit parameter
in the French method but not in either of the others. The Belgian model does, however, take some account of this effect
through the tensile-to-yield ratio which is influenced by the strain rate sensitivity of the material. All comparisons with
the French model were carried out for the slow strain rate of 0,1s-1 with a view to improving consistency. It is
nevertheless clear that the strain rate sensitivity may vary, not only as a function of the steel grade, but also according to
the applied processing route or chemical composition. This parameter would certainly be worth being better documented so
as to optimise the rules for steel selection in certain applications involving dynamic effects.
The major sources for possible divergence between the existing rules have been identified. Many specifications are based
on their conventions regarding the evolution of the admissible defect as a function of member thickness and the prevailing
state and level of stress. This results in the definition of less or more stringent requirements. Such a situation
becomes disturbing and confusing when the procedure that the fabricator has to follow is not properly documented in
those terms, or when the computational steps are complicated and do not easily provide the possibility of carrying out even
a limited parametric analysis.
Simple rules involving clearly defined models and based on rigorous mathematical treatments, ideally developed into
analytical formulae, should constitute a preferred choice in the establishment of steel selection criteria. On the other
hand, complex methodologies involving advanced concepts of fracture analysis may be misleading since their
practical application would either be too difficult or simplification of the procedure would result in the infringement of
basic fracture mechanics rules.
9. COMMENT ON THE PRESENT EUROCODE 3 RULES

Eurocode 3 rules have been reviewed as well as the philosophy that prevailed in their development. Comparisons with
the French model on which they are partly based, reveal overall agreement in a large range of transition temperatures,
together with the possibility of shifting widely the requirements depending on the stress conditions (3 levels), the strain rate
(2 conditions), and the consequences of failure (2 conditions): Tables 12 and 13 show that between S1R1C1 and
S3R2C2 conditions, the difference in required TK28 temperatures is equal to or greater than 90°C.
These rules still require improvement and need to be discussed within a large forum of specialists. The cooperation of
the International Institute of Welding in this task will bring a worldwide dimension to the challenge of unifying the rules
for steel selection. Initial proposals for a coordinated approach to the problem were formulated at the IIW annual assembly
of 1992 [15].
It may be of interest in this regard to quantify roughly how each of the available models accounts for variations of the
plate thickness or of the steel yield stress on the TK28 requirements, all other factors being unchanged. In practice a
significant question is to evaluate the advantages of implementing in a given type of structure, higher strength steels
with thinner gauge as an alternative to conventional grades in thick sections. With this aim, the TK28 requirements listed in
the various Tables 6, 8, 12, 13 and 15 have been correlated by linear regression analysis to thickness and yield stress so as
to derive the following expression for each model:
TK28 = a - b.e - c.Re
The following b and c coefficients were derived:
French model b = -0,64 c = -0,12
British model b = -0,99 c = -0,12
Belgian model b = -0,85 c = -0,12
Eurocode model b = -0,54 c = -0,15
These values indicate that the French, British and Belgian rules seem more favourable for the adoption of higher strength
steels and thinner gauges than the Eurocode specifications.


● Consistent requirements in terms of a transition temperature in the Charpy V test may be derived from any one of three
national methodologies for steel selection, each incorporating different concepts of fracture behaviour or analysis,
established at different periods and validated with different grades or generations of steels.
● Discrepancies which may appear are more the result of different conventions that have been adopted for the definition of
stress level, safety factors or defect size.
● By unifying on a European or wider international basis, criteria for steel selection would be promoted by a larger analysis
of the available models and an exploitation of their consistency.
11. REFERENCES
[1] Eurocode 3: "Design of Steel Structures": ENV 1993-1-1: Part 1.1, General rules and rules for buildings, CEN, 1992.
[2] Brock, D., Elementary engineering fracture mechanics, Martinus Nijhorff Publishers, 1987.
[3] Garwood, S. J., A crack tip opening displacement (CTOD) method for the analysis of ductile materials, ASTM STP
945, June 1985.
[4] Rice, J. R., A path independent integral and the approximate analysis of strain concentrations by notches and cracks,
Trans. ASME, J. Appl. Mech. 1968, 35 379-386.
[5] Soete, W. and Denys, R., Evaluation of butt welds based on a strain criterion, Revue de la Sodure, Lastijd schrift, No.
4, 1975.
[6] Milne, I., Ainsworth, R. A., Dowling, A. R., Stewart, A. T., Assessment of the integrity of structures containing
defects, CEGB document R/H/R6 - Revision 3, May 1986.
[7] EN 10025: Hot Rolled Products of Non-alloy Structural Steels and their Technical Delivery Conditions, British
Standards Institution, 1990.
[8] EN 10113-1: Hot Rolled Products of Weldable Fine Grain Structural Steels Part 1: General Delivery Conditions,
British Standards Institution, 1993.
ENV 10113-2: Hot Rolled Products of Weldable Fine Grain Structural Steels Part 2: Delivery Conditions for
Normalized/Normalized Rolled Steels, British Standards Institution, 1993.
ENV 10113-3: Hot Rolled Products of Weldable Fine Grain Structural Steels Part 2: Delivery Conditions for
Normalized/Normalized Rolled Steels, British Standards Institution, 1993.
[9] Sanz, G., Essai de mise au point d'une mthode quantitative de choix des aciers vis-á-vis du risque de rupture fragile,
Revue de Mtallurgie - CIT, Juillet 1980.
[10] George, M., A method for steel selection, Document IIW-IXF.
[11] Defourny, J., D'Haeyer, R., Leroy, V., A metallurgical approach of the parameters affecting the fracture behaviour of
base metal and welded components, IIW document IX-1607-90/X-1206-90.
[12] Sedlacek, G., Bild, J., Hensen, W., Background document for Chapter 3 of Eurocode 3 "Design Against Brittle
Fracture", Aachen 1990.
[13] Brozzetti, J., Sedlacek, G., Hensen, W., Fondements des regles de l'Eurocode 3 en vue de se garantir du risque de
rupture fragile, Construction Mtallique, no. 1, 1991.
[14] Guidance on methods for assessing the acceptability of flaws in fusion welded structures, PD6493: 1991, BSI.
[15] Burdekin, F. M., Materials selection for welded structural steelwork in Engineering Design in welded
constructions, Pergamon Press, 1992.
[16] de Meester, B., The brittle fracture safe design of welded constructions, Welding in the world.
[17] Sanz, G., La rupture des aciers, fascicule 2, Collection IRSID OTUA.
[18] Dahl, W., Hesse, W., Krabiell, A., Zur WVerfestigung von Stahl und dessen Einfluβ auf die Kennwerte des
Zugversuchs; Stahl und Eisen 103 (1983), Heft 2, Seite 87-90.
Table 1 Linear Elastic Fracture Mechanics

The three modes of loading at a crack tip:
The stress field around the crack is defined by a parameter K:
σu = [KI /√(2πτ)].fu(θ) in mode I
Infinite plate: KI = σ√(πa)
Finite plate of width W:
KI = σ√(π a).[sec π a/W]

Through thickness crack in Mode I
Semi-elliptical crack:
KI = 1,12σ√{πa/[φ2 - 0,212(σ/Re)2]}

φ = √{1 - [(c2-a2)/c2].sin2ϕ dϕ - 3π/8 + πa2φ/8c2
Table 2 Concepts Associated with the Wide Plate Test


Gross section stress: σb = F/(W × t)
Net section stress: σn = F/[(W - 2a) × t]
σb = σn[1 - 2a/W]
Full yield : σb = Re
General yield : σn = Re

Determination of the critical defect length at full yield. Different wide plate tests are carried out at the same temperature
but with different crack sizes.

Table 3 Plastic Collapse Concept
According to the plastic collapse concept, the load bearing resistance of the structure affected by a defect equals the product
of the material flow stress by the net section.
The diagram below plots the gross stress at plastic collapse in a plate containing a through-thickness defect as a function of
the 2a/W ratio (defect length to plate width).
Re : material yield stress
Rf : material flow stress
Rm : material tensile strength

Re < Rf ≤ Rm
Rf ~ (Rm + Re) / 2
σb : gross stress applied to the wide plate
Sr = applied load/plastic collapse load = (σb / Rf) (1-2a/W)
Lr = applied load/plastic yield load = (σb / Re) (1-2a/W)
At plastic collapse
Sr = Srmax = 1 Lr = Lrmax = Rf/Re
Table 4 Main Rules of the R6 Procedure
Box 1:
The R6 Rev. 3 Failure Assessment Diagram

The simplifying concepts behind the R6 procedure are This ignores any interaction between the two failure
the two criteria for failure, characterised by: mechanisms. This interaction may be allowed for by
writing the first inequality as Kr < f(Lr) and choosing
1. Crack tip failure, where failure occurs when the an appropriate function for f. One such function is
applied load equals the LEFM failure load,
(1) f(Lf) = (5)
2. Failure by plastic collapse, defined when the load where Je is the elastic component of J given by K2/E.
equals the plastic collapse load and the displacements
in the structure become unlimited. The plastic collapse Thus when σref is low, J = Je and f(Lr) = 1, consistent
load may be formally defined as the load when the with LEFM failure. When σ ref is high, on the other
reference stress reaches the material's flow stress, . The
hand, failure is governed by J. Equation 5 may be used
criterion for plastic collapse failure is given by the
to generate an FAD directly from the load
ratio Sr.
displacement curves of specimen tests.
where Sr = The most general method for calculating equation 5 is

to use the reference stress procedures so that f(Lr) may
be calculated directly from the material's stress strain
curve. The general equation for this is
(2)
and this criterion was used for the initial R6 FAD.
It is often more convenient to think in terms of plastic f(Lf) = (6)

yield loads rather than collapse loads as it is easier to
define and calculate these theoretically. In R6 Rev. 3 where εref is taken from the material's true stress - true
the ratio Lr is used as
strain curve at respective values of σref. The figure 6 is
a plot of equation 6 as a function of Lr, using an
experimental stress strain curve for a stainless steel.
Lr = (3)
Although equation 6 is the preferred option for R6
From this, the load for plastic collapse is given as Rev. 3, it requires a detailed knowledge of the stress
strain curve of the material, especially around the
Lrmax.
material's yield point. In some cases, especially when
dealing with hold plant, such knowledge is not
available. Other options of the FAD have been
developed for use in such circumstances.
With (4)
The simplest FAD requires that Kr < 1 and Lr < Lrmaz.
Table 5-1 Main Rules of the French Model

1. BASIC RELATIONSHIP
Between KIC and Charpy V based on Transition Temperature at respectively 100MPa √m and 28 J:
(S1)
2. APPLICABILITY
Plane strain condition,
(S2)
where e is in metres
3. APPLIED STRESS
Material yield stress Re, then
(S3)
where a is in metres
and from Equation (S2)
(S4)
4. REFERENCE DEFECT SIZE

For thick plates, a semi-elliptic surface defect 50mm long, 25mm deep, which is equivalent to a 28mm long through
thickness defect (a = 14mm).
5. REFERENCE YIELD STRESS
477 MPa is the yield stress level derived from S3 with a = 14mm and KIC = 100 MPa √m.
6. REFERENCE THICKNESS
110mm is the thickness satisfying Equation (S4) with a = 14mm.
7. REQUIRED KIC VALUES vs YIELD STRESS
For thick products (e ≥ 110mm), a 28mm long defect corresponds to 100 MPa √m at a yield stress of 477 MPa. For
other values of Re, the following KIC values apply, as derived from Equation (S3):
Re (MPa) 280 350 410 470 510 640 740
KIC (MPa √m) 59 73 86 99 107 134 155
8. DEFECT LENGTH AS A FUNCTION OF THICKNESS
To satisfy Equation (S4) the defect length is related to plate thickness as indicated by the following table. This table also
lists the corresponding KIC values at a reference yield stress of 477 MPa.
e (mm) 10 20 30 60 80 110 >110

2a (mm) 2,5 5 7,5 15 20 28 28

KIC (MPa √m) Re = 477 30 43 52 74 85 100 100
MPa
9. MAJOR RELATIONSHIPS
Taking account of the above tables, it is necessary to consider transition temperatures for KIC values other than 100,
but ranging between 30 and 160MPa√m. This can be quantified through the following equation:
(S5)
10. RELATION BETWEEN SERVICE TEMPERATURE AND 28J TRANSITION TEMPERATURE
Equation (S1) is used to relate a minimum service temperature above which the structure is safe to a required toughness
level expressed as a transition temperature of 28J in the Charpy test.
The minimum service temperature is equal to TKIC = 100 for a structure made of a steel with reference yield stress 477
MPa, reference thickness 110mm and affected by the reference defect length a = 14mm.
For other values of yield stress or thickness, other values of KIC apply and corrections are introduced through Equation (S5).
Corrections are also made to take account of strain rate effects and the scatter in Equation (S1).
The final relationship is expressed as follows:

(S6)
in which
TS : minimum service temperature for fracture safe design
TK28 : transition temperature of Charpy V at 28J
β(Re) : 60 ln rounded to 60 ln
∆Te : in theory, 60 1n (e in mm); in the model a more conservative formula is used : 57 ln
∆TV : (83 - 0,08 Re) ε 0,17 where is the strain rate in s-1
25 : scatter of Equation (S1)
11. DEFINITION OF TOUGHNESS REQUIREMENTS
The necessary steel quality expressed in terms of the 28J transition temperature is derived as a function of service
temperature, strain rate, stress applied to the structure, material yield stress and thickness from the following formula:

Table 6 Some Results of the French Method
Re e 2a β Te Tv TK28 @Ts=0°C
(MPa) (mm) (mm) (°C) (°C) (°C)@0,1/s (°C)
280 10 3 -49 -92 41 53
280 20 5 -49 -73 41 39
280 30 8 -49 -58 41 29
280 60 15 -49 -29 41 8
280 80 20 -49 -16 41 -1
280 110 28 -49 0 41 -12
350 10 3 -27 -92 37 40
350 20 5 -27 -73 37 27
350 30 8 -27 -58 37 16
350 60 15 -27 -29 37 -4
350 80 20 -27 -16 37 -14

350 110 28 -27 0 37 -25
410 10 3 -13 -92 34 33
410 20 5 -13 -73 34 19
410 30 8 -13 -58 34 9
410 60 15 -13 -29 34 -12
410 80 20 -13 -16 34 -22
410 110 28 -13 0 34 -33
480 10 3 0 -92 30 26
480 20 5 0 -73 30 12
480 30 8 0 -58 30 2
480 60 15 0 -29 30 -19
480 80 20 0 -16 30 -28
480 110 28 0 0 30 -39
510 10 3 5 -92 29 24
510 20 5 5 -73 29 10
510 30 8 5 -58 29 0
510 60 15 5 -29 29 -21

510 80 20 5 -16 29 -30
510 110 28 5 0 29 -42
Conditions: loading up to yield stress at a slow strain rate (0,1/s)
Table 7 Main Rules of the British Model
Between the critical crack opening displacement (δ in mm) of a material at a given temperature and the Charpy V energy
(CV in Joules) at the same temperature:
(G1)
2. APPLICABILITY
Fracture behaviour analysis according to the assumptions that prevail for the definition of the "Design Curve" in
British Standard PD 6493, which for stainless and ferritic steel is expressed as follows:
(G2)
3. APPLIED STRESS
In the original model, a value of σ equal to 1,9 Re was adopted as the result of the superimposition of a design stress equal
to 0,67 Re affected by a stress concentration factor of 1,2 and a residual stress of amplitude equal to Re.
(G3)
4. REFERENCE DEFECT LENGTH
A surface crack size 0,2 times the plate thickness deep and 1 times the thickness long, which corresponds to an
equivalent crack size of 0,2e
(G4)
Combining Equations (G1) to (G4) leads to:
(G5)
equivalent to:
(G6)
Table 8 Some Results of the British Method

Re e 2a CV TK28@Ts=0°C
(MPa) (mm) (mm) (J) (°C) #
280 10 4 4 106
280 20 8 8 58
280 30 12 12 37
280 60 24 24 6
280 80 32 32 -5
280 110 44 43 -17
350 10 4 5 88
350 20 8 10 46
350 30 12 15 27
350 60 24 30 -3
350 80 32 39 -14
350 110 44 54 -26
410 10 4 6 77
410 20 8 12 38
410 30 12 17 20

410 60 24 35 -9
410 80 32 46 -20
410 110 44 64 -31
480 10 4 7 67
480 20 8 14 31
480 30 12 20 13
480 60 24 41 -15
480 80 32 54 -26
480 110 44 74 -37
510 10 4 7 64
510 20 8 14 28
510 30 12 22 10
510 60 24 43 -17
510 80 32 57 -28
510 110 44 79 -39
#TK28 was derived from CV using formula (ET5) of Table 14

Table 9 Main Rules of the Belgian Model
Between net fracture stress in wide plate test containing a through-thickness defect and Charpy V energy at the
same temperature:
(C1)
where CV is expressed in J and not in J/cm² as in the original model.
2. APPLICABILITY
Fracture appearance transition temperature in the Charpy test is lower than the temperature of the wide plate test.
3. APPLIED STRESS
Material yield stress on gross-section (the model may nevertheless be applied to other stresses).
(C2)
4. REFERENCE DEFECT
Length of the through-thickness defect (critical size) satisfying the full yield behaviour, expressed by the following equation:
(C3)
(C4)
Table 10-1 Main Aspects of the Eurocode Rules
Step 1.1 Definition of Stress Levels S1, S2, S3:
S1 - Structural elements containing no weld, or
- stress-relieved welded elements with tensile stresses under 2/3 of yield stress, or
- as-welded element with tensile stresses under 2/10 of yield stress.
S2 - As-welded elements with tensile stresses between 2/10 and 2/3 yield stress, or
- stress-relieved welded elements with stresses below 2 times yield stress.
S3 - As-welded elements with stresses between 2/3 and 2 times yield stress, or
- stress-relieved welded elements with stresses between 2 and 3 times yield stress.

Note: Stresses here include local stresses concentrated by stress raisers.
(E1)
Step 1.2 Definition of Strain Rates R1, R2
R1 : έ ≤ 0,001 s-1 (permanent loads, traffic loads, winds, waves, material handling)
R2 : έ ≤ 1 s-1 (impacts, explosions, collisions)
(E2)
Step 1.3 Definition of Consequences of Failure C1, C2:
C1 : Localised failure without appreciable consequence on safety of persons and stability of structure.
C2 : Failure whose local occurrence may cause the global collapse of the structure with disastrous consequences for
persons and economy.
(E3)
Step 2 Definition of Defect Size:

- Semi elliptical surface defect
- Depth (a) equal to natural logarithm of thickness (t) a = ln (t) (mm)
- Length (2c) equal to 5 times depth: 2c = 5 ln (t) (mm)
(E4)
Step 3 Computation of Lr and Kr:
Lr is computed as a function of defect size and stress level.
Kr is computed as a function of Lr from the Fracture Assessment Diagram.
(E5)
Step 4 Computation of Kmat

Kmat is the necessary toughness that must be shown by the material.
Kmat is derived from the KI corresponding to the loading conditions imposed on the structure and the Kr value
derived according to (E5).
A safety factor (γ) is introduced to account for the failure condition:
γ = 1 for C1
γ = 1,5 for C2
(E6)
Step 5 Derivation of TK28
The rules of the French method are followed but are translated for KIC values in N/mm3/2 instead of MPa √m
(E7)
Table 11-1 Application Parameters of the Eurocode Rules
1. EXPRESSION OF KIC
KIC is the toughness required from the material taking account of its thickness and the service conditions prevailing for

the structure.
(E'1)
Re is the material yield stress guaranteed by the standard for the required thickness (t).
Units: KIC in N/mm3/2
Re in MPa
t in mm
(E'2)
γ = 1 for condition C1
γ = 1,5 for condition C2
(E'3)
ln is natural logarithm
Stress level
S1 S2 S3
ka 0,18 0,18 0,10
kb 0,40 0,15 0,07

kc 0,03 0,03 0,04
Table 11-2 Application Parameters of the Eurocode Rules
1. EXPRESSION FOR TK28
(E'4)
TS : Service temperature of the structure
Table 12 Some Requirements Derived from the Eurocode Rules
Re t K1S1 K1S2 K1S3 β1 β2 β3 Tv TK28@Ts=0° TK28@Ts=0° TK28@Ts=0°

C C C
(MPa) (mm) (N/ (N/ (N/ (°C) (°C) (°C) (°C)@0,001/
mm3/2) mm3/2) mm3/2) s (°C)@S1 (°C)@S2 (°C)@S3
280 10 655 939 1216 -158 -121 -96 19 81 56 37
280 20 813 1185 1514 -136 -98 -74 19 66 39 21
280 30 933 1364 1726 -122 -84 -61 19 56 29 12
280 60 1192 1744 2159 -98 -60 -38 19 39 11 -4
280 80 1324 1933 2368 -87 -49 -29 19 31 4 -11
280 110 1489 2167 2622 -75 -38 -19 19 23 -4 -18
350 10 818 1174 1520 -135 -99 -73 17 67 41 22
350 20 1017 1481 1893 -114 -76 -51 17 51 24 7
350 30 1166 1705 2157 -100 -62 -38 17 41 14 -3

350 60 1490 2180 2698 -75 -37 -16 17 24 -3 -19
350 80 1654 2416 2960 -65 -27 -7 17 16 -11 -25
350 110 1861 2709 3277 -53 -16 3 17 8 -19 -32
410 10 958 1375 1781 -119 -83 -58 16 56 31 12
410 20 1191 1735 2218 -98 -60 -36 16 41 14 -4
410 30 1366 1997 2527 -84 -46 -23 16 31 4 -13
410 60 1745 2553 3161 -60 -21 0 16 14 -14 -29
410 80 1938 2830 3467 -49 -11 9 16 6 -21 -35
410 110 2180 3173 3839 -37 0 19 16 -2 -29 -43
480 10 1122 1610 2085 -104 -68 -42 14 46 21 2
480 20 1395 2031 2596 -82 -44 -20 14 31 4 -14
480 30 1599 2338 2958 -68 -30 -7 14 21 -6 -23
480 60 2043 2989 3700 -44 -6 16 14 4 -24 -39
480 80 2269 314 4059 -33 5 25 14 -4 -31 -45
480 110 2552 3715 4494 -22 16 35 14 -12 -39 -53
510 10 1192 1711 2215 -98 -62 -36 13 43 17 -2
510 20 1482 2158 2759 -76 -38 -14 13 27 0 -17
510 30 1699 2484 3143 -62 -24 -1 13 17 -10 -27
510 60 2171 3176 3932 -38 0 22 13 0 -27 -43
510 80 2411 3521 4313 -27 11 31 13 -8 -35 -49
510 110 2711 3947 4775 -15 22 41 13 -16 -43 -57
Conditions: S1, S2, S3 loading modes at a R1 strain rate (0,001/s) and C1 failure consequences.
Table 13 Some Requirements Derived from The Eurocode Rules

Re t K1S1 K1S2 K1S2 β1 β2 β3 Tv TK28@Ts=0° TK28@Ts=0° TK28@Ts=0°

C C C
(MPa) (mm) (N/ (N/ (N/ (°C) (°C) (°C) (°C)@0,001/
mm3/2) mm3/2) mm3/2) s (°C)@S1 (°C)@S2 (°C)@S3
280 10 818 1174 1520 -135 -99 -73 61 36 10 -9
280 20 1017 1481 1893 -114 -76 -51 61 20 -7 -24
280 30 1166 1705 2157 -100 -62 -38 61 10 -17 -34
280 60 1490 2179 2698 -75 -37 -16 61 -7 -34 -50
280 80 1654 2416 2959 -65 -27 -7 61 -15 -42 -56
280 110 1860 2708 3277 -53 -16 3 61 -23 -50 -64
350 10 1023 1467 1900 -113 -77 -51 55 24 -2 -21
350 20 1271 1851 2366 -91 -54 -29 55 8 -19 -36
350 30 1457 2131 2696 -78 -40 -16 55 -2 -29 -46
350 60 1862 2724 3372 -53 -15 6 55 -19 -46 -62
350 80 2068 3020 3699 -43 -5 16 55 -27 -54 -68
350 110 2326 3386 4096 -31 7 26 55 -35 -62 -76
410 10 1198 1719 2226 -97 -61 -35 50 16 -10 -29
410 20 1489 2168 2772 -75 -38 -13 50 0 -27 -44
410 30 1707 2496 3158 -62 -24 0 50 -10 -37 -54
410 60 2181 3191 3950 -37 1 22 50 -27 -54 -70
410 80 2422 3538 4333 -27 11 31 50 -35 -62 -76
410 110 2724 3966 4798 -15 23 42 50 -43 -70 -83
480 10 1402 2012 2606 -81 -45 -19 45 8 -17 -36
480 20 1743 2538 3245 -60 -22 2 45 -7 -34 -51
480 30 1999 2922 3697 -46 -8 16 45 -17 -44 -61
480 60 2554 3736 4625 -21 17 38 45 -34 -62 -77
480 80 2836 4142 5073 -11 27 47 45 -42 -69 -83
480 110 3189 4643 5617 1 38 57 45 -50 -77 -91
510 10 1490 2138 2769 -75 -39 -13 42 6 -20 -38
510 20 1852 2697 3448 -54 -16 9 42 -10 -37 -54

510 30 2124 3105 3928 -40 -2 22 42 -19 -47 -63

510 60 2713 3970 4914 -15 23 44 42 -37 -64 -79
510 80 3013 4400 5390 -5 33 53 42 -44 -72 -86
510 110 3389 4933 5968 7 44 63 42 -53 -80 -93
Conditions: S1, S2, S3 loading modes at a R1 strain rate (0,001/s) and C2 failure consequences.
Table 14-1 Conversion Between Energy and Transition Temperature in the Charpy V Test
In the French method, the dependency between KIC and the transition temperature is defined through a set of
experimental results which are the basis of the various correlations between TK28 and TKIC. This relationship can be
expressed by an analytical formula as follows:
(ET1)
where KIC is expressed in MPa √m .
∆T is the difference between the temperatures at which KIC corresponds respectively to a given value and 100 MPa √m
In the same method, it is also considered that the Charpy V energy and the KIC value are linked by the following relationship:
CV = (ET2)
Table 14.2 Conversion Between Energy and Transition Temperature in the Charpy V Test

Combining Equations (ET1) and (ET2) leads to:
(ET3)
where ∆T is the difference between the temperature at which CV must be calculated, e.g. the service temperature, and TK28.
Thus, it becomes:
(ET4)
where
TS is the service temperature
TK28 is the transition temperature at 28 J
For a service temperature of 0°C:
(ET5)
Table 15 Some Results of the Belgian Method for Comparison with the French Procedure

Re e 2a Rm/Re CV TK28
(MPa) (mm) (mm) (J) (°C)
280 10 3 1,5 6 77
280 20 5 1,5 10 47
280 30 8 1,5 16 24
280 60 15 1,55 28 0
280 80 20 1,55 37 -12
280 110 28 1,55 53 -25
350 10 3 1,4 7 67
350 20 5 1,4 11 39
350 30 8 1,4 18 17
350 60 15 1,45 32 -6
350 80 20 1,45 43 -17
350 110 28 1,45 62 -30
410 10 3 1,3 8 55
410 20 5 1,3 14 29
410 30 8 1,3 23 8

410 60 15 1,35 39 -13
410 80 20 1,35 52 -24
410 110 28 1,35 75 -37
480 10 3 1,23 10 44
480 20 5 1,23 17 19
480 30 8 1,23 28 -1
480 60 15 1,28 46 -20
480 80 20 1,28 63 -31
480 110 28 1,28 91 -44
510 10 3 1,2 12 38
510 20 5 1,2 20 14
510 30 8 1,2 32 -6
510 60 15 1,25 51 -23
510 80 2- 1,25 70 -35
510 110 28 1,25 101 -48
Table 16 Some Results of the Belgian Method for Comparison with the British Procedure
Re e 2a Rm/Re CV
(MPa) (mm) (mm) (J)#
280 10 4 1,5 5
280 20 8 1,5 9
280 30 12 1,5 14
280 60 24 1,55 27
280 80 32 1,55 37
280 110 44 1,55 51
350 10 4 1,4 5
350 20 8 1,4 10
350 30 12 1,4 15
350 60 24 1,45 29
350 80 32 1,45 39
350 110 44 1,45 54
410 10 4 1,3 5
410 20 8 1,3 11

410 30 12 1,3 16
410 60 24 1,35 31
410 80 32 1,35 42
410 110 44 1,35 58
480 10 4 1,23 6
480 20 8 1,23 11
480 30 12 1,23 17
480 60 24 1,28 33
480 80 32 1,28 44
480 110 44 1,28 62
510 10 4 1,2 6
510 20 8 1,2 12
510 30 12 1,2 18
510 60 24 1,25 34
510 80 32 1,25 46
510 110 44 1,25 64

# Required Charpy Energy is here computed assuming that the design stress is equal to 2/3 Re so as to fit
with the British model.
Table 17 Requirements from Eurocode 3 at 0,1/s Strain Rate and C1 Failure Consequences
Re t K1S1 K1S2 K1S3 β1 β β Tv TK28@Ts=0° TK28@Ts=0° TK28@Ts=0°

2 3 C C C
(MPa) (mm) (N/ (N/ (N/ (° (°C)
mm3/2) mm3/2) mm3/2) C) (° (° @0,1/ (°C)@S1 (°C)@S2 (°C)@S3
C) C) s
280 10 655 1174 1520 - - - 41 50 24 5

135 99 73
280 20 1017 1481 1893 - - - 41 34 7 -10

114 76 51
280 30 1166 1705 2157 - - - 41 24 -3 -20

100 62 38
280 60 1490 2179 2698 -75 - - 41 7 -20 5

37 16
280 80 1654 2416 2959 -65 - -7 41 -1 -28 -10

27
280 110 1860 2708 3277 -53 - 3 41 -9 -36 -20

16
350 10 818 1174 1520 - - - 37 52 26 8

135 99 73
350 20 1017 1481 1893 - - - 37 37 10 -8

114 76 51

350 30 1166 1705 2157 - - - 37 27 0 -17

100 62 38
350 60 1490 2180 2698 -75 - - 37 9 -18 -33

37 16
350 80 1654 2416 2960 -65 - -7 37 2 -25 -40

27
350 110 1861 2709 3277 -53 - 3 37 -6 -33 -47

16
410 10 958 1375 1781 - - - 34 43 17 -1

119 83 58
410 20 1191 1735 2218 -98 - - 34 28 1 -17

60 36
410 30 1366 1997 2527 -84 - - 34 18 -9 -26

46 23
410 60 1745 2553 3161 -60 - 0 34 0 -27 -42

21
410 80 1938 2830 3467 -49 - 9 34 -7 -34 -49

11
410 110 2180 3173 3839 -37 0 19 34 -15 -42 -56
480 10 1122 1610 2085 - - - 30 35 9 -10

104 68 42
480 20 1395 2031 2596 -82 - - 30 19 -8 -25

44 20
480 30 1599 2338 2958 -68 - -7 30 9 -18 -35

30
480 60 2043 2989 3700 -44 -6 16 30 -8 -35 -51

480 80 2269 3314 4059 -33 5 25 30 -16 -43 -57
480 110 2552 3715 4494 -22 16 35 30 -24 -51 -64
510 10 1192 1711 2215 -98 - - 29 32 6 -13

62 36
510 20 1482 2158 2759 -76 - - 29 16 -11 -28

38 14
510 30 1699 2484 3143 -62 - -1 29 6 -21 -38

24
510 60 2171 3176 3932 -38 0 22 29 -11 -38 -54
510 80 2411 3521 4313 -27 11 31 29 -19 -46 -60
510 110 2711 3947 4775 -15 22 41 29 -27 -54 -68
Conditions: S1, S2, S3 loading modes at a slow strain rate (0,1/s) and C1 failure consequences.
Table 18 Requirements from Eurocode 3 at 0,1/s Strain Rate and C2 Failure Consequences
Re t K1S1 K1S2 K1S3 β1 β β Tv TK28@Ts=0° TK28@Ts=0° TK28@Ts=0°

2 3 C C C
(MPa) (mm) (N/ (N/ (N/ (° (°C)
mm3/2) mm3/2) mm3/2) C) (° (° @0,1/ (°C)@S1 (°C)@S2 (°C)@S3
C) C) s
280 10 818 1174 1520 - - - 41 50 24 5

135 99 73
280 20 1017 1481 1893 - - - 41 34 7 -10

114 76 51

280 30 1166 1705 2157 - - - 41 24 -3 -20

100 62 38
280 60 1490 2179 2698 -75 - - 41 7 -20 5

37 16
280 80 1654 2416 2959 -65 - -7 41 -1 -28 -10

27
280 110 1860 2708 3277 -53 - 3 41 -9 -36 -20

16
350 10 1023 1467 1900 - - - 37 36 10 -8

113 77 51
350 20 1271 1851 2366 -91 - - 37 21 -6 -24

54 29
350 30 1457 2131 2696 -78 - - 37 11 -16 -33

40 16
350 60 1862 2724 3372 -53 - 6 37 -7 -34 -49

15
350 80 2068 3020 3699 -43 -5 16 37 -14 -41 -56
350 110 2326 3386 4096 -31 7 26 37 -22 -49 -63
410 10 1198 1719 2226 -97 - - 34 27 2 -17

61 35
410 20 1489 2168 2772 -75 - - 34 12 -15 -33

38 13
410 30 1707 2496 3158 -62 - 0 34 2 -25 -42

24
410 60 2181 3191 3950 -37 1 22 34 -16 -43 -58

410 80 2422 3538 4333 -27 11 31 34 -23 -50 -65
410 110 2724 3966 4798 -15 23 42 34 -31 -58 -72
480 10 1402 2012 2606 -81 - - 30 19 -7 -26

45 19
480 20 1743 2538 3245 -60 - 2 30 3 -24 -41

22
480 30 1999 2922 3697 -46 -8 16 30 -7 -34 -50
480 60 2554 3736 4625 -21 17 38 30 -24 -51 -66
480 80 2836 4142 5073 -11 27 47 30 -32 -59 -73
480 110 3189 4643 5617 1 38 57 30 -40 -67 -80
510 10 1490 2138 2769 -75 - - 29 16 -10 -29

39 13
510 20 1852 2697 3448 -54 - 9 29 0 -27 -44

16
510 30 2124 3105 3928 -40 -2 22 29 -10 -37 -54
510 60 2713 3970 4914 -15 23 44 29 -27 -54 -70
510 80 3013 4400 5390 -5 33 53 29 -35 -62 -76
510 110 3389 4933 5968 7 44 63 29 -43 -70 -84
Conditions: S1, S2, S3 loading modes at a slow strain rate (0,1/s) and C2 failure consequences.

ESDEP LECTURE NOTE [WG2:]
ESDEP WG 2
APPLIED METALLURGY
Lecture 2.6: Weldability of Structural

Steels
OBJECTIVE/SCOPE
The lecture briefly discusses the basics of the welding process and then examines the factors governing the weldability of
structural steels.
PREREQUISITES
None.
RELATED LECTURES
Lectures 2.3: Engineering Properties of Steels
Lecture 3.3: Principles of Welding
Lecture 3.4: Welding Processes
Lectures 11.2: Welded Connections
SUMMARY
The fundamental aspects of the welding process are discussed. The lecture then focuses on the metallurgical parameters
affecting the weldability of structural steels. A steel is considered to exhibit good weldability if joints in the steel possess
adequate strength and toughness in service.
Solidification cracking, heat affected zone - liquation cracking, hydrogen-induced cracking, lamellar tearing, and re-heat
cracking are described. These effects are detrimental to the performance of welded joints. Measures required to avoid them
are examined.
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 A Brief Description of the Welding Process
Welding is a joining process in which joint production can be achieved with the use of high temperatures, high pressures or
both. In this lecture, only the use of high temperatures to produce a joint is discussed since this is, by far, the most common

method of welding structural steels. It is essentially a process in which an intense heat source is applied to the surfaces to be
joined to achieve local melting. It is common for further "filler metal" to be added to the molten weld pool to bridge the gap
between the surfaces and to produce the required weld shape and dimensions on cooling. The most common welding
processes for structural steelwork use an electric arc maintained between the filler metal rod and the workpiece to provide
the intense heat source.
If unprotected, the molten metal in the weld pool can readily absorb oxygen and nitrogen from the atmosphere. This
absorption would lead to porosity and brittleness in the solidified weld metal. The techniques used to avoid gas absorption
in the weld pool vary according to the welding process. The main welding processes used to join structural steels are
considered in more detail below.
1.2 The Main Welding Processes
a. Manual Metal Arc welding (MMA)
In this process, the welder uses a metal stick electrode with a fusible mineral coating, in a holder connected to an electrical
supply. An arc is struck between the electrode and the weld area which completes the return circuit to the electricity supply.
The arc melts both the electrode and the surface region of the workpiece. Electromagnetic forces created in the arc help to
throw drops of the molten electrode onto the molten area of the workpiece where the two metals fuse to form the weld pool.
The electrode coating of flux contributes to the content of the weld pool by direct addition of metal and by metallurgical
reactions which refine the molten metal. The flux also provides a local gaseous atmosphere which prevents absorption of
atmospheric gases by the weld metal.
There are many types of electrodes. The main differences between them are in the flux coating. The three main classes of
electrode are shown below:
1. Rutile: General purpose electrodes for applications which do not require strict control of mechanical properties. These
electrodes contain a high proportion of titanium oxide in the flux coating.
2. Basic: These electrodes produce welds with better strength and notch toughness than rutile. The electrodes have a coating
which contains calcium carbonate and other carbonates and fluorspar.
3. Cellulosic: The arc produced by this type of electrode is very penetrating. These electrodes have a high proportion of
combustible organic materials in their coating.
b. Submerged Arc Welding (SAW)
This process uses a bare wire electrode and a flux added separately as granules or powder over the arc and weld pool. The
flux protects the molten metal by forming a layer of slag and it also stabilises the arc.
The process is used mainly in a mechanical system feeding a continuous length of wire from a coil whilst the welding lead
is moved along the joint. A SAW machine may feed several wires, one behind the other, so that a multi-run weld can be
made. Submerged arc welding produces more consistent joints than manual welding, but it is not suitable for areas of
difficult access.
c. Gas shielded welding
In this process, a bare wire electrode is used and a shielding gas is fed around the arc and weld pool. This gas prevents
contamination of the electrode and weld pool by air. There are three main variations of this process as shown below:
1. MIG (metal-inert gas) welding - Argon or helium gas is used for shielding. This process is generally used for non-ferrous
metals.

2. MAG (metal-active gas) welding - Carbon dioxide (usually mixed with argon) is used for shielding. This process is
generally used for carbon and carbon-manganese steels.
3. TIG (tungsten-inert gas) - Argon or helium gas is used for shielding and the arc struck between the workpiece and a non-
consumable tungsten electrode. This process is generally used for thin sheet work and precision welding.
1.3 Welded Joint Design and Preparation
There are two basic types of welded joints known as butt and fillet welds [1]. Schematic views of these two weld types are
shown in Figure 1. The actual shape of a weld is determined by the preparation of the area to be joined. The type of weld
preparation depends on the welding process and the fabrication procedure. Examples of different weld preparations are
shown in Figure 2. The weld joint has to be located and shaped in such a way that it is easily accessible in terms of both the
welding process and welding position. The detailed weld shape is designed to distribute the available heat adequately and to
assist the control of weld metal penetration and thus to produce a sound joint. Operator induced defects such as lack of
penetration and lack of fusion can be difficult to avoid if the joint preparation and design prevent good access for welding.


1.4 The Effect of the Welding Thermal Cycle on the Microstructure
The intense heat involved in the welding process influences the microstructure of both the weld metal and the parent metal
close to the fusion boundary (the boundary between solid and liquid metal). As such, the welding cycle influences the
mechanical properties of the joint.
The molten weld pool is rapidly cooled since the metals being joined act as an efficient heat sink. This cooling results in the
weld metal having a chill cast microstructure. In the welding of structural steels, the weld filler metal does not usually have
the same composition as the parent metal. If the compositions were the same, the rapid cooling could result in hard and
brittle phases, e.g. martensite, in the weld metal microstructure. This problem is avoided by using weld filler metals with a
lower carbon content than the parent steel.
The parent metal close to the molten weld pool is heated rapidly to a temperature which depends on the distance from the
fusion boundary. Close to the fusion boundary, peak temperatures near the melting point are reached, whilst material only a
few millimetres away may only reach a few hundred degrees Celsius. The parent material close to the fusion boundary is
heated into the austenite phase field. On cooling, this region transforms to a microstructure which is different from the rest
of the parent material. In this region the cooling rate is usually rapid, and hence there is a tendency towards the formation of
low temperature transformation structures, such as bainite and martensite, which are harder and more brittle than the bulk
of the parent metal. This region is known as the heat affected zone (HAZ).
The microstructure of the HAZ is influenced by three factors:
1. The chemical composition of the parent metal.

2. The heat input rate during welding.
3. The cooling rate in the HAZ after welding.
The chemical composition of the parent metal is important since it determines the hardenability of the HAZ. The heat input
rate is significant since it directly affects the grain size in the HAZ. The longer the time spent above the grain coarsening
temperature of the parent metal during welding, the coarser the structure in the HAZ. Generally, a high heat input rate leads
to a longer thermal cycle and thus a coarser HAZ microstructure. It should be noted that the heat input rate also affects the
cooling rate in the HAZ. As a general rule, the higher the heat input rate the lower the cooling rate. The value of heat input
rate is a function of the welding process parameters: arc voltage, arc current and welding speed. In addition to heat input
rate, the cooling rate in the HAZ is influenced by two other factors. First, the joint design and thickness are important since
they determine the rate of heat flow away from the weld during cooling. Secondly, the temperature of the parts being
joined, i.e. any pre-heat, is significant since it determines the temperature gradient which exists between the weld and
parent metal.
1.5 Residual Welding Stresses and Distortion
The intense heat associated with welding causes the region of the weld to expand. On cooling contraction occurs. This
expansion and subsequent contraction is resisted by the surrounding cold material leading to a residual stress field being set
up in the vicinity of the weld. Within the weld metal the residual stress tends to be predominantly tensile in nature. This
tensile residual stress is balanced by a compressive stress induced in the parent metal [2]. A schematic view of the residual
stress field obtained for longitudinal weld shrinkage is shown in Figure 3. The tensile residual stresses are up to yield point
in magnitude in the weld metal and HAZ. It is important to note that the residual stresses arise because the material
undergoes local plastic strain. This strain may result in cracking of the weld metal and HAZ during welding, distortion of
the parts to be joined or encouragement of brittle failure during service.

Transverse and longitudinal contractions resulting from welding can lead to distortion if the hot weld metal is not
symmetrical about the neutral axis of a fabrication [2]. A typical angular rotation in a single V butt weld is shown in Figure
4a. The rotation occurs because the major part of the weld is on one side of the neutral axis of the plate, thus inducing
greater contraction stresses on that side. This leads to a distortion known as cusping in a plate fabrication, as shown in
Figure 4b. Weld distortion can be controlled by pre-setting or pre-bending a joint assembly to compensate for the distortion
or by restraining the weld to resist distortion. Examples of both these methods are shown in Figure 5. Distortion problems
are most easily avoided by using the correct weld preparation. The use of non-symmetrical double sided welds such as
those shown in Figure 2e and 2i accommodates distortion. The distortion from the small side of the weld (produced first) is
removed when the larger weld is put on the other side. This technique is known as balanced welding.


It is not possible to predict accurately the distortion in a geometrically complicated fabrication, but one basic rule should be
followed. This rule is that welding should preferably be started at the centre of a fabrication and all succeeding welds be
made from the centre out, thus encouraging contractions to occur in the free condition.
If distortion is not controlled, there are two methods of correcting it; force and heat. The distortion of light sections can be
eliminated simply by using force, e.g. the use of hydraulic jacks and presses. In the case of heavier sections, local heating
and cooling is required to induce thermal stresses counteracting those already present.
1.6 Residual Stress Relief
The most common and efficient way of relieving residual stresses is by heating. Raising the temperature results in a lower
yield stress and allows creep to occur. Creep relieves the residual stresses through plastic deformation. Steel welded
components are usually heated to a low red heat (600°C) during stress relieving treatments. The heating and cooling rates
during this thermal stress relief must be carefully controlled otherwise further residual stress patterns may be set up in the
welded component. There is a size limit to the structures which can be thermally stress relieved both because of the size of
the ovens required and the possibility of a structure distorting under its own weight. It is possible, however, to heat treat
individual joints in a large structure by placing small ovens around the joints or by using electric heating elements.
Other methods of stress relief rely on thermal expansion providing mechanical forces capable of counteracting the original
residual stresses. This technique can be applied in-situ but a precise knowledge of the location of the compressive residual
stresses is vital, otherwise the level of residual stress may be increased rather than decreased. Purely mechanical stress
relief can also be applied provided sufficient is available to accommodate the necessary plastic deformation.
2. THE WELDABILITY OF STRUCTURAL STEELS
2.1 Introduction
If weld preparation is good and operator induced defects (e.g. lack of penetration or fusion) are avoided, all the common
structural steels can be successfully welded. However, a number of these steels may require special treatments to achieve a
satisfactory joint. These treatments are not convenient in all cases. The difficulty in producing satisfactory welded joints in
some steels arises from the extremes of heating, cooling and straining associated with the welding process combined with
microstructural changes and environmental interactions that occur during welding. It is not possible for some structural
steels to tolerate these effects without joint cracking occurring. The various types of cracking which can occur and the
remedial measures which can be taken are discussed below.

2.2 Weld Metal Solidification Cracking
Solidification of the molten weld pool occurs by the growth of crystals away from the fusion boundary and towards the
centre of the weld pool, until eventually there is no remaining liquid. In the process of crystal growth, solute and impurity
elements are pushed ahead of the growing interface. This process is not significant until the final stages of solidification
when the growing crystals interlock at the centre of the weld. The high concentration of solute and impurity elements can
then result in the production of a low freezing point liquid at the centre of the weld. This acts as a line of weakness and can
cause cracking to occur under the influence of transverse shrinkage strains. Impurity elements such as sulphur and
phosphorus are particularly important in this type of cracking since they cause low melting point silicides and phosphides to
be present in the weld metal [3]. A schematic view of solidification cracking is shown in Figure 6.
Weld metals with a low susceptibility to solidification cracking (low sulphur and phosphorous) are available for most
structural steels, but cracking may still arise in the following circumstances:
a. If joint movement occurs during welding, e.g. as a result of distortion. A typical example of this is welding around a
patch or nozzle. If the weld is continuous, the contraction of the first part of the weld imposes a strain during solidification
of the rest of the weld.
b. If contamination of the weld metal with elements such a sulphur and phosphorus occur. A typical example of this is the
welding of articles with a sulphur rich scale, such as a component in a sulphur containing environment.
c. If the weld metal has to bridge a large gap, e.g. poor fit-up. In this case the depth to width ratio of the weld bead may be
small. Contraction of the weld results in a large strain being imposed on the centre of the weld.
d. If the parent steel is not suitable in the sense that the diffusion of impurity elements from the steel into the weld metal

can make it susceptible to cracking. Cracking susceptibility depends on the content of alloying element with the parent
metal and can be expressed in the following equation:
Hot cracking susceptibility =
Note: The higher the number, the greater the susceptibility.
Solidification cracking can be controlled by careful choice of parent metal composition, process parameters and joint
design to avoid the circumstances previously outlined.
2.3 Heat Affected Zone (HAZ) Cracking
2.3.1 Liquation cracking (burning)
The parent material in the HAZ does not melt as a whole, but the temperature close to the fusion boundary may be so high
that local melting can occur at grain boundaries due to the presence of constituents having a lower melting point than the
surrounding matrix. Fine cracks may be produced in this region if the residual stress is high. These cracks can be extended
by fabrication stresses or during service [3]. A schematic view of liquation cracking is shown in Figure 7.

In steels the low melting point grain boundary films can be formed from impurities such as sulphur, phosphorus, boron,
arsenic and tin. As with solidification cracking, increased carbon, sulphur and phosphorous make the steel more prone to
cracking.
There are two main ways of avoiding liquation cracking. First, care should be taken to make sure that the sulphur and
phosphorus levels in the parent metal are low. Unfortunately, many steel specifications permit high enough levels of
sulphur and phosphorus to introduce a risk of liquation cracking. Secondly, the risk of liquation cracking is affected by the
welding process used. Processes incorporating a relatively high heat input rate, such as submerged arc or electroslag
welding, lead to a greater risk of liquation cracking than, for example, manual metal arc welding. This is the case since the
HAZ spends longer at the liquation temperature (allowing greater segregation of low melting point elements) and there is a
greater amount of thermal strain accompanying welding.
2.3.2 Hydrogen induced cracking
This form of cracking (also known as HAZ, underbead, cold or delayed cracking) occurs in the HAZ at temperatures less
than 200°C. Cracks can form within minutes of welding or be delayed for several days. Three factors must co-exist if
cracking is to occur. These factors are:
a. The presence of hydrogen
Hydrogen is introduced into the molten weld pool during welding as a result of the decomposition of hydrogen containing
compounds in the arc, e.g. moisture, grease paint and rust. Once the gas has dissolved in the weld metal, it can diffuse
rapidly into the HAZ both during cooling and at ambient temperatures. In due course, the hydrogen will diffuse out of the
steel. The diffusion can take a period of weeks for a thick-walled vessel.
b. A susceptible weld metal or HAZ
The cooling rate following most fusion welding processes is relatively rapid. This cooling can lead to the formation of
martensite or other hardened structures in the HAZ and possibly the weld metal. These structures can be embrittled by the
presence of only small quantities of hydrogen.
c. A high level of residual stress after welding.
Cracking develops under the action of the residual stresses from welding in the susceptible microstructure of the HAZ or
weld metal, where embrittlement has occurred due to the presence of hydrogen in solution [3]. A schematic view of
hydrogen cracking in the HAZ of different weld designs is illustrated in Figure 8.

The methods of avoiding hydrogen cracking involve removing or limiting one of the three factors which are necessary for it
to occur. Hydrogen cracking can be avoided by choosing a material which does not harden in the HAZ or weld metal with
the particular welding process employed. The likelihood of hardening in the HAZ is controlled by the cooling rate after
welding and the hardenability of the parent steel. The hardenability of a steel is governed by its composition. A useful way
of describing hardenability is to assess the total contribution to it of all the elements that are present in the steel. This
assessment is done by an empirical formula which defines a carbon equivalent value (CEV) and takes account of the
important elements which affect hardenability. A typical formula for the CEV (accepted in British Standards) is shown
below:
CEV =
As a general rule, hardening in the HAZ can be avoided by using a steel with a CEV of less than 0,42 although it should be
noted that the welding process parameters influence this value.
Increasing the heat input rate of the welding process (where possible) is beneficial since it results in a slower cooling rate
after welding and therefore a lower likelihood of hardening in the HAZ. For the same reason, there is a less risk of
hydrogen cracking when welding thin plates and sections, since the cooling rate in the HAZ is less than in thick sections.
Limiting the presence of hydrogen by avoiding damp, rust and grease, by using controlled hydrogen electrodes (properly
dried basic coated electrodes) and low hydrogen welding processes (MIG or submerged arc welding) is another step
towards avoiding cracking.
If these precautions are not sufficient, preheating is necessary. Preheating and the maintenance of a minimum interpass

temperature during multi-pass welding has two effects. First, it results in softening of the HAZ because the cooling rate is
reduced. Secondly, it accelerates the diffusion of hydrogen from the weld zone so that less remains after the weld has
cooled. The minimum pre-heat temperature required to avoid hydrogen cracking depends on the chemical composition of
the steel, the heat input rate and the thicknesses being joined.
The minimum pre-heat temperature can be calculated by interrelating these facts in a welding procedure diagram [3]. An
example of one of these diagrams for carbon manganese steels is shown in Figure 9. This diagram is used in the following
way:

1. Select the appropriate heat input (arc energy) on the horizontal scale.
2. Move vertically to intersect the appropriate combined thickness line for the joint design in question.
3. Move horizontally from the intersection point to read off the pre-heat temperature for the CEV of the steel being
welded.
2.4 Lamellar Tearing
This problem can arise if the residual stresses from welding are applied across the thickness of at least one of the plates
being joined [3]. Cracking occurs if the through-thickness ductility of the plate is very low. A schematic view of this mode
of cracking is shown in Figure 10.
Cracking normally occurs in the parent metal close to the outer boundary of the HAZ. The cracks have a characteristic
stepped appearance with the 'threads' of the steps being parallel to the rolling direction of the steel plate. In contrast to
hydrogen cracking, lamellar tears are not necessarily confined to the HAZ. In some cases, cracking can occur at the mid-
thickness of a plate if it is restrained by a weld on both sides.
Lamellar tearing arises because the through-thickness ductility of the plate is reduced by the presence of planar inclusions
lying parallel to the plate surface. All common structural steels contain large numbers of inclusions which consist of non-
metallic substances produced in the steelmaking process, e.g. sulphates and silicates. These inclusions are formed as
spheres, grain boundary films, or small angular particles in the steel ingot as it cools down after casting. When the ingot is

rolled to make steel plate the inclusions deform into discs parallel to the plate surface. Different types of inclusions deform
in different ways and break up during rolling. The form, distribution and density of inclusions in a rolled plate determine
the through-thickness ductility. Only a small proportion of steel plates have a sufficiently low through-thickness ductility to
be susceptible to lamellar tearing.
Lamellar tearing can be avoided in four main ways:
a. Improved joint design
The design of a fabrication can be altered to avoid residual stresses in the through-thickness direction of a plate. Examples
are shown in Figure 11.

b. The use of forged products
The lamellar distribution of inclusions in a plate is a result of the plastic deformation occurring during rolling. The
inclusion distribution in forged products is not so detrimental.
c. Plate selection
The use of steel plates with a relatively low population of planar inclusions and thus adequate through-thickness ductility.
d. Using a layer of low strength weld metal
This reduces the strain transmitted through the thickness of the welded steel plates since the soft weld metal can deform
plastically. This technique, known as 'buttering' is relatively expensive but can be used when susceptible joints cannot be
avoided.
2.5 Re-Heat Cracking
The removal or reduction of residual stresses after welding by thermal stress relief is recommended for many fabrications.
In this process, the joint reaches a temperature range where rapid creep can occur (about a third to a half of the melting
point). As a result, the welding residual stresses are relieved by plastic deformation. Cracking can occur during this process
if the ductility of the weld or HAZ is not sufficient to accommodate the strain accompanying the residual stress relief [3]. A
schematic view of re-heat cracking is shown in Figure 12.

The residual tensile stress which acts as the driving force for the cracking process may be supplemented by transient
thermal stresses in the weld zone. These stresses arise from rapid non-uniform heating up to the stress relieving
temperature. The presence of geometric stress raisers, e.g. toes of fillet welds, and pre-existing cracks, e.g. liquation and
hydrogen cracks, accentuate the problem.

The cracking problem is most prevalent during stress relieving operations, but it can also occur in service situations. In such
cases the onset of cracking is expected to take much longer since the service temperature is generally significantly below
the stress relieving temperature.
Re-heat cracking is mainly confined in practice to alloy steels containing substantial amounts of strong carbide forming
elements, e.g. Cr, Mo and V. The presence of the alloy carbides inhibits grain boundary sliding and thus reduces high
temperature ductility. Cracking can usually be avoided by weld profiling, e.g. grinding away any geometric stress raisers
such as the toes of fillet welds, before heat treatment and by control of the heating rate to avoid high transient thermal
stresses.
● A structural steel can only be considered to be weldable if joints in the steel behave satisfactorily in service.
● In order to achieve adequate levels of performance in structural applications, the integrity of the welded joint must
be good. A high level of integrity can only be achieved if the welded joint microstructure possesses sufficient
ductility to resist residual stresses, which arise from the welding thermal cycle, without cracking.
● The chemical compositions of both the weld and parent metals (carbon equivalent value), together with the
parameters of the welding process (heat input and cooling rates), are influential in determining joint ductility.
● The level of impurity elements, such as sulphur, phosphorous and hydrogen, is a particularly significant factor in
determining whether crack formation will occur during welding.
4. REFERENCES
[1] Hicks, J. G., "Welded Joint Design", BSP Professional Books, 1979.
[2] Pratt, J. L., "Introduction to the Welding of Structural Steelwork", Steel Construction Institute, 3rd rev. ed. 1989.
[3] Baker, R. G., "The Welding of Pressure Vessel Steels", The Welding Institute, 1973.

ESDEP WG 3
Lecture 3.1.1: General Fabrication of

Steel Structures I
OBJECTIVE/SCOPE
To give a brief outline of the fabrication process for steel structures; to identify the factors affecting
manufacturing costs and to stress the importance of the designer considering the fabrication process
when preparing the design.
PREREQUISITES
None are essential.
The following lectures might be helpful:
Lectures 2.3: Engineering Properties of Metals
RELATED LECTURES
Lecture 3.5: Fabrication/Erection of Buildings

Lecture 4A.1: General Corrosion
Lecture 15A.8: Offshore: Fabrication
Lecture 15B.12: Introduction to Bridge Construction
SUMMARY
The lecture gives a brief summary of the forms of contract and organisation used for the fabrication
of steel structures. It reviews fabrication processes with brief descriptions of the main operations.
1. INTRODUCTION
The objective of this lecture is to give an insight into the fabrication aspects of steel structures.
Optimum design of steel structures can only be achieved if fabrication and erection are considered
together with the functional, architectural and structural requirements.
To minimize total costs and optimise the design of the steel structure, it is important that the various
disciplines involved work in a coordinated way as a project team during the various stages.
Fabrication costs do not depend only on the fabrication itself but are also influenced by the contract
scope, contracting procedures and organisation. Costs are very sensitive to the labour involved in the
fabrication. Good design concentrates on minimising material handling and preparation; in this regard
it should be noted that fabrication procedures and sequencing may be influenced by the protection
required to the steelwork. Careful attention should also be given to other aspects such as material
characteristics, distortions and tolerances.
2. FORMS OF CONTRACT AND ORGANISATION
2.1 General
Both the form of contract and of the organisation depend heavily on the project, the client and the
contractor involved. It is common practice for the fabrication company to enter into a contract which
involves fabrication, erection and the preparation of the detail drawings; this can prove most
competitive since the fabrication costs of a steel structure are substantially influenced by the cost-
consciousness of the detail-engineering.
Major constructions, such as high-rise buildings, bridges, and offshore structures, are usually
designed by a specialist consulting engineering practice under a separate contract; however, for
commonplace structures (portal frames, etc.) it is not unusual that the total design is undertaken by
the contractor in a package deal with the client.
2.2 Contract Procedures

After receipt of the order and agreement of terms, copies of the principal documents are passed on to
the Drawing Office. These documents usually include:
● Engineer's Drawings.
● Conditions of Contract.
● Technical Specification.
● Contract Programme.
2.3 Planning
The success of any contract generally depends on compliance with the requirements of the project
programme; deviations from the programme can have very serious effects on costs; delays can be
traumatic for the other participating trades and subsequently for the client.
The programme is usually made out in bar-line format and based on network techniques, including
critical path analysis.
Essential elements are:
● Erection sequence;
● Purchasing the material from the steelmill;
● Preparation of fabrication drawings;
● Material preparation;
● Fabrication;
● Assembly;
● Protective treatment;
● Delivery to site.
Each element is planned to a set timescale, and co-ordinated with parallel actions from other
contracts occurring during the same period. If the erection programme imposes demands for shop
fabrication in excess of the fabricator's capacity, then sub-letting of work will be necessary, coupled
with the requisite QA- and QC-assessment.
2.4 Drawing Office
The drawings can be produced expeditiously and economically only if the consulting engineer
provides all necessary information concerning the geometry of the structure, member sizes, forces
and moments in connections. Without the relevant information there will be very costly delays not
only in the Drawing Office, but in the whole production chain. Extra costs will be incurred by
variations to the design after the drawings have been completed. Even more significantly, extra costs
will arise if modifications have to be made to work in the fabrication shop; alterations to work on site
are generally very costly, particularly if programme delays result.
The production of the drawings will include three phases:

● Preparation and setting out work.

● Drawing the details.
● Checking the drawings.
The time and cost involved in preparing drawings will largely depend upon the degree of repetition
and the complexity of the design; careful consideration of these matters prior to starting setting out
and detail work should result in drawings that, efficiently and unambiguously, communicate the
structural requirements to the workshop operatives and the site erection team.
Work stations equipped with modern computer graphics, when used by trained draughtsmen, can
result in higher rates of drawing production. They can also result in a higher quality of drawing with
modifications being more easily incorporated. Long-distance transfer by telephone is possible.
Automatic listings of materials and tapes for numerically controlled (NC) fabrication may also be
produced advantageously by these facilities.
3. FABRICATION PROCEDURES
3.1 Workshop Layout
Fabricators range from small general firms to large specialised producers with different facilities at
their disposal. In either case the fabrication must always be organised in such a way that the material
will pass through a one-way system from receipt to final despatch (Slide 1). A flow chart, as
indicated in Slide 2, shows the main areas of activity in a modern fabrication shop; the specific
activities for a simple steel beam can also be organised as a production line (Slide 3).
Slide 1

Slide 2

Slide 3
Most fabrication shops are equipped with overhead travelling cranes, sometimes remotely controlled
from the shop floor. Mechanised conveyor systems are common in the larger shops. They can greatly
reduce handling costs.
Special facilities must be provided for the storage of flammable materials; pipelines for gas and
oxygen must be installed. Welding areas require a heavy power supply and screening to protect eyes
from ultraviolet glare. Some operations are very dusty and noisy, such as mechanical chipping and
arc gouging. Where possible, they should be separated, therefore, from the other production areas.
3.2 Material Handling and Preparation
Material is taken into temporary stock in such a way that it can be easily identified and moved. Some
companies stack the material for easy access and move it by using cranes equipped with chains and
hooks. Other companies use a high degree of automation in their material handling, using cranes on
conveyors with magnetic lifting devices; Slide 4, for example, shows a travelling Goliath Magnet
Crane with the capacity to lift both plates and sections (Slide 5 also shows a similar operation).
Computerised records hold details of member sizes, lengths, weights and steel quality, all related to
an identification mark.

Slide 4
Slide 5
When required, the steel is shot blasted in a separate location, either by hand or automatically.
Sometimes the automatic installations can sense the size of the members. Paint-spraying (done either
by hand or automatically) may follow directly after blast cleaning, depending on the production
programme; if, for example, welding is required then painting will take place after fabrication.
3.3 Templates and Marking

Steel may be marked directly by hand with scribe lines and hole centres; nowadays, however, in most
shops pre-programmed automatic plant is in use. Traditionally, full-sized templates, made of timber
or heavy cardboard, were used to mark the steel for cutting and for centre popping where holes were
to be drilled.
Occasionally a drilled and bushed template, made of steel, would be used for mass-produced items in
order to avoid the template wearing out. Templates are still being used, particularly for small plate
fittings and gussets, but the templates themselves are made by automatic fabrication methods after
plotting in the Drawing Office using computer work stations. These techniques greatly reducing the
work of the traditional skilled template maker.
3.4 Sawing Line and Rolled Sections
The rolled sections are in most cases sawn to length, the other options being mechanical cutting or
flame burning. Three types of saws are available to the fabricator:
● Circular saw;
● Band saw;
● Motor operated hacksaw.
By far the most popular choice is the circular cold saw, as its productivity is better than that of the
band saw or the hack saw. These saws are, in many cases, integrated in automatic sawing lines,
equipped with mechanised longitudinal and transverse conveyors and measuring devices, as shown in
Slides 6 and 7.
Slide 6

Slide 7
A saw can perform within an accuracy of a fraction of a millimetre on length and within a squareness
of 0,2% of the depth of the cut. The most accurate type is equipped with a swivelling arm enabling
the blade to descend onto the bar. The blade speed adjusts itself automatically on its way through the
work piece. A fully automated saw system will be operated through a computer program.
3.5 Drilling and the Beam Line System
The traditional method of drilling involves three operations:
● Marking the position of the holes to be drilled;

● Moving the member to the drill by crane, by conveyor, or by other means;
● The actual drilling of the hole, using for instance, a radial drilling machine (radius about 1,5
metre).
The better equipped fabrication shops nowadays have automatic beam-line systems (Slide 8) which
are generally linked to the conveyors of the sawing line. The beam (Slide 9) moves by longitudinal
conveyors along the Y-axis, denoted V and X for each flange, while the web drilling heads move
along the Z-axis.

Slide 8
Slide 9
Like the sawing line, this system is controlled by computer programs; some machines are equipped
with multiple drilling heads enabling them to drill several holes simultaneously in each axis (Slides
10 - 12).

Slide 10
Slide 11

Slide 12
New twist drills are currently available which are capable of higher speeds and greater efficiency as
follows:
● Coolant fed drills, giving a threefold increase in drilling speed.

● Titanium nitride coated drills, enabling a six-fold speed increase.
● Carbide tipped drills with exceptionally high cutting speeds.
3.6 Cropping, Guillotines and Punching
Cropping shears can be used for cutting small sections of limited thickness.
Guillotines can be used for shearing plates up to 25 mm thick but the plate will usually distort by the
high pressure contact with the bottom blade; these, therefore, may only be used where the
specification allows. New punching machines, however, operating at high speeds, will induce less
distortion of the material.
Punching holes in steelwork is much faster, and therefore less costly, than drilling; its use, however,
is generally limited to predominantly statically loaded structures with limited thickness, or to
secondary members, unless HSFG bolted connections are used or the holes are reamed out to a larger
size. The maximum thickness where punching is applicable depends on the material grade and quality.
3.7 Flame Burning of Plates
Bevelling and shaping of plates by flame cutting is general practice in most fabrication shops.
Oxygen and propane are usually stored in bulk in areas outside and supplied to the shopfloor in
pipelines. The equipment for flame cutting ranges from the simple hand-held torch to multi-torch,

numerically controlled, profiling machines (Slide 13). For wider plates several heads can be arranged
in order to ensure that equal heat is applied to both edges, thereby avoiding distortion. The cutting
carriage can even be provided with three cutting heads in order to produce double-bevel edges.
Slide 13
Single head machines can be operated by an optical controlling head, following a one-in-ten or full
size outline, drawn on paper. Profile cutting is often performed by numerically controlled machines
which also have the capacity to mark hole positions and hardstamp identification marks.
For accelerated cutting speeds, where edge hardness is not considered detrimental, other methods,
like plasma cutting under water or under an inert powder, are available. Laser cutting is just starting
to come into use, but is, for the time being, restricted to thin plates; the resulting edge hardness,
however, makes it unsuitable for some applications.
The fabricator must be aware that flame cutting will always result in shrinkage, for similar reasons as
for welding.
Symmetrical burning of plates limits distortion. Machining of one side will result in deformation due
to the resulting residual stress.
3.8 Pressing and Forming
For the modern fabricator the most important application of plate forming and pressing is to add to
the available range of rolled sections. The trapezoidal shaped trough (Slide 14), used to stiffen bridge
decks, is a very good example. Other examples are the circular sections of larger than standard
dimensions (Slide 15).

Slide 14
Slide 15
3.9 Methods of Welding
Three welding processes are most commonly used in modern fabrication shops:
● Manual Metal-Arc Welding for fittings and for some profile and positional welding (Slide 16);
● Metal Active Gas Welding (MAG) and Cored Wire Welding with and without gas (Slide 17);
● Submerged Arc Welding (Slide 18) for fully automatic processes; particularly useful for heavy

welding in the flat or horizontal-vertical position and for the long-run welds in plate and box
girders.
● Electric Arc Stud Welding, principally used in composite construction of steel and concrete.
Slide 16
Slide 17

Slide 18
3.10 Welding Design and Control of Distortion
Because a full penetration weld is more difficult to make than a full strength weld, full penetration
welds should only be used where necessary, such as in connections where high fatigue stresses can
occur. Good welding design reflects the economies and advantages of different types of weld by
choosing types appropriate to the needs of the design.
The full strength weld is easy to achieve using fillet welds; full penetration welds, however, without
inclusions at the centre, can only be achieved by extensive back gouging prior to welding the reverse
side. The risk of faults in full penetration welds is much greater and control of distortion more
difficult.
Control of distortion is achieved by prestressing the member before welding, or by a balanced

application of heat on each side of the neutral axis of the section. Allowance must also be made for
overall contraction due to welding. The quality of the fitting-up is very important as any excess gap
will affect the distortion and increase the shrinkage.
Maintaining the quality of the weld at the end of the run is difficult. The problem in butt welds can be
tackled by tacking short run-on and run-off plates on each side which are removed after completion
of the weld.
3.11 The Role of the Welding Engineer
Welding procedures are the responsibility of the Welding Engineer, who will produce a procedure
sheet for each weld. He will also make sure that the welder is qualified to the required standard.

He may also supervise any non-destructive testing (NDT) which may be undertaken by radiographic,
ultrasonic, magnetic particle or dye penetrant means.
3.12 Automatic Production of Plate Girders
The welded plate girder forms a natural addition to the range of rolled sections available. The typical
production sequence is as follows:
● The plates for the girders receive an NDT check for laminations or other defects; they are then
flame cut to the required dimensions and shot blasted.
● The girders are firmly clamped into position and tack welded; submerged welding then
follows, the welding heads moving along the weld lines (Slides 19 and 20). Any stiffeners
required are then tacked and welded, usually by MAG welding.
Slide 19

Slide 20
Simultaneous welding of the flanges will reduce distortion.
3.13 Machine Operations
Most fabrication shops are equipped with facilities for edge planing, for end milling and for surface
machining of plate (Slide 21).

Slide 21
Unacceptable levels of hardness at the edge of the plate, often caused by burning, can be removed by
planing.
End planing of members is used to get a higher standard of squareness than can be achieved by
sawing. Optical laserbeam methods are used to align the axis of the member to the cutting head.
Surface machining is only necessary for special bearing surfaces and sometimes for the slab base
plates of columns.
3.14 Fabrication Tolerances
Modern fabrication shops have accurate dimensional control over fabricated sections and have no
problems in cutting the rolled material to length. The main problem is coping with the deviations in
the sections and plates received from the steelmills. Euronorm (CEN) and ISO standards give
dimensional tolerances for rolled sections, plates and flats, hollow sections and angles respectively.
The fabricator will use bending rolls to straighten the material and to "square" flanges of beam
sections at critical connection points. As already mentioned, the control of distortion due to welding
during assembly is the important factor in producing dimensional accuracy in welded sections.
The details and the connections must be designed in such a way that the tolerances will be met within
the limits of good workmanship. An example is given in Slide 22.

Slide 22
3.15 Trial Erection in the Fabrication Shop
It is sometimes necessary to "prove" the dimensional qualities of the product by a trial erection of one
section of the structure in the fabricator's works.
Parts of bridge structures, particularly those bound for overseas locations, and structures for the
support of intricate industrial plant are likely candidates.
Trial erection is expensive and should be avoided where possible by incorporating methods of site
adjustment into the design and by optimum control of measurements.
3.16 Inspection and Quality Control
Quality Control should commence with the designer and continue through the preparation of
drawings and material procurement; maintaining the quality during the entire production process will
depend heavily on the fabrication details and on the material obtained.

The larger fabricators have their own Quality Control Department, which will create and maintain a
QC-manual, describing the method of operation throughout the fabrication process. The Quality
Control Department will liaise with the shop management to make sure that all workers have the skill
required for the job on hand and that welders are qualified to undertake the prescribed welding
procedures.
Regular checks are necessary to ensure that:
● All materials can be checked against specifications.

● Material is checked for laminations.
● Welding electrodes are identifiable.
● Welding electrodes are stored in the required conditions.
● Welding procedures are being followed.
● Welding is being inspected during the process.
● Correct procedures are in operation for tightening HSFG bolts.
● Identification marks are clear and visible.
● All equipment is maintained correctly.
Close liaison should always be maintained between the QC staff and the Drawing Office.
● Good design makes efficient use of material and makes proper provisions for tolerances in
fabrication and erection.
● Good interaction between shop floor and drawing office is indispensable for economical and
efficient fabrication and erection.
● Labour should be used as effectively as possible so that labour costs are minimised. Automatic
processes should be used where feasible and appropriate.
● Quality control is essential.
1. Davies, B. J. and Crawley, E. J., Structural Steelwork Fabrication, British Constructional
Steelwork Association (BCSA), London, 1980.
2. Arch, W. H., Structural Steelwork - Erection, British Constructional Steelwork Association
(BCSA), London, 1989.
3. Firkins, A., Fabrication Cost of Structural Steelwork, Steel Construction, Vol. 24, No. 2,
Australian Institute of Steel Construction, 1990.
4. Wardenier, J., Design and Fabrication of Steel Structures, Engineering Design of Welded
Construction, IIW 1992, Houdremont lecture, Pergamon Press, 1992.
5. Various authors, Steel Construction Today, Vol. 5, No 3, Steel Construction Institute, May
1991.
6. Eurocode 3: "Design of Steel Structures": ENV 1993-1-1: Part 1.1: General Rules and Rules
for Buildings, CEN, 1992.


ESDEP WG 3
Lecture 3.1.2: General Fabrication

of Steel Structures II
OBJECTIVE/SCOPE
This lecture can be considered as a supplement to the introductory Lecture 3.1.1. It deals with the
overall management of fabrication in the workshop in relation to the cost of fabricated steelwork. It
also gives a few examples of how to avoid complications during fabrication.
PREREQUISITES
Essential:
Lecture 3.1.1: General Fabrication of Steel Structures I
RELATED LECTURES

SUMMARY
This lecture deals with the cost build-up for fabricated steelwork delivered to site. It discusses costs
under the headings of materials, fabrication, protective treatment, delivery and commercial factors. It
gives examples of how detailing can be improved to minimise costs.
1. INTRODUCTION
This lecture is a continuation of Lecture 3.1.1 and concentrates more on the costs associated with
material handling and fabrication equipment; it gives several suggestions of ways to improve designs
to facilitate more economic fabrication.
2. COST FACTORS
Modern programs for the calculation of costs determine the costs of steel structures in relation to their
component parts. For every part, the cost of material, handling, preparation, welding, bolting, etc. is
calculated.
The price of the steelwork, however, is often quoted in cost per tonne for material supply, fabrication,
protection treatment and delivery to site. For simple fabrication the material cost is often equal to the
total cost of preparing drawings, fabrication, treatment and delivery. For complex structures the cost
of fabrication alone can be much more than the material value.
Typical types of steel structures, in ascending order of cost per tonne, are as follows:
● Simple beam to column structures, in rolled sections;

● Single-storey portal structures in universal sections;
● Simply supported bridges in rolled sections;
● High-rise structures with some welded sections;
● Structures with welded plate and box sections;
● Structures in tubular and RHS sections;
● Bunker and silo structures;
● Plate and box girder bridges in composite construction;
● Trapezoidal bridges with orthotropic decks;
● Special high weld content structures;
● Offshore structures.

The cost build-up of "middle of the range" fabrications could be as follows:
● Material 38%
● Fabrication 32%
● Drawing office 6%
● Protection treatment 10%
● Delivery 4%
● Commercial factors 10%
Each item, with the exception of the drawing office input which was discussed in the previous
lecture, is examined in the following sections.
2.1 Material
Steel supplies can be purchased directly from the steel mill or from stockholders. Generally the larger
quantities, delivery time permitting, should be obtained from the mills, since their prices can be 10 -
15% lower than the stockholder's. However, for small quantities, (say less than 10 tonnes) it might be
more attractive to purchase from stockholders.
When preparing fabrication schedules, the cyclic production plan of the steel mill must be considered
since certain sections are produced more rarely than those in common use.
The fabricator will aim at minimum waste when ordering steel. He will usually allow, say, an extra
2,5% to account for waste which he will eventually sell as scrap.
The steel mills base their price per tonne on quantities of 20 tonnes or more of mild steel, and lengths
up to 15 metres, cut to a tolerance of 50 millimetres.
Extra costs per tonne are incurred for small quantities of sections, and for higher grade steels with
tighter specifications.
Plates are ordered to the required thickness and in a range of widths and lengths, with sufficient
cutting and machining margins, minimizing waste as much as possible.
Circular hollow sections (CHS) and rectangular hollow sections (RHS) can be purchased at a
standard price per tonne. Extras are charged for small quantities, higher specifications, and for a
smaller length tolerance.
The cost of steel also depends on the certification required. Additional requirements with regard to
chemical composition, mechanical and toughness properties, e.g. Through-Thickness-Properties (Z
grade), result in extra cost.
Bearing these points in mind, the fabricator will make an analysis of all the material required for the
project to ensure minimal extras for small quantities. For the same reason the experienced Engineer

should avoid the use of too many different sizes in his design.
Material costs must also include such stock items as bolts, welding consumables, etc.
2.2 Fabrication
Fabrication will depend on the facilities and equipment available in the works. Working under a roof
will boost productivity because of independence from the weather. The larger fabricator will install
efficient, numerically controlled, production lines (which require no marking of the steel) for
burning, sawing, cropping, drilling, punching and welding. These machines can be very efficient
when run at high utilization rates. Smaller fabricators may still make templates or mark the steel
directly before cutting or drilling.
Powered roller conveyors are now extensively in use in modern plants; the final weight of the pre-
assemblies is usually limited by the capacity of the overhead cranes or by the load capacity of the
available multiwheel-rollers. In the latter case the yard floor must have sufficient bearing capacity.
Some fabricators have facilities for automatic blast cleaning and paint spraying.
Preheating (Slide 23) or post-weld heat treatment (Slide 24) is sometimes necessary, for example
when using thick material, but can often be avoided by appropriate specification of the steel quality
and welding procedures.

Slide 23

Slide 24
2.3 Protection of the Steelwork
Protection costs will vary depending on the chosen protection system; for example, the following
systems are listed in order of increasing cost:
● No treatment for covered internal steelwork;

● Wire brush and prime, as a preparation for later painting;
● Dip galvanizing;
● Blast clean and metal spray;
● Blast clean and a four-coat paint treatment.
Though it may add considerably to the transport costs, it is very important to handle the material with
great care after painting.
Extra costs are also incurred by having to provide areas which are to be left unpainted, such as the
bare steel surfaces required for high strength friction grip bolted (HSFG) connections or for site
welding.

2.4 Delivery
It is generally more expensive to transport pre-assemblies than to transport individual parts of the
structure. Extra costs may be incurred if weights or dimensions exceed those accommodated by
standard vehicles. The rules differ in each country. Slides 25 and 26 show the present UK Ministry of
Transport Rules.
Slide 25

Slide 26
The shipping costs of steelwork sent to overseas destinations can sometimes be more than 10% of the
total production costs. Shipping costs are based either on weight or volume of the structure. It is
advisable to consider these rates at an early stage. It is not uncommon for a structure to have a
"shipping weight" (Slide 27) which is five times the actual weight. To reduce such costs it is desirable
to do as much assembly as possible on site.

Slide 27
2.5 Commercial Factors
Fabrication costs must allow for commercial factors including costs for insurance, risk and profit;
they may also include cashflow, interest charges, bank guarantee charges and retention costs.
In many contracts the client will make the payment in stages; depending on the contract conditions
payment may be made after receipt of the steel, after completion of drawings, during fabrication,
after delivery to site, or after erection, thereby helping to finance the work. However, the fabricator
must make provision for the cost of interest on his payments and on the cost of retention, which can
be held by the client for one or two years.
3. IMPROVEMENT OF DESIGN: EXAMPLES

The cost-conscious fabricator will always assess the quality of the design under the following
headings:
a. Fabrication,

b. Transport,
c. Erection,
d. Inspection,
e. Maintenance,
f. General costs.
a. The plate in the HE-section shown in Slide 28 cannot be welded with double fillet welds. A single
fillet weld, or a partial or full penetration weld, welded from one side, should be used.
Slide 28
The dimensions shown in Slide 28b are too small for proper inside welding. A single fillet, partial or
full penetration weld should be used and another solution for the transverse stiffening panel should be
considered.
Accessibility for welding is very important, (Slide 29). Overlapped joints in trusses of tubular
members (Slide 30) are less flexible when adjustment for dimensional tolerances is required. If
welding of the hidden locations between braces and chords is required, the verticals cannot be
positioned unless they are made in two pieces, each requiring additional cutting, welding and
inspection.

Slide 29
Slide 30
These complications will not occur if gap joints are used. An eccentric diagonal can be used in this
case, if eccentricity would otherwise exceed that allowable.
b. The dimensions of pre-assemblies are limited by:
⋅ the width and height of bridges and viaducts, and the weight restrictions and traffic requirements in
the case of road transport.

⋅ the capacity of barges (load and stability), water depths, height and width of bridges, capacity of
locks, etc in the case of transport over water.
⋅ the load capacity of the yard and of the harbour, the tide during the loadout period, etc. in the case of
loadout from fabrication shop or site. by transport barge.
In general the loadings on the structure, resulting from the particular transport system, must be
considered, e.g. inertia forces, supports, stability of the integrated system, etc.,
c. The erection and installation methods must be checked with regard to the availability of the site
and the heavy lifting equipment required, such as mobile cranes, shearlegs, floating cranes, etc.
It is important to consider the nett capacities, taking into account the lifting radius, the lifting height
and the total weight of the lifting equipment including shackles and slings.
d. The inspection of the hidden welds of joints, such as those shown in Slide 8, presents a serious
difficulty. This is another reason for considering an alternative solution, as mentioned in (a) above.
Slide 8
e. Crevices, sharp corners and details permitting ingress of water and dust should be avoided from a
maintenance point of view. The structural design should allow for blasting, painting or other
protective treatments.
f. Avoiding stiffeners in deck beams, as shown in Slide 31, will cut costs considerably.

Slide 31
In many specifications, the inspection method is related to the type of weld without considering its
structural importance. A full penetration weld, requiring a rigorous inspection, can in many cases be
replaced by a more economic fillet weld.
The choice of plate thickness can have considerable impact on the requirements for steel quality,
preheating temperatures, welding electrodes and the inspections required.
● The design engineer should be mindful of the processes used in fabrication and erection and
should ensure that unnecessary cost is avoided.
● Material is cheaper when ordered in bulk. Small quantities of different sizes should be avoided
as far as possible.
● The number of pieces to be handled should be reduced to a minimum and excessive stiffening
of members avoided.
● Allowance should be made for weld distortion and fabrication tolerances.
● Automatic fabrication techniques reduce costs.
● The cost of delivery, particularly overseas, can be reduced by careful design.
● Good quality control is essential but specifications should not be unnecessarily stringent, since
this will increase costs.
1. Davies, B. J. and Crawley, E. J., Structural Steelwork Fabrication, British Constructional
Steelwork Association (BCSA), London, 1980.
2. Arch, W. H., Structural Steelwork - Erection, British Constructional Steelwork Association

(BCSA), London, 1989.

3. Firkins, A., Fabrication Cost of Structural Steelwork, Steel Construction, Vol. 24, No. 2,
Australian Institute of Steel Construction, 1990.
4. Wardenier, J., Design and Fabrication of Steel Structures, Engineering Design of Welded
Construction, IIW 1992, Houdremont lecture, Pergamon Press, 1992.
5. Various authors, Steel Construction Today, Vol. 5, No 3, Steel Construction Institute, May
1991.
6. Eurocode 3: "Design of Steel Stuctures": ENV 1993-1-1: Part 1.1: General Rules and Rules

ESDEP WG 3
Lecture 3.2.1: Erection I

OBJECTIVE/SCOPE
To give undergraduates, young engineers and managers an introduction to the trade of steel erection.
PREREQUISITES
None are essential.
Lectures 3.1: General Fabrication of Steel Structures
RELATED LECTURES
Lecture 3.2.2: Erection II
Lecture 3.2.3: Erection III

SUMMARY
The lecture emphasizes the importance of considering erection during all phases of the project. It outlines the
principal requirements for a technical specification and also deals with the organisational aspects on site.
1. INTRODUCTION
It is important that the erection of the steelwork is considered from the very first stages of a project. Both design engineer
and fabricator must consider the following:
● Connections on site: site joints should be bolted rather than welded.

● Preassembly: the fabricator should limit the number of site splices to that consistent with minimum project cost. The size
and weight of structural steel assemblies will be limited by site and shop capabilities, the permissible weight and
clearance dimensions of available transportation and the site conditions.
● Dimensions: all measurements necessary for site assembly should be shown on the drawings.
● Planning: the sequence of erection should be considered as an integral part of the project process and should be
established and documented at an early stage.
● Marking: the marking of all parts should be clear and consistent throughout the project.
● Resources: depending on how the site assembly is carried out, it is essential to ensure that appropriate resources will
be available.
The erection team on site must ensure that :
● the workforce are aware of and implement the relevant standards and regulations.
● changes in procedures, which become necessary during the erection stages are agreed by the Engineer, and that the
technical documents are corrected in order to be consistent.
● hoisting equipment of suitable capacity is available for any preassemblies which must be lifted.
● means of access, such as scaffolding stairs and platforms, are installed to enable bolting and welding to be carried
out satisfactorily.
Erection of structural steelwork is, therefore, an activity that requires detailed consideration from both an engineering
design and organisational point of view. Sections 2 and 3 of this lecture discuss these matters under the headings of:
Technical Specification and Site Organisation.
2. TECHNICAL SPECIFICATION
The Technical Specification for Erection should be developed as early as possible and should outline the conditions required
on site and the technical standards in force. The documentation should deal with the following matters:
● Basic sequence of erection.

● Specification for erection, (see below).
● Standards in force.
● Organization on site.
● Basic site accommodation.
● Man-hours estimation.
● Erection personnel.
● Main plant and erection tools.
● Erection plan.
● Erection drawing.
● Safety programme.
● Quality Control programme.
Specification for Erection
The specification for erection should include, in as much detail as possible, the following information:
1. Requirements for unloading, storage, and handling.

2. Details of any preassembly required on site.
3. Dimensional and levelling tolerances, including those required for foundations and baseplates.
4. Specification for activities relating to the assembly itself such as bolting, welding and testing.

3.1 Principal Jobs on Site
The site organisation required depends largely on the size of contract; in the case of a major project it could, for example,
be subdivided into the following sections:
● Technical Office.
● Scheduling and Planning.
● Implementation and Production.
● Administration.
● Safety.
● Quality Control.
● Social Management.
3.2 Estimation of needs
Figure 1 gives an example of an Organisation Chart for the extreme case of a project for the erection of a large steel frame.
The chart is applicable to a direct assembly workforce of approximately 125 men.

3.3 Basic Installations and Site Conditions
The Erector must have adequate facilities available on site for his personnel, including appropriate office
accommodation, sanitary services and storage areas. He must also ensure that the site is properly supplied with
mechanical services necessary for erection such as electricity, gas, compressed air, etc. These facilities and installations
must comply with the following requirements:
1. They should be situated, where possible, in close proximity to the work site, giving easy access to the site without interfering
in any way with the progress of the work;
2. They should be adequately constructed to, at least, the minimum legal requirements;
3. They should have communication facilities;
4. They must be maintained in satisfactory condition throughout the work and removed on its completion.
3.4 Direct Manpower
It is essential to estimate the direct manpower resources required in order to properly programme the erection process
and accurately forecast the time of completion and the costs incurred.
Manpower resources are normally estimated by calculating the number of direct man-hours required in steel frame erection.
An adequate estimate can be obtained based on the erection weight broken down item by item (columns, beams,
bracings, floors, etc.), and applying various weight rates (in hours) obtained from past experience.
For a more accurate estimate, each activity can be evaluated, not only in terms of its duration, but also in terms of
personnel required to complete it. The product of the time (in hours) multiplied by the number of people in the team will
give the man hours for each activity which can be totalled to give the direct man-hours required for the whole job.
3.5 Cranes, Tools and other Equipment
Once the activities involved in the erection have been decided, the tools and equipment required to carry out the work can
be defined; these may include:
● Cranes of various types.

● Transport equipment.
● Special erection equipment, such as erection masts, erection bridges, etc.
● Winches (electric and pneumatic).
● Bolting equipment, such as spanners, ratchet spanners, torque wrenches, torque testing equipment etc.
● Welding equipment including cables, guns and drying ovens.
● Air compressors.
● Electric generators.
● Hydraulic jacks.
● Measuring equipment such as theodolite, levels, tapes, and laser equipment.
● Miscellaneous equipment such as pulleys, spreader beams, etc..
● Wire ropes, hoisting slings, shackles, etc..
● Handling tools.

The heaviest or highest element to be erected, or the part which requires the greatest lifting capacity (radius-weight)
determines the minimum crane capacity to be used.
Figure 2 shows the various lifting capacities of a tower crane.

● Erection requirements should be considered at the earliest stages of the project, by both Engineer and Fabricator.
● The Technical Specification for Erection should outline the conditions required on site and the technical standards in force;
it should also give a detailed description of how the structure is to be erected, i.e. unloading, preassembly,
tolerances, connections, etc.
● The site organisation must be carefully considered in terms of the requirements for manpower, tools and site facilities
and service installations.
1. Arch, H., Erection, Chapters 33 - Steel Designers' Manual, Oxford, Blackwell Scientific Publications, 1992.
2. Thornton, W. A., "Design for Cost Effective Fabrication and Construction", Chapter 7.1 Constructional Steel Design,
London, Elsevier Applied Science, 1992.
3. Miller, E. W., "Erection of Steel Structures", Chapter 7.2 Construction Steel Design, London, Elsevier Applied Science, 1992.
4. Potter, P. D., "Fast Steel Erection": Steel Fabrication Journal, No. 46, February 1983, Australian Institute of Steel Construction.
5. The Steel Construction Industry Code of Practice for Sage Erection of Building Steelwork: Part 2 - Multi-storey Buildings
and Structures, Australia, Australian Institute of Steel Construction, 1989.
6. Eurocode 3: "Design of Steel Structures" ENV 1993-1-1: Part 1.1: General Rules and Rules for Buildings, CEN, 1992.

ESDEP WG 3

OBJECTIVE/SCOPE
To give more detailed information on the technical matters involved in steelwork erection introduced
in Lecture 3.2.1
PREREQUISITES
RELATED LECTURES
SUMMARY
This lecture discusses the technical aspects of steelwork erection such as unloading and handling of
materials, foundation checking and adjusting for errors, assembly procedures, and final bolt-up of
connections.

1. INTRODUCTION
Lecture 3.2.1 outlined an ideal approach to erecting steelwork emphasising the need for a Technical
Specification for Erection and good site organisation in order to pre-empt possible erection problems
when the steelwork arrives on site.
This lecture discusses the on-site activities in more detail. It points out that careful attention to detail
is required to ensure that the specification is adhered to and that good practice is maintained on site at
all times. The operations are viewed sequentially, from the unloading of the steel elements, through
checking and adjusting for foundation errors, to erecting and bolting together the final structure.
2. ERECTION PROCEDURES
2.1. Reception, Unloading and Handling of Construction Material.
Logistics is a very important part of the erection process and must be constantly kept in mind.
Fabricators have a strong tendency to deliver the construction elements in the same sequence as they
are fabricated; this is satisfactory provided the fabrication sequence is similar to the erection
sequence. For this purpose detailed planning of the fabrication and erection processes is required.
It is necessary, therefore, to prepare a delivery schedule, coordinated with the capacity of the site
erection team. Generally the site will have a storage area to allow for times when the deliveries
cannot be exactly coordinated. If possible a "just-in-time" delivery should be organised for the
heavier construction elements in order to avoid the costly manoeuvres of unloading and intermediate
handling.
Any damaged material, which should be repaired or returned, must be separated immediately after
arrival. The project manager must be informed, in order to allow him to assess what effect this might
have on the construction programme.
When handling individual members the following should be noted:
● parts with different reference marks must not be mixed or packed together.
● on larger or heavy parts the lifting points must be indicated, including where possible the
location of the centre of mass of the component.
● all parts that can be easily damaged must be adequately protected during transport and
handling.
● components in the storage area must be kept off the ground, protected from damp and dirt by
means of sleepers or battens.
When using steel wire cables as lifting slings the following should be noted:

● care must be taken to ensure that the sharp corners of beams are packed with wood in order to
protect the sling, the surface treatment and any prepared edges.
● slings must be regularly inspected, and the maximum safe load must be shown on a steel tag.
● when using double-leg slings it must be appreciated that the lifting capacity diminishes as the
angle between the legs increases; the load in the legs can be calculated from:
R = P/2 x 1/cos α
where R is the load in a leg
P is the total leg
α is the half-angle between the legs of the sling.
● the maximum safe load should not exceed 1/6 of the breaking load of the steel wire cable from
which the sling is made.
● the hoisting slings should be regularly inspected and taken out of service as soon as the
number of broken wires in a metre's length reaches or exceeds 20% of the total.
● the slings should not be bent over diameters less than six times the diameter of the cable. If
necessary rounded cushions must be put in place to support the sling.
For the transport and delivery to site of bolts, nuts and washers the following should be noted:
● they must be provided with adequate packing, sufficiently protected to avoid damage during
transport.
● in the case of high strength bolts, both bolts and nuts must be adequately greased.
● each package shall contain only one type of bolt, nut or washer of the same diameter, length
and quality.
● each package shall be provided with a label, indicating the manufacturer's mark, the type (bolt,
nut and washer), the quality and the number.
● high strength bolts are indicated by coloured labels, according to the type and quality (4,6 =
green, 8,8 = red, 10,9 = blue).
Regarding the storage and use of welding consumables, the following should be noted:
● the electrodes must be packed in closed and sealed packages or tins; storage must be in a
closed and dry place at a temperature high enough to prevent condensation and special care
must be taken to avoid damaging the coating.
● when basic-type electrodes are used, they must be dried or baked in accordance with the
welding procedure.
● once the sealed packets have been opened, the electrodes must be placed in a portable drying
oven.
● mobile drying ovens must be provided close to the welding area; the welder himself must be
provided with an insulated quiver in which he keeps the electrodes, taken from the nearest
drying oven.

● in very special cases and in very damp conditions the welders should be provided with
individual portable drying ovens, from which they remove the electrodes one by one, as they
need them.
For general purposes a complete list of erection elements must be available on site indicating their
code-number, weight, size, etc., and specifying the locations where they are to be used.
2.2 Foundations and Base Plates (Levelling, Measuring, etc.)
The columns of a steel framework transfer their load to the foundation by means of the base plates.
The foundation bolts constitutes the unifying element between foundation and framework.
In cases where the column transfers compressive stress only (theoretically no foundations bolts are
needed) the bolts are used to locate the column correctly.
Anchor bolts are either put in place before the concrete is poured, are drill fixed afterwards in the
hardened concrete, or are placed in openings, left in the foundation, which can be filled later.
An inspection of the foundation, to check the levelling and alignment of the anchor bolts, must be
made before erection commences. A fixed levelling point and three fixed alignment points are
generally established for this purpose. Errors in the concrete foundation identified at this early stage,
can be easily corrected using packer plates.
The foundations must be cleaned prior to erecting the steelwork. It must be ensured that the cavities
for the holding down bolts are completely free from contamination.
2.3 Assembly and Erection
The erection of the steel frame can start after the packer plates (or the base plates) are in position.
The main aim during erection is to maintain the stability of the structure at all times. Collapse of
structures during erection is often due to lack of understanding of the stability requirements.
Stresses can be reversed during erection, and every reversal, no matter how transient, must be
considered in the design.
Questions concerning the construction sequence and its effect on stability must be resolved. The
designer should position the braced bays in a way that ensures that they are the first to be erected. It is
essential that the structure is braced and true as the erection proceeds.
The use of sub-assembled units is a way of reducing the amount of work to be done at height. There
are, however, some factors which affect the practability and economy of sub-assembling a unit on the
ground. The first is the weight of the eventual assembly, including any lifting beams; another is the
degree to which the unit is capable of being temporarily stiffened without unduly increasing its

weight. The bulk of the unit is also a significant factor as fouling the crane jib must be avoided. It is
often necessary to make a drawing of the crane jib and the sub-assembled unit at the point of highest
lift to check practicability.
Sub-assembly is only worthwhile if the unit can be lifted and bolted in a reasonably easy way. The
object is to save operations at a height which could readily be done at ground level; having to loosen
and retighten bolts to remove twist, therefore, makes sub-assembly much less attractive.
Most steelwork arrives on site pre-painted. The paint treatment may be damaged, by the steel slings,
during handling; the damage should be minimised by the use of softwood packers which will also
ensure that the load will not slip as it is being lifted and that the slings - chain or wire - are not
themselves damaged, as they bend around sharp corners
Packers to prevent slipping are even more necessary if the final position of the construction piece
being erected is not horizontal. The aim should always be to arrange the slinging in such a way that
the piece hangs at the same angle as that which it will assume in its erected position.
Pieces being lifted are usually controlled by a light hand line fixed to one end. This line controls only
the swing of the piece, and is not intended to be used to pull it into level. When lifting large and
heavy parts from a horizontal position to a vertical one, temporary tiebacks must be used to avoid
uncontrolled movements when the part is getting close to the vertical position.
Some situations may require temporary stiffening to be left in position after the initial erection and
until the permanent connections are made. The need for temporary stiffening should be foreseen in
the erection plan, so that sufficient stiffeners and lifting devices are available and no delays occur due
to shortage of devices for the erection of the next sub-frame.
Where a particularly awkward or heavy lift has to be made, it may be simpler and safer to fabricate
special cleats for this purpose. A small amount of additional effort in the drawing office and
workshop can save much time and money on site.
2.4 Bolting Connections on Site
Before carrying out any bolted connections checks must be made:
● the bolts, nuts and washers to be used must be exactly as indicated on the drawings.
● bolts, nuts and washers must be clean and undamaged.
● the parts to be connected must be clean and without defects.
The use of flame cutting to enlarge holes should not be permitted since it will result in an
unacceptable connection and will damage the paintwork.
In connections with tapered flanges, tapered washers must be placed under the nut, the bolt, or both.

In the case of a hole with a vertical axis, the bolts should be inserted from above, with the nut at the
bottom.
Where specified, the nuts should be secured against loosening by an extra nut or by applying a
special nut or washer.
2.4.1 Ordinary bolts
Hexagon-headed bolts and nuts are normally available in a range of sizes, and tensile strengths.
Washers were traditionally used under the nut but are now frequently omitted. The strength grades
most commonly used for structural bolting are 4.6 and 8.8, the former in general applications, the
latter where more severe loading applies.
Bolts are normally installed hand-spanner tight, in 2 mm clearance holes for diameters up to 24 mm,
and 3 mm clearance holes for diameters over 24 mm. Where exact location and prevention of relative
movement between the joined parts is required, accurately machined bolts, fitted in reamed holes, are
used. These bolts require precision work and are costly to install. Where rigidity is required
pretensioned HSFG bolts are normally used.
2.4.2 High-strength friction-grip (HSFG) bolts
In HSFG bolted joints the shear load is transferred between the connected parts by friction. The
friction force is provided by the clamping action of the bolts, which are tightened in a controlled way
to provide a specific shank tension. The bolts are installed in clearance holes and thus there may be
no bearing action in transferring the load.
To make practical use of the friction effect, it is necessary to use high-tensile bolts so that an
adequate clamping force can be obtained with reasonably sized bolts. The stress induced in the bolts
by the pretensioning is at, or near, the proof stress.
Two strength grades of parallel shank bolts are available, the General Grade (equivalent to 8.8) and
the Higher Grade (equivalent to 10.9). Nuts are designed to develop the full strength of the bolt.
Hardened washers are used under the element which is to be rotated during tightening.
In order to mobilise the friction effect it is necessary to develop the required bolt pretension. This
may be done either by controlled tightening of the nuts, using torque-control or part-turn methods, or
by the use of load-indicating devices; these may be special bolts, special fasteners or load-indicating
washers.
2.4.2.1 The torque-control method
For this method of tightening a calibrated torque wrench is required which may be hand operated or,
for larger bolt diameters or large numbers of bolts, power operated. It is essential to check the
tightening equipment in combination with the bolts and nuts to be tightened very regularly, using
special prestress-measuring devices.

A certain deviation in the shank tension must be expected: estimates of the result of tightening, with
the objective of achieving a minimum shank tension of 80% of the specified tensile strength, have
shown that approximately 90% of the bolts would be tightened satisfactorily.
2.4.2.2 The part-turn method
This method uses the ductility of the bolt material by rotating the bolt sufficiently to take the bolt
well into the plastic state in which the shank tension is comparatively insensitive to further nut
rotation. The maximum shank tension that can be obtained is equal to the maximum torqued-tension
strength of the bolt under the friction conditions occurring at the time of tightening. Care must be
taken with short bolts and with parallel shank bolts which have only a small amount of thread in the
grip.
The part-turn method is not allowed with Higher Grade (parallel shank) bolts. It is not recommended
also for use with M12 bolts.
2.4.2.3 Load-indicating devices
A variety of special load-indicating bolts are available, some simple and some complicated. A simple
device is the load indicating washer, which has a number of protruding nibs on one surface. As the
nut is tightened the protrusions are crushed; when the gap between the load indicator and the bolt has
reached a prescribed value (measured by a feeler gauge), the required shank tension will have been
achieved.
2.4.2.4 Installation
HSFG bolts are installed in drilled holes with 2 mm clearance for bolts under 24 mm diameter and 3
mm clearance for those over 24 mm. The holes must be sufficiently aligned so that the bolts can be
inserted freely. A hardened steel washer is used under the nut or head, whichever is to be rotated.
Where there are a number of bolts in a joint they should be tightened incrementally in a staggered
pattern.
Successful achievement of the specified shank tension depends on the threads being in good
condition. Bolts and nuts must therefore be stored and handled in a way which ensures that the
threads are not damaged or contaminated. For a fastener to be in a usable condition the nut must run
freely on the bolt thread.
Bolts which have been tightened using the part-turn method must not be used again; this restriction
also applies to bolts tightened using torque-control methods if plastic deformation has occurred.
Heating of the bolt itself or heating of the surrounding surfaces, possibly resulting in heating of the
bolted connection, can result in the destruction of the integrity of the connection and to the failure of
the construction, and must be prevented at all times. Any welding operations, therefore, must take

place before the bolt is tightened.
● The good practice guidelines, listed in Section 2.4.1, should be followed when handling and
storing materials on site.
● Anchor bolts are used to attach the steel columns to their foundation. Errors in foundation
level can be corrected by using steel packers under the baseplate.
● Stability must be maintained at all times during erection and the erection sequence should be
arranged to ensure this.
● Sub-assemblies can be used with advantage to reduce work at height.
● Bolted connections use either ordinary or HSFG bolts. The latter can be pretensioned either
using the torque-control, part-turn, or load-indicating washer methods.
1. Arch, H., Erection, Chapters 33 - Steel Designers' Manual, Oxford, Blackwell Scientific
Publications, 1992.
2. Thornton, W. A., "Design for Cost Effective Fabrication and Construction", Chapter 7.1
Constructional Steel Design, London, Elsevier Applied Science, 1992.
3. Miller, E. W., "Erection of Steel Structures", Chapter 7.2 Construction Steel Design, London,
Elsevier Applied Science, 1992.
4. Potter, P. D., "Fast Steel Erection": Steel Fabrication Journal, No. 46, February 1983,
Australian Institute of Steel Construction.
5. The Steel Construction Industry Code of Practice for Sage Erection of Building Steelwork:
Part 2 - Multi-storey Buildings and Structures, Australia, Australian Institute of Steel
Construction, 1989.

ESDEP WG 3

OBJECTIVE/SCOPE
To give guidance on site welding and to discuss the operation of Quality Control and Safety
Procedures on site.
PREREQUISITES
RELATED LECTURES
SUMMARY
The lecture deals with the planning and careful preparation required for site welding; it also discusses
the requirements of a Quality Control Programme and gives guidelines for improving site safety.

1. INTRODUCTION
Lecture 3.2.2 discusses, in detail, the technical aspects of steelwork erection including the
requirements for bolted connections. In some cases it may not be possible to use bolts and site
welding may then be necessary. Where welding is used careful pre-planning is required, as outlined
in Section 2 below.
It is always necessary to have quality control and safety procedures in force on site to ensure the
successful completion of the project with minimum risk to the workforce. This lecture discusses these
matters in detail, outlining the basis for a Quality Control Programme and giving guidelines on how
risk to the workforce may be minimised.
2. WELDING CONNECTIONS ON SITE

It should be the aim of the designer to ensure that site connections are bolted wherever possible.
There will be occasions, however, when site welding is necessary. In such cases, careful pre-planning
will be required as follows:
● it will be necessary to provide for temporary alignment of the adjacent components which are
to be welded together, and to hold them in position until they are welded. The methods
adopted for alignment may have to be able to carry the weight of the components and in some
cases a substantial load from the structure.
● safe means of access and a secure working platform must be provided for the welder and his
equipment. The working platform may also have to incorporate weather protection, since
wind, rain and cold can all adversely effect the quality of the weld.
● the design of the weld and the preparation of the components to be joined must take into
account the position of those components in the structure; the method statement for the
erection and the welding procedure for each joint must take all these factors into account.
● all the welding must be carried out by qualified welders in accordance with approved
procedures.
● a detailed welding plan must be made for the more important structural joints as well as for
structures to which special specifications apply.
● the earth return of the electric current must never be made through the steel frame of
buildings, cranes, or through metallic parts of installations but must be directly connected to
the construction part being welded.
● the surface of the zone to be welded must be clean and dry.
3. QUALITY CONTROL
3.1 Quality Assurance Manual
The Quality Assurance Manual defines the appropriate procedures required to ensure that the finished
product is up to specification. The staff responsible for the erection must be informed of all the
variables affecting the quality of the assembly, so that they can be monitored.

3.2 Quality Control Programme
The Quality Control Programme is the particular programme, that has been specifically written for
the job in hand.
It is based on the following:
● the Quality Assurance Manual.

● the General Contract for the Project.
● the general standards, applicable to the Project.
● the manufacturer's standards, procedures and specification.
The Quality Control Programme will consist of:
● the site-organisation (in relation to Quality Control).

● the (written) procedures.
● the inspection programme.
3.3 Inspection Programme
The Inspection Programme is based on the erection plan and is complemented by written procedures
and points of inspection. Its aim is to ensure good standards of workmanship.
It may incorporate the following:
● Reference numbers for the work procedures.

● Revision numbers.
● Written procedures for:
welding
heat-treatment
non-destructive testing
alignment and plumbing
tolerances
HSFG bolting.
4. SAFETY AT THE ERECTION-SITE

By its very nature, erection of a structural frame is a process involving a certain amount of risk. The
work is carried out at height and, until it has progressed to a certain point, there is nothing to which a
safe working platform can be attached. In fact, it is true to say that the process of establishing a safe
working platform can be as hazardous as the erection process itself; a possible solution may be to
provide mobile access platforms if ground conditions permit.

The object of a Safety Procedure is to ensure that everything possible is done to eliminate the risk of
an accident. In order to achieve this objective the following procedures should be adopted:
1. The safety procedure should be communicated to all concerned with its implementation by,
for example, issuing abstracts or running courses. In practice, awareness of safety aspects can
best be maintained by continually monitoring hazardous areas of the site (restricted areas,
scaffolding, plant, etc.) to check that the appropriate restrictions are in force, and by informing
the person in authority if potential hazards exist.
2. The necessary equipment should be made available on the site and maintained in good
condition. This equipment ranges from safety helmets and belts, to ladders, working platforms
and properly selected tools.
3. The work should be organised so that as little as possible is done at height. The danger can be
minimised as follows:
⋅ by the use of sub-assembly techniques.

⋅ by fixing ladders and working platforms onto the steelwork before it is lifted
into place.
⋅ by the early provision of horizontal access walkways.
⋅ by the provision of temporary staircases or hoists, where appropriate.
4. It should be ensured that all portable equipment such as gas bottles and welding plant, is
firmly anchored while it is being used. Care should be taken to ensure that there are no
flammable materials below on which sparks could fall.
5. Finally, and fundamentally, the design should be done with safety in mind as follows:
⋅ Splices should be positioned to give simple site connections, bearing in

mind that these may have to be connected at height.
⋅ Lifting cleats and connections for heavy and complex components
should be incorporated, as far as possible, in the fabricated elements to
be connected.
⋅ Consideration should be given, at design stage, to incorporating cleats,
brackets or holes in the fabrication to facilitate fixing of safety belts,
safety nets and working platforms.
● Careful pre-planning is required if site welding is necessary.
● A Quality Control Programme, involving inspections, should always be implemented.
● All site personnel should be made aware of the safety procedures.
● Safety procedures should be strictly enforced.

1. Arch, H., Erection, Chapters 33 - Steel Designers' Manual, Oxford, Blackwell Scientific
Publications, 1992.
2. Thornton, W. A., "Design for Cost Effective Fabrication and Construction", Chapter 7.1
Constructional Steel Design, London, Elsevier Applied Science, 1992.
3. Miller, E. W., "Erection of Steel Structures", Chapter 7.2 Construction Steel Design, London,
Elsevier Applied Science, 1992.
4. Potter, P. D., "Fast Steel Erection": Steel Fabrication Journal, No. 46, February 1983,
Australian Institute of Steel Construction.
5. The Steel Construction Industry Code of Practice for Sage Erection of Building Steelwork:
Part 2 - Multi-storey Buildings and Structures, Australia, Australian Institute of Steel
Construction, 1989.

ESDEP WG 3

OBJECTIVE/SCOPE
To present an overall view of the implications of making joints by welding.
PREREQUISITES
RELATED LECTURES
SUMMARY
This lecture describes the basic principles involved in making a welded joint. It discusses the structure and properties of
both the weld metal and the heat affected zone. It explains the necessity for edge preparations when butt welding, and gives
examples of the types used. It outlines how the welding procedure can be varied to meet the needs of the particular joint
being made.
ABBREVIATIONS
MAG Metal Active Gas Welding (sometimes referred to as MIG Metal Inert Gas Welding)
MMA Manual Metal Arc Welding
SAW Submerged Arc Welding
HAZ Heat Affected Zone
1. INTRODUCTION
Welding offers a means of making continuous, load bearing, metallic joints between the components of a structure.
In structural work, a variety of welded joints are used; these can all be made up from the basic configurations shown in
Figure 1, which are classified as follows:
● butt joints.
● tee joints.
● lap joints.
● corner joints.


As illustrated in Figure 2, a welded joint is made by fusing (melting) the steel plates or sections (the parent metal) along the
line of the joint. The metal melted from each member at the joint unites in a pool of molten metal which bridges the
interface. As the pool cools, molten metal at the fusion boundary solidifies, forming a solid bond with the parent metal, see
Figure 3. When the solidification is complete, there is continuity of metal through the joint.

2. METHODS OF MAKING A WELDED JOINT

Two types of weld are in common use: butt welds and fillet welds. In the former the weld metal is generally contained
within the profiles of the welded elements; in the latter, deposited weld metal is external to the profile of the welded
elements.
Obviously the complete length of joint cannot be melted simultaneously. In practice a heat source is used to melt a small
area and is then moved along the joint line, progressively fusing the parent metal at the leading edge of the weld pool, as
shown in Figure 4. At the same time, the metal at the trailing edge of the pool solidifies. The most commonly used heat
source, in structural work, is a low voltage (15 to 35 volt), high current (50 to 1000 amp) arc. As shown diagrammatically
in Figure 5, the arc operates between the end of a steel electrode (rod) and the work piece. It melts both the parent metal
and the electrode; molten metal from the electrode is thereby added to the weld pool.


The molten steel in the pool will readily absorb oxygen and nitrogen from the air, which could lead to porosity in the
solidified weld and possibly to metallurgical problems. Figure 6 shows how this is avoided by covering the pool with a
molten flux, as in Manual Metal Arc (MMA) and Submerged Arc Welding (SAW), or by replacing the air around the arc
by a non-reactive gas, as in Metal Active Gas (MAG) Welding or cored wire welding.

3. STRUCTURE AND PROPERTIES OF WELDS

The solidified weld metal has a cast structure and has properties characteristic of cast steel, i.e. higher ratio of yield to
ultimate strength than structural steel. The weld metal is a mixture of parent metal and steel melted from the electrode. In
structural work the composition of the electrode is usually chosen so that the resultant weld metal is stronger than the
connected elements. Occasionally, specific conditions may override this chocie. For example, when joining stainless steel
to carbon-manganese steel, a highly alloyed electrode must be used to avoid cracking in the weld metal.
When the weld pool is cooling and solidifying, the majority of the heat flows through the parent metal alongside the joint.
The steel is thus subjected to heating and cooling cycles similar to those experienced in heat treatment practice. As shown
in Figure 7, the structure of the steel will be changed in this region (called the heat affected zone, HAZ). This must be taken
into account in the design in terms of notch toughness (Charpy value), etc.

The structure of the HAZ will be controlled by:
● the composition of the steel (carbon equivalent).

● the cooling rate in the HAZ.
In turn the cooling rate is determined by:
● arc energy, i.e. heat input to the joint.

● type of joint.
● thickness of steel.
● temperature of steel plate or section prior to welding, e.g. preheat.
A method of determining the interaction of these factors in relation to the avoidance of cracks in the HAZ is given in the
sample chart shown in Figure 8.

In addition to its effect on the cooling rate, preheat is used to:
● Disperse hyrodgen from the weld pool and HAZ. Hydrogen in the HAZ increases the risk of cracking if hardening
has occurred. The hydrogen comes principally from the flux. An appropriate electrode, correctly stored, will reduce
the risk of hydrogen pick-up.
● Remove surface moisture in high humidity conditions or on site.
● Bring the steel up to 'normal' ambient conditions (20°C).
4. EDGE PREPARATION FOR BUTT WELDS

For square edge preparations the depth of melting into the plate is called the Depth of Penetration, see Figure 9a. As a very

rough guide, the penetration is about 1mm per 100 amp. In manual welding the current is usually not more than 350 amp;
more commonly 150-200 amp. This means that the edges of the plate must be cut back along the joint line for continuity
through the thickness to be achieved (Figure 9b). The groove so formed is then filled with metal melted from the electrode
(Figure 9c). Various edge profiles are used and are illustrated in Figure 10; the edges may be planed, sawn, guillotined or
flame cut.

The first run to be deposited in the bottom of the groove is called the root run. The root faces must be melted to ensure good
penetration, but at the same time the weld pool must be controlled to avoid collapse, as seen in Figure 11. This task requires
considerable skill. The difficulties can be eased by using a backing strip.

The choice of edge preparation depends on:
● type of process.
● position of welding (Figure 12).
● access for arc and electrode.
● volume of deposited weld metal which should be kept to a minimum.
● cost of preparing edges.
● shrinkage and distortion (Figure 13).


5. WELDING PROCEDURES
The term welding procedure is used to describe the complete process involved in making a weld. It covers choice of
electrode, edge preparation, preheat, welding parameters (voltage, current and travel speed), welding position, number of

weld runs to fill the groove, and post-weld treatments, e.g. grinding or heat treatment. Welding procedures may be devised
to meet various needs, e.g. to minimise costs, control distortion, avoid defects or achieve good impact properties. Specific
aspects of the weld procedure are worth detailed comment.
5.1 Current
The current controls heat input. The minimum value is fixed by the need to fuse the plate and to keep the arc stable; the
specified minimum, however, may be higher to avoid HAZ cracks. The maximum current depends on operating conditions.
Usually, as high a current as possible is used to achieve faster welding, and hence lower costs. The use of maximum current
may be restricted by position; in the overhead position, for example, currents above 160 amps cannot be used. High
currents usually give low impact properties. Note that the current used is chosen to match the electrode diameter.
5.2 Welding Position
The effect of position on current is noted above. Welding in the overhead position requires greater skill to avoid defects,
such as poor profile, and should only be used when absolutely necessary. Vertical welding is slower than welding in the flat
position but requires less skill than the overhead position.
5.3 Environment
If on site welding is necessary the following points must be considered:
● in cold weather the steel may need to be heated to bring it up to 20°C.

● overnight condensation and high humidity can lead to porosity.
● care must be taken to ensure the electrodes are kept dry in the stores.
● it is often difficult to achieve accurate fitting of the joint; variable and/or large gaps may result in defective welds,
distortion and increased costs.
6. SHRINKAGE
During cooling, the hot metal in the weld zone contracts, causing the joint to shrink. The contraction is restrained by the
cold metal surrounding the joint; stresses are set up which, being in excess of the yield stress, produce plastic deformation.
This can lead to the distortion or buckling shown in Figure 13. Distortion can be reduced by choice of edge preparation and
weld procedure; examples are shown in Figure 14.

When the plastic deformation has ceased, the joint is left with the residual stress pattern of Figure 15 with tension in the
weld metal and HAZ, and compression in the surrounding steel. The significance of these residual stresses is discussed in
other lectures.

● A welded joint is made by fusing parent metal from both components being joined, usually with added weld metal.
● The properties of both the weld metal, which has melted and solidified, and the surrounding heat affected zone may
differ from those of the parent metal.
● Welding procedures should be properly specified to give a satisfactory welded joint. The major parameters are:
welding position, electrode type, edge preparation, preheat, voltage, current, travel speed, number of runs and post-
weld heat treatments.
● Hot metal in the weld zone contracts during cooling causing residual stresses. Distortion will occur if appropriate
control is not exercised.
1. Hicks, J. "Welding Design", Granada.
⋅ details of joints and welds.
⋅ strength of welded joints.

⋅ effects of welding on metallurgical structures, heat affected zones, HAZ cracking.
⋅ edge preparation.
⋅ welding positions - definitions and comments.
2. Gourd, L. M. "Principles of Welding Technology", Edward Arnold, 1980.
⋅ formation of a weld.
⋅ types of heat source.
⋅ strength of welded joints.
⋅ effects of welding on metallurgical structure, heat affected zones, HAZ cracking.
⋅ edge preparation.
⋅ comments on residual stresses.
⋅ control of distortion.
3. Milner, D.R. and Apps, R. L. "Introduction to Welding and Brazing", Pergamon.
⋅ effects of welding on metallurgical structure, heat affected zones, HAZ cracking.
⋅ control of distortion.
4. Pratt, J. L. "Introduction to the Welding of Structural Steelwork",
Steel Construction Institute - Publication No 014.
5. British Standard BS 5135: 1986, "Metal Arc Welding of Carbon and Carbon Maganese Steels", British Standards
Institution, London.

ESDEP WG 3

OBJECTIVE/SCOPE
To review the welding processes commonly used in construction and to highlight some practical considerations.
PREREQUISITES
Lectures 3.3: Principles of Welding
SUMMARY
This lecture describes the welding processes commonly used in construction: Manual Metal Arc Welding, Dip and
Spray Transfer Metal Active Gas Welding, Submerged Arc Welding and Stud Welding. Each process is briefly described
and its advantages, disadvantages and limitations of use are summarised. Choice of welding process for a particular situation
is discussed.
ABBREVIATIONS
MAG Metal Active Gas Welding (sometimes referred to as MIG: Metal Inert Gas Welding)
MMA Manual Metal Arc Welding
SAW Submerged Arc Welding
1. INTRODUCTION - HEAT SOURCES AND METHODS OF SHIELDING

There are three principal methods used to generate the heat required for welding:
● oxygen-acetylene flame.
● resistance to the passage of a current.
● electric arc.
Each method produces a pool of molten steel which must be protected against atmospheric contamination. The method used
to achieve this, i.e. the shielding technique, has a major influence on the characteristics of the process. For
constructional steelwork, the processes used are usually based upon the electric arc.
In arc welding, a flux or a non-reactive (inert) gas can be used to 'blanket' the weld pool and thus exclude air. This lecture
is particularly concerned with the four arc welding processes commonly used in structural work.
2. MANUAL METAL ARC WELDING

This manual method is one of the most widely used arc welding processes (see Figure 1). It requires considerable skill
to produce good quality welds. The electrode consists of a steel core wire and a covering flux containing alloying elements, e.
g. manganese and silicon. The arc melts the parent metal and the electrode. As metal is transferred from the end of the
core wire to the weld pool, the welder moves the electrode to keep the arc length constant. This is essential as the width of
the weld run is largely governed by the arc length. The flux melts with the core wire and flows over the surface of the pool
to form a slag, which must be removed after solidification.

MMA has many advantages as follows:
● Low capital cost.

● Freedom of movement; it can be used up to 20m from the power supply (useful on site).
● It can be used in all positions.
● It is suitable for structural and stainless steels (but not aluminium).
Its main drawback is a low duty cycle, i.e. only a small volume of metal is deposited before the welder has to stop and
insert another electrode. This is not a problem on short welds but becomes a consideration on long welds, especially
when labour costs are high.
The operating characteristics of the electrode are controlled by the composition of the flux covering. A variety of electrodes
are available to suit different applications. The current used is chosen to match the diameter of wire being used. When
low hydrogen contents in the weld pool are necessary to avoid cracks in the heat-affected zone (HAZ) on cooling,
MMA electrodes must be baked and stored at temperatures and times recommended by the manufacturer. These
procedures ensure that the electrodes deposit weld metal with appropriate low levels of diffusible hydrogen.
3. METAL ACTIVE GAS (MAG) WELDING

This process is sometimes referred to as Metal Inert Gas (MIG) Welding, although strictly speaking the term MIG should
be limited to the use of pure argon as a shielding gas, which is not used for carbon steel.
MAG is a semi-automatic process where the welding gun at the end of a flexible conduit can be hand held and manipulated,
but all other operations are automatic (see Figure 2).

The arc and weld pool are shielded by a gas which does not react with molten steel; in current practice the shielding gas
is carbon dioxide, or a mixture of argon and carbon dioxide. No flux is necessary to shield the pool since the alloying
elements are in the electrode wire, but sometimes a flux-cored electrode is used to produce a slag which controls the
weld profile and reduces the liability of lack of fusion defects and the incidence of porosity. The arc length is controlled by
the power supply unit. Although MAG welding is somewhat easier to use than MMA, skill is required to set up the
correct welding conditions.
The way in which metal is transferred from the electrode wire to the molten pool depends upon current, voltage and
shielding gas composition. As the current is increased the form of the transfer changes abruptly to a stream of fine drops
which are propelled across the arc gap by the electro-magnetic forces in the arc. This is called spray transfer and it
enables welding to be carried out against gravity. Changing the shielding gas to carbon dioxide (assuming steel

electrodes) causes the transfer to become more globular and less well directed; however, the situation can be reversed by
using a mixture of inert gas and carbon dioxide.
When using steel electrodes, decreasing the arc voltage markedly and also reducing current (by reducing the wire feed
rate) results in a form of transfer known as dip transfer or short-circuit transfer. In this mode of transfer metal is fused
directly into the pool without passing freely across the arc gap. At slightly higher voltages the transfer is across a gap but is
in larger globules without the pronounced directionality of the spray transfer. The globular to spray change is less marked
with steel than with certain other metals. Welds in steel are sometimes made in which this type of transfer predominates. It
is also possible to control the type of metal transfer at low to medium currents by using a special power source which
delivers pulsed current to the arc.
For 'positional' welding, i.e. vertical and overhead, the current must be kept below 180 amp (so that welding takes place in
the 'Dip Transfer' mode) and welding speeds are comparable with MMA. Overall times for a joint, and hence productivity,
are better since there is no need to deslag or change electrode. In the flat position, currents up to 400 amp ('Spray Transfer')
can be used to give high welding speeds. MAG welding is especially suitable for fillet welded joints, e.g. beam to column
and stiffener to panel connections. It is not easy to use on site because of problems of equipment movement and the need
to provide screens to avoid loss of the gas shield in draughty conditions.
4. SUBMERGED ARC WELDING (SAW)

This is a fully mechanised process in which the welding head travels along the joint automatically (Figure 3). The electrode is
a bare wire which is advanced by a governed motor. The voltage and current are selected at the beginning of the weld and
are maintained at the pre-selected values by feed-back systems which, in practice, vary in sophistication. The flux is in the
form of particles and is placed on the surface of the joint. The arc operates below the surface of the flux, melting a
proportion of it to form a slag. Unfused flux is collected and may be re-used for the next weld.

Submerged arc welding is generally operated at currents of between 400 and 1000 amps. This means that weld pools are
large and can only be controlled in the flat position, although fillets can be deposited in the horizontal-vertical position up
to 10mm leg length in one run. Where it is difficult to control penetration in a root run a backing strip may be
used; alternatively, the root run can be made by MMA or MAG and the groove filled with SAW. SAW offers
considerable advantages when welding long joints (i.e. those in excess of one metre in length). The high welding speeds
and continuous operation lead to high productivity. An accurate joint fit-up is, however, a prime requirement.
5. STUD WELDING
This is a variation of arc welding in which studs are welded to plane surfaces automatically (Figure 4). The stud, which may
be a plain or threaded bar (if plain it will have a head) is the electrode and it is held in the chuck of a welding gun which
is connected to the power supply. The stud is first touched onto the surface of the steel plate or section. As soon as the
current is switched on, the stud is moved away automatically to establish an arc. When a weld pool has formed and the end
of the stud is molten, the latter is automatically forced into the steel plate and the current is switched off. The molten
metal which is expelled from the interface is formed into a fillet by a ceramic collar which is placed around the stud arc at
the beginning of the operation. This ferrule also provides sufficient protection against atmospheric contamination.

Stud welding offers an accurate and fast method of attaching shear connectors, etc., with the minimum of distortion. Whilst
it requires some skill to set up the weld parameters (voltage, current, arc time and force), the operation of the equipment
is relatively straightforward.
6. CHOICE OF PROCESS
When choosing a welding process a number of factors must be taken into account:

● Thickness of the material to be welded.

● Where the welding is to be carried out. SAW and MAG are best carried out in the protected environment of the fabrication
shop. MMA may more readily be used on site.
● Accuracy of fit-up and possibility of misalignment. SAW and Spray Transfer MAG require good fit-up; they are particularly
sensitive to variation in root gap and/or root face dimensions.
● Access to joint. It is necessary to ensure that both the welding plant and the welding torch or head can be properly positioned.
● Position of welding. SAW and Spray Transfer MAG are not suitable for vertical or overhead positions. Dip transfer MAG is
acceptable for vertical and overhead welding, but MMA is probably best for overhead work, especially on site.
● Steel composition. Steels with lower carbon equivalent values are more readily welded and require lower preheat levels.
● Comparative cost. The cost per unit length of weld can be calculated, but depends upon the burn-off rate of the process and
must allow for differences in duty cycle (idle time between electrodes for MMA, etc.), Figure 5.
● The welding processes commonly used in constructional steelwork are: Manual Metal Arc Welding, Dip and Spray Transfer
Metal Active Gas Welding, Submerged Arc Welding and Stud Welding.
● Stud welding is used for attaching shear connectors and other studs to structural steelwork.
● The correct choice of process depends on: situation, fit-up, access, position, steel composition and economic factors.
1. Gourd, L. M., "Principles of Welding Technology", E. Arnold, 1980.
⋅ description of processes.

2. Houldcroft, P. T., and Robert, "Welding and Cutting - A Guide to Fusion Welding and Associated Cutting Processes",
Woodhead and Faulkner, 1988.
⋅ details of individual processes.
3. Structural Welding Code - Steel, American Welding Society, 1992.

4. EN 24063: 1992 (ISO 4063: 1990) Welding, Brazing, Soldering and Braze Welding of Metals - Nomenclature of Processes
and Reference of Numbers for Symbolic Representation on Drawings.
5. EN 288: Part 1: 1992, Welding Procedures Metallic Materials, Part 1: General Rules for Fusion Welding.
6. EN 288: Part 2: 1992, Welding Procedures Metallic Materials, Part 2: Welding Procedure Specification for Arc Welding.
7. EN 288: Part 3: 1992, Welding Procedures Metallic Materials, Part 3: Welding Procedure Tests for Arc Welding of Steels.
8. EN 288: Part 4: 1992, Welding Procedures Metallic Materials, Part 4: Tests for the Arc Welding of Aluminium and its Alloys.
9. Pratt, J. L., "Introduction to the Welding of Structural Steelwork", SCI P-014, 3rd Revised Edition, 1989, Steel Construction
Institute.

ESDEP WG 3
Lecture 3.5: Fabrication/Erection of

Buildings
OBJECTIVE/SCOPE
To describe the general nature and sequence of steelwork fabrication and the erection of light/medium single and multi-
storey buildings with emphasis upon the overall cost economies of the complete structure.
PRE-REQUISITES
None are essential.
RELATED LECTURES

SUMMARY
A typical production network and workshop layout is described, assuming an ideal layout for maximum efficiency. This
is followed by examples illustrating alternative solutions for greater economy. Site planning and organisation and
erection methods, including stability and safety aspects, are also outlined.
1. INTRODUCTION - FABRICATION
The fabricator's role is to convert rolled steel into finished goods with added value. This is achieved by selling
workmanship and machine utilisation on a competitive basis where costs are directly related to time.
Fabricators rely increasingly upon production engineering techniques. Their continued success in this direction depends
upon better standardisation. Time and therefore labour costs can be cut significantly by the repetition of dimensions
and geometry, member sizes and shapes, centres and diameters of bolts, etc. All of these are amenable to
rationalisation. Further economy is derived by reducing the number of detailed components, which tend to be labour
intensive to produce, even when this results in heavier parent members. The cardinal rule is that, relatively, labour is
expensive but material is cheap (Figure 1).

2. COST STRUCTURE
Fabrication costs are estimated by separating the various activities into categories such as cutting, drilling and welding
which enables man hours to be allocated and valued to arrive at a total price.
Relying upon a combination of historical data and practical experience, the cost build-up bears little relationship to the
weight of steel involved, although cost references in ECU/tonne can be a useful index for rapid comparison of different
classes of work.
A typical breakdown in costs, in the light to medium category, shows that over 50% of the fabricator's cost is absorbed
by labour charges and overhead expenses (Figure 1).
It is customary to recover such expenses as a contributory factor to labour. If the ratio between labour and overheads is 1: 2½,
it is significant that for every 100 ECU of labour cost incurred, the amount chargeable would be 100+250=350ECU.
3. PRODUCTION NETWORK
Fabricating companies differ widely in layout, capacity and scope. Whilst the extent and nature of the services available
is influenced by policy and resources, the basic flow of activities tends to follow a similar pattern. This can be visualised as
a tunnel for the main flow or Primary Operations, supported by branches or Secondary Operations (Figure 2).

This network forms the basis for production control, which is time related to cost standards. Output must be geared to
the sequence of the construction programme. This rarely coincides with the most effective use of all resources. The system
has to be extremely flexible to respond to changes in demand whilst minimising disruption or costly delays.
3.1 Primary/Secondary Production
The planning objective is to schedule production so that raw material is transformed into a finished state within an
allocated time.
Since most of the important machine tools, such as saws, are sited at the start of the primary production line, the flow
of material has to be sustained by an independent supply of essential components such as brackets, cleats and plates in
the correct quantities and in the correct order.
This is the task of secondary production together with sub-assembly of detailed fabrications in suitable cases. Bought-in
(BI) items or services of a specialised nature such as forgings, pressings or even non-destructive testing have to be available
at the correct time.
3.2 Workshop Layout - Material Preparation
Steel framed buildings are mainly constructed as a series of linear elements using standard sections. The preparation area
for these is typified by a group of fixed work sections consisting of (Figure 3):


A. Blast cleaning
B. Sawing
C. Drilling
D. Cropping/Punching
The initial step is to pass the steel through a blast cleaning cabinet at "A" to remove any surface rust and mill scale.
Various levels of surface treatment are available, but for most buildings, a standard of SA 2½ to the Swedish specification
SIS 055900 is adequate. This requires at least 95% of the surface to be clean.
The next stage is to transfer the material to the sawing station at "B" for cutting to length followed by drilling of holes at
"C". In a number of workshops, sawing and simultaneous 3 axis drilling may be combined as one activity. Alternatively,
angle sections and flats of suitable thickness for cropping and punching would be routed directly to "D".
For speed and ease of handling, sections are transported increasingly by a system of powered conveyors fed by cross
transfers. The latest automation now allows all operations and material flow to be conducted from a central
numerically controlled console.
Because plates are less stiff, these tend to be more awkward to handle. Lifting and handling is usually carried out by
an overhead magnetic crane for subsequent cutting by flame or guillotine in a separate plate working area.

3.3 Workshop Layout - Assembly/Finishing
At this stage the main elements on the primary flow are joined by secondary components, end plates, stiffeners, etc. for
fitting and assembly, mostly by welding. Depending upon the nature and purpose of the structure, some bolting may be used,
if only for trial alignment. However, as a general rule, shop connections are welded and site connections bolted.
Due to variations in the size and nature of the work carried out in any period, the assembly area has to be extremely
flexible and well serviced by cranes. Output must be geared to the sequence of the construction programme. As a
result designated areas may have to be switched rapidly from beams and columns to bulky lattice girders.
Further planning complications arise because the most cost effective use of workshop labour and equipment rarely
coincides with site requirements. It is for this reason that seemingly simple modifications are costly to execute once
production has commenced.
Where priming paint is required, elaborate specifications, which are not necessary for steelwork contained within a
normal building environment, can easily add 20% to fabrication costs. The function and future maintenance
requirements should be considered in each case, rather than adopting a blanket philosophy.
Paint coatings for structural steelwork should "flash off" fairly rapidly to allow further handling and to minimise
congestion. Whilst brushing is suitable for touching up minor damage, large surfaces can only be covered economically
by spraying. Spraying can be carried out manually or automatically where the work is conveyed through an enclosed
cabinet containing the spray nozzles. The process may also be supplemented by a drying kiln.
After assembly, inspection concentrates mainly upon overall dimensions, position of cleats, holes and so on, to ensure
proper alignment during site erection. Framed elements, such as latticed girders, are self checking to a certain extent by
virtue of the fit of members during assembly. This principle is often used to prove complex structures by trial erection prior
to despatch.
Where in-depth weld examination is required, it should be conducted at the appropriate stage determined by the nature of
the work, and to the level specified by the Engineer. In the interests of economy however, it should be noted that
radiographic and allied techniques are, not only expensive operations, but attract additional costs due to their
disruptive influence upon production. Judgement should be exercised to confine the programme of examination to those
areas critical to structural performance.
The aim of inspection is to ensure that the steelwork complies with the contract documents. For the majority of
building structures the inspection pattern outlined is practical and economic. Where more precise tolerances or accuracy
are required, the frequency and intensity of inspection may need to be higher. For this reason inspection procedures need to
be clearly identified in the tender documents so that appropriate provisions may be made by the fabricator.
Following an itemised numerical check together with application of identification marks, the steelwork is transferred to
the finished stockyard unless it is due for immediate transport. There it is stacked ready for consignment, together with
any loose fittings wired together and attached to the parent member.
Transport operating costs are not based upon load factor. A vehicle loaded to a fraction of its rated capacity will cost
exactly the same as one which is fully laden. Framed elements occupy considerable space but it may be possible to mitigate
the consequences by the number and disposition of splices.
In addition to the site programme, due regard must be given to limitations of off-loading and handling facilities, to
access restricted to particular timings, to clearance under low bridges, and to police authority requirements concerning
the transport of wide loads.
4. DESIGN/DETAILING ECONOMIES
In considering possible structural options, an overall compromise has to be achieved which recognises the links between
related cost areas. Unless this consideration extends from material specification to site erection, cost perceptions may
become distorted. Details are largely dictated by the basic design concept which is the key factor in determining how
the structure will be made, how it will be transported and ultimately assembled on site.
Whilst it is not possible to lay down hard and fast rules, the following examples are intended to be illustrative.
Column Bases (Figure 4): Detail (a) uses no fewer than eleven separate plate components with extensive welding. Not only
has this work to be conducted during primary assembly but considerable manipulation will also be necessary not only
for access but to control weld distortion.


By comparison, the base detail (b) using channels would probably be longer with thicker base plates but the number
of components is reduced to six and workmanship is drastically cut down. Note also that the inner edge of the two base plates
is welded to the column flange eliminating any need for separate stiffeners.
Multi-storey Columns (Figure 5): Based on the philosophy of lowest weight, the columns involve three changes of
section profile with two splices. It will be noted that the latter require packing pieces either laminated or solid machined
to accommodate the difference in depth.

The saving in material costs by reducing the shaft above the 4th floor will be overtaken by the cost of the splice and, if the
total material requirement is less than 20 tonnes, further costs will be incurred by quantity premiums on the basic rate.
The change in section depth also varies the geometry and therefore the lengths of the bracing members will vary
with consequent adjustment to the skew of the end connections.
Consider the column shaft from ground to 2nd floor. Clearly the loads will be greatest here. A possibility is to investigate
the use of high strength steel to match the upper section in low strength steel. Although high strength steel is more
expensive, the result will be consistency of details, beam lengths and connections throughout.
Finally, it should be noted that the bracing connection is attached to the bracing member rather than the column. The
benefits are as follows:
1. Primary production is faster because operations on the column are kept to a minimum.
2. The column lengths are less obstructed and therefore easier to nest for transport.
3. Welded projections are vulnerable to transit damage and costly to rectify on site.
Lattice Trusses (Figure 6): Whilst there may be sound reasons for adopting bolted joints, a variety of differently shaped
gusset plates are required. They all have to be punched or drilled in addition to the framing members and then
individually bolted up.


Because the inside faces of the boom members will become permanently inaccessible, these components and the gussets
would need to be painted individually in advance of assembly. This work is expensive and disruptive. Therefore, although
the material cost of T-sections is up to 20% higher than angles, the welded truss may still prove to be a cheaper
proposition, except for girders with fairly short spans.
5. GENERAL - ERECTION
Whilst steelwork erection may be regarded as the final stage of fabrication, it differs from the latter in two principal
ways: firstly, there is the added dimension of height and the time occupied by vertical movement of materials, equipment
and labour; secondly, the fact that work has to be carried out in the open means that progress may be hampered by
adverse weather.
By its nature, work done on site can become unduly expensive. The primary aim of the programme should be to minimise
costs by condensing the time scale realistically. Options and alternatives need to be carefully examined at the
preliminary design stage otherwise the scope for reducing the time scale may be unduly restricted.
Clearly the significance of the various issues will vary according to the type of building and any limitations which the site
and its environment may impose. Even when structures possess marked similarities, different erection methods and
procedures may need to be adopted. For this reason, only the broad principles concerning erection can be stated.
5.1 Site Planning
Invariably, erection of structural steelwork has to be closely integrated with other major trades such as flooring, cladding
and services. Operations on site where there may be competition for limited resources, are potentially difficult to control. A
far-sighted strategy has to be developed and maintained.
Key objectives and, most importantly, starting and finishing dates must be clearly established and progress reviewed on
a regular basis. Failure to meet commitments can result in substantial cost penalties. Further complications may easily
arise which are totally disproportionate to the cause.
5.2 Site Organisation
The maximum size and weight of the various steel members which can be delivered may be restricted on a site with limited
and restricted access.
Narrow streets in a busy town centre may cause difficulties with space to manoeuvre. Waiting time to off-load may also
be restricted to specific periods. Matters of this kind must be investigated well in advance and decisions made accordingly.
Within site, movement may often be hampered by a variety of obstructions such as scaffolding, shoring, pile caps,
excavation, and so on. Service roads and off-loading areas need to be hard cored and adequately drained to support
heavy vehicles during the severest winter conditions. The steelwork has to be erected in the general sequence determined by
the construction programme. Each consignment of steel has to be strictly regulated to this timetable. Whilst in some
instances, a few key components can be lifted directly from the vehicle into position, most of the material will need to be
off-loaded and stacked temporarily until needed.
The area of the site allocated for this purpose has to be orderly and well managed, particularly where space is limited.
To compensate for minor interruptions in delivery, for example due to traffic delays, a small buffer stock is usually held
in reserve.
Space is also required for laying material out and for assembly of frames or girders prior to hoisting into position.
5.3 Setting Out
Before commencement of erection, the plan position and level of the column bases should be verified by the
erection contractor. This needs to be carried out as soon as possible to ensure that any errors can be corrected in good time
or, at least, alternative measures approved and introduced.
Checks should include not only the centres of the foundation bolts relative to the reference grid lines, but also the projection
of the bolts above the base level.
To compensate for minor discrepancies, a limited amount of deviation of the column from its true vertical and
horizontal position is provided for by the grout space under the baseplate and by leaving a movement pocket around each
bolt during pouring of the concrete. Normally this will allow latitude of about ±25mm in any direction.
5.4 Operations
Steel erection may appear to be a series of distinct operations when in reality they overlap and merge. Nevertheless,
each complete stage of the work has to follow a methodical routine which consists of:
● Hoisting
● Temporary Connections
● Plumbing, lining and levelling
● Permanent connections.
Because minor dimensional inaccuracies can accumulate during fabrication and setting out, it would be impractical to
complete the entire structure before compensating for these by adjustment. The work is therefore sub-divided into a number
of phases which may be controlled by shape or simply by an appropriate number of bays or storeys. For stability, each
phase relies upon some form of restraint to create a local box effect. This effect may be achieved in various ways, such
as employment of temporary or permanent diagonal bracing.
Initially, end connections and base anchorages are only secured temporarily. After completion of plumbing, lining
and levelling, all connections are then made permanent by tightening up all nuts or inserting any bolts initially omitted to
assist adjustment. This process allows substantial areas to be released quickly for grouting and following trades are able
to proceed much earlier than would otherwise be possible.
5.5 Single-Storey Buildings
Under normal circumstances, single-storey buildings are quickly and easily erected. A high proportion of industrial
buildings are rigid jointed. It is common practice to bolt, assemble or weld these joints on the ground and then lift the
complete frame upright using a mobile crane.
Lattice girders and trusses are also erected in a similar manner but temporary stiffening may be required to prevent
lateral buckling. Care should also be taken, by provision of lifting eyes or similar at specific positions, to ensure that
slender members are not subjected to undue compressive stresses.
Ideally, erection should commence at an end which is permanently braced. When this is not possible, temporary
bracings should be provided at regular intervals as a safeguard against collapse or deformation (Figure 7).

Space frames are designed to span in two directions. Because of the number of connections required, it is much
more economical to assemble the modules at ground level where the joints are readily accessible and then hoist the
complete framework. Two or possibly four cranes may be needed depending on the size of the building. Meticulous
co-ordination is essential.
5.6 Multi-storey Buildings
In most cases, multi-storey buildings are erected storey by storey enabling the lower floors to be completed earlier,
offering access, overhead safety and weather protection. Depending upon the site, a single tower crane may be the sole
lifting facility. In this case use of the crane has to be shared between a number of sub-contractors, thereby limiting
available "hook" time for any given trade.
Since the position of a tower crane is fixed (Figure 8), it is completely independent of any obstructions, such as basements
or ground slabs, which could deny access to a mobile crane. This independence allows useful freedom in overall
planning. However, the fixed location also means a fixed arc of lifting capacity where the load will be minimum at the
greatest reach. As a result the steelwork may have to be provided with site splices simply to keep the weight of the
components within such limits.

One of the major virtues of a mobile crane (Figure 9) is its flexibility and independence which enables it to keep moving
with the flow of the work. These cranes are generally fitted with telescopic jibs which allow then to become operational

very quickly. The vehicles are stabilised during lifting by extended outriggers equipped with levelling jacks.
Whilst permanent stability in the completed building may be introduced, in a number of ways, including braced bays,
rigid joints and stiff service cores (Figure 10) and via diaphragm action of the floors, stability must also be ensured
throughout the entire construction programme. It may therefore be necessary to install temporary bracings solely for
this purpose, which must not be removed until the permanent system has been provided and has become effective.
5.7 Timing
The rate of steelwork erection is governed by a wide range of factors some of which are beyond the influence of the
design engineer. The factors which he can control include:
● type of end connections.

● extent/type of bolting or welding.

● number of separate pieces.
Simple connections for shear force are straightforward and employ Grade 4.6 or 8.8 bolts. The bolt diameter should be
selected with a degree of care. For example, whilst a single M30 bolt has more than twice the shear capacity of two M20's,
the effort required to tighten an M30 bolt is some 3½ times greater. An M20 bolt can be tightened without difficulty
using ordinary hand tools, a considerable advantage when working at height.
Joints which are required to transmit bending moments are inherently more robust and may require stiffening ribs
and haunches; if this is the case careful attention is required to ensure access for the bolts. For such applications pre-
tensioned bolts are often used. They are normally tightened to a minimum torque using a power operated wrench.
Compared to bolting, the site welding of joints is time-consuming and expensive for conventional structures. There may
be occasions, however, when site welding is the only realistic way to form a joint, as, for example, in alterations or
remedial work. In this case, joint preparation, fitting, inspection and the provision of purpose made enclosures (for access
and weather protection) are additional cost factors that must be taken into account.
As a rough guide, about 50% of erection man hours are occupied with lining, levelling, plumbing and final bolting and
the remainder of the time is spent hoisting members into position. However, in suitable cases, beam and column elements
may be pre-assembled at ground level and lifted directly on to their foundations.
5.8 Safety
The erection of a building framework is potentially hazardous. Many serious and fatal accidents occur each year
on construction sites and most of these are caused by falling from, or whilst gaining access to, heights; handling, lifting
and moving materials, however, are also hazardous.
Risks can be minimised considerably by measures such as adequate provision for stability throughout
construction, accessibility of splices and connections, guard rails and attachments for safety harnesses and so on.
In addition, safety, need not be compromised on grounds of cost. For example, it will prove cheaper to assemble frames
at ground level (Figure 11) rather than bolt them together in mid-air. Metal decked floor systems are not only economical
but offer rapid access for all trades whilst providing overhead protection. Safer access is also promoted by the
immediate provision of steel stair flights at each floor level as steelwork erection proceeds.

Current and future legislation may place greater responsibilities upon the design engineer because of the influence of
design and details on the method and sequence of erection.
● Steelwork erection normally occupies a relatively short period in the construction programme, but considerable activity
occurs during this time which is vital to the performance of the contract as a whole.
● The steel framework should not be seen in isolation but as a key link in the construction chain where the time saved can

have considerable impact in lowering overall costs.

● Early consideration should be given to erection during design and detailing so that the full benefits of steel construction may
be realised and, the need for late changes and subsequent compromise can be substantially reduced.
1. Davies, B. J, and Crawely, E. J., "Structural Steelwork Fabrication", BCSA, 1980.
2. "National Structural Specification for Building Construction", BCSA, 1989.
3. Arch, W. H., "Structural Steelwork Erection", BCSA, 1989.
4. HMSO, "Guidance Notes, Safe Erection of Structures"
GS 28/1 Initial Planning and Design, 1984.

GS 28/2 Site Management and Procedures, 1985.
GS 28/3 Working Places and Access, 1986.
GS 28/4 Legislation and Training, 1986.

ESDEP WG 3
Lecture 3.6: Inspection/Quality Assurance

OBJECTIVE/SCOPE
To explain why inspection is essential for the assurance of structural safety and to introduce the most
important types of inspection - material, dimensional, welding and bolting - and the equipment used
to carry it out. To define terms and generate awareness of the subject.
PREREQUISITES
None.
RELATED LECTURES
SUMMARY
The lecture defines the important terms used in this field. It discusses the main objectives of
Inspection and Quality Assurance, which is to ensure that safety is achieved without prejudicing
economy. The interrelated responsibilities of design, fabrication and inspection are defined. The main
types of inspection and the most common methods of inspection are introduced with some
explanation of why they are required.
1. INTRODUCTION/DEFINITIONS
The following definitions apply generally to design and manufacturing activities including those for
structural steelwork:

Quality The totality of features and characteristics of a product or service that bear on its
ability to satisfy a given need.
Quality Assurance The system, including all activities, documentation and functions concerning the
achievement of the required quality.
Quality Control The operational techniques and activities that ensure the product or service
quality complies with specified requirements. It is also the use of such techniques
and activities.
Specification The document that prescribes in detail, the requirements with which the product
or service has to comply.
Inspection The process of measuring, examining, testing, gauging, or otherwise comparing

the item with the applicable requirements.
Certification The authoritative act of documenting compliance with requirements.
It will be seen from the definitions above that Inspection is an important part of Quality Control and
that Quality Control and Certification is an important part of Quality Assurance.
2. OBJECTIVES
The objectives of quality assurance in steel construction are to ensure that:
a) The quality of the design, specification and detailing are such that the requirements of the limit
states are complied with most economically.
b) The quality of the materials, fabrication and erection comply with the requirements of the design.
3. SAFETY MARGINS
3.1 Process Variations
All processes are subject to variable influences, some of which could be detrimental to structural
safety or economy. For example, if a steel section is rolled much thinner than specified it could be
unsafe. If it is rolled much thicker than required it would be wasteful. The dimensions of sections are
never exactly the same as those in the steel sections standard.
Variations from the theoretical dimensions and material properties are due to economic limitations on
control of the manufacturing process. These variations can be assessed statistically and controlled so

that compliance with specifications can be assured, enabling appropriate values of γm to be selected
accordingly.
3.2 Gross Error
Other types of variation come under the heading of gross error. These variations are rare events, but if
they occur they can be very serious. For example, if a 356 x 406 Universal Column section of 287 kg/
m were supplied in place of the next larger size (340 kg/m) and used undetected in the work the
potential loss of strength would be about 16%. Even worse, if the grade of steel weld was Fe 275
instead of the specified Fe 350 the loss of strength would be a further 23%.
It is not economical to allow for gross error by increasing the partial safety factor for the material.
The risk of gross error must be reduced to an acceptable minimum by means of adequate quality
control procedures. Thus correct identification and traceability are just as important to safety as
routine measurement and testing.
4. RESPONSIBILITIES
4.1 Involvement
Quality assurance on a structural steelwork contract is the concern of:
(i) Designer/client
(ii) Material supplier/fabricator/erector
(iii) Inspector
This list is a simplified breakdown for the purpose of defining responsibility. The organisation
structure depends on the type and conditions of contract. For instance the designer, fabricator and
inspector might belong to one organisation and the client to another. In another case the client and
designer may be the same. The inspector may or may not be employed by the fabricator.
It may be thought that the only party concerned with the attainment of adequate quality is the
inspector. However, from the time when the steel is obtained to the time when the structure is
completed everyone connected with the planning, design, fabrication and erection of the structure is
involved with some aspect of its quality. Quality Assurance is the whole mechanism which ensures
that everyone involved:
a) Knows what to do.
b) Does it.

c) Is seen to have done it.
4.2 Evolution through Practice
The systems of Quality Assurance now in operation have evolved through the years. They are written
down in codes of practice, standard specifications and procedures. These documents are incorporated
in design and construction contracts.
The job of the inspector is primarily concerned with (c) above. Most of the time the staff concerned
with design, material supply, fabrication, or erection inspect their own work, since it is their
responsibility to ensure that the necessary standards are met. However, when contracts are awarded
on the basis of minimum tender cost there are commercial pressures to reduce the time and hence the
cost of each activity.
4.3 Causes and Prevention of Failures
There is always a risk that someone:
Either does not always know what to do,
Or has insufficient time or forgets to do it,
And that the lack of some action goes undetected.
These are the prime causes of structural failure and apply equally to design, fabrication and erection
operations.
It is the responsibility of the independent inspector to act as a second line of defence to reduce such
aberrations to a minimum. It would clearly be uneconomical to monitor everyone's activity
continuously. The act of independent inspection is therefore to measure, examine and test in such a
way and at such a time that serious errors have the highest chance of being detected as early as
possible and with the minimum of extra cost to production.
4.4 Timing
The importance of early detection of error or non-compliance with specification cannot be over
emphasised. The consequential cost of an error remaining undetected increases exponentially with
time. Errors may occur at the early stage of design which can be very serious. If the behaviour of the
structure is incorrectly modelled, the stresses wrongly calculated or the wrong materials selected, the
consequential cost if the structure has been erected could easily double the total cost. On the other
hand, if a cracked weld is discovered and repaired prior to leaving the welding bay the economical
implications are relatively small.
4.5 Specialisation

Independent inspection is becoming a more specialised activity as the demands of reliability increase.
Inspectors do not have a managerial or production role and are usually qualified to limited types of
inspection. In the field of design they may be termed check, proof or certifying engineers rather than
inspectors.
4.6 Records
One of the most important functions of the inspector is to provide permanent evidence of compliance
with the necessary quality specifications. This requirement may be in a number of ways, the most
common being:
(i) Writing a report.
(ii) Witnessing an activity and signing a certificate of compliance.
(iii) Marking a component with a permanent and unique identification mark.
5. MAIN TYPES OF INSPECTION
5.1 Design
In the design, the most important types of inspection are concerned with checking that the dimensions
are consistent with satisfactory operations and that the materials, strengths and deflections are within
the limits allowed by the relevant codes of practice. The calculations form the main basis for
compliance and the check is often done by a third party.
These checks involve examination of drawings, specifications, calculations and computer program
listings.
5.2 Manufacture
The manufacture of basic components such as steel sections and plates, bolts and welding
consumables requires the following checks, which are usually made at the manufacturer's works:
(i) Identification of batch.
(ii) Chemical analysis.
(iii) Mechanical testing.
(iv) Dimensional checks - external, internal.

A certificate of conformity is signed by the Inspector who carried out or witnesses the checks, which
are normally made on the finished product.
At the fabrication and erection stages, when the basic components are being assembled into larger
more complex units, it is not practical to carry out chemical analysis or mechanical testing of the
work itself. This particularly applies in the case of welded joints where the act of welding can alter
the chemistry and physical properties of the original materials. In this case reliance is placed on the
checks of the welding process against specification followed by NDT (non-destructive testing)
procedures.
6. STAGES OF INSPECTION
In Section 4.4 the importance of the timing of inspections was emphasised. There are many stages of
inspection on structural steelwork contracts. The most important are at:
(i) Completion of calculations.
(ii) Completion of working drawings.
(iii) Completion of shop drawings.
(iv) Manufacture of basic products.
(v) Delivery to and removal from store.
(vi) Procedure trials.
(vii) Operator qualification tests (particularly welding).
(viii) Completion of preparation of materials (cutting, drilling, etc.).
(ix) Completion of jigging, and fitting up of components.
(x) Completion of shop assembly (welding, etc.).
(xi) Completion of preparation for protective coating.
(xii) Completion of protection coating.
(xiii) Completion of assembly on site.
(xiv) Completion of erection on site.

Most of the above stages of inspection are carried out at the end of a particular phase at the place of
work. Thus any deficiencies can be rectified with the minimum cost and delay to the programme.
Conformance to a planned programme of work is also an important feature of quality assurance.
7. METHODS OF INSPECTION, PURPOSE AND ACCEPTANCE

CRITERIA
7.1 Identification
Steel plates and sections are identified by the cast number. Individual pieces are marked permanently
by hardstamping or indelible painting. When lengths are cut these marks must be transferred to all cut
pieces apart from those used for scrap.
Slide 1
Slide 1 : Identification mark on rolled plate
Small manufactured components such as bolts or welding rods usually have the standard or grade to
which they are made embossed or marked on each item. The batch number is marked on the bag or
container in which they are supplied.
Structural components are given identification numbers by the fabricator. Identical members usually
have the same mark to avoid unnecessary complexity.
All materials and components should be traceable back to source at any stage of the project.

Drawings and revisions to them should be clearly identified and superseded issues withdrawn from
the shop.
Test certificates should have an unique identification number.
The first requirement for the acceptance of a product is that its identification mark can be traced back
to and matched against that on a source document such as a certificate or drawing, etc.
7.2 Chemical Analysis
Checks on chemical analysis are an important part of quality control. The analysis of steel is normally
carried out for each cast. Levels of carbon and manganese have a direct bearing on strength.
Levels of chromium, molybdenum, vanadium, nickel and copper are also taken into account in
measuring weldability by the use of the Carbon Equivalent Formula. A check of these levels is vital
to the preparation of welding procedures (see Lecture 3.4). Levels of sulphur and phosphorus should
also be controlled to ensure ductility and weldability.
Most structural steel specifications have defined limits of carbon, manganese, sulphur and
phosphorus. The cast analysis is shown on the mill test certificate.
Slide 2
Slide 2 : Typical mill certificate detailing cast analysis
Welding consumables are supplied to a specified analysis.

Analysis of steels by X-ray spectrometry is usually carried out at the steel mill.
Paints are subject to specialist analysis to ensure consistency from batch to batch.
7.3 Mechanical Tests
The most important mechanical test is the tensile test. This test is carried out by the steel supplier on
each batch of a particular cast, product form and grade. A typical batch may be 40 to 50 tonnes. The
tensile specimen, Slide 3, is machined from a corner of the product and tested to destruction. The
load and extension is measured. The resulting yield stress, Slide 4, ultimate stress and elongation (or
reduction of area) are recorded on the test certificate.
Slide 3 : Typical tensile test

Slide 4 : Tensile test certificate
Another important mechanical test is the Charpy V-notch test to assess the notch-ductility of the steel
at the relevant temperature, Slides 5 and 6. This test must be carried out at the prescribed temperature
which may vary from Room Temperature (+20°C) to -50°C or 60°C depending on the specified
toughness grade. The requirement is that the energy absorption is not less than the specified
minimum energy at the test temperature (usually 27 Joules). The specimen orientation, location and
machining are carefully specified. The temperature is usually obtained by use of carbon dioxide 'ice'.

Slide 5 : Charpy test machine
Slide 6 : Charpy test specimen

Other material tests include the through-thickness ductility test, for determining the resistance to
lamellar tearing, the bend test for butt welds, the nick break test for fillet welds and a bend test for
shear connectors, Slide 7.
Slide 7 : Bend test
The quality of trial welds is usually assessed by taking a macro-section through the weld. This section
is then polished and etched to reveal the fusion boundary and heat affected zone (HAZ). A hardness
survey is then done to find the peak hardness. This survey involves pressing a diamond pyramid
pointer into the surface using a specified force and measuring the size of the diamond indentation,
Slide 8. Specifications often limit the allowable hardness to about 350 Vickers for HAZs in welds and
flame cut edges.

Slide 8 : Hardness test
For butt welds in some structures it may be required that production tests are made on coupon plates
which are extensions of the weld in the structural joint. These coupons are of the same material as the
structure and are welded at the same time. They are subsequently cut off the end of the joint and
subjected to appropriate mechanical tests.
7.4 Dimensional Measurements
External
A range of simple tools is used to check dimensional accuracy, Slide 9.

Slide 9 : Principal tools for checking dimensional accuracy
Thicknesses of plates may be checked with a micrometre gauge. Lengths and cross-sections are
checked with steel tapes.
Straightness of beams and columns are checked with a line pulled taut between the ends. The
departure from the straight is measured between the side of the member and the line at different
positions along the member.
Flatness of plate elements is checked with a steel or aluminium straight edge and a feeler or dial
gauge.
Angles are measured with a protractor or, in the case of shallow angles, they are measured as the
slope (cotangent) of the angle, e.g. 1 in 20, 1 in 10, etc.
On site, levels are checked with a surveryor's automatic level and, for short lengths, by a spirit level.
Columns are plumbed with a theodolite or a vertical plumb line.
Fit up of machined parts is checked with a set of feeler gauges or a taper feeler gauge.
The purposes of dimensional checks are to ensure operational acceptability and satisfactory
appearance, and to ensure proper fit-up, assembly and erection.
Acceptance is on the basis of the tolerances specified on the drawings or in the specification, Slide 10.

Slide 10 : Extract from a typical specification
Internal (NDT)
Ultrasonic detection, Slide 11

Slide 11 : Examples of ultrasonic defect detection
For critical work the internal quality of the steel products may have to be checked for freedom from
rolling defects such as laminations. This check is made by means of an ultrasonic probe which sends
out a beam of high frequency sound, usually at about 2MHz frequency. Any planar discontinuity in
the plate sends back a reflection to the probe. The time taken to travel to and from the discontinuity is
displayed on the flaw detector cathode ray screen in its x-axis. The magnitude of the return signal
gives some indication of the severity of the discontinuity. This is displayed in the y-axis.
The same principle can be applied to welded joints. The only difference is that the geometry restricts
the location of the probe, which must always be on a smooth surface to ensure adequate transmission
of the ultrasound waves. Butt welds are checked with this technique and measurements of defect size
has now been highly developed using computerised systems. It is very sensitive to small
discontinuities and thus is a good technique for detection. Its main drawbacks are that
characterisation of discontinuities is a subjective skill, and that its capability for sizing is limited
(height 3-4mm, length 5mm).
An angled probe is generally used for welds.

Radiography, Slide 12
Slide 12 : Principles of X and Gamma-Ray inspection
This method is also used for weld inspection. It has the advantage of producing a permanent record
on photographic film. The film is placed on the opposite side of the joint from the X-ray source. The
technique gives a better picture of the quality of the weld but it has distinct disadvantages compared
with ultrasonic testing:
1. It is more expensive per length of weld.

2. It is very disruptive for structural work because of the radiation hazards.
3. It does not find tight cracks which are angled to the X-ray beams.
4. It cannot measure the height of discontinuities with any accuracy.
Its use in structural work tends to be limited compared to ultrasonics.
This technique is used for finding very tight cracks at or very near the surface which cannot be seen
with the naked eye. It works on the principle of applying a magnetic flux to the joint using a

permanent magnet or an electromagnet. A solution containing iron filings is sprayed onto the surface
which congregate around any break in the magnetic flux such as may be induced by a crack. It is
quick to use but does not leave a permanent record unless photographed.
Magnetic Particle Inspection can also be used for detecting cracks at flame cut edges and cold-formed
bends.
Slide 13 : Magnetic particle inspection
Penetrant Dyes
These are used for the same purposes as MPI except that they cannot detect any dyes which does not
actually break the surface. The principle is to spray a coloured dye on the surface which is then
absorbed into the crack. The surface is then cleaned and a thin layer of chalk sprayed over it. The dye
is then drawn out of the crack into the surrounding chalk.
MPI and penetrant dyes can estimate the length of a crack, but not its depth.
● The lecture defines important terms.
● It discusses the main objectives of Inspection and Quality Assurance, which is to ensure that
safety is achieved without prejudicing economy.
● The interrelated responsibilities of design, fabrication and inspection are defined.
● The main types of inspection and the most common methods of inspection are introduced with

some explanation of why they are required.
1. EN 29000, Quality systems
2. Burgess, N. I.: "Quality Assurance of Welded Construction", Applied Science Publishers, 1983
Various standards on testing and inspection (International, European and National) are also available
and should be referred to.

ESDEP WG 4A

OBJECTIVE/SCOPE
To give young architects and engineers a basic understanding of the corrosion process and the practical means of
protecting structural steelwork.
PRE-REQUISITES
None
SUMMARY
This lecture presents the theory of corrosion in a very simple way. The galvanic series and galvanic corrosion are
covered briefly. The question of why structural steel requires protection against corrosion is discussed and the
fundamental considerations relating to protection are described, e.g. establishing the environment, the choices of
protective coatings, surface preparation options and other considerations, e.g. chemical cleanliness.
1. INTRODUCTION
The more common metals exist in nature as metallic compounds. The principal compounds or ores are oxides and
sulphides.
The extraction process is:
Compound → Metal
Metals spontaneously react with any liquid or gaseous environment in which they are placed and a corrosion
product is produced which is very similar to the original ore from which the metal was obtained. Thus:
Iron Ore = Iron Oxide
Rust = Iron Oxide plus chemically bonded water.
Corrosion processes are chemical reactions taking place at the surface of the metal. They obey well established
chemical laws - which is fine if you know them! Most of us do not need to know them because we are not dealing
with corrosion problems daily. The purpose of this lecture is to describe the main types of corrosion met in
ordinary buildings, structures, plant, factories, etc.
Corrosion products may act as a barrier between the metal and its surroundings, effectively slowing down the
corrosion rate. This phenomenon is frequently observed when metals corrode in air, a process known as "dry

corrosion". It cannot be expected to happen when the corrosion products are soluble and the corrosion is taking
place in an aqueous environment, i.e. "wet corrosion". For example, in a dry environment
Zinc + Oxygen → Zinc Oxide + Water + Oxygen
Nothing much happens!
But add acid condensate (as frequently occurs in industrial environments) and,
Zinc Oxide + Sulphuric Acid → Zinc Sulphate + Water → Eases away, exposing Zinc.
1.1 Dry Corrosion
At room temperature, most metals carry a very thin oxide layer as a result of the metal's reaction with oxygen in
the atmosphere. Metals subjected to heating may well carry a heavier layer, or the layer may detach. For example,
steel which has been hot-rolled has a complex oxide layer which is physically unstable but still has a protective
value provided the steel remains in air and as long as the layer remains a continuous layer.
Zinc in air carries a fairly protective film of zinc oxide, which increases in thickness very slowly. Aluminium
carries a thin, highly protective oxide layer.
Dry corrosion may seem unlikely. However, it is worth remembering some corrosion takes place even under
completely dry conditions. It needs removing before applying any form of protective coating.
1.2 Wet Corrosion
"Wet corrosion" takes place in wet environments, i.e. where relative humidity exceeds 60%. These environments
can be neutral, acid or alkaline.
There may be uniform destruction of the metal, e.g. oxidation or, localised destruction, i.e. pitting and stress
corrosion. The destruction can be concentrated at areas adjacent to a more noble metal or, at points where the
oxygen supply is limited.
Wet corrosion is electro-chemical. When a metal is immersed in a conductive liquid (sulphur compounds in water
in an industrial atmosphere or sodium chloride in water in a marine environment) some areas have a different
electrical resistance from the rest of the surface (Figure 1). A "positive" electric current flows from the negative
(-) anode to the positive (+) cathode areas and this leads to the dissolving or "corroding" of the anode (Figure 2).
In other words, a "corrosion cell" is, broadly speaking, the same as a car battery.

In corrosion prevention literature the terms "galvanic " and the "galvanic series" are frequently used.
Galvanic corrosion is the destruction of the less-noble of a pair of metals joined together, e.g. in sea water zinc
is less noble than mild steel and the zinc wastes away rapidly.
The galvanic series is a list of metals arranged in order of their corrosion potential with the most easily corroded

at the top and the least active at the bottom. The simplified listing which follows shows why aluminium and zinc
are used as coatings to protect mild steel and, stainless steel to replace it in certain circumstances.
Aluminium
Zinc
Iron
Mild Steel
Stainless Steel
Lead
Copper
Silver
Gold
Platinum
The most active metals, e.g. zinc and aluminium, are described as having negative electrical potentials. They may
be referred to as anodic. The least active, e.g. gold and platinum are referred to as noble or, cathodic.
When dissimilar metals are connected in the presence of an electrolyte the more noble (cathodic) one tends to be
protected while the more active (anodic or negative) corrodes rapidly.
As the potential difference between two dissimilar metals increases so does the possibility for galvanic corrosion.
To sum up, the corrosion of metals is simply a reversion of their extraction process. 90% of marine and industrial
corrosion is electro-chemical and the reaction approximates to that which takes place in a car battery.
1.3 Why Protect Steel?
Basically steel is an alloy iron and carbon, other elements being added depending upon the processing method
and the final performance required. Structural steels (medium carbon steels) contain 0,12% to 0,24% carbon. It
was noted above that iron ore is iron oxide and rust is iron oxide plus chemically bonded water. Steel is man-
made and unstable. It combines readily with oxygen and water, producing an iron oxide not unlike the original
iron ore prior to refining.
Electro-chemical corrosion can be highly concentrated at certain points. If this occurs, a high rate of destruction
at points representing no more than 1% of the total surface area can destroy the usefulness of a steel component.
There are a number of reasons why local corrosion can be so concentrated:
● The first reason is related to the presence of mill scale (Figure 2). Much of the structural steel which is use
is hot-rolled. The white hot steel is formed into structural sections by passing it through compressing
rollers. In some parts of the process, water is poured upon the forming steel. Both these operations cause

an oxide layer to be built-up on the steel's surface.
The oxide layer on hot-rolled mild steel is called mill scale. As noted earlier it is physically unstable. It is a
separate entity from the steel in much the same way as is a coat of paint.
● Second, the mill scale is not a continuous layer and does not represent a protective barrier.
● Third, the mill scale is cathodic and the steel anodic. If there are a few breaks in the scale layer, a little
condensation with dissolved impurities to act as the electrolyte, and perhaps some dissolved oxygen, then
a corrosion cell is formed in which the steel dissolves (corrodes) away.
● Fourth, small bare areas of steel in large patches of intact mill scale, i.e. large cathodic areas, give rise to
intense attack and severe pitting of the steel (Figure 3).
● Fifth, cold bending, welding, etc. can produce highly stressed areas with adjacent anodic (-) and cathodic
(+) patches (Figure 4).
● Sixth, crevice corrosion occurs in the low oxygen concentration areas of a corrosion cell (Figure 5).
● Seventh, even cold-formed steel has anodic and cathodic areas allowing electro-chemical corrosion to
occur (Figure 6).


2. PROTECTING STRUCTURAL STEELWORK

There are some fundamental practical considerations.
2.1 Effect of Environment and Surface Conditions
Corrosion is most likely to occur when one or more of the following is present:
● High humidity - which provides the essential water, i.e. humidity above about 60%.
● Atmospheric pollution - to provide impurities, e.g. sulphides and chlorides.
● The presence of mill scale with breaks or discontinuities - the scale becomes the positive (cathode) pole
and the steel the negative, dissolving or corroding (anode) pole in the corrosion cell.
Before deciding how to protect any steel, one must answer the question "From what?". Table 1 gives general
environments. Answering the following will help produce the answer:
a) What is the general environment?
b) Is the environment likely to change in the foreseeable future? If it is, what is the cause and how will it alter the
general environment?
c) Is there local pollution, e.g. sulphur dioxide, which could make the environment more aggressive than is first
apparent?
d) In terms of environment must the project be divided into different parts when determining the protective system
(s) or can the worst case be applied everywhere to simplify matters?
e) What special conditions apply, e.g., watersplash, residual pools, which may exclude the use of specific
coatings?
f) Can the protective system chosen be maintained effectively and economically throughout the required life of
the structure/plant?
2.2 Protect with What?

The most practical way to protect steel is by applying another coat either to act as an anode (i.e. dissolving in
preference to steel), as a barrier, or both. The common protective coatings are paints, hot dip galvanising, zinc or
aluminium metal spray and any of the last three overcoated with paints. Their main features are summarised in
Appendix 1. They are discussed in Lecture 4A.2.
2.3 Surface Preparation
Surface preparation is a major influence in determining the protective value of a coating system. For metallic
coatings it is usually an integral part of the manufacturing process and is included in the relevant national and
European standards. For paints the type and standard of surface preparation should be specified as a part of the
protective coating treatment.
The importance of removing mill scale is well established. The methods used for this purpose and, to remove
rust, etc. are as follows:
Weathering
Because the layer of mill scale is a physically unstable separate entity which breaks up before it leaves the rolling
mills, the practice of "leaving the steel to weather" still exists. Unfortunately, the duration of weathering
necessary to remove the scale from structural steel depends on the local climate, the type of mill scale, its
thickness, the shape and thickness of the section and, when weathering takes place after the steel is erected, by
the position of the individual structure. The time necessary to remove 90% of mill scale from 9mm thick plates of
mild steel varies from about six months in industrial atmospheres in Europe to more than five years in certain
overseas areas. Even in the most aggressive environments complete descaling by weathering of a structure could
not be guaranteed within a year. Remember too it is in the aggressive marine or industrial environments where
the chemical impurities which dissolve in water to form good electrolytes are found!
Weathering is not recommended as a preparatory method.
Chipping, Scraping and Wire Brushing
Chipping, scraping and wire brushing are by far the least effective methods. They do not remove deep-seated
rust, or tightly adhering mill scale.
Mechanical wire brushes and scrapers give better results than manual tools, but the standards achieved are
inferior to the alternative methods below.
Pneumatic descaling pistols
A bunch of hardened steel needles is held loosely in the collar of the pistol. Operated by compressed air, the
needles move backwards and forwards in the collar to pound, literally, the surface. This preparatory tool is
particularly useful around nuts, bolts and rivet heads. It is extremely slow to use and will not remove deep-seated
rust or thin mill scale.
Flame cleaning
An intensely hot oxy-acetylene flame is played on the surface. Differential expansion causes the mill scale to
detach. The process is extremely slow, but it can be effective. It will nor remove tight mill scale. It cannot be
used upon steel which is less than 5mm thick, because it may cause buckling. In addition, it may "burn-in"

chemicals deposited on the surface causing premature paint failures. Its use as a preparatory method is
diminishing.
Acid pickling
This is a factory process for use on new steel before erection. The steel is immersed in hot sulphuric or
hydrochloric acid; after rinsing it may be dipped in a weak phosphoric acid solution which deposits a thin
crystaline phosphate coating upon the surface of the steel. This coating gives a very low level of protection
against corrosion for a limited period. This form of acid pickling is one of the cheapest and most effective ways
of removing all mill scale and rust. It is not a satisfactory form of surface preparation for use beneath
sophisticated primers.
Cold site-applied pickling solutions are not effective.
Abrasive blast cleaning
This is an extremely effective method of removing mill scale and rust. Chilled iron grit or shot is projected by air
or, centifrugally from a wheel. When carried out in the factory it is a relatively cheap process, but it can be
expensive on site. It is not always practicable on erected steel.
Properly undertaken the process leaves the steel in an excellent condition to receive paint systems and metal
spray. Its advantage is the profile which is produced and upon which the applied coating "keys".
Other Considerations
Surface Cleanliness in terms of how effectively mill scale and rust have been removed is covered by the
pictorial illustrations in ISO 8501 [1].
Surface Roughness is important in respect of the profile produced by abrasive blasting, which roughens the
surface of steel. ISO 8503 Part 1 specifies comparator panels as a means of specifying surface roughness [2].
These panels are used to make visual and tactile comparisons with the blast-cleaned surface.
Chemical Cleanliness too often is confused with surface cleanliness by the specifier. Rust formed in industrial or
marine environments can contain soluble salts. These salts are often found in corrosion pits and are rarely
removed by abrasive blast cleaning and never by mechanical or hand cleaning. If overcoated they lead to rapid
coating failure. Wet abrasive blast cleaning or washing with potable water are both used as a means of cleaning
chemically contaminated steelwork. Unfortunately standard methods are not available for the qualitative or semi-
quantitative determination of the levels of chlorides, sulphates or soluble iron salts on freshly blast-cleaned steel.
Methods are being developed and may be included in ISO 8502 and 8504 [3, 4].
2.4 Cathodic Protection
The phenomena of galvanic corrosion and the galvanic series are the basis of Cathodic Protection (CP), a system
in which the structure to be protected is made the cathode. For example if iron and copper are connected in sea
water the iron corrodes; connect a piece of zinc into the system and a current flows from the zinc to the iron and
copper and turns the iron into a cathode, i.e. the non-corroding pole in the electrochemical cell.
Cathodic protection using sacrificial anodes is established for the protection of steelwork under immersed
conditions. For large installations, e.g. marine jetties, an "impressed current" system is often used. In this system
the anode is inert, e.g. graphite or titanium, and a DC supply provides the voltage.

Setting up a cathodic protection system on an immersed or semi-immersed structure requires expert advice. There
are however three points to remember when considering a CP system.
a. To do their job, sacrificial anodes must corrode! They require regular inspection to ensure they are replaced
before they disappear completely.
b. There must be sufficient anodes to give the correct current density over the complete surface to be protected.
c. In systems using an external DC supply the polarity of the electrical connection is vital. Reversed connections
can cause extremely rapid corrosion of the item the system is supposed to protect!
2.5 Stainless Steel
In buildings and plant stainless steels can be used for interior decoration, facades, cladding, fasteners and
equipment. The resistance to atmospheric corrosion associated with stainless steel stems largely from its
chromium content which helps to form a thin protective oxide layer which is also aesthetically pleasing.
There are three types of stainless steel currently used in buildings and it must be said that in-service failures are
more often due to mis-specification than to inherent weaknesses in the products (see Lectures 18). Stainless steels
do corrode!
The three grades have different mechanical properties which affect forming, welding and performance in service.
To make the best choice for a particular application, the environment, the likely frequency of cleaning, e.g. by
rainwater, the mechanical properties needed during fabrication, and the required performance in service need to
be known.
Stainless steel components are expensive (x 10 the cost of carbon steel) and merit careful consideration before
specifying to ensure their full potential is realised.
2.6 Weathering Steels
These steels contain only 1-2% of alloying additions, e.g. copper, chromium, nickel, phosphorus. They can be
more corrosion resistance than similar unalloyed steels. But the protective coating only forms when the steel is
subject to regular wetting and during cycles. Wet interiors, immersed or buried conditions are unsuitable
environments in which to use weathering steels. Undoubtedly specialist advice from the steel industry is required
before this type of steel is specified. There are a number of general considerations:
a. for long life a corrosion allowance must be considered because the actual loss varies with the environment.
b. crevices and other water/dirt traps must be designed out.
c. as the steel begins to weather iron hydroxides may run to adjacent surfaces and cause straining.
d. fasteners should be made of weathering steel.
e. specific low alloy welding rods are needed.
f. to obtain even weathering, blasting overall may be necessary.

g. these steels are unsuitable for use in marine and aggressive industrial environments.
● Corrosion follows established chemical laws. In 'dry' conditions it is generally inactive. In 'wet' condition
it is highly active.
● The 'wet' conditions in which corrosion can take place can range from acid, neutral through to alkaline.
● Corrosion also occurs between dissimilar metals, the less noble (anodic) being the one destroyed.
● Steel needs to be protected in 'wet' conditions to prevent corrosion (re-oxidization) occurring.
● The environment around the steel controls the rate of corrosion and the degree of protection required;
accessibility controls the type of corrosion prevention treatment adopted.
4. REFERENCES
ISO 8500 series Preparation of steel substrates before the application of paints and related products.
[1] ISO 8501 Visual assessment of surface cleanliness
- Part 1 Rust grades and preparation grades of uncoated steel substrates and of steel substrates after
overall removal of previous coatings.
- Part 2* Preparation grades of previously coated steel substrates after localized removal of
previous coatings.
[2] ISO 8502 Tests for the assessment of surface cleanliness.
- Part 1 Field tests for soluble iron corrosion products.
- Part 2 Laboratory determination of chloride on clean surfaces.
- Part 3 Assessment of dust on steel surfaces prepared for painting (pressure sensitive tape method).
- Part 4* Guidance on the estimation of the probability of condensation prior to paint application.
[3] ISO 8503 Surface roughness characteristics of blast-cleaned substrates.
- Part 1 Specifications and definitions for ISO surface profile comparators for the assessment of abrasive blast-
cleaned surfaces.
- Part 2 Methods for the grading of surface profile of abrasive blast-cleaned steel. Comparator procedures.
- Part 3 Method for the calibration of ISO surface profile comparators and for the determination of surface profile
- Focusing microscope procedure.
- Part 4 Method for the calibration of ISO surface profile comparators and for the determination of surface profile
- Stylus instrument procedure.

[4] ISO 8504 Surface preparation methods.
- Part 1 General principles.
- Part 2 Abrasion blast-cleaning.
- Part 3 Hand and power tool cleaning.
[5] ISO 12944* Protective paint systems for steel structures
- Part 1 General Introduction.
- Part 2 Classification of Environments.
- Part 3 Types of Surface and Surface Preparation.
- Part 4 Classification and Definitions of Paint Systems and Related Products.
- Part 5 Performance Testing.
- Part 6 Workmanship.
- Part 7 Design.
- Part 8 Guidance for Developing Specification for New Work and Maintenance.
* In course of preparation
1. Uhlig, H. H., "Corrosion and Corrosion Control", 3rd ed, 1985, John Wiley & Sons.
2. Durability of Steel Structures: Protection of Steel Structures and Buildings from Atmospheric Corrosion,
ECSC Report 620.197, 1983.
3. "Controlling Corrosion", series of booklets published by the Department of Industry - Committee on
Corrosion.
4. Steelwork Corrosion Protection Guide - Interior Environments (3rd Ed), 1989 (published jointly by British
Constructional Steeelwork Association (BCSA) British Steel (BS), Paint Research Association (PRA) and
Zinc Development Association (ZDA)).
5. Steelwork Corrosion Protection Guide - Perimeter Walls (2nd Ed), 1989 (Published jointly by BCSA and
BS).
6. Steelwork Corrosion Protection Guide - Exterior Environments (2nd Ed), 1989 (published jointly by
BCSA, BS, PMA and ZDA).
7. BS 5493 Code of practice for protective coating of iron and steel structured against corrosion.
8. DIN 55928: Part 5 Corrosion protection of steel structures by organic and metallic coatings Part 5 Coating
materials and protective systems.
9. Norsk Standard NS 5415 Anti-corrosive paint systems for steel structures.
10. ECCS No. 48 Protection against corrosion inside buildings.
11. ECCS No. 50 Protection of steel structures against corrosion by coatings.

APPENDIX 1
Characteristics of Paint and Metal Coatings
The features of hot dip galvanizing and metal spray to be considered:
a. Life predictable if the environment is accurately assessed.
b. Single application systems (plus sealing in some cases).
c. Short in-shop time.
d. Good abrasion resistance.
e. Sacrificial protection of steel provided at areas of damage.
f. Good corrosion resistance.
g. Should not be used unpainted outside the pH range of 5-12 for zinc and 4-9 for aluminium, or, where the metal
is subject to direct attack by specific chemicals.
Hot dip galvanizing has additional features:
h. The alloying action provides a good metallurgical bond.
i. Full coating on sharp corners and edges. Thickness is influenced by the composition of the steel.
j. Adhesion problems can occur between the zinc and subsequently applied paint. These problems can be
overcome by the use of special pretreatments, primers or specially formulated direct application paints.
Additional features for metal spraying:
k. Can be site applied.
l. Coating thickness can be built up as desired.
m. Virtually any size of structure and plant can be coated.
n. Often a better substrate for paint systems than hot dip galvanizing.
o. Should be sealed if to be over-painted.
p. Irrespective of environment aluminium-sprayed metal is best supplied sealed ex-works.
q. Where exposure is unlikely to be aggressive, zinc sprayed steel need not be sealed. If there is any likelihood it
will need painting or sealing at a later date, then it should be sealed initially to prevent the formation of zinc
corrosion products.

The main features of paint systems are:
a. Predictable life if the environment is accurately assessed.
b. Does not affect the mechanical properties of steel.
c. Suitable for shop and site use.
d. Can be applied to complex structures and plant.
e. Systems are available to protect against most environments and conditions.
f. Painting facilities are widely available.
g. Most paints are easy to repair and maintain.
h. Wide colour ranges are available for safety and decoration.
i. High performance paints require high standards of surface preparation (usually abrasive blast cleaning) and can
be intolerant of poor painting conditions.

l04a0200
ESDEP WG 4A
Lecture 4A.2: Factors Governing

Protection of Steelwork
OBJECTIVE/SCOPE
To expand upon Lecture 4A.1, giving the practical means of protecting steelwork at a level suitable for young architects
and engineers.
PREREQUISITES
None.
RELATED LECTURES
SUMMARY
This lecture covers the assessment of the required life design for the successful use of protective systems and
surface preparation. The coatings commonly used to protect steel are described and the use of stainless and weathering
steels are briefly discussed. Finally a general discussion of maintenance is given.
1. LIFE EXPECTANCY
Table 1 classifies the principal types of environment that have a significant influence on the life expectancy of steel.
In dry, heated buildings, e.g. offices, hospitals, warehouses, the corrosion rates of carbon steel are usually very low. Steel
can be used without protection in such environments when it is hidden. Elsewhere it is coated for aesthetic or hygienic reasons.
Many interiors are not dry however and steelwork requires protection in these situations, as well as in exterior environments.

l04a0200
Structures and plant usually have a "design life". If after execution of the structure access is impossible, the initial
protective system needs to have the same life as the steel. Economic pressures often increase the functional life of
plant significantly beyond the "design life". Changes in expectation usually occur after the initial protective system is in
place. It is sensible therefore to consider this possibility at the start of every new project.
1.1 Likely Time to First Maintenance
Table 2 gives in column (a) typical lives in the general environment quoted to prevent deterioration of the steel using
various coating systems. Column (b) gives the likely time to first refurbishment where good appearance and the maintenance
of a readily cleaned surface are important. Neither set of figures can allow for the influence of local conditions, e.g.
heavy overnight condensation due to the unplanned shutting down of ventilating systems to save money.
Protective systems require regular inspection allowing unexpected local failures to be repaired. Ideally the base steel
should never be exposed. If the first coat of the system is zinc galvanising or metal spray then it should be considered part
of the structure, the paint coats being refurbished at intervals which ensure it remains unexposed.
1.2 Life Between Maintenances
When there is data on the performance of a protective system on similar structures or plant, prediction of the intervals
to maintain the top coat(s) is fairly easy. Since the initial failure of a protective system may be sooner than anticipated,
the estimation of the interval for some breakdown to bare steel can be complicated.
1.3 Assessment of Life Requirement
It may be necessary to assess each part of a structure separately. For each assessment the following points should be taken
into account:
a. Required life of structure/plant.
b. Decorative and hygienic requirements. The decorative life of a coating (and its ability to be readily cleaned) is rarely as
long as the protective life of the system, see Table 2.
c. Irreversible deterioration if scheduled maintenance is delayed.
d. Difficulty of access for maintenance.
e. Technical and engineering problems in maintenance.
f. Minimum acceptable period between maintenance.
g. Total maintenance costs, including plant shut-down, closure of roads, access, etc.

l04a0200
2. DESIGN
The design of structures and plant is based largely on data and functional requirements which can be quantified, e.g.
'the steelwork supports plant manufacturing a specific product and has a life expectancy of 25 years'. The selection of
a protective system involves many factors; these factors vary widely according to the type of structure, its complexity,
its function, the general environment, (see Table 1) the influence of microclimates and the effects of possible
environmental changes (natural and otherwise) which may occur during the required life.
Other factors affecting selection are quantitative, e.g. time to first maintenance, planned maintenance schedule to cover
the required life of the structure or plant, thickness of coatings, etc. They should be viewed with caution because the degree
of variation may differ between one coating system and another.
Quotations may vary considerably for the same system irrespective of whether it is hot dip galvanising, metal spray or
paint. Great care is necessary to ensure quotations for apparently identical products or services do cover the same
materials, application with the same degree of control, and comparable quality of finish in terms of both required durability
and appearance.
Some of the critical conditions and circumstances that have to be taken into account before selecting a protective system
are listed in question form in Appendix 1. Not every question is relevant to a particular job and the importance of the
relevant questions varies. The order of relevant questions might be modified in the light of answers to later questions. The
list should be studied as a whole before the questions are considered in detail.
2.1 Design for Protective Systems
The design of structures and plant can influence the choice of protective system. It may be appropriate and economic to
modify the design to suit the preferred protective system. The following points should be noted:
a. Provide safe and easy access to and around the structure to facilitate maintenance.
b. Design the elements:
i. to avoid pockets and recesses in which water and dirt can collect, see Figures 1 - 5.
ii. to eliminate sharp edges and corners, see Figure 6.
iii. to provide clear access for painting e.g. to allow space to use a paint brush or spray gun, see Figure 7.

l04a0200

l04a0200

l04a0200

l04a0200

l04a0200

l04a0200

l04a0200

l04a0200

l04a0200
c. Any areas which are inaccessible after erection require a coating system designed to last the required life of the structure.
Is this feasible or should the design be modified?
d. Certain structural sections are more suited to some coating systems than others, e.g. hollow section are more easily

l04a0200
wrapped than structural shapes.
e. The method or size of fabrication may preclude or limit some protective systems, e.g. friction grip bolts, galvanising.
f. If bimetallic corrosion is possible, additional protective measures are necessary, see Figure 8.

l04a0200
g. Where steel is likely to be in contact with other building materials, special precautions may be necessary e.g. oak timbers.
h. For steel structures in water, cathodic protection may be the best solution, see Figure 9.

l04a0200

l04a0200
2.2 Where to Apply Protection
In this case "where" means should the protective coating system be applied on or off site.
Protective system are more durable when applied in the fabrication shop or steel mill. Where there is a likelihood of
substantial damage occurring during transportation and erection specifiers may prefer the final one or two coats of protection
to be applied on site. Paints specified for site use must be tolerant of delay and a measure of intercoat contamination.
The specification should state clearly who is responsible for quality control at each stage of fabrication and processing.
Where the total system is applied off-site, the specification must cover the need for care at all later stages to prevent damage
to the finished steel and set out repair procedures for the coatings once the steelwork is erected.
2.3 Special Areas
The protective treatment of bolts, nuts and other parts of the structural connections require careful consideration. Ideally
their protective treatment should be of a standard at least equal to that specified for the general surfaces.
Where high performance paint systems are to be used, it is worth considering hot dip spun galvanised or stainless
steel fasteners.
The mating surfaces of connections made with high strength friction grip bolts require special treatment, see Appendix 2
in Lecture 4A.3.
3. SURFACE PREPARATION
The surface preparation of the steelwork has a major influence in determining the protective value of the coating system.
For galvanising and metal spraying, surface preparation is an integral part of the process and is included in national
standards for these operations. With paint systems there is usually a choice of preparatory methods. Therefore the
actual method chosen for a specific job must be specified as part of the protective coating treatment.
The choice between blast-cleaning and manual cleaning is partly determined by the nature of the coatings to be
applied. Coatings applied to a degreased blast-cleaned surface always last longer than similar coatings applied to
manually cleaned surfaces. However, some short-life coatings do not warrant the high cost of blast-cleaning as required
for long-life coatings. Details of methods for blast cleaning surfaces are given in ISO 8504 [5].
3.1 Degreasing
Grease and dirt are best removed by proprietary emulsion cleaners followed by a thorough rinsing with water, by
steam-cleaning, or by controlled high pressure water jets.

l04a0200
Where it is necessary to use white spirit or similar solvents to remove oil or grease, the use of detergent or emulsion
cleaner should follow before completing the operation by thorough rinsing with clean fresh water.
Degreasing by washing with solvent is not recommended because it can lead to the spreading of a thin film of oil or grease
over the surface.
3.2 Removal of Scale and Rust
Mill-scale is made up of the surface oxides produced during the hot-rolling of steel. It is unstable. On weathering,
water penetrates fissures in the scale and rusting of the steel surface occurs. The mill-scale loses adhesion and begins to shed.
It is an unsatisfactory base and needs to be removed before protective coatings are applied.
In general, rusted steel surfaces are not a satisfactory base for the application of protective coatings, although some
primers have a limited tolerance to residual rust left on steel surfaces after manual cleaning. The means of removing rust
and scale are described below.
3.3 Blast Cleaning
Abrasive particles are directed at high velocity against the metal surface. They may be carried by compressed air or
high-pressure water, or thrown by centrifugal force from an impeller wheel. For some open blasting, high pressure
water without abrasives may be used. The various methods are listed in Table 3.
Commonly used abrasives for cleaning steelwork are listed in Table 4 with notes on their advantages and disadvantages.
The choice of blast-cleaning method is determined by the following factors.
a. Shape and size of steelwork
Centrifugal methods are economic for plates and simple sections; they can also be used for large prefabricated sections, e.
g. bridge sections, but only in specially designed plants. 'Misses' discovered by inspection can be cleaned with open-
blast techniques. For large throughput of shaped items, e.g. pipes, both open and vacuum blasting techniques can be used
in continuous and automatic plants.
b. Effect of the stage at which cleaning is carried out
For blast-cleaning on site, open or vacuum-blasting methods have to be used as on large fabricated sections. It is
usually impractical to use centrifugal methods.
c. Throughput
Centrifugal plants are economic for a high throughput, but even with a low throughput the method may still be preferable
to large-scale open cleaning.
l04a0200
d. Environmental conditions
Despite its relatively high cost, vacuum blasting may be necessary to avoid contamination of the immediate area with
abrasive. It should be ensured that the blast-cleaning process does not affect adjacent materials.
e. Types of surface deposit to be removed
Wet-blasting methods, with abrasives, are particularly suitable for removing entrapped salts in rust and for abrading old,
hard painted surfaces, e.g. two-pack epoxies, before recoating.
On new work, blast cleaning can be carried out before or after fabrication. When it is before fabrication a "blast" or
"holding" primer is applied to prevent corrosion during fabrication. Areas damaged during fabrication, e.g. by welding,
require re-preparing and priming as soon as possible.
3.4 Blast Cleaning Standard
ISO 8501-1 1988 is a visual standard which shows different degrees of blast cleaning on steel of four levels of rusting [1].
The reference prints are in colour and the standard is based on the widely used Swedish Standard SIS055900 [2]. It is used
to specify and control the standard of abrasive blast cleaning required.
3.5 Surface Roughness
Because blasting roughens the surface, some control of the profile produced is important. If the distance between the
highest peak and the deepest trough is too much then the peaks may not be protected adequately, Figure 10. ISO8503-1 1988
is a standard for surface comparators [3]. Visual comparison between the comparator, Figure 11, and blasted surface allow
the latter to be graded "Fine", "Medium" or "Coarse" profile. The peak to valley distance for each grade is specified in
the standard; shot and grit blasted profiles are different and there is one comparator for grit and one for shot blasting.

l04a0200

l04a0200
ISO8501-1 [1] is intended for use with previously unpainted steel. ISO8501-2 [1] is being prepared and relates to the
treatment of previously painted steelwork.
In both the above standards the term Surface Cleanliness is used. This is slightly misleading because although it refers to
how effectively mill scale and rust have been removed, it sometimes is assumed to include chemical cleanliness. This is not
so. Tests for assessing the surface cleanliness are given in ISO 8502 [4]. ISO 8502-1 gives details of site tests for soluble
iron corrosion products and ISO 8502-3 provides a method for the assessment of dust on the surface and these are the
only standards of real use at present. ISO 8502-2 gives a method of determining in a laboratory the presence of chlorides
l04a0200
and further part giving guidance on the estimation of condensation is in course of preparation.
3.6 Flame Cut Edges
Flame cut edges have to be smooth and corners ground in order to make a durable paint coating. A sharp corner creates a
thin film and a starting point for corrosion.
3.7 Other Methods of Surface Preparation
Manual cleaning, possibly using power assisted tools, is the method most frequently used for practical or economic
reasons, although it is the least effective. In due course Part 3 of ISO 8504 [5] will cover hand and power tool cleaning but
at present the only relevant standard is ISO8501-1 [1] which contains two visual preparation grades for scraping and
wire-brushing [2].
4. SURFACE COATINGS
As indicated in Lecture 4A.1, the common methods of protecting steelwork are paints, galvanising, zinc or aluminium
metal spray or "duplex" systems where one of the last three is over-coated with paint. The main characteristics of the
three groups are given in Lecture 4A.1. Appendix 1.
4.1 Paint Systems
Paints have three main components, a resinous components which literally glues them together and is best referred to as
the "film former", pigment to give colour, weather resistance and in some cases corrosion inhibition and, solvents to
produce the correct consistency for application, control of the drying rate, etc.
It is the film former which influences a paint's main properties, e.g. hardness, flexibility, water resistance. For convenience
the paint types listed in Appendix 2 are divided into three families, drying oil based paints, one pack chemical resistant
paints and 2-pack varieties. In each case the main film formers and pigments are indicated, together with typical end uses
for each broad family.
Usually there are three components, 'primer', 'undercoat' and 'finish' in a paint system.
Primers. Their functions are to promote adhesion and protect from corrosion. Since film thickness is a very important
in protection, two coats are frequently specified - sometimes three when the last two are applied by brush.
Occasionally specifiers refer to the second and third coat of primer as 'primer undercoat'. Frequently this misleads
the contractor because the branded products freely available never feature this latter term in the product description.
The specifier is advised to label the system 'First coat', 'Second coat', etc., following with the appropriate generic description.
Undercoats. On steel, traditional undercoats provide the right colour base for the finish; they adhere to the primer and
l04a0200
little else. The high performance undercoat is more accurately described as an 'Intermediate coat'. It is a second barrier
should the steel be bared by damage or erosion. Often coats used for this function can stand in their own right as finishes.
One important feature is to provide dry film thickness. A traditional undercoat gives about 25µm per coat; those used on
steel in other than a being environment must give a minimum of 50µm, with heavier duty types producing 100µm plus.
Finishes. They supply the required colour, gloss or sheen level and resist weathering, abrasion, and chemical attack,
as appropriate. More than one coat may be required depending on product type, exposure, environment, colour, etc. Dry
film thicknesses per coat vary from 25µm for a simple oil based product to 100µm or more for two pack epoxy coatings.
4.2 Metallic Coatings
a. Hot Dip Galvanising
The process deposits about 85µm on the surface of the structural steel. Thicker films can be obtained in some
circumstances. Galvanising must not be confused with Sheradising which achieves no more than 30µm zinc thickness
or electroplating which deposits even less thickness.
b. Strip Mill Galvanising
Strip mill galvanising utilises sophisticated plant to clean, pickle and plate strip with non-ferrous metals under
carefully controlled conditions. The exterior surface of proprietary branded products, e.g. building cladding is likely to
be finished with a 20-25µm protective layer of zinc or zinc/aluminium (the latter varying from 5 to 55%). This layer may
be overcoated on the same production line with highly durable organic finishes of varying dry film thicknesses.
4.3 Metal Spraying
The usual methods of applying zinc and aluminium are gas combustion and electric arc. Very high standards of blasting
and surface cleanliness are essential. Metal spraying and sealing are carried out by specialist contractors. Inspection must
be undertaken by qualified metal spraying inspectors.
All grades of steel can be metal sprayed and there is no size limit. Work can be undertaken at works or on site. Aluminium
is rarely applied at thicknesses greater than 150µm. In polluted or immersed conditions zinc is applied at 200-250µm.
Sprayed aluminium should be sealed. Zinc spray must be sealed if it is to be painted or during maintenance. Sealers are
applied immediately after metal spraying and should not increase the thickness of the metal coating. There are many
sealers and it is wise to ask the paint manufacturer for a specific recommendation for each job.
Both zinc and aluminium spray have good heat resistance, zinc up to 100°C and aluminium to 500°C.
4.4 Metal Plus Paint Systems

l04a0200
Galvanising and paint. The selection of paints is more critical than for steel. Some paints have been developed for
direct application to galvanised steel but results are variable. Acceptable pretreatments include etch primers,
proprietary pretreatments which provide a 'key' for the paint, certain water borne primers formulated specifically for
the purpose. The paint manufacturers advice should always be obtained.
Zinc or Aluminium Spray and Paint. Sealed spray can be overcoated without difficulty using a wide range of
coatings. Unsealed zinc in particular is extremely difficult to paint; the formation of zinc corrosion salts ("white rust")
can cause severe blistering.
The use of a mixed system. Non-ferrous metal plus paint systems, can produce a layer which will outlasts either component
if used alone. However, if the environment is aggressive to zinc or aluminium, their use is questionable as opposed to
seeking to protect them by overpainting, i.e. outside pH range of 5-12 for zinc or 4-9 for aluminium.
4.5 Guidance on Corrosion Prevention
In order to assist the specifier of corrosion preventative coatings in selecting the materials to use and the workmanship
and inspection requirements needed, two further standards are now in course of preparation.
The standard dealing with paint products has been allocated the number ISO12944 [6] and that dealing with metallic
products is as yet unnumbered [7].
These are scheduled to become available by about 1996/7.
5. MAINTENANCE OF STRUCTURES AND PLANT

All protective coatings require maintenance and there are a number of ways in which the need becomes apparent.
In the extreme, the need for maintenance is shown when a mechanical or structural failure occurs as a complete
surprise because the building or plant has never been the subject of regular inspections.
The need may also be manifest when visible coating failure or corrosion is noted by accident, e.g. when casually
passing through a building.
The preferred method of determining maintenance needs is by means of planned inspections made at regular intervals.
The comparison of the results of inspections with reliable records of the first and subsequent inspections give the basis
for defining maintenance needs.
The aim of maintaining coatings is to preserve a structure or building so that it performs its required functions throughout
its designed life safely, efficiently and economically. For this purpose a maintenance schedule for the structure or building
is used to manage properly planned inspections and to keep reliable records.

l04a0200
Consideration of maintenance should start when a new project is being planned. The specifier should take into account
the effects not only of the design upon maintenance painting, but also the influence of the initial coating system.
Drying Oil Based Paints The paints are readily overcoated with similar products if the surface is cleaned and if very
hard, abraded. "Upgrading" to one or two-pack chemical resistant paints without completely removing the oil-based paint
is unlikely to prove satisfactory.
One Pack Chemical Resistant Paints They can usually be safely overcoated with similar materials once the surface
is cleaned. An exception is a moisture curing urethane system. Such systems may well require light blasting to obtain
adhesion. Two pack products can be applied over moisture cured urethanes, but is unusual to use them over the more
common one pack chemical resistant products, e.g. vinyl and chlorinated rubber resin based paint. Drying oil based paints
are rarely applied over this particular class of paints and never in wet environments.
Two Pack Chemical Resistant Paints They are usually hard and are difficult to maintain unless lightly blasted. They
are maintained by the application of similar products or, one pack chemical resistant materials, but never with drying oil
based paints.
Galvanised Steelwork It can only be safely over-coated when all soluble corrosion products are removed. Once removal
of these products is achieved, virtually any paints from the families noted above can be used. Etch primers are available
which assist adhesion to the zinc surface.
Metal Sprayed Steelwork If metal sprayed steelwork has been exposed unsealed, it is virtually unpaintable. Sealed
coatings give few problems.
The choice of a maintenance paint process depends on the existing coating and its condition, the standard of surface
preparation possible, the working environment, time available, safety requirements, access and, economic considerations.
The decision of whether maintenance is to be by patch painting or a complete recoat is influenced as much by access as
the state of the existing work. For example, if much scaffolding is required it may be more economical to repaint overall.
If there is more than 5% rusting of the substrate painting overall will certainly be economical. The "European scale of degree
of rusting for anti-corrosive paints" presents monochrome pictures of nine degrees of rusting from Re1 (0,05%) to Re9 (95%).
In summary, successful maintenance starts at the beginning overall new project with the specifier projecting the
consequences of his design and choice of initial paint system into future maintenance - can it be done and, with what?
It continues with a strict, regular inspection routine, the results of which are accurately recorded and become part of a
detailed maintenance schedule. It ends with maintenance painting specifications tailored to the job in hand and with
the provision of adequate inspection to ensure the specification is followed.
● When choosing a protective system, the maintenance cycle is an important consideration.
l04a0200
● The 'design' of the steel members and the way in which they are jointed affects the maintenance cycle.
● Poorly prepared steel surfaces prevent the protective treatment subsequently applied from achieving its design life.
● Corrosion prevention treatments can be either organic (paint), metallic (zinc, etc.), duplex (metallic and organic) or cathodic.
● Alternatively, in order to limit or prevent corrosion, the steel itself can be of a weathering or stainless grade.
● Regular inspection of the structure and proper routine maintenance prevents major remedial work being necessary to
the corrosion prevention treatment.
7. REFERENCES
ISO 8500 series Preparation of steel substrate before application of paints and related products.
[1] ISO 8501 Visual assessment of surface cleanliness
Part 1 Rust grades and preparation grades of uncoated steel substrates and of steel substrates after overall removal of
previous coatings.
Part 2* Preparation grades of previously coated steel substrates after localized removal of previous coatings.
[2] SIS 05 5900: 1988, Preparation of steel substrate before application of paints and related products - Visual assessment
of surface cleanliness.
[3] ISO 8502 Tests for the assessment of surface cleanliness.
Part 1 Field tests for soluble iron corrosion products.
Part 2 Laboratory determination of chloride clean surfaces.
Part 3 Assessment of dust on steel surfaces prepared for painting (pressure sensitive tape method).
Part 4* Guidance on the estimation of the probability of condensation prior to paint application.
[4] ISO 8503 Surface roughness characteristics of blast-cleaned substrate.
Part 1 Specifications and definitions of ISO surface profile comparators for the assessment of abrasive blast-cleaned surface.
Part 2 Methods of the grading of surface profile of abrasive blast-cleaned steel. Comparator procedures.
Part 3 Method for the calibration of ISO surface profile comparators and for the determination of surface profile -
focusing microscope procedure.
Part 4 Method for the calibration of ISO surface profile comparators and for the determination of surface profile -
l04a0200
Styles instrument procedures.
[5] ISO 8504 Surface preparation methods.
Part 1 General principles.
Part 2 Abrasion blast-cleaning.
Part 3 Hand and power tool cleaning.
[6] ISO 12944* Protective paint systems for steel structures
Part 1 General Introduction.
Part 2 Classification of Environments.
Part 3 Types of Surface and Surface Preparation.
Part 4 Classification and Definitions of Paint Systems and Related Products.
Part 5 Performance Testing.
Part 6 Workmanship.
Part 7 Design.
Part 8 Guidance for Developing Specification for New Work and Maintenance.
[7] Metal coatings for the corrosion protection of iron and steel in structures.
* In course of preparation
1. Uhlig, H. H., "Corrosion and Corrosion Control", 3rd ed, 1985, John Wiley & Sons.
2. Durability of Steel Structures: Protection of Steel Structures and Buildings from Atmospheric Corrosion, ECSC
Report 620.197, 1983.
3. "Controlling Corrosion", series of booklets published by the Department of Industry - Committee on Corrosion.
4. Steelwork Corrosion Protection Guide - Interior Environments (3rd Ed), 1989 (published jointly by BCSA, BS, Paint
Research Association (PRA) and Zinc Development Association (ZDA)).
5. Steelwork Corrosion Protection Guide - Perimeter Walls (2nd Ed), 1989 (Published jointly by BCSA and BS).
l04a0200
6. Steelwork Corrosion Protection Guide - Exterior Environments (2nd Ed), 1989 (published jointly by BCSA, BS, PMA
(Paint Makers' Association) and ZDA).
7. BS 5493 Code of practice for protective coating of iron and steel structured against corrosion.
8. DIN 55928: Part 5 Corrosion protection of steel structures by organic and metallic coatings Part 5 Coating materials
and protective systems.
9. Norsk Standard NS 5415 Anti-corrosive paint systems for steel structures.
10. ECCS No. 48 Protection against corrosion inside buildings
11. ECCS No. 50 Protection of steel structures against corrosion by coatings.
12. BS 729 Specification for hot dip galvanised coatings on iron and steel articles, 1971(1986).
13. BS 2569 Specification for sprayed metal coatings Part 1 and 2.
14. BS 2989: 1992 Specification for continuously hot-dip zinc coated and iron-zinc alloy coated steel: Haz product - tolerances
on dimensions and shape.
15. BS 3083: 1988 Specification for hot-dip zinc coated and hot-dip aluminium/zinc coated corrugated steel sheets for
general purposes.
Table 1 Classification of Environments
INTERIOR ENVIRONMENTS
Environment Environment Corrosion risk Examples

category
A Normal Negligible Offices
(RH below 60%) Shops
Industrial Production/Assembly
Warehousing
Hospital Wards
Schools
Hotels
B Occasional Condensation Low Unheated Buildings
Vehicle Depots
Sports Halls

l04a0200
C Frequent Condensation Significant Food Processing Plants/Kitchens
Laundries
Breweries
Dairies
Not covered - seek Chemical Processing Plant

expert assistant
Dye Works
Swimming Pools
Paper Manufacture
Boat Yards over Seawater
Foundries/Smelter
EXTERIOR ENVIRONMENTS
D Normal inland Low Industrial plant and supporting steelwork Bus/

train terminals
E Polluted inland Significant Tank farms, cranes, docks, power stations
F Normal coastal High Docks, cranes, container installations, power

stations refineries
G Polluted coastal Very high Tank farms, industrial plants supporting

steelwork
Not covered - seek Aggressive industrial environments such as steelwork adjacent to acid plants, salt storage
expert assistance depots, electroplating shops, chemical works etc. Buried or immersed steelwork Seawater splash
zones.
Table 2 Typical Protective Systems

l04a0200
Introduction
Whilst there are numerous protective systems available, only twelve have been selected for this lecture.
These are eight basic paint systems (P1 to P8) on which there can be variations of paint types (see Appendix 2);
one galvanizing system (G1); and two metal spray systems (AS1 and 2).
Whilst the systems remain unaltered between environments, the notes vary to cover the changes that are necessary.
Table 2 Environments A & B: Typical Protective Systems
Interior dry and interior with occasional Dry film Cost Likely time to first Comments upon initial systems Repaint - likely Comments upon
condensation thickness comp maintenance in years system repaint system
µµ
(a) (b)
prevent maintain
steel appearance
corrosion hygiene etc
P1
Off site:
Blast to Sa 2½, ISO 8501-1 1. Ignore this DFT in Prepare and spot Spot priming should
calculating total thickness prime - oil based be less than 1%
Medium Profile ISO 8503 Part 1 required for protection. anticorrosive Top-coats only
Primer plus one or refurbished overall
2. Accurate costing two coats oil so maintenance
possible. based finish. relatively straight-
forward.
Coat 1 Blast Primer Type 1, 11 or 111 15(1)
3. Controlled environment
Coat 2 or Oil Based Anticorrosive Primer 50 for preparation/priming.
On site: 4. Pre or post fabrication

priming possible. If post
Rectify transit/erection damage with Coat fabrication, omit coat 1.
(50)

l04a0200
2 Primer 5. Total system can be

applied on site see (4)
above. Cost is likely to
25
increase. Quality control is
Coat 3 Oil Based Undercoat more difficult.
35
Coat 4 Oil Based Finish
6. The use of micaceous

110 20+ 7
iron oxide pigmented
Total DFT undercoat and finish give
130 20+ 7-12 better edge protection.
Total DFT using micaceous Iron oxide
pigmented undercoat 7. Coats 3 & 4 can also be
replaced with one coat of a
high build finish.
150 20+ 7-12

Total DFT using Micaceous Iron oxide
pigmented undercoat and finish
Interior dry and interior with Dry film Cost Likely time to first Comments upon initial systems Repaint - likely system Comments upon repaint
occasional condensation thickness comp maintenance in years system
µµ
(a) (b)
prevent maintain
steel appearance

l04a0200
P2
On site:
1. light millscale, rust in Prepare spot prime oil based May require up to 25%
Manual/Mechanical pits will not be removed. Anticorrosive Primer bring priming & bringing forward
preparation to St 2, ISO 8501-1 This may cause paint forward with oil based under failure due to millscale
detachment before the top coat apply 1 or 2 coats of detachment unpredictable.
Coat 1 Oil Based Anticorrosive 50 coats need refurbishing. finish overall.
Primer
25
Coat 2 Oil Based Undercoat Planned maintenance
35 2. Coats 2 & 3 can be OR budgeting difficult.
Coat 3 Oil Based Finish replaced with 1 coat of a
high build finish.
110 20+ 5(1)
Total DFT
1 coat high build finish.
130 20+ 3. The use of micaceous

5+(1)
Total DFT using micaceous iron oxide pigmented
iron oxide pigmented undercoat undercoat and finish will
give better edge
protection.
Total DFT using micaceous 150 20+ 5-7(1)

undercoat and finish
P3
On site: 1. This process is for Refurbish with original Establish consequence of

hollow encased material or similar. increasing the total film
Manual/Mechanical steelwork. It is not thickness in the event of fire.
preparation to St 2, ISO 8501-1 decorative.
Coat 1 Non oxidising 'grease'

paint or propriety 100+ 20+ not
'anticorrosive' compound 2. Check risks in the
event of fire.
100+ 20+ app

Coat 2 As coat 1
200+ 3. Some manufacturer's
Total DFT may recommend a
l04a0200
'penetrating' primer.
Interior dry and interior with Dry film Cost Likely time to first Comments upon initial systems Repaint - likely system Comments upon repaint system
occasional condensation thickness comp maintenance in years
µm
(a) (b)
prevent maintain
steel appearance
G1
On site:
Galvanize - pr EN 1029 85 20 not Size limitations. Oil based anticorrosive primer Corrosion products must be
applicable calcium plumate pigmented washed prior to painting lead -
Not decorative. (lead) containing - T - Wash or containing primers impose
2-pack etch primer similar to limitations. T Wash must be
Not readily cleaned in service. Type 1 Blast primer 1 coat oil rinsed off thoroughly.
*Life using galvanized fasteners. based undercoat 1 coat oil
based finish.
AS1/ZS1
Off site:
Zinc or aluminum spray to 100 20+ not No size limitations. Non lead containing oil based Corrosion products must be
BS 2569 - sealed Aluminium, 100 20+ applicable anticorrosive primer removed before priming.
Unsealed zinc Not decorative, retains dirt, oil
etc., readily. 1 coat oil based undercoat
Not readily cleaned in service. * 1 coat oil based finish.

l04a0200
assumes fasteners treated to same

standard.
Table 2 Environment C: Typical Protective Systems
Interior frequent condensation Dry film Cost Likely time to first Comments upon initial systems Repaint - likely Comments upon
thickness comp maintenance in years system repaint system
µm
(a) (b)
prevent maintain
steel appearance
P4
Off site:
Blast to Sa 2½, ISO 8501-1 1. Ignore this DFT in Prepare, prime These products dry
calculating total thickness with One-pack by solvent
Medium Profile ISO 8503 Part 1 required for protection. Chemical evaporation alone
Resistant Primer, when unmodified
2. Zinc containing (type III) bring forward with oil. Adhesion
primer normally not used with one coat of of maintenance
Coat 1 Blast Primer Type 11 or 111 where direct chemical Coat 3 type systems usually
attack predicted. Consult undercoat and good therefore.
manufacturer. apply Coat 4 type
Coat 2 One-pack Chemical Resistant 15
finish overall
Primer
75 3. May be MIO pigmented.
On site:
4. Small sections
Rectify transit/erection damage with One- vulnerable to 'blocking' if
pack Chemical Resistant Primer. bundled together at this
thickness: consult
manufacturer.
(75)
l04a0200
5. Total system can be

Coat 3 One-pack Chemical Resistant
applied on site see (4)
Undercoat 75 above. Cost is likely to
increase and quality control
Coat 4 One-pack Chemical Resistant Finish 75 is more difficult.
15
225 + 12 6. Maximum resistance to
direct chemical attack on
Coat 4 Replacing with fill gloss One-pack paint film and for aesthetic
Chemical Resistant Finish gives 25 µ µ reasons.
φορ φιναλ χοατ: 175 10+ 10
7. Maximum durability and
Τοταλ ∆ΦΤ βεχοµεσ chemical resistance.
ΟΡ
Αδδ Χοατ 5 − φυλλ γλοσσ Ονε−παχκ 250 15+ 12

Χηεµιχαλ Ρεσισταντ Φινιση γιϖινγ
αδδιτιοναλ 25 µ µ:
Τοταλ ∆ΦΤ βεχοµεσ
Table 2 Environment C: Typical Protective Systems
Interior frequent condensation Dry film Cost Likely time to first Comments upon initial systems Repaint - likely Comments upon
µm
(a) (b)
prevent maintain
steel appearance

l04a0200
P5
Off site:
Blast to Sa 2½, ISO 8501-1 1. Ignore this DFT in Prepare and apply Preparation may
calculating total thickness one or two coats include light
Medium Profile ISO 8503 Part 1 required for protection. of coat 3, two blasting. Remember
pack chemical temperature
Coat 1 Blast Primer Type 1, 11 or 111 resistant finish. humidity and
intervals between
Coat 2 Two-pack Chemical Resistant 15 2. Zinc containing (Type III) coats are critical.
Primer primer normally not used where
75 direct chemical attack OR
predicted. Consult manufacturer.
Refurbishing with
On site: 3. Coat 1 may be omitted if one-pack chemical
blasting is post fabrication. 1 coat one-pack resistant undercoat
chemical resistant and finish can be
Rectify transit/erection damage with
4. Epoxy or urethane pitch or undercoat considered.
Coat 2 type Primer. (75)
tar can be used for water
resistance. 1 coat one-pack
Coat 3 Two-pack Chemical Resistant chemical resistant
Finish 75 5. Consult manufacturer for min finish.
temperature & max humidity
Coat 4 Two-pack Chemical Resistant 75 requirements during application
15+ 10+ and curing.
Finish
223
Total DFT 6. Intervals between coats are
critical, consult manufacturer.
Ensure relevant information is
written into specification.
Note: System P1, page 1 using MIO pigmented undercoat and finish can be considered at dft's of 130-150 µ m. It will not
resist direct chemical attack or immersion. Likely time to first maintenance - 5 years (columns 'a' and 'b').
Consider also Galvanising - See system G1 (85 µ m dft). See page 22
Consider also Metal Spraying - See system AS1/ZS.1 (100 µ m dft). See page 22

l04a0200
Table 2 Environment D: Typical Protective Systems
Normal Inland Dry film Cost Likely time to first Comments upon initial systems Repaint - likely Comments upon
µm
(a) (b)
prevent maintain
steel appearance
P1
Off site:
Blast to Sa 2½, ISO 8501-1 1. Ignore this DFT in Prepare and spot Spot priming should
calculating total thickness prime - oil based be less than 1%
Medium Profile ISO 8503 Part 1 required for protection. anticorrosive Top-coats only
Primer plus one or refurbished overall
2. Accurate costing two coats oil so maintenance
possible. based finish. relatively straight-
Coat 1 Blast Primer Type 1, 11 or 111 15 forward.
Coat 2 or Oil Based Anticorrosive Primer 50

3. Controlled environment
for preparation/priming.
Onsite:
Rectify transit/erection damage with Coat (50) 4. Pre or post fabrication

2 Primer priming possible. If post
fabrication, omit coat 1.
25 5. Total system can be

Coat 3 Oil Based Undercoat applied on site see (4)
above. Cost is likely to
35
increase. Quality control is
more difficult.
l04a0200
110 7+ 5+
Total DFT
6. The use of micaceous
130 10+ 7-12 iron oxide pigmented
Total DFT using micaceous Iron oxide undercoat and finish give
pigmented undercoat better edge protection.
Total DFT using Micaceous Iron oxide

150 10+ 7-12
pigmented undercoat and finish
7. Coats 3 & 4 can also be
replaced with one coat of a
high build finish.
Normal Inland Dry film Cost Likely time to first Comments upon initial systems Repaint - likely system Comments upon repaint
thickness comp maintenance in years system
µm
(a) (b)
prevent maintain
steel appearance
P2
On site: 1. light millscale rust in Prepare, spot prime with coat May require up to 25%
pits will not be removed. 1 type primer, bring forward priming & bringing forward
Manual/Mechanical This may cause paint with coat 2 type undercoat, failure due to millscale
preparation to St 2, ISO 8501-1 detachment before the top finish overall with one coat detachment unpredictable.
50 coats need refurbishing. type 2 undercoat and one coat
Coat 1 Oil Based Anticorrosive type 3 finish OR 2 coats type
Primer 25 3 finish.
Planned maintenance
Coat 2 Oil Based Undercoat 35 2. The use of micaceous OR 1 coat high build finish. budgeting difficult.
l04a0200
Coat 3 Oil Based Finish 110 6- 3- undercoat and finish will

10 5 give better edge
Total DFT protection.
135
6-10 3-5
Total DFT using micaceous
iron oxide pigmented undercoat
150
Total DFT using micaceous 8-12 5-7

undercoat and finish
Normal Inland Dry film Cost Likely time to first Comments upon initial systems Repaint - likely Comments upon
µm
(a) (b)
prevent maintain
steel appearance
P4
Off site:
Blast to Sa 2½, ISO 8501-1 1. Ignore this DFT in calculating Prepare, prime These products dry
total thickness required for with One-pack by solvent
Medium Profile ISO 8503 Part 1 protection. Chemical evaporation alone
Coat 1 Blast Primer Type 1, 11 or 111 15 bring forward with oil. Adhesion
with one coat of of maintenance
Coat 2 Two-pack Chemical Resistant 75 2. Zinc containing (Type III) Coat 3 type systems usually

l04a0200
Primer primer normally not used where undercoat and good therefore.
direct chemical attack predicted. apply Coat 4 type
Consult manufacturer. finish overall.
On site: 3. May be MIO pigmented.
Rectify transit/erection damage with (75)

One-pack Chemical Resistant Primer.
75 4. Small sections vulnerable to
Coat 3 One-pack Chemical Resistant 'blocking' if bundled together at
Undercoat 75 this thickness: consult
15 7- manufacturer.
Coat 4 One-pack Chemical Resistant 225 + 10
Finish 5. Total system can be applied
on site. Cost is likely to increase
and quality control be more
175 10+ 7+ difficult.
Coat 4 Replacing with full gloss One-
pack Chemical Resistant Finish gives 6. Maximum resistance to direct
25 µ m for final coat: Total DFT chemical attack on paint film
becomes and for aesthetic reasons.

chemical resistance.
OR
250 15+ 7-10
Add Coat 5 - full gloss One-pack

Chemical Resistant Finish giving
additional 25 µ m:
Total DFT becomes
Consider also Galvanising - See system G1 (85 µ m dft). See page 22
Consider also Metal Spraying - See system AS1/ZS.1 (100 µ m dft). See page 22

l04a0200
Table 2 Environment E: Typical Protective Systems
Normal Coastal Dry film Cost Likely time to first Comments upon initial systems Repaint - likely Comments upon
µm
(a) (b)
prevent maintain
steel appearance
P4
Off site:
Blast to Sa 2½, ISO 8501-1 1. Ignore this DFT in calculating Prepare, prime These products dry
total thickness required for with One-pack by solvent
Medium Profile ISO 8503 Part 1 protection. Chemical evaporation alone
Coat 1 Blast Primer Type 11 or 111 15 bring forward with oil. Adhesion
with one coat of of maintenance
Coat 2 One-pack Chemical Resistant 75 2. Zinc containing (Type III) Coat 3 type systems usually
Primer primer normally not used where undercoat and good therefore.
direct chemical attack predicted. apply Coat 4 type
Consult manufacturer. finish overall.
On site: 3. May be MIO pigmented.
Rectify transit/erection damage with (75)

One-pack Chemical Resistant Primer.
Undercoat 75 this thickness: consult
manufacturer.
15
Coat 4 One-pack Chemical Resistant 225 + 12
on site. Cost is likely to increase
and quality control be more
difficult.
175 10+ 10
Coat 4 Replacing with full gloss One-
pack Chemical Resistant Finish gives 6. Maximum resistance to direct
chemical attack on paint film
25 µ m for final coat: Total DFT
l04a0200
becomes and for aesthetic reasons.

chemical resistance.
OR
15
250 + 12
Add Coat 5 - full gloss One-pack
Chemical Resistant Finish giving
additional 25 µ m:
Total DFT becomes
Polluted Inland Dry film Cost Likely time to first Comments upon initial systems Repaint - likely Comments upon
µm
(a) (b)
prevent maintain
steel appearance
P6
Off site:
Blast to Sa 2½, ISO 8501-1 1. Ignore this DFT in calculating Prepare and apply Preparation may
total thickness required for one to two coats of include light
Medium Profile ISO 8503 Part 1 protection. coat 4 type Two- blasting.
pack Chemical Remember,
2. This coat can be omitted if post Resistant Finish. temperature and
fabrication blasting is carried out. humidity and
intervals between
l04a0200
Coat 1 Blast Primer Type 11 or 111 15 3. Zinc containing (Type III) primer coats are critical.
normally not used where direct Refurbishing with a
Coat 2 Two-pack Chemical Resistant 75 chemical attack predicted. Consult OR One-pack
Primer manufacturer. Chemical Resistant
125 Finish can be
Coat 3 Two-pack Chemical Resistant 4. Consult manufacturer for min considered i.e.
Undercoat temperature and max humidity one-pack moisture chlorinated rubber,
requirements during application and curing vinyl or acrylic
'curling'. polyurethanes resin based. Also 1-
pack moisture-
Onsite: curing urethane.
(75)
Rectify transit/erection damage with Coat (125) 5. Interval between coats is critical OR
2 Primer, bring forward primed areas consult manufacturer. Ensure
with coat 3 type undercoat. 75 relevant information is written into
specification.
Coat 4 to-pack Chemical Resistant Finish 275 20 7-12 Prepare and apply
one or two coats
Total DFT One-pack
6. This is a useful alternative to a 2- Chemical Resistant
pack paint as the final coat under Finish.
cold conditions or where there are
OR likely to be delays on site (includes
1-pack moisture-curling
polyurethanes)
75
substitute Coat 4 One-pack Chemical 7. Glossy 1 or 2 pack Chemical

Resistant Finish Resistant Finishes will give lower
DFT's (circa 25 µ m).
275 20 7-12
Alternative process Total DFT

l04a0200
Polluted Inland Dry film Cost Likely time to first Comments upon initial systems Repaint - likely Comments upon
µm
(a) (b)
prevent maintain
steel appearance
P7
Off site:
Blast to Sa 2½, ISO 8501-1 1. Ignore this DFT in Prepare, prime These products dry
Medium Profile ISO 8503 Part 1 required for protection. Chemical evaporation alone
Coat 1 Blast Primer Type 11 or 111 15 bring forward with with oil. Adhesion
one coat of Coat 3 of maintenance
Coat 2 One-pack Chemical Resistant 100 2. Zinc containing (Type III) type undercoat and systems usually
Primer primer normally not used apply Coat 4 type good therefore.
where direct chemical attack finish overall (1 or
predicted. Consult 2 coats).
manufacturer.
On site:
(50) (50) 3. May be MIO pigmented.
Rectify transit/erection damage with 2
coats One-pack Chemical Resistant 75
Primer.
Undercoat this thickness: consult
75
manufacturer.
Coat 4 One-pack Chemical Resistant 325 15
+ 12
on site. Cost is likely to
Coat 5 One-pack Chemical Resistant increase and quality control be
Finish more difficult.
Total DFT 6. Maximum resistance to

255(6) direct chemical attack on paint
film and for aesthetic reasons.

l04a0200
Replacing with full gloss One-pack 10+ 10 7. Maximum durability and

Chemical Resistant Finish gives 25 µ m chemical resistance.
for final coat: 15+ 12
Total DFT becomes
G1 3 Coat one or two See notes under G1

pack chemical page 22
Offsite: 85 10+ Not See notes under G1 page 22 resistant paint
applicable systems 150-300 µ
Galvanise - pr EN 1029 m dft
AS2/ZS2 zinc 15+ Not See notes under AS1/ZS1 page 22 As noted in G1 See notes under
applicable above AS1/ZS1 page 22
Off-site zinc or aluminium spray to BS 150 Aluminium
5269 - sealed 20
Table 2 Environment F: Typical Protective Systems
µm
(a) (b)
prevent maintain
steel appearance

l04a0200
P1
Off site:
Blast to Sa 2½, ISO 8501-1 1. Ignore this DFT in calculating Prepare, spot prime Spot priming
total thickness required for with coat 2 type should be less than
Medium Profile ISO 8503 Part 1 protection. primer. Bring 1%. Bringing
forward with coat 3 forward primed
Coat 1 Blast Primer Type 1, 11 or 111 2. Accruable costing possible. type undercoat. areas with
Finish overall with undercoat retains
Coat 2 Oil Based Anticorrosive Primer 15 coat 4 type finish. original thickness.
50 3. Controlled environment for

preparation/priming.
Onsite:
Rectify transit/erection damage with Coat

2 type Primer. 4. Coat 1 may be omitted if blasting
is post fabrication.
(50) 5. Total system can be applied on

Coat 3 Oil Based Undercoat site. Cost is likely to increase.
25 Quality control is more difficult.
35
Total DFT
110 8 3+ 6. The use of micaceous iron oxide
Total DFT using a micaceous iron oxide + pigmented undercoat and finish will
pigmented undercoat give better edge protection.
130
Total DFT using micaceous iron oxide 3-5

pigmented undercoat and finish 8+
150
5+
8-12

l04a0200
Table 2 Environment F: Typical Protective Systems
µm
(a) (b)
prevent maintain
steel appearance
P5
Off site:
Blast to Sa 2½, ISO 8501-1 1. Ignore this DFT in Prepare and apply Preparation may
calculating total thickness one to two coats of include light
Medium Profile ISO 8503 Part 1 required for protection. coat 3, Two-pack blasting. Remember
chemical resistant temperature,
Coat 1 Blast Primer Type 1, 11 or 111 15 finish. humidity and
intervals between
Coat 2 Two-pack Chemical Resistant 75 2. Zinc containing (Type III) coats are critical.
Primer primer normally not used where Refurbishing with
direct chemical attack OR One-pack chemical
predicted. Consult manufacturer. resistant undercoat
and finish can be
3. Coat 1 may be omitted if considered.
On site:
(75) blasting is post fabrication. 1 coat One-pack
Rectify transit/erection damage with coat chemical resistant
2 type Primer. 4. Epoxy or urethane pitch or undercoat
tar can be used for water
resistance. 1 coat One-pack
75
chemical resistant
Coat 3 Two-pack Chemical Resistant 5. Consult manufacturer for min finish.
75
Finish temperature & max humidity
requirements during application
and curling.
Coat 4 Two-pack Chemical Resistant
Finish 225 10
15+ +

l04a0200
6. Intervals between coats are

Total DFT critical, consult manufacture.
Ensure relevant information is
written into specification.

pack chemical
Offsite: 85 20 Not See notes under G1 resistant paint
AS2/ZS1 20 Not See notes under AS1/ZS1 As noted in G1 See notes under AS1/
applicable above ZS1
Off-site zinc or aluminium spray to BS 150
5269 - sealed
Table 2 Environment G: Typical Protective Systems
Polluted Coastal Dry film Cost Likely time to first Comments upon initial systems Repaint - likely Comments upon
µm
(a) (b)
prevent maintain
steel appearance

l04a0200
P6
Off site:
Blast to Sa 2½, EN 8501-1 1. Ignore this DFT in calculating Prepare and apply Preparation may
total thickness required for one to two coats of include light
Medium Profile ISO 8503 Part 1 protection. coat 4 type Two- blasting.
pack Chemical Remember,
2. This coat can be omitted if post Resistant Finish. temperature and
fabrication blasting is carried out. humidity and
Coat 1 Blast Primer Type 11 or 111 15 intervals between
3. Zinc containing (Type III) primer coats are critical.
normally not used where direct OR Refurbishing with a
Coat 2 Two-pack Chemical Resistant 75
chemical attack predicted. Consult One-pack
Primer
manufacturer. Chemical Resistant
125 Finish can be
Coat 3 Two-pack Chemical Resistant considered i.e.
Undercoat 4. Consult manufacturer for min one-pack moisture
temperature and max humidity chlorinated rubber,
curing
requirements during application and vinyl or acrylic
polyurethanes
'curling'. resin based. Also 1-
pack moisture-
Onsite: (75) curing urethane.
Rectify transit/erection damage with Coat (125) OR

2 Primer, bring forward primed areas 5. Interval between coats is critical
with coat 3 type undercoat. consult manufacturer. Ensure
75 relevant information is written into
specification. Prepare and apply
Coat 4 two-pack Chemical Resistant 275 10+ 10
Finish one or two coats
One-pack
Total DFT Chemical Resistant
6. This is a useful alternative to a 2- Finish.
pack paint as the final coat under
cold conditions or where there are
likely to be delays on site (includes
OR 1-pack moisture-curling
75 polyurethanes)
7. Glossy 1 or 2 pack Chemical

substitute Coat 4 One-pack Chemical Resistant Finishes will give lower
Resistant Finish 275 10+ 7-12 DFT's (circa 25 µ m).
l04a0200
Alternative process Total DFT
Table 2 Environment G: Typical Protective Systems
Polluted Coastal Dry film Cost Likely time to first Comments upon initial systems Repaint - likely Comments upon
µm
(a) (b)
prevent maintain
steel appearance
P8
Off site:
Blast to Medium Profile ISO 8503 Part 1 1. Ignore this DFT in Prepare, prime These products dry
Coat 1 Blast Primer Type 11 or 111 required for protection. Chemical Resistant evaporation alone
Primer, bring when unmodified
Coat 2 One-pack Chemical Resistant 15 forward with one with oil. Adhesion
Primer coat of Coat 3 type of maintenance
100 2. Zinc containing (Type III) undercoat and systems usually
primer normally not used where apply Coat 4 type good therefore.
direct chemical attack finish overall (1 or
On site: predicted. Consult manufacturer. 2 coats).
(50)
Rectify transit/erection damage with 2 3. May be MIO pigmented.
coats One-pack Chemical Resistant (50)
Primer.
75
Coat 3 One-pack Chemical Resistant 4. Small sections vulnerable to
Undercoat 75 'blocking' if bundled together at
this thickness: consult
l04a0200
Coat 4 One-pack Chemical Resistant 75 manufacturer.

Finish
325 5. Total system can be applied
Coat 5 One-pack Chemical Resistant 15+ 12 on site. Cost is likely to increase
Finish and quality control be more
difficult.
Total DFT
6. Maximum resistance to direct
chemical attack on paint film
and for aesthetic reasons.
Replacing with full gloss One-pack 275(6)
Chemical Resistant Finish gives 25 µ m 10+ 10 7. Maximum durability and
for final coat: chemical resistance.
Total DFT becomes

pack chemical
Offsite: 140 10+ Not See notes under G1 resistant paint
AS2/ZS2 15+ Not See notes under AS1/ZS1 As noted in G1 See notes under AS1/
applicable above ZS1
Off-site zinc or aluminium spray to BS 150
5269 - sealed
Table 3 Methods of blast-cleaning (ISO 8504-1 and 2)
Methods Advantages Disadvantages
Dry methods using compressed air or centrifugal force
Automatic plants based on High production rates, lowest High capital cost, high
centrifugal throwing of the costs, no moisture problems. Can maintenance cost, lack of
abrasive be coupled to automatic flexibility, ie. not suitable for
application of primer, dust recessed areas etc.
problems contained.

l04a0200
Open blasting based on Simple to operate, very flexible High cost of compressed air, low
propelling the abrasive with and mobile in use both indoor efficiency, liable to moisture
compressed air. cabinets or special rooms or on entrainment from the compressed
site. Low capital and maintenance air, manually operated and a
costs. variable profile can result,
operator requires protective
clothing, serious dust problems.
Vacuum blasting based on No dust problems, no special Can be very slow and therefore
propelling the abrasive with protective clothing for operators, expensive, particularly on
compressed air and immediately fairly low capital costs. awkward profiles and girder
recycling by suction from the sections. Where flat-plate or gun-
blast-cleaned surface. head automation is possible it
may be considered, but liable to
moisture entrainment from the
compressed air.
Table 3 Methods of blast-cleaning - Cont'd.
Methods Advantages Disadvantages
Wet methods (hydroblasting)
Open blasting based on Simple to operate, very flexible Slow if firmly held containments
projecting water at very high and mobile in use, suitable for are to be removed, dangerous at
pressure. removing soluble containments. very high pressure if proper
At very high pressure can precautions are not taken,
remove mill-scale, no dry dust limitation of drying surface
hazards. before painting unless approved
water-based or moisture tolerant
primers are used, requires
availability of water and
drainage, operators require
protective clothing.

l04a0200
Open blasting based on Simple to operate, very flexible Dangerous at very high pressure
projecting water at high pressure and mobile in use, suitable for if proper precautions are not
and entraining abrasive into the removing all firmly held taken, limitation of drying
water stream. contaminants as well as soluble surface before painting unless
contaminants. approved water-based or
moisture tolerant primers are
based, required availability of
water and drainage, operators
require protective clothing.
Open blasting based on injecting As above. High cost of compressed air,

low pressure water into a limitation of drying surface
compressed air stream which is before painting unless approved
carrying an abrasive. water-based or moisture tolerant
primers are used, dust hazard
reduced, operators require
protective clothing.
Open blasting using steam- As above. Similar to the above according to

cleaning. whether abrasive is or is not
entrained.
Table 4 Classification of abrasives used for cleaning steel
Abrasive Hardness Normal usage Advantages Disadvantages
Chilled iron-grit 60 to 80 RC Captive blasting and Relatively cheap, Breaks down fairly
open blasting with cleans very quickly, quickly. In
ISO 11124-2 recovery systems will chip under centrifugal wheel
repeated impact with plants, special
work surface, protection is required
presenting fresh to reduce wear on
cutting edges moving parts
Chilled iron-shot 60 to 80 RC Captive blasting only Relatively cheap, As chilled iron-grit.

very hard, should Because of ricochet
break down to grit in effect is not suitable
use for open blasting or
in open cabinets

l04a0200
High duty chilled 55 to 64 RC Captive blasting and Breaks down less More expensive than
iron-grit or iron-shot open blasting with quickly than chilled chilled iron, rendered
recovery iron spherical in use,
poorer and slower
rate of cleaning than
chilled iron
Heat-treated chilled 30 to 40 RC As high-duty As high-duty As high-duty

iron-grit or iron-shot
Steel grit 60 to 67 RC Captive blasting Does not bread down More expensive than
mainly so quickly as chilled chilled iron, rendered
47 to 53 RC iron, causes less wear spherical in use and
in centrifugal wheel is less efficient,
plant supplied in various
hardnesses but at best
is not so hard as
chilled iron-grit and
therefore cleans more
slowly
Steel shot 41 to 49 RC Captive blasting only As for steel grit As for steel grit,
produces a more
rounded surface
profile than grit,
ricochet effect makes
it unsuitable for open
blasting
Cut steel wire 41 to 52 RC Captive blasting only As for steel shot and High cost, rendered
grit, wears down as spherical in use and
ISO 11124-5 fairly even sizes slower cleaning than
chilled iron
Table 4 Classification of abrasives used for cleaning steel - Cont'd.
Abrasive Hardness Normal usage Advantages Disadvantages

l04a0200
Aluminium oxide Not common in the Extremely hard Expensive, hardness

(corundum) United Kingdom of dust is a danger to
machinery unless
ISO 11126-7 used in sealed captive
plant
Copper slag Open blasting only Cheap, no silicosis Initial particles rather
hazards coarse, breaks down
ISO 11126-3 to dust very quickly,
angular particles tend
to embed in
workplace
Iron slag ISO 11126-6 Open blasting only As for copper slag As for copper slag
Sand Open blasting Cheap In United Kingdom,

Factory Inspector's
(Olivine) ISO 11126- approval is required,
8 danger of silicosis
See Table 4
International Standards for Metallic and Non-Metallic Blast-Cleaning Abrasives
A.1 Requirements and test methods for metallic blast-cleaning abrasives are contained in ISO 11124 and ISO 11125.
ISO 11124 consists, at present, of the following parts, under the general title:
Preparation of steel substrates before application of paints and related products -Specifications for metallic blast-
cleaning abrasives:
- Part 1: Introduction
- Part 2: Chilled-iron grit
- Part 3: High-carbon cast-steel shot and grit
- Part 4: Low-carbon cast-steel shot
- Part 5: Cut steel wire
l04a0200
Preparation of steel substrates before application of paints and related products -Test methods for metallic blast-
cleaning abrasives:
- Part 1: Sampling
- Part 2: Determination of particle size distribution
- Part 3: Determination of hardness
- Part 4: Determination of apparent density
- Part 5: Determination of percentage defective particles and of microstructure
- Part 6: Determination of foreign matter
- Part 7: Determination of moisture
A.2 Requirements and test methods for metallic blast-cleaning abrasives are contained in ISO 11126 and ISO 11127.
Preparation of steel substrates before application of paints and related products -Specifications for metallic blast-
cleaning abrasives:
- Part 1: Introduction
- Part 2: Silica sand
- Part 3: Copper refinery slag
- Part 4: Coal furnace slag
- Part 5: Nickel refinery slag
- Part 6: Iron furnace slag
- Part 7: Fused aluminium oxide
- Part 8: Olivine sand
l04a0200
Preparation of steel substrates before application of paints and related products -Test methods for metallic blast-
cleaning abrasives:
- Part 1: Sampling
- Part 2: Determination of particle size distribution
- Part 3: Determination of apparent density
- Part 4: Assessment of hardness by a glass slide test
- Part 5: Determination of moisture content
- Part 6: Determination of water-soluble contaminants by conductivity measurement
- Part 7: Determination of water-soluble chlorides
APPENDIX 1 FACTORS AFFECTING THE CHOICE OF

COATING SYSTEMS
QUESTIONS RELATED TO DESIGN, USE AND SITE REQUIREMENTS
Function
a. What is the main function of the structure?
b. What are the secondary functions of the structure?
Life
a. For how long is it required to fulfil this function?
b. What is the life to first maintenance? (It may not be possible to decide this until further questions have been answered).
Environment
a. What is the general (atmospheric) environment at the site of the structure?
b. What localised effects exist or are to be expected, e.g. fumes from stacks?

l04a0200
c. What other factors may affect the structure, e.g. surface temperature and abrasion?
Appearance
a. What is the structure required to look like (colour and finish)?
b. Is the final coat to be applied on site?
Special Properties
a. What special properties are required of the coating, e.g. coefficient of friction?
Maintenance
a. What access is there going to be for effective maintenance?
b. What is the possibility of effective maintenance?
Health and Safety
a. Are any problems to be taken into account during initial treatment?
b. Are any problems to be taken into account during maintenance treatment?
Tolerance
Does the coating need to be tolerant of:
a. indifferent surface preparation
b. indifferent application techniques
c. departures from specification?
QUESTIONS RELATING TO COATING SYSTEMS
Coating systems
a. What coating systems are suitable?
b. Are these systems readily available?

l04a0200
c. Are the system elements mutually compatible?
d. If paints, can the coats be applied by:
● brush
● roller
● airless spray
● other?
e. Can the system, or parts, be applied on site?
Coating facilities
a. Are the coating facilities readily available:
i. for factory application

ii. for site application?
b. Do they cover all sizes and shapes of fabrication?
c. Do they permit speedy application?
d. Do the facilities permit work to adequate standards?
Compatibility with engineering and metallurgical features
a. Is the design and jointing of the structure compatible with the preferred coating technique?
b. Does surface preparation (blasting, pickling) or application of coating affect the mechanical properties of the steel in
any way that matters?
c. Is the system compatible with cathodic protection?
Delays
What delays should be allowed between:
a. fabrication and first protective coating;
b. application of primer and undercoat;

l04a0200
c. application of undercoat and finishing coat;
d. final shop coat and erection;
e. erection and final treatment?
Transport, storage and handling
How well does the coating withstand:
a. excessive or careless handling;
b. abrasion and impact;
c. early stacking;
d. exposure to seawater during transit?
Experience
a. What is known of the consistent performance of the coating?
Export
a. What special precautions should be taken when the steelwork is exported?
Maintenance
a. Is the deterioration of the coating rapid and serious if maintenance is delayed?
b. What is the likely maintenance system? (Including surface preparation).
Costs
a. What are the approximate costs of:
i. the basic system;

ii. any additional items;
iii. transport;
iv. access?

l04a0200
b. What are the approximate costs of maintenance?
APPENDIX 2 PAINT TYPES

BLAST PRIMERS
These primers have been the cause of some confusion; they are therefore dealt separately here.
They are used pre- or post-fabrication, normally in-shop and under controlled conditions.
a. Pre-fabrication primers are designed for use with automated blasting and painting plant. However, increasingly
fabricators apply them by hand-held airless or high pressure conventional spray very successfully.
The most important types are:
Type I
One or two-pack polyvinyl butryal/phenolic: zinc tetroxychromate: DFT 15-20µm.
Type II
Two-pack epoxy: zinc phosphate or zinc tetroxychromate: DFT 25µm.
Type III
Two-pack epoxy: zinc metal DFT 10-20µm. Note: Metallic zinc coatings (including zinc spray and galvanising) can give
rise to health hazards even in open shop conditions when welded or flame cut.
b. Post-fabrication can be Types I to III; some have higher volume solids, give extended durability but are slower drying.
The specifier should state the type and indicate whether use pre- or post-fabrication is required. The manufacturer's
application rates must be followed carefully, particularly when overcoating with chemically resistant paints, e.g. over
generous application of a Type I blast primer can lead to intercoat failure (splitting).
One pack zinc metal and two-pack zinc ethyl silicate coatings are available for specific uses.
Very often the anti-corrosive primer which is the first coat of a chosen system is specified as the post-fabrication primer.
DRYING OIL BASED PAINTS
These paints dry by reaction with atmosphere oxygen. Widely used, they are based on vegetable or fish oils suitably treated,
e.g. by heat, and reinforced with synthetic or naturally occurring resins. They do not withstand direct chemical attack
l04a0200
nor immersion conditions.
PRIMERS
There are two basic types, relatively slow drying products whose use is limited to site application and faster-drying
versions which can be used in-shop and on site. In general the latter type have lower volume solids. All are for use beneath
oil-based systems; some can be used beneath one pack chemical resistant systems.
Typical binders are:
● Drying oil
● Drying oil modified alkyds
● Epoxy ester
● Urethane oil
● Oil modified phenolic resin.
Typical anti-corrosive pigments include:
Zinc phosphate or zinc chromate with red lead and calcium plumbate still used in primers designed for site use. All but
zinc phosphate impose limitations in use.
Dry film thicknesses vary between 25-75µm depending upon volume solids, application method and service use.
Undercoats (Intermediate coats)
With the exception of unreinforced drying oils, all the binders noted under 'Primers' may be used.
Pigmentation is typically titanium dioxide for whites and tints, organic and inorganic chemically resistant pigments for
colours. Micaceous iron oxide pigments are used to give increased film thickness, improved edge cover and good
weather resistance.
Dry films are between 25-50µm thick depending upon volume solids, application method and service use.
These products are for use beneath oil based gloss and micaceous iron oxide finishes.
Finishes
High gloss finishes in BS 4800 and RAL colours and low-sheen subdued colours in micaceous iron oxide paints have
excellent weather resistance but do not resist direct chemical attack or complete immersion in water.
Typical binders are oil or urethane modified alkyds, epoxy esters and oil modified phenolics.

l04a0200
Pigments are various grades of rutile titanium dioxide, light-fast coloured pigments and micaceous iron oxide or aluminium.
Dry film thicknesses vary between 25-50µm. In this respect, the same criteria apply as for undercoats.
ONE-PACK CHEMICAL RESISTANT PAINTS
All but one of the products in this range dry by solvent evaporation. The exception, moisture-curing polyurethanes, will
be dealt with last. A wide range of film formers is available, typically plasticised chlorinated rubber, solution vinyl
copolymers and acrylic resins, acrylated polymers. The differences between products based on these resins and others
are subtle with individual manufacturers having built up experience over many years with one or two resin systems.
The main characteristics which they have in common are excellent water resistance (including immersion), good resistance
to inorganic acids and adequate alkali resistance. In this latter respect, two-pack chemical resistant systems withstand
severe attack better. Theoretically, no paint based on the resins quoted in the previous paragraph are proof against attack
by organic acids, animal fats, etc., but in practice there are many examples where they have proved more than adequate.
Paint manufacturers will advise on specific cases.
Because these paints dry by solvent evaporation they form films at low temperatures and will dry satisfactorily in
polluted atmospheres. Intercoat adhesion both initially and for maintenance is good because the resins remain soluble in
the solvents used in the paints. Conversely, solvent resistance is relatively poor. Maximum heat resistance is circa 65°C.
In this group must be included waterborne resin systems, e.g. vinyl acrylic copolymers. Although relatively new (they
were introduced within the last decade) they show great promise, particularly as metal primers. Since they coalesce rather
than forming a film by simple solvent loss, their mechanical properties are better than might be expected from a one-pack paint.
Also in the group are one-pack moisture-curing polyurethane resin-based paints. These must not be confused with oil or
alkyd containing products which are 'reinforced' by the addition of a urethane component. Moisture-curing varieties dry
like two-pack paints, undergoing a complex chemical reaction in which moisture acts as the 'curing' agent. Once cured,
these paints possess most of the attributes associated with two-pack polyurethane paints. A significant advantage is their
ability to form films at low temperatures. Obviously this feature must be exploited with caution; water or ice formed at
the paint/surface interface must degrade its performance.
Primers are available for shop and site application based on all these resin systems. Since their corrosion inhibiting
properties are inferior to primers irrespective of which inhibitive pigment is chosen, some manufacturers produce an
oil-modified primer specifically formulated for use in a one-pack chemical resistant paint process (excluding moisture
curing polyurethanes). Usually these are not recommended for severe exposure or immersed conditions. They are
particularly useful for site application.
Zinc phosphate pigments are widely used as the inhibitive pigment.
Dry film thicknesses vary between 25-65µm depending upon volume solids, application method and service use.

l04a0200
Undercoats (Intermediate coats)
Any of the resins noted above may be used. These coats are both weather and chemically resistant; indeed many
proprietary products are designated 'Thick Coatings' and suitable both as intermediate and finishing coats.
Rutile titanium dioxide pigments are widely used in whites and tints. Light fast and chemically resistant pigments are used
for colours, with micaceous iron oxide used both for its weather resistance and ability to improve the mechanical properties
of the paint film.
Dry film thicknesses between 50-100µm per coat depend upon volume solids, dimensions and complexity of the
steelwork, application method, surface and ambient temperatures. Additionally, solvent release is relatively slow and
inhibits the thickness which can be safely applied to avoid solvent entrapment producing bubbles or pinholes.
Finishes
Finishes are based on the same resin types as used in undercoats/intermediate coats. The same pigment types are also
used. Where finishes are sold specifically for this purpose they have better resistance to severe exposure conditions
and chemical attack than dual purpose products. High gloss finishes are available. Many BS 4800 colours can be
produced although the need for chemical resistance rules out some.
Dry film thicknesses vary between 25-100µm per coat. Their achievement is governed by the considerations noted
under 'Undercoats'.
TWO-PACK CHEMICAL RESISTANT PAINTS
These two-part coatings form films by a complex chemical reaction. The reaction is temperature dependent. Most
products cannot be used at surface and ambient temperatures below 10°C, although a few are capable of 'curing' at 5°C. It
is important to differentiate between the film drying and attaining full chemical resistance - the process referred to as
'curing'. Once this is complete, the coatings are tough, abrasion resistant and resistant to a very wide range of acids,
alkalies, oils and solvents even when fully immersed. The time interval between coats can be critical, particularly with
two-pack urethanes. The principal difficulty being to ensure good intercoat adhesion.
Primers
A wide variety is available for both shop and site use. Most are suitable as post-fabrication primers only. They are used
beneath both one and two-pack chemical resistant paints.
The most widely used anti-corrosive pigment is zinc phosphate.
● two-pack epoxy
l04a0200
● two-pack urethane.
Dry film thicknesses between 25-75µm are achieved, depending upon volume solids, application method and service use.
Undercoats (Intermediate Coats)
These products are used beneath one and 2-pack high performance finishes.
● 2-pack epoxy
● 2-pack urethane or urethane acrylic
● Isocyanate-cured epoxy
● Epoxy: Tar
● Epoxy: Pitch
● Urethane tar or pitch.
Pigmentation is typically titanium dioxide in whites and tints, with light-fast chemically resistant pigments in
colours. Micaceous iron oxide is used to improve film build, weathering and mechanical properties. It also
facilitates overcoating.
Dry film thicknesses are influenced by the same criteria as the primers. They vary between 75-200µm.

ESDEP WG 4A
Lecture 4A.3: Practical Corrosion

Protection for Buildings
OBJECTIVE/SCOPE
To expand Lecture 4A.2, providing young architects and engineers with guidance on using the information on the protection of
steelwork in buildings.
PREREQUISITES
Lecture 4A.2: Factors Governing Protection of Steelwork
RELATED LECTURES
Lecture 4A.4: Corrosion Protection of Bridges
SUMMARY
This lecture discusses the practicalities of design and how to deal with connections (fasteners) and welds. It covers the effects
of the environment on the external steelwork of buildings and suggests protective treatments. Common internal environments
are discussed. Hidden steel and steelwork in perimeter walls are dealt with separately.
The lecture ends with "special cases", i.e. steel in concrete, hollow sections and, cladding.
1. PRACTICAL DESIGN
General considerations, the benefits of designing to allow the effective use of protective coatings and, making a conscious
decision as to where they should be applied are dealt with in Section 2 of Lecture 4A.2. The requirements of Eurocode 3 [1]
are described in Appendix 1.
Corrosion prevention truly starts on the drawing board. Design details which avoid water traps, ensure adequate drainage and
promote air circulation restrict corrosion. Avoiding contact between dissimilar metals, removing sharp edges and corners are
all important. Supremely important, but frequently overlooked or ignored in design is access for inspection, cleaning and
maintenance. If the surface cannot be reached, it cannot be maintained.
Design must take into account the life required of the building, the likely time to first maintenance and, the intervals between
each subsequent maintenance. The questions to ask when attempting to assess the life requirement of a building are given in
Section 1.3 of Lecture 4A.2. Table 2 of Lecture 4A.2 shows typical protective systems related to simple definitions of
environment. Paint types are described in Appendix 2 of Lecture 4A.2.
Connections (fasteners) are an integral part of every structure. Frequently they appear to be forgotten when the corrosion
protection for the steelwork is decided upon. For example, in an aggressive environment several hundred microns of paint on

beams will not effectively protect the structure if it is connected together by black bolts.
2. TREATMENTS FOR CONNECTIONS

Bolts, nuts and other parts of connections need to be protected by a coating system of a standard at least equal to that provided
for the general surfaces.
The risk of damaging precoated connections and the surfaces of connections during erection and assembly can be high. It may
be necessary to specify a different coating system to that used on the steelwork to reduce the danger. Alternatively the coating
of accessible connection surfaces can be delayed until after the steel is erected. The protecting of fasteners and the areas
immediately around them is more difficult.
Where high performance paint systems are specified, stainless steel, weathering steel or hot dip spin galvanized fasteners
should be considered.
Appendix 2 describes the treatment of faying surfaces of friction grip joints, black bolts bolted connections other than friction
grip bolts, and deals with the means of ensuring satisfactory performance from connections and fasteners. The corrosion of
fasteners is always a major potential hazard which can be overcome only by specifying fasteners suitable for the work in hand.
3. DEALING WITH WELDS

The welding technique influences whether weld areas are protected (a) after surface preparation and before welding or, (b) left
bare until the welding is complete:
a) When blast cleaning takes place before fabrication a blast primer (see Appendix 2, Lecture 4A.2) can be used to protect
steelwork. It is important to make sure this primer is compatible with the paint system which has been chosen to give long-
term protection.
b) If blasting is after fabrication a "holding" primer of one of three types as noted in Appendix 2 of Lecture 4A.2 can be used to
protect the surface until the paint system is applied. Care is needed to choose a primer which is designed for use after
fabrication. Alternatively, the first coat of the chosen paint system can sometimes be substituted for the "holding" primer.
Welding zinc or aluminium coated steel is unsatisfactory when the non-ferrous coating is more than 25 µm thick. It is better to
mask off the areas which will form the welds before applying the metal coating.
After welding, surface preparation of the standard specified for preparing the steelwork overall is required before applying the
protective coating process. Some forms of welding leave alkaline deposits behind. These deposits must be removed by blast-
cleaning followed by washing with clean water before applying protective coatings. This requirement does not apply to
galvanizing where the process removes the deposits.
4. EXTERNAL ENVIRONMENTS AND THE BUILDING'S EXTERIOR

It is not possible to define the micro-climate surrounding a building. The rate of corrosion of structural steel greatly depends
upon how long the steel remains wet. If the design allows for maximum rain water and condensation shedding then local
corrosion is minimised. If details which collect rainwater or condensation cannot be redesigned, then adequate drainage must
be allowed. (See Appendix 2 and Figure 1).


A classification of general exterior environments is set out in Table 1, Lecture 4A.2. Although it may appear subjective and
unscientific, this very imprecise information is often the only data available as a basis for considering needs for corrosion
protection.
5. ENVIRONMENTS INSIDE BUILDINGS

Design plays a major part in establishing the environment to which the steel is subjected. Surfaces upon which water can hang
or lay must be avoided as far as possible, so also must water traps. A particular problem with internal surfaces, e.g. in factories,
is alternate wet and dry cycles when mildly acidic or alkaline water leaves behind salts which gradually build in strength to
produce remarkably aggressive microclimates.
The generic paint processes in Table 2 of Lecture 4A.2 reflects the problems inherent to each environment. Thus all the
processes in Environment C (Table 1 of Lecture 4A.2) are chosen for their water resistance rather than ease of application or
tolerance to poor surface preparation.
5.1 Hidden Steelwork
It is widely accepted that hidden steel, see Figure 2, in a dry heated interior, e.g. hollow encased sections or steelwork above a
suspended ceiling, lasts for some 50 years without any protection. Corrosion is minimal in these circumstances and has no
influence on the structural stability of a building. A proviso is that the steelwork is not exposed for longer than two years
before it is clad. There is a more important consideration; will the interior remain dry? If the steel may possibly cool to fall
below the temperature of the dew point then it will at times be wet. The protective treatment should be specified accordingly.
System P5 provides adequate protection. More practical is to specify galvanizing system G1 or, a paint process tailored to the
situation and not covered in Table 2 of Lecture 4A.2, i.e. an isocyanate cured pitch epoxy applied at the fabricator's shop or
steel mill to a dry film thickness of 400-500 µm. Spark testing to detect thin areas or breaks in the film is essential with this
type of protective system.

5.2 Steelwork in Perimeter Walls
Steelwork in perimeter walls is another type of hidden steelwork, see Figure 3. It may be separate from the outer leaf, in
contact with the latter or, embedded in the outer leaf. The protection problem arises essentially from driving rain rapidly
saturating the outer skin, particularly through mortar joints, and wetting the exposed steelwork. The water flow is influenced
by the absorbency of the outer skin; bricks of low porosity increase the water flow through the joint while a highly porous
outer skin may effectively prevent migration of water in a cavity wall. The design should ensure adequate drainage away from
the steelwork at the base of the wall.

A clear separation of steelwork from the outer leaf by non-absorbent insulating material at least 25 mm thick or, an air gap
of at least 40 mm ensures the greatest durability. Design should avoid ties between the steelwork and the outer skin to prevent
moisture bridging, i.e. heat conduction between the outer leaf and the steelwork. Protective coating systems for this situation
are not covered in Table 2 of Lecture 4A.2. The most effective systems are 400-500 µm DFT (dry film thickness) of isocyanate
cured epoxy pitch or, hot dip galvanizing - 85 µm for the steelwork and fixings.
Steelwork in contact with the outer leaf is best avoided. If contact is likely, then either of the two prospective systems noted
in the paragraph above is appropriate.
Where steelwork is embedded in the outer leaf good drainage is essential to assist evaporation of moisture and to prevent
pooling. It is wise to assume the cavity is not well ventilated and to protect the steelwork by galvanizing (85µm) or use of the
pitch epoxy (400-500 µm) as noted above.
It should be noted that corrosion products expand and can damage the building fabric, e.g. by dislodging facing bricks. This is
a similar problem to the spalling of concrete arising from corrosion of embedded steel reinforcement.
6. SPECIAL CASES
6.1 Steel in Concrete
For many years it was held that steel in concrete required no protection. Provided that the compaction of the concrete was
adequate, it was uncontaminated with salt, and remained crack-free, this view was true due to the high pH value of concrete.
However the concrete thickness needs to be above 40 mm for protection to remain effective for the life of most structures.
A particular problem is the spalling or cracking of concrete associated with the corrosion of reinforcing bars (rebars) in
concrete. External chlorides from de-icing salts, marine environments or internal sources, e.g. from saline aggregate, can alter
the electrochemical environment locally causing the reinforcing steel in reinforced concrete structures to become non-passive.
If corrosion is remotely possible, then protection of the steel by fusion bonded epoxy coatings should be considered.

6.2 Hollow Sections
Rarely is protection of the inner surface of structural hollow sections necessary. If the section is sealed, no corrosion occurs.
Where sections are incompletely sealed and there is no free flow of air, then no more than a light surface oxidation takes place.
It is sensible to provide drain holes at the low points to prevent water being trapped, freezing and splitting the hollow section.
Drain holes must be kept unblocked.
Completely open sections, e.g. box girders, may require internal protection. Galvanizing, fusion bonded epoxy coatings or
chemical resistant paints are all possible solutions.
6.3 Cladding
Prefinished cladding for roofing and walls is lightweight and its use allows cost savings to be made in the overall building
frame. A variety of profiles is available with the basic material being either steel or aluminium. If steel, it is hot dip zinc or
zinc/aluminium coated for protection against corrosion.
The basic metal is supplied in a coil or strip which is unwound, coated, cured and re-wound before being formed into a variety
of different profiles. The coating systems are extremely sophisticated and outside the scope of this lecture.
When preparing a specification reference to a manufacturer's literature is unlikely to prove sufficient. The specifier needs to
provide a "performance specification" covering key items, e.g. loading (including wind), substrate type, coating type (external
and internal face), design life, environmental conditions and evidence of the suitability of the proposed protective system.
In the relation to resistance to corrosion and weathering, the following items are important when making the selection.
● Choice of substrate
Galvanized steel cladding is strong but may corrode.
Aluminium requires taping at all joints with the steel structure; it is less resistant to site damage but less likely to
corrode. Its use in hot climates needs careful consideration.
● Choice of coating
On aluminium, the coating is generally 30 µm or below. This coating does not give a good performance
externally.
On galvanized steel cladding both 'thin' and 'thick' coating systems are available. As noted above, 'thin' coatings
of 30 µm or below behave poorly outside. 'Thick' coatings (200 µm) are mainly plastisols. 'Thin' coatings are
commonly PVF2, Acrylic or Polyester.
● Manufacturers' descriptions
One must be cautious of manufacturers' descriptions. Many thin coatings are claimed to have excellent colour
retention; no reference is made to the ease of site damage during storage, installation or, life of the building.
"Plastiscol" is a generic term applied to formulae whose performances vary dramatically. Be specific regarding
performance pollution. Assess internal environments equally carefully.
● Life requirement to first maintenance
The period to first maintenance is generally defined as the time after which the protective system no longer
protects the surface. It can also be the point in time when the cladding's appearance becomes aesthetically
unacceptable. It is important to specify which definition is being used.

● Influence of aspect
When appearance is important, it should be noted that the same product weathers differently on north- and south-
facing elevations or roofs. Data from manufacturers requires careful study.
Modern coated cladding may well have a life to first maintenance of twenty five years. Eventually however the
coating will need refurbishing.
Deterioration of coatings has four phases:
1. The coating chalks, i.e. its surface weathers into a chalk-like layer which is unsightly but can be removed leaving the
surface beneath unaffected, reducing its thickness. Planned maintenance is of greatest value at this stage.
2. The coating develops a very fine crazing which, if left, penetrates to the metal substrate. Maintenance systems must be
able to deal with this condition.
3. With the coating system crazing and finally cracking, the substrate begins to corrode. The specialist maintenance
processes available today can be used effectively, but the original coats must be stripped off. The cost of maintenance is
therefore increased.
4. The substrate perforates, when there is no alternative but to reclad.
Overpainting prepainted cladding is a major undertaking. The cladding may have been finished in one of seven generic types,
all of which pose different problems. It is essential to involve a specialist contractor to apply the maintenance system. The
system in turn must be supplied by one of a small number of European paint manufacturers producing paints specifically
designed to maintain cladding.
● Good design of the members and the joints in the steel framework is the key to corrosion prevention.
● The quality of the coatings on fasteners and welds is as important as that on the main framework.
● The macro- and micro-environments both inside and outside of the building have to be considered.
● Particular care must be taken when designing steelwork that will be inaccessible on completion of execution.
Allowances for construction tolerances should be made.
● Steelwork surrounded with concrete having a low pH value, poor compaction and placed in thin layers will not protect
the steel from corrosion.
● Cladding is not only a weather-proof covering to the structure. It may also provide insulation and strength and thus
require a sophisticated protective coating.
● When writing a corrosion prevention specification for the first time advice should be taken from an experienced
practitioner.
8. REFERENCES
[1] Eurocode 3: "Design of Steel Structures": ENV1993-1-1: Part 1.1: General rules and rules for buildings. CEN, 1992.
[2] pr EN 1029: Specification for hot dip galvanised coatings on iron and steel articles.
[3] BS 4221: Specification for sheradised coatings in iron and steel articles.
[4] BS 3382: Specification for electroplated coatings on threaded components.
[5] ISO 3269: Fasteners - Acceptance Inspection.
APPENDIX 1
Eurocode 3 Requirements

Eurocode 3 "Design of Steel Structures - Part 1 General Rules and Rules for Buildings" [1] sets out certain general
requirements with regard to durability as follows:
1. To ensure an adequately durable structure, the following inter-related factors shall be considered:
the use of the structure
the required performance criteria
the expected environmental conditions
the composition, properties and performance of the materials
the shape of members and the structural detailing
the quality of workmanship and level of control
the particular protective measures
the likely maintenance during the intended life.
2. The internal and external environmental conditions shall be estimated at the design stage to assess their significance in
relation to durability and to enable adequate provisions to be made for protection of the materials.
In order to meet these requirements the designer must consider all the risks which may arise and make the necessary provisions
for an adequate protective treatment, with due regard to economy. The easy option of over-designing to cover highly unlikely
risks must be avoided so that the client does not bear any unnecessary costs.
APPENDIX 2
A.2.1 Faying Surfaces of Friction Grip Joints
These surfaces are those which, when in contact with one another, transmit a load across the interface by friction.
Faying surfaces require special attention. If left bare all moisture access points must be effectively sealed. The alternative is to
protect the faying surfaces, but the effect of the protective treatments on the slip-factor should first be closely investigated:
their behaviour under static, dynamic and sustained loading should be considered.
Faying surfaces are usually blast-cleaned at the same time as the general surfaces of the steelwork. It may be advantageous to
specify masking and that the masking should be retained as a temporary protection, being removed before assembly. The type
of masking should be specified to ensure minimum contamination by adhesives. The method of preparing surfaces after
stripping the masking should also be specified.
Where paint over sprayed metal is the specified protective system, masking may be used to prevent paint being applied to the
faying surfaces of connections. If galvanizing is the protection, roughening can take place immediately before assembly. When
galvanizing is to be overpainted, the roughening should be carried out before the masking is applied.
Edge sealing of the faying surfaces can be specified to prevent corrosion where steelwork is located in aggressive
environments. The specification clauses should ensure that the edges on both faying surfaces are painted for a distance of
15mm inside the perimeter of the connection.
In similar environments, where load-indicating washers or bolts with load-indicating heads requiring feeler gauges for
measuring shank tension are used, it is advantageous to specify that crevices should be sealed by applying high-build paint or
mastic compatible with the coating system. This sealing should be carried out after the final tightening of all bolts (see Sections

1.2. and 1.3).
High-strength friction grip bolts are normally supplied with a light coating of oil. This coating is removed by weathering and/
or swabbing with solvents. The exposed areas can be treated with the same protective system as the steel structure or, one
modified to suit site conditions.
A.2.2 Fasteners
Where steelwork is to be manually cleaned after weathering, the fasteners may be prepared and treated in the same manner as
the general surfaces. The specified primer must be suitable for site application to manually prepared steelwork.
Where the overall surface preparation is by blasting after bolting-up, the exposed surfaces of the bolts, nuts and washers should
be blast-cleaned at the same time as the general surfaces. Such blast cleaning should also be used if high-strength friction-grip
bolts are used in similar circumstances.
If surfaces are blast-cleaned prior to bolting-up and it is impractical to utilize the same preparation method for the connector
surfaces, then pickling of the bolts may be specified to remove scale and assist in manual preparation of the exposed surfaces
for coating. Pickling may not be suitable for high-strength friction-grip bolts. On site, after erection, fasteners must be treated
with a corrosion inhibiting primer suitable for application to manually prepared steelwork under site conditions.
A.2.3 Metal Coated Fasteners
Fasteners may be hot dip galvanized, sheradized, zinc, cadmium plated or mechanically coated. The life of the coating for each
metal is directly proportional to its thickness. Extra clearance is required on the thread to accommodate the thicker coatings
and early ordering is advisable therefore. The thinner coatings should not be used without additional protection. European, ISO
or National Standards should be specified to avoid substitution.
If they are to be overpainted, metal coated bolts should not be chromate.
a. Hot dip galvanizing
Fasteners are spin-galvanized to pr EN 1029; this process gives a minimum local coating thickness of 43 µm. This zinc is
alloyed to the base steel. General grade high-strength friction-grip bolts can be galvanized but the threads should be lubricated
to prevent galling.
b. Sheradizing
Sheradizing coatings are specified in BS 4921 [3]. The coating is alloyed to the base steel. A Class I coating has a minimum
local thickness of 30µm and Class II coating 15 µm.
c. Electroplating
Thin coating of cadmium and zinc are specified in Parts 1 and 2 of BS 3382 [4], with a thickness of 7.5 µm for bolts more than
12 mm in diameter. Coatings with a minimum local thickness of 25 µm are covered by Part 7 of BS3382.
Cadmium plated components should be identified. On no account must they be flame-cut or welded because of toxic fumes
which can be lethal.
A.2.4 Bolted Connections other than Friction Grip Bolts
Where the surfaces of fabricated components are prepared and coated before erection, the surfaces of the joints are usually
coated at the same time.
When bare steelwork is erected prior to preparation and painting, the joint surfaces should receive one coat of the priming paint
specified and two where the environment is other than benign. This treatment should be specified also for steelwork delivered

to site treated with a blast primer only.
A.2.5 Ensuring Satisfactory Performance from Fasteners
Fixing nuts and bolts can be:
Hot dip galvanized
Sheradized
Electroplated
Mechanically plated
An adequate thickness of zinc must be specified and reference made to the relevant Standard document where one exists.
If the thickness of zinc is (a) too thin to offer protection for the design life of the structure or, (b) the zinc will require
maintenance by painting then further protective coating must be specified for the surfaces exposed after assembly.
Where the zinc coating is the first part of the initial protective coating system, the total process should be applied to the
fasteners as part of the overall painting.
If the zinc is the sole protection, then the thickness on the fastener can be built-up by applying.
i. Zinc-metal containing paint.
ii. A protective paint system, the first coat formulated for direct application to zinc.
Paint manufacturers advice should be sought for a system giving protection equivalent to that given to the main structure.
Notwithstanding the environment, when electroplating is specified strict quality assurance and authoritative inspection is
required to ensure both adequate adhesion and the correct coating thickness are achieved. If they are not, this coating type can
be considered 'sacrificial' in the same way as a paint blast primer or holding primer.
Methods of acceptance inspection for fasteners are found in ISO3269 [5].

ESDEP WG 4A
Lecture 4A.4: Corrosion Protection

of Bridges
OBJECTIVE/SCOPE
This lecture is intended to give detailed information on the corrosion protection of steel components in bridges for the
design engineer.
PREREQUISITES
SUMMARY
Bridges are normally built for a long service life. They are subject to an unfriendly environment. For economic reasons
a high quality corrosion protection is required. For the main structure painting or weathering steel is the normal choice
and, for smaller details, hot dip galvanising or stainless steel is also used. The possibility of unpainted steel in closed
sections is discussed.
1. INTRODUCTION
Bridges are generally built for a long service life, e.g. 100 years, and they are subjected to attack arising from their use
and from the environment: loads, wind, accidental damage, rain, deicing salts, sun, etc.
To ensure a sufficient life, a correct degree of protection against corrosion is required.
There are numerous means for preventing corrosion of steel structures, but for bridges the usual method is to use coating
systems - paint or metallic coatings - or, for some applications, alloyed steels - weathering and stainless steels.
Several parameters influence the choice of a protective method: the required lifetime, the environment, design and
economic considerations.
The required lifetime of the protection system is not the same as the lifetime of the steel structure it protects. The
protective system usually required has a life in the order of 7 to 30 years between two periods of maintenance,
depending on the severity of environment and on the age of the structure (7 to 15 for old bridges - 10 to 30 for new
ones).
2. EXPOSURE CONDITIONS
2.1 Environments

The environment influences the type and the intensity of the corrosion.
The influences of macro- and micro-climate should be considered:
a. macro-climate is the general environment in which the structure is situated. Macro-climates can be roughly divided
into:
● rural inland.
● normal inland.
● polluted inland.
● normal coastal.
● polluted coastal.
but in practice, the actual environment is often a combination of these categories. The urban environment, for example,
may be a semi-polluted inland macro-climate.
b. micro-climate is the direct environment of the bridge elements and is affected by the configuration of the structure:
● the underside of a bridge, where condensation can be present for long time.
● the presence of crevices retaining dust and moisture.
● areas that are not washed by rain.
● vicinity of a chemical factory in the lee of prevailing winds.
● spread of deicing salts.
● pollution from the exhaust of motor vehicles.
2.2 Factors Influencing Corrosivity
Atmospheric corrosion occurs only if the air is sufficiently wet and polluted.
Under a critical level of relative humidity of 60%, the corrosion rate of steel is very low and insignificant.
Above 75% relative humidity, corrosion rates begin to be serious (see Figure 1). For a bridge this level of humidity is
exceeded for long periods.

Presence of chemical pollutants in the atmosphere can increase its corrosivity:
● chlorides (near sea-shores) particularly promote and activate corrosion.

● sulphur dioxide, nitrogen oxides and other chemical pollutants are present in industrial and urban atmospheres.
2.3 Different Areas
The different parts of bridges are not subjected to the same conditions of exposure see, for example, Figure 2. Corrosion
is more or less severe depending on the conditions at locations which are:
● external.
● condensation zones.
● internal.

External locations are directly exposed, alternately wet and dry, and subject to the influence of temperature changes
and UV radiations.
Condensation zones have permanent humidity, a high concentration of pollutants, possibility of localised corrosion.
Areas not washed by rain and permanent humidity.
Internal locations have no corrosion development if there is no renewal of the air, or localised corrosion if condensation
occurs due to wet air (inside of girders).
3. PROTECTIVE SYSTEMS
General information on surface preparation and coatings is given in Lecture 4A.2.
3.1 Coating Systems for Bridges

Depending on environment, type of element, expected lifetime and facilities for maintenance, the choice of a protective
system is made from the following:
3.2 Metallic Coatings (see
Lecture 4A.2)
Zinc has been used as a protective coating for steel for many years. It is by far the most widely used metal for protecting
structural steel against corrosion. Zinc has a good behaviour in normal inland and coastal environments, but is quickly
corroded in acid atmospheres such as may occur in industrial or polluted urban environments. In this case, aluminium or
an aluminium-zinc alloy is a more suitable protection.
Brief details of these coating are:
● hot dip galvanising:
It is described in Lecture 4A.2. A thickness between 60 and 100 microns is needed normally for anticorrosion
effectiveness of 10 to 12 years.
● zinc, or zinc-aluminium alloys, spraying
Usual thickness:
- zinc or Zn/Al 85/15 120 microns
- aluminium 150 microns
Effectiveness against corrosion can last for 15 years if associated with paint coatings.
● combined systems (sometimes called duplex systems)
In some cases where it is necessary to provide an extra protection of the zinc coating a paint-coating should be applied.
Paint coatings on zinc surfaces have to meet special requirements and paint manufacturers should be consulted.
3.3 Stainless Steel
Stainless steels are well known for their resistance to corrosion in corrosive atmospheres. This resistance is due to the
presence of alloying elements, such as chromium and nickel, which provide a passive protective layer on the surface.
An example is the austenitic type with 17-18% Cr and 7-9% Ni. This alloy is resistant to corrosion only as long as the
passive layer is not removed. In contact with slightly acid water the passive layer dissolves and the steel starts
corroding. A more resistant alloy is achieved by adding molybdenum, e.g. the austenitic type with 17% Cr, 11%Ni and
2-3% Mo. This alloy is suitable for coastal and industrial environments (specially good resistance against chlorides).
Precautions must be taken when using stainless steel to avoid galvanic corrosion when in contact with carbon steel, zinc
or aluminium.
In bridge construction, stainless steel can be used for secondary elements, connections, and ancillary equipments.
3.4 Weathering Steel

Weathering steel (see Lecture 4A.2) has been used for bridges for more than 30years with quite mixed results. The
experience shows that weathering steel can be used successfully under certain conditions. A survey in the USA has
clearly pointed out the most important reason for lack of success, i.e. the use of de-icing agents. States in the north that
use de-icing agents have experienced heavy corrosion on bridge girders of weathering steel. This record should be
considered together with the fact that North American bridges rarely have waterproofing of the bridge deck and the
joints may not be watertight. Although the bridge deck may be made watertight initially, there is always a risk of leaks
in the future. The combination of weathering steel and de-icing agents should therefore be avoided.
For the development of the protective patina it is essential that weathering steel occasionally gets wet and then dries.
Thus in design nominally horizontal surfaces should be avoided because they may trap water due to imperfections. For
instance a horizontal bottom flange should preferably be formed like an inverted V.
Even if no de-icing agents are used, water leaking through the bridge deck or joints is harmful in large amounts. Care
should be taken to make the deck as watertight as possible.
3.5 Closed Sections
A steel tube that is completely sealed will not corrode inside. This features is useful for small sections that may be
closed effectively. However, a box girder bridge with a concrete deck cannot be considered to be completely closed.
The concrete cracks and water may enter as well as oxygen. For this reason box girders are normally painted on the
inside but with a less comprehensive paint system.
Another possibility is to close the box as far as possible and to install dehumidifiers that keep the air at less than 60%
relatively humidity. The equipment and its running costs are inexpensive.
4. PROTECTION OF DIFFERENT COMPONENTS
4.1 Load Bearing Structures
● paint;
● galvanizing;
● spraying;
● combined systems;
● weathering steel.
4.2 Cables and Devices
● paint;
● galvanizing;
● stainless steel.
● paint;
● galvanizing;
● stainless steel.
5. DESIGN
The danger of corrosion can be reduced substantially by careful attention to design.

A design that takes into account all possible ways of preventing corrosion is much better than one where the fight
against corrosion relies only on the protection of the steel surface.
Anti-corrosion actions should ideally be considered at the planning stage and at the latest on the drawing board.
6. MAINTENANCE
Some discussion of maintenance is included in Lecture 4A.2.
● Bridges are required to have a longer service life and are more exposed than buildings. Thus the choice of the
corrosion preventative treatment is more critical for bridges.
● Maintenance work on bridges causes disruption to traffic flow over or under the bridge. Thus the time to carry
out maintenance work must be minimised.
● Means of safe access to carry out inspections and maintenance is important in ensuring bridges are adequately
protected against corrosion.
● The use of weathering steels and enclosures should be considered at the design and detailing stage.
● Since a long life is required of bridge structures, maintenance of 'old' style organic and metallic coatings has to
be undertaken.
● For special construction items such as suspension cables, parapets, etc., specialist advice should be sought.
1. Durability of steel structures: Protection of Steel Structures and Buildings from Atmospheric Corrosion; ECCS
Report/620.197, 1983.
2. Protection of steel structures against corrosion by coatings, ECCS Publication 50, 1987.

ESDEP WG 4A
Lecture 4A.5: Corrosion in Offshore

and Sheet Piling
OBJECTIVE/SCOPE
To introduce students to the protection of structures, pipes, etc. offshore and in the ground.
PREREQUISITES
Lecture 4A.3: Corrosion in Buildings
Lecture 4A.4: Corrosion Protection of Bridges
SUMMARY
This lecture covers the systems available to protect fixed and mobile offshore structures. It deals with sheet piling,
corrosion in soils, electrical methods of corrosion control and, very briefly, bacterial activity and its influence on
corrosion rates.
1. OFFSHORE
The North sea is far more hostile than the Texan and Arabian Gulfs. The technology used in the warmer climates has
had to be adapted and modified to meet the colder climatic conditions both in coastal construction sites and, offshore
in the North Sea.
The difficulty of repairing coatings or, worse still, replacing steel make it imperative that the coating system prevents
loss of steel by corrosion.
Fixed offshore constructions are divided into three areas, underwater and tidal, the splash-zone and, decks.
Underwater and tidal zones
Experienced corrosion engineers are not always of the same opinion about the choice of a protective system for steel
in these zones.
Some argue that the area below the lowest low waterline (LLW) is subject to mechanical damage during construction

and hook up and: that no protective coating can be expected to survive for some 25 years in the sea. Therefore
cathodic protection (sacrificial anodes or impressed current) is necessary to back up the coating systems. The
argument then questions whether coatings are necessary, since cathodic protection is easily increased in capacity and
can therefore provide total protection of the uncoated steel surface.
The opposing view is that even damaged coatings reduce impressed current amperage and anode consumption.
Coatings will certainly improve corrosion protection in acute angles and in welded areas. It seems sensible therefore
to at least balance the cost of coating steel against cathodic protection only.
There is no debate regarding the advantages of using surface coatings in the tidal zone and for up to 10 metres below
lowest average tide (LAT). Increased steel thickness to allow for corrosion in this highly aggressive area may be
provided, but cathodic protection combined with coatings is always used.
The splash zone and jetties
These zones can be well protected by the coatings systems which are effective in the tidal zone. The undersides of
support decks and soffit areas in general also come into this category.
Any system chosen for service in this environment must have very good resistance to water, rust creep and oil/
chemical spillage. Coatings need to be suitable for patch repairs.
Decks
The decks on offshore platforms may require the protection of heavy duty coating systems because they are
subjected to severe traffic, impact, and chemical and oil spillage. On jetties the decks are often an extension of the
approach road and not vulnerable therefore. Where they are of steel, then the same considerations apply as are given
to protecting offshore rigs.
Mobile offshore equipment
A wide range of items if involved, e.g. jack-up drilling rigs (for shallow water), self-propelled and semi-submersible
drilling rigs, and supply ships. Service conditions vary with operating conditions and the type of equipment. All
suffer severe impacts and abrasions resulting in the destruction of the protective coatings. Maintenance is difficult
and is usually carried out at the same time as mechanical repairs and overhauls and during lay up periods. The
coatings systems used to protect mobile offshore equipment are similar to those used on fixed offshore structures.
Paint Selection
Paint selection is greatly influenced by the likely weather conditions during construction and of course, maintenance.
For new work, surface preparation (which is always abrasive blast cleaning) and the application of the first coats
should be undertaken in shops where temperature and humidity can be controlled. It is impossible to complete the
final assembly of most offshore structures under cover, while the sheer complexity of fabrication requires a great
deal of spot repairs which can only be undertaken in the open. Although local abrasive blast cleaning is the normal
preparatory method when dealing with fabrication damage, there are occasions when only power tool cleaning is
possible. The products used for patch repairs must be capable of performing well (although inevitably at a reduced
level) over such preparation and of application under exposed conditions, possibly in adverse weather. The finishes
used on the complete structure are also required to perform well under similar conditions.
Typical Systems for Underwater, Tidal and Splash Zones:
New Works

Surface preparation in all cases is abrasive blast cleaning to Sa 2½, ISO 8501-1 [1].
Possible primers are one coat of:
2-pack zinc silicate @ 75µm
or 2-pack zinc epoxy @ 35µm
or 2-pack epoxy holding primer @ 50µm.
The common finishing coat would be:
2-pack coal tar epoxy, amine aduct cured,
volume solids < 60% applied by airless
spray at 200µm per coat.
Maintenance in service
The maintenance painting of fixed offshore structures, jetties, etc. is unlikely to be possible for more than 4-5
months during the spring and summer (the so-called "weather window"). Inevitably work is halted due to poor
weather, when the last coat is exposed to complete or nearly complete immersion, salt spray, etc. Thus, ideally each
coat must be as resistant to the environment as the final finish.
It is feasible to repair underwater areas using water displacing solvent free epoxy coatings. Since these coatings
would be applied by divers, the problems are obvious. It is usual therefore to rely instead upon cathodic protection to
prevent corrosion at breaks in the coating.
Damage in the tidal or splash zones must be repaired because cathodic protection is not effective for more than 0,2m
above lowest waterline.
Typical Systems for Use above the Splash Zone:
New Works
The choice of primer is from those suitable for the underwater, tidal, splash zones described above. Surface
preparation is abrasive blast cleaning to Sa 2½, ISO8501-1.
The finishing system is likely to consist of high build 2-pack polyamide cured epoxy intermediate coats applied at
dry film thicknesses (dft) of 100-150µm per coat. Usually two coats are applied. The first may be pigmented with
micaceous iron oxide to increase build on edges. The finish coat of circa 50µm dft is either a 2-pack paint described
as "urethane" or "polyurethane" and probably based on an isocyanate cured acrylic resin or a 1-pack moisture curing
urethane, i.e. a material which reacts with atmospheric moisture, producing an end product with similar
characteristics to 2-pack varieties. The final coat is usually modified to ensure it can be over-coated using fabrication
and maintenance painting without the need to first sweep blast to obtain adhesion. The product description in the
manufacturer's technical literature normally carries the word "recoatable". Where appearance is not of prime
importance, it is possible to use a zinc silicate primer (75µm dft) followed by two coats of a 2-pack high build
polyamide cured epoxy applied at circa 150µm dft per coat.

Maintenance
Maintenance usually requires blasting to Sa 2½ followed by the application of the original system. The treatment
may be over all or spot depending upon whether the coating breakdown is severe or isolated.
Where surface preparation utilises water abrasive blast cleaning, then special primers are required, e.g. 1-pack zinc
rich epoxy, moisture displacing modifications.
If blast cleaning is impossible, power tool cleaning to the St2, ISO 8501-1 followed by priming with a 2-pack epoxy
aluminium pigmented "mastic" before finishing as noted above is an alternative. Its use should be limited to minor
repairs.
Typical Systems for Decks:
New Works
Decks require very heavy duty systems which are required to be "non-skid" as well as resistant to the rigorous
conditions noted elsewhere. Solvent free 2-pack epoxy systems are available for direct application in one coat of
3000µm to blasted surfaces (Sa 2½). These coatings can contain flint to prevent them becoming slippery in service.
Non-sparking alternatives are available for use in flame-free zones.
Normal heavy duty 2-pack epoxy coatings of the type used in the splash zone are also used in two coat applications
(total dft 200+µm) over zinc silicate, zinc rich or zinc-less 2-pack epoxy primers.
Maintenance
Maintenance is usually blasting to Sa 2½ followed by the re-application of the original systems, either over all or in
localised areas of damage. If for some reason blasting is not possible, then power tool cleaning to St3, ISO 8501-1
may be acceptable for the more normal coating system, i.e. 2-pack epoxy paint system at 200µm. The heavy duty
coating demands a high standard of abrasive blast cleaning. Surface preparation for maintenance must be the same as
the original.
2. SHEET PILING
The steel sections used for steel sheet piling provide the maximum strength and durability (consistent with good
driving properties) at the lowest weight which good design can achieve. Sheet piling is used in both permanent and
temporary works. Typical applications are sea defences, land reclamation, quays, and coffer dams. Sheet piling can
be spliced where lengths of more than 30m are required and, although sheet piling is usually associated with
"straight line" constructions, e.g. quay walls, the sections can be used to form many shapes, including complete
circles.
The effective life of unprotected piling, either mild steel or high yield steel (e.g. grades S235, S275 and S355 to EN
10025) depends upon the stresses imposed in service and the corrosion rate. The potential life of sections can vary
from more than 120 years when exposed to an atmosphere with a mean corrosion rate of 0,05mm/year to circa 80
years in a splash zone with a mean of 0,09mm/year assuming only one face of the piling is exposed. Where both
sides of a sheet piling structure are exposed to the atmosphere for example, the effective life can be reduced by some
30%.
Many environments in which steel piling is used have low corrosion rates. Piles driven into undisturbed soils are
quoted as corroding at no more than 0,03mm/year. In this situation protection is superfluous. Conversely the rate in a
splash zone may be as high as 0,15mm/year. If the imposed stresses are also high, then measures to increase the life

of the structure are needed. Replacing mild steel with high yield steel is a possibility, as is the inclusion of additional
steel thickness. Cathodic protection may be appropriate. High on the list of protective methods are paints.
Protective coatings should meet certain requirements:
● the paints must be suitable for airless spray application.

● the paints must be quick drying/fast curing.
● volume solids above 50% are necessary to ensure dry film thicknesses of 100-400µm in no more than two
coats.
These properties are necessary to ensure a speedy throughput in the shops where the initial coating is applied.
Additionally the coating must:
● have excellent adhesion.

● be hard and abrasive resistant.
● have low water permeability and good chemical resistance to resist transit, driving and finally, the
environment in which it is exposed.
A number of painting systems are available to the specifier, who should consider only those which were designed for
this particular end use. One specialist, British Steel, advocates the use of only two alternatives, both specifically
designed for piling.
The first system is a high build two pack epoxy/pitch which is isocyanate cured. This is applied to abrasive blast
cleaned surfaces of Sa 2½ quality at up to 400µm in one or two coats. Typical end uses are piers, jetties, harbour
walls and bearing piles in corrosive soils. The typical time to first maintenance under severe exposure conditions is
quoted as 15 years. Maintenance is either blasting followed by the airless spray application of the original coating in
one coat at 400µm or two coats of what is in fact the second system suggested as suitable for piling protection.
The second coating system is described as a tar-vinyl. This coating is a pitch modified with specific vinyl resins
which impart a measure of elasticity. The one part product dries soley by solvent evaporation, which makes it
particularly suited to site use. It can be applied at up to 150µm per coat. Typical uses are canal and river walls and,
general structures not exposed in aggressive environments. Although abrasive blast cleaning to Sa 2½ is preferred,
this material can be used effectively over power tool prepared steel St2 or 3, ISO 8501-1. Maintenance requires the
application of the original material to the initial dry film thickness or it can be overcoated with other high build pitch
solutions.
Only the isocyanate cured epoxy pitch is suitable for use on catholically protected structures.
3. CORROSION IN SOILS
Corrosion in soils is similar to corrosion in water. It requires the presence of an electrolyte and circumstances which
produce anodic and cathodic areas in the steel or iron.
For soil conditions to cause corrosion there must be:
● moisture present.
● access to oxygen.
● dissolved salts to increase electrical conductivity.
● an acidic condition.

Buried steel structures are rarely exposed to conditions in which the electrolyte is acidic enough to support corrosion
without the presence of oxygen to maintain the process. Corrosion usually requires the soil to be pervious to air, with
variations in soil conditions giving rise to differential aeration and the creation of cathodic and anodic areas (see
Figure 1). An exception is in neutral, waterlogged clay; although oxygen cannot penetrate the soil, corrosion occurs
by a sulphate-reducing bacteria present in the soil (see Section 5).
Stray electric current can cause severe corrosion, the buried metal providing a low resistance path. The metal acts as
a cathode at the point where the positive current enters and becomes the anode where it leaves the metal. Figure 2
illustrates the problem. The effect is worse with direct current.

The methods of controlling corrosion in soils are limited. Where the soil is acid, then pipelines can be made less
vulnerable by back-filling trenches with limestone chippings which changes the pH. This method is unlikely to be
suitable for structures or piles, where the soil is required to be undisturbed for engineering purposes. In many cases
the only effective answer is to re-route the pipeline or re-site the structure.
Traditionally, buried structures have been protected by coating with paints based on coal tar, pitch or bitumen
reinforced with a resin. Today, popular resins for such purposes are epoxy, vinyl or urethane derivatives, i.e. the
coatings discussed above as suitable for protecting immersed steel or piling in soil. In the case of buried pipes other
coatings, e.g epoxy powder, three layer polyethylene or wrappings, may be more appropriate.
With all buried steel and iron, cathodic protection should be considered as a means of reinforcing the performance of
the coating.
4. ELECTRICAL METHODS OF CORROSION CONTROL

The best known method is cathodic protection but there are also other methods, i.e. anodic protection and electrical
insulation.
Cathodic protection relies upon the fact that, if the complete surface of a metal can be made cathodic by using an
external electrode, then corrosion will not occur. Figure 3 illustrates the use of an impressed current system. Usually
a low voltage direct current is the external current which confers protection. The positive terminal of the current
source is connected to an auxiliary anode which is located away from the structure requiring protection. The
structure itself is then connection to the negative terminal and current flows from the anode to the protected
structure. The latter is usually coated or wrapped because the current required to protect an uncoated structure would
be too high to make the method economic. Thus, the coating or wrapping is the prime defence with cathodic

protection dealing with breaks in the coating.
Sacrificial anodes (zinc, aluminium, magnesium alloys) are also used (Figure 4). In this case the auxiliary electrode
is made of a metal more active than the one requiring protection. It becomes the anode in the corrosion cell when
connected to the item requiring protection, which becomes the cathode. No external current is required, but
protection ceases if the anode corrodes completely.

Anodic protection requires a "passive" layer to form and protect the metal from corrosion. An external current is
applied in the opposite direction to that for a cathodic system. It drains electrons from the surface, raising the
potential of the anode to a value at which the metal becomes passive (see Figure 5). The current density required is
high, but once passivity is attained only a very small current is required to run the system. A further attraction is the
high "throwing" power of the current which reaches areas remote from the cathode. The system is potentially useful
inside complicated tanks and long pipelines.

The liquid being handled must lend itself to passivation, e.g. sulphuric acid. The current and the environment require
careful monitoring to ensure that the correct conditions are maintained. If they are not, rapid corrosion occurs.
Electrical insulation increases the resistance at some part of a corrosion cell, reducing the current flow and
therefore the corrosion rate. For example, the electrical resistivity of demineralised water is much greater than that of
a salt solution and the rate of corrosion in the former is correspondingly lower.
Re-routing pipes to avoid low resistivity corrosive soils reduces the corrosion risk. Laying pipes through soils of
differing resistivities may set up anodic areas in the metal in low resistivity soil and cathodic regions in high
resistivity soil, creating corrosion cells.

Such "long line" currents are prevented by inserting insulating joints between sections of pipes.
Finally, insulating dissimilar metals from each other, e.g. aluminium cladding sheets from the supporting steel,
eliminates the risks of galvanic corrosion.
5. AEROBIC AND ANAEROBIC ORGANISMS

Although detailed explanations are beyond the scope of this lecture, engineers and architects should be aware of the
effects of aerobic and anaerobic organisms in promoting the corrosion of steel or ironwork immersed in water or
buried in the ground. In practical terms expert advice should be obtained when dealing with any project where the
environment is likely to promote the growth of bacteria.
Aerobic organisms are those requiring free oxygen to prosper and anaerobic ones are organisms which require no
oxygen.
In the field of corrosion, sulphate reducing bacterial (SRB) are probably the best known; they are certainly the most
destructive. In our predominantly aerobic environment they are dormant because they are strictly anaerobic
organisms. As the oxygen level in an environment decreases, e.g. in stagnant water areas on a jetty at low tide, the
SRB become active. As the cells increase by-products are produced which initiate anaerobic corrosion. Their
metabolism requires the reduction of sulphate molecules to water, releasing free sulphide which reacts with
hydrogen to form an extremely corrosive gas, hydrogen sulphide. This process not only depresses the oxygen level,
encouraging further growth, but reacts with the iron and steel.
● Whilst this area of work is the province of the corrosion prevention technologist, engineers and architects
need to know aspects that must be considered.
● Protective treatments for offshore structures are different for steelwork at and above deck level and at the
tidal levels below deck.
● Protective systems for sheet piling require knowledge of the stress levels and ranges in the product and the
conditions of the soil/water in which it is to be driven.
● Damage during construction and use requires the use of coatings resistant to impact, particularly in maritime
situations. Electrolytic methods of corrosion control may offer the best solutions in these situations.
● Consideration must be given to the possibility of bacteria growths which can cause corrosive action to take
place on steelwork which is immersed in water or buried in the ground.
1. "Effect of Cathodic Protection Level and Stress Ratio on the Fatigue Strength of Welded Plate Specimens in
Seawater", Microfiche Report with OTH 89 310, London, HMSO, 1990.
2. Thorpe, T. W., "Influence of Stress Spectrum, Seawater and Cathodic Protection on Fatigue Crack
Propagation in Structural Steels", London, HMSO, 1990.
3. Carney, R. F. A., "Cathodic Protection of Steel in Real and Simulated Seawater Environments", London,
HMSO, 1989.
4. Waite, D., "Steel Piles", Chapter 29 - Steel Designers' Manual, Oxford, Blackwell Scientific Publications,
1992.
5. Wijngaard, B. H., "Steel Piling Corrosion in Marine Environments - a Survey", EUR 7430, EEC, ECSC, 1982.

ESDEP WG 4B
PROTECTION: FIRE
Lecture 4B.1: Introduction to Fire

Safety
OBJECTIVE/SCOPE
To introduce the global approach to fire safety. To give an overview of assessment methods for the structural fire resistance
of load-bearing elements.
PREREQUISITES
None
RELATED LECTURES
Lecture 4B.2: Background to Thermal Analysis
Lecture 4B.3: Background to Structural (Mechanical Fire) Analysis
Lecture 4B.4: Practical Ways of Achieving Fire Resistance of Steel Structures
SUMMARY
Fire losses, fire risk and the objectives of fire safety are described as background to the fire safety concept involving
structural, monitoring and extinguishing concepts. Cost-effectiveness is discussed and an overview of assessment methods
of structural fire resistance is presented. The effect of active fire protection is introduced.
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 Fire Losses
An international survey of fire losses gives the following values:
Human fatalities: 4 to 34 fire fatalities per million head of population.
Financial losses: 1,6 to 5,9 0/00 of the Gross National Product per year.
In order to obtain an overall perspective of the risk of fire fatalities in buildings it is interesting to compare it with
other accidental causes.
Activity Fatal accident rate per person and for

an average life-time of 70 years.
Motor cycling (UK) 4,1
Scheduled flights (USA) 1,5
Average for disease (USA) 0,7
Travelling by car (USA) 0,6
Travelling by car (UK) 0,4
At home - average (excl, sickness) 0,02
At home - total able bodied persons 0,01

Fires in hotels (UK) 0,01
Fires in dwellings (UK) 0,001
Natural disasters (USA) 0,0001
Table 1 Comparison of fatality statistics from different accidental causes. (Sources [1] [2] [3])
Although the risk of life loss in fire is quite low in comparison with other causes of death, there is a tendency for an
incident involving multiple fatalities, over about 5 deaths, to attract a high level of news coverage. In this sense building
fires tend to be regarded in the same high profile way as air crashes or earthquakes. Nonetheless it is important that the
causes of fire fatalities should be examined with a view to public safety.
A breakdown of fatal casualties by fire location shows for Europe and USA that approximately 80 to 85% of all fatalities
occur in domestic buildings (dwelling, flat) and only 10% in public buildings. On another hand about 95% of all deaths
in buildings are due mostly to smoke or in very few cases to heat.
A survey on non-domestic fires in the Netherlands and France shows that the financial loss of the building content
outweighs the cost of building damage [4].
Losses to building content 43% )
Consequential losses 36% ) 4/5
Losses to building 21% ) 1/5
The indication is that damage to content and consequential losses are more significant financial factors than damage
to buildings.
The global cost of fire includes in Europe the following items:

(in 0/00)
● direct fire losses on building and content 2-5
● consequential losses 0,2 - 3
● human fatalities 0,3 - 2
● fire brigade costs 1-3
● administration costs of insurers 1-3
● education costs, cost of research 0,1 - 0,5
● cost of fire safety measures in buildings 2-5
and varies between 1,3 to 2,0% of the Gross National Product. The last item, e.g. the cost of fire safety measures in
buildings represents as an average about 1 to 3% of the total building costs. In most countries a high investment in fire safety
in buildings brings a reduction on direct, indirect and human losses, Still it is very important to analyze the cost-
effectiveness or in other words the return of investment for each detailed fire precaution measure, see Section 1.5.
1.2 The Fire Risk
The usual way to measure the risk of fire is expressed by
Rfire = P x Lext
where
Rfire = Fire Risk
P = the probability of occurrence of a fire
Lext = probable extent of total losses.
Rfire < Raccepted
Raccepted represents the target risk which varies from country to country.
The risk R can never be zero and we have to accept a certain level of risk for every type of building and/or occupancy.
This level will depend on the number of persons, their ability to escape and the value of content exposed to fire.
Table 2 gives some indications of the occurrence of fire in different types of building.
Type of Source Number of fires per

building million m2 floor area per
occupancy year
INDUSTRIAL United Kingdom [5] 2

BUILDINGS
Germany [6] 2
CIB W14 [7] 2
OFFICES United Kingdom [5] 1
USA [8] 1
CIB W14 [7] 0,5 + 5

DWELLINGS United Kingdom [5] 2
Canada [9] 5
CIB W14 [7] 0,05 +2
Table 2 Occurrence of fire
The probable extent of losses varies for different occupancies and is a function of the degree of compartmentation, type
of building, extent of automatic detection and extinguishing devices (Sprinkler/CO2/Halon), structural fire resistance and of
the involved fire brigade.
The probability of fires getting out of control is strongly related to the type of active measures available, as indicated in
the table below (reference CIB W14 Workshop "Structural Fire Safety" [7]).
Type of active Probability

measures of fires
getting out
of control
Public fire brigade 100/1000
Sprinkler 20/1000
High standard ≥
residential fire 10/1000 :
brigade combined 1/1000
with alarm system

Both sprinkler ≥ 1/10.000

and high standard
residential fire
brigade
Table 3
1.3 Objectives of Fire Safety
Fire safety in buildings is concerned with achieving two fundamental objectives:
1. to reduce the loss of life in, or in the neighbourhood of, building fires.
2. to reduce the property or financial loss in, or in the neighbourhood of, building fires.
In most countries the responsibility for achieving these objectives is divided between government or civic authorities, who
have responsibility for life safety via building regulations, and insurance companies who are concerned with property
loss through their fire insurance policies.
Often the two objectives are thought to be incompatible, even occasionally conflicting. For example, sprinklers and
automatic detection devices tend to be regarded as property protectors rather than life protectors and insurance companies
will commonly offer substantial premium discounts when they are used. They do not figure highly in most national
building regulations, yet the evidence that is available suggests that they are extremely effective in preserving life.
In fact the actions required to achieve life and property preservations are very similar.
Figures 1a and 1b use a systematic approach to identify the major options to reduce losses. They show that practically
all options reduce the risk of human losses as well as the risk of financial direct and consequential losses. In fact we
must realize that global fire safety must ultimately be answered by adequate fire safety concepts.




1.4 Fire Safety Concept
Fire safety concepts are defined as optimal packages of integrated structural, technical and organisational fire
precaution measures which allow well defined objectives agreed by the owner, the fire authority and the designer to be fulfilled.
In order to develop possible fire safety concepts it is essential to show the usual development of an uncontrolled fire as
shown in Figure 2.

Another very similar presentation given as Figure 3 allows the reasons for success or failure of well-defined fire
precaution measures to be visualised.

Analysing this figure we realize that we will be able to overcome the fire risk through three basic concepts which are:
● a structural concept accepting the occurrence of flash-over in a limited number of fire compartments.
● a monitoring concept avoiding the occurrence of flash-over.
● an extinguishing concept avoiding the occurrence of flash-over.
1.4.1 Structural fire safety concept
A structural concept comprises compartmentation combined with an adequate fire resistant structure; it may be the best
choice as long as the normal (cold-design) use of the building allows compartmentation by fire resistant floors and walls.
It is admitted that the fire may reach flashover conditions before fire fighting action begins.
The necessary time of fire resistance should be determined by the condition that the fire should not spread outside the
fire compartment. Hence the separating and (possibly) load-bearing function of the relevant building components should
be maintained during the anticipated duration of the fire.
Whenever possible fire spread should be limited by fireproof partition walls and floors. Combustible building
components should be designed or treated to prevent fire spread by smouldering, eg. in two layer built-up roofs the
combustible layer should be covered by a non-combustible one. The design of the facade should prevent flames climbing
into an upper storey.
It is important to underline that all partition elements like walls, decks, ceilings and roofs (in some cases) must fulfil
three criteria to be classified in a fire class (30/60/90...).
● a load bearing criteria proving the stability of the element.

● an insulation criteria proving the insulation capacity of the element.
● an integrity criteria proving that no flames and no smoke goes through the element.
The load bearing structural elements with no partitioning function only have to fulfil the first criteria.
Fire resistance of the building components is usually prescribed in the building codes where it is normally expressed in units
of time.
The required time for fire resistance is usually expressed in terms of multiples of 30 minutes: for example 30, 60, 90
minutes, related to ISO Standard fire. This means that a component is able to fulfil its function during the required time under
a temperature exposure according to ISO.

Actual office buildings realized in London are excellent examples of this type of concept.
The time-temperature relationship in the standard fire may significantly differ from that in a real fire but modern fire
design procedures allow fire resistance to be determined for natural fires as will be shown in paragraph 1.5. The time
criterion should not be interpreted as an escape time for occupants or an intervention time for the fire brigade.
For structures and their occupancies it is often more effective to use alternative concepts based on the avoidance
of FLASHOVER by means of non-structural active fire precaution measures. Active measures are based on a monitoring or
an extinction concept.
1.4.2 Monitoring concept
The monitoring concept is based on automatic detection devices and automatic alarm transmission to an adequate fire
brigade (around the clock), preferably to an on-site fire brigade.
A monitoring concept (shown in Figure 4) which involves limited or no structural fire resistance may represent the best
choice when the normal (cold-design) use of a building calls for a minimum of compartmentation.

It is most applicable for occupancies with reduced fire load densities, for low to medium-rise buildings in which fires may
be expected to develop slowly and where an effective and quick-responding fire brigade is available.
● Fire detection
Automatic alarm systems are activated by smoke, heat or flames. They work mechanically or by electric or electronic
systems. Preference is given to smoke detection, since this is, in general, by far the most effective way. When detectors
begin to operate, an alarm is automatically set off. For maximum effectiveness, the alarm should be transmitted day and

night to a nearby fire brigade station. Alarm systems with sound generating sirens are almost the only means against
deliberate fires.
Sprinklers act as extinguishing devices and as a "slow" alarm system (heat detectors).
● Fire fighting
The effectiveness of fire fighting mainly depends on the time of arrival of the fire brigade and the access to fire.
The easiest means is the use of hand fire extinguishers, if there are people who detect the fire and who are skilled enough to
use an extinguisher.
Fire fighting services may be either public fire brigades or works (on-site) fire brigades. Work fire brigades have the
advantage of being acquainted with the locality and having shorter distances to reach the fire, but for all fire brigades it
is essential to have access routes for their vehicles. For sprinklers as well as for fire brigades a sufficient water supply
is necessary, and special precautions may be necessary in winter time. In a compartment the effective radius of action
for firemen is up to 20 metres.
1.4.3 Extinguishing concept
The extinguishing concept is based on automatic extinguishing devices such as sprinklers, CO2 or Halon-Systems
with automatic alarm transmission to an adequate fire brigade and the owner. It is illustrated in Figure 5.

The extinguishing concept with limited or no structural fire resistance may represent the best choice when the normal
(cold design) use of a building calls for a minimum of compartmentation. It is most applicable for occupancies with medium
or high fire load densities and fast developing fires.
Building owners often are afraid of the damage which these systems may cause by the water poured on the stored material
or the manufacturing machines. But sprinklers open their valves only at the spot where temperature reaches a critical limit
of 70° to 140°C. It has to be noted that 75% of all fires in premises with sprinklers devices are controlled by 1 to maximum
4 sprinkler heads. This represents approximately 50 m2 watered by opened sprinkler heads. By means of an automatic
alarm transmission system, they inform owner and fire brigade at once. It is important to know that automatic detection
and extinguishing systems have to be maintained once or twice a year by specialists.
The alternative concepts of monitoring and/or extinguishing are gaining more and more acceptance in many countries.
The brochure "Steel and Fire Safety: a global approach" edited by the Steel Promotion Committee of EUROFER, gives
a survey how far these alternative concepts with no or reduced fire resistance requirements are internationally accepted.
1.5 Cost-Effectiveness
The type of occupancy and the choice of the structural "cold-design" are the main variable governing the amount of
fire protection measures necessary and thus the cost of the total FIRE SAFETY CONCEPT. The cold-design concept and
the fire safety concept should be integrated from the beginning in order to obtain an optimum safety level with a minimum
of investment. This aim can only be reached through a dialogue between the designers of a building and the fire authority at
a very early stage of the planning.
An outline cost-benefit analysis indicates that the return on investment in fire precautions is variable.
Figure 6 shows that, as the expenditure level and therefore also the level of safety precautions is chosen higher, the
loss expectation due to fire will decrease. This relation is indicated schematically by the broken line. The loss-
expenditure curve has a hyperbolic shape which means that, beyond a certain point, there is little benefit in increasing the
level of protection.

From the relation between expenditure and loss expectation it is possible to deduce the relation between expenditure
and overall cost due to fire (= loss expectation + expenditure).

See the solid curve, the minimum of which corresponds to the optimum solution.
In this context it should be pointed out that in general the expenditure must not fall below a certain minimum, having regard
to the requirements of life safety and/or the minimum level of acceptability for purposes of insurance. These aspects are
also indicated in the figure.
Finally, attention must be drawn to the criteria by which the behaviour of the structure under fire conditions will have to
be judged. In applying measures with a view to improving the fire safety of a building it will certainly be necessary to
consider what the ultimate effect of such measures will be. It is known from experience that major building fires may
damage the structure to such an extent that demolition of the building becomes necessary even though it has not collapsed.
The money spent on protecting it from collapse will then have to be regarded as lost. In such a case it would be better either
to limit the precautions merely to a level where escape of the occupants in the event of a fire is ensured, or to choose
an alternative fire safety concept.
For a detailed cost-benefit-analysis a differentiated approach is necessary by calculating the annual costs of fire safety
and trying to optimize them by comparison of different fire safety concepts. The basic formula is the following one:
Annual costs of fire safety =
[Sum of all investments for fire safety].[the mortgage rate in %]
+ [The repetitive maintenance costs per year]
+ [The annual premiums for the chosen fire safety concept (fire, acts of God, liability, business interruption)]
In most cases alternative concepts will show more cost-effective than structural concept.
For architects and engineers the crucial question consists in the definition of the level of fire resistance requirements they
will have to fulfil, taking into consideration the global fire safety approach and the optimization of the cost-effectiveness
of adequate modern fire safety concepts.
2. OVERVIEW ON ASSESSMENT METHODS OF STRUCTURAL

FIRE RESISTANCE OF LOAD- BEARING ELEMENTS
Fire Resistance is governed by two basic models:
● a HEAT MODEL
● a STRUCTURAL MODEL
which normally have three to four levels of sophistication.
Traditional methods of assessment are based on the standard fire curve as far as HEAT MODELS are concerned, but
more quantitive methods are available based on natural fires.
Table 4 visualises the existing three assessment methods, where:
Felement is the fire resistance in minutes of the chosen element.
Frequired is the required fire resistance.
ASSESSMENT METHODS 1 and 2 are GRADING SYSTEMS
F-required and F-element are usually graded in catalogues or by calculation in FIRE-RESISTANCE CLASSES starting with
15 and 30 minutes and continuing by steps of 30/60/90...minutes
ASSESSMENT METHOD 3 (a + b) are ENGINEERING METHODS using models of real fire, the proof of the stability of
the structure has to be shown.

Each method is discussed below together with the improvements that a closer approach to reality will bring.

2.1 Current Fire Resistance Requirements = Assessment Method 1
The term "Current Fire Resistance Requirements" is taken generally to mean the values fixed by NATIONAL CODES.
They always use Fire Resistance classes (15/30/60/90...minutes) which represent the time an isolated element will resist
the action of a STANDARD FIRE as defined by the heat exposure given by ISO-834. The level of requirements is a function
of the number of storeys, and depending on the country, can be a function of the occupancy of the building and of the fire load.
2.2 Fire Resistance Requirements Based on T-Equivalent = Assessment Method 2
The concept of equivalent or effective fire duration provides a first but important step towards a more differentiated
approach. The equivalent fire duration (Te) is a quantity which relates a non-standard or natural fire exposure to the
standard fire, in a way as is shown in Figure 7 and can be calculated if the fire load density and the ventilation conditions of
the fire compartment are known.

In more advanced concepts of the equivalent fire duration, the effects of the thermal properties of the building
components surrounding the fire compartment are accounted for.
For current occupancies and their types of fire compartments, the T-equivalent concept gives a reasonable approach to
the reality of fire.
Basically the value of the required fire resistance (Frequired) should be:
Frequired = γ . Te
where γ is a partial safety factor for model uncertainties. For normal cases γ is often taken equal to one, due to the fact that
a part of the fire load burns outside the fire compartment and that the combustion is never a total one.
Normal cases Frequired = Te for Te calculated on the assumption of a 100% combustion of all fire loads burning inside the
fire compartment.
Currently Frequired is normally fixed at the next 15 or 30 minute step (15/30/60/90...)
This method is aimed to ensure that elements designed for γ . T-equivalent will resist the action of a natural fire
without collapsing even if no fire brigade action occurs.
This is the main feature of the T-equivalent concept.
An important advantage of this concept is that the tremendous amount of knowledge and data given by past fire testing can
be used to verify the results of any calculation.
Many countries have already officially adopted this T-equivalent method in a more or less sophisticated way.
The design guide for Structural Fire Safety prepared by the CIB Workshop W14 [7] give the following formula for
T-equivalent:
T e = c . w . qf
where c is a conversion factor accounting for the effect of the thermal inertia (heat absorption) of the fire
compartment.
where w is a ventilation factor accounting for all openings (windows, doors, gaps, skylights, fanlights) which allow
heat to leave and fresh air to enter the fire compartment.
where qf is the fire load density related to the floor area of the fire compartment. Appendix 1 of the design guide gives
a detailed overview on evaluation, individual assessment and statistical values of fire load densities.
The following table gives the range of the average values for the variable fire load density in MJ/m2 of some well-
defined occupancies (combustion factor 1,0)

dwellings 330 : 780 MJ/m2
hospitals 100 : 330 MJ/m2
hotels 310 : 330 MJ/m2
offices 80 : 550 MJ/m2 (excluding files, storage, library and special rooms)
schools 215 : 340 MJ/m2 (excluding corridors, collection rooms, material, storage rooms)
shopping centres 400 : 900 MJ/m2 (excluding USA - figures)
parking facility 200 : 300 MJ/m2
The fixed fire load density (fixed to the building) for these occupancies varies between approximately 50 MJ/m2 (car park)
and 450 MJ/m2 (rooms of teachers in a school).
Globally the total fire load density may be ranged in the following classes:
LOW less than 250 MJ/m2 (no flashover car park

possible):
MEDIUM 500 to 1000 MJ/m2: dwellings, hospitals, homes, schools, offices, etc.
HIGH 1000 to 2000 MJ/m2: manufacturing and storage of combustible goods < 150 kg/m2
VERY HIGH more than 2000 MJ/m2: storage, warehouses

2.3 Engineering Design Methods Based on Natural Fires = Assessment Method 3
2.3.1 Introduction
These methods will only be introduced as a last and most sophisticated method of defining the correct level of Structural
Fire Resistance.
Modern computer-assisted calculation methods are available which allow any Heat Exposure Model to be introduced.
In any case the reality of fire must be introduced through more or less simplified Heat Exposure Models. Two types of
models are currently used:
● The compartment fire model with a uniform temperature distribution in the fire compartment after the occurrence of flashover.
● Models with non-uniform temperature distribution in the fire compartment (Zone and Field Models)
All these engineering methods are based on an improved Heat Model in connection with an improved Structural Model.
The verification consists in proving that the structure remains stable under the action of a real fire for the loads present at
the time of the fire.
It is emphasized that with slight modifications Assessment Method 3 can also be used for buildings where only a limited
time period, long enough to provide time for a safe escape and rescue, is required.
The interest in these engineering fire design methods will certainly be awakened by the new generation of Eurocodes [10,
11] introducing fire as an accidental situation.
2.3.2 Compartment fires = assessment method 3a
This method applies for fire compartments of a size usually found in hotels, offices, schools, dwellings, etc. with an
equal distribution of the fire load. The assumption of a uniform distribution of temperature in the fire compartment is
then correct. This method introduces the following main variables:
● The amount of equally distributed combustible materials in the fire compartment = mean fire load density (fixed and mobile);
● The combustion rate of variable combustible materials;
● The geometry of the fire compartment;
● The ventilation of the fire compartment;

● The thermal response of walls and floors enclosing the fire compartment.
Some variables may be approximated or even ignored. Two variable will always have a strong influence.
● The fire load density.

● The ventilation of the fire compartment.
The influence of fire load density and ventilation of compartment gas temperature is illustrated in Figures 8a and 8b.
They correspond to a simplified compartment fire theory as a basic heat exposure model for engineering fire design.
Current compartment fire theories neglect the pre-flashover period, the structural response being mainly governed by
post flashover temperature evolution.


2.3.3 Fire modelling - assessment method 3b

These methods try to evaluate the evolution of fire as a non-uniform problem where for a given compartment and a
known localized fire load temperature will be governed by
● The location of a local fire

● The growth of such a local fire
● The size, geometry, ventilation and thermal inertia of the fire compartment.
Therefore the temperature evolution will be a function of:
● Time, and
● Location of a give structural element in this compartment.
These methods must be calibrated. International tests have been carried out either in large fabrication halls (CTICM
France...) or in test facilities with large compartments (Finland/Espoo) which allowed the temperature evolution of natural
fires to be measured at different points. These methods are useful for all cases of localized fire in large compartments or
large spaces.
2.4 Some Thoughts on Fire Resistance Requirements Considering the Effect of Active Fire Protection
If it is possible to avoid the occurrence of any flashover situation by means of adequate active measures (automatic
detection, adequate fire brigade, sprinklers; CO2, Halon), the structure will never be endangered by fire.
So independently of any assessment method the fire resistance requirements may be reduced or mostly zero rated, as long
as the probability of success of the active measures is high enough.
In fact an increasing number of countries like Sweden, Switzerland, and Germany allow for reduced or no Fire
Resistance Requirements when the probability of avoiding flashover or of localising a fire in a small area is high enough.
Some other countries are moving to this direction. These alternative concepts will normally be limited to occupancies
which will not undergo significant change of use and to buildings with a limited number of storeys. The major
argument brought forth against these Alternative Concepts refers to the reliability of the active measures in the sense that,
if they fail to suppress an initial fire, then a reduced fire resistance of the structure could exhibit a considerable hazard.
We should however consider the risks of failure case by case.

The fire modelling assessment method is an appropriate way to prove the effectiveness of alternative fire safety concepts.
In fact the dependency of structural fire requirements on potential structural hazards is uncritically accepted whilst
the dependency on non-structural measures (governing the frequency of severe fires) is often not generally acknowledged as
a design parameter. Fire modelling will ultimately allow the influence of extinguishing actions (automatic devices such
as Sprinklers and fire brigade actions) to be quantified and incorporated into the assessment.
For the Assessment Method 2 (T-equivalent-method), the CIB Design Guide for Structural Fire Safety proposes to multiply
the value of te given under point 2.2. of this paper by a differentiation factor accounting for special fire-fighting
provisions (active measures). This differentiation factor will vary in function of the safety level, effectiveness and liability
of the chosen special fire-fighting provision and is always lower than the unity.
● The objectives of fire safety are to reduce the loss of life and property or financial losses in, or in the neighbourhood
of, building fires.
● For this purpose fire safety concepts are used which are packages of integrated structural, technical and organisational
fire precaution measures agreed by the owner, the fire authority and the designer.
● Different fire safety concepts are available including structural, monitoring , extinguishing concepts.
● The definition of the level of fire resistance requirements by architects and engineers takes into account the global fire
safety approach used and the cost-effectiveness of modern fire safety concepts.
● Several types of assessment method for structural fire resistance are used, i.e. grading systems and engineering methods.
4. REFERENCES
[1] Kletz T.A., Symposium on Loss Prevention in Chemical Industry - Inst. Chem. Eng., Newcastle on Tyne, 1971.
[2] Sowby F.D., Symposium on Transporting Radioactive Materials, April 1964.
[3] Fry J.F., Inst. Fire Eng. Edinburgh (1970) 30 77.
[4] Field Survey on the Role of Steel Structures in Industrial Fires. Evaluation of European Research carried out in France
and in the Netherlands. ECSC-Agreement Number: 7219-SA-307 & 607.

[5] Baldwin R. and Thomas P.H., Passive and active fire protection - the optimum combination. Fire Research Station.
Fire Research Note Number 963, London, 1973.
[6] DIN 18 230 : Baulicher Brandschutz im Industriebau. Teil I : Rechnerisch erforderliche Feuerwiderstandsdauer.
Deutsches Institut für Normung e.V., Berlin.
[7] CIB (Conseil International du Bâtiment) W14 Workshop "Structural Fire Safety": A Conceptional Approach Towards
a Probability Based Design Guide on Structural Fire Safety. Fire Safety, Volume 6, Number 1, 1983. Elsevier Sequoia S.
A., Lausanne.
[8] Wiggs, R., BOMA International Office Building, Fire Survey, Skyscraper Management, 58 (6), 1973.
[9] Lie, T. T., Safety Factors for Fire Loads, Canadian Journal of Civil engineering, Vol 6, No. 4, December 1979.
[10] Eurocode 1: "Basis of Design and Actions on Structures": Part 2.7: Actions on Structures Exposed to Fire, CEN
(in preparation).
[11] Eurocodes 2-6: "Design of Concrete, Steel, Composite, Timber and Masonry Structures": Parts 10: Structural Fire
Design, CEN (in preparation).
1. European Convention for Constructional Steelwork, "Design Manual on European Recommendations for Fire Safety of
Steel Structures", ECCS Publication 35, Brussels, ECCS, 1985.
2. Robinson, J., "Fire Protection and Fire Engineering", Chapter 34 - Steel Designers' Manual 5th ed, Oxford,
Blackwell Scientific Publications, 1992.
3. Fire Protection for Structural Steel in Buildings, SCI P-013, 2nd Revised Ed, Association of Fire Protection Contractors
and Manufacturers, ASFPCM, Aldershot, 1992.
4. Lawson, R. M., "Fire Resistance and Protection of Structural Steelwork", Chapter 7.3 Constructional Steel Design:
An International Guide, Elsevier Applied Science, London, 1992.
5. Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, 1st Ed, National Fire Protection Association, NFPA, USA, 1988.
6. Steel and Fire Safety - A Global Approach, Eurofer Steel Promotion Committee Brochure, Eurofer, Brussels, 1990.

ESDEP WG 4B
PROTECTION: FIRE
Lecture 4B.2: Background to Thermal

Analysis
OBJECTIVE/SCOPE
To introduce a basic background of thermal analysis for fire situations.
PREREQUISITES
Basic knowledge of thermodynamics
RELATED LECTURES
Lecture 4B.1: Introduction to Fire Safety
Lecture 4B.5: Calculation Examples
SUMMARY
Thermal models are presented and simple rules are given for calculating the transient thermal response of steel elements,
with or without a protective coating. The concept of the section factor of the steel section is introduced. Composite
steel-concrete elements (columns and slabs) are also discussed.
1. INTRODUCTION
Fire is a very complex phenomenon which can take many forms and involves different kinds of chemical reactions.
From a structural point of view, only the fires that can cause structural damage are of interest and, in this case, fire can
be regarded as an accidental situation.
Design criteria for structural fire safety require some assumptions both for the structural and heating models.
Fire is usually represented by a temperature-time curve which gives the average temperature reached during fire in a small
size compartment or in the furnaces used for fire resistance tests. International standards are based on the standard fire
defined by the heat exposure given by the ISO 834 curve (Figure 1). In some cases reference can be made to natural fires
which have different temperature-time relationships depending on fire load density and ventilation conditions (Figures 2a
and 2b).




In more complex analyses different heating models can be considered to represent the temperature development in
different zones of the fire compartment or in the neighbourhood of it. This is the case, for instance, for many large
industrial buildings or for external columns near to the windows of a building.
The response of a structural member exposed to fire is governed by the rate that it is heated because the mechanical
properties of materials decrease as temperature rises and, likewise, the structural resistance of a member reduces
with temperature rise.
Collapse occurs at the time when the structural resistance reduces to the applied action effects. This fire resistance time
can happen in a very short time when the increase of temperature is rapid. Steel elements have an unfavourable behaviour
in this respect due to the very high thermal conductivity of the steel. A rapid heating of the whole profile takes place as a
result. In comparison, composite elements have a favourable behaviour due to the great thermal inertia of the elements and
the low thermal conductivity of the concrete.
In this lecture some basic aspects of thermal analysis are discussed. The general equation for heat transfer is
presented, followed by the simplified method which may be adopted for steel members. Thermal gradients across the
section and along the member are neglected.
In a fire, the temperature of the steel increases similarly but with some delay compared to the gas temperature of the
fire (Figure 3). The delay depends on the thermal inertia of the element as well as on the intensity of heat flow passing
through its external surface. If the element has an applied protective coating, this delay is longer. For bare elements the
delay depends on the section factor of the element.

In Figure 3, the temperature rise in three different cases is compared for the same element. Curve (a) represents the delay
for the bare element, while curves (b) and (c) apply to the cases of some protective coating, without and with moisture content.
2. HEAT TRANSFER EQUATION

The rise of temperature in a structural steel member depends on the heat transfer between the fire environment and the element.
According to the second law of thermodynamics, energy in the form of heat is transferred between any two elements which
are at different temperatures. Conduction, radiation and convection are the modes by which thermal energy flows from
regions of high temperature to those of low temperature.
On the external surface of building elements all three mechanisms are present. Inside the elements, heat is transferred
from point to point only by conduction.
The general approach to studying the increase of temperature in structural elements exposed to fire is based on the
integration of the Fourier heat transfer equation for non-steady heat conduction inside the member. The integration of
this equation gives the energy balance between the net rate of heat flow into the element through its faces, the heat flow in
the element per unit time and unit volume and the rate of change of internal energy. The change in internal energy causes
the change in temperature.
The solution of this equation can be obtained when the initial and boundary conditions are known.
For fire, the initial conditions consist of the temperature distribution at the beginning of the analysis (usually the
room temperature before fire); boundary conditions must be defined on every surface of the structure.
Usually fire simulations are based on the temperature history of the fire, for instance the standard fire curve of ISO
834. However, any other fire conditions can be assumed, using an input time-temperature history for the fire.
Numerical methods are necessary to solve the heat flow equation. Many computer programs are available and it is now
possible to carry out thermal analysis for very complex structural elements.
In many cases, the general form of the equation can be greatly simplified. For instance, thermal conductivity, density
and specific heat can be assumed to be independent of temperature; internal heat generation is absent or can be neglected;
and three-dimensional problems can be studied as two-dimensional or one-dimensional idealizations.
3. HEATING OF STEEL SECTIONS

Since no heat is generated within the body of steel elements and since the material is isotropic, the Fourier heat
transfer equation is:

(1)
The quantity ks /ρscs is known as the thermal diffusivity and varies with the temperature.
The specific mass of steel (ρs) can be considered independently from the temperature (ρs=7850kg/m3); while the
thermal conductivity ks and the specific heat cs are dependent of the temperature (Figures 4 and 5) but for a
simplified calculation it is possible to make reference to constant values (cs=520 J/kg°C and ks = 45 W/m°C, for all grades
of steel).


The solution of the thermal transient can be obtained by numerical methods as in the general case; but thermal conductivity
is high enough to allow differences of temperature in the cross-section to be neglected.
This assumption means that thermal resistance to heat flow is negligible. Any heat supplied to the steel section is considered

to be instantly distributed to give a uniform steel temperature. With this assumption the energy balance can be made not
only with reference to an infinitesimally small element, but also to the whole section of the exposed steel element (Figure 6).

The quantity of heat transferred per unit length in the time interval ∆t is:
∆Q = K . Am . (θf - θs) . ∆t (2)
where:
°
K is the total heat transfer coefficient (W/m2 C)
Am is the perimeter surface area per unit length exposed to fire (m2/m)
θf is the temperature of hot gases (°C)
θs is the temperature of steel during the time interval ∆t (°C)
If this quantity of energy is entirely absorbed by the section, i.e. no loss of heat is considered, the internal energy of the
unit length of a steel element increases by the same quantity:
∆Q = cs . ρs . A . ∆θs (3)
where:
A is the cross-sectional area of the member (m2).
The temperature rise of the steel is given by combining Equations (2) and (3) as follows:
∆θs = [Κ/(cs/ρs)].[Am /A].(θf - θs).∆t (4)
Solving this incremental equation step by step gives the temperature development of the steel element during the fire. To
assure the numerical convergence of the solution some upper limit must be taken for the time increment ∆t. In Eurocode 3

Part 1.2 [1] it is suggested that:
where:
∆t is in seconds
Am /A is in m-1
It is apparent that an important parameter in determining the rise of temperature of the steel section is Am /A. This is
often known as the "section factor" (sometimes given as F/V, or A/V, or Hp /A in different countries), see Figure 7.


When the profile is in contact with another element, for example, a concrete slab, which has a thermal conductivity
greatly lower than the thermal conductivity of the steel, the effective exposed perimeter Am must be calculated taking
into account only the part of the surface directly exposed. This requires an assumption of an adiabatic condition at the
contact surface. The result is a safe solution: in fact some thermal energy passes through the colder body and, if it is
neglected, the increase of the temperature in the steel element is higher.
It is very important to understand this point, because it gives the key to deciding if the simplified solution of the
thermal problem is appropriate or if it is necessary to solve the complete heat transfer equation.
For instance it is appropriate to consider the thermal gradients in the steel cross-section or the heat flux transmitted from
the steel to the concrete where the concrete slab is supported by a profiled steel sheet or in composite elements (Figures 8
and 9). In this case a finite element model can be used.

Eurocode 3 Part 1.2 permits many practical problems to be solved in a simplified way [1].
Heat transfer information is presented for bare elements, as well as for protected elements. Two types of coating are
considered for protected elements: dry insulation materials, and materials containing a significant amount of moisture.
The ECCS publication 'European Recommendations for Fire Safety of Steel Structures' [2] also gives a simplified
formula which expresses the relationship between the time, t, of exposure under a standard fire (expressed in minutes),
the critical temperature θs,cr of the element, the section factor Am /A and the properties of the insulation materials,
their thickness d and their thermal conductivity λi.
For unprotected elements the equation is:
t = 0,54 (θcr - 50) (Am /A)-0,6
It can be solved in two ways:

θcr = 1,85 t (Am /A)0,6 + 50
or
Am /A = 0,36 [(θcr - 50)/t]1,67
and is valid within following ranges:
t = 10 to 80 min
θcr = 400 to 600°C
Similarly, for sections protected by a light insulation material, the equations are:
t = 40(θcr - 140).[dA/λiAm]0,77
or
d = 0,0083 [t/(θcr - 140)]1,3 .[Am/A].λi
In the above equation d is the protection thickness (in metres) and λi is the thermal conductivity of the material (in W/m°C).
These equations can be expressed also in a nomogram which is very practical for design purposes (Figure 10).

Equation (4) shows the three principal factors on which the increase of temperature of steel depends: the total heat
transfer coefficient the ratio between the exposed perimeter of the element Am and its cross-section A; and the
difference between the temperatures of the hot gases and the steel element.
The total heat transfer coefficient, K, depends on the heat transfer coefficients for convection and radiation, αc and αr, and,

if there is a protective coating, on the thermal conductivity of the protective material and its thickness, such that:
K = {1/(αc + αr) + d/λi}-1 (5)
For the usual condition of fire convection (as in a fire test furnace) the value of αc can be assumed:
°
αc = 25 W/m2 C (6)
while αr can be calculated by the expression:
αr = 5,77εr {(θf + 273)4 - (θs + 273)4}×10-8/(θf - θs)
where εr is the resultant emissivity of the flames, combustion gases and steel surface. Its value can be assumed according
to Eurocode 3 [1], i.e.
εr = 0,5
The value of the section factor (Am /A) can vary over a very large range. The rate of temperature rise in a small thick
section will be slow, whilst in a large thin section it will be more rapid.
The differences between section factors are the principal reason for the different behaviour of different steel elements
exposed to fire. If the thermal inertia is larger, the increase of temperature is slower and the fire resistance is higher under
the same loads as a result.
Values of section factors can be found in many publications. It must be noted that the section factor Am /A represents the
ratio of the effective surface exposed to fire to the volume of the element. Where there is a protective coating, the surface
to take into account is not the external surface of the profile, but the inner as, for instance, in the case of boarded
encasement (Figure 7).
4. THERMAL RESPONSE OF COMPOSITE STEEL - CONCRETE ELEMENTS

4.1 Introduction
Two different composite elements are to be considered; composite columns and composite slabs.
For composite columns (Figure 11), a distinction is made between:
a. rolled I-profiles encased in concrete
b. rolled I-profiles with concrete between the flanges
c. concrete filled steel sections with or without reinforcement.
For composite slabs, the discussion is limited to composite concrete slabs with profiled steel sheet. Some typical cross-
sections are shown in Figure 8.
The rules are based on the ECCS-Technical Notes for the calculation of the fire resistance of composite columns and
composite concrete slabs with profiled steel sheet, exposed to the standard fire [3, 4]. These Technical Notes provided
for designers reflect the present state of knowledge based on recent research results.
4.2 Thermal Response of Composite Columns
ISO standard fire exposure on all sides of the column is taken as the starting point. A uniform temperature distribution
is assumed over the height of the column. Under practical fire conditions, however, a significant non-uniform
temperature distribution in the concrete over the cross-section must be expected, as shown in Figure 12 for a concrete
filled steel column.

As a consequence, two dimensional heat flow models must be used. The calculation of the temperature field over the
cross-section is only possible by means of a computer. In practice this means that a separate thermal analysis must be made
for all relevant cross-sections.
4.3 Thermal Analysis of Composite Slabs
Composite slabs have not only a load bearing function but also a separating function in comparison to many
traditional building components. As a result the insulation and integrity criteria should be considered when determining the
fire resistance of composite slabs. For composite steel-concrete floors the integrity criterion is not difficult to fulfil.
Normally the floor slab is cast in situ producing joints which are adequately sealed. Cracks which may occur in the
concrete during fire exposure are unimportant because the steel sheet will prevent penetration by flames and hot gases.
For these floors an explicit check on integrity is generally not necessary.
The following discussion considers the analysis for the criteria of insulation. Rules are presented for determining
the temperature distribution as far as such information is necessary to evaluate the load bearing resistance. The
rules concentrate on the required additional reinforcement, since without such reinforcement the fire resistance of
composite slabs is only about 30 minutes.
As for composite columns, two-dimensional heat flow models are necessary for concrete slabs with profiled steel sheets.
These models are however too cumbersome for every day design. To overcome this problem, the profiled slab is
schematized to a flat slab with an effective thickness equal to a weighted average of the real slab thickness. For various
periods of standard fire exposure, temperature distributions can then be determined. From such distributions a rule
for minimum slab thickness necessary to fulfil the criterion of insulation can be derived. This rule is given in Figure 13
together with some test results. It is seen that conservative solutions are obtained.

The temperature of the additional reinforcement plays a crucial role in structural analysis. Therefore,
experimentally determined equations have been established from which this temperature may be calculated as a function of
the position of the reinforcement bar in the slab, (given by u1, u2, u3) and the period of standard fire exposure, t. Figure
14 shows the results of some validation tests.

● The response of a structural member exposed to fire is governed by the heating rate of the element which is directly related
to the section factor of the element.
● The general approach to study the increase of temperature in structural elements is based on the Fourier heat transfer
equation. The general solution of the heat transfer equation is possible by means of computer programs.
● In numerous practical cases simplified solutions can be used to find the temperature reached by steel profiles under
standard fire exposures.
6. REFERENCES
[1] Eurocode 3 Part 1.2, 'Structural Fire Design of Steel Structures' CEN (in preparation).
[2] European Convention for Constructional Stelwork, "European Recommendations for Fire Safety of Steel Structures",
ECCS Publication 30, Elsevier, 1983.
[3] European Convention for Constructional Steelwork, "Calculation of the Fire Resistance of Composite Columns Exposed
to the Standard Fire", 1986.
[4] European Convention for Constructional Steelwork, "Calculation of the Fire Resistance of Composite Concrete Slabs
with Profiled Steel Sheet Exposed to the Standard Fire", 1984.
1. Eurocode 4 Part 1.2, 'Structural Fire Design of Composite Structures' CEN (in preparation).
2. Quast, U., Hass, R. and Rudolph, K., "STABA/F, A Computer Programme for the Determination of Load Bearing
and Deformation Behaviour of Uni-Axial Structural Elements under Fire Action", Technical University of
Braunschweig, March 1984.
3. Schleich, J. B., Dotreppe, J. C. and Franssen, J. M., "Numerical Simulations of Fire Resistance Tests and Steel and
Composite Structural Elements or Frames", Report presented at the First International Symposium on Fire Safety
Science. Gaithersburg, Maryland, USA, October 1985.

ESDEP WG 4B
PROTECTION: FIRE
Lecture 4B.3: Background to Structural

(Mechanical Fire) Analysis
OBJECTIVE/SCOPE
Demonstration of calculation of load bearing resistance of structural elements submitted to an increase of

temperature. Guideline for the calculation of the fire rating of steel and composite elements.
PREREQUISITES
Lecture 6.3: Elastic Instability Modes
RELATED LECTURES
SUMMARY
The failure resistance of a structural element subjected to fire is calculated from the applied load during the fire and
plastic theory. Differentiation is made between bending elements and axially loaded elements and between uniformly
heated sections and sections with thermal gradients. The main factors influencing stability in fire are presented.
Structural analysis of composite columns and composite slabs is also discussed.
1. INTRODUCTION
The increase of the temperature of steel and concrete in composite steel-concrete elements, leads to a decrease of
mechanical properties such as yield stress, Young's modulus, and ultimate compressive strength of concrete (Figures 1 -
4) Thus, when a steel or a composite structure is submitted to a fire action, its load bearing resistance decreases. If the
duration and the intensity of the fire are large enough, the load bearing resistance can fall to the level of the applied
load resulting in the collapse of the structure (Figure 5). This state is illustrated by:





Pu (θcr) = P
where:
P is the applied load in fire conditions
Pu (θcr) is the load bearing resistance for a temperature θcrit (the critical temperature), and
Pu is the load bearing resistance at room temperature.
The objective of this lecture is to give the background for structural analysis of this situation.
2. APPLIED LOAD
The applied load is obtained by considering the accidental combination of the mechanical actions such as: dead load, live
load, wind (only for bracing), snow.
Due to the low probability that both fire and extreme severity of external actions occur at the same time, only the
following accidental combinations are considered:
1,0 GK + ψ1 QK,1 + Σ ψ2,i QK,i
where:
GK is the characteristic value of permanent actions
QK,1 is the characteristic value of the main variable actions
QK,i is the characteristic value of other variable actions
ψ1 is the frequent value of the main variable actions

ψ2,i is the average of the other variable actions.
Generally, in fire: ψ1 = 0,5 and ψ2,i = 0
Apart from bracings, QK,1 and QK,2 generally correspond to imposed loads and snow loads.
3. DETERMINATION OF THE FIRE LOAD BEARING RESISTANCE

The calculation of the load bearing resistance of a structure submitted to fire can be made in several ways depending on
the kind of structure and the requirement for the duration of stability in fire.
The simplest method of calculation is an analysis in which the structure is represented by individual members
considered directly exposed to fire. In such calculations, support and boundary conditions should be assumed as for
normal conditions of use. External forces and moments on the structural member are deduced from a global structural
analysis for normal conditions of use.
This analysis is generally sufficient when requirements of fire stability are expressed in terms of duration of a standard fire.
The load bearing resistance can also be deduced from a sub-assembly analysis or a general structural analysis by taking
into account interaction between the various members, expansion, and localisation of the fire.
Such sub-assembly analysis leads to a more accurate knowledge of the behaviour of the structure in fire. However
these analyses require the use of computer modelling.
4. LOAD BEARING RESISTANCE OF STEEL MEMBERS

The critical temperature (θcrit) which leads to the failure is calculated for a steel structure assuming a uniform
temperature distribution along and across the members.
Some examples of calculation of the critical temperature where the theory of plasticity applies are given below.
Four kinds of structural elements are considered: tensile members, columns, beams and beam columns [1].
4.1 Tension Member

At room temperature, the ultimate tensile resistance is given by:
Np = A . fy
where:
A is the cross-section of the member,
fy is the yield stress.
At a given uniform temperature θ, through the member, the ultimate tensile resistance is:
Np (θ) = A . ψ(θ) . fy
ψ(θ) is the strength reduction of steel at θ, and is given by Figure 2.
The collapse of the member will occur at the temperature θcrit when:
Np (θcrit) = N
where: N = the applied load in fire conditions
This formula can also be written as:
A . ψ(θcrit) . fy = A . σ
where: σ = applied stress in fire conditions
Thus ψ(θcrit) = σ/fy
or, ψ(θcrit) = A σ/A.fy = N/NP = P/Pu

Therefore, knowing P/Pu it is possible to determine, using Figure 2, the value of the steel critical temperature (θcrit) for which
ψ(θcrit) is equal to P/Pu.
4.2 Columns
A similar calculation as for tensile members applies but the analysis has to include the effects of column buckling. This is
taken into account by modifying the ultimate load bearing resistance by the buckling coefficient. In order to correlate
test results on columns with the basic performance of steel at elevated temperatures, it is necessary to consider a
correction factor, κ, such that:
ψ(θcrit) = κP/Pu
Both P and Pu should be evaluated using the appropriate bucking coefficient. The buckling coefficient for a column at
a temperature θ is given by:
χ(θ) = 1/{φ(θ ) + [φ(θ )2 - (θ)2]1/2 ≤ 1
where: φ(θ) = 0,5 (1 + α( (θ) - 0,2) + (θ)2)
and (θ) =
The end conditions of the column have to be taken into account. Generally the cold parts at the ends of the column lead to
a lower value of buckling slenderness, λ, than under normal conditions.
The value of the correction factor, κ, is equal to 1,2. It is used to compensate for the choice of fy which is related to
the effective yield stress (the stress level at which the stress-strain relationship of steel tends to a yield plateau for a
certain temperature) and not to the yield stress at 0,2% strain.
4.3 Beams
4.3.1 Simply Supported Beam

The maximum bending moment of a simply supported beam uniformly loaded (by load P over its length) is:
M = PL/8
and the corresponding maximum stress is:
σ = M / Se
where:
Se is the minimum elastic modulus of the section
To obtain collapse according to plastic theory, it is necessary that a plastic hinge forms at mid-span. The failure will
occur when the total load on the beam is:
Pu = 8 Mu/L
where:
Mu is the plastic bending moment resistance given by:
Mu = Z . fy
and Z is the plastic modulus of the section
When the temperature is equal to θ, this plastic bending moment resistance is equal to:
Mu(θ) = Z . ψ(θ) . fy
For a beam subject to a load of P, the collapse will occur at θcrit when:
Pu(θcrit) = P or Mu(θcrit) = M

i.e. when ψ(θcrit) = Se . σ/Z . fy = σ/(f . fy) = P/Pu
where f = Z/Se is the shape factor of the steel section (~ 1,10 to 1,3).
4.3.2 Continuous Beam
When the beam is statically indeterminate, several plastic hinges are necessary to obtain collapse. For beams
designed accordingly to elastic theory, a special coefficient (χ) has to be taken into account in the calculation of the
critical temperature for the collapse condition. This coefficient takes account of the redistribution of moments in
the intermediate structure (plastic analysis).
For example a continuous beam on three supports, uniformly loaded, has a maximum bending moment (M) at the
middle support, where:
M = PL/8
i.e. a value equal to that at midspan of a simply supported beam.
In fire a plastic hinge will form at this middle support as the temperature increases when:
Mu(θ1) = M
For the simply supported beam the failure occurs at this temperature (θ1), whereas the continuous beam still needs an
increase of temperature up to θcrit in order that other plastic hinges form in the spans (Figure 6), leading to collapse of the beam.

The load bearing resistance of this continuous beam is:
Pu(θcrit) = 12 . Mu(θcrit)/L
so ψ(θcrit) = 8.Se.σ/12 . Z . fy = 8.σ/12.f.fy = P/Pu
The ratio 12/8 = 1,5 = χ is the statically indeterminate coefficient, or plastic redistribution coefficient.
4.4 Beam Column
When axial force and bending moment act together on the same structural element, its critical temperature can be
obtained from the following formula:
where:
χmin is the lesser of the buckling coefficients χy and χz about the yy or zz axis and
ky and kz are the reduction factors for the yy and zz axes respectively (see Lectures 7.10)
4.5 Main Parameters
The various parameters which have a strong influence on the critical temperature may be found by study of the
above mentioned formulae.
The general formula for bending elements is:
ψ(θcrit) = σ/χ.f.fy
χ is the coefficient given in Section 4.3.2 above.
and for columns and beam columns is:
ψ(θcrit) = N/χminNp + Σ(kiMi/Mpi)
These show that ψ will decrease and subsequently the critical temperature will increase, when:
● the stress (= applied load) decreases or,

● the yield stress of the steel grade increases or,
● the shape factor (f) increases or,

● the statically indeterminate coefficient increases.
The critical temperature can also be increased by using other steel grades with better behaviour when heated.
4.6 Steel Elements with Non-uniform Temperature Distribution
In reality it is very seldom that temperature across and/or along elements is uniform.
Thermal gradients occur for several reasons, for example, the presence of a slab or a wall near the flange of a steel
profile, localised fire, connection between column and beam (leading to a concentration of steel), element located outside a
fire compartment. Thermal gradients have different effects on the mechanical behaviour of structural elements.
For beams, a lower temperature in the upper flange will lead to an increase of the ultimate bending moment (Figure 7).
For continuous beams, a lower temperature in the area of the middle support will lead, either, to more time to reach
the temperature at which the plastic hinge occurs, or, to a displacement of this hinge to a cross-section where an optimum
ratio between bending moment and temperature is obtained.

Thus the reduction of the temperature in a part of a beam leads to an increase of its load bearing resistance.
Such thermal gradients can be taken into account, either by calculating the load bearing resistance as explained in Section 5
or by using the global coefficient, called the Kappa-factor. The Kappa-factor is a global coefficient to account for the
beneficial influence of thermal gradient for beams. For this purpose the general formula for a beam then becomes [2].
ψ(θcrit) = κ.σ/χ.f.fy
where:
● κ= 1 for simply supported beams exposed to fire on all sides

● κ= 0,7 for simply supported beams exposed on 3 sides
● κ= 0,85 for continuous beams exposed on all sides
● κ= 0,60 for continuous beams exposed on 3 sides.
For columns, a lower temperature at the ends will effectively decrease the buckling length. However a thermal gradient in
a cross-section, especially when this section is near the mid-height, will cause curvature of the column. An additional
bending moment will be created, increasing the stress in the column. However, in general, non-uniform heating increases
the strength of the columns because the colder parts are still able to resist compression.
5. LOAD BEARING RESISTANCE OF COMPOSITE MEMBERS

Composite sections in which concrete and steel are used, are subject to thermal gradients when heated on one or several of
their sides. The load bearing resistance of beams and slabs can be determined on the basis of simple plastic theory. To
calculate the load bearing resistance of a member with a thermal gradient, the simplest approach is to divide the section
into elements each with its appropriate temperature and mechanical properties.
5.1 Composite Beam
A composite beam (steel section and flat concrete slab) generally has a distribution of temperature after a given time of
fire exposure as shown in Figure 8.

In a positive moment zone, the ultimate bending moment resistance, assuming the neutral axis is in the thickness of
the concrete slab, is calculated by considering an equilibrium between tensile force (in the steel section) and compressive
force (in the upper part of the concrete slab).
The tensile force summed over the three parts of the steel section is:
T = Σ3i=1 Ai ψ(θi)fy
where:

Ai is the area of lower flange, web and upper flange of the steel profile
θi is the respective temperature
The point of application of this force is the plastic neutral axis at elevated temperature of the 3 parts of the steel action.
In order to balance this tensile force, a layer of the concrete slab is compressed (Figure 8b) such that:
T = C = b t fck
where:
b is the effective width of the slab
t is the thickness of the compressive zone
fck is the ultimate strength of concrete
This equation is only valid when the temperature of the compressive zone is approximately uniform. If a strong
thermal gradient exists over the height of this zone, it is necessary to divide it into different layers having
approximately uniform temperature and to sum the contribution of these layers.
However normally this composite floor generally has also to achieve insulation criteria, i.e. the temperature on its external
face has to be less than 140°C. At this temperature, it can be assumed that the concrete strength remains as it is at
room temperature.
The ultimate bending resistance of the composite section is:
M+u( ) = T . z
θ
where z is the distance between the points of application of the tensile and the compressive forces.
For continuous beams, the determination of the full load bearing resistance also requires the calculation of the negative

plastic bending moment (M-u( )).

θ
For this negative plastic moment, the tensile force is taken by the reinforcement bars located in the upper part of the
concrete slab and the compressive force is taken by the steel profile and, if necessary, by a lower part of the concrete slab.
For this situation, it is assumed that stability in fire is maintained if the isostatic bending moment (M) of the applied load in
a span is lower or equal to the sum of the positive and negative moment resistances of the composite section, as follows:
M+u( ) + M-u( ) ≥ M
θ θ
5.2 Composite Slabs
The calculation of the fire behaviour of composite concrete slabs with profiled steel sheet is made using the same theories
as for composite beams.
The only major modification is that after 30 minutes of ISO fire, the steel sheet is not taken into account when calculating
the mechanical behaviour of the element.
For this situation, only the re-bars can be used to compensate the tensile force because the tensile strength of concrete does
not contribute to the load bearing resistance at elevated temperature and is ignored. Only 30 minutes fire resistance
can generally be achieved for non-reinforced slabs.
Simple plastic theory cannot be used for columns (in contrast to beams and slabs) and an incremental elasto-plastic approach
is necessary.
For composite columns another complication arises as a direct consequence of the non-uniform temperature distribution
over the cross-section. The distribution causes additional stresses in the cross-section due to restrained thermal
elongation (Figure 9).

These thermal stresses may have a significant influence on the load bearing resistance of composite columns, as is
illustrated by the buckling curves (Figure 9). Both curves are for a reinforced, concrete filled steel column after 90
minutes standard fire exposure. The continuous curve is based on a calculation model which takes the thermal stresses
into account; the dashed curve neglects the effect of the thermal stresses.
Structural analysis of composite columns should therefore, ideally, be based on refined models, i.e. models allowing for
a precise thermal and mechanical analysis.
The numerical complexity of such physical models however, quickly increases with the growing precision of the analysis.
The complexity has drawbacks, for example where design information requires a great number of systematic calculations.
For this reason limited, more approximate, models have been developed. These simpler methods occasionally require
the introduction of semi-empirical correction factors. They should therefore be used with caution when extrapolating
outside the range of experimental evidence.
The ECCS-Technical Note on the calculation of the fire resistance of composite columns provides design information in
the form of buckling curves for various cross-section dimensions, profiles and reinforcement and for periods of standard
fire exposure of 30, 60 ,90 and 120 minutes [3]. An example of a design chart is given in Figure 10.

6. CONNECTION BETWEEN MEMBERS

There is no special problem in determining the fire resistance of connections between columns and beams. Due to
the concentration of steel in this area, the temperature of the connection is lower than that of the adjacent members. It may
be possible to consider some positive effects of partial continuity of beams when there is a connection which is only
designed to support shear forces at room temperature.
● The increase of the temperature of steel and concrete leads to a decrease of mechanical properties (Young's modulus,
yield strength, ultimate strength).
● The applied loads considered under fire conditions are obtained by using the accidental combination of the actions.
● The critical temperature of elements is easy to calculate by equating the fire load bearing resistance and the applied loads.
● Composite columns require complicated calculations but design charts are available for usual applications.
8. REFERENCES
[1] Barthelemmy, B. and Kruppa, J., "Résistance au feu des structures acier - béton -bois", Eyrolles, 1988.
[2] European Convention for Constructional Steelwork, "European Recommendation for Fire Safety of Steel
Structures", Elsevier, Publication 30, 1983.
[3] European Convention for Constructional Steelwork, "Calculation of the Fire Resistance of Centrally Loaded
Composite Steel-Concrete Columns Exposed to the Standard Fire", Publication 55, 1988.

1. Eurocode 3: "Design of Steel Structures": Part 1.2: Structural Fire Design (in preparation).
2. Eurocode 4: "Design of Composite Structures": Part 1.2: Structural Fire Design (in preparation).
3. Eurocode 1: Part 2.7: "Actions on Structures Exposed to Fire" (in preparation).
4. European Convention for Constructional Steelwork, "Calculation of the Fire Resistance of Composite Slabs with Profiled
Steel Sheet Exposed to the Standard Fire", Publication 32, 1984.

ESDEP WG 4B
PROTECTION: FIRE
Lecture 4B.4: Practical Ways of Achieving

Fire Resistance of Steel Structures
OBJECTIVE/SCOPE
To survey the practical means of achieving fire resistance of steel structures with examples of their application. To describe
the essentials of European fire resistance design.
PREREQUISITES
RELATED LECTURES
Lecture 4B2: Background to Thermal Analysis
Lecture 4B3: Background to Structural (Mechanical Fire) Analysis
Lecture 4B5: Calculation Examples
SUMMARY
The mechanical properties of all common building materials decrease with elevation of temperature. Steel structural
elements should possess an appropriate fire resistance to resist collapse, flame penetration or excessive temperature rise on
the unexposed faces. The inherent fire resistance of unprotected steelwork is introduced and the influence of a variety
of insulating systems, of partial member exposure and of composite action are discussed. Reference is also made to the
effects of water cooling on temperature control.
1. INTRODUCTION
The mechanical properties of all common building materials decrease with elevation of temperature. Structural elements
should possess an appropriate fire resistance to resist collapse; in addition fire resisting partitioning walls and slabs
should resist flame penetration or excessive temperature rise on their unexposed faces in order to contain the fire in its
original location. The fire stability of a structure is especially important and any failure of the structure in the fire zone
should be gradual, involving large plastic type deformations. The parts of the building away from the fire should remain intact.
Fire resistance requirements are fixed by National Codes in terms of the time an isolated element should resist the action of
a Standard Fire as defined by the heat exposure given by ISO834, (Figure 1). Fire resistance times of 15/30/60/90/180 and
240 minutes are specified depending upon the number of storeys; these times can also be a function of the occupancy of
the building and of the fire load.

Steel members will collapse in a fire when their temperature reaches a "critical" level. This critical temperature
varies according to the load conditions, the cold design theory adopted and the temperature distribution across the
section, which typically is in the range 500 to 900°C.
The fire resistance time is the time, in the standard ISO834 fire test, taken by the member to reach the critical temperature.
This time varies according to the section size. In a building in which a natural fire occurs the heating rate is also influenced
by the member location. The thicker the steel the slower is the heating rate and therefore the greater is the fire resistance time.

The heating rate is quantified by the Section Factor, known as the Am /A ratio, where Am is the perimeter of the steel
member exposed to the fire, and A is the total cross-sectional area of the section. Consequently, a heavy member with a
low Am /A ratio will be heated more slowly than a light member with high value of the section factor. Tables are
published giving values of section factors for standard section sizes.
For a member to fulfil a given fire resistance requirement, it is necessary to ensure that the temperature developed in
the member at the required fire resistance time (taking into account its Section Factor and any insulation which may be
applied) is less than the critical temperature necessary to cause failure (also known as the "critical temperature").
For short periods of fire resistance (15, 30 minutes) stability may be attained by unprotected steelwork. A fire resistance time
of 60 minutes may sometimes be obtained without applying fire protection by utilising the thermal and/or structural
interaction between steel and concrete. For longer periods of fire resistance time, the steelwork can be protected by applying
an insulating material, by using screens, or, in the case of hollow sections, by the recirculation of water. Composite
steel-concrete structures can also exhibit significant fire resistance.
A brief survey of the simpler practical means of achieving structural fire resistance in steel structures is presented. It
is important to recognise, however, that considerable research and development work (fuel loads based on natural fires)
is being undertaken in Europe. This work aims to optimise the process of the fire resistant design of structural
steelwork leading to further economies in construction.
2. BARE STEEL STRUCTURES

Bare steel structures may satisfy fire resistance times of 30 and 60 minutes if one or more of the following conditions are met:
● low load level.

● low value of the section factor, Am /A.
● high degree of static redundancy (viz: may be influenced by the design of the connection).
Figure 2 shows an example in which the fire resistance of bare steel beams is given as a function of the section factor,
for different values of the ratio between the actual load and the collapse load under room temperature conditions.


When the ratio between the applied load and the collapse load is reduced, the failure temperature, and thus the fire
resistance time, is increased. The fire resistance time can therefore be increased by oversizing the members, by maintaining
the member size but using a higher strength steel, by utilising the restraining effects of connections, or by a combination
of these methods.
Heating rates of fire exposed members may be calculated on the basis of European Recommendations [1, 2] which
are incorporated in Eurocode 3[3]. These rates hold for continuous beams. The calculations assume a uniform
temperature distribution across the steel member. However, research has shown that the temperature profile has an
important influence on fire resistance when non-uniform temperature distributions are developed. For example, in a
beam supporting a concrete slab, the fire resistance is increased due to the transfer of load from the hotter to the cooler part
of the section. This effect is accounted for by use of a modification factor 'κ' in the calculation method.
In a fire, heat is transferred to the steelwork predominantly by radiation and the rate of heat transfer is described by
the resultant emissivity εr. The value of εr will change according to the characteristics of the furnace used for standard fire
tests on beams and their position in relation to the flames. Typically, εr will be between 0,3 and 0,5, the lower value resulting
in an increase in the measured fire resistance time. The effect of this variation on the fire resistance of bare steel beams
is shown in Figure 2.
The fire resistance of bare steel columns exposed to heat on four sides also depends on the section factor and the applied
load. Bare columns with section factors up to 30 m-1 have a fire resistance of 30 minutes when working at full design
loading, based on Eurocode 3 [3].
3. PROTECTED STEEL STRUCTURES

In many steel framed buildings, structural fire protection is required to meet the requirement of legislation and to
prevent failures of major building components in fires. A wide range of fire protection systems are available. The
generic forms, such as concrete, brickwork and plasterboard are well established. The materials available also include
sprayed materials, dry products in the form of boards and batts, intumescent products which form a carbonaceous char
when exposed to heat, and compounds which absorb heat and undergo chemical changes in fire.
The thickness of the insulation must be such that the temperature of the steel at the required fire resistance time (taking
into account its section factor) does not exceed the critical (or limiting) temperature. Government agencies and
approved private laboratories have established programmes of fire tests for passive and intumescent protection systems
on loaded and unloaded specimens. These tests are designed to determine both the insulation characteristics of a fire
protection material and its physical performance under fire conditions for a range of steel sizes. Analytical methods from
which reliable assessments of the thickness of the protection medium can be made are now available. The fire protection can

be applied to the structural steel member in a variety of ways, as shown in Figure 3.

Sprayed Protection
The various spray systems include mineral fibre products, vermiculite-based products which include either cement or
gypsum, perlite/cement products and chemical compounds that absorb heat, such as magnesium oxychloride. The majority
of these systems form a slurry in a mixer which is pumped through the nozzle onto the steel substrate. The mineral fibre/
cement mixture is mixed with a water spray at the nozzle head. The thicknesses of these materials vary from 10 to 100
mm with specific mass in the range of 200 kg/m3 to 1000 kg/m3.
To achieve the required degree of fire resistance, it is important that the specified thickness of coating is applied. Inspection
of the quality of the coating and thickness checking is therefore required. However, no specific guidance is currently
available on the number of positions where thicknesses should be checked and the acceptable tolerance limits.
These sprayed materials have several advantages. They are fast to apply, inexpensive and can be adapted to cover
complicated shapes including the voids between metal deck floors and steel beams. Their disadvantages are that they
are messy, can cause damage due to overspray and are sometimes susceptible to cracking and shrinkage. They do not
provide an attractive surface finish unless trowelled smooth.
These systems of protection are generally applied to hidden elements, e.g. beams above suspended ceilings. It may be
possible with the aid of colouring to integrate these coatings to the architectural aspect of the structure. The spray
composition must be compatible with the substrate, be it primed or unprimed steelwork.
The abrasion and impact resistance of sprayed insulation is improved with an increase in its cohesive strength and density.
The coatings are difficult to repair and therefore it is important that any attachments to the steelwork are made prior to
the installation of the fire protection.
Dry Systems
These include board systems based on mineral fibre or vermiculite, mineral fibre batts and ceramic fibre blankets.
Board materials can either be glued in place using noggings, or screwed to a framework or to other boards. The specific
mass of the board materials vary between 165 to 800 kg/m3.
These products are generally easy to use. The extent of checking required during installation is much less than that needed
with a spray-applied coating as the products are manufactured with reliable thicknesses. They provide some degree
of flexibility in programming, are clean, cause little damage to surrounding constructions and offer a good surface finish.
Some board products are soft or brittle and are susceptible to mechanical damage; others are susceptible to water damage
and are only suitable for internal use. Installation is not easily adaptable around complex shapes. Few problems are
encountered by compatibility with substrates.
Recent developments have seen an increase in the use of mineral fibre batt materials. These materials have a specific
mass around 100 kg/m3 and are held in place using pins, welded at regular intervals onto the steel surface, and
retaining washers.
The desirable properties of both the spray and dry systems of protection are as follows:
● good thermal insulation, i.e. low thermal conductivity and/or high thermal capacity.
● satisfactory mechanical resistance to shock and impact.
● good adhesion to the element to prevent separation of the protection material by rising temperature and deformation of
the structural member.
In order to facilitate the use of sprayed and sheet materials, special graphs have been prepared by authorised fire
testing laboratories. These graphs give the thickness of a specific material as a function of the section factor, the
critical temperature of the structural member, and the required fire resistance period, as shown in Figure 4.

Intumescent Systems

These materials are used to provide a decorative finish to a structure. A range of thin film coatings are available that can
satisfy up to 90 minutes fire resistance. These products are mainly suitable of internal use. A range of thick film coatings
based upon the epoxy chemicals can satisfy up to 120 minutes fire resistance. These coatings exhibit satisfactory
ageing characteristics when used externally.
Typical Intumescent Coating Thicknesses Used on I-Sections
Coating Range of basecoat thickness for

type different fire resistance periods*
(mm)
30 60 90 120
mins mins mins mins
Solvent 0,25 0,75 1,50 -

based - 1,0 - 2,5 - 2,50
thin
coats
Epoxy 4,0 - 4,0 - 6,0 - 6,0 -

resin- 5,0 11,0 16,5 16,5
based
thick
coats
* Data from UK practice
The thin film coatings or mastics foam and swell under the influence of heat to produce an insulating char layer up to 50
times thicker than the original film thickness. These products can be applied by spray, brush or roller. In order to apply
thicker coats multiple treatments are necessary. Control measurements on thickness are required using proprietary
measuring equipment which has been developed for assessing paint thickness. Only a limited amount of investigation
of durability has been conducted on the ability of certain products to be used externally. Most of the products have
good resistance to impact and abrasion.
A simplified graph showing fire resistance periods provided by a single coat of intumescent paint is shown in Figure 5.


Tests have shown the need to evaluate the performance of intumescent coatings over a variety of shapes and orientations of
the substrate. In the long term it is anticipated that this form of fire protection may be installed by the steel fabricator.
Although these materials have resistance to impact and abrasion, mechanical damage can occur, particularly on
columns, requiring maintenance of the paint system to be carried out.
Specification of Fire Protection Thickness
In Eurocode 3: Part 1.2 [3] an equation is given to calculate the rise in temperature of protected steelwork. The
thermal conductivity of the insulation material, λi, and its thickness di are taken into account as λi /di. The heat capacity of
the insulation is also included. The thermal conductivity of insulating materials changes with their mean temperature.
This change can be taken into account in more precise calculations.
However, if no detailed information is available and if only an approximate answer is required, the analysis may be based
on average values of λi, which are assumed to be valid for the whole temperature range during a fire. It may be shown
that under such circumstances the time to attain a certain steel temperature is governed by the factor
λi Am / di A
The required thickness of insulation for a structural steel member may be determined by using a nomogram which
relates critical temperature, applied load, section factor and fire resistance. For example, consider an IPE 500 beam
supporting an actual load/collapse load, η = 0,625 requiring a fire resistance of 120 minutes and exposed to heat on 3
sides. The nomogram for protected steel is reproduced in Figure 6 for a simply supported beam supporting a concrete slab
(k factor of 0,7). The product of η x k = 0,625 x 0,7 = 0,438 and the section factor, Am /A = 132 m-1, for a beam exposed
to heat on three sides.

From the nomogram the value of the factor {λi Am / di A} is 690 W/(m3.K) to satisfy 120 min fire resistance with η x κ = 0,438
(1)
Values of thermal conductivity, λi, may be obtained from manufacturers' data and examples are given in the nomogram.
For instance, when λi = 0,1 W/m°C (typical of many protection materials), the required thickness of insulation, di ≥ 0,1 x
0,19 = 19 mm.
The use of composite steel/concrete components in buildings is becoming increasingly important in fire resistant
design because they offer several choices for influencing the rise in temperature of the steel [4, 5]. One is the position and
mass of the concrete and a second option is the possibility of redistributing the internal stresses to protected and cooler parts
of the section.
Concrete-Filled Hollow Steel Columns
The cross-section of this type of column is either rectangular or circular as shown in Figure 7(a, b, c). The performance in
fire depends mainly on the member size and the tensile and flexural properties of the concrete. If non-reinforced concrete
is used the fire resistance is normally 30 minutes (Figure 7a). However, a rating of 120 minutes can be achieved by
the inclusion of reinforcing bars or steel-fibre reinforcement (Figure 7b).

The steel core column (Figure 7c) is a further development of the concrete filled hollow section but with the main part of
the load-carrying steel cross-section protected against fire by layers of concrete. The fire resistance of this type of
column varies from 60 minutes to higher values depending upon the thickness of the concrete layer. These columns are used
as centrally loaded members with small load eccentricities.
Rolled Steel Sections Encased in Concrete
Different types of composite construction utilising steel sections are manufactured into fire resistant columns and beams.
One of the great advantages of composite columns is their uniform outside dimensions in multi-storey buildings. By
varying the thickness of the steel section, the material qualities of both steel and concrete, and the percentage of
reinforcement, the cross-section of the column may be adapted to support an increased load without significant changes in
the outer dimensions. Each type of composite column has specific advantages and ranges of application.
The oldest type of composite column, Figure 8a, is the steel section encased in concrete. Its advantages are a high
allowable load level in fire conditions and a high load-carrying resistance not only for centrally applied loads, but also
for bending moments. The fire resistance is normally 90 minutes or more.

The second type, namely the steel section with concrete between the flanges, can support considerable central loads and
high bending moments. The amount of shuttering is significantly reduced. Other advantages are a good resistance
to mechanical damage without the need for corner reinforcement and the ability to use conventional steel connections
between the columns and steel beams similarly concreted and reinforced between the flanges, as shown in Figure 8b.
Such composite sections may reach any desired fire resistance level.
Composite Steel Deck Floors
Composite floors utilising profiled steel decks are very frequently used in building as shown in Figure 9. These floors can
have a fire resistance of up to four hours without any fire protection applied to the soffit. Floors with minimal
reinforcement have at least 30 minutes fire resistance and a single layer of reinforcement can give up to two hours
fire resistance. For longer periods of fire resistance for floors with high loading and long spans, additional reinforcement
may be necessary.

5. PARTIALLY EXPOSED STEEL SECTIONS

Members partially exposed because they are embedded in walls, floors or other elements of structure achieve a significant
fire resistance by redistribution of stress from hot exposed regions to cooler (non-exposed) areas of the section. This
effect occurs whether there is composite interaction or not. Research and analysis are in progress to quantify this effect.
A relatively inexpensive method of improving the fire resistance of free-standing universal columns without the
specialist application of fire protection can be achieved by blocking in the volume between the flange and web with non-
load bearing conventional lightweight building blocks, as illustrated in Figure 10. Fire tests have demonstrated that
universal column sections from 203 mm x 203 mm x 52 kg/m upwards achieve in excess of 30 minutes fire resistance
under full design loading.
Another particular example is the shelf angle floor beam illustrated in Figure 11. The time taken for a steel beam to reach
its limiting temperature in a fire can be extended by protecting the beam from direct attack by the flames. One
economic method of providing this protection is by means of the shelf angle floor design where precast concrete floor slabs
rest on steel angles attached to the web of the beam so shielding the upper flange and part of the web from the fire.
The resulting decrease in heating rate of the upper part of the beam significantly extends the fire resistance time of the
steel beam.

Research results indicate that by selecting suitable combinations of steel beam size and depth of concrete floor unit,
fire resistance periods of 30, 60 and 90 minutes are possible without the need for applied lightweight fire protection.
6. PROTECTION BY SCREENS
It is not necessary to apply protection to each member in the steel frame of a building before it is completed. When
suspended ceilings or partition walls (Figure 12) are used they can offer cost advantages by combining their normal
functions with fire protection. The screens must be able to ensure the integrity, insulation and stability necessary to prevent
the fire from spreading into the void. Special attention should be paid to the method of assembly and in particular the joints
and connections. Any desired fire resistance level can be obtained.
7. EXTERIOR STEELWORK
Columns positioned outside a building remain cooler during a fire than those positioned inside. In this way fire stabilities
much greater than 30 minutes can be achieved. Existing calculation methods for the mechanical behaviour of such
loaded elements in fire have led to the following recommendations:
● the best position for the column is as far as possible from openings and, either shielded by a wall which has an adequate
fire stop rating, shown in Figure 13, or protected by a screen if the column is in front of a window.
● if there is a risk of severe thermal loadings, rigid connections between columns and beams are preferred.
● generally, the load-carrying floor beams need no protection over their external parts.

A simplified design example is given in Figure 14. The position of the external columns to avoid excessive rise in
temperature is indicated for a building which has all the windows on one wall and no through draught.

8. WATER COOLING
The fire resistance of tubular members can be improved by utilising the hollow interior to cool the load-bearing
steelwork. Filling such members with water gives extremely high fire resistance when circulation is maintained, Figure 15.

Circulation can be achieved by natural convection using a number of interconnecting members (not all of them fire
exposed) with an adequate high level storage tank, by direct connection to water mains and drainage, or by pumps. Research
is currently being carried out into static unreplenished systems. Chemicals are added to the water to inhibit
corrosion (Potassium Nitrate) and freezing (Potassium Carbonate). With any system, although the water temperature
can exceed 100°C depending on the pressure, the steel will remain below its critical temperature.
The outward appearance of the steelwork is unaffected which has advantage architecturally. The design is, however,
complex and the method expensive. It is normally confined to prestige buildings or structures requiring extreme levels of
fire resistance.
Standard rolled beam and column sections may be cooled by water spray. The procedure is activated as soon as the
ambient temperature exceeds a predetermined value. The water flow produced by a number of sprinklers must be in
a continuous film over the entire length of the member.

● The heating rate of a steel profile is specified by the section factor, Am/A. Low ratios lead to small heating rates.
● For short periods of fire resistance, stability may be attained by unprotected steel elements.
● For long periods of fire resistance, the steelwork must be protected by applying an insulating material, by screens or
by recirculation of water in the case of hollow sections.
● The choice of the fire protection must take into account the localisation of the element, aesthetic requirements and economy.
10. REFERENCES
[1] Design Manual on the European Recommendations for the Fire Safety of Steel Structures. ECCS-TC-3 - Brochure No.
35, European Convention for Constructional Steelwork, Brussels, 1985.
[2] European Recommendations for the Fire Safety of Steel Structures: Calculation of the Fire Resistance of Load
Bearing Elements and Structural Assemblies exposed to the Standard Fire. ECCS TC 3, Brochure No. 30. Elsevier
Scientific Publishing company, Amsterdam, 1983.
[3] Eurocode 3: "Design of Steel Structures": ENV 1993-1-1: Part 1: General rules and rules for buildings, CEN, 1992. Part
10: Structural fire design (in preparation).
[4] Eurocode 4: "Design of Composite Steel and Concrete Structures": prENV 1994-1-1: Part 1.1: General rules and rules
for buildings. Part 10: Structural fire design (in preparation).

1. Compendium of UK Fire Test Data No. 1 - Unprotected Structural Steel, published in UK by DoE Fire Research Station
and British Steel Corporation, 1988.
2. "Steel and Fire Safety - A Global Approach" - Eurofer, Brussels, Belgium: Published 1990.
3. Documentation SIA 82, "La Résistance au feu des parties de Construction Métallique" Centre Suisse de la
Construction Metallique, Zurich, November 1986.
4. BS 5950: Part 8: 1990 - The Structural Use of Steelwork in Building: Code of Practice for the Fire Protection of
Structural Steelwork. British Standards Institution.

ESDEP WG 4B
PROTECTION: FIRE
Lecture 4B.5: Calculation Examples

OBJECTIVE/SCOPE
To make designers familiar with simple methods of calculation of fire resistance time and thickness of insulation for
columns and beams (respectively steel and composite steel-concrete).
PREREQUISITES
None.
RELATED LECTURES
SUMMARY
Calculation examples are presented for the following:
● Critical temperatures of tension members, beams and columns (Examples 1, 2, 3).

● Moment resistance of composite beam in fire conditions (Example 5).
● Time equivalent of actual fire (Example 6).
● Fire protection to steel beam (Example 4).
The examples use the principles and design equations presented in the preceding lectures.
EXAMPLE 1 CRITICAL TEMPERATURE OF TENSION MEMBER
Strength reduction of steel at elevated temperatures

Temperature θ 400 450 500 550 600 650
Strength Reduction ψ(θ) 1,00 0,93 0,78 0,63 0,47 0,33
For
As the performance of a member in tension is equivalent to the basic performance of the steel, it follows that:

By linear interpolation from the above table, the critical temperature θcr = 590°C
EXAMPLE 2 CRITICAL TEMPERATURE OF BEAM

It is assumed in this example that the beam supports a concrete slab, and hence the upper flange remains cooler than the rest
of the section. This benefit is taken into account by use of a load multiplier, or kappa factor, κ, such that:
κ = 0,7 for a beam supporting a concrete slab
Use the same degree of loading as in Example 1.
In this case,
For = 0,5, it follows that:
ψ(θ) = 0,7 x 0,5 = 0,35
By linear interpolation of the strength reductions in Example 1, the critical temperature of the beam, θcr = 645°C.
It follows that the critical temperature of a beam supporting a concrete floor slab exceeds that of a member in tension, i.
e. uniformly heated, by 55°C for the same degree of loading.
EXAMPLE 3 CRITICAL TEMPERATURE OF COLUMN

It is assumed in this example that the column is restrained against buckling. The load multiplier, κ, for columns is 1,2.
This value takes into account the influence of high strains in the column at failure in fire conditions.
For , as in previous examples
ψ(θ) = 1,2 x 0,5 = 0,6
By linear interpolation of the strength reductions in Example 1, the critical temperature of the column, θcr=560°C.
It follows that the critical temperature of a column is less than that of a member in tension by 30°C for the same degree
of loading.
EXAMPLE 4 FIRE PROTECTION TO STEEL BEAM

From Example 2, the critical temperature of the beam is 645°C. From Lecture 4B.2, the required thickness of fire protection
(in metres) is:
d = 0,0083 λi (Am/A) {t/(θcr -140)}1,3
Where

Am/A is the section factor of member (m-1)
λi is the thermal conductivity of protection material (W/m°C)
t is the fire resistance period (mins)
θcr is the critical temperature of beam (°C)
In this Example, use the following parameters:
Am/A = 200m-1 (typical of IPE beams)
λi = 0,15W/m°C (typical of many protection materials)
t = 60 mins
θcr = 645°C
d = 0,0083 x 0,15 x 200 x {60/(645 -140)}1,3 ×10-3
= 15,6 mm (say 16 mm)
EXAMPLE 5 MOMENT RESISTANCE OF COMPOSITE BEAM

This Example follows the use of the principles of plastic analysis to calculate the moment resistance of a composite beam
in fire conditions. The following properties are assumed:
Cross-section Temperature Stress blocks
Cross-sectional area of web = area of flange
Temperature of top flange = 2/3 x temperature of web and bottom flange

Effective breadth of slab = 1000 mm
Compressive strength of concrete fc = 30 N/mm2 (Note: for short term load in fire conditions γmc = 1,0)
Yield strength of steel fy = 235 N/mm2
Critical temperature of beam θcr = 600°C (assumed)
Neutral axis depth, xc, in concrete is obtained by equating tension and compression. Hence:
ψ(600) = 0,47 }
} from Example 1
ψ(400) = 1,00 }
Moment resistance of composite section is obtained by taking moments about the mid-length of the concrete in compression:
M=
M = 0,47 A fy (0,5 ha + 1,44 hc - 0,72 xc)
For the following data:
ha = 400 mm
hc = 120 mm
A = 1000 mm2
xc = in fire conditions
M = 0,47 x 1000 x 235 x (0,5 x 400 + 1,44 x 120 - 0,72 x 5) x 10-6
= 40,8 kNm
By comparison under normal conditions, using ψ = 1,0, moment resistance is 74,2 kNm (note: this value may be

calculated using the partial safety factors appropriate for normal conditions, as covered in the lecture on Composite Beams).
Therefore M/Mu = 40,8/74,2 = 0,58 for θcr = 600°C
But ψ(600) = 0,47
If ψ(600) = κ × M/Mu, it follows that:
κ= 0,47/0,58 = 0,81 for composite beams (compare to 0,7 for non-composite beams)
EXAMPLE 6 TIME-EQUIVALENT OF NATURAL FIRE

Refer to Lecture 4B.1. Assume that the fire compartment may be characterized by the following parameters. The
time equivalent is:
Te = c w qf minutes
c = 0,10 for typical compartment properties
w = 1,5 for typical ventilation conditions
qf = 450 MJ/m2 for office buildings
Te = 0,1 x 1,5 x 450 = 67,5 minutes

ESDEP WG 5
COMPUTER AIDED DESIGN
AND MANUFACTURE
Lecture 5.1: Introduction to

Computer Aided Design & Manufacture
OBJECTIVE/SCOPE
To review briefly the developments in computing generally and to describe the various ways in which computers can be used
in the context of steel construction, with particular emphasis on design, drafting and modelling.
PREREQUISITES
None.
RELATED LECTURES
Lecture 5.2: The Future Development of Information Systems for Steel Construction
SUMMARY
The reduced cost of relatively powerful computing facilities has led to many activities traditionally performed by hand
being performed with the aid of a computer. The improvements in computing which have largely enabled this development
are reviewed.
The potential for using computers within the whole process associated with steelwork construction, from client brief through
to construction on site, is described. General applications such as the use of wordprocessing, spreadsheets and databases
are included, but the emphasis is on analytical and design calculations, and computer aided design (CAD). The
distinction between 2-D drafting systems and solid modelling is discussed and the potential for transferring the data from
a solid modelling system onto numerically controlled fabrication machinery is considered.
1. INTRODUCTION
The ways in which computers have affected the various activities involved in steel construction have been led by
developments in computing hardware, user environments, software and systems for data exchange. These developments
in themselves have been interlinked, typically by advances in hardware allowing new possibilities for software
development. However, not all advances for the end-user have followed this sequence; to a very large extent the
development of user-friendly interfaces has gone on in anticipation of suitable computing facilities becoming available.
The computerised processes involved in computer aided design and manufacture (CAD/CAM) have to be integrated within
the normal sequence of events involved in the inception, design and construction of structures (Figure 1). The process may
be handled by a group of individual consultants on various aspects, together with a fabricator and contractor(s). Alternatively,
it may be a "design-and-build" process in which one large organisation takes responsibility for the whole operation, even
if specialist aspects are contracted-out of the parent company. In either case, problems of communication exist, and the
degree of success in overcoming them is crucial to the success of the project.

Information Technology (IT) is largely concerned with efficient exchange of data and can be used to maximise the
efficiency of all stages of the project. Although structural aspects are of primary concern here, it is assumed that all
the specialist groups associated with a project consider themselves to be part of an integrated team. In this case, the
facilities afforded by computerised systems for sharing data will be used, for example, to ensure that services can be fitted
into the structure without any problems arising at a later stage in the contract, particularly on site. From the architectural
point of view, it is also important that structural members do not obscure natural light from windows or the free flow
of occupants within the building. Even in the structural steelwork context, there are areas where problems commonly arise;
a typical one is where a consulting engineer has selected individual optimum-sized members throughout a building, giving
the fabricator the problem of having to order small quantities of a large number of different sections and to design and
fabricate different connections. Alternatively, consultants may themselves design connections which, although efficient in
their use of material, cause extra fabrication cost which could have been saved by standardisation on a system which suits
the fabricator's capabilities. These problems should, of course, never arise in any case, and the fact that they commonly do
is essentially the result of inefficient communication between members of the design team.
During the initial tendering phase, the structural designers have to:
● Interact with the client, architect and other specialists, possibly including a fabricator.
● Conceive, agree and rationalise a structural form.
● Perform rapid structural design calculations.
● Produce a limited range of drawings
● Decide on material requirements and construction processes.
● Use these for estimating a tender price and producing tender documents.
This stage clearly involves a great deal of work which may, after the contract is awarded, have been fruitless. From this
point of view, therefore, there is a need to minimise the effort expended in a very risky endeavour. On the other hand, in
the event of winning the contract, it is essential to reduce the amount of eventual variation from the tender specification, so
this process must be carried out in a conscientious fashion. There is obvious scope at this stage for a relatively
crude computerised approach to save a larger amount of employee-time in preliminary sizing of members, in production
of tender drawings and in cost-estimating.
When the contract has been awarded, the successful design team is then faced with the need to:
● Produce detailed design calculations.

● Produce a range of drawings for fabrication, construction and building control and for interaction between the
structural, architectural and services specialists.
● Produce a detailed bill of quantities and contract documents.
● Identify an efficient fabrication and construction sequence, which ensures that components arrive on site shortly before they
are needed and that the unexpected does not happen on site.
In each of these processes the use of computers directly, using software, and to share data is an important aspect of
ensuring that the building is constructed efficiently and works well.
Although it is natural in a lecture such as this to concentrate on the technical input of computerisation to the design
and fabrication processes, it must be borne in mind that a significant part of the potential gain in efficiency in any
complex multi-stage process can come from a suitable integration of normal office-automation software such
as wordprocessors, spreadsheets and databases. Decisions about how data is shared and communicated, and how the
total process is organised, can also make significant differences to its efficiency.
In this lecture it is assumed that the reader has only a general awareness of computers and their uses, and of the applications

of automatic control to fabrication and manufacturing operations. The lecture gives, therefore, a general review of
current computing and the routes by which computing has developed over the past 40 years or so. It is necessary to
introduce and use some computer jargon, which is initially printed in italics.
Computing developments are subject to rapid advancement and, therefore, all such descriptions are valid only for a short
period of time after they are written.
2. COMPUTER HARDWARE
Mechanically-based digital 'computers' were first developed by mathematicians in the 19th Century. They were
developed further only as far as the 'adding machines' and electro-mechanical calculators (sometimes analogue rather
than digital) used in commercial, industrial and military applications until the mid-20th Century. They performed
numerical computations much faster than could be done manually, but were limited by their large numbers of precision-
made moving parts to fairly simple general arithmetic, or to unique tasks such as range finding for artillery.
The first electronic computers began to be developed in the mid-20th century, using radio valves as their basic
processing components. These components were accommodated on racks and the computers thus acquired the title
of mainframes. They generated large amounts of heat and efficient cooling and air-conditioning systems were always
required. Early computers were unreliable because of the limited life of the thermionic valves and as the size of
installations grew so did the probability of failure. The natural limit to the size of such computers arrived when a design
was considered which employed so many valves that it was estimated by normal probability theory that it would average
57 minutes of 'down-time' out of every hour. Maintenance and operation of a computer required a large number of
specialised personnel. Compared with the previous generation of mechanical devices, these computers were
extremely powerful. Within industry they tended to be installed mainly for payroll and financial management, but in
the research environment their development allowed the field of numerical analysis to begin to grow.
The development in the 1950's of transistors and in the 1960's and 70's of miniaturised integrated circuits (microchips) led
to progressive improvements in the size, energy consumption, computing power, reliability and cost of computer
hardware. This enabled a great diversification in the applications of computing and the machines which do it. The first of
these developments was of mini-computers - relatively portable computers with sufficient processing power to perform
tasks which had previously only been possible on mainframes. The central processor unit was typically accommodated within
a cabinet which could be mounted on a trolley with the required peripherals and used within a normal office or
laboratory environment. In comparison with mainframes, mini-computers had only modest technical support
requirements. Their size reduced dramatically during the 1980's to the extent that their current descendants, usually known
as workstations, are very similar visually to personal computers. Mainframes themselves developed into supercomputers,
with the emphasis being on massive memory and data storage together with extremely fast processing. Supercomputers
are now used to run huge database applications and numerical simulations of complex systems.

By the mid-1970's microchip technology had developed to the extent that significant computing power could be fitted
within very small units - variously referred to as micro, desktop, personal or home computers. Initially, they had very low
on-board memory, but were directly programmable from the keyboard in BASIC and could load programs from
audio cassettes. The early microcomputer manufacturers each had their own operating system (or control program) and
there was no possibility of transferring programs or data directly from one type of machine to another. There were also
several types of processor chip in use, each with its own instruction set, so that even programming language compilers had
to be rewritten for each type. A considerable step forward came when a common operating system (CP/M) was written for
one family of processor. This system spurred the production of a large range of microcomputers between which programs
were interchangeable. This process of standardisation has continued to the extent that at the time of writing there are only
two major groups of personal computers used in business and professional environments; the IBM PC-compatibles and
the Apple Macintosh. In the case of PC-compatibles, little more than the basic specifications are set by IBM itself and a
huge worldwide industry exists to produce the hardware and software. No such 'compatible' manufacturing industry exists
in the case of the Macintosh which, however, has a very strong software base in some areas, especially in graphic design
and publishing.
3. PRINTERS AND PLOTTERS

Despite the current multiplicity of ways for presenting and storing information, a facility for obtaining hard (paper) copy
of input data, program listing, results of analyses, graphics and documents is still very important. For alphanumeric output
hard copy is most conveniently obtained using a printer. In this area also, there is now a considerable range of options, but
the principal change in recent years has been from hard-formed character printers to raster (or matrix) printers of various
types. The great majority of modern printers belong to the latter group, in which the output is formed from a matrix of
dots which covers the print area in similar fashion to the pixels which form screen images. In black-and-white printing each
of these dots is simply turned on or off to form the character shapes or graphical images, and the fineness of the printed
output depends on how densely the dots are spaced. The method by which the dots are printed on the paper constitutes the
main technical difference between one printer type and another.
The original mainframe lineprinters were based on similar principles to the typewriter, with hard-formed characters
being struck via an inked ribbon onto the paper. These line printers can achieve high-volume text output at high speed, but
are very limited in their ability to print graphics. Their smaller derivatives include daisywheel and thimble printers which
suffer from the same limitation, and also from rather slow printing, although their text output is generally of a high quality.
Impact dot-matrix printers have been in use for many years and provide a relatively cheap system for producing output
of reasonable quality for both text and graphics. A moving print head contains one or more vertical rows of pins each of
which can be fired at the paper producing a single dot. Typical systems offer 9 pins in a single column or 24 pins in three
offset columns. Draft output is produced rapidly by printing dots which do not overlap at all, while near letter quality (NLQ)
is produced by simulating publishers' character fonts with arrays of overlapped dots. In simple 9-pin printers this is achieved
by the print head making two passes over a line with a slight shift in position to give a denser, more precise image.
Various fonts may be provided and a wide range of characters incorporated. Given the ability to control each pin of the
print-head as it passes across the paper, it is also possible to print graphical images. These may be defined as bitmaps in
which the image is stored as a continuous array of dots covering the whole print area and which may be sent to the printer as
a simple screen dump which converts a screen pixel directly to one or more printer dots. Alternatively, vector images (such
as engineering drawings) may be converted to bitmaps by software either at the computer or embodied in the printer.
Much more dense bitmaps can be achieved with laser printers, which deposit their dots electrostatically, in similar fashion
to photocopiers. Although expensive, they offer excellent print quality, speed and flexibility (in terms of range of
characters, fonts and print sizes). The high density of the matrix makes laser printers capable of printing high-quality
graphical images as well as text. The cheaper inkjet printers, which project tiny individual droplets of ink at the paper from
a moving print head produce output of almost comparable quality, but are less flexible and are much slower.
Most engineering drawings produced by CAD systems are stored as vector data (or drawing instructions). The pen-
plotters which have been in use for many years basically have used pens to obey these instructions, acting very much as
a mechanised draughtsman. The manufacturing technology of these plotters has developed to the extent that at the time
of writing they still represent an economical way of producing large drawings at a reasonable speed, in multiple colours
and with a variety of pen thicknesses. Since they are based on servo-motors there is no great penalty to be paid for
increasing the physical size of the drawing space and the amount of plotting data sent and stored is merely proportional to
the number of vector instructions on the plot. However, a dependence on moving parts limits their speed and precision
of plotting. These plotters cover the complete range of paper sizes in use, from A4 to A0. Since their whole method of
working is to move the pen in vectors across the paper (sometimes by moving the paper as well as the pen) their
most economical use of text is to draw "simplex" characters rather than to attempt to simulate character fonts. For the
same reasons they do not perform well when used to produce blocks of solid colour, for which they simply have to "shade"
the area with huge numbers of strokes. Continuous, or automatic, paper feed is usually available on higher-priced models.
Electrostatic plotters, which derive from laser printers are increasing in use at the expense of pen-plotters. Since a high-
quality dot-matrix image requires massive amounts of memory at the plotter to hold it, the penalties for requiring large
paper size are at present considerable and these plotters can be very expensive. They are, however, very fast and accurate.
It has already been mentioned that laser printers produce very high-quality plotted output and these represent a very
much cheaper solution for a large amount of technical material for which the smaller paper sizes (A4-A3) are
considered suitable. Inkjet plotters are also available at much cheaper prices than electrostatic and provide an economical
way towards accurate colour plotting.
4. INPUT/OUTPUT AND STORAGE

In batch-processing systems all information, including program code and input data, is supplied by the user before
any processing begins. It can be done in a number of different ways. Early mainframe systems used punched paper tape
or cards, which were cumbersome to edit and conducive to errors. They were superseded during the 1970s by magnetic
tape and disk storage. In the case of early microcomputers the tape often took the form of audio cassette tapes which have
now largely been replaced by the much more controllable floppy disks. They provide portable storage for a relatively
large amount of data and, having been through several phases of development, have now settled for the present in the 3,5
inch format which is robust enough to be almost self-protecting against reasonable physical abuse. The so-called hard
disks found on many current personal computers provide both quicker access and very much greater storage capacity
than floppy disks, but are usually not portable between machines. Tape cassette systems (often known as streamers) are
now largely used for making compressed backup copies of material normally stored on hard disks.
A form of data storage rather different from the magnetic systems mentioned above is compact disk (CD-ROM) storage. This
is very much the same product as the CD's used for sound or video reproduction, and allows huge amounts of data to be
held and rapidly retrieved, compared with the magnetic systems. CD-ROM is often included with personal computers used
for training and information retrieval, because it provides a facility for mixing software, large information bases and
video-quality graphics interactively. In some cases it is possible to write to CD as portable storage, but it is not possible to
re-use the space on the disk once it has been written to, so that CD is considered as a write once read many (WORM)
storage medium. However, where there is a need to produce, store and retrieve huge amounts of data, it is the obvious choice.
It is now fairly common to use scanners to enter text and pictures directly into a computer from paper copy. The key to
this technology is not so much in the ability of the scanner device to input a picture of the sheet placed upon it, but in
the character-recognition software which resolves individual character bit-images into normal printer font characters.
For graphics, the production of a bitmap of a photograph or a line-drawing is fairly straightforward. Software which
produces vector plot files from bitmaps of engineering drawings exists, although at the time of writing it is still
under development. In either case, scanned input can still be fairly unreliable, given the problems which can be
encountered with the original paper documents.
5. INTERACTION
Direct interactive use of computers was not possible on the early mainframes, but it has progressively become the
most effective method of use in most cases. Initially, dumb terminals were used so that users could type and send to
the computer directly the kind of batch programming commands which had previously been read from punched
cards. However, with mainframes two-way communication was slow since a large number of users might be sharing time
on the central processor and data transmission rates were rather low in any case. It was only when communication
and processing speeds had increased that interactive programs became possible. At this point, an executing program could
be made to pause and request additional data or decisions from the user at the remote terminal, and to resume execution
when this data had been entered. Results could be shown on the terminal or printed as a hard copy.
The use of dumb terminals has now largely been superseded by distributed computing. The personal computer itself
has enough processing power and memory for most applications, so that communication with the central processor is
not subject to time-sharing and truly interactive software is possible. Where access to software or data needs to be
shared between numbers of users, computers tend to be attached to a network. In a network a number of computers, each

of which uses its own processing power, is linked together (Figure 2) so that each has access to the others and,
more importantly, each has access to a very large central filestore on which data and software is stored. This filestore
is controlled by a "slave" computer known as the file server which generally runs the network. When a computer in the
ring needs to use a particular program it loads the program from the filestore and runs it locally. Data produced by
one computer can be held in a common database on the central filestore and accessed by others. Such networks are
often provided with gateways to larger, national or international networks so that information can be shared by a large group
of people. Even with a home computer the use of a modem allows a user to access the network via an ordinary
telephone connection, thus providing a dial-in facility. This possibility obviously carries the implication that data
needs protection against being corrupted by unauthorised users and, in some cases, confidentiality must be maintained.
Various systems of password protection are used to attempt to ensure that network users do not have access beyond the areas
in which they have a legitimate interest.

Computers are not the only devices which can be attached to a network. Most of the common types of peripheral (such
as printers, plotters, scanners and other input/output devices) can also be attached. In the case, say, of a plotter the file
server will control access to the device by queuing the output to it so that control is maintained. This queuing system can
be applied to any peripheral device which can be attached to the network; in the context of a fabrication plant, it can be
applied to a numerically controlled workshop machine for which a number of jobs may be waiting at any one time.
6. THE USER INTERFACE

The term user interface refers to the way in which the user and the computer exchange information. In the most basic sense
it might refer to how the user gives instructions when the computer is first accessed or switched on, and to how the
computer responds.
It is controlled by the computer's operating system, which is loaded from its hard disk when it is started, and includes a
series of utility functions which can be initiated by appropriate (shorthand) commands issued by the user. As many of
these functions are concerned with file operations on a disk (deleting, running, renaming, etc.), the operating system is
usually referred to as a disk operating system, or DOS.
In the days of dumb terminals the only two functions of a user interface were:
● To show on the VDU screen the line of characters which was being typed at the keyboard and eventually to send them to
the remote computer (typically when the "Enter" key was pressed).
● To show on the screen any characters sent to the terminal from the computer.
The nature of this interaction was very sequential. Lines of text would progress from top to bottom of the screen
and thenceforward the display would progressively scroll up the screen as more lines were added to the bottom.
With the very fast data transfer rates which are now possible, and because a screen is controlled by just a single
computer, communication between computer and screen is virtually instantaneous as far as the user is concerned. This
has enabled a very rapid development of the user interface to take place, with the objective of making the use of computers
a more "natural" and less specialised human activity. A recognition has grown that normal thought processes are largely
based on pictorial images rather than verbalised logic. Opening up the use of computers to the majority of people depends
on removing the necessity to learn even high-level programming languages, including the specialised commands of
an operating system or of a piece of software.
The current generation of windowing user-interfaces (Figure 3) has attempted to minimise the amount of specialist
knowledge needed by users and to address the non-verbal nature of human decision-making. Their basic context is a
computer screen, considered as a desktop on which a number of ledgers (windows) are placed. These ledgers
contain collections of tools (programs) and documents (data files). The ledgers may be put into the background or
brought forward and their contents displayed, and one ledger may be partially overlaid by another. The tools are
each represented by an icon - a small picture - and a title. A pointer directly controlled by a mouse is used to select a
program simply by pointing at it and clicking a button on the mouse. Once a piece of software is running it obeys the
common standards of the windows interface, so that there is no new working method to be learned by the user on coming to
a new software tool. The working principle is usually to minimise the use of the keyboard for decision-making (it is
obviously the best tool for direct text or data entry) by using the pointer to select options using a large but standard range
of visual devices on the screen. These options include pull-down menus and dialogue boxes, both of which are small
screen overlays on which selections can be made, which remove themselves after the action has been taken. It is
currently fashionable to make major selections by "pushing buttons" with the pointer. It is possible, while running one
program in a window, to pause operation and use another application in another window. This is not true multi-tasking,
since there is only one program running actively at a time, but it is possible to mix a range of tasks in a given period
without completely closing down any one of them. For example, in writing a technical report it might be appropriate to keep
a word-processor, a spreadsheet, a specific design or analysis program and a CAD program all open simultaneously, so that
the final document can be produced as new figures, calculation results and tabular information or graphs are generated
or modified. Real multi-tasking, in which a large finite element analysis, for example, could be running while more
routine interactive tasks are being performed, is only available in practice on the most powerful types of workstation.

Although window interfaces make computers accessible to a very wide range of potential users, they present some
difficulties for developers of software. The requirement for on-board memory is high, as is that for hard disk
storage. Development of original software for windows environments is usually rather slow and time-consuming and,
therefore, the economics of writing original technical programs for a restricted market is not always favourable. Conversion
of well-established software running in the normal operating system environment, in such a way that it keeps its
full functionality and retains the working methods which have made it popular whilst taking advantage of the common
user-interface, is an even more difficult task. It is, therefore, often necessary to work within the normal keyboard-
based operating system environment. On PCs this is usually MSDOS and on workstations Unix. Using a computer in
these environments requires much more understanding of the functions of the operating system and how data is stored on
disk. Visually the user sees a blank screen, or part of a screen, with a flashing cursor to the right of a brief prompt. In order
to make the computer perform any useful task it is necessary to type in a command in the operating system's high-
level language. This is less daunting than it sounds - with only a few commands in one's vocabulary and a working
knowledge of the directory structuring of hard disks it is possible to work very effectively with either a personal computer or
a workstation.
7. PROGRAMMING COMPUTERS
At the level of the processor chip very large numbers of very simple instructions are executed in order to perform even
the simplest of computing tasks. The task of programming a computer in such terms is a very tedious process and is
only attempted when execution speed is the very highest priority for an item of software. High-level programming
languages provide an alternative means of presenting a sequence of more advanced instructions to a computer in a
form reasonably comparable with ordinary language. The set of instructions (the computer program) are then
translated (compiled) into machine code form comprehensible to the processor.
Any programming language has a vocabulary of functional commands and a syntax of rules. In addition, there are
numerous arithmetic operators, including many of those used in conventional mathematics and the ability to use variables
of many different types. The programmer prepares a list of such instructions which represents the flow of control within
the program. There are numerous programming languages, nearly all of which are capable of performing most
programming tasks, but each of which has a unique basic philosophy which makes it efficient in a specific field.
For engineering applications FORTRAN (originally used on mainframes for batch processing) is still very widely used
on account of its mathematical efficiency and its huge library of mathematical subroutines. The world's most popular
language for general programming is BASIC which exists in many different forms, from the almost unstructured
interpreted versions generally bundled with any type of personal computer to very advanced compiled languages with
very large libraries of functions. Perhaps the most versatile and powerful general-purpose language used by
professional programmers is C which includes operators which allow very easy direct access to computer memory.
Other languages are used mainly in specific types of application with their own functional requirements, and it is not
necessary to go into their detail here. At this time computer users do not formally need to write programs in any case, but
will use software produced by professional developers over many man-years. A particular exception to this is in the context
of spreadsheets, and occasionally databases, in which it may be convenient to write applications in the high-level
languages which are included in these types of software.
8. STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS AND DESIGN SOFTWARE

Largely because of its direct links with computational research in universities, structural analysis software has been
available for a long time, initially on mainframe computers but more recently on all types of hardware. Except in the
most complex analytical processes the power of modern personal computers is adequate for even the more specialised
tasks needed for structural engineering. In the case of statically determinate analysis of structural components, the analysis
is normally contained within the detail design software. Elastic analysis of plain frames or grillages is probably the most
useful general tool for the structural designer. It now exists on personal computers in a multiplicity of different forms.
The important differences between these programs tend to be more in their ease of use than in their technical capabilities;
all tend to have graphical rationalisation capabilities (Figure 4), so that geometry and results can be viewed conveniently,
but the processes for editing geometry and loads vary widely, as do their capabilities of interacting with design and
CAD software. Nonlinear, elasto-plastic and three-dimensional frame analyses are now routinely available on
personal computer, usually within general-purpose finite-element packages which derive from mainframe software
developed in academic research. These packages, although useful for checking stresses, deflections and dynamic motions
in very complex cases, tend to be over-specified for most structural design problems, require very large amounts of data to
be defined and often produce far more output than is necessary. Their use is more appropriate as a final validation of a
design than in the earlier stages when the analysis is being used often as part of the member selection process.

Structural design software is a much more recent phenomenon, since it relies very heavily on interaction with the
design engineer and only started to become widespread when microcomputers began to flourish in the early 1980s.
Much structural design involves relatively simple calculations - standard loading calculations, analysis and element
sizing based on rules embodied in codes of practice. These calculations have traditionally been performed by hand,
but interactive computing now enables designers to take advantage of the power of the computer without relinquishing
control over design decisions. Design software relieves the designer of the tedium of laborious manual calculations - in
many cases a degree of 'optimisation' is incorporated within the program, but decisions about selecting the most
appropriate individual member sizes remain with the designer. Design software now reaches into nearly all areas, but is
very variable in its nature, style and quality. The best allows considerable flexibility in use, making revisions to
existing designs easy and allowing data to be exchanged with software for analysis, CAD and modelling and for
estimating quantities.
In the context of steel structure design, the material available starts with "free disks" provided by manufacturers of cold-
formed products such as sheeting, composite decking and purlins, which effectively provide quick look-up tables for
safe working loads and spans against key dimensions. Element design to various codes includes beams (both steel
and composite), columns and beam-columns, and connections of various kinds. Whilst element design usually takes the form
of free-standing executable programs the power of present-day spreadsheet software is such that applications for
standard spreadsheets can provide a very flexible way of automating these fairly straightforward design processes, with
good links to other standard software. Plastic design of steel frames, particularly low-rise frames such as portals, is available
in different degrees of sophistication in terms of its convenience in use, links to downstream software and CAD, and in
the order of analysis it offers. Plastic design is one area where different degrees of analytical capability provide different
orders of realism in results; the more non-linear analysis, which allows development of plastic zones, can produce
distinctly lower load resistances than the rigid-plastic and elastic-plastic versions.
Perhaps the most important thing to appreciate about design software is that different ways of working will be convenient
for different design environments. A steel fabricator with a large commitment to design-and-build will really need an
integrated system, preferably based on a 3-D modeller, in which it is easy to handle large numbers of members, to
standardise sizes and connections, to make rapid revisions, and to produce accurate costing and fabrication data. A small
firm of general consulting engineers, on the other hand, may find it more convenient to keep a fairly extensive library of
free-standing design programs with an easily understood user-interface, so that basic member sizing and
presentation calculations for building control approval can be done reliably and without a significant re-learning process
when the software is occasionally used.
9. COMPUTER-AIDED DESIGN: TWO-DIMENSIONAL DRAUGHTING

The development of interactive graphs at about the beginning of the 1970s provided the opportunity for using computers
for draughting. These early systems used mainframe computers with graphics terminals ("green" screens) and provided
three-dimensional draughting capabilities. Initially this was limited in use to heavy manufacturing industry, particularly in
the production of aircraft, ships and motor cars, where the benefits of 'mass' production justified the enormous investment
then required for CAD. Even in those pioneering days, the output from the CAD systems was providing automatic bills
of quantities and also being linked into numerically controlled (NC) machines, thus improving manufacturing efficiency.
In the late 1970s the development of 'super mini' computers was a significant factor in a very large growth in the use of
CAD. They provided a single-user facility and can be referred to as 'personal designers'. Application was still concentrated
in the production-based industries, but with increasing use of relatively cheap, unsophisticated, two-dimensional systems in
the construction industry. These personal designers were difficult to learn and use, largely because they were not
developed with the end-user in mind. User interfaces, which were not standardised, generally took the form of a command
line with complex syntax. The capabilities typically replicated those of conventional draughting processes and often
provided little additional intelligence. For instance, it was often possible to change the numerical value of a dimension
without the drawn length changing, and without appropriate warning messages. Some simple systems still allow this.
The advantages of this type of CAD are very limited - essentially the ease of revising a drawing and replotting. Time
to produce the original drawing might often be as much or more than producing the same drawing at a conventional
drawing-board.
More sophisticated features have rapidly been introduced, offering greater advantages. The advantages start with

improved geometrical constructions such as:
● Snapping, for instance onto the end or mid-points of lines, grid points, tangents, etc.
● Automatic grid generation.
● Rubber-band shapes, including lines, rectangles, circles and other shapes, allowing them to be replaced, dragged, stretched
and distorted.
● Associative dimensioning, in which a dimension arrow is tied to two points on an object and changes its printed value if
the object is stretched or distorted.
● Layering, enabling different groups of information, for instance those relating to architectural detail, foundations,
structural details, and various building services, to be superimposed on a basic common plan, see Figure 5.
● Objects which can be defined so that they can be scaled and placed anywhere within the drawing. Thus, changing
information relating to a particular dimension of a defined object influences other dimensions dependent upon it.
● Symbol libraries of standard geometric forms, e.g. architectural or structural details. These libraries not only facilitate
the drawing process, but can also provide data for use elsewhere, for example, in the production of bills of
quantities. Additional symbol libraries for specialised purposes can be created or purchased.

These facilities are now fairly typical in professional personal computer CAD tools. Increased intelligence has been
introduced into the way elements are represented, for instance, in according specific relationships between drawn
elements. There is, however, a penalty to be paid for storing data in an intelligent form, since:
● Additional data must often be specified by the user.

● It requires a sophisticated database system and increased computer memory.
● In order to take advantage of the intelligence, a significant amount of processing is needed.
Two-dimensional draughting systems still have a role in the production of general arrangement drawings, traditionally
the responsibility of the consulting engineer. Unless the system is to be used subsequently to produce detail drawings which
are normally the fabricator's responsibility, there is no real advantage to be gained for this kind of user by using the
three-dimensional structural modelling approach. A standard 2D system also allows easy interaction with architects
and building services engineers. It also enables the integration of different parts of the civil and structural engineering
design work via simple layering. Drawings, or parts of drawings, are easily copied directly into word processing packages
for report writing. It may also be possible, in future, for the 2D system to act as a partial pre-processor for full
structural modelling.
10. THREE-DIMENSIONAL STRUCTURAL MODELLING

Three-dimensional CAD systems can vary from a simple wire-frame model which operates on lines only, through
surface modelling to complete solid modelling which requires comprehensive data definition and relationships but
offers enormous potential.
Simple three-dimensional systems offer little advantage over 2D CAD for the construction industry. However, the
development of specialised forms of modelling system provides enormous power with direct relevance to steelwork
fabrication (including detail design). In this context, the 3D solid model is a means of representing the complete structure,
as distinct from conventional CAD where individual elements are merely drawn as flat shapes. This provides a
complete description of the steelwork, including connections from which all necessary fabrication and erection information
can be extracted automatically. The model is typically created in a manner similar to the design sequence itself,
coarsely defined at the start, with progressively more detail added as appropriate.
Initially the structural layout is defined using a wire frame model (Figure 6a). This can be done with the aid of a 3D
framework of grid lines and datum levels and corresponds to the general arrangement produced by the architect or
consulting engineer. With 3D modelling, it is also possible at this stage to generate more detailed engineering
drawings, including isometric views (Figure 6b). Information regarding section sizes, geometric offsets and additional
data such as end reactions from design calculations can all be entered very easily. The fabricator's next responsibility is
to design connection details. Detail design is facilitated by using a library of standard connection types (which can be
tailored to suit the needs of individual companies or clients) which will scale automatically to account for the members to
be connected (Figure 7). Appropriate detailed calculations can also be performed according to accepted design rules and
based on the end reactions prescribed when setting up the wire frame model. Where non-standard connections are
required, interactive modelling facilities exist for constructing the appropriate details, either from first principles or
by modifying standard forms. These can be added subsequently to the library for future use.



The definition of a 3D model in this way contains a complete geometrical and topological description of the
structure, including all vertices, edges and surfaces of each physical piece of steel. As a result all element dimensions
are automatically tested for compatibility, and clashes which can easily carry through in the traditional processes are
removed. The model allows the efficient generation of conventional drawing information, including general
arrangement drawings (plans, elevations, sections, foundations, isometric views - Figure 8), full shop fabrication details for
all members, assemblies and fittings (Figures 9a and 9b), and calculation of surface areas and volumes for all
steelwork. Further benefits of such systems are related to the links which can be established with other parts of the
production process. Full size templates can be drawn, e.g. for gusset plates, and wrap-around templates for tubes.
Erection drawings can be output and material lists (including details of cutting, assembly, parts, bolts, etc.
produced automatically. An interface to a management information system can also facilitate stock control,
estimating, accounting, etc. Potentially of greatest importance is the possibility of downloading data directly to
Numerically Controlled (NC) fabrication machinery, automating much of the fabricating work itself. At this level,
3D modelling is the central controlling tool for an integrated steel fabrication works in which the total design-and-
build package is offered.



In more general terms, surface modelling provides additional information about a 3D model. At its simplest, but probably
most cumbersome, this can take the form of defining boundaries within which there is a surface with specified

characteristics. More sophisticated surface modelling techniques, such as rubber surfacing which allows a surface to
be stretched and squeezed into shape, are not directly relevant to most construction work, but are particularly valuable
where shell forms are being developed, e.g. for motor car body design and manufacture. It may be that developments
in steelwork modelling of the type described above will allow a convenient way of integrating the skeletal models with
surface models of the building envelope and architectural visualisation models, but at the time of writing this is not yet a reality.
The general arrangement drawings have typically provided the basis for a Bill of Quantities used for tendering. Preparation of
a Bill requires the weight of steelwork in different parts of the structure to be calculated, including an allowance
for attachments and connections, and a brief description of the operations required for fabrication and erection.
The specification, which may be in a largely standardised form, provides additional information, e.g. regarding the
corrosion protection system to be applied. The Bill of Quantities is traditionally prepared by hand. However, if a suitable
3D modeller is used, the output can form the basis of the Bill, with quantities called off automatically. This technique not
only avoids time spent on tedious calculation, but also minimises the potential for errors in the quantities. As part of
the steelwork detail drawings, each item is given a unique reference number. This number is used to identify each workpiece
in the subsequent fabrication and erection operations and also serves as the basis for a materials list which is issued for
ordering stock and planning production.
In a design-and-build contract, a formal Bill of Quantities is not used. Instead the steelwork contractor must estimate a
lump sum on the basis of experience and preliminary calculations. When the contract is awarded, the fabricator produces
the design calculations and general arrangement of drawings. Preliminary buying lists for purchasing stock from the steel
mills or stockholders are then required and the sequence of operations follows a similar route to the more traditional method
of procurement. In this environment also, it is clear that use of a suitable 3D modeller can enhance the accuracy of
estimation of quantities, even before a complete detailed solid model exists.
11. NUMERICAL CONTROL IN FABRICATION

Traditional methods of preparing steelwork elements for construction - cutting to length, drilling, making attachments
(cleats, brackets, etc.) and assembling sub-frames (e.g. trusses) were labour-intensive, and based on precise information on
the steelwork detail drawings. Measurements and marking were performed manually using templates, typically of
timber construction, for repetitive or complicated details. Appropriate machine tools (saws, drills, etc.) would be
aligned visually and each operation performed in sequence, with the workpiece being transported between individual items
of equipment. Subframes were typically put together on a laying-out floor on which the form of the geometry had been
marked using traditional setting-out methods.
The introduction of NC machines has enabled preparation details such as overall length and position of holes to be
defined numerically via a computer console. Handling equipment automatically positions the workpiece in relation to
the machine tool, which performs the necessary operations. In this way, the labour-intensive operations of marking,
positioning and preparation are integrated into a single process which leads to major improvements in fabrication

efficiency, especially where fairly standard or repetitive operations are concerned. Even greater efficiency can be achieved
by transferring the necessary information on machining directly from the steelwork modeller into the NC machines rather
than by transcribing it manually from drawings or paper specifications. This process requires a computer modeller which
is capable of providing the machining operations data in a suitable form. The data can then be transferred either by writing to
a floppy disk which can then be read by the NC machine, or via a direct network connection between the machine and the
CAD workstation. At the time of writing only a minority of fabrication plants have complete computer-integration in this
way because of incompatibilities between computing hardware and machine tools, but this integration is clearly capable
of providing much greater efficiency and higher quality than the present semi-manual process.
12. THE FUTURE

Predicting future developments in computing is notoriously hazardous. However, the trend of increasing power of
computers with little or no increase in cost shows no sign of slowing down, suggesting that the application of computing
is likely to spread even further. Applications, which currently require excessive amounts of processing making
them impractical, will become feasible. The evolution of graphical user interfaces appears to have reached a plateau, but
the application of graphics may well become much wider, with "virtual reality" applications, for instance, allowing
the structural designer as well as the architect a realistic visualisation of new developments. This application has already
been used in demonstration form for a small number of new constructions.
Routine design calculations may become more sophisticated, possibly allowing more adventurous design solutions, but there
is a danger that the designer may become over-reliant on the processing power of the computer. A simple understanding
of general structural behaviour is still essential. There may be a temptation to use over-elaborate methods of analysis
and design, and the engineer should always consider whether these are appropriate, particularly bearing in mind
unavoidable uncertainties regarding design loads, material strengths, etc. There is also a danger of refining designs to
an excessive degree in an attempt to optimise structural efficiency. For example, a structure in which every steelwork
element has been designed for minimum weight will result in the lowest overall tonnage, but almost certainly at the expense
of increased fabrication and erection costs.
Some aspects of steel design, for instance fire resistance, have traditionally been treated in an over-simplified fashion
and increased computer usage will rightly allow more rational approaches to become more commonly considered as part of
the design calculations. Other aspects of structural behaviour have often simply been ignored. Dynamic analysis, for
instance, is a specialist topic which the designer may be called on increasingly to look at in detail, and again the
integrated computer model could enable this to be done painlessly as far the design is concerned. Increasingly, the designer
will create an intelligent model of the structure and expose it to a number of design scenarios, observing and interpreting
the responses. In this respect graphics is again likely to become prominent, with visualisation of behaviour rather than
the presentation of lists of numerical results requiring careful interpretation.
In building forms where complex geometry is involved, such as the International Terminal at Waterloo, the use of

conventional draughting methods would have been almost impossible. In this case a 3D modeller was used to set up
the geometry of a single bay of the three-pinned trussed-arch system. This acted as the starting point for the whole roof
and also facilitated the setting-out on site, with a number of targets attached to each arch which could then be positioned on
site using precise three-dimensional co-ordinates and conventional electronic distance measuring equipment.
Integration of computers into each of the different stages of design and construction will not only lead to improved
efficiency with data automatically carried forward, but it will also extend computing into areas which might be regarded
as trivial. If the scheme design involves the creation of a simple 3D wire-frame model of the structure, then
loading calculations become almost automatic. Whilst this is not a difficult part of engineering design calculations, it
is somewhat tedious and automatic load assessment would result in valuable time-savings. It is possible that eventually
expert systems, which have so far had limited success in structural engineering, may be of use at the concept stage and
in integrating the structural form with services and building-use requirements.
These developments, which all depend on the establishment of a common, universal database structure, will allow
information about a structure to be shared between different applications, so that a change in data as a result of one
process automatically feeds through to other dependent processes to ensure consistency. Object-orientated
programming concepts and relational databases provide the vehicles for these developments. It has been seen that the
3D modeller is already being linked to fabrication machinery and to other aspects of the whole building. This linking is
likely to become more common as standard data structures are established and fabricators exploit the improvements
in efficiency which integration offers. The linking can be extended through to site planning, allowing more precise control
over component delivery and operations, where even greater improvements in efficiency could be realised. Integration is
also likely to be extended to non-structural areas with, for instance, analysis of energy requirements, day lighting, etc. all
being integrated and making use of a central database.

● Computing facilities continue to improve dramatically and their use is now highly cost effective for a wide range of
activities within steel construction.
● Interactive graphical user interfaces have become standard, making it easier for non-specialists to use computers.
● Different facilities are required by different organisations within the design and construction process.
● The greater the degree of automatic data transfer between different applications, the more efficient the overall process will be.

ESDEP WG 5
COMPUTER AIDED DESIGN
AND MANUFACTURE
Lecture 5.2: The Future Development

of Information Systems for Steel
Construction
OBJECTIVE/SCOPE
To discuss possible future developments in data transfer between different stages in the steel construction process, through
a product model approach. To indicate the benefits that might be realised as a result of this and how such changes can
be achieved.
PREREQUISITES
Lecture 5.1: Introduction to Computer Aided Design and Manufacture
RELATED LECTURES
None.
SUMMARY
The processes of exchanging information at various stages of a steel construction project are reviewed briefly. The
potential advantages of enabling this transfer to be made directly between computers rather than, as at present, on paper
are outlined. The basic requirements that must be met before such a system can be implemented are discussed in principle,
and the practical ways in which it might be achieved are considered. The role of the management information system
is explained, and a realistic approach to implementation throughout the industry is outlined.
1. INTRODUCTION
The progress of a building project from client's brief to completion of execution entails the generation and transfer of
large quantities of information, much of it in the form of paper documents. Many people contribute to the project as
it progresses through its various phases.
Inefficiency and disruption results from the need to translate information from one format to another - as occurs, for
example, in the creation of workshop drawings for the steel fabrication - as well as from the transfer of inadequate or
erroneous information, and from late changes which may entail laborious reworking.
The aim of this lecture is to extend ideas relating to information exchange standards, developed for manufacturing industry,
to the processes of information transfer between the various stages of construction, in order to render these more efficient
and economical.
2. INFORMATION EXCHANGE IN THE CONSTRUCTION PROCESS
2.1 Information Exchange: The Present
Figures 1 and 2 give an indication of the information generated and exchanged within the construction process, and the
various parties which may need to be involved in such exchanges of information. Figure 3 represents a portion of
this information schematically, using the terminology of the Product Model - the product being in this case the steelwork
aspect of the building project. This figure marks the stages in the life of the product, and illustrates the accumulation of
product data as product life progresses. Information exchanged between phases often has particular legal significance.
A particular example is the set of information exchanges which take place at the end of the design phase and which are
marked by the signing of a contract. There is a particular onus on the participants to ensure the completeness,
correctness, clarity and finality of such information exchanges, as errors can waste time and money and variations lead
to contractual claims.




Common sense would suggest that the quantity of information exchange should be confined to the essential - consistent,
of course, with the conveyance of an adequate understanding of requirements.
At present this information is exchanged between participants as hard copy, i.e. as reports, calculations, drawings,
etc. Interpreting this data at each stage of information exchanged can be a time consuming process, particularly if there
are ambiguities, or if some aspects are incomplete. Modifications in the information generally result in changes within
all subsequent stages of the product model route. Changes in the client brief, for instance, cause reworking of
design calculations, drawings, details, etc. and if made late in the programme can result in significant delays. Substitution
of alternative section sizes at the detailing stage to take account of material availability, for example, may have
less consequence, but even so the required changes to details may be time consuming. It is always a danger too that
isolated changes have implications for other aspects of construction which are not identified in the rush to make the
corrections. Something as simple as a change in beam depth, for instance, may have considerable significance for
the accommodation of services.
The present system does, however, provide useful opportunities for checking information since at each stage of
information transfer the data is examined afresh. It also allows for considerable flexibility in the system, with some
information being passed on in a partially complete form, and in a variety of formats. Feedback between later stages in
the product model route and those earlier in the process are also relatively straightforward.
2.2 Information Exchange: The Future
More use is being made of computers within each stage of the product model route, with a view to increasing efficiency.
One of the most time consuming aspects of using computers is entering data, and significant savings can therefore be
achieved if the effort required for data input is minimised. This can be achieved by transferring data between successive
stages in the product model route electronically rather than as hard copy.
Future information exchange will therefore involve wider use of computers to reduce manual input of data and provide a
better flow of information relating to the steelwork 'product'. For instance information derived from design calculations
could be transferred directly to a computer-aided design (CAD) system to avoid duplicating definitions of basic data such
as beam spans, column heights, etc. and to enable the output from the calculations (section sizes, beam reactions, etc.) to
be taken directly into the next stage.
Some developments have already taken place in this sense. The integration of general arrangement drafting and
detailing systems, and the output of 3-D modelling systems leading directly into numerically controlled machines
for fabrication. This means replacing the present limited conventions and protocols for information exchange, both manual
and computer based, with a more rigorous unified information exchange system which can apply across the entire
construction industry, and which is capable of operation in all phases of the project's life.
Such a system requires:

i. the establishment of a unified computer based product description.
This requires data in a sufficiently comprehensive form to describe all relevant aspects of the product at all stages.
ii. the creation of standards for the transfer of information between different computer systems and organisations.
iii. the creation of information management systems - to control information changes, access rights and quality assurance.
These requirements can be illustrated by the following simple examples:
i. A computer program for the elastic analysis of frames requires member cross-sections to be described in such terms as
area and moment of inertia. It does not require a description of how the area is distributed throughout the section, i.e. what
its shape is. Such a description would, however, be inadequate to generate connection details. It is, therefore, desirable to
have a single format which would accommodate both needs, permitting an efficient transition from analysis to drafting.
This is a somewhat trivial example. Most frame analysis programmes now allow definition of cross-sections by reference to
a standard library. However it does illustrate the point that data which is sufficient to describe the product at one
particular stage in the process may be inadequate for other stages.
ii. Working on a range of products, a steelwork fabricator has to produce shop drawings from engineering design
information originating from a variety of software and hardware systems, some of which are mutually incompatible. It
would seem advantageous if this fabrication could access directly the graphical information base created by the designer
in each case. This would necessitate a CAD system capable of information exchange with all others on the market.
CAD developers have tended to concentrate on transfer of information between computers running the same software, i.
e. theirs, rather than facilitating exchange of information with machines running software produced by a competing
CAD developer. An information exchange format which is particular to a CAD package is termed the 'native' data
exchange format of that system.
Considerable progress has been made in this direction with regard to alphanumeric data. The ASCII format provides a
basic standard so that text produced using one wordprocessor system, for instance, can be output in this form enabling it to
be read directly by other systems or application programs. Dealing with text is a relatively simple matter because it involves
a limited number of unique characters. Even so, the ASCII standard provides for the basic characters only with no
formatting signals to indicate different text styles, subscripting, etc. Data for presenting information graphically is even
more complicated, but some standards have been established, IGES and DXF files serve a similar function, providing
a standard of data appropriate to drawing instructions, enabling the output from the CAD system to be interpreted by
another. However it should be clear that this is not in itself sufficient to provide a full description of what is being drawn.
The full product model description requires much more complete information.

3. A FRAMEWORK FOR CHANGE
3.1 The Product Model
An essential first step towards an integrated approach is the development of a standard specification for the organisation
of technical information on structural steelwork. This specification is referred to as the 'logical product model' and provides
a standard basis for the production of interfaces between structural steelwork software products. When the
technical information on a particular structural steelwork contract is arranged according to the 'logical product
model' specification, it is then simply referred to as a product model. The product model approach can be used to
transfer information between all sorts of software products by using product model files (computer files) to transfer
the information automatically. Consistent versions of existing paper documents can then be generated, as required, from
this unified digital description, or product model.
In broad terms, the system would work in the following way:
● Each software product concerned with structural steelwork would have its own product model interface.
● Product model files would be used to transfer information between the various software products.
● The product model interfaces would read information from, and write information to, the product model files as and
when required.
Figure 4 compares the traditional approach with the product model approach for information exchange. The main advantages
of the product model approach are that it will offer flexibility for users to configure and develop systems from the
software products they prefer (provided each product they wish to use has a product model interface).

A product model for steelwork construction is currently being developed within the Eureka EU130 CIMSTEEL project.
In the long term, the approach is capable of being developed to achieve full database integration of software products. It is
the target system architecture activity which aims to map out the future part of development.

3.2 Information Exchange Between Software Products
3.2.1 Introduction
The native exchange file formats are 'de facto' standards established by particular software vendors and remain under
their control. In contrast, the concept of a neutral file format implies a universal standard independent of any particular
vendor. Such standards originate typically from research projects but are now increasingly coming under the control
of international standards bodies.
One of the principal goals of current research projects, e.g. EUREKA, ESPRIT, is to make it possible to transfer
information easily and inexpensively between the many different software products already available or being developed
for the structural steelwork industry. This implies direct digital transfer of information obviating the need for
manual interpretation of drawings, etc.
Examples of software products involved are:
● Structural analysis programs.

● Computer aided design and detailing systems.
● Software for programming of NC (numerically controlled) machines, tools, e.g. sawing, drilling, flame cutting, and
profiling machines.
● Software for programming of welding cells.
● Company MIS (management information systems) and software for cost estimating.
The main benefits of linking software are that time and effort can be saved, and transcription errors can be eliminated.
Traditionally, wherever a company requires an efficient means of information exchange between specific software products,
a new piece of purpose-written software, 'an interface', has to be produced. Unfortunately, an interface will only work with
the particular pieces of software for which it was specifically written in the first place. Thus, every time a new software
product is introduced, new interfaces have to be produced to link with each and every other piece of software with which
it needs to exchange information. The simple interface of two pieces of software solves only a local problem and creates
a localised increase in efficiency (Figure 5). To achieve a solution to meet the requirement of the whole industry a
wider perspective is required.


3.2.2 'Neutral' graphical exchange file formats
The IGES Standard
The most widely supported of the current generation of neutral exchange file formats is the Initial Graphical
Exchange Standard (IGES). It originated in 1980 with the then United States National Bureau of Standards. By 1988
Version 4.0 had been published, and at the time of writing this lecture, a final version - to be Version 5.0 - is awaited.
While IGES has extended its ability to represent information and addressed problems of efficiency, the standard has
grown increasingly complex. It is similar in principle to the DXF system, which is a proprietary product of Autodesk.
The neutral file concept established by IGES led to the evolution of several other data exchange standards, each targeted on
the needs of a specific group of CAD/CAM users. In each case, the objective was to make the exchange process more
efficient and reliable, and to maximise the ability of the developed data exchange file format to represent particular classes
of engineering information.
While considerable technical progress was made by these various standards projects, the result was a proliferation of
data-exchange formats. It was recognised that the solution lay in a single second-generation neutral file standard which
would provide a unified framework for data exchange by all sectors of engineering. The result was the new
emerging International Standards Organisation (ISO) STEP Standard.
The ISO STEP Standard
STEP, the Standard for the Exchange of Product model data seeks to provide consistent data models across a broad range
of engineering applications which would be applicable to the whole life-cycle of engineering products. Thus the STEP
data models will (eventually) enable all aspects of a construction project to be represented, from conception through to
the structure's ultimate demolition.
So in some respects, STEP is just another neutral data exchange file format. However, the true significance of STEP is that
it uses much definitive second-generation engineering data exchange standards based on the concept of a product model. It
is interesting to note that during the early development of IGES it was 'Product Data' that was to be exchanged. The switch
to 'Product Model' in STEP reflects a recognition that it is information (i.e. meaning), not data, that has to be transferred
(see Figure 6).

Currently, STEP is little more than a powerful enabling technology and, while it may be a long-term task to compile
the necessary component product models, the technology for the implementation of STEP will soon be available [1, 2].
3.3 Management Information Systems (MIS)
To make real progress in the area of the future management information systems it is necessary to have a clear and
common view of how it relates to the product model. The main point to recognise is that the product model is limited
to technical information. Management information must be dealt with separately by the MIS.
Figure 7 presents a simplistic view of the structural steelwork design and manufacture process with boxes representing
the functions of scheme design, detail design, fabrication and erection. Types of software products which may be used
are shown under each function. At the top of the diagram is the Management Information System, which monitors and
controls the functions. At the bottom of the diagram is the Product Model which provides the technical information needed
by the software products in the form of product model files.

Although a clear division between technical and management information can be defined theoretically, in reality the MIS
will need to:
● Know where all technical information is located and organised.

● Monitor and control all modifications to Product Model information.
● Monitor and control all Product Model file transfers to and from the software products.
Thus, in addition to a 'management information controller' the MIS should also include a 'product model information
controller' whose function will be to manage the flow of product model information in the form of product model files.
Figure 8 illustrates the way in which this could be arranged. In essence, the MIS controls both the management functions
and the transfer of product model information. Product model files are stored in the product model file store and are used
to transfer technical information to enable the various pieces of technical software to perform their required operations for
any particular contract going through the factory.

It should be noted that Figure 8 represents product model file interfacing, and does not include database integration of
products model information. As such, it can only represent a step towards the development of fully integrated systems.
4. IMPLEMENTATION
Incremental Implementation
It has to be fully recognised that many of these long term aims have only a theoretical meaning today. As a result
practical incremental implementation is essential so that the industry can start to reap the benefits in the shorter term.
The shorter term goals of common information exchange standards allow the interfacing of systems enabling the industry
to take the first vital steps towards implementation of computer integrated manufacture (CIM).
Recognising the different ways in which steelwork companies are managed, and will continue to be managed, it is evident

that an all encompassing standard for management information is going to be very difficult to achieve.
However, if the finance, sales and marketing, personnel, and administration functions are excluded for the time being, then
a common approach is feasible for:
● Contract planning.
● Capacity planning.
● Process planning.
● Design control.
● Materials control.
● Fabrication control.
● Despatch/transport control.
● Erection control.
It is in these areas that an industry-wide approach could be developed. An industry MIS could be produced covering
these functions which would comprise a number of modules operating in conjunction with a management information
database and a product model file store.
● Computer aided transfer of standard product information between design and fabricator will reduce time for
information production, detailed design and the production of fabrication drawings, as all required information can
be transferred automatically.
● The net result will be significant increases in efficiency due to the reduction in contract variation claims and hence a
less contentious contractual relationship. Controlled early access to relevant information and changes to information has
great advantages in reducing lead times and errors.
● This future development will result in a dramatic change in the nature of estimating with respect to current practice.
The fabricator will receive standard items of product information, files of historical manufacturing (material and
workmanship) cost data for each item. The 'scientific' part of estimating can thus be automated. Commercial judgments on
an estimated contract value can then be applied in the more certain knowledge that estimates are correct.
● There are four key requirements for the structural steelwork industry to enable the effective and efficient transfer of
product information. These are computer-based product descriptions, international information exchange standards
for structural steelwork (neutral exchange file formats), and information control (management information systems).
● These developments represent a fundamental change in current methods of working. Acceptance by the industry can only
be achieved by the introduction of short term solutions which lead towards the ultimate goal.
6. REFERENCES
[1] National Economic Development Council (NEDC), Information Transfer in Building, NEDO, London, 1990.
[2] Watson, A. S., CAD Data Exchange, Proc. Institution of Civil Engineers, Part 1, 1990, Vol. 88, December, 955-969.

ESDEP WG 6
APPLIED STABILITY
Lecture 6.1: Concepts of Stable and

Unstable Elastic Equilibrium
OBJECTIVE/SCOPE
To introduce the main concepts and definitions required for the understanding of stable and unstable elastic equilibrium
in structures.
PREREQUISITES
None.
RELATED LECTURES
Lecture 6.2: General Criteria for Elastic Stability
SUMMARY
This lecture begins with a definition of the stable and unstable states of equilibrium for a mechanical system. The law of
minimum potential energy and its relationship to the stability of a structure is introduced by means of non-mathematical
considerations. The concepts of buckling by bifurcation, for perfect systems, and of buckling by divergence, for
imperfect systems, are presented. The post-critical behaviour of a system and the erosion of the stability when
coincidence of several stability modes occurs are also briefly discussed.
1. INTRODUCTION
Stability theories are formulated in order to determine the conditions under which a structural system, which is in
equilibrium, ceases to be stable. Instability is essentially a property of structures in their extremes of geometry; for
example, long slender struts, thin flat plates or thin cylindrical shells. Normally, one deals with systems having one
variable parameter N, which usually represents the external load but which might also be the temperature (thermal
buckling) or other phenomena. For each value of N, there exists only one unbuckled configuration.
In classical buckling problems, the system is stable if N is small enough and becomes unstable when N is large. The
value of N for which the structural system ceases to be stable is called the critical value Ncr. More generally the
following should be determined:
● the equilibrium configurations of the structure under prescribed loadings.

● which amongst these configurations are stable.
● the critical value of the loadings and what behavioural consequences are implied at these load levels.

2. STABLE AND UNSTABLE EQUILIBRIUM STATES

In very general terms, stability may be defined as the ability of a physical system to return to equilibrium when slightly
disturbed.
For a mechanical system, one can adopt the definition given by Dirichlet: "The equilibrium of a mechanical system is
stable if, in displacing the points of the system from their equilibrium positions by an infinitesimal amount and giving
each one a small initial velocity, the displacements of different points of the system remain, throughout the course of the
motion, contained within small prescribed limits".
This definition shows clearly that stability is a quality of one solution - an equilibrium solution - of the system, and that
the problem of ascertaining the stability of a solution is concerned with the "neighbourhood" of this particular solution.
If one considers an elastic conservative system, which is initially in a state of equilibrium under the action of a set of
forces, the system will depart from this equilibrium state only if acted upon by some transient disturbing force. If the
energy imparted to the system by the disturbing force is W, then:
W = T + V = constant (1)
by means of the principle of conservation of energy.
In this relationship, T is the kinetic energy of the system and V is the potential energy. A small increase in T, is
accompanied by an equally small decrease in V, or vice versa. If the system is initially in an equilibrium configuration
of minimum potential energy, then the kinetic energy T during subsequent free motion decreases since V must increase.
Hence the displacement from the initial state will remain small and the equilibrium state is a stable one.
For rigid bodies, the stability can be illustrated by the well-known example of a ball on a curved plane (Figure 1).
Resting on a concave surface (Figure 1a) the equilibrium is stable; if one gives the ball a small initial velocity, it will
begin to oscillate but will remain in the close neighbourhood of its equilibrium state. On the other hand, if the system is
not in a configuration of minimum V (potential energy), then an impulse leads to large deflections and velocities which
develop very quickly, and the system is said to be unstable. This is the case where the ball rests on the crest of a convex
surface (Figure 1b) or at a horizontal point of inflection of the surface (Figure 1c). If the ball rests on a horizontal plane,
the equilibrium is called "neutral" (Figure 1d).

3. MINIMUM POTENTIAL ENERGY

The intuitive example of the ball leads to the law of minimum potential energy of a system: "A conservative elastic
system is in a state of stable equilibrium if, and only if, the value of the potential energy is a relative minimum".
The words "relative minimum" are used because there may be other minima nearby at lower values of potential energy
separated by small "hills" but the move from one minimum to another necessitates large disturbances (Figure 2). The
existence of a relative minimum of the potential energy in the equilibrium configuration is, strictly speaking, only a
sufficient condition for stability. However, this principle is, in practice, generally accepted as both a necessary and
sufficient condition for stability.

4. BIFURCATION BUCKLING
It has been shown that the stability concept is related to potential energy of the system. However, stability of a static
elastic system, or structure, may also be explained by stiffness considerations. Referring to Figure 1a, one can see that
the derivative of the potential energy with respect to displacement gives the stiffness (in the figure, the slope of the
surface) of the system.
Thus, positive stiffness implies a stable state, whereas at a stability limit the stiffness vanishes. For a structure, the
stiffness is given in matrix form, which if it has both a positive and definite condition, guarantees a stable state for the
structure. The point at which the state of a system changes from stable equilibrium into neutral equilibrium is called "the
stability limit".
The system of a ball on a curved plane (where the stability depends only on the shape of the surface) can be compared to
a structure such as a compressed column. In this case, the column may be stable or unstable, depending of the
magnitude of the axial load, which is the controlling parameter of the system (Figure 3a). Since the member is initially
straight and the load is axial, the structure will be in stable equilibrium for small values of N; if a disturbing force
produces deflections, the column will return to its straight position. When the load reaches a certain level, called
"critical load", the stable equilibrium reaches a limit. At this load Ncr, there exists another equilibrium position in a
slightly deflected configuration of the column; if, at this load, the member is deflected by some small disturbance, it will
not return to the straight configuration.

If the load exceeds the critical value, the straight position is unstable and a slight disturbance leads to large
displacements of the member and, finally, to the collapse of the column by buckling. The critical point, after which the
deflections of the member become very large, is called the "bifurcation point" of the system (Figure 3b).
If the column is not initially perfectly straight, deflection starts from the beginning of the loading and there is no sudden
buckling by bifurcation, but a continuous increase of the displacements (Figure 4). This phenomenon is called
"divergence of the equilibrium" and there is no strict stability limit. If the material remains elastic, the stiffness of the
column (given here by the slope of the N. δ curve) is always positive but a small disturbance will produce very large
displacements.

The reduction in the stiffness of a structural member is, in general, due to a change either in geometry or in mechanical
properties. Stiffness reduction due to geometric change does not generally cause loss of stability but leads to large
deflections. On the other hand, major stiffness reductions can result from the change in mechanical properties (yielding
or fracture of material) and, in consequence, lead to collapse of the member. This important point is discussed in later
lectures.
5. POSTCRITICAL BEHAVIOUR OF PERFECT AND IMPERFECT

SYSTEMS
After the bifurcation point, three main situations can arise depending on the type of system under study (Figure 5). In
Figure 5, N is the applied load, δ is a displacement of one point of the system and ξ is the amplitude of the imperfection.
Heavy solid lines in Figure 5 represent the equilibrium paths of the perfect system while light solid lines represent the
equilibrium paths of imperfect systems, continuous lines representing stable equilibrium and dotted lined representing
unstable equilibrium.

● Figure 5a: stable-symmetric point of bifurcation.
Small positive and negative imperfections have similar effects and yield a stable and rising equilibrium path. The

buckling is characterized by a rapid growth of the deflections when the critical load of the perfect system is approached.
This case is of great practical importance because columns, beams and plates show this type of postcritical behaviour.
● Figure 5b: unstable-symmetric point of bifurcation.
The imperfections play an important role in modifying the behaviour of the system. Small imperfections of both signs
induce a reduced load with regard to the critical load. This is, for example, the case in some systems composed of
hinged bars.
● Figure 5c: asymmetric point of bifurcation.
For small positive values of the imperfection, the system loses its stability at a limit point (ultimate load), largely
reduced by comparison to the critical point. On the other hand, small negative imperfections lead to a rising stable path.
Here, the system is mainly sensitive to initial positive imperfections. This is, for example, the case in some trusses.
Figure 6 illustrates these three post-critical behaviours.

6. LIMIT POINT BUCKLING

Buckling associated with bifurcation of equilibrium is not the only form of instability which can occur. In the case of
shallow arches, shallow trusses and spherical domes, for example, snap-through buckling can occur where the initially
stable path loses its stability when reaching the locally maximum value of the load, called the "limit point" of the
system. This is shown in Figure 7a, which also shows that the response of an imperfect system is similar to that of the
corresponding perfect system.

Figure 7b illustrates this buckling behaviour by considering a shallow truss made up of two hinged bars. When the load
is first applied a stable path 0-1 is followed. At point 1, stability is lost and a dynamic jump through non-equilibrium
states occurs from point 1 to 2 and the truss is now in an inverted position (snap-through). Point 2 also lies on a stable
path and further loading may take place. For example, an unloading sequence follows the stable path from point 2 to 3 at
which, once more, stability is lost causing the structure to jump dynamically from point 3 to 4. At point 4, the structure
is on the original stable path and a new loading cycle can be started. This discussion shows that the dashed line between
points 1 and 3, which represents the unstable equilibrium states, is totally inaccessible during the loading process.
7. COINCIDENCE OF SEVERAL INSTABILITY MODES

In some cases, structures can exhibit several instability modes at nearly the same critical loads or at critical loads which
are very close. In these cases, called coupled bifurcations, the imperfections can lead to a significant reduction in the
ultimate load compared to the ultimate loads of the single modes. Coupled bifurcation problems are generally difficult
to analyse. Some coupled instabilities which can arise in steel structures and members are given below:
● the coupling of column buckling and plate buckling in thin-walled columns.

● the coupling of lateral buckling and plate bucking in thin-walled beams.
● the coupling of general buckling and member buckling in laced columns.
● the coupling of individual column buckling and general buckling in a frame.
● the coupling of buckling of the stiffeners and plate buckling of stiffened plates or shells.
Figure 8 illustrates the reduction in the buckling load due to the coupling of a local and a global buckling mode as
follows:

● local buckling of the plates forming the four sides of the square hollow section.
● global Euler buckling of the column.

● Stable and unstable equilibrium states of a structural system can be defined by means of the potential energy of
the system; the existence of a relative minimum for the potential energy is a sufficient condition for stability.
● The bifurcation point or limit point defines the form of instability of a structural system.
● The postcritical behaviour is an important characteristic of a structural system.
● If the structure can exhibit several instability modes at nearly the same critical load, the structural imperfections
will lead to a decrease of the ultimate load when compared to the ultimate loads for the single modes.
1. Timoshenko, S. P. and Gere, J. M., "Theory of Elastic Stability", McGraw-Hill, 2nd Edition, New York, 1961.
2. Allen, H. G. and Bulson, P. S., "Background to Buckling", McGraw-Hill, London, 1980.
3. Thompson, J. M. T. and Hunt, G. W., "A General Theory of Elastic Stability", John Wiley and Sons, London,
1973.
4. Galambos, T. V. (editor), "Guide to Stability Design Criteria for Metal Structures", John Wiley and Sons, 4th
Edition, New York, 1988.

ESDEP WG 6
APPLIED STABILITY
Lecture 6.2: General Criteria for Elastic

Stability
OBJECTIVE/SCOPE
To establish general criteria for elastic stability and neutral equilibrium as preparation for the use of energy methods
in the assessment of critical loads in Lecture 6.4.
PREREQUISITES
Lecture 6.1: Concepts of Stable and Unstable Elastic Equilibrium
RELATED LECTURES
Lecture 6.4: General Methods for Assessing Critical Loads
Lecture 6.5: Iterative Methods for Solving Stability Problems
SUMMARY
Structural design requires that the equilibrium configuration for the structure, under the prescribed loading, is
determined and that this can be confirmed as stable; the analysis of stability problems is generally done using energy
criteria. In this lecture, the Principle of Virtual Work and the Principle of Stationary Total Potential Energy are
presented. The general energy criteria for elastic stability derived from these are established and the determination of
critical loading corresponding to neutral equilibrium is explained. Only fully conservative systems are considered.
The established criteria are illustrated by two basic examples of rod and spring systems.
1. INTRODUCTION
The design of structures requires determination of the internal equilibrium forces (moments, shears, etc.) in the
structure, under given loadings, and confirmation that the structure is stable under these conditions. It is of
fundamental importance to be sure that a structure, slightly disturbed from an equilibrium position by forces, shocks,
vibrations, imperfections, residual stresses, etc., will tend to return to it when the disturbance is removed; this
required characteristic of elastic stability has become more and more critical nowadays with the increasing use of
high strength steels resulting in lighter and slenderer structures.
The theory of elastic stability (buckling) gives methods for determining the following:

● the stability of an equilibrium configuration.

● the critical value of the loading under which the instability occurs.
Most of these methods are derived from general energy criteria which come from energy principles of mechanics.
Therefore, the purpose of this lecture is to briefly present to the student and the practising engineer the principles of
mechanics required to understand the general criteria of elastic stability, thereby giving a better understanding of the
methods used in buckling investigations, especially the energy methods discussed in Lecture 6.4.
The scope of this lecture is restricted to:
● conservative loadings and adiabatic elastic systems (fully conservative systems).

● systems whose configurations can be expressed as functions of a finite number of displacement parameters.
It should be noted that only the static aspect of stability is considered.
2. GENERAL
In this lecture, changes in the configuration of a system from an initial configuration are considered; any change in
the configuration is to be regarded as a displacement. A configuration can be specified by means of a finite number
of independent real variables, called generalised coordinates, denoted here as q1, q2, ... qn or more generally qi. A
single-span beam may, of course, possess an infinite set of generalised coordinates, such as the coefficients qi of a
Fourier series, that represent its deflection:
y= qi sin iπx/L
This series, however, can be approximated by a finite number of terms with a finite number of generalised
coordinates which denote the degrees of freedom of the system. Considering the beam in Figure 1, the generalised
coordinates could be the degrees of freedom of the nodes i and j at the ends of the beam: two translations u and v and
one rotation θ per node (all in plane). It is assumed here that the entire elastic deformed shape of the beam can be
defined by using, for example, interpolation functions. The displacement vector of the beam can be denoted D = (ui,
vi, θi, uj, vj, θj).

At supports, boundary conditions impose restrictions on the generalised coordinates. In Figure 2, for example, the
boundary conditions are such that the displacement vector vanishes at the clamped end of the cantilever beam, such
that the restrictions ui = vi = θi = 0, are imposed.
A structural system is generally subjected to internal and external forces; internal forces are generally tractive forces,
i.e. forces due to stresses, on the faces of infinitesimal cuboids in the material. External forces can act on the volume
(for example gravity) and/or the surface (such as contact forces or couples) of the elements of the structural system.
During a change in the configuration of the system, the Law of Conservation of Energy may be expressed by:
Wext + Q = ∆T + ∆U (1)

where: Wext is the work performed on the system by external forces
Q is the heat that flows into the system
∆T is the increase of kinetic energy
∆U is the increase of internal energy
U is also commonly called strain energy.
On the other hand, the Law of Kinetic Energy is expressed by:
W = Wext + Wint = ∆T (2)
where: Wint is the work performed by internal forces
W is the total work performed on the system by all forces
Equations (1) and (2) yield:
Wint = Q - ∆U (3)
Because only adiabatic processes are considered here, Q = 0 and Equation(3) yields:
Wint = - ∆U (4)
Note: ∆U exists only for deformable systems; for a rigid system:
∆U = 0 so Wint = 0 (5)
Because only static aspects are considered here, no variation in the kinetic energy is supposed to occur during the
displacement (very slow speed):
∆T = 0 (6)
and Equations (1), (2) and (5) yield:
Wext = ∆U (7)
Wext + Wint = 0 (8)
3. PRINCIPLE OF VIRTUAL WORK

The analysis of stability problems generally uses the Principle of Virtual Work which will be discussed in this
Section. First, the problem is to find the true equilibrium configuration for the system, if it exists, and then to test its
stability.

A given system can take up any number of displaced configurations within the limitations of the boundary
conditions but only one of these is the true one, which corresponds to equilibrium between the actual applied loads
and the induced reactions.
Suppose that the system is in a configuration specified by the generalised coordinates q1, q2, ... qn, which is to be
tested for equilibrium.
Suppose the system experiences some arbitrarily small displacements from this configuration, merely required to
satisfy the boundary conditions, but with the actual loads acting at their fixed prescribed values. The small
displacements considered here are not necessarily realised; they are imagined to occur purely for comparison
purposes, and so they are called virtual displacements; these virtual displacements are independent of the loading and
are denoted here δqi. Consequently, all work or energy calculations carried out on the system will lead to virtual
work or energy.
For a rigid system, Equations (5) and (8) yield:
δWext = 0 (9)
where δWext is the virtual work of external forces going through the virtual displacements; the Principle of Virtual
Work may be expressed as follows:
"A rigid system is in its equilibrium configuration if the virtual work of all the external forces acting on it is zero in
any virtual displacement which satisfies the boundary conditions."
For a deformable system, Equation (7) yields:
δWext = δU (10)
where δU is the variation of strain energy in the virtual displacement, and the Principle of Virtual Work may be
expressed as follows:
"A deformable system is in its equilibrium configuration if the virtual work of all the external forces acting on it is
equal to the variation of strain energy in any virtual displacement which satisfies the boundary conditions."
This is the form of the principle frequently quoted in structural analysis; it is equivalent to the condition, using
Equation (8):
δW = δWint + δWext = 0 (11)
True Equilibrium Configuration
For a system with a finite number of generalised coordinates (q1, q2, ...qn), the virtual work δW corresponding to a
virtual displacement from a configuration (q1, q2, ...qn) to a neighbouring configuration (q1 + δq1, ...qn + δqn) may be
represented by a linear form in the variations of the coordinates, that is:

δW = Q1.δq1 + Q2.δq2 + ... = Qi δqi i=1,2,...,n (12)
where Q1, Q2, ...Qn are certain functions of generalised coordinates qi, and of internal (for deformable systems) and
external forces.
By analogy to the work performed by a force, the functions Q1, Q2, ... Qn are called components of generalised
forces. The terms Qi do not necessarily have the dimension of force and they frequently do not all have the same
dimension; their dimensions are determined by the fact that Qi δqi has the dimension of work. Equations (11) and
(12) yield:
Qi δqi = 0 i=1,2,...,n (13)
As δqi are arbitrary, independent of variations in qi, Equation (13) implies that:
Qi = 0 i=1,2,...,n (14)
Solution of these n simultaneous equations of equilibrium yields the values of the q's corresponding to the true
equilibrium configuration.
4. PRINCIPLE OF STATIONARY TOTAL POTENTIAL ENERGY

The internal and external forces are both conservative (fully conversative system). The internal forces derive from
the single scalar function of the generalised coordinates U(q1, q2, ...qn) whose value U is the strain energy which is
expressed by Equation (4). Similarly, the external forces derive from the function Ω(q1, q2, ...qn) whose value Ω is
the potential energy of these forces. It yields the result that all forces derive from the single scalar function V (q1,
q2, ...qn) which is called the total potential function and whose value is the total potential energy of the system. This
total potential energy may be expressed as:
V = U + Ω (15)
The total amount of potential energy is generally indeterminate. Only changes of potential energy are measurable
and can be investigated.
Because the system is assumed to be fully conservative,
δW = - δV (16)
where δV is the variation of total potential energy in the virtual displacement, and (11) and (16) yield:
δV = 0 (17)
Equation (17) is an analytical statement of the Principle of Stationary Total Potential Energy which states:

"Of all the geometrically possible configurations which a system can take up, the one corresponding to equilibrium
between the applied loads and the induced reactions, is that for which the total potential energy is stationary."
True Equilibrium Configuration
Since V = V(q1, q2, ...qn), δV may be expressed by:
δV = (18)
Here, the values of δqi are arbitrary and independent so that if δV = 0, then:
(19)
Thus the principle provides n equations of equilibrium expressed in terms of the applied loads and the generalised
coordinates qi from which the values of qi, defining the equilibrium configuration, can be found.
It should be noted that Equations (12), (16), (18) and (19), and the fact that the values of δqi are arbitrary and
independent, give:
= - Qi = 0 i = 1,2,...n (20)
In summary, it should be noted that for fully conservative systems, the Principle of Virtual Work becomes the
Principle of Stationary Total Potential Energy. The principle is exact and very powerful and can be used to develop
approximate methods for solving stability problems in structural design.
5. STABILITY OF EQUILIBRIUM
A system is said to be in a stable state of equilibrium if, after the removal of some slight disturbance, it tends to
return to its original equilibrium configuration. If the slight disturbance results in the system departing from the
equilibrium configuration, then it is unstable. One can conceive of an intermediate situation in which the slightly
disturbed configuration is maintained when the disturbance is removed. This situation is a state of neutral
equilibrium. It has been illustrated in Lecture 6.1 with the well-known example of ball in a saucer. Evidently, the
slight displacements contemplated must be in accordance with the boundary conditions so that they correspond to
slight changes in the generalised coordinates of the system; a discussion of the stability of equilibrium can thus be
based on virtual displacements.
The Principle of Virtual Work shows that the potential energy is stationary at equilibrium; it has also been shown, in
Lecture 6.1, that it is at a relative minimum when the equilibrium is stable; the condition for stability may therefore
be stated in the form:
"The existence of a relative minimum of the total potential energy in the equilibrium configuration constitutes both a
necessary and a sufficient condition for the stability of this configuration."

If ∆V denotes the increment of total potential energy consequent upon a virtual displacement from the equilibrium
configuration, then:
∆V > 0 for stable equilibrium
∆V = 0 for neutral equilibrium (21)
∆V < 0 for unstable equilibrium
It can be seen that, because the potential energy is stationary at equilibrium (δV = 0), a discussion of stability
involves a discussion of the higher order terms appearing in the increment of potential energy ∆V.
The function V(q1,q2,...qn) and its partial derivatives to the third order with respect to qi are postulated to be
continuous functions of qi; then by Taylor's series in the vicinity of the initial equilibrium configuration, the
increment ∆V of V corresponding to virtual variations δqi of qi, is:
∆V = δqi qj + 0(δ3) i,j = 1,...,n (22)

δ
or ∆V = δV + δ2V + 0(δ3) (23)
with δ2V = δqi δqj i,j = 1,2,...,n (24)
0(δ3) is a third order small quantity.
The Principle of Virtual Work means that a necessary condition for equilibrium is that δV vanishes for all δqi, that is:
δV = 0 or ∂V/∂qi = 0 i = 1,2,...,n (25)
The sign of ∆V is therefore governed by the sign of δ2V, so taking into account Equation (21), the condition for
stability becomes:
δ2V > 0 (26)
If:
aij = (27)

then δ2V = aij δqi δqj i,j = 1,2,...,n (28)
Introducing the matrix [a] of the coefficients aij, Equation (28) can be written as:
δ2V = {δq}t [a] {δq} (29)
The condition for stability (Equation (26)) requires that:
[a] = a positive definite matrix
that is to say that all the principle minors of [a] must be positive.
The coefficients aij are functions of the applied loads and the properties of the system so that positive definiteness of
[a] imposes the condition which the loads must satisfy in order that the configuration be stable.
6. NEUTRAL EQUILIBRIUM - CRITICAL LOADINGS

The existence of a relative minimum for the total potential energy when a configuration is stable, and considering the
neutral equilibrium as a limit of the stability, the condition for neutral equilibrium may be expressed by:
δ2V = 0 = minimum (30)
Considering Equation (29) in the case of the non-trivial configuration {δq} 0, the state of neutral equilibrium is
obtained when the matrix [a] is singular.
The coefficients aij of [a] are functions of the geometrical and mechanical characteristics of the system, and also of
the applied loads.
It is of practical importance therefore to determine the critical values of loads leading to a neutral equilibrium for the
system under which a change in the stability state of the equilibrium configuration occurs.
Introducing a common load multiplier α for all loading components and defining a reference loading system S1
(corresponding to α = 1), loads at any time of a proportional loading history are equal to:
S = α S1 (31)
Only the load multiplier α is unknown and the condition for neutral equilibrium requires the solution of the
eigenvalue problem:
det [a(α)] = 0 (32)
Solving Equation (32) leads to a set of solutions α, denoted αcr, whose number is equal to the number of generalised
coordinates of the system. The eigenvectors represent the deformed configuration associated with each solution α.
Most of these mathematical solutions do not correspond to actual behaviour of the structural system; generally, the
designer is only interested in the values of loads above which the system, stable when unloaded, becomes unstable.

These loads are normally obtained with the smallest positive value α°cr of αcr and so, the critical loads are
determined by:
Scr = α°cr S1 (33)
7. ILLUSTRATION ON BASIC EXAMPLES
Example 1
It is interesting to illustrate the stability criterion with the basic example of a pin-ended compression element shown
in Figure 3; however, in order to perform very simple strain energy calculations, it is assumed that the whole
flexibility of the element is concentrated in a single rotational elastic spring at mid-span, as shown in Figure 4. The
two rods, each of length L/2, are rigid so that their strain energy is zero. The value K of the spring, constant at B,
will be discussed later. Sideways movement of the pins A and C are fully restrained. The load P acts vertically
downwards at C, and the external force F, present from the beginning of loading, acts horizontally leftwards at B.

Because of the boundary conditions, the system has only one degree of freedom. Let us choose the lateral
displacement at B as the generalised coordinate denoted δ, see Figure 5. (Another possibility would have been to
choose the rotation of the lower or upper rod). Before studying the stability of this system, let us determine its
equilibrium configuration under the loads P and F. The displacements will be assumed sufficiently small so that
trigonometric functions will be reduced to the first term of series development.

The strain energy of the system in its deformed shape is that of the spring only, that is:
U = UO + Kθ2 (34)
where UO is the potential energy of the system in its initial configuration
θ is the rotation in the spring (see Figure 5).
It is easy to demonstrate that θ = 4δ/L and this yields:
U = UO + 8 Kδ2/L2 (35)
The potential energy of external loads is:
Ω = ΩO - Pε - Fδ (36)
where ΩO is the potential energy of external loads when the system is in its initial configuration
ε is the induced vertical displacement at C (see Figure 5)

It can be demonstrated that, for small displacements, ε = 2δ2/L and this yields:
Ω = ΩO - 2 Pδ2/L - Fδ (37)
The total potential energy is:
V = U + Ω = VO + 8 Kδ2/L2 - 2 Pδ2/L - Fδ (38)
where VO is the initial potential energy of the system.
According to Equation (19), the equilibrium configuration is given by the solution of:
= (16K - 4PL) δ/L2 - F = 0 (39)
This yields:
δ = FL2 / (16K - 4PL) (40)
The condition for stability, from Equation (26), may be expressed by:
= (16K - 4PL) / L > 0 (41)
The system will be stable if the following condition is fulfilled:
P < 4 K/L (42)
The value of P at the limit is its critical value Pcr at which elastic buckling occurs. It is worth noting that this critical
value is independent of the external lateral force F acting on the system. In particular, this critical load is valid for the
particular case F = 0, denoting the classical column buckling problem under axial load only.
A value may be given to K so that the flexibility is the same as the continuous element of Figure 3. It is defined,
therefore, as the value that gives the same lateral displacement δ at B due to F as the continuous element assuming P
is zero.
For the continuous element, simple beam theory gives:
δ = FL3 / (48 EI) (43)
where I is the second moment of area of the element section.
E is Young's modulus.
For the rod and spring system, expressing the moment at B with θ = 4δ/L, gives:

δ = FL2 / (16 K) (44)
Equations (43) and (44) yield the equivalent spring constant: K = 3 EI/L, and the critical value of P is equal to:
Pcr = 12 EI/L2 (45)
This value is to be compared to the well-known exact value π2 EI/L2; the accuracy of the result depends, in fact, on
the assumptions adopted for the determination of the equivalent spring constant K.
Example 2
Consider now the rod and spring system shown in Figure 6. The two rods AB and BC, each of length L, are rigid (no
strain energy) and are pinned and linked together at B. Sideways movement of the pins B and C is restrained by
linearly elastic springs, effective in both tension and compression, of stiffness K1 and K2 respectively. The load P
acts vertically downwards at C, and the external forces F1 and F2 act horizontally leftwards at B and C respectively.
Taking the boundary conditions into account, the system has two degrees of freedom. The rotations θ1 and θ2 of the
two rods are chosen as the generalised coordinates (see Figure 7). The equilibrium configuration of the system is
determined first and, secondly, its stability is discussed.

The strain energy of the system is that of the springs only. The strain energy of each spring is equal to Kδ2/2 where δ
is the sideways displacement in the relevant spring and K its stiffness (or spring constant). Consequently, the strain
energy in a configuration (θ1,θ2) is:
U = UO + K1L2θ12 /2 + K2L2(θ1 + θ2)2 /2 (46)
The potential energy of external loads is:
Ω = ΩO - PL(θ12 + θ22) /2 - F1 L θ1 - F2 L (θ1 + θ2) (47)
The potential energy is:
V = U + Ω (48)
The required derivatives are:

(49)
Equilibrium configuration
The condition of stationary potential energy, Equation (19), provides the following set of equations:
{ θ1 (K1L2 + K2L2 - PL) + θ2K2L2 = (F1 + F2) L (50)
{ θ1 K2L2 + θ2 (K2L2 - PL) = F2L
The equilibrium configuration (θ1, θ2) may easily be obtained by solving this set of equations. At this stage, the
existence of a solution only requires the determinant to be definite, that is to say:
Determinant = (K2L2 - PL) K1L2 + PL (PL - 2K2L2) 0 (51)
Stability
The condition for stability of an equilibrium configuration is expressed by Equation (26) and the matrix [a], the
coefficients of which are given in Equation (27), and is determined as follows:
[a] = = (52)
The conditions for stability requires the matrix [a] to be positive and definite, that is to say that the following
conditions are satisfied:
(K2L2 - PL) K1L2 + PL (PL - 2K2L2) > 0 (53)

K2L2 - PL > 0 (54)
It should be noted that the first condition incorporates condition (51) for existence of an equilibrium configuration;
this results from the fact that V is a quadratic in θ's.
It is easy to demonstrate that the more restrictive condition, from Equations (53) and (54), leads to the following
stability requirement for the vertical load P:
P < 0,5 L (K1 + 2K2 - (K12 + 4K22 )1/2) (55)
or P > 0,5 L (K1 + 2K2 + (K12 + 4K22 )1/2)
Figures 8 - 10 illustrate results for the case: L = 400, K1 = 20, K2 = 30, and F1 = F2 = 40 (units: kN cm)


As in Example 1, it is worth noting that the critical values Pcr1 and Pcr2, which bound the unstable domain, are
independent of the external lateral forces F1 and F2 acting on the system, and are therefore also valid for the
particular case F1 = F2 = 0.
● The analysis of stability problems uses general energy criteria derived from the Principle of Virtual Work and
from the Principle of Stationary Total Potential Energy; the first of these principles is the same as the second
for fully conservative systems.
● Any configuration of a system may generally be specified by a set of generalised coordinates qi. Denoting V
as the total potential energy of the system, an equilibrium configuration satisfies δ2V=0 and the condition for
stability of this equilibrium is δ2V > 0; the first and second variations of V are evaluated for any virtual
displacement δqi satisfying the boundary conditions.
● Critical loadings are derived from the condition for neutral equilibrium given by δ2V = 0 = minimum.
1. Mason J.,"Variational, Incremental and Energy Methods in Solid Mechanics and Shell Theory", Elsevier
Scientific Publishing Company, Amsterdam, Oxford, New York, 1980.
2. Richards T.H., "Energy Methods in Stress Analysis", Rainbow-Bridge Book Company, 1977.
3. Langhaar H.L., "Energy Methods in Applied Mechanics", John Wiley and Sons, New York, London, 1962.

4. Massonnet C., "Résistance des matériaux", Volume 2, Dunod, Paris, 1963.

5. Timoshenko S.P., "Theory of Elastic Stability", McGraw Hill Book Company, New York, 1960.

ESDEP WG 6
APPLIED STABILITY

OBJECTIVE/SCOPE
To describe the elementary elastic instability modes and to derive the principal critical loads for columns,
beams and plates.
PREREQUISITES
RELATED LECTURES
Lectures 6.6: Buckling of Real Structural Elements
Lecture 7.7: Buckling Lengths
RELATED WORKED EXAMPLES
Worked Example 6.1: Energy Methods I
Worked Example 6.2: Energy Methods II
SUMMARY
This lecture explains how critical buckling loads are determined by solution of the differential equilibrium
equations for the structure. The critical loads, assuming simple loading and boundary conditions, are then
calculated for the principal cases, namely:
● flexural buckling of columns.

● lateral buckling of beams.
● buckling of plates.
1. INTRODUCTION
Instability can occur in all systems or members where compression stresses exist. The simplest type of
buckling is that of an initially straight strut compressed by equal and opposite axial forces (Figure 1).

Other buckling modes also of great practical interest in steel constructions, are:
● lateral buckling of beams (Figure 2).

● plate buckling (Figure 3).
● shell buckling (Figure 4).



The fundamental differences in behaviour of columns, plates and shells are shown in Figure 5. For
behaviour in the elastic range the critical load and the maximum load carried by an actual (imperfect)
column are in reasonable agreement. For the plate, if the postcritical strength is achieved with acceptably
small lateral deflections, a greater load than the critical load might be acceptable. For thin-walled
cylinders, however, the maximum load in the real (imperfect) situation is much less than the theoretical
critical load.

For compressed struts, the flexural buckling illustrated in Figure 1 is not the only possible buckling mode.
In some cases, for example, a torsional buckling (Figure 6) or a combination of torsional and flexural
buckling can be seen; if a member is thin-walled, one can also observe a plate buckling of the elements of
the cross-section (Figure 7) which can interact with the overall buckling of the member.


Determination of the critical load using bifurcation theory takes advantage of the fact that the critical
situation is associated with a neutral equilibrium condition; equilibrium in a slightly deflected shape can,
therefore, be established, leading to differential equations which are simple to manage, at least for certain
classes of structures. The critical load gives information on the level of stability of a system, or member; it
is also used as a basic value (bound) for the calculation of the ultimate load for structures in danger of
instability, as shown in later lectures. In this lecture, the critical loads are calculated by solving the
differential equilibrium equations describing the phenomenon. These solutions are available only for the
simplest cases of loading and boundary conditions. A general method for assessing critical loads, based on
an energy approach is given in Lecture 6.4.
2. FLEXURAL BUCKLING OF COLUMNS

At the critical load, the stable equilibrium of the straight column is at its limit and there exists a slightly
deflected configuration of the column which can also satisfy equilibrium (Figure 1). For this configuration,
the bending moment at any cross-section is given, for a pin-ended strut, by:
M = N.y (1)
Using the differential equation given by simple bending theory, and considering large deflections:
(2)
or the approximation
(3)
which is reasonably accurate for loads approaching critical load and for small deflections; by introducing
Equation (1) this becomes:
(4)
where EIz is the bending rigidity of the column in the plane of buckling.
The general solution of this equation is:
y = A sin kx + B cos kx (5)
where
k2 = (6)
(only positive solutions, i.e. compression forces, are of interest).
A and B are constants of integration which must be adjusted to satisfy the boundary conditions:
y = 0 for x = 0 (7a)
and

y = 0 for x = l (7b)
The first boundary condition gives B = 0; the second one gives:
A sin kl = 0 (8)
which requires either A = 0 (in this case there is no deflection), or sin kl=0, i.e.
kl = nπ (9)
where n is any integer.
Finally, the critical load is obtained from the following:
Ncr,n = (10)
Figure 8 shows the first three buckling modes (n = 1, 2 and 3 respectively).
Normally, the smallest value of kl, and therefore of the critical load Ncr, which satisfies Equation (9) is
obtained by taking n = 1; this critical load is called the Euler load; in the case where bracing is used, higher

buckling modes may be decisive.
The critical load for a pin-ended column was calculated by Leonhard Euler in 1744. Historically speaking,
it is the first solution given to a stability problem. The same procedure may be used for cases with other
boundary conditions.
The critical load given above does not take into account the effect of shear forces; this can be done by
adding the shear deformation:
γ= (11)
where V, the shear force, is given by:
V=N (12)
and Av is the shear area of the cross-section.
By adding the change in slope of the deflection curve produced by the shear force, the differential equation
of the buckling phenomena becomes:
(13)
which gives the critical load:
Ncr* = (14)
Thus, owing to the action of the shear forces, the critical load is reduced when compared to Euler's load. In
the case of solid columns, the influence of shear can generally be neglected; however, in the case of laced
or battened compression members, this effect may become of practical importance and should be
considered.
3. LATERAL BUCKLING
When a beam is bent about its strong axis, it normally deflects only in that plane. However, if the beam
does not have sufficient lateral stiffness or lateral supports to ensure that this occurs, then it may buckle
out of the plane of loading, as shown in Figure 2.

For a straight elastic beam, there is no out-of-plane displacements until the applied moment reaches its
critical value, when the beam buckles by deflecting laterally and twisting (Figure 2); lateral buckling,
therefore, involves lateral bending and torsion. For the simplest case, of a doubly symmetric simply
supported beam, loaded in its stiffer principal plane by equal moments (Figure 2), the differential
equilibrium equations of the beam are as follows:
● minor axis bending:
(15)
● torsion:
E.It . (16)
where EIz is the weak axis bending rigidity; Mψ is the lateral bending moment induced by the twisting, ψ,
of the beam; GIt is the Saint-Venant torsional rigidity; EIw is the warping rigidity and M is the torque
induced by the lateral deflection v.
When these equations are both satisfied at all points of the beam, then the deflected and twisted position is
one of equilibrium which can be found by differentiating Equation (16) and substituting Equation (15);
then, the differential equation of lateral buckling is given by:
E.Iw (17a)
or
Cw (17b)
This expression was established, for the first time in 1899, by Prandtl. The general solution of this
equation is:
ψ = A1 sinh k1 x + B1 cosh k1 x + A2 sin k2 x + B2 cos k2x (18)
where

= (19)
=- (20)
in which A1, A2, B1 and B2 are constants of integration which must satisfy the boundary conditions:
ψ = 0 for x = 0 (21a)
and
ψ = 0 for x = l (21b)
= 0 for x = 0 (22a)
and
= 0 for x = l (22b)
Equations (21) and (22) show that, in the case of a so-called simply supported beam, the supports must
prevent both lateral deflection and twist but the section is free to warp at the ends.
The four boundary conditions give:
A1 = B1 = B2 = 0 (23)
and
A2 sin k2l = 0 (24)
which requires either A2 = 0 (in this case there is no twist), or
sin k2 l = 0, i.e: k2 l = n π (25)
where n is any integer.

Substituting Equation (25) into Equation (20) and rearranging, using the smallest value of k2 l gives the
critical moment for the beam:
(26)
The simplest example of this phenomenon is that of a rectangular plate with four edges simply supported
(prevented from displacing out-of-plane but free to rotate) loaded in compression as shown in Figure 3. As
for compressed struts, the plate remains flat until the applied load reaches its critical value, at which time it
buckles with lateral deflections.
The differential equation for plate buckling, established by Bryan in 1891, gives for the case shown in
Figure 3:
(27)
where D is the bending rigidity of the plate:
D = Et3/{12(1-ν2)} (28)
The general solution of this equation is:
w = A sin mπx/a . sin nπ/b (29)
which satisfies the boundary conditions:
w= = 0 for x = 0 (30a)
and
w= = 0 for x = a (30b)
w= = 0 for y = 0 (31a)
and

w= = 0 for y = b (31b)
Substituting Equation (29) in Equation (27), gives:
N= (32)
where m and n are the number of half-waves in the directions x and y respectively.
The smallest value of N, and therefore the critical load Ncr, will be obtained by taking n equal to 1. This
shows that the plate buckles in such a way that there can be several half-waves in the direction of
compression but only one half-wave in the perpendicular direction. Therefore, the expression for the
critical load becomes:
Ncr = k (33)
where:
k= (34)
If the plate buckles in one half-wave, then m = 1 and k acquires its minimum value (equal to 4), when a =
b, i.e. for a square plate.
Similarly, if the plate buckles into two half-waves, then m = 2 and k reaches its minimum value (also equal
to 4), when a = 2b.
Similarly assuming m = 3, 4,..., one obtains the series of curves given in Figure 9. It is interesting to note
that, at the values √2, √6,... of the ratio a/b, there is a coincidence of two buckling modes.

● For compression members, such as struts, beams, plates and shells, the critical load is the upper
bound value for the ultimate load of an actual (imperfect) member.
● The critical load is associated with the neutral equilibrium condition of the member.
● For simple cases, the critical loads may be calculated by solving the differential equilibrium
equations describing the phenomena.
1. Timoshenko, S.P. and Gere, J.M., "Theory of Elastic Stability", McGraw-Hill, 2nd edition, New
York, 1961.
2. Allen, H.G. and Bulson, P.S., "Background to Buckling", McGraw-Hill, London, 1980.
3. Shanley, F.R., "Strength of Materials", McGraw-Hill, New York, 1957.
4. Murray, N.W., "Introduction to the Theory of Thin-Walled Structures", Clarendon Press, Oxford,
1984.

ESDEP WG 6
APPLIED STABILITY
Lecture 6.4: General Methods for

Assessing Critical Loads
OBJECTIVE
To explain the energy methods for assessing critical loads for cases where it is not possible to get a closed-form solution
to differential equilibrium equations.
PREREQUISITES
Beam theory
RELATED LECTURES
Lecture 6.5: Iterative Methods for Solving Stability Problems
SUMMARY
When certain assumptions are made about the nature of the deformation of an elastic system during the change of
configuration associated with the buckling mode, the elastic system may be approximated by one involving suitable and
adjustable parameters which are determined in order that the neutral equilibrium conditions are fulfilled. Using this
concept practical approximate methods can be derived which are very useful to the design engineer; some of the best
known of these methods are presented in this lecture, i.e. the Rayleigh coefficient, the Rayleigh-Ritz method, and the
Galerkin method. An outline of some numerical methods, such as the Euler finite difference method and the finite
element method, is also given.
1. INTRODUCTION
Critical stability loads may be determined using either of the following methods:
● by direct solution of the differential equilibrium equations with exact values of critical loads as a result.
● by using approximate methods, which are, for the most part, based on energy methods, and which lead to
approximate solutions of buckling problems.
The solution of differential equilibrium equations to satisfy prescribed boundary conditions presents many difficulties

and can only be achieved for simple buckling problems for structures with low degrees of freedom; such basic problems
are presented and solved, in this way, in Lecture 6.3. This approach, however, will not be considered further in this
lecture which instead concentrates on the alternative energy methods mentioned above. It should be noted that powerful
iterative methods can also be used to solve stability problems; some of these methods are presented in Lecture 6.5.
When certain assumptions are made about the nature of the deformation of an elastic system during the change of
configuration associated with neutral equilibrium (buckling mode), this elastic system may be approximated by one
involving suitable and adjustable parameters or generalised coordinates which are to be determined in order that the
neutral equilibrium conditions are fulfilled. This idea provides approximate methods which are very useful to the
practical engineer; the best known of these methods are presented in this lecture, i.e. the Rayleigh coefficient, the
Rayleigh-Ritz method, and the Galerkin method. An outline of some numerical methods, such as the Euler finite
difference method and the finite element method, is also given.
If the adjustable parameters mentioned above are judiciously chosen and of adequate number (in the case of an
approximation of a continuous system), these approximate methods will give results very close to the exact solution, at
the expense of an increased design effort.
2. GENERAL ENERGY METHODS APPLIED TO ELASTIC SYSTEMS

The energy methods for the solution of elastic stability problems are based on the principle of existence of a relative
minimum of the total potential energy at neutral equilibrium (see Lecture 6.1 and Lecture 6.2).
It is stated that: considering the change ∆V, of total energy V of a system, from a starting equilibrium configuration to
an adjoining configuration defined by an infinitesimally small and kinematically admissible virtual displacement, then
the condition of neutral equilibrium is governed by the second variation δ2V of the increment ∆V, that is:
δ2V = 0 = minimum (1)
Generally, when considering steel structures, the stability of a structural system under a set of external loads is studied
by considering a buckling deformation, f, from a starting configuration, and performing calculations, according to
Equation (1), either to check the stability of this starting configuration, or to determine critical values of external loads
leading to instability. The deformation f is expressed as a function of one or more independent variables (generally
cartesian coordinates); for example, f(x) as the deflection of a beam or f(x,y) as the deflection of a plate. The change of
deformation of a system at neutral equilibrium - the buckling deformation or buckling mode - will hereafter be denoted f
(X), where X is the coordinate field of the reference system used (one, two or three dimensions). The function f can be
continuous if the system is continuous, or can be defined by intervals if the system is discrete.
Solving Equation (1) requires evaluation of the potential function δ2V with respect to the function f, inside a domain of
integration noted D (length for a beam, area for a plate, for example). Generally δ2V involves quadratic and
homogeneous quantities with respect to the buckling deformation f(X) and its derivatives, and is a linear function of the
external applied loads.
Introducing a common load multiplier, α, for all loading components and defining a reference loading S1
(corresponding to α = 1), the loads at any time of a proportional loading history are equal to:
S = α S1 (2)
Thus, generally, the function δ 2V can be evaluated by:
δ2V(f) = F (α, X, f, f´, f″ ) dD = 0 (3)

where the function F also involves geometrical and material characteristics of the domain.
Solving Equation (3) with respect to f will lead to determining the values of the loads (via the load multiplier α) at
neutral equilibrium, i.e. critical values of loads above which the starting configuration becomes unstable.
3. RAYLEIGH COEFFICIENT
The method of calculation of critical loads by Rayleigh coefficient is derived directly from Equation (1); the second
variation δ2V of the total potential energy may be expressed as follows:
δ2V(f) = δ2U(f) + δ2Ω (f,S) (4)
where: δ2U is the second variation of strain energy (a quadratic and homogeneous function of f); it represents the strain
energy corresponding to the buckling mode;
δ2Ω is the second variation of potential energy of external loads S (a linear function of S and a quadratic and
homogeneous function of f). It represents the opposite to the work of the external loads corresponding to the buckling
mode.
At neutral equilibrium, α (see Equation (2)) takes the particular value αcr which is the critical load multiplier above
which instability occurs. Equations (1), (2) and (4) yield:
δ2V(f) = δ2U(f) + αcr . δ2Ω (f,S1) = 0 = minimum (5)
If the buckling deformation f is known, the critical load multiplier may be obtained from Equation (4); that is:
αcr = - (6)
Considering now an approximation f1 of f (f1 different from f), αcr being known. Then, because of the minimum
condition:
δ2V(f1) = δ2U(f1) + αcr . δ2Ω (f1,S1) > 0 (7)
Equations (5) and (7) yield:
αcr = - whatever f1 ≠ f (8)
that is αcr < min whatever f1 ≠ f (9)
This defines the Rayleigh Principle which states that the critical load multiplier αcr, calculated using Equation (6) with
any kinematically admissible displacement different to the true buckling deformation, will give a value of αcr greater

than the exact value.
Assuming f1 = f + ε f2, where f2 is any kinematically admissible displacement and ε is a constant, this gives:
αcr1 = - + 0(ε2) = αcr + 0(ε2) (10)
where 0(ε2) is a quantity in ε2. This implies that a first order error in the choice of f gives a second order error in the
value of αcr. If calculations are performed, using Equation (6) with a good approximating function f, simply required to
satisfy the boundary conditions, a precise value of αcr may be obtained, with an excess error.
4. THE RAYLEIGH-RITZ METHOD

The Rayleigh-Ritz method assumes that the exact solution f(X) of the variational problem described by Equation (3) can
be approximated by a linear combination of suitably chosen "coordinate functions" φ1(X), φ2(X), ... φn(X). That is:
fn(X) = q1φ1(X) + q2φ2(X) + ... + qn φn(X) (11)
where the q's are constants to be determined, and are to be regarded as generalised coordinates (degrees of freedom) of
the system.
When f(X) is approximated by fn(X) in this way, the function δ2V, which is to be evaluated, becomes a quadratic and
homogeneous function of the q's; Equation (3) can, therefore, be written as:
δ2V = {q}t [a] {q} = 0 (12)
where {q} is the vector of the q's and [a] is a matrix whose coefficients aij are:
aij = (13)
The coefficients aij are functions of the load multiplier α and the properties of the system.
Considering the case of non-trivial configurations, {q} 0, Equation (12) for neutral equilibrium requires [a] to be a
singular matrix, that is to say that the determinant of [a] must be zero. This condition provides an equation in α, of
degree n, whose smallest positive solution is to be regarded as the critical load multiplier αcr.
The functions φi are chosen in advance, depending on the knowledge and assumptions made about the nature of the
deformation. They are not unknown and, provided they satisfy the forced (or geometric) boundary conditions for any
value of the q's, the choice of "shapes" is arbitrary. It should be noted, however, that the efficiency of the method does
depend on a judicious choice for the φ's and that it is an advantage to satisfy all the boundary conditions: in practical
applications, one will have some idea of the general nature of the true solution f(X) so that the question of using
"outrageous" shapes for the φ's rarely occurs. If the functions are judiciously chosen, very good accuracy can be attained
with relatively few functions. The efficiency of the Rayleigh-Ritz process may be considerably enhanced if, in addition
to the forced (or geometric) boundary conditions (concerning translations or rotations at supports, i.e. f and f´), the

natural (or mechanical) boundary conditions (concerning curvature, i.e. f″ ) are also satisfied.
To get an idea of the accuracy of the results, a more elaborate procedure is used to obtain a sequence of successive
approximations; thus, the following may be taken as a first approximation:
f1(X) = q1φ1(X) (14)
and as a second approximation:
f2(X) = q1´ φ1(X) + q2´ φ2(X) (15)
and successive approximations in a similar way.
Comparison of successive solutions then gives some indication of how accurate the current solution is. It is worth noting
that the solution fi + 1(X) will always be better, or at least no worse, than the preceding solution fi(X).
5. THE GALERKIN METHOD

In contrast to the Rayleigh-Ritz method which gives a solution after forming the variational problem, the Galerkin
method provides approximate solutions to the differential equations directly, and is applicable whether the
transformation into a variational problem is possible or not. It therefore seems to have wider scope than the Rayleigh-
Ritz technique and is more attractive in practice since there is no need to evaluate the potential function. It can be
demonstrated, however, that the two methods are closely related. The Galerkin method proceeds as follows.
Generally, the governing differential equation of a buckling problem can be written as follows:
L[f(X)] = 0 (16)
where f(X) is the buckling deformation and L stands for a linear and homogeneous differential operator.
Suppose that the exact solution f(X) of Equation (16), is expressible in the form of a complete series of functions:
f(X) = qj φj(X) (17)
satisfying all the required boundary conditions; the "exactness" of this solution can be expressed by the statement that
the left hand side of Equation (16) is orthogonal to every term in the series of Equation (17); that is:
L[f(X)]φj(X) dD = 0 j=1,2,... (18)
Suppose the series of Equation (17) is truncated to a finite number of terms, n, then using the above idea, n conditions of
orthogonality may be imposed, as follows:
i=1,2,...n (19)

This can be written as follows because L is a linear operator:
L[φj(X)]φi(X) dD = 0 i=1,2,...n (19´)
This provides an averaging basis for evaluating the n unknown q's such that:
fn(X) = qj φj(X) (20)
which constitutes an approximate solution to the differential equation.
The left hand side of Equation (19), which involves properties of the system and external loads via the load multiplier α,
is quadratic and homogeneous in q's; this equation can be written in the form of Equation (11) and then treated in the
same manner as for the Rayleigh-Ritz method to find the critical loads.
6. NUMERICAL METHODS
Numerical methods that require the use of a computer may be used to determine the critical loading. An outline of the
Euler finite difference method and the Finite Element Method is now given.
Euler Finite Difference Method
In the Rayleigh-Ritz method, it is required that the admissible functions be continuously differentiable throughout the
region of integration. The admissible range may be extended by admitting functions having piecewise continuous
derivatives. Therefore, the basis of Euler's method of finite differences is to divide the region of integration into a
certain number of sub-regions or intervals, assuming linear functions within each one. If fi denotes the value of the
function f at the frontier between intervals i and i+1, derivatives of f may be expressed as functions of the f's, and the
sum of the second variation of energy over all the intervals is also a function of f's. Here, the f's are to be regarded as the
q's in the Rayleigh-Ritz method; Figure 1a illustrates this approach.

Finite Element Method
This method is used especially for solving stability problems for plate and shell structures. The solution of plate-
buckling problems by means of Finite Element theory has been increasing in popularity because it makes use of a matrix
formulation suitable for computing. The Finite Element Method has the character of a "piecewise" Rayleigh-Ritz
technique; the plate is 'cut' into a number of flat elements joined only at specified nodes, and continuity and equilibrium
are established at these nodes. A large number of small elements gives a virtually continuous structure, the behaviour of
which is similar to a complete plate. Mixed boundary conditions and varying flexural rigidity can be examined without
difficulty. Complete structures may be analysed and post-critical behaviour may also be investigated. An example of a
plate mesh is shown in Figure 1b.

7. SOME TYPICAL STRAIN ENERGIES

Strain energy expressions are needed to perform calculations using the various energy methods. Given below are some
useful typical strain energy expressions for structural elements, such as members and plates. These expressions denote
the change of strain energy corresponding to the buckling deformation.
Members
Notation
L member length
E Young's modulus
G shear modulus
A cross-section area
Av cross-section shear area
I second moment of area
Iw warping constant
It torsion constant
x abscissa along the member (origin at the beginning of the member)
u(x) axial elongation in member at x }
w(x) lateral deflection in member at x } components of
θ(x) slope due to curvature alone in member at x } buckling
ψ(x) shearing angle (dw/dx - θ(x)) in member at x } deformation
φ(x) torsion angle in member at x }
Strain energy
● Elongation..... δ2U = (21)
● Bending......... δ2U = (22)
● Torsion......... δ2U = (23)

● Shear........... δ2U = (24)
● Warping........ δ2U = (25)
Thin Plates
Notation
a plate dimension along x axis
b plate dimension along y axis
t plate thickness
x,y cartesian coordinates of any point (origin at a corner of the plate)
w(x,y) deflection
D plate stiffness = Et3/(12(1-υ2))
υ Poisson coefficient
Strain Energy
Bending:
δ2U = (26)
8. EXAMPLE USING THE DIFFERENT METHODS

Flexural buckling of a compression member is investigated; the critical load is determined using Rayleigh coefficient,
Rayleigh-Ritz and Galerkin methods.
The studied compression member is shown in Figure 2: it is pin-ended and the ends are laterally restrained; L, I and E
denote the member length, the second moment of area of the section and Young's modulus respectively; the load P acts
vertically downwards; the critical value Pcr of P is to be determined; the buckling deformation of the member is shown
in Figure 3.


Rayleigh Coefficient Method
The following expression is chosen as an approximation of the buckling deflection w(x):
w(x) = a (x2 - xL) where a = any non zero constant (27)
which satisfies the boundary conditions w = 0 at x = 0 and x = L. The derivatives are:
dw/dx = 2ax d2w/dx2 = 2a (28)
Performing the integration according to Equation (22), the change of strain energy for the buckling deformation is:
δ2U = 2a2EIL (29)
The change in the potential energy of P is the opposite of the work done by P for the buckling deformation. The vertical
displacement of the point of application of P due to bending deformation is expressed by:
ε= (30)
and the change of potential energy of external load yields after integration of Equation (30):

δ2Ω = - P ε = - P a2L3/6 (31)
The critical load multiplier is obtained by Equation (6), that is:
αcr = (32)
and, from Equation (2), the critical value Pcr is as follows:
Pcr = 12 (33)
This value is to be compared with the exact value obtained from the exact buckling deflection:
w(x) = a sin πx/L
that is:
Pcr = π2 = 9,8696 (34)
This shows that a parabolic buckling deflection is not a very good approximation of the exact buckling mode. If as an
approximation the deflection of a simply supported beam under a uniformly distributed load is chosen, that is:
w(a) = a (x4 - 2x3L + xL3) (35)
the above calculations give:
Pcr = 9,88 (36)
which is very close to the exact value given in Equation (34).
Rayleigh-Ritz Method
To simplify calculations, the origin of the abscissa is set at mid-length of the member (see Figure 4). A buckling
deflection is chosen which is a linear combination of the two following coordinate functions:

φ1(x) = x2 - L2/4 (37)
φ2(x) = x4 - L4/16 (38)
which both satisfy the boundary conditions w = 0 at x = -L/2 and x = L/2.
Therefore the expression for the buckling deflection is:
w(x) = a φ1(x) + bφ2(x) = a (x2 - L2/4) + b(x4 - L4/16) (39)
The derivatives are:
dw/dx = 2ax + 4bx3 d2w/dx2 = 2a + 12bx2 (40)
The change in strain energy is expressed by:
δ2U = 2. dx = EI (2 a2L + b2L5 + 2 abL3) (41)
The change in the potential energy of the compression load is expressed by:

δ2Ω = -2 . dx = - P (42)
and Equations (4), (41) and (42) give:
δ2V = a2 (2EIL - PL3/6) + b2 (9EIL5/10 - PL7/56) + ab (2EIL3 - PL5/10) (43)
(44)
and the matrix [a] of Equation (22) is:
[a] = (45)
Its determinant is given by:
Det [a] = (4EIL - PL3/3) (9EIL5/5 - PL7/28) - (2EIL3 - PL5/10)2 (46)
The smallest positive solution of Det [a] = 0 is:
Pcr = 9,875 (47)
which is to be compared to the exact value given in Equation (34). Although the coordinate functions (37) and (38) are
individually not really good approximations of the exact buckling mode, their combination (2 degrees of freedom) gives
satisfactory results.
Galerkin method
The same approximation of the buckling deformation and co-ordinate sign convention as for the Rayleigh-Ritz method
is chosen:
w(x) = aφ1(x) + bφ2(x) (39)
where φ1(x) = x2 - L2/4 (37)
φ2(x) = x4 - L4/16 (38)
which both satisfy the required boundary conditions which are w = 0 at x = -L/2 and x = L/2 (no imposed condition for
the end rotations).

It has been seen in Lecture 6.3 that the differential equation governing flexural buckling of a compression member is:
EI + Pw = 0 (48)
The set of equations obtained from Equation (19´) is:
(49)
d2φ1/dx2 = 2 d2φ2/dx2 = 12x2
After integration, the following set of equations is obtained:
a.[PL5/30 - EIL3/3] + b.[PL7/105 - EIL5/10] = 0 (50)
a.[PL7/105 - EIL5/10] + b.[PL9/360 - EIL7/28] = 0
A non-trivial solution exists if the determinant of Equation (50) is equal to zero; that is:
(PL5/30 - EIL3/3) (PL9/360 - EIL7/28) - (PL7/105 - EIL5/10)2 = 0 (51)
whose smallest solution is:
Pcr = 9,8697 (52)
which is nearly equal to the exact value given in Equation (34).
● Approximate energy methods provide the engineer with practical means to determine critical loadings for most
engineering stability problems; these methods make assumptions about the nature of the buckling deformation of
the elastic system, involving adjustable parameters which are determined in order to fulfil the neutral equilibrium
conditions.
● The Rayleigh coefficient, the Rayleigh-Ritz method and the Galerkin method presented herein are well known
methods which generally can be manually applied to simple buckling problems of isolated structural elements
under basic loadings.
● As the number of degrees of freedom increases these methods generally require computer analysis as do the

Euler finite difference and finite element methods.

● Several other methods of analysis are given in the technical literature; one of these, involving iterative
procedures, is described in Lecture 6.5.

1. Richards T.H., "Energy Methods in Stress Analysis", Rainbow Bridge Book Company, 1977.
2. Mason J., "Variational, Incremental and Energy Methods in Solid Mechanics and Shell Theory", Elsevier
Scientific Publishing Company, Amsterdam, Oxford, New York, 1980.
3. Langhaar H.L., "Energy Methods in Applied Mechanics", JohnWiley & Sons, New York, London, 1962.
4. Timoshenko S., "Theory of Elastic Stability", McGraw Hill Book Company, New York, 1960.
5. Massonnet C., "Résistance des Matériaux" - Volume 2, Dunod, Paris, 1963.
6. Bleich, F., "Buckling Strength of Metal Structures", McGraw Hill Book Company, New York, 1952.

ESDEP WG 6
ESDEP WG 6
APPLIED STABILITY
Lecture 6.5: Iterative Methods for Solving

Stability Problems
OBJECTIVE
To present and illustrate the application of methods which can be used to solve stability problems iteratively.
PRE-REQUISITES
None.
RELATED LECTURES
Worked Example 6.3: Application of Vianello's/Newmark's/Vianello-Newmark Methods
SUMMARY
This lecture begins with an introduction which describes the reasons for using iterative methods to solve stability problems.
Then the Vianello Method is introduced. Next, the method of Newmark for the calculation of internal forces and deflections in
transversally loaded beams is reviewed as a preliminary step to the presentation of the Vianello-Newmark method. This
method combines Vianello's method with Newmark's integration procedure.
1. INTRODUCTION
Even when deflections are assumed to be small, stability problems are always non-linear, in the sense that the equilibrium
equations and boundary conditions must be established for the deformed configuration of the structure. As a result, only in
very simple cases, is it possible to obtain analytical solutions of the eigenvalue-eigenfunction problem, leading to the
determination of the critical buckling load and corresponding instability mode (see Lecture 6.3). In general it is necessary to
resort to approximate methods. One very important group of such methods - energy methods - was presented in Lecture 6.4.
Basically, these methods consist of replacing the original continuous structure by a simpler discrete structure. This was
achieved by constraining the real structure to deform in a manner which is the superposition of a set of defined shapes with
unspecified amplitudes. The exact critical buckling load and mode of this simpler structure, which is the solution of an
eigenvalue-eigenvector problem similar to the one addressed in Lecture 6.2, are approximate solutions for the original
structure. Although the accuracy of these methods (and the effort involved) increases with the number of degrees of freedom

ESDEP WG 6
considered, very satisfactory approximations can often be obtained using only a small number. One major drawback of energy
methods is that they always lead to upper bounds of the critical buckling load, which is not convenient in design. The
discretization procedure of a continuous structure may also be achieved by dividing it into several rigid elements connected by
springs that provide its stiffness. The deformation of the structure is a piecewise continuous function which is completely
defined by the displacements of the nodes connecting the elements. The exact solution of this discretised structure was
addressed in Lecture 6.2 and is also an approximate solution of the original problem. However, in this case nothing can be said
concerning the amount or sign of the error. As before the accuracy also increases with the number of elements.
Thus the determination of the critical buckling load and mode of a structure requires the solution of a non-linear problem
which is either a linear eigenvalue-eigenvector problem (discrete or discretised systems) or, a linear eigenvalue-eigenfunction
problem (continuous systems). In the first case an analytical solution is always possible but it requires the determination of the
lowest root of the characteristic equation, which is often of a relatively high degree. In the second case an analytical solution is
possible only for simple problems. An alternative to either of these problems is provided by an iterative method first
introduced by Vianello and, therefore, designated as Vianello's method. The basic idea consists of replacing the solution of the
non-linear problem by the solution of a sequence of linear problems which can be shown to converge to the critical buckling
mode and enable the calculation of the critical buckling load. A feature of Vianello's method which is very convenient in the
design and safety checking of structures, is that it is possible, after each iteration, to calculate upper and lower bounds of the
critical buckling load and, therefore, to estimate the corresponding error.
Finally, the Vianello-Newmark method combines the concept of Vianello's method with Newmark's numerical integration
technique. It is a very efficient alternative for the determination of critical buckling loads and modes of axially loaded columns,
particularly if some non-standard features are present in the loads, the column or its supporting conditions. This method can
also be used to determine equilibrium configurations of columns acted on by specified axial loads and containing initial
geometrical imperfections or transverse loads, i.e.beam-columns.
2. METHOD OF VIANELLO
Vianello's method is an iterative procedure which may be used to determine approximately the critical buckling load and mode
of continuous or discrete structural systems acted on by a set of loads that may be expressed in terms of a single load parameter
λ (proportional loading). The method is based directly on the differential equation (system of simultaneous equations) of
equilibrium of the system, which means that it does not involve energy concepts. The application of the method consists of the
following steps:
(i) Make an initial estimate of the deflected configuration associated with the critical buckling mode of the structure, which
must satisfy the kinematic boundary conditions. This initial estimate is a vector (discrete systems) or a function (continuous
systems).
(ii) Based upon this assumed configuration calculate the internal forces in terms of the unknown buckling loading parameter λ.
These internal forces are concentrated forces and/or moments (discrete systems) or bending moments (continuous systems).
(iii) Using a standard linear analysis determine the deflected configuration produced by the internal forces calculated in (ii).
This new deflected configuration, which depends on λ, constitutes an improved approximation of the critical buckling mode of
the structure. The linear analysis involves the solution of a system of simultaneous equilibrium equations (discrete or
discretized systems) or of a differential equation (continuous systems).
(iv) Equate the assumed and calculated deflections mentioned in (i) and (iii) to obtain upper and lower bounds and an estimate
of the critical value of the load parameter λcr. In discrete systems the upper (lower) bound of λcr is the larger (small) value of λ
required to equalize a pair of corresponding non-zero components of the vectors defining the assumed and calculated
deflections. A possible estimate of λ is required to equalize the values of the functions defining the assumed and calculated
deflections at a point of non-zero value. These bounds are often rather difficult to calculate and only an estimate of λcr is
determined, which is the value of λ required to equalize the functions at a specified point.
(v) Repeat the process using as initial estimate the shape of the deflection calculated in the previous iteration. Stop whenever
the desired accuracy is achieved. It is often convenient, for numerical reasons, to normalize the calculated deflection before
using it as the initial estimate in the next iteration. The accuracy of the solution is measured either by the difference between

ESDEP WG 6
the upper and lower bounds or by the proximity of the consecutive estimates of λcr.
It can be shown that the process converges to the critical instability mode, therefore allowing the calculation of the critical
buckling load parameter λcr.
3. REVIEW OF NEWMARK'S METHOD

Mathematically, the essence of Newmark's method is a numerical integration technique for solving differential equations of the
type = f (x). It leads to a rapid and systematic calculation of shears and moments in arbitrary statically determinate
beams acted on by transverse loads. Through the combination of Newmark's integration scheme with the conjugate beam
method, it is possible to calculate also slopes and deflections due to bending. Statically indeterminate beams may be analysed
by the force method, with Newmark's method providing a straightforward way of determining the flexibility matrix.
3.1 Sign Conventions
The sign conventions are chosen so that quantities may be added when proceeding from left to right across the beam and
subtracted in the opposite case. Then, the axial force (N) is positive if it is compressive, the shear force (V) is positive if it
tends to turn clockwise, the bending moment (M) and curvature (χ) are positive when the top fibres are compressed, the slope
(θ) is positive upwards to the right, the lateral deflection (y) and applied loads (q, Q) are positive upwards, and the axial
applied load (P, p) are positive from left to right.
3.2 Concepts
In order to apply Newmark's method it is necessary to divide the beam into several equal segments. Each division point is
referred to as a station. The number of stations must enable a good description of the beam, loads and supporting conditions.
When the loading consists of concentrated loads acting at the stations, the method determines the shears in the segments and
the moments at the stations exactly. The shears are determined by summing algebraically the loads along the beam and the
bending moments are found by adding or subtracting the product of successive shears and the lengths of the segments over
which they act. When the value of the shear or moment is not known at any point along the beam, the calculations may be
continued on the basis of some arbitrary chosen value (usually zero), with a linear or constant correction added later to the
resulting moments (shears).
When the beam is acted on by distributed loads they must be replaced by equivalent concentrated loads acting at the stations.
Physically, these loads represent the reactions of a series of hypothetical weightless stringers coinciding with the segments and
interposed between the loads and the beam (see Figure 1). The stringer reactions are equivalent to the distributed loads in the
sense that they produce the same shears and bending moments at the stations. The formulae for computing the equivalent
concentrated loads are exact respectively for linear and parabolic loading distributions, and approximate for higher order
distributions. The formulae for end stations must also be used whenever there is a jump in the magnitude or slope of the
applied load.

ESDEP WG 6
For linear discretization (Figure 1), the formulae are:
End stations: Ri±1 = ∆x (2pi±1 + pi) / 6
Intermediate stations:
Rii±1 = ∆x (2pi + pi±1) / 6
Ri = Rii+1 + Rii-1 = ∆x (pi-1+ 4pi + pi+1) / 6
For parabolic descretization (Figure 1), the formulae are:
Ri±1 = ∆x (7pi±1 + 6pi - pi-1) / 24
Rii±1 = ∆x (3pi±1 + 10pi - pi-1) / 24
Ri = Rii+1 + Rii-1 = ∆x (pi-1 + 10pi + pi+1) / 12
When the loading contains distributed loads the method determines directly the average shears in the segments and the bending
moments at the stations. A simple addition gives the shears at the stations. All these values are exact provided that no error is
introduced by the load discretisation.

ESDEP WG 6
Once the bending moments are known it is possible to compute the curvatures by dividing by the bending stiffness EI. Since
the load (p), shear (V) and bending moment (M) bear the same relations to each other as the curvature (χ = M/EI) , slope (θ)
and deflection (y), it may be concluded that the procedure used to compute bending moments from loads can also be used to
compute deflections from curvatures, as long as account is taken for the different boundary conditions. In order to repeat the
procedure mentioned above, the first step is to replace the curvatures (a continuously distributed quantity) by equivalent
"concentrated curvatures". Physically, these quantities represent the sudden changes in slope that take place at the nodes of an
hypothetical beam formed by rigid segments hinged to each other and with a bending stiffness provided exclusively by
rotational springs placed at the hinges. The changes in slope are equivalent to the distributed curvatures in the sense that they
produce the same slopes and deflections at the stations. The formulae for computing the equivalent concentrated curvatures are
the ones used for the loads and shown in Figure 1b. Next the procedure yields successively average slopes in the segments and
deflections at the stations. It should be noted that these quantities are precisely the equivalent concentrated loads, average
shears and bending moments of the "conjugate beam" when acted on by distributed loads which coincide with the curvature
diagram of the original beam (the concept of "concentrated curvature" is replaced by the definition of the "conjugate beam").
Finally, in the case of statically indeterminate beams, Newmark's method is well suited to the use of the force method, since it
provides a straightforward way of determining the flexibility matrix and the deflections in the basic system.
4. METHOD OF VIANELLO-NEWMARK
Whenever Vianello's method is applied to axially loaded columns and step (iii) is performed by means of Newmark's method,
one has the method of Vianello-Newmark. Concerning step (ii), i.e. the computation of the values of the bending moments at
the stations in terms of the load parameter and on the basis of the initial estimate of the buckling mode, the following
procedure is applicable, which is exact provided that all the axial loads are concentrated at the stations:
(i) Calculate the axial forces (N) in the segments in terms of the axial loads (P) which may be expressed in terms of a single
load parameter λ. If the column is statically indeterminate in the axial direction the values of N must be determined by means
of a suitable method (e.g. force method).
(ii) Calculate the values of deflection minus the increment in deflection taking place in each segment, on the basis of the initial
estimate (∆yij = yi - yj). This sign convention is adopted so that all the quantities may still be added when proceeding from left
to right across the beam and subtracted in the opposite case.
(iii) Calculate the increment in bending moment due to the axial force taking place in each segment (∆Mij = Nij ∆yij).
(iv) Calculate the bending moments, due to the axial forces, at the stations (M′) by adding or subtracting the values of ∆M.
These bending moments do not include the influence of the support reactions, and therefore, need to be corrected whenever
this influence is present.
(v) Perform the appropriate corrections on the bending moments calculated in (iv). These corrections are identical to the ones
discussed in the previous chapter and lead to exact values in the case of statically determinate (in the transverse direction)
columns. If the column is statically indeterminate and assuming that the force method is used, the procedure described above is
performed in the basic system chosen. The compatibility is enforced during step (iii) of Vianello's method, which also uses
Newmark's technique, and enables the determination of the bending moments and deflections at the stations of the original
column.
If distributed axial loads are present, they must be replaced by equivalent concentrated axial loads (pdisc) using the formulae
given in Figure 1b. The procedure of calculating the bending moments at the stations just mentioned then becomes
approximate (the error can be reduced by increasing the number of segments).
It should be noted that the calculation of the equivalent concentrated curvatures is now always approximate. Thus the method
of Vianello-Newmark will lead to a value of the critical buckling load slightly different from the exact one. This error will be
decreased by an increase in the number of segments.

ESDEP WG 6
5. EQUILIBRIUM CONFIGURATIONS
The methods of Vianello and Vianello-Newmark may also be used to determine equilibrium configurations of geometrically
imperfect or transversally loaded columns under the action of specified axial loads. Only the method of Vianello-Newmark is
discussed below. Vianello's method can be applied only in very simple cases.
For instance, the behaviour of a beam-column is given by the solution of the following differential equation (N piecewise
constant):
(5)
The application of the method of Vianello-Newmark consists of an iterative procedure which requires an initial guess of the
deflected shape of the beam-column. It converges to the corresponding exact shape y(x). Each iteration involves the solution of
the following two equations:
= q (6)
= (7)
Equation (6) is a standard linear analysis and only needs to be solved once, since yI (x) is the same in all iterations. Equation
(7) strongly resembles the eigenvalue-eigenfunction problem dealt with before, the difference residing in the fact that the axial
forces are now due to known applied forces. The amplitude of the initial estimates of the deflected shape must, therefore, be
controlled by a factor ∆, determined at the end of each iteration by the condition
(8)
where n is the number of stations. This condition imposes a similarity between the initial and calculated deflected shapes, in
the sense that the sum of their station values must be the same.
If the initial imperfection consists of an eccentricity e0 of all the applied loads, then yI (x) is the solution of (N piecewise
constant):
Finally, it should be mentioned that the method will diverge if the axial loading parameter λ is larger than the corresponding
critical value λcr.
● This lecture dealt with the use of iterative methods to solve stability problems, namely the determination of critical
loads and equilibrium configurations.
● The basic idea of these methods was introduced by Vianello and consists of replacing the solution of a non-linear
problem by the solution of a convergent sequence of linear problems.

ESDEP WG 6
● The method of Vianello is used to calculate critical buckling loads of discrete and continuous systems. However, in the
case of continuous systems the method is only applicable to rather simple problems.
● Combining the method of Vianello and Newmark's integration technique, it is possible to establish an efficient method
to calculate critical loads and determine equilibrium configurations of axially loaded columns.
● The Vianello-Newmark method is particularly useful in the presence of non-standard features such as distributed axial
loads, variable bending stiffness, or complex boundary conditions.
1. Newmark, N.M. - "Numerical Procedures for Computing Deflections, Moments and Buckling Loads", Transactions
ASCE, Vol. 108, 1943.
2. Timoshenko, S.P. and Gere, J.M. - "Theory of Elastic Stability", McGraw-Hill, New York, 1961.
3. Bleich, F. - "Buckling Strength of Metal Structures", McGraw-Hill, 1952.
4. Allen, A.G. and Bulson, P.E. - "Background to Buckling", McGraw-Hill (UK), 1980.
5. Lind. N.C. - "Numerical Analysis of Structural Elements", Solid Mechanics Division, University of Waterloo Press,
Canada, 1982.
6. Chen, W.F. and Lui, E.M. - "Structural Stability-Theory and Implementation", Elsevier Science Publishing Co, New
York, 1987.

ESDEP WG 6
ESDEP WG 6
APPLIED STABILITY
Lecture 6.6.1: Buckling of Real Structural

Elements I
OBJECTIVE
To explain the effects of material plasticity and of geometric and structural imperfections on the buckling load resistance of
columns.
PREREQUISITES
RELATED LECTURES
Lectures 7.5: Columns
Lectures 7.10: Beam Columns
SUMMARY
The inelastic buckling of an idealised strut, i.e. a perfectly straight strut without residual stresses, is discussed with ideal
rigid-plastic, ideal elastic-plastic and real material behaviours being considered. The influence of geometric imperfections
and residual stresses is examined, both separately and in combination.
1. INTRODUCTION
Real structural members do not behave exactly as elastic bifurcation theory predicts. Firstly, the material is not infinitely
elastic; as a result elasto-plastic behaviour and inelastic buckling occur. Secondly, the structural members are affected by
several kinds of imperfections (mainly of geometric and/or mechanical nature), which may severely weaken the carrying
resistance. The rapid change in deformation with increase in applied load (characteristic of the buckling phenomenon) also
gives rise to second order effects which, when combined with material inelasticity, result in overall non-linear behaviour of
the structure.
In order to illustrate the main features of real responses, this lecture analyses the simplest type of buckling behaviour, i.e.
that of a pin-ended, end loaded strut having a doubly symmetrical cross-section (column flexural buckling).
Lecture 6.3 identified the parameters that govern the elastic behaviour of a geometrically perfect strut, i.e. one with no
initial out-of-straightness or eccentricity of loading. This lecture firstly examines the effect of inelastic material behaviour
in the absence of any kind of imperfections. Then, the influence of imperfect geometry and residual stresses are studied in

ESDEP WG 6
turn. Finally, the effect of all features taken together is analysed.
2. EFFECT OF MATERIAL PLASTICITY

The behaviour of carbon and low-alloy steel grades is usually represented by means of the ideal elastic-plastic stress-strain
relationship shown in Figure 1a. For situations in which there is little elastic deformation, the ideal rigid-plastic model,
shown in Figure 1b, adequately represents the material behaviour (the plateau represents the yield stress fy).
2.1 Ideal Rigid-Plastic Behaviour Model
Rigid-plastic behaviour assumes that neither lateral nor axial deformation takes place at low values of the axial load, N.
Each cross-section experiences the same uniformly distributed compressive stress σ = N/A and axial deformation is only
possible when σ reaches the yield stress fy; the corresponding axial load is termed the "squash load" and is given as :
Npl = A fy (1)
At this stage, any slight disturbance results in a lateral displacement giving rise to an additional bending moment. The
member collapses with the deformation confined to a plastic hinge at some point along its length (Figure 2a); the stress
distribution is bi-rectangular (Figure 2b), plastic deformation occurring in tension as well as compression. The buckled
member remains in equilibrium provided N becomes lower than the squash load; in this case the compressive yield stress is
no longer attained over the entire cross-section. The larger the lateral displacement, the larger the bending moment at the
plastic hinge and thus the smaller the coincident axial load (Figure 2c).

ESDEP WG 6
2.2 Ideal Elastic-Plastic Behaviour Model
As long as the elastic critical buckling load Ncr is smaller than the squash load Np1, the member remains straight and
undergoes elastic axial deformation. When collapse occurs by elastic critical bending at a load N = Ncr, the resulting lateral
deflection induces bending moments, that increase the stress at the concave side of the member and decrease it at the
convex side. Yielding occurs, in the central part of the member, in compression and more rarely in tension.
When, on the other hand, the squash load Np1 is reached prior to the elastic critical buckling load Ncr, the behaviour is
similar to that of the rigid-plastic strut, but with additional elastic axial and bending deformations. The failure load, in this
case, is the squash load, Np1.
2.3 Strength Curve for an Ideal Strut

ESDEP WG 6
Elastic column buckling analysis emphasizes the influence of the slenderness, λ =l/i, on the resistance; l is the strut
buckling length (see Lecture 7.7), equal to the member length when the strut is pin-ended, and is the radius of
gyration for the plane of flexural buckling considered. Plotting the average compressive stress, σk, at failure against the
slenderness, λ, gives a clear understanding of the relationship between the two types of behaviour (see Figure 3a). Elastic
critical buckling is represented by the hyperbola σ =σcr = π2E/λ2; its range of application is limited by the plastic squashing
line σ =fy. The two lines intersect at the slenderness value λ1, termed reference slenderness, such that π2E/λ12 =fy, which
gives:
λ1 = π (2)

ESDEP WG 6
Thus, collapse occurs by plastic squashing for λ< λ1, and by elastic buckling when λ > λ1. Usually the curve is drawn in a
normalized form (Figure 3b), where is plotted against = λ /λ1, so that plastic squashing ( = 1) and
elastic buckling intersect at .
2.4 Effects of the Real Elastic-Plastic Behaviour of the Material
The actual stress-strain diagram of some structural steel grades is shown in Figure 4.
Compared to the ideal elastic-plastic behaviour, three main differences are evident:
a) at high strains, the material may undergo strain-hardening.
b) the strain is limited to a maximum value, at which point the material breaks.
c) there may be no clearly defined yield point.
As buckling does not require large material ductility, point (b) is usually irrelevant.
Strain-hardening does not affect the first yield but contributes to an increase in the collapse load. This effect is obviously
more marked at low slenderness values, where plastic deformation is predominant, and should raise the corresponding
portion of the column strength curve (Figure 3a). In practice, the beneficial effect due to strain-hardening is neglected.
Different steel alloys exhibit different stress-strain behaviours; high strength steels, in particular, do not usually have a
clearly defined yield point and can be classified as follows:
1. Those having stress-strain curves with an elastic range restricted to the limit of proportionally σp, with the yield
plateau at σ = fy > σp (Figure 5a).
2. Those having a similar elastic range but no yield plateau, strain hardening being experienced throughout the entire
inelastic range. In this case the yield stress, fy, is generally taken as the 0.2% proof-stress (Figure 5b). This lack of a

ESDEP WG 6
clearly defined yield point has the following results:
● A slender strut (λ ≥ λp, where λp = ) will collapse by elastic buckling as long as σcr does not exceed σp.
● A very stocky member fails by axial plastic squashing without lateral deflection.
● In the range of intermediate slenderness ratios (λ ≤ λp), the stiffness of the material in resisting stress σ > σp
decreases progressively as the stress increases beyond σp; inelastic buckling can occur at a load below both squash
load and the elastic critical load.
●
The strut resistance curve becomes that shown in Figure 6 (strain-hardening has been disregarded).

ESDEP WG 6
3. STRENGTH OF REAL STRUTS

The previous sections considered highly idealized strut models which do not represent the real responses of compression
members, because of the unavoidable imperfections resulting from any manufacturing process. The following sections
consider the effect of these imperfections on real structural response; the imperfections are firstly considered independently,
and then in combination as would arise in an actual structure.
3.1 Effect of Geometric Imperfections
Geometric imperfections correspond either to lack of straightness of the structural member (Figure 7a), or to eccentricities
of the applied load (Figure 7b).

ESDEP WG 6
Buckling is characterised by a predominant displacement field associated with the buckled shape of the member; any initial
deflection will, therefore, affect instability as will any eccentricity of the applied loading. The resulting destabilizing
secondary effects reduce the load-carrying resistance, compared to that of a perfect member.
Because these imperfections are in the range of normal fabrication tolerances, they are generally not visible and cannot be
quantified precisely beforehand; they must, however, be taken into account in the design in an appropriate way.
The two types of geometric imperfections shown in Figure 7, are now considered:
● the initial lack-of-straightness of the strut in the plane of buckling.

● the accidental eccentricity of the presumed axial load.
3.1.1 Initial out-of-straightness
The initial out-of-straightness of a pin-ended strut (Figure 7a) is also termed "initial crookedness" or "initial curvature". It
causes a secondary bending moment as soon as any compression load is applied, which in turn leads to further bending

ESDEP WG 6
deflection and a growth in the amplitude of the lever arm of the external end compression forces; this results in
geometrically non-linear behaviour. A stable deflected shape is possible as long as the external moment, i.e. the product of
the load and the lateral deflection, does not exceed the internal moment resistance of any section. Column buckling in the
presence of an initial curvature is therefore by divergence of equilibrium, as opposed to the bifurcation type of instability
typical of ideal compression members.
Any cross-section of the strut experiences combined bending and axial load, whatever the amount of loading. Because
geometric linearity is no longer valid (equilibrium requires consideration of the deflected shape), the effects of bending and
axial load cannot be simply superimposed in order to describe the actual response.
For some elementary loading and support conditions, a direct procedure can be used, based on integration of the appropriate
equilibrium differential equation describing the deflected shape. The fundamental equilibrium equation for a strut having an
initial elastic curvature vo(x) in the buckling plane, is as follows (see Figure 7a):
(3)
where v(x) is the additional buckling deflection associated with the axial load N. Because the first buckling mode of a pin-
ended strut is a sine half-wave, the initial curvature is similarly chosen; it is then easy to show that the amplitude of the total
deflection vt at the critical section (at x = 0,5 L in this case) is as follows:
vt = vo/(1 - N/Ncr) (4)
where Ncr = π2EIz/L2 is the critical column buckling load. The axial load, therefore, magnifies the initial out-of-straightness
and the first-order bending moment Nvo by an amplification factor 1/(1 - N/Ncr):
M = Nvt = Nvo/(1 - N/Ncr) (5)
Figure 8 (curve O´AB) plots the axial load N against the total lateral deflection vt in the buckling plane. The deflection
tends to infinity as N approaches the elastic critical load Ncr, while an infinite tension load would be necessary to straighten
the strut.

ESDEP WG 6
The distribution of bending moment along the member increases with the lateral deflection. Bending moment and stresses
are the greatest at the critical sections; on the concave side of the strut, compressive stresses due to axial load and bending
moment superimpose and the strut experiences the greatest stress. First yield will occur at this point as the axial load is
steadily increased; the value of N corresponding to first yielding, termed Ny, constitutes the limit of validity C of the elastic
response O'AB (Figure 8).
Any further increase of N above Ny results in a spreading of yielding, both along the strut and into the cross-section (Figure
9). This results in a further degradation of the strut stiffness, such that a maximum load NK is attained, at which the strut
fails (point D in Figure 8). The ultimate load carrying resistance is hence a function of two sources of flexural stiffness
deterioration: the axial load (instability) and the spread of yielding (plasticity). The stress distributions across the strut cross-
section at stages C and D are shown in Figure 10. Usually the concave side of the strut does not yield in tension at collapse.

ESDEP WG 6
The post-collapse behaviour DE is asymptotic to the rigid-plastic response GH (see Figure 2c). The latter is plotted in
Figure 8, assuming that Npl < Ncr. Obviously the yield load Ny and the ultimate load NK have Ncr and Npl as upper bounds
(one may indeed have Ncr > Npl or Ncr < Npl). In any case the ultimate load will never exceed the load Ni where both elastic
and rigid-plastic responses intersect (point I). How close Ny and Nu are to Ncr and Npl depends on the slenderness of the

ESDEP WG 6
strut and on the amplitude of the initial crookedness.
The influence of both slenderness and lack-of-straightness on the elastic-plastic response is shown in Figure 11 for a
rectangular steel section; the following conclusions are drawn:
a) Whatever the slenderness, the larger the initial crookedness, the smaller the ultimate load.
b) For a specified value of the relative out-of-straightness (vo/L), the smaller the slenderness, the steeper the
elastic behaviour.
c) The post-collapse behaviour is a slowly descending curve for slender struts with any tolerable initial out-of-
straightness.
d) For stocky members, the post-collapse response is still a descending curve, the steepness of which
becomes greater as the initial crookedness decreases.

ESDEP WG 6
Provided the initial curvature is known beforehand, (if, for instance, it can be measured), it is possible to construct an
ultimate resistance curve from the calculated collapse loads. Such a curve is of the form (a) shown in Figure 12. If the
initial curvature is similar to the buckling mode, the resistance curve will start from σK=fy for vanishing slenderness and lie
below that for initially straight struts, though approaching the latter, as slenderness increases. Indeed, for very stocky
members, the influence of initial curvature is negligible and the plastic squash load is still the ultimate load. On the other
hand, very slender struts exhibit an elastic critical load Ncr much lower that the squash load Npl; in such cases, the point C
of Figure 8 may be well up the elastic response curve, so that the collapse load is close to the elastic critical load. The
influence of initial crookedness is especially marked for intermediate slenderness ratios; the greatest loss of resistance
(strength) occurs in the vicinity of λ1, where plastic squashing and elastic buckling are nearly coincident and therefore
interact the most.

ESDEP WG 6
If the collapse criterion is chosen as the first yield load Ny instead of the maximum load NK, the strength curve will be
lower but of similar shape (curve b - Figure 12).
3.1.2 Eccentricity of loading
An end compressive load, N, applied with an eccentricity, vo, to an initially straight pin-ended strut (Figure 7b) will induce
a first-order bending moment in the strut which will begin to deflect laterally in a similar manner to the initially crooked
strut analysed earlier.
The differential equilibrium equation in this case, is as follows:
(6)
The sole deviation from Equation (3) is that the initial imperfection vo is not a function of x. From the integration of
Equation (6) it can be seen that the first-order bending moment M0 = N vo is amplified by a factor = .
The amplification factors associated with the initial sine crookedness and the loading eccentricity are close to each other for
the range of N/Ncr values encountered in practice. Therefore, the load-deflection response for an eccentrically compressed
initially straight strut is similar to that plotted in Figure 8, except that the response curve starts at the origin of the axes.

ESDEP WG 6
Unlike the initial curvature, which is strongly dependent on the strut length, the loading eccentricity is more related to the
section size. In addition, first-order bending is constant over the entire member length so that bending effects are likely to
make the ultimate strength of very stocky members lower than the plastic squash load, giving, therefore, the form of
strength curve (c) plotted in Figure 12.
3.2 Effect of Residual Stresses
Structural rolled steel shapes and plates have residual stresses locked in them, due to uneven cooling after rolling; so also
do welded built-up members as the consequence of local heat input and cooling of the weld material and the surrounding
parent material. Similarly residual stresses exist in cold-formed sections, due to the large plastic deformations that have
occurred during the forming process. For non-loaded members in equilibrium, the residual stresses must be an autostress
state.
The distribution and the magnitude of the residual stresses depend on many parameters, (see Lectures 7.5.1 and 7.5.2); in
rolled and welded built-up sections of regular size, for instance, tensile residual stresses occur in the regions that are the last
to cool down; they are counterbalanced by compressive stresses in the remaining part of the cross-section. Provided the
wall thickness of these sections is not too large, it can usually be assumed that the magnitude of the residual stresses is
constant over the wall thickness. A typical residual stress distribution for I-sections is plotted in Figure 13a.

ESDEP WG 6
Residual stresses result in early first yielding; this occurs before the average applied compressive stress attains the
material yield stress fy. In fact onset of yielding is achieved in the fibre(s) with peak compressive residual stress σr,c at a
load Ny for which p + σr,c = fy .
Up to this loading level, the behaviour is elastic; the uniformly distributed applied stress ≤ p superimposes on the
residual stress distribution σr,c. Any additional loading beyond Ny induces the spread of yielding in the cross-section.
Yielded fibres have a reduced stiffness compared to the remaining elastic ones, because they experience specific strains ε
larger than the yield strain εy. Consequently the flexural stiffness of the strut is constant up to the first yielding; it then
decreases progressively for larger loading (Figure 13e) to vanish entirely at the plastic squash load (under the assumption
that strain-hardening is disregarded). The entire cross-section yields when the average applied stress equals the material
yield stress. The average applied axial stress K is plotted against average axial strain (shortening/length) in Figure 14.
This graph is similar to the σ - ε curve for steel with no clearly defined yield point but with a yield plateau (Figure 5a). It
behaves as if the compressed stub column having residual stresses was made with a fictitious steel having a stress-strain
relationship and a limit of proportionality σp which is different to the material limit of proportionality because of the
presence of residual stresses.

ESDEP WG 6
The collapse load of a stub column is, therefore, not affected by residual stresses, and still equals the plastic squash load.
Similarly, very slender struts, whose critical buckling stress does not exceed p, buckle elastically and are not affected by
residual stresses. The effect of residual stresses is most marked in the range of intermediate slenderness; in this case
premature yielding reduces the bending stiffness and the struts buckle inelastically at a load below both the elastic critical
buckling load and the plastic squash load. The corresponding resistance (strength) curve is of the form shown in Figure 6; it
must, however, be kept in mind that the coordinates represent the average applied stress and axial strain respectively, i.e.
p is substituted for σp.
The greatest loss of strength resulting from the effect of residual stresses is again at λ ≈ λ1.
3.4 Combined Effect of Imperfections
All the effects analysed separately above occur simultaneously in practice. Initial curvature, initial eccentricity of loading,
residual stresses and lack of a clearly defined yield point lower the column resistance curve for all or part of the slenderness
range. On the other hand, strain hardening is likely to raise the resistance curve, although only the range of low slenderness
values is affected. The beneficial effect so obtained usually does more than compensate for the loss of resistance due to

ESDEP WG 6
accidental eccentricities; in any case the column strength curve is considered as having a cut-off at , so that some
strength reserve is ignored.
Tests and numerical investigation demonstrate clearly that:
a) The separate influences of residual stresses and initial crookedness cannot be simply added to get a good assessment of
their combined influence on the ultimate resistance.
b) For intermediate slenderness ratios and low residual stresses, the combined influence is normally less than the sum of the
parts, whereas for other cases it can be more.
c) Variations in the shape of the residual stress pattern result in differences in column resistance; these are, however,
smaller for initially crooked columns than for initially straight ones.
d) The influence of both lack-of-straightness and residual stresses is higher for columns with intermediate slenderness
ratios. In this range squash loads and critical loads are nearly coincident; the ultimate resistance depends on the flexural
stiffness, the material yield strength, the amplitude and distribution of residual stresses and the initial crookedness. The
interaction between both these latter imperfections can result in a large drop in ultimate resistance, compared to the axial
load resistance of the perfect column.
Because all the deviations from the ideal strut and material are subject to statistical variations, it is impossible to predict
accurately the real resistance of a specified standard strut shape. For design purposes, lower bound resistance curves are
used which ensure, to a specified probability, that the calculated buckling loads do not overestimate the actual ultimate
resistance.
● An initially straight axially loaded strut, made of an ideal elastic-plastic material, and having no residual stresses can
fail either by plastic squashing for λ < λ 1 or by elastic column buckling for λ > λ 1.
● This "ideal" resistance (strength) is lower in practice because of geometric and structural imperfections such as
initial crookedness, eccentricity of the loading, residual stresses and lack of a clearly defined yield point.
● Some increase in resistance occurs in the very low slenderness range as a result of material strain hardening; it is,
however, usually disregarded so that the ultimate load of very stocky columns is the plastic squash load.
● Imperfections result in a lower resistance at intermediate values of slenderness; the greatest loss of resistance occurs
in the range of slenderness values λ ≈ λ 1, where plastic squash loads and elastic critical buckling loads are nearly
coincident and therefore interact the most.
● The effect of imperfections is small in the range of very large slenderness values and the ultimate load is close to the
elastic critical buckling load.
● The slenderness ratio is the geometric parameter on which assessment of the nature of the behaviour and of the
collapse mode should be based.
1. Ballio G. and Mazzolani F., "Theory and Design of Steel Structures", Chapman and Hall, London, 1983.
2. Dowling P.J., Knowles P. and Owens, G.W., "Structural Steel Design", Butterworths, London, 1988.
3. Galambos T.V. (editor), "SSRC Guide to Stability Design Criteria for Metal Structures", 4th Edition, John Wiley
and Sons, New York, 1988.
4. McGuire W., "Steel Structures", Prentice-Hall Inc., Englewood Cliffs, N-J., 1968.
5. Picard A. and Beaulieu D., "Calcul des charpentes en acier", Institut Canadien de la Construction en Acier, 1991.

ESDEP WG 6
ESDEP WG 6
APPLIED STABILITY
Lecture 6.6.2: Buckling of Real Structural

Elements II
OBJECTIVE/SCOPE
To extend and generalise to other instability phenomena the conclusions drawn in Lecture 6.6.1 on column buckling.
PREREQUISITES
Lecture 6.6.1: Buckling of Real Structural Elements I
RELATED LECTURES
Lecture 7.3: Local Buckling
Lectures 8: Plates and Shells
Lectures 9: Thin-Walled Construction
SUMMARY
Plate buckling and types of buckling involving torsional deformation are considered, as is the basic type of shell buckling, i.
e. the case of an axially compressed cylinder. For each type of buckling a description of the basic phenomena is given;
the behaviour is analysed in terms of the pre-buckling, post-buckling and collapse behaviour, and the governing
geometric parameters are identified. Comment is also briefly made on how members can be strengthened to prevent
buckling failures.
1. INTRODUCTION
The influence of imperfections, material plasticity and strain hardening on ultimate resistance, has been reviewed in detail
in the previous Lecture 6.6.1 with reference to column flexural buckling. This is the form of member instability that has
been most studied and an almost complete understanding of the phenomenon has been achieved.
Most of the conclusions drawn in the previous lecture are still valid, in general terms, for other forms of instability.
These forms are, however, characterised by different kinds of deformations, so that the nature of the imperfections that
most affect the ultimate resistance are different to flexural buckling; to gain an understanding of the real buckling resistance
of columns, therefore, the effect of imperfections on these different forms of instability must be analysed.
Plate buckling is first examined because it often occurs in the form of local buckling, i.e. buckling of section-plate
components; moreover, it helps to understand torsional column buckling, where buckling occurs with a twist of the
cross-section only. Column flexural-torsional buckling is then examined; this is well named because bending and

ESDEP WG 6
torsional deformations are always linked together as in the lateral-torsional buckling of beams. Buckling of shells is
also considered; this very complex phenomenon is illustrated by reference to the basic case of an axially loaded
cylindrical shell.
Plate buckling occurs where thin-walled sections experience compressive stresses. This phenomenon is quite similar to
column buckling; it involves, however, elements of the member cross-section rather than displacement of the section as
a whole. Compressive stresses may arise not only from compressive axial load but also from bending of the member, and
even from patch loads (Figures 1a, 1b, and 1c). Local buckling may also occur in plates subject to shear (Figure 1d),
because shear results in compressive and tensile principal stresses

ESDEP WG 6
Cold-formed sections and thin plated sections are the most sensitive to local buckling.
The elastic buckling modes and corresponding critical stresses of compressed plates are derived from the small deflected
plate equations; their analysis has been carried out in Lecture 6.3.
It has long been recognised that the critical buckling load of a plate is not a satisfactory measure of the actual plate
resistance. Indeed, as soon as the plate tends to buckle, out-of-plane deflections result in membrane forces due to the
stretching of the mid-plane of the plate. To understand this behaviour let us consider an initially flat rectangular plate,
having all edges either simply supported, or clamped, and loaded in uniform uniaxial compression. Let us assume, in
addition, that the aspect ratio is such that the plate will buckle in a single half-wave mode (Figure 2). For the purpose of
this analysis the plate can be replaced by a system of strips in both orthogonal directions; the longitudinal strips are
compressed and are thus liable to buckle. Below the elastic critical plate buckling load, all the longitudinal strips are
straight because the plate remains flat; they maintain their initial stiffness and experience equal compression stress. Once
the plate buckles, the longitudinal strips close to the edge are constrained to remain straight while those away from these
edges are more prone to buckling; in other words the first ones retain their axial stiffness while the latter lose a part of
their initial stiffness.
The plate buckling causes an increase in length of the transverse strips because the longitudinal edges are restrained
against free shortening of the plate in the transverse direction; this causes tensile membrane forces in the transverse strips,
that exert a stabilising effect on the longitudinal strips (Figure 3). This explains why stable equilibrium states can be reached
by the plate beyond the elastic critical plate buckling load, with the result that large post-buckling resistance may be
possible provided the material does not yield prematurely. This is the fundamental difference between plate behaviour

ESDEP WG 6
and column buckling, which is not able to exhibit such a reserve of resistance.
When the plate buckles, in-plane and out-of-plane displacements interact, resulting in a non-linear behaviour. The
plate behaviour, in the large deflection regime, can only be deduced from both the compatibility and equilibrium non-
linear plate equations. It is represented, in Figure 4, by the plot of the mean applied stress against plate lateral deflection,
and end shortening; the latter plot is bi-linear when the plate is initially perfectly flat, and the slope represents the axial
stiffness of the plate; the post-buckling axial stiffness depends on the in-plane restraints offered by the boundary but
varies usually from 40 to 75% of the initial stiffness. The larger the restraints against in-plane displacements of the
boundary (primarily of the longitudinal edges), the larger the stabilising effect resulting from the membrane forces, and
the larger the possible post-buckling reserve of resistance.

ESDEP WG 6
The ultimate load is finally reached when the stiffness of the plate has sufficiently deteriorated due to material yielding.
Plate buckling results, as mentioned above, in a non-uniform membrane stress distribution across the plate width with
peak stresses at the longitudinal edges (Figure 5). Yielding will, therefore, occur first at these edges and spread rapidly
until collapse is reached.
The post-buckling resistance is exhibited especially by plates having slender proportions and which, to a large extent,
behave elastically. The ultimate load, in this case, may amount to several times the elastic critical load. For plates of low
and intermediate slenderness, plate behaviour is mainly affected by material plasticity; indeed the more stocky the plate,
the more yielding will tend to precede plate buckling with the result that the ultimate resistance may be even lower than
the elastic critical load.
Plate manufacturing and fabrication processes result in unavoidable geometric imperfections and residual stresses. In
most cases, both have an effect on the pre- and post-buckling behaviour.
The fundamental geometric imperfection is the initial out-of-flatness, which, as would be expected, significantly affects
plate buckling. Due to lack of flatness, the out-of-plane plate deformations increase from the onset of loading. The
magnitude of out-of-flatness influences the load-deflection plate response; however, as long as the response is elastic,

ESDEP WG 6
plates with any level of imperfection will approach the post-buckling behaviour of ideally flat plates (Figure 4a). In the
load-end shortening plot, the effect of out-of-flatness is to round off the "knee" at the critical stress (Figure 4b). Not only
the magnitude but also the pattern of the initial out-of-flatness may influence the plate response; the more similar the
buckling mode is to this pattern, the more plate buckling occurs and proceeds smoothly. On the other hand, any out-of-
flatness which differs from the buckling mode tends to delay plate buckling; however, when this occurs, it happens suddenly
in a way termed 'snap-through'. Because of the random nature of the out-of-flatness pattern (unknown at the design stage), it
is usually conservatively assumed that the imperfection is close to the first plate buckling mode.
The plate residual stresses also tend to reduce the initial axial stiffness and affect the yielding process.
Plate slenderness is the geometric parameter governing the plate ultimate resistance. The latter is generally represented
(Figure 6a) by a plot of the mean applied stress at failure against the slenderness parameter λ′ =b/t, "b" being the plate width
in the direction perpendicular to the compression.
An elastic initially flat plate should buckle for a critical stress:
σcr = kσ [π2E/12 (1 - ν2)] (1/λ′)2 (1)

ESDEP WG 6
where kσ is the plate buckling coefficient and ν the Poisson ratio. Due to material plasticity, the squash load provides a limit
to plate resistance and constitutes a cut-off limit to the elastic buckling curve. As explained above, however, the
ultimate average stress of a slender plate, i.e. a plate for which σcr is lower than the yield stress fy, exceeds the elastic
critical stress as a result of the post-buckling resistance; the ultimate stress curve thus lies higher than the critical stress
curve. The transition between squashing and plate buckling occurs when σcr = fy, that is for the following slenderness:
λ1′ = π (2)
For a simply supported long plate, subject to uniform compression, the buckling coefficient is roughly k =4; the
corresponding value of λ1′ = 1,9 amounts to between 56 and 46 for the usual steel grades S235 and S355. The value
of the buckling coefficient k, for other cases, depends on the plate aspect ratio, the type of loading and the boundary conditions.
The existence of post-buckling resistance in a plate subject to shear can be physically explained as follows: a square
element, the edges of which are oriented at 45° to the plate edges, experiences tensile stresses, σ1, on two opposite edges
and compressive stresses, σ2, on the other two (Figure 7a); these compressive stresses can, therefore, induce plate buckling
in the form of elongated bulges oriented in the direction of the tensile stresses (Figure 7b). The elastic critical shear stress,
τcr, is given by an expression similar to σcr; again τcr depends on the aspect ratio and the edge support conditions. Once
the plate buckles in shear, the increase in compressive stresses is no longer possible while the initial axial stiffness of the
plate, in the direction in which the tensile component acts, is still nearly fully available. Therefore, shear load increases
are basically resisted by tensile stress increases and bulges consequently become narrower. The plate behaves as a series
of strips in the tension direction and develops a so-called tension field (Figure 7c). This field rotates when the applied
stress increases, to line up more closely with the plate diagonal; the ultimate shear load is reached when these strips yield.
Here too, the in-plane restraints may appreciably influence the extent of the post-buckling reserve of resistance.

ESDEP WG 6
It can be concluded, therefore, that initial out-of-flatness, residual stresses and strain hardening all affect the behaviour and
the ultimate resistance of plates; the effect is similar to that for column buckling, the sole but fundamental difference being
that, at high slenderness, the plate resistance curve approaches the post-buckling curve rather than the critical buckling curve.
The above conclusions can be extended qualitatively to any portion of a plate which experiences compressive
stresses; quantitatively it can be said that the amount of post-buckling resistance may vary appreciably with the type of
loading and the kind of boundary conditions.
Similarly to column resistance curves, plate resistance curves are usually plotted as normalised coordinates (Figure 6b):
the mean ultimate stress is divided by the material yield stress, while the normalised plate slenderness is defined, as for
column buckling, in general terms:
p = √(fy/σcr) (3)
Using Equation (1), the normalised plate slenderness is as follows:
p = (b/t)(1,05/√k)√fy/E (4)
Accordingly, p = 1 is the limit slenderness which corresponds to the transition between squashing and plate buckling.
The normalised slenderness includes the usual plate slenderness, λ′ = b/t, but is affected, through k, by the aspect ratio of
the plate, the type of loading and the boundary conditions. To account for actual imperfections, plate resistance curves ought
be lower bounds of the available test results.
3. TORSIONAL BUCKLING OF COLUMNS

Instability due to torsional buckling can only arise in special circumstances. This buckling type is illustrated by means of
a compressed strut composed of four identical outstands, giving a cruciform section (Figure 8); each outstand is a flat
thin plate, liable to buckle because of the compression loading. If such a plate was simply supported along the column axis,
it would buckle so that any line OA of the outstand, perpendicular to the longitudinal edges, would remain
approximately straight, though rotating about point 0. Because the outstands are identical, they should each buckle at the
same value of applied stress. It is thus possible to find a form of buckling in which any cross-section of the cruciform strut
does not distort, but rotates about 0. The four outstands continue to meet at right angles so that the fact that they are
joined rigidly along a common edge is not significant. This form of buckling, where the strut axis remains straight but
sections rotate is termed "torsional buckling".

ESDEP WG 6
Because torsion is involved in such a buckling process, the elastic critical buckling stress depends partly on the Saint-
Venant torsional rigidity and on the warping rigidity. In addition, the end torsional and warping restraints must be reflected
in the numerical factors used.
Torsional buckling can only properly occur when the shear centre and centroid of the cross-section are coincident, i.e, only
in symmetrical sections; thin-walled components will also obviously favour this form of buckling. Because flexural
buckling (usually termed column buckling) is still possible, each form must be examined to determine which gives the
lower critical stress.
As for flexural buckling, the elastic critical torsional buckling load is not an adequate measure of the carrying resistance.
One must again allow for geometric imperfections, residual stresses and for the effects of material plasticity and
strain hardening. Regarding the initial geometric imperfections, the initial twist of the strut and the lack of flatness of
the section components are understandably the most significant. Unlike flexural buckling, for which much information
is available, the ultimate resistance associated with torsional buckling cannot be assessed very accurately because of the lack
of sufficiently documented experiments and corresponding test results. Allowance for geometric imperfections,
residual stresses, material plasticity and strain hardening, parameters which reduce the ultimate load below the elastic
critical one, is based more on engineering judgement than on a fully justified procedure. It is generally accepted that
the procedure used for flexural buckling can be extended to torsional buckling by assuming that the reduction in resistance

ESDEP WG 6
due to imperfections and plasticity are similar in both cases, when referring to normalised coordinates. The
normalised slenderness is consistently defined as follows:
T = √(fy/σcr,T) (5)
where σcr,T is the elastic critical torsional buckling stress.
Flexural and torsional displacements are combined when the shear centre and centroid of the section are not coincident.
This results in a reduction of the critical buckling load compared to that associated with flexural buckling. This phenomenon
is particularly important for angles and channel sections.
To illustrate this form of buckling, a channel section is considered subject to a uniaxial compressive load at the centroid, so
that the end sections experience a uniform applied stress (Figure 9a). The section is assumed to be proportioned so that
the second moment of inertia, Iyy, about yy axis, is larger than that about zz axis; the flexural buckling about the zz axis is
thus governing (Figure 9b). As soon as the strut tends to buckle in the direction yy, i.e. by bending about the zz axis,
its deflection v(x) produces a bending moment M(x) = Nv(x), giving rise to an associated shear, V = dM/dx = N(dv(x)/
dx). Everything happens as if the strut was subject to transverse distributed forces q=-dV(x)/dx =-N(d2v(x)/dx2), acting in
the plane yy containing the centroid G, and not in the plane zz containing the shear centre C (Figure 9c). Therefore
bending about the zz axis and the corresponding shear induce a torque moment dMt = qzo dx, where zo is the distance
between the centroid and the shear centre. This means that purely flexural buckling in the yy plane is impossible,
because bending and torque deformations are inevitably coupled. This form of buckling is termed "flexural-torsional buckling".

ESDEP WG 6
Flexural-torsional buckling is governed by three equilibrium differential equations containing the derivatives of the
three functions: displacements v and w in the yy and zz planes and the twist ψ. The flexural-torsional buckling load
thus depends on the usual boundary conditions for v and w at the ends (pin-ended or clamped) and on the twist and
warping restraints on ψ.
In the usual case of a pin-ended strut, which is fully free to warp, i.e.v=v"=0,w=w"=0 and ψ = ψ" = 0 at the ends, the
critical flexural-torsional buckling stress is as follows:
σcr,FT={σcr,zz + σcr,T ± √{(σcr,T - σcr,zz)2 + σcr,zz . σcr,T (zo/ro)2 ]} / {2[1 - (zo/ro)2]} (6)
where yo and zo are the coordinates of the shear centre and . It is apparent that this value is always lower than
the flexural buckling stress, σcr,zz about the zz axis and the torsional buckling stress, σcr,T. It should also be checked if it is
also lower than the flexural buckling load σcr,yy about the yy axis which is the other root of the characteristic equation.
It should be noted that for a doubly symmetrical section (zo=yo=ro=0), the roots are:
σcr = σcr,yy = σcr,zz
and that the lowest of the three values - σcr,T, σcr,zz and σcr,yy - is the governing one.
Flexural-torsional buckling implies deformations due to both column flexural and column torsional buckling. The
associated ultimate resistance will thus be affected by all types of imperfections, which affect these two basic phenomena.
As in the case of column torsional buckling, there is a lack of information on the loss of flexural-torsional buckling
strength due to imperfections, residual stress and material plasticity; again, the procedure used for flexural buckling
is generalised by using the same normalised strength curves, assuming the normalised slenderness is defined as:
FT = √(fy/σcr,FT) (7)
5. LATERAL-TORSIONAL BUCKLING OF BEAMS

When a beam is subject to major axis bending, either due to end moments or, more typically, due to transverse loads, one of

ESDEP WG 6
the flanges, along with an adjacent portion of web, is compressed and is, therefore, prone to buckling.
Buckling of the compression flange in the web plane is normally prevented by the web, because of the large rigidity of
the latter in its own plane; buckling of the flange in the flange plane is, therefore, most often critical because the web
provides only limited restraint in this direction. When the web is very slender, it is likely to be distorted so that the restraint
is negligible and lateral-torsional buckling is very close to flange buckling by bending about the weak axis of the cross-
section (Figure 10a). A stocky web, however, behaves roughly as a rigid plate element and lateral-torsional buckling causes
the section to twist (Figure 10b). Because of the rotation of the principal axes compared to their initial direction, the
resulting deformation is a combination of torsion and lateral bending.
For a perfect beam, loaded in the strong direction of bending, lateral-torsional buckling occurs for a critical value of
the maximum bending moment, or the maximum compressive stress. This value is affected by several factors: the
moment distribution along the beam (shape of the bending moment diagram), the boundary conditions (bending, torque
and warping restraints), the level of application of the transverse loads, and the possible non-symmetry of the cross-section.
As this buckling involves torsion and weak-axis bending, the critical bending moment will be expressed in terms of the
beam length L, the torsional and warping rigidity, GJ and EIw respectively, and the bending stiffness about the weak axis, EIz.
The elastic critical bending moment of an I or H section, for example, is as follows:

ESDEP WG 6
. C1 (8)
where C1 and C2 are coefficients allowing for the influence of the aforementioned factors and zg is the distance from the
shear centre to the point of application of the transverse loads. The elastic critical lateral-torsional buckling stress is as follows:
σcr,LT = Mcr,LT/ Wy (9)
where Wy is the elastic section modulus for bending about the strong axis.
In addition to material plasticity and residual stresses, geometric imperfections cause a loss in resistance compared to
the elastic critical load. Any imperfection which is liable to trigger off torsion and/or lateral bending is obviously of concern.
A recent statistical evaluation of test results, carried out when preparing background documents for Eurocode 3 [1],
has demonstrated that the format of the ultimate resistance curves for flexural column buckling is quite appropriate to
represent the lateral-torsional buckling response, provided the curve parameters are suitably calibrated. As for the
previous forms of buckling, the normalised slenderness for lateral-torsional buckling is defined as:
LT = √(fy/σcr,LT) (10)
6. BUCKLING OF SHELLS
Shell buckling is probably the most complex instability phenomenon. Similar to plate buckling, it involves the cross-
sectional shape rather than displacement of the section as a whole. Compressive stresses, as before, can arise from
compressive axial load, bending and locally applied concentrated loads. In addition, however, shells can also be subject
to internal or external pressures (pipes, silos, tanks, off-shore jacket legs, etc.).
The simplest case to analyse is the axially compressed cylindrical shell (Figure 11); the elastic critical buckling stress is
as follows:
σcr = [1/ ] Et/r (11)
where t is the wall thickness, and r the radius of the cylinder. This formula is well known in the format, σcr = 0,605 Et/r,
valid for steel cylinders.

ESDEP WG 6
The load-shortening behaviour shows a drastic loss of carrying resistance as soon as the critical buckling load is
reached (Figure 12); when it buckles, the shell tends to a buckled shape, which is in equilibrium with an external
compression load usually much lower than the critical load. This is a general characteristic of shells, whatever the type of
shell and the type of loading; unlike plates, they are not able to exhibit any post-buckling reserve of resistance.
Even very small geometric imperfections cause a premature deviation from the load - displacement curve of the perfect
shell usually giving a significant reduction in the load carrying resistance (Figure 12). Elastic critical loads cannot, therefore,
be attained by real shells. The influence of imperfections on the ultimate load of shells is a very complex problem which
has been extensively researched.
According to classical theory of shell buckling, the perfect cylindrical shell can buckle either axisymmetrically - with
a succession of ring buckles - or in the form of a chessboard (Figure 13a, b); depending on the buckling circumstances,
the shell may achieve a diamond-like post-buckling configuration. To account for imperfections, design rules traditionally use
a knock-down factor, α, affecting the elastic critical shell buckling stress; values of α are derived from tests conducted on

ESDEP WG 6
large scale models.
According to ECCS Recommendations [2], the value of this factor depends only on the slenderness, r/t, of the shell
when imperfections are kept below a specified level. An additional partial safety factor, γ, is applied in the case of
cylindrical shells subject to meridional compression because of their especially unfavourable post-buckling behaviour.
The influence of the different types of imperfections on the ultimate resistance may vary greatly depending on the type of
shell and on the type of loading. A normalised resistance curve is then defined by plotting the ratio σ/fy against the
normalised slenderness s ( s = √(fy/ασcr), similar to the approach used for column and plate resistance curves (Figure 14).

ESDEP WG 6
It should be noted that as s increases, the resistance curve approaches the critical resistance value (reduced by the
knock-down factor α).
7. IMPROVING THE BUCKLING RESISTANCE

The buckling resistance of a member, or of a section component, can be enhanced in a number of ways.
For a specified buckling form, a reduction of the slenderness ratio will result in a higher ultimate load. This will usually
be achieved by increasing the cross-sectional dimensions; it can also be done by distributing the material differently about
the centroid, while keeping the cross-section area constant; doing this, however, can change the section and/or
member response, so that other buckling forms may become critical. In particular, a reduction in thickness of the cross-
section components, in order to better distribute the material, often results in plate buckling governing the design.
Another way to improve the buckling resistance of a member is to provide it with better or additional restraints so that
the buckling mode is modified. The elastic critical load of a pin-ended axially compressed column, for example, is increased
by a factor 4 by providing a simple support at mid-height, so that the column buckles in a two half sine-wave mode. Similarly
a simply supported beam, subject to bending about its major axis, is strengthened against lateral-torsional buckling
by preventing bending and/or torque rotations at the end supports, or, more simply, by preventing the compression flange
from any lateral displacement by means of adequate bracing. The ultimate resistance of a thin compressed plate can
be appreciably improved by fitting longitudinal and possibly transverse stiffeners; provided these are stiff enough, the plate
will buckle between the stiffeners, with a higher elastic critical stress. Stiffening of shell structures will similarly produce
an increase in resistance.
Although the design resistance is related to the ultimate stress rather than to the elastic critical stress, the above comments
can be qualitatively extended when referring to the ultimate carrying resistance.
8. FRAME INSTABILITY
When designing columns as parts of a frame, it would be convenient to isolate the columns from the remainder of the

ESDEP WG 6
frame and to treat their design as separate problems. However most columns belonging to building frames experience
bending actions applied at their ends, in addition to axial loads. These bending actions depend on the interaction between
the column and its adjacent members -beams and columns. In some cases, the column will support the beams at failure;
such situations occur when the beams are designed plastically and collapse while the column remains stable and elastic.
There are other situations where the beams will support the column; that is especially the case when the beams are
designed elastically and exhibit an elastic behaviour up to collapse, the latter being initiated by column instability.
Mostly columns in frames will appear as elastically restrained members subject to combined axial load and end
moments. Therefore, they are termed beam-columns.
In most building frames, sway displacements are prevented by means of appropriate bracing systems, e.g. braces in the
facades, staircases, reinforced concrete central core for utilities. Then the column ends are not likely to experience
horizontal displacements. Stability of non-sway frames reduces itself to stability of the individual columns. Therefore there
is the need for appropriate rules regarding the ultimate resistance of elastically restrained compression members subject
to additional end moments.
Sometimes the horizontal forces, due to wind and possible earthquake, have to be resisted by bending actions in the
whole frame, which exhibits horizontal displacements, usually increasing in magnitude from base to top. Then the
columns deflect according to a S-shape, termed double-curvature bending. Horizontal displacements allow the gravity loads
to develop additional bending moments, which are usually called secondary moments because they result from gravity
loads acting on the deflected frame. The wording secondary is peculiarly not appropriate because the magnitude of
the secondary bending moments can rarely be disregarded. Checking the frame stability by considering the stability of
the individual columns appears thus more like a cooking recipe than a sound design procedure, but it does attempt to take
into account the influence of second-order effects in the framed structure.
A full review of all these complex matters is beyond the scope of this present lecture. They are reviewed in more detail
in Lectures 7 and in some other lectures where systems are especially considered.
● The basic features of the buckling phenomena of the members which have been examined are summarised in the following
table.
Buckling Type of member Loading Stiffness Slenderness Normalised

phenomenon parameters ratio slenderness
Flexural Columns Axial compression EIy or EIz L/ix or L/iy
Torsional Columns (open sections with Axial compression GJ, EIω -

double or point symmetry)
Flexural Columns (open sections without Axial compression GJ, EIω -

torsional double or point symmetry)
EIy and/or
EIz
Lateral Beams Major axis bending GJ, EIω , -

torsional
EIz
Plate Thin plate or member component Compression or shear b/t
Shell Cylindrical shell Axial compression - r/t

ESDEP WG 6
● The most effective ways to improve buckling resistance are to increase the dimensions of the cross-section and/or to use
adequate bracing and restraints to modify the buckling mode.
● The stability of a no-sway frame is controlled by the stability of its individual columns.
● The stability of a sway frame is controlled by the bending stiffness of the columns and beams and the rigidity of the beam/
column connections.
10. REFERENCES
[1] Eurocode 3: "Design of Steel Structures": ENV 1993-1-1: Part 1.1: General rules and rules for buildings, CEN, 1992.
[2] European Convention for Constructional Steelwork, Recommendations of Steel Shells, Publication 56, ECCS, 1988.

1. Ballio, G. and Mazzolani, F, "Theory and Design of Steel Structures", Chapman and Hall, London, 1983.
2. Dowling, P.J., Knowles, P. and Owens, G.W., "Structural Steel Design", Butterworths, London, 1988.
3. Galambos, T.V. (editor), "Guide to Stability Design Criteria for Metal Structures", John Wiley and Sons, New York, 1988.
4. McGuire, W, "Steel Structures", Prentice-Hall Inc., Englewood Cliffs, N.J., 1968.
5. Picard, A. and Beaulieu, D., "Calcul des charpentes en d'acier", Institut Canadien de la Construction en Acier, 1991.

ESDEP WG 7
ELEMENTS
Lecture 7.1: Methods of Analysis

of Steel Structures
OBJECTIVE/SCOPE
To introduce methods of global analysis and to relate them to the assumptions made on the material behaviour and on the
effects of deformations.
PREREQUISITES
Elementary mechanics of materials.
Elementary structural analysis.
Elements of plastic design.
Elastic and elastic-plastic behaviour of materials.
RELATED LECTURES
Lecture 7.2: Cross-Section Classification
Lecture 7.8.1: Restrained Beams I
Lecture 7.11: Frames
Lectures 14: Structural Systems: Buildings
SUMMARY
Internal force distributions in structures may be determined using an elastic or a plastic global analysis. Either a first or
second-order theory can be used, depending on the type of structure. These concepts are briefly reviewed and comments are
made in general terms regarding design practice.
1. INTRODUCTION
Checking the strength of cross-sections, the stability of structural members or section components and possibly fatigue
requires that the internal force distribution within the structure, is known beforehand; from this, the stress distribution
within any cross-section may be deduced as required. The words "internal forces" (also termed "member forces") are used
generally and refer to axial forces, shear forces, bending moments, torque moments etc.
The internal forces in a statically determinate structure can be obtained using statics only. In a statically indeterminate
structure, they cannot be found from the equations of static equilibrium alone; a knowledge of some geometric conditions

under load is additionally required. It is important, at this stage, to recognise this fundamental difference between statically
determinate and indeterminate (hyperstatic) structures. The internal forces in a structure may be determined using either an
elastic or a plastic global analysis. While elastic global analysis may be used in all cases, plastic global analysis can be used
only where both the member cross-sections and the steel material satisfy special requirements.
The internal forces may be determined using different approaches depending on whether the effects of the deformations in
the structure can or cannot be disregarded. In first order theory, the computations are carried out by referring only to the
initial geometry of the structure; in this case the deformations are so small that the resulting displacements do not
significantly affect the geometry of the structure and hence do not significantly change the forces in the members. Second
order theory takes into account the influence of the deformation of the structure and, therefore, reference must be made to
the deflected geometry under load. First order theory may, for instance, be used for the global analysis in cases where the
structure is appropriately braced, is prevented from sway, or when the design methods make indirect allowances for second-
order effects. Second order theory may be used for the global analysis in all cases, without any restrictions.
When first order theory can be used, the behaviour of a structure made with a material obeying Hooke's law is itself linear;
the displacements - translation or rotation of any section - vary linearly with the applied forces; that is, any increment in
displacement is proportional to the force causing it. Under such conditions, stresses, strains, member forces and
displacements due to different actions can be added using the principle of superposition. This principle indeed states that
the displacements (internal forces) due to a number of loads acting simultaneously is equal to the sum of the displacements
(internal forces) due to each load acting separately. This does not apply if the stress-strain relationship of the material is
nonlinear or if the structure (even if it is made of a material obeying Hooke's law) behaves non-linearly because of changes
in the geometry caused by the applied loads.
The principle of superposition, when it can be used, is especially useful when determining the most severe condition in
each individual member of a statically indeterminate structure; the interaction between different parts of the structure makes
it difficult to identify the exact loading which produces the critical condition for design.
In practice, elastic global analysis is generally used to study the serviceability performance of a structure, i.e. limit states
beyond which specified service criteria are no longer met. Plastic global analysis is particularly useful when investigating
states associated with an actual collapse of the structure and to assess the actual ultimate resistance, i.e. ultimate limit states.
2. ELASTIC GLOBAL ANALYSIS

Elastic global analysis presumes elastic behaviour of the structure, and consequently, of the material itself. It is based on the
assumption that the load-deformation behaviour of the material is linear, whatever the stress level; the strain is thus
assumed proportional to the stress, i.e. the material is obeying Hooke's law in the whole range of loading (Figure 1a).
Obviously, actual properties of the material, especially regarding yield stress and possibly strength, shall be considered
when checking whether the member forces do or do not exceed the strength resistance of cross-sections and members.

It has already been stated that in the elastic global analysis of statically determinate structures, the internal forces are found
from the equations of static equilibrium alone. In continuous construction (statically indeterminate structures) the member
forces must satisfy the conditions of equilibrium and produce deformations compatible with the elastic continuity of the
structure and with the support conditions. The equilibrium equations are not sufficient to determine the unknown forces and
have to be supplemented by simple geometrical relationships between the deformations of the structure. These relationships
are termed compatibility conditions because they ensure the compatibility of the deformations in the geometry of the
deformed structure.
It is also required that the types of joints employed are able to maintain, virtually unchanged, the original angles between
adjacent members, i.e. rigid connections are assumed.

Where first order theory can be used, equilibrium and compatibility conditions are expressed with reference to the initial
(non deflected) configuration of the structure.
Two general methods of approach can be used to determine the force resultants and reaction components. The first of these
is the flexibility method, in which releases are provided to render the structure statically determinate; the unknowns are the
forces. These are determined by saying that the released structure undergoes inconsistent deformations, which are corrected
by the application of appropriate additional forces (Figure 2a).

The second approach is the stiffness method, in which displacement restraints are added to prevent movement of the joints,
and the forces required to produce the restraint are determined; the displacements are then allowed to take place at the joints
until the fictitious restraining forces have vanished. Once the joint displacements are known, the forces in the structure are
obtained by superposition of the effects of the separate displacements (Figure 2b).

Either the force or the displacement method can be used to analyse any structure. In the force method, the solution is
carried out for the forces necessary to restore consistency in geometry; the analysis involves the solution of a number of
simultaneous equations equal to the number of unknown forces, that is the number of releases required to render the
structure statically determinate. In the displacement method, the unknowns are the possible joint displacements and
rotations. The number of the restraining forces to be added to the structure equals the number of possible joint
displacements and the analysis similarly involves the solution of a set of equations.
When it is necessary to account for second order effects (geometric non-linearity), second order theory must be used which
involves iterative procedures. Because the principle of superposition is not allowed in this case, reference must be made to
a specified reference load distribution. This is increased, in steps using a load multiplier (Figure 3). Each step is chosen
sufficiently small so that the behaviour may be assumed linear during this load increment. The deflected configuration
reached at the end of a specified loading step is used as the reference geometry for the following step; elastic second order
theory thus consists in solving a succession of first order analyses of a structure, the geometry of which is changed at each
step on the basis of its former history. Such computations become rapidly unmanageable by hand and appropriate computer
programs are needed. These are usually based on the stiffness method - also termed displacement method - because it is
easier to define the kinematically determinate structure, which is used as the reference geometry.
Most codes and standards permit member forces, in regular geometric non-linear structures, to be obtained using linear
elastic analysis and then amplified, where necessary, to allow for instability effects. Because the principle of superposition
is not applicable, this approach would appear to be inconsistent with rigorous theory. Nonetheless, it gives the designer the

opportunity to use standard, i.e. linear elastic, frame analysis programs for a wide range of structures, at least for
preliminary design.
In certain circumstances, codes and standards permit a limited redistribution of moments. That means that the elastic
moment diagram may be modified by up to 5 to 15% of the peak elastic moment, provided that the resulting computed
moments and shears remain in equilibrium with the applied external loads (Figure 4). Therefore, although equilibrium is
indeed maintained, the elastic compatibility of the structure is somewhat violated. This concept of moment redistribution
may be thought of as a very limited recognition of the potential which exists, within statically indeterminate structures, to
withstand loads in excess of those that require full elastic member bending strength only at the most critical location.
Attention is drawn on the fact that this is possible only if unloading does not follow the attainment of the local maximum
strength; some ductility of the cross-sectional behaviour is, therefore, required, which explains the reason for limiting the
process to compact sections (see Lecture 7.2).
It should be stressed that the assumption of linear load-deformation behaviour of the material may be maintained for both

first order and second order elastic analysis, even where the resistance of a cross-section is based on the plastic resistance
(see Lecture 7.2).
3. PLASTIC GLOBAL ANALYSIS

The load-deformation behaviour of steel is not infinitely linear. The strain-stress relationship for an ideal elastic-perfectly
plastic material is represented in Figure 1b; it follows that Hooke's law is restricted to a stress range σ ≤ fy, fy being the
yield stress of the material. Beyond this range, the material yields plastically at constant stress σ = fy. If the stress is
reduced at any point in the plastic range, the return path is a straight line parallel to Hooke's law, the slope of which is the
elastic modulus E. Both E and fy, and indeed the whole stress-strain relationship are assumed the same for tension and for
compression.
The idealised stress-strain relationship, although only a mathematical model, is a close approximation of the behaviour of
structural mild steel as well as a reasonable first approximation to many continuously strain-hardening materials used in
structural engineering. The assumption of perfect plasticity, after the yield stress is reached, amounts to ignoring the effects
of strain hardening and is on the safe side.
Consider a cross-section of area A, having an axis of symmetry and experiencing bending in the plane of symmetry (Figure
5). If the bending moment is small, the stress and the strain vary linearly across the depth. When the moment is increased,
yield stress is first attained in one of the top fibres, and with a further increase the yield stress is reached in the bottom fibre
as well. If the bending moment continues to increase, yield will spread from the outer fibres inward until the two zones of
yield meet; the cross-section in this state is said to be fully plastic. The value of the ultimate moment, termed plastic
moment, is deduced from equilibrium conditions. Since there is no axial force, the neutral axis of the fully yielded cross-
section divides the latter into two equal areas A/2; the resultant tension and compression are each equal and form a couple
equal to the ultimate moment:


Mpl = 0,5 A fy ( ) (1)
where and are respectively the distance of the centroid of the compression and tension area from the neutral axis, in
the fully plastic condition. For a doubly symmetrical cross-section, the distances and are equal, so that 0,5A is the
first moment of area S (about the bending axis) of half the cross-section, and the ultimate moment is:
Mpl = 2 S fy (2a)
= Wpl fy (2b)
where Wpl = 2 S is the plastic section modulus for bending about the relevant axis.
The maximum bending moment that the cross-section could carry without exceeding the yield stress at any point is:
Mel = Wel fy (3)
where Wel is the elastic section modulus for bending about the same axis; the relative gain in strength which is achieved by
allowing for full yielding of the cross-section is measured by the shape factor:
α = Mpl/Mel = Wpl/Wel (4)
which, for example, equals 1,5 for a rectangular section, 1,7 for a solid circular section, while varying between 1,12 to 1,18
for I and H beams and channels bent about their strong "yy" axis.
When the load on a structure increases, yielding occurs at some locations and the structure undergoes elasto-plastic
deformations. On further increase a fully plastic condition will be reached at which a sufficient number of full plastic
sections are formed to transform the structure into a plastic mechanism (Figure 6); this mechanism will collapse under any
additional loading. A study of the failure mechanism and the knowledge of the associated magnitude of the collapse load
are necessary to determine the load factor in analysis. Alternatively, if the load factor is specified, the structure can be
designed so that its collapse load is equal to, or higher than, the product of the load factor and the reference service loading.
Plastic analysis implies, therefore, not only plastic stress distribution within the cross-section (plastic hinge formation), but
also sufficient bending moment redistribution in order to develop all the plastic hinges that are required to give rise to a
plastic mechanism.

When yielding develops within a cross-section, the cross-section's effective value of flexural stiffness, EI, decreases
progressively (Figure 7); indeed, the effective modulus of the yielded material is zero when assuming the perfectly plastic

behaviour beyond yield, hence the term "plastic hinge". Once this hinge is produced, the structure will behave, under
additional loading, as if a real hinge was introduced at the yielded section. The onset of the first plastic hinge in a structure
results in a reduction of the original redundancy by one; any additional plastic hinge will have a similar effect.
Collapse occurs after sufficient plastic hinges have formed to convert the original redundant structure into a progressively
less redundant structure, and finally into a mechanism.
In a statically determinate structure, the gain in strength due to plasticity depends on the value of the shape factor. In a
statically indeterminate structure, it is affected by the process of moment redistribution.
The ability of a structure to redistribute stress within the cross-section, and between cross-sections, requires that no other
form of failure occurs before the plastic collapse mechanism, so that the ultimate load can be reached. The following
requirements must be met for plastic analysis to be allowed:
1. Steel material shall have adequate ductility, so that the plastic resistance of the sections can be developed (Figure 1 b
- e);
2. Once formed, a plastic hinge shall be able to rotate at a sensibly constant moment Mp (Figure 7);
3. A plastic hinge shall have sufficient rotation capacity, without local buckling or lateral buckling, so as to allow for
the formation of a collapse mechanism and the corresponding moment redistribution (Figure 7);
4. The structure is subject to predominantly static loading so as to prevent failure from low cycle fatigue (shake down).
To comply with these requirements, limits must be placed on the type of steel and the proportions of the members and cross-
sections. Currently, plastic design is permissible for the usual grades of mild steel, while for other grades a minimum length
of the yield plateau and a minimum ratio between the ultimate tensile strength and the yield stress (strain hardening) are

required. Members containing plastic hinges must satisfy limitations on flange and web proportions; these are more
restrictive for higher steel grades. Because yielding results in a large reduction in stiffness, members where plastic hinges
occur are especially prone to failure by member instability; therefore, there are severe limits on the slenderness of such
structural elements resulting in a need for appropriate lateral bracing, especially at the plastic hinge locations.
The above implies that the ultimate bending resistance of a section is defined solely by its plastic moment; axial load and
shear force, however, will have an effect as discussed in Lecture 7.8.1.
In a structure subject to a specified loading, whose magnitude is increased up to collapse, the sequence of hinge formation
is fixed. However, factors such as settlement, variability of material strength between members, residual stresses, thermal
effects, etc., can change the sequence while not significantly affecting the plastic collapse load; the latter, indeed, is
statically determinate and does not depend on structural imperfections of any kind.
Plastic analysis is based on non linear material behaviour, even where geometric second order effects are negligible. Hand
analysis methods are based on the fundamental theorems of the plastic design, which usually neglect elastic curvatures,
compared to plastic ones, and concentrate plastic deformations at plastic hinge locations; they use, therefore, rigid-plastic
methods (Figure 1c). Information regarding this subject is not within the scope of this lecture and the reader is referred to
the literature quoted in Section 6 for further discussion on this matter. Computer methods are less dependent on
idealisations and may therefore be based on more realistic material stress-strain relationships accounting for elastic
curvatures and deformations. These are termed elastic-plastic and can be distinguished from the perfectly plastic approach,
characterised by an infinite yield plateau (Figure 1c), by a slight slope in the yield region (Figure 1d), or by a strain-
hardening range following a yield plateau of limited length (Figure 1e). Alternatively, even more precise relationships may
be adopted; nowadays, refined finite element programs allow for the spread of yielding and the concept of plastic zones is
used instead of plastic hinges.
Second order plastic analysis generally requires the use of computer programs; the collapse load of multi-storey sway
frames may however be determined using the Merchant-Rankine formulae, which take into account, in a very simple
manner, the interaction between elastic buckling and yielding.
It is worthwhile emphasising that because plastic analysis is essentially nonlinear, the principle of superposition is not,
therefore, applicable.
4. ADDITIONAL COMMENTS
It should be noted that assumptions made in the global analysis of the structure should be consistent with the anticipated
behaviour of the connections. The assumptions made in the design of the members should also be consistent with (or
conservative in relation to) the method used for the global analysis and the anticipated behaviour of the connections. More
detailed information in this respect will be provided in the lectures devoted to the design of connections.
Current codes and standards require that appropriate allowances shall be incorporated in the global analysis to cover the
effects of residual stresses and geometric imperfections, such as lack of verticality, lack of straightness, lack of fit, and the
unavoidable minor eccentricities present in practical connections. Suitable equivalent geometric imperfections may be used,
with values which reflect the possible effects of all types of imperfections (Figure 8).

● The determination of the internal forces in a structure can be made according to either an elastic or a plastic global
analysis.
● The global analysis is usually made using first order theory, where reference is made to the initial geometry of the
structure. Second order theory, where equilibrium and compatibility are expressed with respect to the deflected
geometry of the structure, is required when sway effects are not negligible.
● Elastic global analysis implies that the material obeys Hooke's law in the whole range of loading; therefore, the
strength resistance of a section is governed by the onset of first yielding.
● Plastic global analysis makes allowance for a redistribution of the direct stresses within the cross-section(s) and
between different cross-sections, resulting in the formation of plastic hinges until a plastic mechanism occurs.
● Plastic global analysis is allowed provided that the material properties and the proportions of the members and cross-
sections comply with appropriate limitations and requirements.
● Elastic global analysis is generally used where the performance of the structure depends on serviceability criteria;
for the ultimate limit states, plastic global analysis is generally appropriate.
● Whatever the type of global analysis, it shall be consistent with the anticipated behaviour of the connections and
shall incorporate the structural and geometric imperfections specified by the appropriate codes and standards.

1. Baker, J.F., Horne, M.R. and Heyman, J; "The Steel Skeleton: 2.Plastic Behaviour and Design", Cambridge
University Press, 1956, 408pp.
2. Baker, J.F. and Heyman, J; "Plastic Design of Frames: 1.Fundamentals", Cambridge University Press, 1969, 228pp.
3. Lescouarch, Y.; "Calcul en Plasticité des Structures", Edit. COTECO, Paris, 1983.
4. Roik, K.; "Vorlesungen über Stahlbau", W. Ernst und Sohn, Berlin, 1978.
5. Petersen, Chr.; "Statik und Stabilität der Baukoustuktionen", Vieweg Verlag, Braunschweig, 1981.
6. Brohn, D.; "Understanding Structural Analysis", Blackwells Publications Limited, Oxford, 2nd Ed. 1990.
7. Dowling, P. J., Knowles, P. R. and Owens, G. W.; Structural Steel Design, Butterworths, 1988.
8. Coates, R. C., Coutie, M. G. and Kong, F. K.; Structural Analysis, Thomas Nelson & Sons, London, 1972.

ESDEP WG 7
ELEMENTS

OBJECTIVE
To describe the classification of cross-sections and explain how this controls the application of the methods of analysis given
in Eurocode 3 [1].
PREREQUISITES
Lecture 7.1: Methods of Analysis of Steel Structures
RELATED LECTURES
Lectures 7.5.1 & Lecture 7.5.2: Columns
Lectures 7.8: Restrained Beams
Lectures 7.9: Unrestrained Beams
Worked Example 7.1: Cross-Section Classification
SUMMARY
The analysis methods used are primarily dependent upon the geometry of the cross-section and especially on the
width-thickness ratio of the elements which make it up.
The lecture describes how sections are classified as plastic, compact or semi-compact and gives the limiting proportions of
the elements by which these classifications are made.
1. INTRODUCTION
When designing a structure and its components, the designer must decide on an appropriate structural model. The choice
of model effects:
● the analysis of the structure, which is aimed at the determination of the stress resultants (internal forces and moments), and
● the calculation of the cross-section resistance.
Thus a model implies the use of a method of analysis combined with a method of cross-section resistance calculation.
There are several possible combinations of methods of analysis and methods of cross-section calculation, for the ultimate
limit state, involving either an elastic or plastic design approach; the possible combinations are listed in Table 1.
Table 1 Ultimate Limit State Design - Definition of Design Models

Model Method of Global Analysis Calculation of Member

(Calculation of internal forces Cross-Section Resistance
and moments)
I Plastic Plastic
II Elastic Plastic
III Elastic Elastic
IV Elastic Elastic Plate Buckling
Model I is related to plastic design of structures. Full plasticity may be developed within cross-sections, i.e. the
stress distribution corresponds to a fully rectangular block, so that plastic hinges can form. These have suitable
moment rotation characteristics giving sufficient rotation capacity for the formation of a plastic mechanism, as the result
of moment redistribution in the structure.
For a structure composed of sections which can achieve their plastic resistance, but have not sufficient rotation capacity
to allow for a plastic mechanism in the structure, the ultimate limit state must refer to the onset of the first plastic hinge.
Thus, in Model II, the internal forces are determined using an elastic analysis and are compared to the plastic capacities of
the corresponding cross-sections. For statically determinate systems, the onset of the first plastic hinge produces a
plastic mechanism; both methods I and II should thus give the same result. For statically indeterminate structures, Model II,
in contrast to Model I, does not allow moment redistribution.
When the cross-sections of a structure cannot achieve their plastic capacity, both analysis and verification of cross-
sections must be conducted elastically. The ultimate limit state, according to Model III, is achieved when yielding occurs at
the most stressed fibre. Sometimes yielding in the extreme fibre cannot even be attained because of premature plate buckling
of one component of the cross-section; in such cases, the above ultimate limit state should apply only to effective cross-
sections (Model IV).
It is obviously not possible to have a model where a plastic method of analysis is combined with an elastic cross-
section verification. Indeed, the moment redistribution which is required by the plastic analysis cannot take place without
some cross-sections being fully yielded.
2. REQUIREMENTS FOR CROSS-SECTION CLASSIFICATION

In the previous section, the models are defined in terms of structural design criteria; these are actually governed by
conditions related to stability problems. Plastic redistribution between cross-sections and/or within cross-sections can
take place provided that no premature local buckling occurs, as this would cause a drop-off in load carrying capacity.
It must be guaranteed that no local instability can occur before either the elastic (Model III), or the plastic (Model II),
bending resistance of the cross-section, or the formation of a complete plastic mechanism (Model I), is achieved.
Such a mechanism, as envisaged by Model I, can occur provided that the plastic hinge, once formed, has the rotational
capacity required for the formation of a plastic mechanism.
To ensure sufficient rotation capacity, the extreme fibres must be able to sustain very large strains without any drop-off
in resistance. In tension, the usual steel grades have sufficient ductility to allow for the desired amount of tensile strains;
in addition, no drop-off is to be feared before the ultimate tensile strength is reached. With compressive stresses, however, it
is not so much a question of material ductility, as of ability to sustain these stresses without instability occurring.
Table 2 gives a summary of the requirements for cross-sections in terms of behaviour, moment capacity and rotational
capacity. As can be seen from this table, the limits are referred to cross-section classes, according to Eurocode 3 [1],
each corresponding to a different performance requirement:
Class 1 Plastic cross-sections: those which can develop a plastic hinge with sufficient rotation capacity to allow
redistribution of bending moments in the structure.
Class 2 Compact cross-sections: those which can develop the plastic moment resistance of the section but where local
buckling prevents rotation at constant moment in the structure.
Class 3 Semi-compact cross-sections: those in which the stress in the extreme fibres should be limited to yield because

local buckling would prevent development of the plastic moment resistance of the section.
Class 4 Slender cross-sections: those in which yield in the extreme fibres cannot be attained because of premature
local buckling.
Table 2 Cross-section requirements and classification
The moment resistances for the four classes defined above are:
for Classes 1 and 2: the plastic moment (Mpl = Wpl . fy)
for Class 3: the elastic moment (Mel = Wel . fy)
for Class 4: the local buckling moment (Mo < Mel).
The response of the different classes of cross-sections, when subject to bending, is usefully represented by
dimensionless moment-rotation curves.
The four classes given above are recognised for beam sections in bending. For struts loaded in axial compression, Classes 1,
2 and 3 become one, and, in the absence of overall buckling are referred to as "compact"; in this case Class 4 is referred to
as "slender".
3. CRITERIA FOR CROSS-SECTION CLASSIFICATION

The classification of a specific cross-section depends on the width-to-thickness ratio, b/t, of each of its compression
elements. Compression elements include any component plate which is either totally or partially in compression, due to
axial force and/or bending moment resulting from the load combination considered; the class to which a specified cross-
section belongs, therefore, partly depends on the type of loading this section is experiencing.
a. Components of cross-section
A cross-section is composed of different plate elements, such as web and flanges; most of these elements, if in
compression, can be separated into two categories:
● internal or stiffened elements: these elements are considered to be simply supported along two edges parallel to the direction
of compressive stress.
● outstand or unstiffened elements; these elements are considered to be simply supported along one edge and free on the
other edge parallel to the direction of compressive stress.
These cases correspond respectively to the webs of I-sections (or the webs and flanges of box sections) and to flange
outstands (Figure 1).

b. Behaviour of plate elements in compression
For a plate element with an aspect ratio, α = a/b (length-to-width), greater than about 0,8, the elastic critical buckling
stress (Euler buckling stress) is given by:
σcr = kσ (1)
where kσ is the plate buckling factor (see below),
υ Poisson's coefficient,
E Young's modulus.
The critical buckling stress is proportional to (t/b)2 and, therefore, is inversely proportional to (b/t)2. The plate slenderness,
or width-to-thickness ratio (b/t), thus plays a similar role to the slenderness ratio (L/i) for column buckling.
In accordance with the definition of Class 3 sections, the proportions of the plate element, represented by the b/t ratio, must
be such that σcr would exceed the material yield strength fy so that yielding occurs before the plate element buckles. The
ideal elastic-plastic behaviour of a perfect plate element subject to uniform compression may be represented by a
normalised load-slenderness diagram, where the normalised ultimate load:
= σu/fy
and the normalised plate slenderness:
p =
are plotted as ordinates and abscissae respectively (Figure 2).
For p < 1, = 1 which means that the plate element can develop its squash load σu = fy. For p > 1, decreases as
the plate slenderness increases, σu being equal to σcr. Substituting the Equation (1) value for σcr into the above and taking υ
= 0,3 gives:

p = (2)
This expression is quite general as loading, boundary conditions and aspect ratio all influence the value of the buckling
factor kσ .
The factor kσ is a dimensional elastic buckling coefficient, depending on edge support conditions, on type of stress and on
the ratio of length to width (a/b), aspect ratio, of the plated element.
In general, the plated elements of a section have an aspect ratio much larger than unity and most of them are submitted
to uniform compression. For such cases, Table 3 gives buckling factors for plated elements having various long edge conditions.
Table 3 Elastic buckling factor ks
When plated elements of sections are submitted to any kind of direct stress, other than uniform compression (e.g. webs of
a girder in bending), the buckling factor kσ has to be modified to take account of the stress gradient, given by the stress ratio, ψ.
Table 4 gives the buckling factors for different stress ratios ψ , for internal or outstand elements. In the latter case a
distinction is made for elements with tip in compression or in tension.
Table 4 Buckling factors and stress distribution

c. Limit plate element slendernesses
The actual behaviour is somewhat different from the ideal elastic-plastic behaviour represented in Figure 2 because of:
i. initial geometrical and material imperfections,
ii. strain-hardening of the material,
iii. the postbuckling behaviour.
Initial imperfections result in premature plate buckling, which occurs for p < 1. The corresponding limit plate
slenderness p3, for Class 3 sections, may differ substantially from country to country because of statistical variations
in imperfections and in material properties which are not sufficiently well known to be quantified accurately; a review of
the main national codes shows that it varies from 0,5 to 0,9 approximately. Eurocode 3 [1,2] has adopted p3 = 0,74 as
the limit plate slenderness of Class 3 compression elements and p3 = 0,9 for elements in bending where the yield
strength may be reached in the extreme fibre of the cross-section. For plate elements for which p < p3, no plate
buckling can occur before the maximum compressive strength reaches the yield strength.
A Class 1 section must develop a resistance moment equal to the plastic capacity of the section and must maintain
this resistance through relatively large inelastic deformations. In order to fulfil these conditions without buckling, the
entire plate element must be yielded and the material must be strained in the strain-hardening region (see Table 2); this is
only possible for elements with low reference slendernesses ( p < p1), see Figure 2.
On the basis of certain theoretical approaches [3, 4, 5] values of p1 between 0,46 and 0,6, are proposed in various
standards. The difference can be explained in the choice of the amount of necessary rotation capacity. A value of p1 =
0,6 corresponds to a limited rotation capacity which is estimated to be sufficient for usual plastic design (continuous
beams, non-sway frames, etc.). In Eurocode 3 [1], the proposed value is:

p1 = 0,5
A Class 2 (or compact section) is one which can just reach its plastic moment resistance but has a rapid drop-off in
resistances at that point (Table 2). The plate element is yielded and the material strained in the plastic range; it occurs
for elements with medium reference slendernesses p2 where:
p1 < p2 < p3
In Eurocode 3 [1], the proposed value is p1 = 0,6.
Using formula (2), and the appropriate values of p and kσ , the limiting b/t ratios can be calculated. Table 5 gives
some limiting value of b/t for the elements of the cross-section of a rolled I-profile in compression or bending.
Table 5 Maximum slenderness ratios for the elements of a rolled section in compression or in bending
Element Class 1 Class 2 Class 3 cross-section
cross- cross- section Formula kσ b*/t or d/tw

section
Flange (1) 9ε 10ε 0,43 14ε (1)

21ε
(b*/t)
Web in 33ε 38ε 1,0 42ε

compression d/ 21
tw
Web in pure 72ε 83ε 23,9 124ε

bending d/tw 25,4ε
fy 235 275 355
ε= ε 1,0 0,92 0,81
(1) In practice, b, the half-width of the flange is considered instead of b*. For this reason, the values given in the "Essentials
of Eurocode 3" is b = 15 ε > b*.
The most important limiting proportions of the elements of a cross-section, which enable the appropriate classifications to
be made, are specified in Eurocode 3 [1]. Appendix 1 gives the limiting proportions for compression elements of Class 1 to 3.
The limiting values of the width-to-thickness ratio (b/t) of the plate elements of sections apply to members in steel of a
specific yield strength. In order to cover all grades of steel, Eurocode 3 presents local buckling data non-dimensionally,
in terms of a reduction factor ε = , where 235 represents the yield stress of mild steel and fy that of the
steel considered.
The various compression elements in a cross-section (such as a web or a flange) can, in general, be in different classes and
a cross-section is normally classified by quoting the least favourable (highest) class of its compression elements.
It is important, particularly in plastic design, that the sections selected for various members should be, in all cases,
appropriate for the assumed mode of behaviour.

When any of the compression elements of a cross-section fail to satisfy the limits given in Table 5 for Class 3, the section
is classified as "slender" and local buckling shall be taken into account in the design. This may be done by means of
the effective cross-section method which is discussed in detail in Lecture 7.3.
● The methods of analysis used are influenced by the geometry of the cross-sections and, more particularly, by the width
to thickness ratios of the plate elements in compression.
● It must be guaranteed that no local instability can occur before a complete mechanism is achieved or before the plastic
or elastic moment can be reached.
● Four cross-sectional classes are identified, each corresponding to a different performance requirement: plastic, compact,
semi-compact and slender cross-sections.
● Limiting proportions for the elements of a cross-section, which enable the appropriate classifications to be made, are given
in the lecture.
● When any of the compression elements of a cross-section fail to satisfy the limiting proportions for Class 3 (semi-
compact), local buckling shall be taken into account in the design.
5. REFERENCES
[2] Bureau, A. et Galea, Y., "Application de l'Eurocode 3: Classement des sections transversales en I".
Construction métallique, no. 1, 1991.
[3] Salmon, C.G., Johnson, J.E., "Steel Structures. Design and Behaviour", Harper et Row, Publishers, New York.
[4] Dubas, P., Gehri, E., "Behaviour and Design of Steel Plated Structures", Publication no. 44, ECCS, TC8, 1986.
[5] Commentaire de la norme SIA161 "Constructions Métalliques", Publication A5, Centre Suisse de la
Construction Métallique, Zurich, 1979.
1. Bulson, P.S., "The Stability of Flat Plates"
Chatto and Windus, London 1970.
APPENDIX I
Table 1 Maximum width-to-thickness ratios for compression elements





ESDEP WG 7
ELEMENTS

OBJECTIVE/SCOPE
To describe the design rules in Eurocode 3 [1-3] for members with Class 4 sections.
PREREQUISITES
Lectures 7: Elements
Lectures 8: Plates and Shells
RELATED LECTURES
SUMMARY
For members with Class 4 sections [1] the effect of local plate buckling on the overall member behaviour has to be
taken into account. The buckling is allowed for by using effective cross-sections which assume parts of the gross cross-
section are inactive. The rules for the determination of the effective cross-section and the design checks required are
given.
1. INTRODUCTION
For members with Class 4 sections the effect of local buckling on global behaviour at the ultimate limit state is such that
the elastic resistance, calculated on the assumption of yielding of the extreme fibres of the gross section (criteria for
Class 3 sections), cannot be achieved.
Figure 1 gives the moment deflection curve for a point loaded beam (Class 4). The reason for the reduction in strength is
that local buckling occurs at an early stage in parts of the compression elements of the member; the stiffness of these
parts in compression is thereby reduced and the stresses are distributed to the stiffer edges, see Figure 2.


To allow for the reduction in strength the actual non linear distribution of stress is taken into account by a linear
distribution of stress acting on a reduced "effective plate width" leaving an "effective hole" where the buckle occurs,
Figure 2.
By applying this model an "effective cross-section" is defined for which the resistance is then calculated as for Class 3
sections (by limiting the stresses in the extreme fibres to the yield strength).
2. DEFINITION OF THE "EFFECTIVE WIDTHS"

The effective widths beff are calculated on the basis of the Winter formula:
beff = ρ .b
where the reduction coefficient ρ is dependent on the plate slenderness p defined by linear plate bucking theory, as
shown in Figure 3.
Figure 4 gives some examples of effective cross-sections for members in compression.

For members in bending test results have shown that the effective widths may be determined on the basis of stress
distributions calculated using the gross section modulus, Wel , even though the formation of "effective holes" in the
compression parts will shift the neutral axis of the effective cross-section; an interactive process is not, therefore,
necessary.
Figure 5 gives some examples of effective cross-sections for members in bending.

3. DESIGN OF MEMBERS
3.1 Columns in Compression
As shown by the effective cross-sections 1 and 2, in Figure 4, the neutral axes of doubly-symmetrical cross-sections will
not change with the formation of effective holes. Hence the compression load NSd that is central to the gross cross-
sections will also be central to the effective cross-section.
The column buckling design check, therefore, is based on the non-dimensional slenderness = , where Ncr is
calculated on the basis of the gross cross-section and Npl is calculated using the effective cross-sectional area Aeff (Npl =
Aeff . fy ).
The design buckling resistance is given by:
NbRd = χ . Npl /γM

where χ is the reduction factor for the relevant buckling curve.
● For singly symmetrical cross-sections - type 3 in Figure 4 - or unsymmetrical cross-sections, the formation of
effective holes may lead to a shift, eN, in the neutral axes position. The compression load, NSd, that is central to
the gross cross-section will, therefore, be eccentric to the effective cross-section and hence will cause an
additional bending moment M=NSd.eN. The member is now a beam-column and must be checked in accordance
with Section 3.3.
3.2 Beams in Bending
Beams must be checked using the section modulus determined for the effective cross-sections, as given in Figure 5. In
general the attainment of the yield strength at the compression face will limit the design bending resistance of effective
cross-sections:
Mo,Rd = Weff . fy /γM1
For cross-sections similar to type 3 of Figure 5, Weff will be determined for the actual edge (e):
Weff =
and not the edge of the effective hole.
The lateral-torsional buckling check for beams is analogous to that for columns. The non-dimensional slenderness LT
= , is calculated with Mu=Weff.fy for the effective cross-section, and with Mcr calculated for the gross cross-
sectional values. The design lateral-torsional buckling resistance is then given by:
Mb,Rd = χLT . Mu /γM1
where χLT is the reduction factor for the relevant buckling curve.
3.3 Beam-Columns
In the case of members that are subject to compression and monoaxial or biaxial bending (e.g. in the case of columns
with monosymmetrical or unsymmetrical cross-sections) the design check is carried out using an interaction formula in
which the checks for a centrally compressed column, for a beam with bending about the y-axis only, and for a beam
with bending about the z-axis only, are combined.
If lateral-torsional bucking is prevented the interaction formula is as follows:
If lateral-torsional bucking can occur:

where eNy or eNz are the eccentricities due to the shift of the neutral axis for compression only. The resistances NbRd
and Nbz.Rd are related to the case of central compression; Moy.Rd and Mby.Rd are related to bending about the y-axis
only; and Moz.Rd is related to bending about the z-axis (weak axis) only.
● The design of members with Class 4 sections is carried out as for members with Class 3 sections (elastic
analysis, elastic cross-sectional resistance limited by yielding in the extreme fibres) except that an effective cross-
section (derived from gross sections with "effective holes", where buckles may occur) is used.
● The buckling checks for columns and the lateral-torsional buckling check for beams, requires the critical values,
Ncr and Mcr, to be calculated using the gross cross-sectional data without considering "effective holes".
● In the case of columns with non-doubly symmetric cross-sections, the formation of "effective holes" may cause a
shift in the neutral axis position resulting in eccentric compression and hence a beam-column problem.
● Beam-columns (compression and biaxial bending) are verified by using an interaction formula where the checks
for the column in compression only, for the beam with bending about the y-axis only, and for the beam with
bending about the z-axis only, are combined.
5. REFERENCES
[1] "Eurocode 3: "Design of steel structures" ENV 1993-1-1: Part 1.1, General rules and rules for buildings, CEN, 1992.
1. "Eurocode 3: Part 1.3: "Cold formed thin gauge members and sheeting", CEN, (in preparation).
2. Eurocode 3: Background Document 5.5. (Justification of the design resistances, for buckling verifications)

ESDEP WG 7
ESDEP WG 7
ELEMENTS
Lecture 7.4.1: Tension Members I

OBJECTIVE
To describe the typical uses of tension members and to explain the derivation of the rules in Eurocode 3 [1].
PREREQUISITES
Basic strength of materials.
General appreciation of material behaviour and limit-state design.
RELATED LECTURES
Lecture 11.1.2: Introduction to Connection Design
Worked Example 7.3: Tension Members I
SUMMARY
The lecture introduces the use of steel tension members in construction. The modes of failure of these members, especially
at holes in connection zones, are discussed; the design formulae, as proposed by Eurocode 3 [1], are presented.
1. INTRODUCTION
ESDEP WG 7
Structural stability depends on a balance between elements sustaining either tensile or compressive stresses. Because
natural materials are more suited to resist compression, the traditional objective of the designer has been to avoid
tensile stresses using ingenious systems such as arches, vaults, domes, etc. Special treatment of natural materials ,
however, allowed the development of structures, usually temporary, where the tension members played a fundamental
role (Figure 1). Even in situations of fundamentally massive construction tension elements can be found helping to stabilise
the system (Figure 2). The Industrial Revolution, during which time ferrous materials were developed, brought great
advances in the use of tensile elements as pure tension could now be safely transmitted without the previous
durability problems associated with natural materials.

ESDEP WG 7
Some simple forms of structures with tension members are given in Figure 3: these are an inclined roof with a tension
beam, and a truss whose bottom chord and several diagonals are in tension. More recent developments use cables as
tension members in such structures as roofs, bridges, masts, cranes etc. The present lecture deals with conventional

ESDEP WG 7
tension members; cables are discussed in Lecture 7.4.2.

ESDEP WG 7
2. BEHAVIOUR OF CROSS-SECTIONS IN TENSION MEMBERS
2.1 General
Generally tension members are designed using rolled sections, bars or flats. When more area is needed or connection
design requires it, it is possible to combine profiles or to build up a specific section using plates (Figure 4). Flats are
generally not used because of their high flexibility; for good practice the slenderness should be limited to 300 for
principal members or 400 for secondary members (obviously this rule does not apply to round bars). In general, rolled
sections are preferred and the use of compound sections is reserved for larger loads or to resist bending moments in addition
to tension.

ESDEP WG 7
It is generally assumed that the distribution of stresses in cross-sections of members subjected to axial tensile forces is
uniform. However, there are some parameters which result in a non-uniform distribution of stresses; these are:

ESDEP WG 7
● residual stresses
● connections.
The influence of these parameters on the behaviour of the cross-section is discussed in Sections 2.2 and 2.3.
2.2 Residual Stresses
Residual stresses develop when the member is formed and are due to the production process. Their origin can be thermal,
either developed during the solidification of the steel or during welding parts of the member; or they can be
mechanically induced when trying to produce counter-deflection or when straightening the member. The induced stresses
are self equilibrated and although they do not affect the ultimate resistance of the member they induce non-linearities in
the strain-stress behaviour as well as greater deformability.
Consider, for example, a rectangular section with residual stresses subjected to an axial force (Figure 5); although
the distribution of stresses due to this force is uniform, the corresponding distribution of the total stresses is not. When
the combined stresses (Figure 5c) reach the yield strength fy, yielding of the relevant fibres commences and the elastic part
of the section is continuously reduced as the external force increases (Figure 5d); the ultimate limit state is reached when
the entire section has yielded. Although the behaviour of the section is non-linear (Figure 5e), the ultimate limit state
is identical for both cases with and without residual stresses.

ESDEP WG 7
2.3 Connections

ESDEP WG 7
Connections are generally made either by bolting or welding.
When several members have to be connected, additional plates must be used which introduce secondary effects due to
the moments developed. Sometimes it is possible to reduce these local eccentricities by varying the weld lengths or the
bolt distribution.
In addition, the holes that are needed to fix the bolt significantly distort the ideal behaviour of the cross-section.
Firstly, there is an area reduction that has to be taken into account and also a distortion in the stress distribution that induces
a non-uniformity in the strain; the effect of the holes is to increase the stresses locally around them (Figure 6). For a plate
of infinite width the distribution is given by:

ESDEP WG 7
σo = σ (1)
for x ≥ R
where R is the hole radius
x is the distance to the point under consideration
when x = R
σo = max σo = 3σ
The above suggests the use of net cross-sections at holes in order to compensate for the weakening effects.
It should be mentioned that, although not reflected in the Codes, the net area might allow for a variety of effects influencing
the connection efficiency; these include the ductility of the metal, the care taken when forming the hole (local cracks reduce
the ductility), and the relative proportion between hole-diameters and hole distances (inducing a confining effect).

ESDEP WG 7
3. ANALYSIS
In tension elements the computations are generally related to resistance assessment; however, because of the high
slenderness allowed by the optimum use of the material, it is also very important to check their stiffness.
3.1 Stiffness Requirements
Tension elements are generally subjected to bending induced either by their own weight, dynamic effects like wind or
passing loads, or even by unavoidable eccentricities. Good practice rules usually allow for this and a rigorous check is
not usually required; as mentioned in Section 2.1 the limits are 300 or 400 for principal or secondary members
respectively; some American Codes, however, are more restrictive, see Table 1.
TABLE 1
AISC AASHTO
Main structure 240 200
Secondary 300 240

structure
- 140
Alternating loads
Limit of slenderness λ for tension elements
λ = L/i i2 = I/A
where:
L is the length of the element.
i is the minimum radius of gyration.
I is the minimum 2nd moment area of the section.
A is the area of the cross-section.

ESDEP WG 7
3.2 Resistance of the Cross-Section
The resistance evaluations should check the:
a) Behaviour under static loads, and
b) Behaviour under alternating loads.
This lecture is limited to case a; for tension elements under fatigue conditions reference is made to the Lectures 12.
If the element has no holes, the design axial force resistance is given by:
Npl.Rd = A.fyk / γM1 (2)
where:
A is the gross area of the cross-section.
fyk is the characteristic value of the yield strength.
γM1 is the partial safety factor for the gross section (γM1 ≈ 1,1).
When the member is connected by bolting the section is weakened, suffering a reduction of around 10 to 20% of the gross
area. This gives rise to two problems: firstly a reduction in the net area; and secondly, the holes induce stress
concentrations that, according to Equation (1) and Figure 6, can reach values three times higher than the uniform
distribution. Nevertheless, it is assumed that at the ultimate limit state, due to the ductility of the steel, the stress
distribution across the net section is uniform.
The hole diameter should be increased to take account of damaged material when the hole is punched without
special precautions; where holes are countersunk the overall diameter should be deducted.
3.2.1 Net area
According to Eurocode 3: "the net area of a cross-section or element section shall be taken as its gross area less
appropriate deductions for all holes and other openings. Provided that the fastener holes are not staggered the total area to
ESDEP WG 7
be deducted shall be the maximum sum of the sectional areas of the holes in any cross-section perpendicular to the
member axis" [1].
When the holes are staggered it is necessary to use special formulae to calculate the deduction (Figure 7a).

ESDEP WG 7
The stress distribution described in Section 2 is more complicated in this case and the Cochrane rule is applied to add the
length S2/4g. This is why the Eurocode suggests the following: "When the fastener holes are staggered the total area to
be deducted for fastener holes shall be the greater of:
a) the deduction for non-staggered holes.
b) the sum of the sectional areas of all holes in any diagonal or zig-zag line extending progressively across the member or
part of the member less S2t/4g for each gauge space in the chain of holes (Figure 7a).
S is the staggered pitch, the spacing of the centres of two consecutive holes in the chain measured parallel to the member axis.
g is the gauge, the spacing of the centres of the same two holes measured perpendicularly to the member axis.
t is the thickness.
In an angle, or other member, with holes in more than one plane, the gauge shall be measured along the centre of thickness
of the material (Figure 7b).
3.2.2 Resistance of the net sections

ESDEP WG 7
In principle, the net area check would be as follows:
NR = Anet.fy / γM2 (3)
where
Anet is the net area
γM2 is the partial factor of safety for the net area (γM2 ≈ 1,25)
However, the global behaviour of the tension member has to be taken into account. Imagine, for example, that the
length affected by the connection is about 5% of the total member length; then assume that the strain at the ultimate load of
the connection is 10 times the yield strain (Figure 8).

ESDEP WG 7
When the member reaches the yield condition, and the connection the failure condition, the increases in length would be:
Connection zone:
Member zone:
That is ≈ 0,5 (4)
which means that the elongation within the connection zone is much smaller than that of the entire bar.

ESDEP WG 7
This is why Eurocode 3 [1] allows the exceedance of the yield strength in the connection zone up to the ultimate
tensile strength, fuk; that is, it is implicitly assumed that the failure of an member can be described by its deformation.
The same philosophy is applied by other codes which, like Eurocode 3, also include a reduction coefficient to take account
of the unavoidable eccentricities, stress concentrations, etc. The Eurocode 3 reduction is taken as 10%, so that
the recommended formula is:
NnetRd = 0,9Anet.fuk / γM2 (5)
where γM2 is the partial safety factor for resistance with a proposed value of 1,25.
3.2.3 Verification
The verification formula is:
NSd ≤ NRd (6)
where NSd is the design tensile force, and
NRd the design resistance force which is the lesser of the values given by Equations (2) and (5).
If ductile behaviour is desired, it can be seen from Figure 8 that the member has to yield before the connection fails, that is:
Npl.Rd ≤ Nnet.Rd (7)
or
0,9Anet/A ≥ γM2 fy / γM1 fu (8)
Finally, Eurocode 3 [1] considers the verification for Category C connections; these are slip-resistant connections
with preloaded high strength bolts, where slip should not occur at the ultimate limit state.

ESDEP WG 7
In this case the failure criteria for the net section is a yield criterion, unlike Equation (5), and so the design resistance is
given by:
Nnet.Rd = Anet fy / γM1 (9)
● The availability of tension members greatly increases the number of structural forms possible.
● A variety of cross-sections can be used for tension members; to employ their full capacity it is necessary to consider
residual stress effects and connection design.
● The strength of a member in tension is calculated on the assumption that the entire section has yielded.
● The failure modes of a tension member may be defined by either yielding of the gross section or by rupture of the net
section. The design resistances are determined by applying adequate partial safety factors to the relevant strengths.
● If ductile behaviour is envisaged, e.g. for cyclic loading, yielding of the gross section should precede rupture of the net section.
● The slenderness of tension members has to be limited in order to avoid excessive deflections during transportation,
erection, maintenance, etc.
5. REFERENCES
[1] Eurocode 3: " Design of Steel Structures": ENV 1993-1-1: Part 1.1: General rules and rules for buildings, CEN, 1992.
1. Dowling, P. J., Knowles, P., Owens, G. W., "Structural Steel Design", The Steel Construction Institute & Butterworths, 1988.
2. Worgan, W., "The Elements of Structure", Pitman 1964.
3. Moutklanov, K., "Constructions Métalliques", MIR 1978.
4. Salmon, C. G. and Johnson, J. E., "Steel Structures, 2nd Edition", Harper & Row 1980.
5. Torroja, E., "Razón y Ser de los Tipos Estructurales", IETCC, 1960.
6. Zignoli, V., "Construzioni Metalliche", UTET, 1978.
7. Chr. Petersen, Stahlbauten, Vieweg Verlag, Braunschweig, 1988.

ESDEP WG 7
ELEMENTS
Lecture 7.4.2: Tension Members II

OBJECTIVE/SCOPE
To explain the application and behaviour of cables.
PREREQUISITES
Lecture 7.4.1: Tension Members I
RELATED LECTURES
Lecture 14.4: Crane Runway Girders
Lecture 14.6: Special Single-Storey Structures
Lecture 16.2: Transformation and Repair
Worked Example 7.4: Tension Members II
SUMMARY
Cable structures (that is those in which the principal element is a cable which transmits only tensile forces) have many
and varied applications. This lecture explains how the cables themselves are made and derives the design equations used
which take into account their non-linear behaviour.
1. INTRODUCTION
The use of cables, as tension members, has been on the increase over the last few decades. These cables are composed of
high strength steel wires which are bundled together in order to obtain the required tensile resistances. Cable structures
provide most interesting and spectacular solutions to modern architectural and engineering problems; they are used
in structures such as roofs, hangars, cranes, guyed masts, suspension bridges, cable stayed bridges, transmission towers and
ski-lift facilities (see Slides). Compared to conventional structures these require careful consideration as follows:
● they are prone to wind vibrations as they are very light and often span large distances;
● special care must be taken to protect the cables against corrosion;
● the overall behaviour of the structure is non-linear as will be explained later.
2. COMPOSITION OF ROPES AND CABLES

A cable is a highly flexible member that is primarily capable of transmitting axial forces. It is composed of high strength
steel wires which are bundled together; the hierarchy of elements is as follows:
WIRE: This is produced from high-strength steel bars by rolling or cold drawing (Figure 1) thereby reducing the initial
area. The cold-forming process results in an increase in the tensile and yield stress and a decrease in the ductility of the
steel (Figure 2); it also effects the residual stresses through the wire thickness (Figure 1) since the velocity of the steel
running through the area reducing device is different: for cold drawn wires the velocity in the core is larger than at the
surface; for rolled wires the opposite is the case.

STRAND: This is produced from a series of wires that are normally wound together in a helical fashion (Figure 3).

ROPE: This is produced from a series of strands that are also wound together in a helical fashion. If the winding orientation
of the strands is, for example, to the left then the strands that produce the rope should be wound together to the right in order
to avoid twist of the rope when it is subjected to axial forces (Figure 4).
CABLE: Using the elements mentioned above, it is possible to produce cables; the more usual types of cables are:
● Parallel wire cables (Figure 5a) which are composed of a series of parallel wires;
● Strand cables (Figure 5b) which are composed of parallel or helically combined strands;
● Locked-coil cables (Figure 5c) which were invented for better corrosion protection. In these the exterior layers, composed of
S-shaped wires, surround the inner core of wires. These cables are less flexible than the open types.

3. MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
Due to their chemical composition, and the cold forming process, the tensile strength of the wires is high; it is also
normally inversely proportional to the wire diameter. The usual tensile strength is about 1600-1800 N/mm2.
The σ -ε diagram for this steel has no yield plateau and so the yield strength is conventionally defined as the stress at which
the plastic deformation is 0,2%. The value of this strength typically varies between 80 to 90% of the tensile strength.
The modulus of elasticity of the strands, ropes and cables is smaller than that of the steel material (wire) of which they
are composed (Figure 6). After unloading there is a residual deformation which is not due to plasticity but due to the
winding and transportation process, and which stabilises after several loading cycles; this is the reason why, in real
structures the cables are post-tensioned after a certain period; after this has been done the modulus of elasticity has a
larger value than the initial one.

Mean values of this modulus are normally as follows:
For parallel wire cables E = 200 N/mm2
For locked-coil cables E = 160 N/mm2
For strand cables E = 150 N/mm2
The coefficient of linear thermal expansion has the value of α = 1,2 x 10-5 per degree centrigrade.
4. DESIGN VALUES
The metallic area of a rope is equal to:
(1)
where d is the diameter of the rope, and f is a coefficient equal to:
f = 0,55 for multiple strand ropes
f = 0,75 - 0,77 for open spiral ropes
f = 0,81 - 0,86 for locked coil ropes.
The tensile resistance of a rope is equal to:
F = ks Am . fu (2)
where

Am is the metallic area
fu is the tensile strength of the wires
ks is a coefficient equal to:
ks = 0,76 - 0,85 for multiple strand ropes
ks = 0,82 - 0,90 for open spiral ropes
ks = 0,87 - 0,92 for locked coil ropes
ks = 0,93 - 1,0 for parallel wire ropes
The tensile resistance of a complete rope including the anchoring device is equal to:
Fu = ka . ks . Am . fu (3)
where the coefficient ka has values between 0,80 and 1,0 depending on the anchorage system.
The design tensile resistance is then given by the expression:
FRd = Fu /γM (4)
where γM is the partial safety factor.
The design value of the modulus of elasticity is dependent on the stress state under consideration. The σ-ε diagram of a rope,
as presented in Figure 7, is non-linear for the first loading; the rope is subsequently subjected to repeated loading cycles,
σq (due to traffic loading) over an initial stress σg due to dead loading and prestressing.

From this Figure three values of the modulus of elasticity can be observed:
For the first loading Eg = σg / εg
For the traffic loading Eq = σq / εq
For the total behaviour EA = σg / εA
It is clear that while the value of Eq remains almost constant, the value of Eg decreases as σg increases towards the
overall stress σg + σq, while the opposite happens for EA.
5. CONNECTIONS
Coupling, saddling and anchorage of cables are the three most important types of connections that occur in these
structures (Figure 8); the requirements for these are as follows:
● they should be able to safely transmit the loads acting on them;

● they should not allow the cable to slide;
● they should be able to sustain alternative loads;
● they should be easily accessible to allow maintenance.
Examples of connections are given in Figure 9.

6. BEHAVIOUR OF A CABLE
Figure 10 shows a cable which is suspended over two points, A and B, at different heights.

In order to derive the equations for this cable a small element CC′ is cut off, and the forces at its ends together with the
load acting on it are substituted in order to restore equilibrium; the two loading conditions considered here are:
g = a uniform load related to the inclined length.
q = a uniform load related to the horizontal projection.
It is further supposed that the cable has no bending stiffness, and can therefore only transmit axial loads.
The equilibria for the two loading cases are as follows:
Condition g q

ΣH=0 H - (H + dH) = 0 → H = const (5)
Vdx - Hdy = 0 → V = Hy → V′ = Hy
ΣM=0 ′ ″ (6)
ΣV=0 V - (V + dV) + g ds = 0 V - (V + dV) + q dx = 0
→ V′ = g.ds / dx V′ = q (7)
(5), (6), (7) → Hy = g (8a) Hy = q (8b)

″ ″
Solution:
(9)
y= + C2 y=
Catenary Parabola
The coefficients C1 and C2 may be determined from the boundary conditions. For the special case of a cable suspended
from two equally high points (Figure 11) the following expressions may be obtained:
g q
(10)
(11)
Tensile force Ft = H cosh
Cable length
(12)
= =L+L
(13)
Sag

A comparison of the values given for sag and cable length by the two approaches is given in Figure 12; it can be seen that
the catenary can be reasonably substituted by a parabola when the sag is small relative to the span; this is normally the case
in guyed masts, cable stayed bridges, cranes etc. For other cases (e.g. transmission towers) the catenary should be used.
Figure 12 shows that the approximation for the cable length is not as good as for sag.

For transmission towers two design situations (Figure 13) should normally be verified:
Winter situation: The cable is loaded by its self weight and the weight of the surrounding ice and the temperature is low, (t=-
5° C)
Summer situation: The cable is loaded by its self weight and the temperature is high (t = 40° C).
The first situation yields the highest stress in the cable, whereas the second may be decisive for sag control. The
governing equation for the verification is:
(σ / E α) + t + (L2 γ2 / 24σ2) = const (14)
where:
σ is the stress in the cable.
L is the span.
γ is the specific weight of the cable possibly including ice.
t is the temperature.
E and α are the modulus of elasticity and the coefficient of thermal expansion of the cable.
The first term of Equation (14) expresses the strain of the cable due to the tensile force, the second the strain due to

temperature and the third the strain due to sag.
7. MODULUS OF ELASTICITY DUE TO SAGGING

When considering a cable whose end B moves from an initial position B to B′ the following expressions are valid:
(15)
The cable length, according to Equation (12), is equal to:
(16)
which gives the displacement of point B as equal to:
(17)
The longitudinal modulus of elasticity, due to sagging, is then equal to (Figure 14):
(18)
The equivalent modulus of elasticity is then derived regarding both the elastic and the sagging deformations:
(19)

The value of Ee is dependent on the stress levels presented in Figure 15. The figure shows that short cables, subjected to
high stresses, behave like the steel parent material, whereas long cables, subjected to small stresses, are much less stiff; this
is one of the reasons why cable structures must be prestressed as otherwise they would be subjected to very large deformations.
● Cables are widely used, as tension members, in various types of structures including roofs, bridges, masts, etc.
● Cables are composed of high strength steel wires bundled together in various ways.
● The design values for cable resistance, depend on its type and the anchorage system used.
● The behaviour of a cable is highly non-linear due to sagging effects.
● The flexibility of a cable is dependent on its length and the stress conditions.
● Prestressing of cables is necessary where stiffness is required.
1. Merkblatt. 496, "Ebene Seiltrogwerke, Benatungsstelle für stahlverwendung", 1980.
2. Petersen, Chr., "Stahlbau", Vieweg Verlag, Braunschweig, 1988.
3. Belenya, E; "Prestressed Load-bearing Metal Structures", MIP, 1977.
4. Podolny, W., Scolzi, J. B.; "Construction and Design of Cable-stayed Bridges", Wiley, 1986.
5. Walther, R., Houriet, B., Isler, W., "Moia, P., "Ponts Houbanés", Presses Polytecniques Romandes, Lausanne, 1985.

ESDEP WG 7
ESDEP WG 7
ELEMENTS
Lecture 7.5.1: Columns I

OBJECTIVE
To describe the different kinds of steel columns and to explain the procedures involved in the design of compression members.
PREREQUISITES
RELATED LECTURES
Lecture 7.6: Built-up Columns
Worked Example 7.5: Column Design
SUMMARY
Different kinds of compression members (uniform and non-uniform cross-sections and built-up columns) are described.
The differences between stocky and slender columns are explained and the basis for design, using the European
buckling curves, is outlined.
1. INTRODUCTION
Columns are vertical members used to carry axial compression loads. Such structural elements are found, for example,
in buildings supporting floors, roofs or cranes. If they are subjected to significant bending moments in addition to the
axial loads, they are called beam-columns.
The term 'compression' member is generally used to describe structural components subjected only to axial compression
loads; this can describe columns (under special loading conditions) but generally refers to compressed pin-ended struts found
in trusses, lattice girders or bracing members.
This lecture deals with compression members and, therefore, concerns very few real columns because eccentricities of the
axial loads and, above all, transverse forces, are generally not negligible. Nevertheless, compression members represent
an elementary case which leads to the understanding of the term of compression in the study of beam-columns (Lectures
7.10.1 and 7.10.2), frames (Lecture 7.11), and trusses and lattice girders (Lecture 7.12).
Because most steel compression members are rather slender, buckling can occur; this adds an extra bending moment to

ESDEP WG 7
the axial load and must be carefully checked.
The lecture briefly describes the different kinds of compression members and explains the behaviour of both stocky and
slender columns; the buckling curves used to design slender columns are also given.
2. MAIN KINDS OF COMPRESSION MEMBERS
2.1 Simple Members with Uniform Cross-Section
For optimum performance compression members need to have a high radius of gyration, i, in the direction where buckling
can occur; circular hollow sections should, therefore, be most suitable in this respect as they maximise this parameter in
all directions. The connections to these sections are, however, expensive and difficult to design.
It is also possible to use square or rectangular hollow sections whose geometrical properties are good (the square
hollow sections being the better); the connections are easier to design than those of the previous shape, but again
rather expensive.
Hot-rolled sections are, in fact, the most common cross-sections used for compression members. Most of them have
large flanges designed to be suitable for compression loads. Their general square shape gives a relatively high transverse
radius of gyration iz and the thickness of their flanges avoids the effect of local buckling (care has to be taken in the case
of light H-sections and high strength steel). The open shape, produced by traditional rolling techniques, facilitates beam-
to-column and other connections.
Welded box or welded H-sections are suitable if care is taken to avoid local flange buckling. They can be designed for
the required load and are easy to connect to other members; it is also possible to reinforce these shapes with welded
cover plates.
Figure 1 illustrates all the shapes mentioned above.

ESDEP WG 7
It should be noted that:
● the type of connection is important in the design of simple compression members because it defines the effective length to be
taken into account in the evaluation of buckling. Circular sections do not represent the optimum solution if the effective
length is not the same in the two principal directions; in this case, non symmetrical shapes are preferable.
● members are frequently subjected to bending moments in addition to axial load; in these conditions I-sections can be
preferable to H-sections.
2.2 Simple Members with Non-Uniform Cross-Sections
Members with changes of cross-section within their length, are called non-uniform members; tapered and stepped members
are considered in this category.
In tapered members (Figure 2) the cross-section geometry changes continuously along the length; these can be either open
or box shapes formed by welding together elements, including tapered webs, or flanges, or both. A classical example is that
of a hot-rolled H or I-section whose web is cut along its diagonal; a tapered member is obtained by reversing and welding
the two halves together.

ESDEP WG 7
Stepped columns (Figures 3) vary the cross-section in steps. A typical example of their use is in industrial buildings
with overhead travelling cranes; the reduced cross section is adequate to support the roof structure but must be increased
at crane level to cater for the additional loads. Stepped columns can also be used in multi-storey buildings to resist the loads
in the columns at the lower levels.

ESDEP WG 7
2.3 Built-up Columns
Built-up columns are fabricated from various different elements; they consist of two or more main components,
connected together at intervals to form a single compound member (Figure 4). Channel sections and angles are often used
as the main components but it is also possible to use I or H-sections; they are laced or battened together with simple
elements (bars or angles or smaller channel sections) and it is possible to find columns where both methods are
combined (Figure 5). Columns with perforated plates (Figure 6) are also considered in this category.

ESDEP WG 7

ESDEP WG 7
The advantage of this system is that it gives relatively light members which, because most of the steel is placed quite far
from the centre of gravity of the cross-section have a relatively high radius of gyration. The most important
disadvantage comes from the high fabrication costs involved. These members are generally designed for large structures
where the compression members are long and subjected to heavy loads. It is to be noted that buckling of each
individual element must be checked very carefully.
Figure 7 shows some closely spaced built-up members and gives details of star-battened angle members. These are not
so efficient as the previous ones because of their smaller radius of gyration; however, the ease with which these can
be connected to other members may make their use desirable. They behave in compression in a similar way to those
described above, hence their inclusion in this section.

ESDEP WG 7
Built-up columns may have uniform or non-uniform cross-sections; it is possible, for example, to find stepped or tapered
built-up columns (Figure 8).

ESDEP WG 7
The design of built-up columns will be examined in Lecture 7.6.
3. PURE COMPRESSION WITHOUT BUCKLING
3.1 Stub Columns
Stub (or stocky) columns are characterised by very low slenderness, are not effected by buckling and can be designed to
the yield stress fy.
If local buckling does not affect the compression resistance (as can be assumed for Class 1, 2 and 3 cross-sections), the mode
of failure of such members corresponds to perfect plastic behaviour of the whole cross-section, which theoretically
occurs when each fibre of the cross-section reaches fy. It is to be noted that residual stresses and geometric imperfections
are practically without influence on the ultimate strength of this kind of column and that most experimental stub columns
fail above the yield stress because of strain-hardening.
The maximum compression resistance Nmax is, therefore, equal to the plastic resistance of the cross-section:

ESDEP WG 7
Nmax = Npl = Aeff fy (1)
Aeff is the effective area of the cross-section, see Section 3.2.
Eurocode 3 [1] considers that columns are stocky when their reference slenderness is such that ≤ 0,2 ( is defined
in Section 5.1). They are represented by a plateau on the ECCS curves [2], see Section 5.2.
3.2 Effective Area
The effective area of the cross-section used for design of compression members with Class 1, 2 or 3 cross-sections,
is calculated on the basis of the gross cross-section using the specified dimensions. Holes, if they are used with fasteners
in connections, need not be deducted.
4. STABILITY OF SLENDER STEEL COLUMNS

Depending on their slenderness, columns exhibit two different types of behaviour: those with high slenderness present a
quasi elastic buckling behaviour whereas those of medium slenderness are very sensitive to the effects of imperfections.
4.1 Euler Critical Stress
If lcr is the critical length, the Euler critical load Ncr is equal to:
Ncr = (2)
and it is possible to define the Euler critical stress σcr as:
σcr = (3)
By introducing the radius of gyration, i = , and the slenderness, λ = lcr/i, for the relevant buckling mode, Equation
(3) becomes:
σcr = (4)
Plotting the curve σcr as a function of λ on a graph (Figure 9), with the line representing perfect plasticity, σ = fy, shown, it
is interesting to note the idealised zones representing failure by buckling, failure by yielding and safety.

ESDEP WG 7
The intersection point P, of the two curves represents the maximum theoretical value of slenderness of a column compressed
to the yield strength. This maximum slenderness (sometimes called Euler slenderness), called λ1 in Eurocode 3, is equal to:
λ1 = Π [E/fy]1/2 = 93,9ε (5)
where: ε = [235/fy]1/2 (6)
λ1 is equal to 93,9 for steel grade Fe 235 and to 76,4 for steel grade Fe 355.
A non-dimensional representation of this diagram is obtained by plotting σ/fy as a function of λ/λ 1 (Figure 10); this is the
form used for the ECCS curves (see Section5.2). The coordinates of the point P are, therefore, (1,1).

ESDEP WG 7
4.2 Buckling of Real Columns
The real behaviour of steel columns is rather different from that described in the previous section and columns generally fail
by inelastic buckling before reaching the Euler buckling load. The difference in real and theoretical behaviour is due to
various imperfections in the "real" element: initial out-of-straightness, residual stresses, eccentricity of axial applied loads
and strain-hardening. The imperfections all affect buckling and will, therefore, all influence the ultimate strength of
the column. Experimental studies of real columns give results as shown in Figure 11. Compared to the theoretical curves,
the real behaviour shows greater differences in the range of medium slenderness than in the range of large slenderness. In
the zone of the medium values of λ (representing most practical columns), the effect of structural imperfections is
significant and must be carefully considered. The greatest reduction in the theoretical value is in the region of Euler
slenderness λ1. The lower bound curve is obtained from a statistical analysis and represents the safe limit for loading.

ESDEP WG 7
a. Slender columns
A column can be considered slender if its slenderness is larger than that corresponding to the point of inflexion of the
lower bound curve, shown in Figure 11.
The ultimate failure load for slender columns is close to the Euler critical load Ncr. As this is independent of the yield
stress, slender columns are often designed using the ratio: λ2 = (A lcr2)/I, a geometrical characteristic independent of
the mechanical strength.
Individual or star-battened angles or small flat plates have generally a poor second moment of area about the minor
axis, relative to their cross-section area. This can result in large slenderness with high sensitivity to buckling and explains
why classical cross-bracing systems, using these shapes, are only designed in tension.
b. Columns of medium slenderness
Columns of medium slenderness are those whose behaviour deviates most from Euler's theory. When buckling occurs,
some fibres have already reached the yield strength and the ultimate load is not simply a function of slenderness; the
more numerous the imperfections, the larger the difference between the actual and theoretical behaviour. Out-of-
straightness and residual stresses are the imperfections which have the most significant effect on the behaviour of this kind
of column.
Residual stresses can be distributed in various ways across the section. They are produced by welding, hot-rolling,
flame-cutting or cold-forming; Figure 12a shows some of the stress patterns that can occur.

ESDEP WG 7
Residual stresses combined with axial stresses are shown in Figure 12b. If the maximum stress σn reaches the yield stress
fy, yielding begins to occur in the cross-section. The effective area able to resist the axial load is, therefore, reduced.
Alternatively, an initial out-of-straightness eo, produces a bending moment giving a maximum bending stress σB (see

ESDEP WG 7
Figure 13a), which when added to the residual stress, σR gives the stress distribution shown in Figure 13b. If σmax is
greater than the yield stress the final distribution will be part plastic and part of the member will have yielded in
compression, as shown in Figure 13c.

ESDEP WG 7
5. THE EUROPEAN BUCKLING CURVES
5.1 Reference Slenderness
The reference slenderness is defined as the following non-dimensional parameter for Class 1, 2 or 3 cross-sections:
= λ /λ1 (7)
where λ and λ1 are defined in Section 4.1.
can also be written in the following form:
2 = λ2fy/π2E = fy/σcr (8)
or = (9)
5.2 Basis of the ECCS Buckling Curves
From 1960 onwards, an international experimental programme was carried out by the ECCS to study the behaviour of
standard columns [2]. More than 1000 buckling tests, on various types of members (I, H, T, U, circular and square
hollow sections), with different values of slenderness (between 55 and 160) were studied. A probabilistic approach, using
the experimental strength, associated with a theoretical analysis, showed that it was possible to draw some curves
describing column strength as a function of the reference slenderness. The imperfections which have been taken into
account are: a half sine-wave geometric imperfection of magnitude equal to 1/1000 of the length of the column; and the
effect of residual stresses relative to each kind of cross-section.
The European buckling curves (a, b, c or d) are shown in Figure 14. These give the value for the reduction factor χ of
the resistance of the column as a function of the reference slenderness for different kinds of cross-sections (referred to
different values of the imperfection factor α).

ESDEP WG 7
The mathematical expression for χ is:
χ = 1/ {φ + [φ2 − 2]1/2} ≤1 (10)
where: φ = 0,5 [1 + α ( - 0,2) + 2] (11)
Table 1 gives values of the reduction factor χ as a function of the reference slenderness .
The imperfection factor α depends on the shape of the column cross-section considered, the direction in which buckling
can occur (y axis or z axis) and the fabrication process used on the compression member (hot-rolled, welded or cold-
formed); values for α, which increase with the imperfections, are given in Table 2.
Curve a represents quasi perfect shapes: hot-rolled I-sections (h/b > 1,2) with thin flanges (tf ≤ 40mm) if buckling
is perpendicular to the major axis; it also represents hot-rolled hollow sections.
Curve b represents shapes with medium imperfections: it defines the behaviour of most welded box-sections; of hot-rolled
I-sections buckling about the minor axis; of welded I-sections with thin flanges (tf ≤ 40mm) and of the rolled I-sections
with medium flanges (40 < tf ≤ 100mm) if buckling is about the major axis; it also concerns cold-formed hollow sections
where the average strength of the member after forming is used.
Curve c represents shapes with a lot of imperfections: U, L, and T shaped sections are in this category as are thick welded
box-sections; cold-formed hollow sections designed to the yield strength of the original sheet; hot-rolled H-sections (h/b ≤
1,2 and tf ≤ 100mm) buckling about the minor axis; and some welded I-sections (tf ≤ 40mm buckling about the minor axis
and tf > 40mm buckling about the major axis).

ESDEP WG 7
Curve d represents shapes with maximum imperfections: it is to be used for hot-rolled I-sections with very thick flanges (tf
> 100mm) and thick welded I-sections (tf > 40mm), if buckling occurs in the minor axis.
Table 4 helps the selection of the appropriate buckling curve as a function of the type of cross-section, of its dimensional
limits and of the axis about which buckling can occur. For cold-formed hollow sections, fyb is the tensile yield strength and
fya is the average yield strength. If the cross-section in question is not one of those described, it must be classified analogously.
It is important to note that the buckling curves are established for a pin-ended, end loaded member; it is necessary carefully
to evaluate the buckling lengths if the boundary conditions are different, see Lecture 7.7.
5.3 Equivalent Initial Bow Imperfection
To study a column using second order theory, it is necessary to choose geometrical imperfections (initial out-of-
straightness and eccentricities of loading) and mechanical imperfections (residual stresses and variations of the yield
stress). Eurocode 3 proposes values for a bow imperfection, eo, whose effect is equivalent to a combination of the two
previous kinds of imperfections [1].
If the column is designed using elastic analysis, eo is as follows:
eo = α ( - 0,2) Wpl/A for plastic design of cross-sections
or,
eo = α ( - 0,2) Wel/A for elastic design of cross-sections (12)
If it is designed with an elastic-plastic analysis (elasto-plastic or elastic-perfectly plastic), the values of eo are functions of
the buckling length L, and are given in Table 3.
5.4 Design Steps for Compression Members
To design a simple compression member it is first necessary to evaluate its two effective lengths, in relation to the
two principal axes, bearing in mind the expected connections at its ends. Secondly, the required second moment of area
to resist the Euler critical loads should be calculated to give an idea of the minimum cross-section necessary. The
verification procedure should then proceed as follows:
● the geometric characteristics of the shape, and its yield strength give the reference slenderness (Equation (9)).
● χ is calculated, taking into account the forming process and the shape thickness, using one of the buckling curves and
(Equations 10 and 11).
Buckling resistance of a compression member is then taken as:
Nb.Rd = χ A fy/γM1 (13)
the plastic resistance as:
Npl.Rd = A fy/γM0 (14)
and the local buckling resistance as:
No.Rd = Aeff fy/γM1 (15)

ESDEP WG 7
If these are higher than the design axial load, the column is acceptable; if not, another larger cross-section must be chosen
and checked.
In addition, torsional or flexural-torsional buckling of the column must be prevented.
❍ Many different kinds of cross-sections are used as compression members; these include simple members, built-up,
tapered and stepped columns.
❍ A stub column (with ≤ 0,2) can achieve the full plastic resistance of the cross-section and buckling does not need to
be checked.
❍ If > 0,2, reduction of the load resistance must be considered because of buckling. Columns with medium
slenderness fail by inelastic buckling and slender columns by elastic buckling.
❍ European buckling curves give the reduction factor for the relevant buckling mode depending on the shape of the
cross-section, the forming-process, the reference slenderness and the axis about which buckling can occur. They take
into account experimental and theoretical approaches and give reliable results.
7. REFERENCES
[1] Eurocode 3: " Design of Steel Structures": ENV 1993-1-1: Part 1.1: General rules and rules for buildings, CEN, 1992.
1. Dowling P.J., Knowles, P. and Owens G.W., "Structural Steel Design", The Steel Construction Institute, Butterworths, 1988.
2. European Convention for Constructional Steelwork, "Manual on Stability of Steel Structures", June 1976.
3. Structural Stability Research Council, "Guide to Stability Design Criteria for Metal Structures", Edited by B.G. Johnson, John
Wiley & Sons, 1976.
4. Trahair, N.S. and Bradford, M.A., "The Behaviour and Design of Steel Structures", 2nd Edition, Chapman & Hall, 1988.
5. MacGinley T.J. and Ang T.C., "Structural Steelwork: Design to Limit State Theory", Butterworths, 1987.
Table 1 Reduction factors
Reduction factor χ
Curve a Curve b Curve c Curve d
0,2 1,0000 1,0000 1,0000 1,0000
0,3 0,9775 0,9641 0,9491 0,9235
0,4 0,9528 0,9261 0,8973 0,8504
0,5 0,9243 0,8842 0,8430 0,7793
0,6 0,8900 0,8371 0,7854 0,7100
0,7 0,8477 0,7837 0,7247 0,6431
0,8 0,7957 0,7245 0,6622 0,5797
0,9 0,7339 0,6612 0,5998 0,5208
1,0 0,6656 0,5970 0,5399 0,4671

ESDEP WG 7
1,1 0,5960 0,5352 0,4842 0,4189
1,2 0,5300 0,4781 0,4338 0,3762
1,3 0,4703 0,4269 0,3888 0,3385
1,4 0,4179 0,3817 0,3492 0,3055
1,5 0,3724 0,3422 0,3145 0,2766
1,6 0,3332 0,3079 0,2842 0,2512
1,7 0,2994 0,2781 0,2577 0,2289
1,8 0,2702 0,2521 0,2345 0,2093
1,9 0,2449 0,2294 0,2141 0,1920
2,0 0,2229 0,2095 0,1962 0,1766
2,1 0,2036 0,1920 0,1803 0,1630
2,2 0,1867 0,1765 0,1662 0,1508
2,3 0,1717 0,1628 0,1537 0,1399
2,4 0,1585 0,1506 0,1425 0,1302
2,5 0,1467 0,1397 0,1325 0,1214
2,6 0,1362 0,1299 0,1234 0,1134
2,7 0,1267 0,1211 0,1153 0,1062
2,8 0,1182 0,1132 0,1079 0,0997
2,9 0,1105 0,1060 0,1012 0,0937
3,0 0,1036 0,0994 0,0951 0,0882
Table 2 Imperfection factors
Buckling curve a b c d
Imperfection factor α 0,21 0,34 0,49 0,76
Table 3 Equivalent initial bow imperfections
Buckling curve Elasto-plastic Elastic-perfectly plastic

ESDEP WG 7
a L/600 L/400
b L/380 L/250
c L/270 L/200
d L/180 L/150
Table 4: Selection of buckling curve for a cross-section

ESDEP WG 7

ESDEP WG 7
ESDEP WG 7
ELEMENTS
Lecture 7.5.2: Columns II

OBJECTIVE
To explain the use of the European buckling curves and to introduce the concept of torsional and flexural-torsional buckling.
PREREQUISITES
Lecture 6.6.1: Buckling of Real Structural Elements I
Lecture 7.5.1: Columns I
RELATED LECTURES
Lecture 7.10.1: Beam Columns I
Worked Example 7.5: Column Design
SUMMARY
The analysis of imperfections, leading to the derivation of the Ayrton-Perry formula and the European buckling curves,
is explained and justified. The concepts of torsional and flexural-torsional buckling are introduced for the case of
simple compression members.
1. INTRODUCTION
The behaviour of real steel structures is always different from that predicted theoretically; the main reasons for this
discrepancy are:
● geometrical imperfections, due to defects causing lack of straightness, unparallel flanges, asymmetry of cross-section etc;
● material imperfections, due to residual stresses (caused by the rolling or fabrication process) or material inelasticity;
● deviation of applied load from idealised position due to imperfect connections, erection tolerances or lack of verticality of
the member.
Of the above, some are important in the buckling of slender columns (geometrical imperfections), others in the compression
of stub columns (material inelasticity) and others in the buckling of columns of medium slenderness (geometric
imperfections and residual stresses). The behaviour of these three types of columns is described in Lecture 7.5.1.
In reality, all the imperfections act together simultaneously and their effect depends on their individual intensity and on
the slenderness of the column. An experimental study of many columns with various characteristics gives the results shown
in Figure 1. The results of the tests should be below the Euler buckling curve because initial out-of-straightness, eccentricity
of applied loads and residual stresses all decrease the allowable buckling load; for small slenderness (stub columns),
however, it is possible to find some results above the yield stress line because of possible strain-hardening. A safety
curve obtained through a statistical analysis is always situated under the minimum experimental values and has the form
shown in Figure 1; the plateau is necessary to limit the allowable stress to the yield value. This is the general form of
the European buckling curves [1, 2].

ESDEP WG 7
2. ANALYTICAL FORMULATION OF THE EUROPEAN BUCKLING CURVES
2.1 Initial Deflection
Assuming that the initial deflection of a pin-ended column of length l, has a half sine-wave form with magnitude eo (Figure
2), the initial deformation along the column can be written as:
(1)

ESDEP WG 7
The differential equation for the deformation of such a pin-ended column loaded by an axial force N is:
(2)
Combining this with the expression for yo, and taking into account the boundary conditions, the solution of this equation is:
(3)
The maximum total deflection, e, of the column is then:
(4)
and the ratio 1/(1 - N/Ncr) is generally called the "amplification factor".
Taking into account the maximum bending moment, Ne, due to buckling, the equilibrium of the column requires that:

ESDEP WG 7
(5)
where fy is the yield stress.
If N is the maximum axial load, limited by buckling, and σb the maximum normal stress (σb = N/A), this becomes:
(6)
or, introducing σcr, the Euler critical stress (σcr = π2E/λ2) and including the value of e:
(7)
which can be written as:
(σcr - σb) (fy - σb) = σb σcr eo A/W (8)
This equation is the basic form of the Ayrton-Perry formula.
2.2 Eccentricity of the Applied Load
If the axial compression load is applied with an eccentricity ec on an initially straight pin-ended column (Figure 3), a
bending moment (N ec) is introduced which increases the buckling effect. This effect obviously increases along with axial load.

ESDEP WG 7
It is possible to show that the total maximum deflection e of the column is equal to:
e = ec - ec/{cos[l/2 (N/EI)1/2]} (9)
and the "amplification factor" to: 1/cos [π/2 (N/Ncr)1/2]
Now, if the combined effect of the initial deflection and of the eccentricity of loading is considered, the stress is
approximately equal to:
(10)
This relationship is correct within a few percent for all values of σb from 0 to σcr.
2.3 Ayrton-Perry Formula
The classical form of the Ayrton-Perry formula is:
(σcr - σb) (fy - σb) = η σcr σb (11)
This is the form of Equation (8) if η = (eo A) / W
The coefficient η represents the initial out-of-straightness imperfection of the column but it can also include other defects
such as residual stresses in which case it is called the "generalized imperfection factor".
It is possible to write the Ayrton-Perry formula under another form:
(σcr / fy - )(1- )=η σcr / fy (12)
where: = σb / f y
If 2 = fy / σcr then, dividing by σcr / fy, gives:
(1 - 2) (1 - )=η (13)
or: 2 2 - ( 2 + η + 1) + 1 = 0 (14)
This form leads to the European formulation [1].
2.4 Generalized Imperfection Factor
The generalized imperfection factor takes into account all the relevant defects in a real column when considering
buckling: geometric imperfections, eccentricity of applied loads and residual stresses; inelastic properties are not
considered because they only influence stub columns. The generalized imperfection factor can be expressed through
the coefficient η representing the effect of deflections:
(15)

ESDEP WG 7
where γ = l / eo, represents the equivalent geometrical imperfection (which is the ratio of the length over the equivalent
initial curvature of the column).
Then using L = l.i, W = I / v and i2 = I / A, η can be written as:
η = λ / γ (i/v) (16)
where (i/v) is the relative diameter of the inertia ellipse in the axis where buckling occurs.
As λ = η (E/fy)1/2, introducing the plateau = 1 when ≤ o, the previous relationship can be written as:
(17)
because all the European buckling curves were established with fy = 255 MPa (the real value of the yield stress having a
very small influence).
2.3 European Formulation
Using η expressed as:
η = α( - o) (18)
the smallest solution of the Equation (14) is:
= {1 + α( - o) + 2 - [1 + α ( - o)+
2]2 -4 2}1/2 /2 2 (19)
Multiplying by the conjugated term and choosing o = 0,2, this relationship gives the European formulation:
χ = 1 / {φ + [φ2 - 2]}1/2 ≤1 (20)
where:
φ = 0,5 [1 + α ( - 0,2) + 2] (21)
χ is the reduction factor considered in Eurocode 3 [1].
The different shapes of cross-sections used to design steel columns have the coefficient α varying from 0,21 to 0,76 and it
is possible to represent the real behaviour of all classical columns using the four curves (a, b, c and d) shown in Figure 4,
α increasing with the imperfections.

ESDEP WG 7
α takes into account two kinds of imperfections (geometrical and mechanical). It can be written as α = α1 + α2, where
α1 represents the mechanical and α2 the geometrical imperfections. Considering only the geometrical imperfections,
the European buckling curves were established with an initial curvature equal to L/1000 (Lecture 7.5.1); this gives
α2 = 90,15/[1000 (i/v)].
Considering now the equivalent initial deflection: eo = L/γ , linked to the generalized imperfection factor η (Equation (15))
and using Equation (18), gives:
eo = α( - 0,2) W / A (22)
which represents the equivalent initial bow imperfection of a pin-ended column including the initial crookedness and the
effect of residual stresses; this has to be taken into account in a second order analysis. The design values relative to
each European buckling curve are given in Table 1.
3. TORSIONAL AND FLEXURAL-TORSIONAL BUCKLING

For hot-rolled steel members, with the type of cross-sections commonly used for compression members, the relevant
buckling mode is generally flexural buckling; however, in some cases, torsional or flexural-torsional modes may govern
and these must be investigated for all sections with small torsional resistance.
3.1 Cross-section Subjected to Torsional or Flexural-torsional Buckling
Concentrically loaded columns can buckle by flexure about one of the principal axes (classical buckling), twisting about
the shear centre (torsional bucking) or a combination of both flexural and twisting (flexural-torsional buckling).
Torsional buckling can only occur if the shear centre and centroid coincide and the cross-section can rotate; this leads to
a twisting of the member. Z-sections and I-sections with broad flanges can be subject to torsional buckling; pylons,
fabricated from angle sections, must also be checked for this kind of instability.

ESDEP WG 7
Symmetrical sections with axial load not in the plane of symmetry, and non-symmetrical sections such as C-sections,
hats, equal-leg angles, T-sections and singly symmetrical I-sections, i.e. sections where the shear centre and the centroid do
not coincide, must be checked for flexural-torsional buckling.
Figure 5 gives examples of sections which must be checked for torsional or flexural-torsional buckling.
3.2 Torsional Buckling
The analysis of torsional bucking is quite complex and is too long to be included here. The critical stress depends on
the boundary conditions and it is very important to evaluate precisely the possibilities of rotation at the ends. The critical
stress depends on the torsional stiffness of the member and on the resistance to warping deformations provided by the
member itself and by the restraints at its ends.
The differential equation for torsional buckling is:
(23)

ESDEP WG 7
and the critical load for pure torsional buckling, Ncr , is:
θ
(24)
where ro is the polar radius of gyration, G the shear modulus of elasticity, N the axial load, θ the twist angle, ID the
torsion constant, and Iw the warping constant. Lecture 7.9.2 gives more details about the physical meaning and the
computation of the warping constant.
To check a compression member with torsional buckling, a new reference slenderness must be evaluated:
= √(fy/σcr ) (25)
θ
where σcr is the elastic critical stress for torsional buckling obtained with the critical load Ncr (Equation (24)).
θ θ
Generally flexural buckling occurs at a lower critical stress than torsional buckling.
Figure 6 illustrates this phenomenon for the case of a cruciform strut.
3.3 Flexural-torsional Buckling

ESDEP WG 7
This is the combination of flexural and torsional buckling and its analysis is too complex to be covered in detail here.
The three basic equilibrium equations governing this sort of buckling are:
(26)
(27)
(28)
where, yo and zo are the coordinates of the shear centre and v and w are the deflections, as shown in Figure 7.

ESDEP WG 7
The critical load for pure torsional buckling is obtained from the lowest root of the following equation:
ro2 (Ncr - Ncrz) (Ncr - Ncry) (Ncr - Ncr ) - ...

θ
... Ncr2 zo2 (Ncr - Ncry) - Ncr2 yo2 (Ncr - Ncrz) = 0 (29)
where, Ncry and Ncrz are respectively the critical loads for pure flexural buckling about the axes y and z, and Ncr is defined
θ
by Equation (24).
Cross-sections with one (or two) axis of symmetry give yo (or zo) = 0 leading to a simplification of the previous equation;
for example, a section with two axes of symmetry gives:
(Ncr - Ncrz) (Ncr - Ncry) (Ncr - Ncr ) = 0 (30)

θ

ESDEP WG 7
and the members buckle at the lowest of the critical loads without interaction of modes.
This lecture only considered the effects of imperfections on the behaviour of compressed steel columns and, therefore, no
end moments are considered. The flexural-torsional buckling, in this case, will be due to the effects such as eccentricity
of loading or cross-sectional defects.
To check a compression member with flexural-torsional buckling, a new reference slenderness must be evaluated in
a similar way as for torsional buckling (Equation (25)).
In this case σcr is the elastic stress for flexural buckling obtained with the critical load relative to flexural-torsional buckling.
θ
● The effects of imperfections on the phenomenon of buckling are discussed. Initial out-of-straightness, eccentricity of
loading and residual stresses have an important influence on buckling of slender columns and columns of medium slenderness.
● The Ayrton-Perry formula describes the behaviour of real columns. It is the basis of the European buckling curves.
● European buckling curves are explained; these include a generalized imperfection factor.
● Torsional buckling and flexural-torsional buckling are introduced.
5. REFERENCES
1. Dowling, P.J., Knowles, P. and Owens, G.W., "Structural Steel Design", The Steel Construction Institute, Butterworths, 1988.
2. European Convention for Construction Steelwork, "Manual on Stability of Steel Structures", June 1976.
3. Structural Stability Research Council, "Guide to Stability Design Criteria for Metal Structures", Edited by B. G. Johnson,
John Wiley & Sons, 1976.
4. Maquoi, R. and Rondal, J., "Mise en Equation des Nouvelles Courbes Européennes de Flambement", Revue
Construction Méttalique, no. 1, 1978.
5. Timoshenko, S.P. and Gere, J.M., "Theory of Elastic Stability",
2nd Edition, McGraw-Hill, 1961.
Table 1 Design values of equivalent initial bow imperfection eo,d
(from Figure 5.5.1, Eurocode 3) [1]

ESDEP WG 7
Cross-section Method of global analysis
Method used to verify Section type and axis Elastic, or Rigid - Plastic, or Elastic - Elasto-Plastic
resistance Perfectly Plastic
(plastic zone method)
Elastic Any -
α( - 0,2)kγ Wel/A
[5.4.8.2]
Linear Any -
α( - 0,2)kγ Wpl/A
[5.4.8.1(12)]
I-section
1,33α( - 0,2)kγWpl/A α( -0,2)kγWpl/A
yy-axis
Plastic
I-section 2,0 kγ eeff/ε kγ eeff/ε
[5.4.8.1(1) to (11)]
zz-axis
Rectangular hollow
section 1,33α( - 0,2)kγWpl/A α( - 0,2)kγ Wpl/A
Circular hollow section 1,5 kγ eeff/ε kγ eeff/ε
kγ = (1 - kδ) + 2 kδ but ≥ 1,0
Buckling curve α eeff kδ
γM1 =1,05 γM1 =1,10 γM1 =1,15 γM1

=1,20
a 0,21 l/600 0,12 0,23 0,33 0,42
b 0,34 l/380 0,08 0,15 0,22 0,28
c 0,49 l/270 0,06 0,11 0,16 0,20
d 0,76 l/180 0,04 0,08 0,11 0,14
Non-uniform members:
Use value of Wel/A or Wpl/A at centre of buckling length l

ESDEP WG 7
ESDEP WG 7
ELEMENTS

OBJECTIVE/SCOPE
To derive the equations for the buckling loads of built-up columns and to present the design methods used in Eurocode 3 [1].
PREREQUISITES
Lectures 6: Applied Stability
RELATE WORKED EXAMPLES
Worked Example 7.6: Built-Up Columns
SUMMARY
This lecture is divided into two main parts; the first part concentrates on the influence of shear deformations on the
elastic critical loads and on the slenderness of columns (this effect is crucial for built-up columns and secondary for
solid columns - rolled or welded shapes); the second part deals with the design approach adopted in Eurocode 3 [1] which
is related to experimental behaviour.
1. INTRODUCTION
Built-up columns are widely used in steel construction especially when the effective lengths are great and the
compression forces light. They are composed of two or more parallel main components interconnected by lacing or
batten plates (Figures 1 and 2). The greater the distance between the chord axes, the greater is the moment of inertia of the
built-up cross section; the increase in stiffness, however, is counterbalanced by the increased weight and cost of the
connection of members.

ESDEP WG 7

ESDEP WG 7
It should be noted that built-up columns (especially battened built-up columns) are more flexible than solid columns with
the same moment of inertia; this must be taken into account in the design.
In order to derive the carrying capacity of steel built-up columns, the following must be studied:
● the elastic buckling load and the global behaviour;

ESDEP WG 7
● the local behaviour of the chords;

● the internal forces in the connecting members.
2. THE EFFECT OF SHEAR DEFORMATIONS ON THE ELASTIC

CRITICAL COLUMN LOAD
This section discusses the effect of shear deformation on the elastic critical column load.
The simple case of a pin-ended column, shown in Figure 3, is considered; for M, N, V, x and y, as defined in this Figure,
the following relationships hold:
M = N y, (2.1)
The total lateral deflection y of the centreline is the result of two components:
y = y1 + y2 (2.2)
the bending moment M gives rise to the deflection y1, and the shearing force V to the additional deflection y2.
According to elastic theory the curvature due to the bending moment M is as follows:
(2.3)

ESDEP WG 7
where
E is the modulus of elasticity or Young's modulus.
I is the moment of inertia of the cross-section.
The slope due to the shearing force V is as follows:
(2.4)
where
A is the cross-sectional area.
G is the modulus of rigidity or shear modulus.
β is the shape factor of the column cross-section (β =1,11 for solid circular cross-sections; β = 1,2 for rectangular
cross-sections).
The curvature due to the effect of the shearing force V is as follows:
(2.5)
The total curvature of the buckling curve is due both to the bending moment, Equation (2.3), and to the shearing
force, Equation (2.5):
(2.6)
It is possible to rearrange Equation (2.6) in the form:
(2.7)
Adopting the same procedure as in the Euler case, the critical load is defined by the equation:
(2.8)
Solving for N, the following expression for the elastic critical load Ncr,id is obtained:
(2.9)
where:
Ncr = is the Euler buckling load obtained disregarding the deformations due to shearing force

ESDEP WG 7
Sv = is the shear stiffness of the column.
Obviously Ncr,id < Ncr ; the greater the ratio Ncr / Sv, the smaller the ratio Ncr,id/ Ncr < 1. The ratio Ncr,id / Ncr obtained
from Equation (2.9) is plotted, in Figure 4, as a function of the ratio Ncr / Sv.
For solid rolled cross-sections the shear stiffness Sv is much greater than N. The difference between Ncr,id and Ncr is very
small therefore, and can be disregarded for design purposes.
However, as will be shown below, the shear stiffness Sv, of built-up columns, is much smaller than it is for solid shapes; in
this case, therefore, the influence of the shearing forces on the reduction of the critical load is very significant.
In order to compare the shear stiffness Sv to the Euler buckling loads of solid columns Ncr, consider as an example a
HE200A column buckling in the plane of the web.
The shear stiffness Sv is as follows:
Sv =
E = 200 kNmm-2
ν = 0,3

ESDEP WG 7
Aw = the area of the web = 6,5 x 170 = 1105 mm2
The Euler buckling load Ncr is:
Ncr =
where:
A is the cross-sectional area = 5380 mm2.
λ is the slenderness of the column.
In Table 1 the critical buckling loads Ncr,id, the Euler buckling loads Ncr, and the ratios Ncr / Sv are given as functions of
the slenderness; it clearly shows that in the case of solid cross-sections, Ncr is always far smaller than Sv; therefore,
for technical purposes, it is possible to disregard the influence of the shear deformations on the elastic buckling loads Ncr,id.
3. EVALUATION OF THE SHEAR STIFFNESS OF LACED AND

BATTENED COLUMNS
3.1 Laced Columns
In laced columns the elastic extension of the diagonals and the horizontals must be considered in order to derive the
shear stiffness Sv; the elongation of the chords (the main components) should not be taken into account, because they
are already considered in the global flexural stiffness E I of the built-up column.
With an N-shape arrangement of lacing, as shown in Figure 5, the elongations of one diagonal and of one horizontal are
taken into account in order to derive Sv:

ESDEP WG 7
1/Sv = δ/a = γ (3.1)
where δ is the lateral displacement due to the unit shearing force.
The total displacement δ is the result of two components: δ1 is the contribution from the elongation of the diagonal; δ2 is
the contribution from the shortening of the horizontal. From virtual work theory:
Thus, for one plane of lacing:
(3.2)
With an A shape arrangement of lacing, as shown in Figure 6:

ESDEP WG 7
Therefore:
(3.3)
The cross-bracings, shown in Figure 7, have the same shear stiffness, because the horizontals do not take part in
the transmission of the shearing force:

ESDEP WG 7
and the shear stiffness is:
(3.4)
3.2 Battened Built-up Columns
For battened built-up columns, as shown in Figure 8, the flexural deformations both of the chords and of the battens must
be considered in order to derive the shear stiffness Sv; as is the case for laced built-up columns, the extensions of the
main chords are not considered because their contributions appear in the global flexural stiffness E I.
Adopting the virtual work method, the displacement δ due to unit shearing force is obtained:
and the shear stiffness is:

ESDEP WG 7
(3.5)
where Ic is the in-plane second moment of area of one chord.
Ib is the in-plane second moment of area of one batten.
The above formula may be refined by taking into account the deformations due to the shearing force in the battens.
3.3 Quantitative Comparison
Table 2 gives a comparison of the shear stiffness Sv for a solid column and three different built-up columns; the
global dimensions of the cross-sections and the weights of steel per unit length are kept constant.
The solid column (a) is made up of two HE400A shapes each welded to a common plate 8mm thick x 1000mm wide.
Built-up columns (b) and (c) are laced: the chords are HE400A shapes and there are two planes of lacing with 100 × 10
equal angles.
Built-up column (d) is with batten plates: the same shape HE400A as above is adopted for the chords; the batten plates,
which have rectangular cross-section 400 × 20mm, are on two planes.
Whereas the steel employed in the web and in the connecting members has almost the same weight in the four columns,
Table 2 shows that the shear stiffness Sv has a wide range of variation.
4. THE ELASTIC CRITICAL LOADS OF BUILT-UP COLUMNS

For design purposes the elastic critical loads of built-up columns can be obtained from Equation (2.9): that is, it is possible
to assume a continuous distribution of the shear stiffness Sv if the number of panels is greater than or equal to six; if not,
more complex analysis, with methods suitable for frames, has to be performed (for further reading on this topic see (1, 2, and 3).
By introducing formulae for the shear stiffness Sv (3.2, 3.3, 3.4 and 3.5) in Equation (2.9), it is easy to derive, for the
various types of lacings and battens, specific formulae for the elastic critical loads Ncr,id and, as a consequence, for
the effective length of built-up columns; formulae of this type are widely adopted in the European codes and standards for
steel construction.
The details of the analytical procedure are now outlined.
When the lacing is N shaped (as shown in Figure 5), the expression for the shear stiffness Sv (3.2) is substituted in
Equation (2.9), where:
Ncr = π2 E I / l2 is the Euler critical load, as for a solid column.
I = 2 Ic + Ac h2, is the moment of inertia of the built-up cross-section.
Ac is the cross-sectional area of the chords.
Ic is the relevant moment of inertia of the chords.
Substitution gives the following:

ESDEP WG 7
(4.1)
By introducing the slenderness λ for the column without shear deformations, such that:
λ2 = 1/ ρ2 = 2 Ac l2 /I
the elastic critical stress σcr,id, for the built-up column becomes:
(4.2)
where:
(4.3)
is the equivalent slenderness of the built-up column.
Following the same procedure, when simple A bracing (Figure 6) is adopted, the equivalent slenderness of the column is:
(4.4)
For cross-bracing (Figure 7):
(4.5)
Finally, for battened built-up columns (Figure 8), the equivalent slenderness is:
(4.6)
If the batten plates are very stiff, their flexural deformations may be disregarded and it is possible to put:
, in Equation (4.6).
In this case the equivalent slenderness of battened built-up columns becomes:
λeq = √{λ2 + π2Aca2 /(12Ic)} = √{λ2 + π2λ12 /12} (4.7)
where λ1 is the local slenderness of the chords between the centrelines of the batten plates.
5. THE BEARING CAPACITY OF STEEL BUILT-UP COLUMNS AND

THE DESIGN PHILOSOPHY OF EUROCODE 3
ESDEP WG 7
The experimental behaviour of a steel built-up column (with batten plates) [2] in a compression test up to collapse,
is summarised in Figure 9.
● in Figure 9(a) the lateral displacement v at midspan is plotted as a function of the applied external compression load Ni.
● in Figure 9(b) the axial forces N1 and N2 in the chords at midspan are plotted as a function of the compression load Ni.
● finally in Figure 9(c) the shearing forces in the batten plates are plotted, and in Figure 9(d) the distribution of the
shearing forces in the battens is shown.

ESDEP WG 7
Due to the initial geometrical imperfections and residual stresses, the lateral displacements increase with the applied load
more and more rapidly up to the bearing capacity Ncr of the column; the presence of lateral displacements explains why
one chord is more compressed than the other, which tends to unload after it has reached maximum compression.
In the batten plate at the end, the framing effect is smaller than in the next internal one, because of the presence of only half
a field.
The maximum carrying capacity of the built-up column is reached when one of the following possibilities occurs:
● at mid-span the more compressed chord buckles.

● at the end a chord fails by compression and flexure.
● a batten-plate and/or its connection to the chords fails by shear and flexure.
The main features of the experimental behaviour of a built-up compression member summarised above may be represented
by a simple elastic column with equivalent initial geometrical imperfections and shear flexibility (Figure 10).

ESDEP WG 7
The design philosophy of Eurocode 3 [1] is based on this simple model: it is assumed that in the initial unloaded state
the column is not perfectly straight and that the initial deflection y (x) is given by a sine curve for a pin-ended member:
yo (x) = wo sin (π x / l) (5.1)
where
wo is the equivalent geometrical out of straightness at mid-span (wo = 0,002l = l / 500);
l is the length of the pin-ended column.
When the design axial load N is applied to the built-up column the initial geometrical imperfection is then amplified
elastically; the lateral displacements in the equivalent state are:
sin (π x / l) (5.2)
where, in Equation (5.2), Ncr,id is the elastic critical load of the built-up column as given in Section 4.
At mid-span of the built-up column, the axial force is N and the bending moment M equals:
(5.3)
The axial force Nf in the most loaded chord is:

ESDEP WG 7
(5.4)
The buckling resistance of the chords NRd must be greater than Nf:
NRd ≥ Nf (5.5)
In laced built-up columns the effective length of the chords is taken equal to the system length between lacing connections;
in battened built-up columns (for the sake of simplicity and disregarding any possible end restraint) the effective length of
the chords is taken equal to the distance between the centre lines of the battens.
The shearing force V at the ends of a built-up column is given by:
(5.6)
The forces in the lacing members and in the chords adjacent to the ends are derived from the shearing force V and from
the axial force N.
The battens, their connections to the chords, and the chords themselves are checked for the moments and forces due to
the shearing force V and the axial force N as shown in Figure 11.
The design philosophy of Eurocode 3 [1] may be summarized in the following six steps:

ESDEP WG 7
1. derive the design axial load.

2. derive the flexural stiffness and the shear stiffness of the built-up columns.
3. derive the elastic critical load of the built-up column.
4. compute the design bending moment at midspan and the design shear force at the ends of the built-up-column.
5. check the buckling strength of the chords at midspan.
6. check the strength of the web members and of their connections to the chords for the most loaded panel at the ends.
● The bearing capacity of built-up columns is largely affected by the shear deformations.
● It is possible to study the behaviour of built-up columns using a simple elastic model.
● Because of shear deformations the initial lack of straightness of the column is strongly amplified.
● The design method proposed in Eurocode 3 is based on the above approach.
7. REFERENCES
[2] Ballio, G. & Mazzolani, F. M., "Theory and Design of Steel Structures", Chapmann and Hall, New York, 1983.
1. Bleich, F., "Buckling Strength of Metal Structures", McGraw Hill, New York, 1952.
2. Timoshenko, S., "Theory of Elastic Stability", McGraw Hill, New York, 1936.
3. Galambos, Th. V., "Guide to Stability Design Criteria for Metal Structures - Fourth Edition", J. Wiley & Sons, New
York, 1988.
Table 1 Example of the influence of shear flexibility on stability
λ 80 90 100 110 120 130 140
Ncr,id (MN) 1,63 1,29 1,05 0,869 0,731 0,624 0,538
Ncr (MN) 1,66 1,31 1,06 0,878 0,738 0,628 0,542
Ncr / Sv 0,020 0,015 0,12 0,010 0,009 0,007 0,006
Table 2 Examples of shear stiffnesses for solid, laced and battened columns

ESDEP WG 7
a)
Shear stiffness
Sv =
E = 20 MN cm-2 υ = 0,3
Aw = 100 x 0,8 = 80 cm2
Sv =
Volume and mass of steel
V = 0,8 x 100 x 100 = 8000 cm3 m-1
W = Ys V = 0,00785 x 8000 = 63 kg m-1
Table 2 - Continued

ESDEP WG 7
b)
Shear Stiffness
Sv =
L 100 × 10 Ad = 19,2 cm2
h = 100 cm a = 115,5 / 2 = 57,75 cm
d = 2 a = 115,5 cm
Sv =
V = 19,2 x 115,5 x 4 / 1,155 = 7680 cm3 m-1
W = 0,00785 x 7680 = 60 kg m-1
c)
Shear Stiffness
Sv =
Ad = Ao = 19,2 cm2
h = 100 cm a = 115,5 cm
d = (a2 + h2)0,5 = 152,8 cm
Sv =
V = 19,2 x (100 + 152,8) x 2 / 1,155 = 8405 cm3 m-1
W = 0,00785 x 8405 = 66 kg m-1
Table 2 - Continued

ESDEP WG 7
d)
Shear Stiffness
Sv =
Ic = 8564 cm4 H E 400 A
Ib = 403 x 2 x 2 / 12 = 21333 cm4
a = 200 cm h = 100 cm
Sv =
V = 2 x 40 x 100 x 2/2 = 8000 cm3
W = 0,00785 * 8000 = 63 kg m-1
Shear Stiffness Mass of Steel
Sv W
(MN) (kg m-1)
a) Web 8 × 1000 615 63
b) Lacing L 100 × 10 288 60
c) Lacing L 100 × 10 194 66
d) Batten plates 400 × 20 73 63

ESDEP WG 7
ESDEP WG 7
ELEMENTS
Lecture 7.7: Buckling Lengths

OBJECTIVE/SCOPE
To introduce the concept of effective length and to describe its application in the design of practical columns.
PREREQUISITES
RELATED LECTURES
Lectures 7.12: Trusses and Lattice Girders
Worked Example 7.7: Effective Lengths
SUMMARY

ESDEP WG 7
For pin-ended columns the buckling length equals the actual length; such columns are, however, relatively rare in
practice. Predicting strength under other than pin-ended conditions can be achieved by using the notion of effective length (LE).
LE is the length of a similar pin-ended column (of the same section) which has the same buckling load as the column
being considered. Approximate values for effective length, which can be used in design, are given for a wide range of
end-restraint conditions.
1. INTRODUCTION
For the determination of the elastic Euler critical buckling load
(1)
it is assumed (Lectures 6.1. and 7.5.1) that both ends of the column are pinned (Figure 1); practical end connections on
real columns, however, will often not behave in this manner and this will, therefore, significantly affect the buckling load.
Two aspects of the end condition must be considered:

ESDEP WG 7
● the rotation restraints which can vary between 0 and ∞ (i.e. a hinge without friction or fully restrained);
● the translational restraints (sway or no sway).
The usual design approach consists of reducing the practical case under consideration to an equivalent pin-ended case by
means of an effective length factor K.
2. EFFECTIVE LENGTH OF COLUMNS

ESDEP WG 7
The effective length, LE, of a member hinged at its ends is the distance between the axes of the hinges. For general
end restraints, the effective length LE, is the length of an end-hinged member which has the same load bearing resistance as
the member under consideration.
The application of the above definition is not easy in practice. Numerical studies have shown that the notion of
effective column length can be derived from elastic stability theory. In this case the effective length factor, K, is the ratio of
the length (LE) of the equivalent column to the actual length (L); and the length of the equivalent column is the
distance between two consecutive points of contraflexure (points of zero moment) in the actual column (Figure 2).

ESDEP WG 7
For the pin-ended column (fundamental case of buckling of a prismatic bar, see Figure 1) the effective length factor is equal
to 1, and the distance between the points of zero moment is equal to the actual column length.
More generally, let us consider, for example, the columns of the frame illustrated in Figure 3a; if it is assumed that the
flexural rigidity of the beam is much higher than that of the columns, no rotation of the upper ends of the columns occurs
when the frame moves laterally. This situation is shown in Figure 3b.
The bending moment at a point along the column is given by
M = Nv + Hz (Figure 3c).
ESDEP WG 7
The differential equation becomes:
(2)
Using the notation K2 = N/EI:
(2b)
The solution of Equation (2b) is given by:
(3)
To find the constants A and B, the boundary conditions are used:
for z = 0, v = 0 and for z = L, = 0, therefore A = 0 and
B K cos K L = 0 (4)
From (4), it follows that either B or cos K L = 0.
If B = 0, v = -Hz/N and d2v/dz2 = 0; in this case, the bending moment M should be zero at any point along the column.
The other possibility is that cos KL = 0 and this condition requires that K = nπ/2L where n = 1,3,5, .... (5)
To obtain the smallest value of N for which Equation (5) is satisfied, using n=1 gives KL = π/2 from which K = π/2L and K2
= N/EI,

ESDEP WG 7
Ncr = K2 EI = π2 EI/4L2 = π2 EI/(2L)2 (6)
The comparison of Equations (6) and (1) shows that the effective length factor K is equal to 2 and therefore, that the
effective length of the column is twice the actual length. In other words, the critical load for the column of length L, shown
in Figure 3, is the same as the critical load of a pin-ended column of length 2L. The situation is shown geometrically in
Figure 3a.
The use of an effective column length is basically a device to relate the behaviour of columns with any form of support to
the behaviour of the basic pin-ended case. The design procedure for columns with particular end conditions is the same as
for pin-ended columns (see Lecture 7.5.1) but in establishing the design strength from the column design curve, the
slenderness (LE/ry) would be used instead of L/ry.
Table 1 gives theoretical K-values for idealized conditions in which the rotational and/or translational restraints at the ends
of the column are either fully realized or non-existent. Each of these values is obtained as for the previous example.
Table 1 also recommends K-values which are equal or slightly higher than the equivalent theoretical values derived
from elastic stability theory. When higher values are specified it is usually in recognition of the practical difficulties
of providing complete restraint against rotation or translation.
The comparison of cases (b) and (e) in Table 1, shows the influence of the translational restraints on the buckling load. Case
(e) represents the situation of the column of Figure 3a, with lateral displacement, while in case (b) no translation is
permitted; the buckling load is multiplied by a factor 8 ((2,0/0,7)2) when translation is prevented. For this reason, it
is absolutely necessary that the designer knows the difference between sway and non-sway frames.
According to Eurocode 3 [1], a frame may be classified as non-sway if its response to in-plane horizontal loads is
sufficiently stiff for it to be acceptably accurate to neglect any additional internal forces or moments arising from
horizontal displacement of its nodes. Any other frame shall be treated as a sway frame and the effects of the
horizontal displacements of its nodes taken into account in its design.
More details concerning the distinction between sway and non-sway frames are given in the Lectures 14.
A column in a non-sway frame would have no sideways movement at the top relative to the bottom. The buckling of a
non-sway frame would result in a buckled column shape having at least one point of contraflexure between the ends of
the member, such as cases (a), (b), and (c) of Table 1 (see Figure 4). The effective length factor K is always less than or
equal to 1 (0,5 ≤ K ≤ 1).
ESDEP WG 7
In a sway frame, the top of the column moves relative to the bottom. Cases (d), (e) and (f) of Table 1 are sidesways
buckling cases which are illustrated in Figure 5. The effective length factor K is always greater than or equal to 1 and
is unlimited (1 ≤ K ≤ ∞).

ESDEP WG 7
The above considerations concerning single storey frames can be generalized, so as to extend to frames of more than one storey.
The fully rigid end-restraints (shown in Figures 4b, 4d, 5b and 5d) can rarely be achieved in practice and partial end-
restraints are much more common.
In the case of partial end-restraint the effective length factor K can be determined either by a generalized second order
rotation method or by using stability functions [2].
The solution to the problem is expressed in the form:

ESDEP WG 7
K = f(ηt,ηb) (7)
where ηt and ηb, are elastic restraint coefficients at the top and bottom of the column considered.
Simplified approaches are available for evaluating the effective length factor K, [3-7].
Using Donnell's approximate formula [3] (see Figure 6)

ESDEP WG 7
K = 1/√n (8)
where n = (9)
and (10)
In the case of a compressed bar of a truss
(11)
where Ri = Σj 3EIj/lj (12)
characterizes the restraint of the adjacent bars, "j".
Wood [4] and Johnston [5] have given other simplified approaches differing only in their presentation.
In Eurocode 3 [1], the approach suggested by Wood has been adopted and two cases are considered: non-sway and
sway frames.
In some cases, a compressed bar can be supported elastically at several intermediate points along the length. Figure 7
shows, for example, the compressed chord of a truss girder; the intermediate supports of the chord are represented by
the framed cross girder.

ESDEP WG 7
In such a case the effective length is greater than the distance "a" between the cross girders [8] and is given by:
(13)

ESDEP WG 7
where f = 1/Kr, the displacement of a spring (intermediate support) due to a unit force.
3. COLUMNS OF NON-SWAY FRAMES

Wood [4], considers a sub-element of a non-sway frame as illustrated in Figure 8b (part AB of the frame represented in
Figure 8a.).
The two elastic restraint coefficients ηt and ηb (which are closely analogous to the cross-distribution coefficients at the

ESDEP WG 7
upper and lower ends of the column) are calculated using the following formulae:
ηt = KC/(KC + ΣKb,t) (14)
ηb = KC/(KC + ΣKb,b) (15)
where KC is the column stiffness I/L
ΣKb is the sum of effective beam stiffness at a joint and the suffices b and t indicate the bottom or top end of the column.
Where the beams are not subject to axial forces, their effective stiffnesses can be determined by reference to Table 2,
provided that they remain elastic under the design moments.
Where, for the same load case, the design moment in any of the beams exceeds the elastic moment, the beam should
be assumed to be pinned at the point or points concerned.
Where a beam has semi-rigid connections its effective stiffness should be reduced accordingly.
Where the beams are subject to axial forces, their effective stiffnesses should be adjusted accordingly; stability functions can
be used in this case. As a simple alternative, the increased stiffness due to axial tension can be neglected and the effects of
axial compression can be allowed for by using the conservative approximations given in Table 3.
Considering the sub-element illustrated in Figure 8b, and the distribution coefficients given above yields results that can
be graphically illustrated [4] by the curves of Figure 9. These can also be represented by the following expression:
(16)

ESDEP WG 7

ESDEP WG 7
The model can be adapted for the design of continuous columns, by assuming that each length of column is loaded to the
same value of the ratio (N/Ncr). In the general case, where (N/Ncr) varies, this leads to a conservative value of K for the
most critical length of column.
For each length of a continuous column this assumption can be introduced using the model shown in Figure 10 and
obtaining the distribution coefficients ηt and ηb as follows:
(17)
(18)

ESDEP WG 7

ESDEP WG 7
4. COLUMNS OF SWAY FRAMES

In unbraced frames (and some braced frames) sway is permitted; the effective length factor, K, is therefore greater than
unity and can tend towards infinity if the horizontal beams are very flexible.
K can be calculated using the same approach as that adopted for frames in which sway is prevented; it should, however,
be pointed out that the results for sway frames must be considered as even more approximate than those given for non-
sway frames.
Wood's method can be considered as acceptable when sway is permitted only if the frames are regular, i.e. heights, moments
of inertia and axial forces in the columns do not differ considerably.
The effective length factor of a column in a sway frame may be obtained from Figure 11 or Equation (19):
(19)

ESDEP WG 7

ESDEP WG 7
The elastic restraint coefficients ηt and ηb are calculated as for the case of non-sway frames.
Introducing the effective length concept in the elastic design of sway columns requires that second order or load
destabilizing effects (due to the displacement of the top of the columns) are approximately taken into account by an
effective length factor K, greater than 1. The advantage of this approach is its simplicity but it should be recognised that it
is limited and may, in some cases, be inaccurate.
A design considering the whole structure, based on approximate methods for elastic critical load analysis, is recognized
as more reliable. These methods consider the effects of horizontal sway forces on the structure which subject the column
to bending moments as well as axial loads. More information on this topic is given in Lecture 7.11.
● Effective lengths enable column design curves, for pin-ended columns, to be used for the design of practical columns
which have a wide range of end-restraint conditions.
● Simplified methods are available for evaluating the effective length of a compressed bar.
● For sway columns, effective lengths are greater than the actual lengths.
● For non-sway columns, effective lengths are less than the actual lengths.
6. REFERENCES
[1] Eurocode 3: "Design of Steel Structures": ENV 1993-1-1: Part 1.1: General rules ad rules for buildings, CEN, 1992.
[2] Livelsey, R.K. and Chandler, P.B., "Stability Functions for Structural Frameworks", Manchester University Press, 1956.
[3] Massonnet, Ch., "Flambement des Constructions Formées de Barres Droites". Note technique B10.52, CRIF,
Bruxelles, 1955.
[4] Wood, R.H., "Effective Lengths of Columns in Multistorey Buildings". The Structural Engineer, vol. 52, 1974 (pp.
235-244; 295-302; 341-346).
[5] Johnston, G., "Design Criteria for Metal Compression Members". John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York, 1960.

ESDEP WG 7
[6] Djalaly, H., "Longueur de Flambement des Eléments de Structures". Construction métallique, no. 4, 1975.
[7] Kamal Hassan., "Zur Bestimmung der Knicklänge of Rahmenstreben", IVBH Abhandlungen 28-I-1968.
[8] SIA 161, Constructions Metalliques 1979.
Table 1 Effective length factor for centrally loaded columns with various end conditions
With lateral restraint Without lateral restraint
(a) (b) (c) (a) (b) (c)
Ideal buckling conditions See Fig T1-1 See Fig T1-2
Theoretical K-values 1,0 0,7 0,5 2,0 2,0 1,0
Recommended K-values when 1,0 0,8 0,65 2,0 2,0 1,2

ideal conditions are
approximated

ESDEP WG 7
Fig T1-1 (a) (b) (c)

ESDEP WG 7
Fig T1-2 (a) (b) (c)
Table 2 Effective stiffness of a beam
Conditions of rotational restraint at far end of beam Effective beam stiffness (provided beam
remains elastic)
Fixed at far end 1,0 I/L
Pinned at far end 0,75 I/L
Rotation as at near end (double curvature) 1,5 I/L

ESDEP WG 7
Rotation equal and opposite to that at near end (single 0,5 I/L
curvature)
General case. Rotation ΘA at near end and ΘB at far end (1 + 0,5 ΘB/ΘA) I/L
Table 3 Approximate formulae for reduced stiffness due to axial compression
Far end condition Effective beam stiffness
Fixed 1,0 I/L (1 - 0,4 N/Ncr)
Pinned 0,75 I/L (1 - 1,0 N/Ncr)
Double curvature 1,5 I/L (1 - 0,2 N/Ncr)
Single curvature 0,5 I/L (1 - 1,0 N/Ncr)
Where Ncr = π 2 EI/L2

ESDEP WG 7
ELEMENTS

OBJECTIVE/SCOPE
To derive and discuss the procedures used to design restrained compact beams for bending, shear and deflection,
according to the principles of Eurocode 3 [1].
PREREQUISITES
Elastic theory for uniaxial bending
Simple torsion theory
RELATED LECTURES
Lecture 7.8.2: Restrained Beams II
Worked Example 7.8: Laterally Restrained Beams
SUMMARY
This lecture is restricted to beams whose design may be based on simple strength of materials considerations. Behaviour
in simple bending is discussed, leading to the concept of section modulus as the basis for strength design. Subsidiary
considerations of shear strength, resistance to local loads and adequate stiffness against deflection are also mentioned.
Behaviour under complex loading, producing bending about both principal axes, or combined bending and torsion is
introduced.
ADDITIONAL NOTATION
A area
Av shear area
d depth of section
F applied load

fd limiting stress in material
fy material yield strength
fyd material design strength
I second moment of area
M moment
Mpl plastic moment
t thickness
tf thickness of flange
tw thickness of web
Vs shear due to applied load
W elastic section modulus
Wmax maximum value of W
Wmin minimum value of W
Wpl plastic section modulus
α,β coefficients, see Equation (7)
σ normal stress
1. INTRODUCTION
Probably the most basic structural component is the beam, spanning between two supports, and transmitting loads
principally by bending action. Steel beams, which may be drawn from a wide variety of structural types and shapes, can
often be designed using little more than the simple theory of bending. However, situations will arise in which the beam's
response to its loading will be more complex, with the result that other forms of behaviour must also be considered. The
main purpose of this lecture is to concentrate on the design of that class of steel beam for which strength of materials
forms the basis of the design approach. These are termed "restrained compact beams"; in order to come within this
category the beam must not be susceptible to either local instability (see Lecture 7.2 for Class 4 beams) or lateral-
torsional instability (see Lecture 7.9.1 and 7.9.2 for unrestrained beams). A further limitation is that the beams are
assumed to be statically determinate or, if statically indeterminate, that the distribution of internal bending moments has
been obtained on a simple linear elastic basis.
The first requirement will be met if the width of the individual plate elements of the cross-section are limited, relative to
their thickness. Sections for which the ratios of flange width/flange thickness, web depth/web thickness etc, have been
limited, so that their full plastic moment capacity may be achieved, correspond to either Class 1 or Class 2 according to

Eurocode 3 [1]. The majority of hot rolled sections, e.g. UB's and IPE's, meet these requirements. However, care is
necessary when using fabricated sections and suitable rules are provided in codes of practice. This lecture assumes that
the beam cross-section will at worst correspond to Class 2 or Class 3 and that, if it meets the Class 1 limits, then the
global analysis of the structure will be conducted using plastic methods.
Lateral-torsional instability will not occur if any of the following conditions apply:
● the section is bent about its minor axis.

● full lateral restraint is provided, e.g. by positive attachment of the top flange of a simply supported beam to a
concrete slab.
● closely spaced, discrete bracing is provided so that the weak axis slenderness (L/iz) of the beams is low.
● adequate torsional restraint of the compression flange is provided, e.g. by profiled sheeting.
● the section has high torsional and lateral bending stiffness; for example, rectangular box sections bent about their
major axis are unlikely to fail in this way.
For the special case of continuous beams supporting a roof or floor, care must be taken to ensure adequate stability of
those regions in which the bottom flange is in compression, e.g.the support region under gravity loading, the mid-span
region under wind uplift, etc... For the purpose of this lecture, beams within any of these categories will be classed as
"restrained".
2. BEAM TYPES
Several factors, some of them tending to conflict with one another, influence the designer's choice of beam type for a
given application. Clearly the beam must possess adequate strength, but it should also not deflect too much. It must be
capable of being connected to adjacent parts of the structure; this will often involve the use of site connections which
should be simple and quick to erect, with minimum requirements for skilled labour or special equipment. Particular
features, such as the passage of services beneath the floor of a building, may dictate the use of a section with openings
in the web, whilst architectural requirements may require the profile to be varied, to improve the line. Table 1,
summarising the main types of steel beam, indicates the range of spans for which each is most appropriate and gives
some idea of any special features.
3. DESIGN OF BEAMS FOR SIMPLE BENDING

For a doubly-symmetrical section or a singly-symmetrical section bent about the axis of symmetry, the basic theory of
bending, assuming elastic behaviour, gives the distribution of bending stress shown in Figure 1.

Since the maximum stress σmax is given by:
σmax = (1)
where M is the moment at cross-section under consideration.
d is the overall depth of section.
I is the second moment of area about the neutral axis (line of zero strain).
it follows that limiting this to a fraction of the material yield stress gives a design condition of the form:

W ≥ M/fd (2)
where W =
fd is the limiting normal bending stress.
When M is taken as the moment produced by the working loads, this approach to design is termed 'elastic' or
'permissible stress' design and is the method traditionally used in many existing codes of practice. In more modern Limit
States codes fd is taken as the material strength fy possibly divided by a suitable material factor γM and M is taken as the
moment due to the factored loads i.e. the working loads suitably increased so as to provide a margin of safety in the
design. Equation (2), in this case, represents the condition of first yield. Values of W for the standard range of sections
are available in tables of section properties.
Selection of a suitable beam therefore comes down to:
1. determination of the maximum moment in the beam,

2. extraction of the appropriate value of fd from a suitable code,
3. selection of a section with an adequate value of W subject to considerations of minimum weight, depth of
section, rationalisation of sizes throughout the structure, etc...
Clearly, sections for which the majority of the material is located as far away as possible from the neutral axis will tend
to be the most efficient in elastic bending. Figure 2 gives some quantitative idea of this for some of the more common
structural shapes. I-sections are most often chosen for beams because of their structural efficiency; being open sections
they can also be connected to adjacent parts of the structure without undue difficulty. Figure 3 gives some typical
examples of beam-to-column connections.


Utilisation of the plastic part of the stress-strain curve for steel enables moments in excess of those which just cause
yield to be carried. At full plasticity the distribution of bending stress in a doubly-symmetrical section will be as
illustrated in Figure 4, with half the section yielding in compression and half in tension.

The corresponding moment is termed the fully plastic moment Mpl. It may be calculated by taking moments of the stress
diagram about the neutral axis to give:
Mpl = fy Wpl (3)
where fy is the material yield stress (assumed identical in tension and compression).
Wpl is the plastic section modulus.
Basing design on Equation (3) means that the full strength of the cross-section in bending is now being used, with the
design condition being given by:
Wpl ≥ M/fyd (4)
where M is the moment at cross-section under consideration.
fyd is the design strength (material yield strength divided by a suitable material factor).
When M is due to the factored loads Equation (4) represents the design condition of ultimate bending strength used in
Eurocode 3 for beams whose cross-sections meet at least the Class 2 limits [1]. It is usual in codes such as Eurocode 3

for the value of fyd to be taken as the material yield strength, reduced slightly so as to cover possible variations from the
expected value.
For continuous (statically indeterminate) structures, attainment of Mpl at the point of maximum moment will not
normally imply collapse. Providing nothing triggers unloading at this point, e.g. local buckling does not occur, then the
local rotational stiffness will virtually disappear, i.e. the cross-section will behave as if it were a hinge, and the pattern
of moments within the structure will alter from the original elastic distribution as successive plastic hinges form. This
redistribution of moments will enable the structure to withstand loads beyond that load which produces the first plastic
hinge, until eventually collapse will occur when sufficient hinges have formed to convert the structure into a
mechanism, as shown in Figure 5. Utilisation of this property of redistribution is termed "plastic design". It can only be
used for continuous structures and then only when certain restrictions on cross-sectional geometry, member slenderness,
etc.., are observed. The topic is covered in detail in Lecture 7.8.2 in the context of beams and in Lecture 7.11 in the
context of frames.

4. DESIGN OF BEAMS FOR SHEAR

Although bending will govern the design of most steel beams, situations will arise, e.g. short beams carrying heavy
concentrated loads, in which shear forces are sufficiently high for them to be the controlling factor.
Figure 6 illustrates the pattern of shear stress found in a rectangular section and in an I-section assuming elastic
behaviour. In both cases shear stress varies parabolically with depth, with the maximum value occurring at the neutral
axis. However, for the I-section, the difference between maximum and minimum values for the web, which carries
virtually the whole of the vertical shear force, is sufficiently small for design to be simplified by working with the
average shear stress, i.e. total shear force/web area. Since the shear yield stress of steel is approximately 1/√3 of its
tensile yield stress, a suitable value for "permissible" shear stress when using elastic design is 1/√3 of the permissible
tensile stress.

The ultimate shear resistance (based on plastic principles) used in Eurocode 3 [1] is fyd/√3; this is used in conjunction
with a shear area Av, examples of which are:
rolled I-section, load parallel to web Av = A-2btf + (tw+2r)tf
plates and solid bars Av = A
circular hollow sections Av = 2A/π
In cases where high shear and high moment coexist, e.g. the internal support of a continuous beam, it may sometimes be
necessary to allow for interaction effects. However, since the full shear capacity may be developed in the presence of
quite large moments and vice versa (Eurocode 3 only requires reductions in moment resistance when the applied shear
exceeds 50% of the ultimate shear resistance [1]) this will not often be required.
5. DEFLECTIONS
Excessive deflections, whilst not normally leading to a structural failure, may, nonetheless, impair the serviceability of
the structure.
Deflection might, for example, cause:
● cracking of plaster ceilings.

● misalignment of crane rails.
● difficulty in opening large doors.
Since these affect the performance of the structure in its working conditions, it is usual to conduct this type of check at
service load levels. Eurocode 3 suggests a limit of span/300 for the maximum deflection of beams supporting floors
under service live load [1]. Such limits should, however, be regarded as advisory only, and smaller or larger values can
be more appropriate in any given situation. Wherever possible, specialist advice should be sought; crane manufacturers,
for example, should be able to give detailed guidelines regarding permissable deflection for gantry beams.
6. BENDING OF UNSYMMETRICAL SECTIONS

For sections with a single axis of symmetry bent about the perpendicular axis, the elastic distribution of bending stresses
will be as shown in Figure 7. Due to its lack of symmetry about the neutral axis, the stress on the top and bottom flanges
will not be equal; for example, the stress on the smaller flange, in the case of an unequal flanged I-beam, will exceed
that on the bigger. Therefore, in elastic design, it is necessary to use the smaller of the two elastic section moduli Wmin.

At full plasticity, the line of zero stress must be positioned so that it divides the area of the section into two equal parts,
as shown in Figure 7c. Since the plastic section modulus Wpl is defined from Equation (3) as the ratio of Mpl/fy, there
will be a single value for both faces of the section. Thus, when using ultimate moment resistance, the design condition
will remain as Equation (4).

7. BIAXIAL BENDING
Doubly or singly-symmetrical sections subject to bending moments My, Mz about both principal axes may be treated as
the sum of two uniaxial problems. Thus, in elastic design, it is necessary to satisfy the linear interaction equation:
(6)
in which Wy and Wz are the elastic section moduli of the cross-section with respect to the axes y and z and
fd is the limiting normal bending stress.
This is based on the idea of limiting the maximum combined stress in the section to the design value. Care is necessary
when dealing with sections such as angles for which the principal axes are not rectangular.
When using the plastic strength of the cross-section, analysis (which entails the location of the plastic neutral axis)
shows that the shape of the interaction between moments will depend upon the geometry of the cross-section. Safe
approximations to these interaction diagrams have therefore been provided in Eurocode 3 [1]. These adopt the form:
(7)
in which Mply and Mplz are moment capacities about the y and z axis respectively and the values of α and β depend on
the particular section under consideration; safe values are α = β = 1,0.
8. BENDING AND TORSION

Loads which do not act through the shear centre of the section (see Figure 8) will also cause twisting (the shear centre
coincides with the centroid for doubly-symmetrical sections, and lies on the axis of symmetry for singly-symmetrical
sections.) This will induce shear stresses due to torsion and, in the case of open sections, may also produce significant
additional longitudinal stresses due to the structural effect known as warping. Proper consideration of this complex topic
requires an appreciation of the theory of torsion which is outside the scope of this lecture. In many cases torsional
effects can be minimised by careful detailing such that load is transferred into members in a way that avoids twisting.

● The main design requirement for beams is the provision of adequate bending strength. The types of member

normally used to achieve this have been indicated. Means of recognising beams whose design can be based on
relatively simple structural principles have been presented.
● Section modulus, either elastic or plastic depending upon the design philosophy adopted, is the most appropriate
property for use in selecting a suitable section.
● Shear capacity and deflection must also be checked in simple beam design.
● Situations in which a more complex structural response occurs, resulting in the need to consider biaxial bending,
torsion, etc.., have been discussed.
10. REFERENCES
[1] Eurocode 3: " Design of Steel Structures": ENV 1993-1-1: Part 1.1: General rules and rules for buildings, CEN,
1992.

1. Dowling, P.J., Owens, G.W. and Knowles, P., "Structural Steel Design", Butterworths, 1988.
2. Petersen C., "Stahlbauten", Vieweg Verlog Braunshweig, 1988.
3. Galambos, T.V., "Structural Members and Frames", Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, 1968.
4. Narayanan, R., "Beams and Beam Columns - Stability and Strength", Applied Science, London, 1983.
5. Salmon, C. G. and Johnson, J. E., "Steel Structures - Design and Behaviour", Harper and Row, New York, 1980.
Beam Type Span Notes

Range
(m)
0. Angles 3-6 used for roof purlins,

sheeting rails, etc., where
only light loads have to
be carried.
1. Cold- 4-8 used for roof purlins,

formed sheeting rails, etc., where
sections only light loads have to
be carried.
2. Rolled 1 - 30 most frequently used type

sections UB, of section; proportions
IPE, UPN, HE selected to eliminate
several possible types of
failure.
3. Open web 4 - 40 prefabricated using

joists angles or tubes as chords
and round bar for web
diagonals; used in place
of rolled sections.

4. Castellated 6 - 60 used for long spans and/

beams or light loads, depth of
UB increased by 50%,
web openings may be
used for services, etc.
5. Compound 5 - 15 used when a single rolled

sections e.g. section would not
IPE+UPN provide sufficient
capacity; often arranged
to provide enhanced
horizontal bending
strength as well.
6. Plate girders 10 - made by welding together

100 3 plates, sometimes
automatically; web
depths up to 3-4m
sometimes need
stiffening.
7. Box girders 15 - fabricated from plate,

200 usually stiffened; used for
OHT cranes and bridges
due to good torsional and
transverse stiffness
properties.
TABLE 1

ESDEP WG 7
ELEMENTS

OBJECTIVE/SCOPE
To present and discuss procedures for the design of restrained beams including consideration of moment
redistribution for Class 1 sections [1].
PREREQUISITES
Elastic theory for uniaxial and biaxial bending combined with shear forces.
RELATED LECTURES
Worked Example 7.8: Laterally Restrained Beams
SUMMARY
The mechanism of redistribution of bending stress in a steel beam after the attainment of first yield is explained. For
statically determinate beams, the idea of failure by the development of full plasticity at a cross-section is introduced,
leading to the concepts of plastic section modulus and shape factor. Statically indeterminate beams are shown to be
capable of developing several such regions - termed plastic hinges - before collapsing as a mechanism. The influence
of shear forces is discussed from a design point of view, and behaviour in bending about both principal axes is
briefly considered.
ADDITIONAL NOTATION
b width
ε strain
ε1 & ε2 strains on extreme fibres
d overall depth of section

Est strain hardening modulus
εy yield strain
φ curvature
F applied load
fd limiting stress in material
fly lower yield stress
fp limit of proportionality
fuy upper yield stress
L span
M moment
Mplr plastic moment resistance in presence of an axial load
Mplv plastic moment resistance in presence of shear load
My moment at first yield (fyW)
Npl squash load (fyA)
τy yield shear stress
s shape factor (Wpl/W)
fmax maximum stress on extreme fibre
tw web thickness
Vpw web shear resistance, at shear yield
Vs applied shear force
W elastic section modulus

Wpl plastic section modulus
σ normal stress
τ shear stress
1. INTRODUCTION
When a restrained steel beam of "compact" proportions (see Lecture 7.8.1) is subjected to loads producing vertical
bending, its response will consist of a number of stages. Initially it will behave elastically, with vertical deflections
being related linearly to the applied load. As the loading is increased, the most highly stressed regions will develop
strains in excess of yield, resulting in a local loss of stiffness. For the beam as a whole, deflections will now start to
increase rather more rapidly. Additional load will cause this process to continue until complete plasticity is reached
at one cross-section. For a simply supported beam, this point will correspond to the maximum load that can be
carried without strain hardening and will also be the point at which deflections become very large. On the other
hand, for continuous structures, further increases of load are possible as redistribution of moments takes place.
It is the purpose of this lecture to discuss the concept of plasticity as it influences the design of beams, showing how
the basic procedures of Lecture 7.8.1 may be modified to allow for this behaviour.
2. BEHAVIOUR OF STEEL BEAMS IN BENDING
2.1 Statically Determinate Beams
Figure 1 presents the relationship between applied load and central deflection that would be obtained from a test on a
simply supported steel beam of Class 2 proportions or better. Three distinct phases may be identified:

● OA elastic, linear relation between load and deflection.

● AB elastic-plastic, deflections increase at a progressively faster rate.
● BC plastic, growth of large deflections at reasonably constant load.
Because phases 2 and 3 involve the development of plasticity in regions of high stress, full understanding of the
beam's response first requires that the behaviour of the material itself be considered.
Figure 2 presents a stress-strain curve of the type that would be obtained from a tensile test on a small piece of steel,
called a 'coupon'. Rather than work directly with this, calculations may be considerably simplified if the idealised,
bilinear response of Figure 3 is substituted. This comprises an initial elastic portion, followed by a horizontal,
perfectly plastic portion. It therefore neglects such features as the upper yield point, strain hardening etc., the
inclusion of which would have only a very small effect on the resulting analysis for a substantial increase in
complexity.


Using Figure 3, the relationship between moment (M) and curvature (φ) for a cross-section can be derived by
considering the distributions of strain and stress at various stages, shown in Figure 4. Providing the maximum strain
at the extreme fibre (ε1) remains below the yield strain (εy), then the corresponding stress distribution will be linear,
as shown in Figure 4a.


Assuming a beam of depth d, curvature will be given by:
φ = (ε1 - ε2)/ d (1)
The corresponding moment of resistance may be determined by taking moments of the stress diagram about the
neutral axis (yy). Assuming a rectangular section of width b gives:
M = σ (bd2/6) (2)
in which (bd2/6) is termed the elastic section modulus (W).
Once ε1 exceeds εy, since σ cannot exceed fy, the shape of the stress distribution will change, as shown in Figure 4b,
with the result that φ will now increase more rapidly, i.e. the M-φ relationship will become non-linear, as shown in
Figure 5. φ may still be obtained from Equation (1) whilst M may be calculated as before, using Figure 4b.

Eventually the condition shown in Figure 4c will be approached (replacing the actual stress distribution with the two
rectangular stress blocks is, of course, an approximation that greatly simplifies calculation for negligible loss in
accuracy) for which M is given by:
M = fy (bd2/4) (3)
This is termed the fully plastic moment (Mpl) of the cross-section; it represents the theoretical upper limit on moment
resistance based on the stress-strain behaviour of Figure 3. The quantity Wpl = bd2/4 is termed the plastic section
modulus and the ratio Wpl/W, which is a measure of the additional moment that can be carried beyond the first yield,
is the shape factor. For a rectangular section:
s = Wpl/W = (bd2/4)/bd2/6) (4)
Therefore s = 1,50
Values of W, Wpl and s for several structural shapes are given in Table 1.
Since the slope of the M-φ curve decreases effectively to zero at Mpl, the cross-section is said to form a plastic hinge,
because bending stiffness locally in this region will be zero, i.e. the beam now acts as if it contains a real hinge, with
the difference that the moment at this hinge remains at Mpl. For a simply supported beam, the formation of a plastic
hinge, rather than the attainment of first yield, provides a close estimate of its maximum load carrying resistance. A
simple method of determining the load at which this occurs, consists of treating the elastic portions of the beam as
rigid and equating the work done by the external loads to the energy dissipated by the plastic hinge. For the example
of Figure 1 this gives:
FLθ/2 = Mpl.2θ (5)
F = 4Mpl/L
This approach uses the concept of the structure being transformed into a mechanism at collapse.
2.2 Statically Indeterminate Beams
If the steel beam is continuous and Class 1, then the formation of the first plastic hinge at the point of maximum
moment, previously obtained from an elastic analysis, will not mark the limit of its load-carrying resistance (see
Figure 6). Rather, it signifies a change in the way in which the beam responds to further loads. For the two-span
beam of Figure 6 the insertion of a real hinge at the central support (B) would cause each span to behave as if it were
simply supported. Thus both would be capable of sustaining load, and would not collapse until this load caused a
plastic hinge to form at mid-span. The formation of a plastic hinge at B produces qualitatively similar behaviour.
Thus continuous structures do not collapse until sufficient plastic hinges have formed to convert them into a
mechanism. At collapse, the beam will appear as shown in Figure 6.

Equating external and internal work as before for this collapse mechanism gives:
2FLθ/2 = Mpl (2θ + 2θ + 2θ) (6)
F = 6Mpl/L
Figure 6 shows the load-deflection curve for this two-span beam obtained from an elastic-plastic analysis. Each
change in slope corresponds to the formation of a plastic hinge which produces progressive "softening" of the
structure. Collapse occurs at an applied load given by Equation (6) when sufficient hinges have formed to transform

the beam into a mechanism with no inherent stiffness, corresponding to the final horizontal segment of the curve. It
is usual, when conducting this type of analysis, to assume that plastic hinges form suddenly; this corresponds to
regarding the cross-section as having a unit shape factor, i.e. Wpl = W. Comparing the resulting load-deflection
curve with the more rounded curve obtained from an actual test shows how neglecting the spread of plasticity has
comparatively little effect on the overall behaviour.
Although the elastic-plastic analysis of statically indeterminate beams is quite complex, the determination of the
collapse load from considerations of the collapse mechanism for most types of continuous beam is relatively
straightforward. A similar approach is also possible for plastically designed, portal frame structures.
It should be noted that, in passing from the elastic state corresponding to loads up to Fyield to the plastic state
corresponding to the load Fcollapse, the beam of Figure 6 has undergone a redistribution of moment. Thus the shape
of the plastic moment diagram will differ from that of the elastic moment diagram. In this case the former will
correspond to Mpl at all three plastic hinges, whilst the latter will have a maximum at the central support.
2.3 Bending of I-Sections
Applying the stress-strain curve of Figure 3 to the idealised I-section of Figure 7a bending about the yy axis, in
which half of the area is assumed to be concentrated at the mid-depth of each flange, leads to the bilinear M-φ curve
of Figure 8. Thus, for this hypothetical cross-section, full plasticity and first yield coincide and the shape factor is
unity.

Taking the more realistically proportioned beam with shape as shown in Figure 7b, produces an M-φ curve with a
rounded 'knee' as indicated in Figure 8. Since this 'knee' corresponds to the spread of plasticity, it starts at a moment
equal to Mpl/s. A typical value of s for an I-beam section would be 1,15 for strong axis bending. For weak axis
bending of I-sections s ≈ 1,5.

An elastic-plastic analysis for any cross-sectional shape, bent about its axis of symmetry, may be performed using
the approach described previously for a rectangular section. If necessary a more precise representation of the
material stress-strain curve may be employed but this does, of course, complicate the arithmetic.
2.4 Bending of Singly-symmetrical Sections
An elastic-plastic analysis for a cross-section that is not bent about an axis of symmetry, is complicated by the shift
in the position of the neutral axis that occurs as plasticity develops. Initially the elastic neutral axis will pass through
the centroid as shown in Figure 9a. However, because of the unequal strains on the top and bottom surfaces of the
section, yield will occur first at one edge only as shown in Figure 9b. Plasticity will thus spread inwards in an
unsymmetrical fashion as shown by Figure 9c. Equilibrium of axial forces at all such intermediate stages requires a
balance of compressive and tensile forces. For this requirement to be met, the line of zero stress must move away
from the yielded material as the force in this part of the cross-section will be increasing less rapidly. Eventually,
upon attaining full plasticity as shown in Figure 9d, the section's neutral axis must coincide with the equal area axis, i.
e. the line dividing the section into two halves. Calculation of Mpl for an unsymmetrical section therefore requires a
knowledge of the location of the equal area axis, rather than the use of the centroidal axis used when dealing with
elastic behaviour.

Singly-symmetrical sections have two different values of the elastic section modulus for the two faces, because of
the different distances of the latter from the elastic neutral axis. However, such sections possess a single value of
plastic section modulus equal to Mpl/fy. They will therefore have two values of shape factor depending on which of
the faces is under consideration. For extreme sections such as tees, these may differ quite widely with one value
actually being less than unity. Although this does not, of course, affect the basic relationship between My and Mpl for
the section, it can be a source of confusion in situations which require the specific consideration of yield in
compression (or tension).
3. EFFECT OF SHEAR FORCE

Consideration of the effect of shear on plastic moment resistance first requires an assumption about the way in which
steel yields under the action of direct and shear stress. This is represented by:
(σ/fy)2 + (τ/τy)2 = 1 (7)
in which τy = yield shear strength (taken as fy/√3 according to the Von Mises criterion) and rounded to 0,6fy.
Applying this to assumed plastic patterns of bending and shear stress for a rectangular section, leads to the following
approximate relationship between the applied shear force (Vs), reduced plastic moment resistance (Mplv), the shear
force required for yield in shear (Vpw), and Mpl :
Mplv = for (8)
Applying Equation (7) to a fully plastic I section (see Figure 10), assuming that the shear stresses in the web are
uniform and that Vpw = 0,6dtwfy (τy = 0,6 fy), gives:

Mplv = for 0,5Vpw ≤ Vs ≤ Vpw (9)
Mplv = Mpl for Vs ≤ 0,5Vpw
Thus for I-sections bent in the plane of the web, shear forces of less than 50% of the plastic resistance of the web in
shear have no significant effect on Mpl. For bending about the minor axis, behaviour is similar to that of a
rectangular section, as described by Equation (8).
4. PLASTIC BEHAVIOUR UNDER GENERAL COMBINED LOADING

Analyses for cross-sectional resistance under combinations of moment and shear have been performed for various
structural shapes using a number of variants of plasticity theory. For design purposes, results are normally expressed
either graphically or as approximate interaction formulae. In the case of an I-section bent about its major axis, no
reduction in Mpl for shears of less than one half of Vpw is necessary.

When bending takes place about both axes of the cross-section, the plastic neutral axis will be inclined to the
rectangular axes by an amount which depends on the ratio of the applied moments and the exact shape of the section.
By assuming stress distributions and calculating corresponding moments of resistance, a relationship between the
two reduced plastic moment resistances (Mplry and Mplrz) and the basic plastic moment resistances (Mply and Mplz)
may be obtained. If required, such calculations may also include the effects of axial load (N). Although tedious,
these have been performed for a variety of structural shapes (see Figures 11 and 12), including unsymmetrical
sections such as angles. For an I or H shape under biaxial bending, a suitable expression relating Mplry and Mplrz is:

(10)

Providing the section has at least one axis of symmetry and the problem is worked in terms of its principal axes, it is
always safe to use the linear equivalent of Equation (10), viz:
(11)
● Providing instability effects do not occur, steel beams can withstand moments in excess of those that just
cause yield. Stress redistribution over the cross-section enables the fully plastic pattern of bending stresses to
develop, for which the moment of resistance is the full plastic moment, Mpl.
● Statically indeterminate beams only collapse when sufficient regions of full local plasticity, termed "plastic
hinges" have developed to convert the "structure" into a mechanism.
● The value of Mpl is given by the product of yield stress (fy) and a geometrical property of the cross-section
termed the "plastic section modulus" - Wpl; the ratio Wpl/W is called the "shape factor".
● Mpl will be reduced if shear is also present, although in most practical situations reductions due to shear will
be negligible.
6. REFERENCES
[1] Eurocode 3: "Design of Steel Structures": ENV 1993-1-1: Part 1.1: General rules and rules for buildings, CEN,
1992.
1. Dowling, P.J., Owens, G.W. and Knowles, P., "Structural Steel Design", Butterworths, 1988.
2. Ballio, G., and Mazzolani, F., "Theory and Design of Steel Structures", Chapman and Hall, New York, 1983.
3. Salmon, C.G. and Johnson, J.E., "Steel Structures - Design and Behaviour", Harper and Row, New York,
1980.
4. Trahair, N.S. and Bradford, M.A., "The Behaviour and Design of Steel Structures", Chapman and Hall, 1988.
5. McGinley, T.J. and Ang, T.C., "Structural Steelwork Design to Limit State Theory", Butterworths, 1987.
Section Elastic section Plastic section modulus Shape factor

modulus W Wpl
s
Rectangle bd2/6 bd2/4 1,5
I: major axis [bd3-(b-tw)h3]/6d btf(d-tf) approx. 1,15
+ tw(d-2tf)2/4
I: minor axis b2tf/2 + approx. 1,67
(d-2tf)tw2/4

Solid circular π d3/32 d3/6 1,7
Circular hollow π [d4-(d-2t)4]/32d for t = d/10;

section
1,4
for t << d; 1,27

If t << d; td2
Channel [bd3-(b-tw)h3]/bd btf(d-tf) approx. 1,15
+ tw(d-2tf)2/4
Table 1 Values of W, Wpl and s for various shapes

ESDEP WG 7
ELEMENTS
Lecture 7.9.1: Unrestrained Beams I

OBJECTIVE/SCOPE
To develop an understanding of the phenomenon of lateral-torsional instability; to identify the controlling parameters and
to show how theory, experiment and judgement are combined to produce a practical design method. The design
procedure given in Eurocode 3 [1] is used as an illustration of such a method.
PREREQUISITES
RELATED LECTURES:
Lecture 7.9.2: Unrestrained Beams II
SUMMARY
This lecture begins with a non-mathematical introduction to the phenomenon of lateral torsional buckling. It presents a
simple analogy between the behaviour of the compression flange and the flexural buckling of a strut. It summarises
the principal factors influencing lateral stability and briefly describes the role of bracing in improving this.

A brief explanation is given of the reasons why the elastic theory, discussed in Lecture 7.9.2, requires modification
before being used as a basis for the design rules for unrestrained beams. A summary of the background to Eurocode 3 [1]
is also presented.
NOTATION
C coefficient to account for type of loading
d overall depth
EIz flexural rigidity about the minor axis
fd design strength of material
iz minor axis radius of gyration
k coefficient to account for conditions of lateral support
L span
Mb.Rd buckling resistance moment
Mcr elastic critical buckling moment
Mpl plastic moment of cross-section
MRd moment resistance of cross-section
tf flange thickness
u lateral deflection
αLT parameter in design formula, see Equation (2)
χLT reduction factor for lateral-torsional buckling
LT beam slenderness
λLT basic slenderness
λ1 parameter used to determine LT, see Equation (4)
φ twist
φLT parameter used to determine χLT, see Equation (2)
ψ moment ratio, see Equation (5)
1. STRUCTURAL PROPERTIES OF SECTIONS USED AS BEAMS

When designing a steel beam it is usual to think first of the need to provide adequate strength and stiffness against
vertical bending. This leads naturally to a cross-sectional shape in which the stiffness in the vertical plane is much greater
than that in the horizontal plane. Sections normally used as beams have the majority of their material concentrated in
the flanges, which are relatively narrow so as to prevent local buckling. The need to connect beams to adjacent members
with ease normally suggests the use of an open section, for which the torsional stiffness will be comparatively low. Figure
1, which compares section properties for four different shapes of equal area, shows that the high vertical bending stiffness
of typical beam sections is obtained at the expense of both horizontal bending and torsional stiffness.


2. RESPONSE OF SLENDER BEAMS TO VERTICAL LOADING

It is known from our understanding of the behaviour of struts that, whenever a slender structural element is loaded in its
stiff plane (axially in the case of the strut), there exists a tendency for it to fail by buckling in a more flexible plane
(by deflecting sideways in the case of the strut). Figure 2 illustrates the response of a slender cantilever beam to a vertical
end load; this phenomenon is termed lateral-torsional buckling. Although it involves both a lateral deflection (u) and
twisting about a vertical axis through the web (φ), as shown in Figure 3, this type of instability is quite similar to the
simpler flexural buckling of an axially loaded strut. Loading the beam in its stiffer plane (the plane of the web) has induced
a failure by buckling in a less stiff-direction (by deflecting sideways and twisting).


Of course, many types of construction effectively prevent this form of buckling, thereby enabling the beam to be designed
with greater efficiency as fully restrained (see Lecture 7.8.1). In this context it is important to realise that during erection of
the structure certain beams may well receive far less lateral support than will be the case when floors, decks, bracings, etc.,
are present, so that stability checks, at this stage, are also necessary.
Lateral-torsional instability influences the design of laterally unrestrained beams in much the same way that flexural
buckling influences the design of columns. Thus the bending strength will now be a function of the beam's slenderness,
as indicated in Figure 4, requiring the use in design of an iterative procedure similar to the use of column curves in strut
design. However, because of the type of structural actions involved, the analysis of lateral-torsional buckling is
considerably more complex. This is reflected in a design approach which requires a rather greater degree of calculation.

3. SIMPLE PHYSICAL MODEL

Before considering the analysis of the problem, it is useful to attempt to gain an insight into the physical behaviour
by considering a simplified model. Since bending of an I-section beam is resisted principally by the tensile and
compressive forces developed in two flanges, as shown in Figure 5, the compression flange may be regarded as a
strut. Compression members exhibit a tendency to buckle and in this case the weaker direction would be for the flange
to buckle downwards. However, this is prevented by the presence of the web. Therefore the flange is forced to
buckle sideways, which will induce some degree of twisting in the section as the web too is required to deform. Whilst
this approach neglects the real influence of torsion and the role of the tension flange, it does, nevertheless, approximate
the behaviour of very deep girders with very thin webs or of trusses or open web joists. Indeed, early attempts at
analysing lateral-torsional buckling started with this approach.

4. FACTORS INFLUENCING LATERAL STABILITY

The compression flange/strut analogy, discussed in the previous section, is also helpful in understanding the following:
1. The buckling load of the beam is likely to be dependent on its unbraced span, i.e.the distance between points at which
lateral deflection is prevented, and on its lateral bending stiffness (ELz) because strut resistance ∝ ELz/L2.
2. The shape of the cross-section may be expected to have some influence, with the web and the tension flange being
more important for relatively shallow sections, than for deep slender sections. In the former case the proximity of the
stable tension flange to the unstable compression flange increases stability and also produces a greater twisting of the
cross-section. Thus torsional behaviour becomes more important.
3. For beams under non-uniform moment, the force in the compression flange will no longer be constant, as shown in Figure
6. Therefore such members might reasonably be expected to be more stable than similar members under a more uniform
pattern of moment.
4. End restraint which inhibits development of the buckled shape, shown in Figure 3, is likely to increase the stability of the
beam. Consideration of the buckling deformations (u and φ) should make it clear that this refers to rotational restraint in plan,
i.e.about the z-axis (refer back to Figure 5 and 3). Rotational restraint in the vertical plane affects the pattern of moments in
the beam (and may thus also lead to increased stability) but does not directly alter the buckled shape, as shown in Figure 7.


A more rigorous analysis, substantiating the above four points, is presented in Lecture 7.9.2. This lecture also deals
with warping of the cross-section and the influence of level of application of load on stability; factors not illustrated by
the simplified model presented here.
5. BRACING AS A MEANS OF IMPROVING PERFORMANCE

Bracing may be used to improve the strength of a beam that is liable to lateral-torsional instability. Two requirements
are necessary:
1. The bracing must be sufficiently stiff to hold the braced point effectively against lateral movement (this can normally
be achieved without difficulty).
2. The bracing must be sufficiently strong to withstand the forces transmitted to it by the main member (these forces are
normally a percentage of the force in the compression flange of the braced member).
Providing these two conditions are satisfied, then the full in-plane strength of a beam may be developed through braces
at sufficiently close spacing. Figure 8, which illustrates buckled shapes for beams with intermediate braces, shows how
this buckling involves the whole beam. In theory, bracing should prevent either lateral or torsional displacement
from occurring. In practice, consideration of the buckled shape of the beam cross-section shown in Figure 3 suggests
that bracing is potentially most effective when used to resist the largest components of deformation, i.e. a lateral brace
attached to the top flange is likely to be more effective than a similar brace attached to the bottom flange.

6. DESIGN APPLICATION

Direct use of the theory of lateral-torsional instability for design is inappropriate because:
● The formulae are too complex for routine use, e.g. Equation (17) of Lecture 7.9.2.
● Significant differences exist between the assumptions which form the basis of the theory and the characteristics of real
beams. Since the theory assumes elastic behaviour, it provides an upper bound on the true strength (this point is discussed
in general terms in Lecture 6.6.2).
Figure 9 compares a typical set of lateral-torsional buckling test data obtained using actual hot-rolled sections with
the theoretical elastic critical moments given by Equation (17) of Lecture 7.9.2.

In Figure 9a only one set of data for a narrow flanged beam section is shown. The use of the LT non-dimensional format
in Figure 9b has the advantage of permitting results from different test series (using different cross-sections and
different material strengths) to be compared directly. In both figures three distinct regions of behaviour can be observed:
● Stocky beams which are able to attain Mpl, with values of LT below about 0,4 in Figure 9b.
● Slender beams which fail at moments close to Mcr, with values of LT above 1,2 in Figure 9b.
● Beams of intermediate slenderness which fail to reach either Mpl or Mcr, with 0,4 < LT < 1,2 in Figure 9b.
Only in the case of beams in region 1 does lateral stability not influence design; such beams can be designed using the
methods of Lecture 7.8.1. For beams in region 2, which covers much of the practical range of beams without lateral
restraint, design must be based on considerations of inelastic buckling suitably modified to allow for geometrical
imperfections, residual stresses, etc., (see Lecture 6.1). Thus both theory and tests must play a part, with the
inherent complexity of the problem being such that the final design rules are likely to involve some degree of empiricism.
Section 7 outlines the provisions of Eurocode 3 [1] with regard to beam design, assuming typical sections as shown in
Figure 10a and 10b. It should be noted that sections of the type illustrated in Figure 10b, with one axis of symmetry, e.
g.channels, may only be included if the section is bent about the axis of symmetry, i.e. loads are applied through the
shear centre parallel to the web of the channel. Singly-symmetrical sections bent in the other plane, e.g. an unequal flanged
I-section bent about its major-axis as shown in Figure 10c, may only be treated by an extended version of the theory of
Lecture 7.9.2, principally because the section's shear centre no longer lies on the neutral axis.

7. METHOD OF EUROCODE 3
The buckling resistance moment [1] is given by:
MbRd = χLT MRd (1)
where MRd is the moment resistance of the cross-section
χLT is the reduction factor for lateral-torsional buckling

In determining MRd the section classification should, of course, be noted and the appropriate section modulus used
in conjunction with the material design strength fd. The value of χLT depends on the beam's slenderness LT and is given by:
χLT = 1/ {φLT + [φLT2 - LT

2]1/2} (2)
where φLT = 0,5 [1 + αLT( LT - 0,20) + LT

2]
and αLT = 0,21 for rolled sections
αLT = 0,49 for welded beams
Figure 11 illustrates the relationship between χLT and LT, showing how it follows the pattern of behaviour exhibited by
the test data of Figure 9. When LT ≤ 0,4, the value of χLT is sufficiently close to unity that design may be based on the
full resistance moment MRd.

The slenderness LT, which is a measure of the extent to which lateral-torsional buckling reduces a beam's load
carrying resistance, is a function of MRd and Mcr. Mcr is the elastic critical buckling moment, a quantity similar in concept

to the Euler load for a strut since it is derived from a theory (see Lecture 7.9.2) that assumes "perfect" behaviour, i.e.
an initially straight member, elastic response, no misalignment of the loading, etc..
Thus LT is taken as:
LT = (3)
For calculation purposes Equation (3) may be rewritten as:
LT = [λLT / λ1] (4)
where λ1 = π[E/fy]1/2
and λLT =
This expression represents a conservative approximation for any uniform plain I or H shape with equal flanges - see Annex
F2 of EC3.
The above expression for λLT is valid for loading giving uniform moment over a span whose ends are prevented
from deflecting laterally and from twisting about a vertical axis passing through the web. This is the basic case for
lateral stability (Figure 12) for which a full theoretical treatment is provided in Lecture 7.9.2. Variations in the conditions
of loading and/or lateral support may be allowed for by introducing modifying factors into the expressions for λLT or Mcr.

For example, if there is a moment gradient between points of lateral restraint, λLT is calculated as follows:
λLT = (5)
where C1 = 1,75 - 1,05 ψ + 0,3 ψ2 ≤ 2,35
and ψ is the end moment ratio defined in Figure 13.

Taking as an example the end span of a continuous beam for which ψ = 0 gives C1=1,75 and thus λLT will be reduced to
0,76 (= 1/√ 1,75) of the value for uniform moment, leading to an increase in χLT and thus in MbRd.
Variations in the conditions of lateral restraint may be treated by introducing k-coefficients to modify the geometrical length
L into kL when determining Mcr. For conditions with more restraint, values of k < 1,0 are appropriate, leading to an increase
in Mcr and thus, via a reduction in LT, to increases in χLT and MbRd.
Similarly additional C-coefficients may be used directly in the determination of Mcr to provide modified values of
LT appropriate for a wide range of load types. In particular, this method should be used to calculate the reduced
Mcr appropriate for destabilising loads. These are loads that act above the level of the beam's shear centre and are free to
move sideways with the beam as it buckles, as shown in Figure 14.

For cross-sections of the type illustrated in Figure 9c, for which the shear centre and centroid do not lie on the same
horizontal axis, evaluation of Mcr becomes more complex and is covered by Annex F of Eurocode 3 [1].
● Beams that are not restrained along their length and are bent about their strong axis are subject to lateral torsional buckling.
● Unbraced span, lateral slenderness (L/iz), cross-sectional shape (torsional and warping rigidities), moment distribution and
end restraint are the primary influences on buckling resistance.
● Bracing of sufficient stiffness and strength, that restrains either torsional or lateral deformations, may be used to
increase buckling resistance.
● Although elastic critical load theory provides a background for understanding the behaviour of laterally unrestrained beams,
it requires both simplifications and empirical modification if it is to form a suitable basis for a design approach.
● In order to check the lateral buckling resistance of a trial section, its effective slenderness LT must first be obtained.
● Variation in either lateral support conditions or the form of the applied loading may be accommodated in the design process
by means of coefficients k and C, used to modify either the basic slenderness λLT or the basic elastic critical moment Mcr.
9. REFERENCES

1. Narayanan, R., Editor, "Beams and Beam Columns: Stability and Strength", Applied Science Publishers 1983.
Chapters 1 - 3 deal with various aspects of behaviour and design of laterally unrestrained beams.
2. Chen, W. F. and Atsuta, T. "Theory of Beam Columns Volume 2, Space Behaviour and Design", McGraw Hill 1977.
Chapter 3 deals with laterally unrestrained beams.
3. Timoshenko, S. P. and Gere, J. M., "Theory of Elastic Stability" Second Edition, McGraw Hill 1961.
Basic derivations for the elastic critical moment for a variety of beam problems are provided in Chapter 6.
4. Bleich, F., "Buckling Strength of Metal Structures", McGraw Hill 1952.
Chapter 4 presents the basic theory of lateral buckling of beams.
5. Galambos, T. V., "Structural Members and Frames", Prentiss Hall 1968.

Chapter 2 deals with the fundamentals of elastic behaviour, whilst Chapter 3 covers elastic and inelastic behaviour and
design of laterally unrestrained beams.
6. Trahair, N. S. and Bradford, M. A., "The Behaviour and Design of Steel Structures", Chapman and Hall, Second Edition, 1988.
Laterally unrestrained beams are dealt with in Chapter 6.

ESDEP WG 7
ELEMENTS

OBJECTIVE/SCOPE
To derive the basic theory of elastic lateral-torsional buckling and to discuss the physical significance of the
resulting expressions.
PREREQUISITES
Simple bending theory
Simple torsion theory
RELATED LECTURES
Worked Example 7.9: Laterally Unrestrained Beams

SUMMARY
This lecture presents the basic elastic theory for lateral-torsional buckling of beams, commencing with the case of a
simply supported beam under uniform moment. Variations in load pattern, load level and degree of end restraint are
discussed. The theoretical derivations are separated into two Appendices, the main text being limited to a discussion of
the underlying assumptions and the physical significance of the derived expressions.
NOTATION
b flange width
C1 coefficient to allow for type of loading
hf distance between flange centroids
EIw warping rigidity
EIz minor axis flexural rigidity
E Young's modulus
F applied load
Fcr elastic critical buckling load
GIt torsional rigidity
d overall depth of section
L span
M moment

Mcr applied elastic critical buckling moment
tf flange thickness
tw web thickness
1. INTRODUCTION
The basic model used to illustrate the theory of lateral-torsional buckling is shown in Figure 1. It assumes the following:
● beam is initially straight

● elastic behaviour
● uniform equal flanged I-section
● ends simply supported in the lateral plane (twist and lateral deflection prevented, no rotational restraint in plan)
● loaded by equal and opposite end moments in the plane of the web.

This problem may be regarded as being analogous to the basic pin-ended Euler strut.
The beam is placed in its buckled position, as in Figure 2, and the magnitude of the applied load necessary to hold it
there determined by equating the disturbing effect of the end moments, acting through the buckling deformations, to
the internal (bending and torsional) resistance of the section.

The derivation and solution to the equations leading to the critical value of applied end moments (Mcr) at which the beam
of Figure 1 just becomes unstable is provided in Appendix 1. The physical significance of the solution and its application
in cases where the assumptions listed above do not apply are discussed in Sections 2 and 3 that follow.
2. PHYSICAL SIGNIFICANCE OF THE SOLUTION

The buckled shape of the beam, Figure 2, is now compared with the expression for the elastic critical moment of Equation
(17) in Appendix 1, i.e.
Mcr = (17)
The presence of the flexural (EIz) and torsional (GIt and EIw) stiffnesses of the member in the equation is a direct
consequence of the lateral and torsional components of the buckling deformations. The relative importance of the
two mechanisms for resisting twisting is reflected in the second square root term. Length is also important, entering
both directly and indirectly via the π2EIw/L2GIt term. It is not possible to simplify Equation (17) by omitting terms
without imposing limits on the range of application of the resulting approximate solution. Figure 6 shows quantitatively
the application of Equation (17) to the different types of beam sections defined in the earlier Lecture 7.8.1. The region of
the curves for both I-sections of low length/depth ratios corresponds to the situation in which the value of the second
square root term in Equation (17) adopts a value significantly in excess of unity. Since warping effects (see Appendix 1) will
be most important for deep sections composed of thin plates, it follows that the π2EIw/L2GIt term will, in general, tend to
be large for short deep girders and small for long shallow beams.

Figure 7 gives some quantitative indication of the effect of shape of cross-section for structural steel I-beams, by

comparing values of Mcr for a beam (I) and a column (H) having approximately equal in-plane plastic moment
capacities. Clearly, lateral-torsional buckling is a potentially more significant design consideration for the beam section
which is much less stiff laterally.

3. EXTENSION TO OTHER CASES
3.1 Load Pattern
The equivalent of Equation (8) (Appendix 1) may be set up and solved for a variety of other load cases. Since the
applied moment at any point within the span will now be a function of x, the mathematics will be more complex. As
an example, consider the beam subjected to a central load acting at the level of the centroidal axis shown in Figure 8, for
which the analysis is outlined in Appendix 2.


The solution for this example may conveniently be compared with the basic case in terms of the critical moments for each, i.
e. maximum moment when the beam is on the point of buckling.
Basic case: Mcr = (π/L) √(EIxGIt) √[1+ (π2EIw/L2GIt)] (17)
Central load: Mcr = (4,24/L) √(EIxGIt) √[1+ (π2EIw/L2GIt)] (21)
The ratio of the two constants π/4,24=0,74 is the reciprocal of the coefficient C1 introduced in Lecture 7.9.1. Its value is
a direct measure of the severity of a particular pattern of moments relative to the basic case.
Figure 9, which gives C1 factors for various loading patterns, shows how lateral stability generally increases as the
moment pattern becomes less uniform.

3.2 Level of Application of Load
For transverse loads free to move sideways with the beam as it buckles, the level of application of load (relative to the
centroid) is important. The solution for a point load applied at any level relative to the beam's centroidal axis may
conveniently be obtained using an energy approach, as outlined in Appendix 2. When the load is applied to either the top
flange or the bottom flange, e.g. by a crane trolley, the solution of Equation (21) may still be used, providing the
numerical constant is replaced by a variable, the value of which depends upon the ratio L2GIt/EIw as shown in Figure 10.
The reason why top flange loading and bottom flange loading are respectively more or less severe than centroidal loading
may be appreciated from the sketches in Figure 10, which show the destabilising and stabilising effects. Clearly this would
be expected to become more significant as the depth of the section increases and/or the span reduced, i.e. as L2GIt/EIw
becomes smaller.

3.3 Conditions of Lateral Support
It has already been suggested in Lecture 7.9.1, that lateral support arrangements which inhibit the growth of the
buckling deformations will improve a beam's lateral stability. Equally, less effective conditions will reduce stability.
Providing the appropriate boundary conditions can be incorporated into the analysis methods of Appendices1 and 2,
any arrangement can be dealt with.
A convenient way of including the effect of different support conditions is to redefine L in Equation (17) as an effective
length l, with the exact value of l/L depending upon the degree of lateral bending and/or warping restraint provided.
In Eurocode 3 [1] this approach is split into the use of two factors:
k referring to end rotation on plan.
kw referring to end warping.
It is recommended that kw be taken as unity unless special provision for warping fixity is made; k may vary from 0,5 for
full fixity, through 0,7 for one end fixed and one end free, to 1,0 for no rotational fixity.
One case of particular practical interest is the cantilever, for which some results are presented in Figure 11.

These show that:
1. Cantilevers under end moment are less stable than similar, simply supported, beams.
2. Concentrating the moment adjacent to the support, as happens when the applied loading changes from pure moment to an
end load or to a distributed load, improves lateral stability.
3. The effect of load height is even more significant for cantilevers than for simply supported beams.

3.4 Continuous Beams
Continuity may be present in two different forms:
1. In a beam that has a single span vertically but is subdivided, by intermediate lateral supports, so that it exhibits
horizontal continuity between adjacent segments, see Figure 12a.
2. In the vertical plane as illustrated in Figure 12b.

For the first case a safe design will result if the most critical segment, treated in isolation, is used as the basis for designing
the whole beam. For the second case account should be taken of the actual moment diagram within each span, produced by
the continuity, by using the C1 factor. If the top flange can be considered as laterally restrained because of attachment to
a concrete slab, particular attention should be paid to the regions in which the lower flange is in compression, e.g. the
support regions or regions where uplift loads can occur.
3.5 Beams Other than Doubly-Symmetrical I-sections
The basic theoretical solution of Equation (17) is valid for members that are symmetrical about their horizontal axis, e.g.
a channel with the web vertical, providing the moments act through the shear centre (which will not now coincide with
the centroid). However, sections symmetrical only about the vertical axis, e.g. an unequal flanged I, require some
modification so as to allow for the so-called Wagner effect. This arises as a direct result of the vertical separation of the
shear centre and the centroid and leads to either an increase or a decrease in the section's torsional rigidity. Thus lateral
stability will be improved when the larger flange is in compression and reduced when the smaller flange is in compression
as compared with equal flange sections having comparable properties.
Sections with no axis of symmetry will not actually buckle but will deform by bending about both principal axes and
by twisting from the onset of loading. They should therefore be treated in the same way as symmetrical sections under
biaxial bending.
3.6 Restrained Beams
The elastic critical moment for a doubly symmetrical I-beam provided with continuous elastic torsional restraint, of
stiffness equal to Kφ , is:
Mcr =
Rearranging this shows that the beam behaves as if its torsional rigidity GIt were increased to (GIt+ Kφ L2/π 2),
thereby permitting a ready assessment of the effectiveness of the restraint. An important practical example of such a
restraint would be that provided by the bending stiffness of profiled steel sheeting (used typically in roof
construction) spanning at right angles to the beam.
● The elastic critical moment which causes lateral-torsional buckling of a slender beam may be determined from an
analysis which has close similarities to that used to study column buckling.
● Examination of the expression for the elastic critical moment for the basic problem enables the influence of cross-
sectional shape, as it affects the beam's resistance to lateral bending (EIz), torsion (It) and warping (Iw), to be identified; it
also demonstrates the importance of unbraced span length.
● Extensions to the basic theory permit the effects of load pattern, end restraint and level of application of destabilising loads
to be quantified.
● Load patterns which produce non-uniform moment may be compared with the basic, uniform moment case using
the coefficient C1; since most of these other cases will be less severe, C1 values greater than 1,0 are the norm.
5. REFERENCES
1. Narayanan, R., Editor, "Beams and Beam Columns: Stability and Strength", Applied Science Publishers 1983.
Chapters 1 - 3 deal with various aspects of behaviour and design of laterally unrestrained beams.
2. Chen, W. F. and Atsuta, T. "Theory of Beam Columns Volume 2, Space Behaviour and Design", McGraw Hill 1977.

Chapter 3 deals with laterally unrestrained beams.
3. Timoshenko, S. P. and Gere, J. M., "Theory of Elastic Stability" Second Edition, McGraw Hill 1961.
Basic derivations for the elastic critical moment for a variety of beam problems are provided in Chapter 6.
4. Bleich, F., "Buckling Strength of Metal Structures", McGraw Hill 1952.
Chapter 4 presents the basic theory of lateral buckling of beams.
5. Galambos, T. V., "Structural Members and Frames", Prentice Hall 1968.
Chapter 2 deals with the fundamentals of elastic behaviour, whilst Chapter 3 covers elastic and inelastic behaviour and
design of laterally unrestrained beams.
6. Trahair, N. S. and Bradford, M. A., "The Behaviour and Design of Steel Structures", Chapman and Hall, Second Edition, 1988.
Laterally unrestrained beams are dealt with in Chapter 6.
APPENDIX 1: ANALYSIS OF LATERAL-TORSIONAL BUCKLING
Derivation of Governing Equations
The deformed state of the beam is shown in Figure 3, which identifies the deflections (u and v) and the twist (φ). A new
co-ordinate system ξ η ζ , which deflects with the beam, is also illustrated.

Bending in the ξ ζ and η ζ planes and twisting about the ζ axis are governed by:
EIy (1)

EIz (2)
GIt (3)
In Equations (1) and (2) the flexural rigidities and curvatures in the ξ ζ and the η ζ planes have been replaced by the values
for the yx and zx planes, on the basis that φ is a small angle. Equation (3) includes both mechanisms available in a thin-
walled section to resist twist; the first term corresponds to that part of the applied torque which is resisted by the
development of shear stresses, whilst the second term allows for the influence of restrained warping. This latter
phenomenon arises as a direct result of the type of axial flange deformation, illustrated in Figure 4a, that occurs in an I-
section subject to equal and opposite end torques. The two flanges tend to bend in opposite senses about a vertical axis
through the web, with the result that originally plane sections do not remain plane. On the other hand, for the cantilever
of Figure 4b, it is clear that warping deformations must be at least partly inhibited elsewhere along the span, since they
cannot occur at the fixed end. This induces additional axial stresses in the flanges; the pair of couples, or bimoment, due to
this additional stress system provides part of the section's resistance to twist. In the case of lateral instability, restraint
against warping arises as a result of adjacent cross-sections wanting to warp by different amounts.

For an I-section, the relative magnitudes of the warping constant Iw and the torsion constant It are:
Iw = Iz hf2/4 and It =
They will be affected principally by the thickness of the component plates and by the depth of the section. For compact
column-type sections the first term in Equation (3) will tend to provide most of the twisting resistance, whilst the second
term will tend to become dominant for deeper beam shapes.
Consideration of the buckled shape using Figures 2, 3 and 5 enables the components of the applied moment in the ξ ζ and η
ζ planes and about the ζ axis to be obtained as:
Mξ = Mcosφ , Mη = Msinφ , Mζ = Msinα (4)

Since φ is small, cosφ ≈ 1 and sinφ ≈ φ, whilst Figure 5 shows that sinα may be approximated by - . Thus Equations (1) -
(3) may be written as:
EIy = M (5)
EIz = Mφ (6)
GIt (7)

Since Equation (5) contains only the vertical deflection (v), it is independent of the other two; it controls the in-plane
response of the beam described in Lecture 7.5.1. Equations (6) and (7) are coupled in u and φ , the buckling deformations;
their solution gives the value of elastic critical moment (Mcr) at which the beam becomes unstable. Combining them gives:
EIw (8)
Solution
The solution of Equation (8) is made far simpler if the warping stiffness (Iw) is assumed to be zero. The results obtained
are then directly applicable to beams of narrow rectangular cross-section but are conservative for the normal range of
I-sections. Equation (8) therefore reduces to:
(9)
Putting µ2 = enables the solution to be written as:
φ = Acos µx = Bsin µx (10)
Noting the boundary conditions at both ends gives
When x = 0, φ = 0; then A = 0 (11)
When x = L, φ = 0; then Bsin µL = 0
and either B = 0, or (12)
sin µL = 0 (13)
The first possibility gives the unbuckled position whereas the second gives:
µL = 0, π, 2π (14)
and the first non-trivial solution is:
µL = π (15)
which gives:
Mcr = (π/L) √(EIxGIt) (16)
Since the form of Equation (9) is identical to the form of the basic Euler strut equation all of the same arguments about
its solution apply.
Returning to the original Equation (8), this may be solved to give:
Mcr = (π/L) √(EIxGIt) √[1+ (π2EIw/L2GIt)] (17)
The inclusion of warping effects therefore enhances the value of Mcr by an amount which is dependent on the relative values
of EIw and GIt.
APPENDIX 2: BUCKLING OF A CENTRALLY LOADED BEAM

Using the approach of Appendix 1 and noting from Figure 7 that the vertical load will produce a moment about the x-axis of
W(uo - u)/2 when the beam is in its buckled position, enables Equations (4) to be re-written as:
Mξ =

Mη = (18)
Mζ =
Replacing Equations (5) - (7) by their revised forms and eliminating u from the second and third of these gives:
EIw (19)
which may be solved for Wcr to yield approximately:
Wcr = 5,4 (20)
The moment at midspan is then:
Mcr = (21)
The alternative means of obtaining elastic critical loads uses the energy method, in which the work done by the applied
load during buckling is equated to the additional strain energy stored as a result of the buckling deformations. Considering
an element of the longitudinal axis of the beam of length dx located at C, bending in the ξ ζ plane causes the end B of the
beam to rotate in the ξ ζ plane by:
(22)

The vertical component of this is:
(23)
Summing these for all elements between x= 0 and x = L/2 gives the lowering of the load W from which the work is:
(24)
The strain energy stored as a result of lateral bending, twisting and warping is:
(25)
Assuming a buckled shape of the form:
(26)
and equating Equations (24) and (25) enables the critical value of W to be obtained.
Use of this technique permits examination of the case in which the load is applied at a level other than the centroidal
axis. Assuming W to act at a vertical distance (a) above the centroid, the additional work will be:
Wa (1 - cos φo) = Wa φo2/2
in which φo is the value of φ at the load point. This must be added to Equation (24).

ESDEP WG 7
ELEMENTS
Lecture 7.10.1: Beam Columns I

OBJECTIVE/SCOPE
To introduce the principles of beam-column behaviour and design through the concepts of the interaction of the
compressive and bending load components.
PREREQUISITES
Simple bending theory
RELATED LECTURES
Worked Example 7.10: Beam Columns
SUMMARY
This lecture explains the basic concepts of interaction between bending and compression effects by concentrating on
uniaxial, in-plane behaviour. This permits topics such as amplification of moments, interaction formulae and the use
of compressive resistance and bending resistance to be discussed without the complication of requiring consideration of
torsion and out-of-plane response.
1. INTRODUCTION
Beam-columns are defined as members subject to combined bending and compression. In principle, all members in
frame structures are actually beam-columns, with the particular cases of beams (F = 0) and columns (M = 0) simply being
the two extremes. Depending upon the exact way in which the applied loading is transferred into the member, the form
of support provided and the member's cross-sectional shape, different forms of response will be possible.
The simplest of these involves bending applied about one principal axis only, with the member responding by bending solely
in the plane of the applied moment. Only this case will be considered in this lecture; more complex behaviour is covered
in Lecture 7.10.2.
2. CROSS-SECTIONAL BEHAVIOUR
Figure 1 shows a point somewhere along the length of an H-shape column where the applied compression and moment
about the y-axis produce the uniform and varying stress distributions shown in Figures 1a and 1b.

For elastic behaviour the principle of superposition may be used to simply add the two stress distributions as shown in
Figure 1c. First yield will therefore develop at the edge where the maximum compressive bending stress occurs and
will correspond to the condition:
fy = σc + σb (1)
where:
fy is the material yield stress

σc = N/A is the stress due to the compressive load N
σb = is the maximum compressive stress due to the moment M, h is the overall depth of section and, I is the
second moment of area about the y axis.
Alternatively, if full plasticity is allowed to occur, then the failure condition will be as shown in Figure 2 and the
combination of axial load and moment giving this condition will be:
a. yn ≤ (h-2tf)/2 neutral axis in web

For
NM = 2fytwyn
(2)
MN = fybtf (h-tf) + fy tw
b. yn > (h-2tf)/2 neutral axis in flange

For
N M = fy
(3)
MN = tf

Figure 3 compares Equations (2) and (3) with the approximation used in Eurocode 3 [1] of:
MNy = Mpl.y (1 - n) / (1 - 0,5a) (4)
in which
n = NSd / Npl.Rd is the ratio of axial load to "squash" load (fy A)
a = (A - 2btf)/A ≤ 0,5

Further simplifications and approximations for a range of common cross-sectional shapes are provided in Table 1. In all
cases the value of MN should, of course, not exceed that of Mpl.
3. OVERALL STABILITY
The treatment of cross-sectional behaviour in the previous section took no account of the exact way in which the moment M
at the particular cross-section under consideration was generated. Figure 4 shows a beam-column undergoing lateral
deflection as a result of the combination of compression and equal and opposite moments applied at the ends.
The moment at any point within the length may conveniently be regarded as being composed of two parts:
primary moment M
secondary moment Nv
Analysing this problem elastically using strut theory gives the maximum deflection at the centre as:

vmax = (5)
where PEy = is the Euler load for major axis buckling
and the maximum moment is:
Mmax = (6)
In both equations the secant term may be replaced by noting that the first order deflection (due to the end moments M
acting alone) and the first order moment M - determined by ordinary beam theory - are approximately amplified by the term:
1/(1 - N/PEy) (7)
as shown in Figure 5.
Thus:
vmax = (ML2/8EIy) {1/[1 - N/PEy]} (8)

Mmax = (9)
Since the maximum elastic stress will be:
σmax = σc + σb M/Mmax (10)
Equation (10) may be rewritten as:
= 1,0 (11)
Equation (11) may be solved for values of σc and σb that just cause yield, taking different values of PEy (which is dependent
on slenderness L/ry). This gives a series of curves, as shown in Figure 6, which indicate that as σb → 0, σc tends to the value
of material strength fy. Thus Equation (11) does not recognise the possibility of buckling under pure axial load at a stress
σEy given by:
σEy = PEy / A (12)
= π2EIy/AL2 = π2Ey/λ2 (13)

Use of both Equation (11) and Equation (12) ensures that both conditions are covered as shown in Figure 7.
4. TREATMENT IN DESIGN CODES

Equations (11) and (13) are written in terms of stresses and originate from the concept of "failure" being defined as either
the attainment of first yield or elastic buckling of the perfect member. Limit state design codes normally take ultimate load
as the design criterion when considering resistance under static loading. Thus these equations must be re-written in terms
of forces and moments. In doing this it is also necessary to make some allowance for those effects present in real
steel structures that have not so far been explicitly allowed for, e.g. initial lack of straightness, residual stresses, etc..
For consistency in design it is, of course, essential that the interaction equation for combined loading reduces down to
the column and beam design procedures as moment and axial load respectively reduce to zero.
The approach taken in Eurocode 3 [1] (assuming bending about the y-axis) is to use:

≤ 1 (14)
in which χy is the reduction factor for column buckling
ky is a coefficient
The value of ky depends in a rather complex way on:
● the level of axial load as measured by the ratio NSd/χyAfy.

● the member slenderness λy.
● the margin between the cross-section's plastic and elastic section moduli (Wpl and Wel).
● the pattern of primary moments.
When all of these combine in the most severe way the safe value of ky is 1,5. The role of ky is to allow for the
secondary bending effect described earlier plus the effects of non-uniform moment and spread of yield. Figures 8 - 10
show how, depending upon the particular case selected, the form of interaction may vary from concave to convex.
In constructing these figures use has been made of the design formulae of Clause 5.5.4(1) of Eurocode 3 [1].


5. EFFECT OF PATTERN OF PRIMARY MOMENTS

Figure 4 showed how, for the particular case of equal and opposite end moments, the primary moments are amplified due to
the effect of the axial load N acting through the lateral displacements v. When the pattern of primary moment is different
the two effects will not be so directly additive since maximum primary and secondary moments will not necessarily occur
at the same location. Figure 11 illustrates the situation for end moments M and ψM, where ψ can adopt values between
+1 (uniform single curvature) and -1 (double curvature). The particular case shown corresponds to a ψ value ≈ -0,5.
For the case illustrated the maximum moment still occurs within the member length but the situation is clearly less severe
than that of Figure 4 assuming all conditions to be identical apart from the value of ψ. It is customary to recognise this
in design by reducing the contribution of the moment term to the interaction relationship. Thus in Eurocode 3 "ky" in
Equation (14) depends upon the ratio ψ, as already shown in Figure 10. The exact way in which this should be implemented
is explained in Clause 5.5.4 and Figure 5.5.3 of Eurocode 3 [1].
Since the case of uniform single curvature moment is the most severe, it follows that a safe simplification is always to use
the procedure for ψ = 1.0.
Returning to Figure 11, it is possible for the point of maximum moment to be at the end at which the larger primary moment
is applied. This would usually occur if the axial load was small and/or slenderness was low so that secondary bending

effects were relatively slight. In such cases design will be controlled by the need to ensure adequate cross-sectional
resistance at this end. The formula from Table 1, for the particular shape of cross-section being used, should therefore
be employed. In cases where only the uniform moment (ψ = 1,0) arrangement is being considered, the overall bucking check
of Equation (14) will always be more severe than (or in the limit equal to) the cross-sectional check.
● The main features of the behaviour and design of beam-columns have been presented within the context of members subject
to uniaxial bending, whose response is such that deformation takes place only in the plane of the applied moments.
● For the cross-section, the interaction of normal force and bending may be treated elastically using the principle of
superposition or plastically using equilibrium and the concept of stress blocks.
● When considering the member as a whole, secondary bending effects must be allowed for.
● Strut analysis may be used as a basis for examining the role of the main controlling parameters.
● Design is normally based on the use of an interaction equation, an essential feature of which is the resistance of the
component as a beam and as a column.
7. REFERENCES
1. Chen, W. F. and Atsuta, T., "Theory of Beam-Columns" Vol. 1, McGraw-Hill, 1976.
Comprehensive treatment of the beam-column problem for the in-plane case, with an emphasis on methods of analysis for
the determination of the maximum load carrying capacity.
2. Trahair, N. S. and Bradford, M. A., "Behaviour and Design of Steel Structures", 2nd edition, Chapman and Hall, 1988.
Chapter 7 refers to beam-columns, including a comparison of the subject's treatment in three design codes (not
including Eurocode 3).
3. Ballio, G. and Mazzolani, F. M., "Theory and Design of Steel Structures", Chapman and Hall, 1983.
Gives basis of original European approaches to the use of interaction formulae, including derivations.
4. Galambos, T. V., "Guide to Stability Deign Criteria for Metal Structures", 4th edition, Wiley Interscience.
Chapter 8 presents a comprehensive review of theoretical, experimental and design-oriented contributions to the topic of
beam-column behaviour.
5. Dowling, P. J., Owens, G. W. and Knowles, P., "Structural Steel Design", Butterworths, 1988.
Chapter 24 deals with beam-column behaviour and design, including explanations of the physical significance of the
concepts of interaction and slenderness.
6. Nethercot, D. A., "Limit State Design of Structural Steelwork", 2nd edition, Chapman and Hall, 1991.
Chapter 6 deals with beam-column behaviour and design.
Cross-Section Expression for MN
Rolled I or H MN,y = 1,11 Mpl.y (1-n)

MNz = 1,56Mpl.z (1-n)(n+0,6)
Square hollow section MN = 1,26Mpl(1-n)
Rectangular hollow MNy = 1,33Mpl.y(1-n)

section
MNz = Mpl.z(1-n)/(0,5 + ht/A)
Circular hollow section MN = 1,04Mpl(1-n1,7)
Table 1 Expressions for reduced plastic moment resistance MN

L071002
ESDEP WG 7
ELEMENTS
Lecture 7.10.2: Beam Columns II

OBJECTIVE/SCOPE
To extend the introductory coverage of beam columns given in Lecture 7.10.1 to cover the full three-dimensional
case.
PREREQUISITES
Simple bending and torsion theory
Lecture 7.10.1: Beam columns I
RELATED LECTURES
SUMMARY
This lecture expands on the treatment of beam-columns given in Lecture 7.10.1 to include the cases of out-of-plane
buckling and biaxial bending. The basis for the Eurocode 3 interaction formulae is discussed and related to physical
behaviour [1].
1. INTRODUCTION
Lecture 7.10.1 introduced all the main aspects of beam-column behaviour and design within the context of the
uniaxial in-plane case. More general forms of response are, however, possible. This lecture broadens the coverage to
include all of the main cases.

L071002
2. FORMS OF BEHAVIOUR
Three separate forms of beam-column behaviour are illustrated in Figure 1.
If the member is bent about its weaker principal axis, or is prevented from deflecting laterally when bent about its
stronger principal axis as shown in Figure 1a, then its response will be confined to the plane of bending. This case
has been covered in Lecture 7.10.1.
When a laterally unbraced beam-column of open cross-section is bent about its stronger principal axis as shown in

L071002
Figure 1b, then it may buckle prematurely out of the plane of loading by deflecting laterally and twisting. Such
behaviour is conceptually and mathematically very similar to the lateral-torsional buckling of beams described in
Lectures 7.9.1 and 7.9.2.
The most general situation is illustrated in Figure 1c. When bending is applied about both principal axes the
member's response will be 3-dimensional in nature, involving biaxial bending and twisting.

L071002
In Figure 1 the nature of the interaction in each case is listed in the caption. Clearly the behaviour shown as Figure
1c is the most general, with that of Figures 1a and 1b being simpler and more limited cases. For a full treatment of
the in-plane case of Figure 1a refer back to Lecture 7.10.1.
When a laterally unrestrained I-section beam-column is bent about its major axis, it may buckle by deflecting
laterally and twisting at a load which is significantly less than the maximum load predicted by an in-plane analysis.

L071002
Assuming elastic behaviour and the arrangement of applied loading and support conditions given in Figure 2, the
critical combinations of N and M may be obtained from the solution of:
= (1)
in which io = [(Iy + Iz)/A]1/2 is the polar radius of gyration
Nz = π2 EIz/L2 is the minor axis critical load
No = (GJ/io2) (1 + π2 EIw/GItL2) is the torsional buckling load

L071002
Equation (1) reduces to the buckling of a beam when N → 0 and to the buckling of a column in either flexure (Nz) or
torsion (No) as M → 0. In the first case the critical value of M will be given by:
Mcr = (2)
in which EIz is the minor axis flexural rigidity
GIt is the torsional rigidity
EIw is the warping rigidity
In deriving Equation (1) no allowance was made for the amplification of the in-plane moments M by the axial load
acting through the in-plane deflections. As explained in Lecture 7.10.1 this may be approximated as M/(1-N/Ny).
Equation (1) can, therefore, be modified to:
(3)
Noting the relative magnitudes of Ny, Nz and No and re-arranging gives the following approximation:
N/Nz + {1/(1-N/Ny)}{M/i(NzNo)1/2} = 1 (4)
or
N/ Nz + {1/(1-N/ Ny)}M/Mcr = 1 (5)
4. DESIGN
For design purposes it is necessary to make suitable allowances for effects such as initial lack of straightness, partial
yielding, residual stresses, etc., as has been fully discussed in earlier lectures in the context of columns and beams.
Thus some modification to Equation (5) is necessary to make it suitable for design. In particular, the end points
(corresponding to the cases of M = 0 and N = 0) must conform to the established procedures for columns (Lectures
7.5.1 and 7.5.2) and beams (Lectures 7.9.1 and 7.9.2).
Eurocode 3 [1] uses the interaction equation:

L071002
≤ 1 (6)
In which kLT is a coefficient whose value depends upon:
● the level of axial load as measured by the ratio Nsd / χz A fy.

● the member slenderness z.
● the pattern of primary moments.
and χLT is the reduction factor for lateral-torsional beam buckling.
For the most severe combination kLT adopts the value unity, corresponding to a linear combination of the
compressive and bending terms. This reflects the reduced scope for amplification effects in this case, since the value
of Nsd cannot exceed χz A fy, which will, in turn, be significantly less than the elastic critical load for in-plane
bucking Ny.
It is, of course, also necessary to ensure against the possibility of in-plane failure by excessive deflection in the plane
of the web at a lower load than that given by Equation (6). This might occur, for example, in situations where
different bracing and/or support conditions are provided in the xy and xz planes as illustrated in Figure 3.

L071002
Such cases should be treated by checking, in addition to Equation (6), an in-plane equation of the form:
≤ 1 (7)
in which χmin depends on the in-plane conditions. Usually, however, Equation (6) will govern.
5. BIAXIAL BENDING
Analysis for the full 3-dimensional case, even for the simple elastic version, is extremely complex and closed-form
solutions are not available. Rather than starting analytically it is more convenient to approach the question of a
suitable design approach from considerations of behaviour and the use of the methods already derived for the simpler
cases of Figures 1a and 1b.
Figure 4 presents a diagrammatic version of the design requirement. The N-Mz and N-My axes correspond to the two
uniaxial cases already examined. Interaction between the two moments Mz and My corresponds to the horizontal
plane. When all three load components N, Mz and My are present the resulting interaction plots somewhere in the 3-
dimensional space represented by the diagram. Any point falling within the boundary corresponds to a safe
combination of loads.

L071002
Assuming proportional loading any load combination may be regarded as a straight line starting at the origin, the
orientation of which depends upon the relative sizes of the three load components. Increasing the loads extends this
line from the origin until it just reaches and then exceeds the boundary. Non-proportional loading would correspond
to a series of lines.
In each case the axes have been taken as the ratio of the applied component to the member's resistance under the load
component alone, e.g. Nsd / χmin Afy in the case of the compressive loading. Thus Figure 4 actually represents the
situation for one particular example with particular values of cross-sectional properties, slenderness and load
arrangement. Changing some or all of these will alter the shape of the interaction surface shown, but not the general
principle involved.
6. DESIGN FOR BIAXIAL BENDING AND COMPRESSION

For design purposes, it is necessary to have a convenient representation of the situation described in Section 5 by

L071002
using an interaction equation containing the three load components N, Mz and My. Parts of this equation,
corresponding to the two 2-dimensional cases represented by the N, Mz and N, My planes, have already been
discussed. The full equation must clearly reduce to these in the absence of the third load component.
Eurocode 3 [1] uses the pair of formulae:
≤ 1 (8)
≤ 1 (9)
Two checks are necessary because, under the action of compression plus major axis moment on an I-section with
different support conditions in the zx and yx planes, it is not known whether the in-plane or out-of-plane interaction
will be the more critical; that is to say whether, in the absence of Mz, failure would occur as shown in Figure 1a or
Figure 1b. For the same conditions in both planes and z > y, χmin will correspond to χz and Equation (9) will
govern since χLT, the reduction factor for lateral-torsional buckling under pure bending, will be less than or (if LT
is small) equal to unity.
For cross-sections not susceptible to lateral-torsional buckling, e.g. tubes, only Equation (8) is required since χLT = 1.
7. TREATMENT OF OTHER THAN CLASS 1 OR 2 SECTIONS

The design formulae given as Equations (6) - (9) relate specifically to the case of Class 1 or 2 sections, i.e. those for
which the proportions of the plate elements meet the limitations necessary to ensure the development of full cross-
sectional plasticity, as explained in Lecture 7.2. When using either Class 3 or Class 4 sections some modifications
are necessary.
For Class 3 cross-sections the quantities Wpl.y and Wpl.z should be replaced by the equivalent elastic quantities Wel.y
and Wel.z.
When Class 4 sections are being employed the section properties A and W must relate to the effective cross-section;
the shift of the neutral axis of the effective cross-section from its original position due to loss of effectiveness of
some parts of the cross-section must also be allowed for. Thus Equations (8) and (9) become:
≤ 1 (10)
≤ 1 (11)
in which Aeff, Weff.y and Weff.z are the effective properties in the presence of only uniform compression or moment

L071002
about the y and z axes respectively and eN is the shift of the neutral axis when the cross-section is subject to uniform
compression.
An important point to note from the definition of Aeff and Weff above is that the calculation of cross-sectional
properties, and thus also cross-sectional classification, should be undertaken on a separate basis for each of the three
load components N, My and Mz. This does, of course, mean that the same member may be classified as (say) Class 1
for major-axis bending, Class 2 for minor-axis bending and Class 3 for compression. In such cases the safe design
approach is to conduct all beam-column checks using the procedures for the least favourable class.
8. DETERMINATION OF k-FACTORS
The value of kLT for use in Equation (6) is actually given by:
(but kLT ≤ 1) (12)
in which µLT = 0,15 z βM.LT - 0,15 (but µLT ≤ 0,90) (13)
and βM.LT is the equivalent uniform moment factor for lateral-torsional buckling determined from Table 2.
In Equations (7) - (11) the values of ky and kz should be obtained from:
k= but k ≤ 1,15 (14)
µ= (2βM- 4) + (Wpl - Wel)/Wel but µ ≤ 0,9 (15)
in which µ, χ, , βM, Wpl and Wel all relate to the axis under consideration, i.e. y or z, and βM is determined from
Table 2.
For Class 3 or 4 cross-sections the second term in Equation (15) should be omitted.
9. CROSS-SECTION CHECKS
If allowance has been made when determining the k-factors (through the use of βM) for the less severe effect of
patterns of moment other than uniform single curvature bending, it is necessary further to check that the cross-
section is everywhere capable of locally resisting the combination of compression and primary moment(s) present at
any point. This location will usually be one or other of the ends as explained in Lecture 7.10.1.
Expressions for checking several types of cross-section under compression plus uniaxial bending were given in
Lecture 7.10.1. For biaxial bending Eurocode 3 [1] uses:

L071002
≤ 1 (16)
in which the values of α and β depend upon the type of cross-section as indicated in Table 1.
A simpler but conservative alternative is:
≤ 1 (17)

● Depending on the form of the applied loading, 3 types of beam-column problem may be identified.
● The biaxial bending case is the most general and includes the 2 others as simpler and more restricted
component cases.
● Interaction equations are used for design purposes.
● These make use (as end points) of the design procedures for beams (N = 0) and columns (M = 0).
● The class of cross-section will affect some of the values used in the interaction equations.
11. REFERENCES
[1] Eurocode 3: "Design of Steel Structures": ENV 1993-1-1: Part 1.1: General rules and rules for buildings, CEN,
1992.

1. Chen, W. F. and Atsuta, T., "Theory of Beam-Columns" Vol. 2, McGraw-Hill, 1977.
Comprehensive treatment of the beam-column problem for the cases of flexural-torsional bucking and biaxial
bending.
2. Trahair, N. S. and Bradford, M. A., "Behaviour and Design of Steel Structures", 2nd edition, Chapman and
Hall, 1988.
Chapter 7 refers to beam-columns, including a comparison of the subject's treatment in three design codes
(not including Eurocode 3).
Gives basis of original European approaches to the use of interaction formulae, including derivations.
4. Galambos, T. V., "Guide to Stability Design Criteria for Metal Structures", 4th edition, Wiley Interscience.
Chapter 8 presents a comprehensive review of theoretical, experimental and design-oriented contributions to

the topic of beam-column behaviour.
5. Dowling, P. J., Owens, G. W. and Knowles, P., "Structural Steel Design", Butterworths, 1988.

L071002
Chapter 24 deals with beam-column behaviour and design, including explanations of the physical significance
of the concepts of interaction and slenderness.
6. Nethercot, D. A., "Limit State Design of Structural Steelwork", 2nd edition, Chapman and Hall, 1991.
Chapter 6 deals with beam-column behaviour and design.
Type of cross-section α β
I and H - sections 2 5n but ≥ 1
Circular tubes 2 2
Rectangular hollow sections
Solid rectangles and plates but ≤ 6 but ≤ 6
1,73 + 1,8n3 1,73 + 1,8n3
n = Nsd / Npl.Rd
Table 1 Values of a and b for use in Equation (16)
Moment diagram Equivalent uniform moment factor β M
End moments
βM,ψ = 1,8 - 0,7 ψ
Moments due to in-plane

lateral loads
βM,Q = 1,3
βM,Q = 1,4

L071002

lateral loads plus end
moments
β M = β m, ψ + (βM,Q - βM, ψ )
MQ =  Max M due to lateral load only
∆M =  Max M for moment diagram without

change of sign
∆M =  Max M +  Min M where sign of

moment diagram changes
Table 2 Equivalent uniform moment factors bM

L071003
ESDEP WG 7
ELEMENTS
Lecture 7.10.3: Beam Columns III

OBJECTIVE/SCOPE
To describe the methods of beam-column analysis, either by verification of a single member or by verification of the
whole frame.
PREREQUISITES
RELATED LECTURES
SUMMARY
This lecture explains the basic methods of beam - column verification; this is done firstly for an isolated member, taking
the end deformations and end forces from a global analysis of the whole frame and calculating the resistance using the

L071003
rules given in Eurocode 3 [1]. The case where the member cannot be isolated from the frame structure is also covered by
giving an alternative procedure, which yields an overall slenderness, , of the frame (including lateral-torsional
buckling effects) that allows for frame verification using the European buckling curves.
1. INTRODUCTION
Normally, the design of an individual member in a frame is done by separating it from the frame and dealing with it as
an isolated substructure. The end conditions of the member should then comply with its deformation conditions, in the
spatial frame, in a conservative way, e.g. by assuming a nominally pinned end condition, and the internal action effects, at
the ends of the members, should be considered by applying equivalent external end moments and end forces, Figure 1.
Methods of verification for these members are given in Section 2.

L071003
A more general procedure is given in Section 3, for the case where members cannot be isolated from the frame structure in
the way described above.
2. METHODS OF VERIFICATION FOR ISOLATED MEMBERS
2.1 Beam-columns with Mono-axial Bending only
For the design of beam-columns, with mono-axial bending only, two checks must be carried out:
● the in-plane buckling check taking into account the in-plane imperfections.
L071003
● the out-of-plane buckling check, including the lateral-torsional buckling verification that takes account of the out-of-
plane imperfections (see Figure 2).

L071003
It has been found by test calculations that twist imperfections, ρ, of beam-columns that are susceptible to lateral-
torsional buckling, can be substituted by flexural imperfections, see Figure 3.
Members with sufficient torsional stiffness, e.g. hollow section members, need not be verified for lateral-torsional bucking.
The in-plane or out-of-plane flexural buckling check is done using the interaction formula:
where χmin is the lesser of χy and χz and the factor ky is given by:

L071003
ky = 1 - (µyNSd)/(χy Afy) ≤ 1,5
where:
µy = y{2βMy - ψ + (Wply - Wely)/Wely} ≤ 0.90
βMy takes account of the shape of the moment distribution diagram between the member ends. Values for this are given
in Table 1.
In the case where lateral-torsional buckling is possible, the verification must be carried out using the following formula:
where χz refers to the direction of the lateral-torsional buckling.
χLT is the relevant reduction factor for lateral-torsional buckling
kLT =
where:
µLT = 0,15 z βM - 0,15 ≤ 0,90
and βM is given by Table 1.
When the non-dimensional slenderness LT ≤ 0,4, the reduction coefficient χLT need not be taken into account. This rule
may be used for spacing the lateral restraints to resist lateral-torsional buckling.

L071003
The above verification formulae are valid for members with Class 1 and Class 2 sections; in the case of Class 3 sections,
Wpl must be substituted by Wel; in the case of Class 4 sections, reference should be made to Lecture 7.3.
2.2 Beam-columns with Bi-axial Bending
In the case of beam-columns with bi-axial bending, the formulae given in Section 2.1 have to be expanded.
The interaction without lateral-torsional buckling becomes:
The interaction with lateral-torsional buckling reads:
The definition of kz and Wplz are analogous to those for ky and Wply, given in the previous Section.
Figure 4 illustrates these interactive formulae.

L071003

L071003
3. METHOD OF VERIFICATION OF WHOLE FRAMES
3.1 General
Figure 5 gives an example of a portal frame with tapered columns and beams, the external flanges of which are
laterally supported by the purlins which, due to their flexural stiffness, also provide torsional restraint; the beams and
columns may, however, be subject to distortion of the cross-section, due to the flexibility of the web.

L071003
An accurate verification of this arrangement should be based on a finite element model which takes the above effects
into account. The basic assumptions made regarding the imperfections in this model, would be such that the
standard verification given in Section 2 would produce equally favourable results since the standard procedure has
been calibrated against test results.
A more simplified procedure is, therefore, given here which is related to the verification of columns for flexural buckling,
and beams for lateral-torsional buckling.
3.2 Basic Assumption
The basic principles governing the standard verification of columns for flexural buckling, and beams for lateral-
torsional bucking, are as follows:
1. The non-dimensional slenderness is defined by:
FB = √{Npl/Ncr); LT = √{Μpl/Mcr)
where Npl, Mpl are the characteristic values of the elastic/plastic resistances of the column or beam neglecting any out-of-
plane effects; and Ncrit, Mcrit are the critical bifurcation values for the column resistance, or the beam resistance,
when considering out-of-plane deflections and hyperelastic behaviour in the equilibrium state.
2. Using the non-dimensional slenderness, , a reduction factor χ can be determined from the European buckling curves
that allows the design value of the resistance of the column or beam to be defined by:
Nbd = χ Npl / γM1 for the column
Mbd = χ Mpl / γM1 for the beam.
In applying this principle to any loaded structure, see Figure 6, the procedure is as follows:
1. As a first step the structure is analysed for a given load case with an elastic or plastic analysis assuming that any out of
plane deflections are prevented. By this analysis a multiplier, γpl, of the given loads is found that represents the
ultimate resistance of the structure.
L071003
2. The structure is then checked assuming hyperelastic material behaviour allowing for lateral and torsional deflections.
This leads to a multiplier γcrit of the given loads that represents the critical elastic resistance of the structure to lateral
buckling or lateral-torsional bucking.
3. The overall slenderness, , of the structure can then be defined by:
and by using the reduction coefficient χ from the relevant European buckling curve, e.g. curve c, the final safety factor:
γ = χ γpl
can be derived.
This procedure is analogous to the Merchant-Rankine procedure for the non- elastic verification of frames.

L071003

L071003
3.3 Tools for the Procedure
In general the procedure described in Section 3.2 needs a computer program that performs a planar elastic-plastic analysis
of the frame and determines the elastic bifurcation load of the structure for lateral and torsional deflections,
including distortion. Such a program, for calculating the elastic bifurcation loads, can either be based on finite elements or on
a grid model where the flanges and stiffeners are considered as beams and the web is represented by an equivalent
lattice system that allows for second order effects; such programs are available on PC's.
● A three dimensional frame may generally be analysed by separating it into plane frames and analysing these on the
assumption of no imperfections; the individual members of the frame should then be checked with the imperfection
effects taken into account.
● The isolated members in general represent beam-columns with either inplane or biaxial bending.
● Beam - columns with mono-axial bending, which are not susceptible to lateral-torsional buckling, e.g. hollow sections, shall
be verified for inplane and out of plane buckling by means of an interaction formulae.
● In the case of beam-columns which are susceptible to lateral-torsional buckling the out of plane flexural buckling of the
column has to be combined with the lateral-torsional buckling of the beam using the relevant interaction formulae.
● For beam-columns with biaxial bending, the interaction formula is expanded by the addition of an analogous term.
● In certain cases the standard procedure for the verification of a beam- column is not applicable and more accurate models
must be used.
● As a non-linear spatial analysis including the effect of imperfections is difficult, an alternative procedure is provided by
which the overall slenderness of a frame is defined; this allows verification of the frame using the European buckling
curves which take account of lateral- torsional buckling. This procedure is analogous to the Merchant-Rankine procedure.
5. REFERENCES
[1] Eurocode 3: "Design of Steel Structures": ENV1993-1-1: Part 1.1: General rules and rules for buildings, CEN, 1992.
1. Eurocode 3 - Background Document 5.05 "Design rules for thin-walled plate girders for the ultimate and serviceability
limit state taking account of the buckling phenomena". Part A: Results Eurocode 3 Editorial Group CEC 1991.
L071003
2. Braham M. et al: Ein alternatives Verfabren zur Bestimmung der Biegedrillknicksicherheit von Konstruktionen. Der
Stahlbau 1992.
Moment diagram Equivalent uniform moment factor β M
End moments
β M,ψ = 1,8 - 0,7 ψ

lateral loads
β M,Q = 1,3
β M,Q = 1,4

lateral loads plus end
moments
β M = β m, ψ + (β M,Q - β M, ψ )
MQ =  Max M due to lateral load only
∆ M =  Max M for moment diagram without

L071003
change of sign
∆ M =  Max M +  Min M where sign of

moment diagram changes
Table 1 Equivalent uniform moment factors bM

ESDEP WG 7
ESDEP WG 7
ELEMENTS

OBJECTIVE/SCOPE
To introduce the basic ideas of frame behaviour as a prelude to the more detailed description of design in later lectures.
PREREQUISITES
Lectures 1B.7: Introduction to Design of Multi-Storey Buildings
RELATED LECTURES

ESDEP WG 7
Lecture 14.13: Design of Multi-Storey Frames with Partial Strength and Semi-Rigid Connections
SUMMARY
Techniques for the determination of the individual member forces in steel frames are described and discussed.
These techniques include first and second order approaches based on both elastic and plastic theory. The different
approaches to the design and construction of steel frames permitted by Eurocode 3 [1] are explained and their
implementation outlined.
1. INTRODUCTION
Frames of varying size and complexity represent one of the most frequent uses of structural steel. Whilst the most
obvious application is in buildings, support frames for bridges, offshore platforms, falsework and industrial storage
systems also constitute a significant usage.
The main components of a rectangular arrangement are identified in Figure 1. Vertical loads on the roof and floors
are transmitted by bending and shear into the columns, which, in turn, transfer load into the foundations by means
of compressive, bending and shearing actions. Horizontal loading, e.g. due to wind, must also be transferred into
the foundations and may, depending upon the frame geometry and the relative magnitudes of the vertical and lateral
loads, induce tension in some columns and therefore uplift on the foundations.

ESDEP WG 7

ESDEP WG 7
In general, a 3-dimensional building frame may be separated into a set of planar frames with well-defined support or
restraint conditions for out-of-plane deformations, see Figure 1. These planer frames should be investigated for two
different limit state conditions:
● Ultimate limit state.

● Serviceability limit state.
Details of these investigations are provided in later lectures. In this introductory lecture attention is focused on describing
the main aspects of frame behaviour and the ways in which these aspects are linked to various techniques for
predicting structural response. The lecture is a preparation for later more detailed treatments.
2. FRAMING SYSTEMS
For the purposes of analysis and design, steel frames have traditionally been regarded as belonging to one of two categories:
● pin-jointed (simple construction).

● rigid-jointed (continuous construction).
Of course, examples exist for which elements of both types are present; the present discussion does not consider these cases
in developing the subject.
In Eurocode 3 this simple subdivision has been extended by including consideration of the method of analysis and
including joints that behave as semi-rigid. This leads to the more complex classification system that is shown in Table 1.
Type of Method of Types of connections

framing global
analysis
Simple Pin joints ⋅ Nominally pinned
⋅ Nominally pinned

ESDEP WG 7
Continuous Elastic ⋅ Rigid
Rigid- ⋅ Full-strength
Plastic
Elastic- ⋅ Full-strength - Rigid

Plastic
Semi- Elastic ⋅ Semi-rigid

continuous
⋅ Rigid
Rigid- ⋅ Partial-strength
Plastic
⋅ Full-strength

ESDEP WG 7
Elastic- ⋅ Partial-strength - Semi-

Plastic rigid
⋅ Partial-strength - Rigid
⋅ Full-strength - Semi-
rigid
⋅ Full-strength - Rigid
Table 1 Methods of framing and global analysis in Eurocode 3
This introductory lecture does not cover the cases where the joints are semi-rigid. Further information on this type of joint
and their influence on frame design is given in Lectures 11.7 and 14.13.
3. SIMPLE CONSTRUCTION
Building frames designed and executed according to this principle require comparatively little analysis as the loads may
be allocated to individual members on the basis of simple statics. Since the joints are assumed to be incapable of
transmitting moments, lateral stability requires the use of bracing because a rectangular bay with pinned beam to
column connections, of course, possess no lateral stiffness. The only exception to this condition is when the feet of the
columns are rigidly fixed to a solid foundation so that they can function as vertical cantilevers. Figure 2 illustrates these points.

ESDEP WG 7

ESDEP WG 7
Once the forces in the members have been decided upon, design may be conducted by considering individual beams,
columns and joints, using the procedures presented in Lectures 7 and 11 respectively. All horizontal loading is assumed to
be resisted by the bracing system and, in the terminology of Eurocode 3 [1], the structure is designed as a braced frame.
4. CONTINUOUS CONSTRUCTION
When rigid joints are used, considerable interaction between beams and columns occurs due to transfer of moments around
the frame. Various approaches to analysis and design may be employed; the most important consideration is the extent to
which the effects of deflections on the response of the frame must be taken into account. Although rigid joints may be used
in conjunction with bracing, construction economies make this arrangement an uncommon solution. Rigid joints are
normally only used as an alternative to bracing so that lateral stiffness is provided by so-called frame action as illustrated
in Figure 3.

ESDEP WG 7
5. METHODS OF ANALYSIS
5.1 First-Order Elastic Analysis
In first-order elastic analysis a linear relationship between the applied loading F and the deformations (δ) is assumed.
The internal force distribution in the frame is assumed to be unaffected by the displacements in the frame.
Frame analysis can therefore be conducted according to linear elastic principles as outlined in Lecture 7.1. The frame
responds according to line 1 in Figure 4.

ESDEP WG 7
5.2 First-Order Rigid-Plastic Analysis
Rigid-plastic analysis (or the application of simple plastic theory) neglects the effects of elastic deflections and assumes that
all structural deformation takes place in discrete regions, called plastic hinges, where plasticity has developed. When using
first-order, rigid-plastic theory only the collapse condition is addressed. This condition occurs when sufficient plastic hinges
are assumed to have formed to convert the structure into a mechanism. Thus the path by which this stage is reached, i.e.
the sequence of formation of the hinges and any intermediate distributions of internal forces, are not considered. Figure
5 illustrates the concept for 3 cases of vertical, horizontal and combined loading, whilst curve 2 in Figure 4 gives the
frame response according to this approach. Due to the form of the analysis, no information is provided on the magnitude of
the deflections. The analysis gives only that all stiffness is lost at the collapse load and deflections therefore (in theory)
become uncontrolled.

ESDEP WG 7

ESDEP WG 7
5.3 Elastic Critical Load
Using the methods described in Lectures 6, it is possible to calculate the buckling loads for frames under suitably
idealised loading. Depending upon the content and complexity of the frame, several different buckling modes, each with
its associated elastic vertical load, may be possible. For the simple portal frame shown in Figure 6, both a symmetrical and
an antisymmetrical mode are possible; the latter will usually be avoided with a much lower critical load. Once again
the analysis provides no information on the magnitude of the deflections; it simply identifies a particular load level. The
curve 3 in Figure 4 gives the representation of the critical load obtained by an elastic buckling analysis.

ESDEP WG 7
5.4 Second-Order Elastic Analysis
In second-order elastic analysis the effect of elastic deformations on the internal force distribution is taken into account.
The result is a transition from the linear analysis line 1 at low loads to the elastic critical line 3 at large deflections. For
frames the second-order effects may be separated into 2 parts:
● reduction in the effective bending stiffnesses of individual members due to compressive loading.
● a destabilising effect due to the overturning moment produced by the vertical loads acting through the horizontal
deflections caused by the lateral loads.

ESDEP WG 7
5.5 Second-Order Rigid-Plastic Analysis
If the deformations that may develop as a result of the formation of the plastic collapse mechanism are allowed for
when formulating the equilibrium of the frame, then the result is the developing mechanism curve of line 5 in Figure 4.
This curve shows that equilibrium can only be maintained with a reduction in the level of the applied loads.
5.6 First-Order, Elastic-Plastic Theory
If a linear elastic analysis is modified to allow for reductions in frame stiffness with the progressive formation of plastic
hinges at increasing levels of the applied load, then the response curve of line 6 is obtained. This line exhibits progressive
loss of stiffness as each plastic hinge is formed and eventually merges with the rigid-plastic line 2.
5.7 Second-Order, Elastic-Plastic Analysis
When the analysis that traces the formation of plastic hinges also allows for the effects of deformations in setting up
the governing equations, then line 6 is modified somewhat into line 7. Line 7 initially follows the first-order elastic line 1
but diverges from this line to follow the second-order elastic line 4 as destabilising effects become more significant.
Formation of the first plastic hinge - which occurs at a slightly lower applied load than is the case with the first-order,
elasto-plastic analysis due to the larger deformation associated with second-order analysis - further reduces the
stiffness, causing line 7 to diverge from line 4. This divergence becomes more pronounced as more plastic hinges form.
The peak of this curve corresponds to the failure load predicted by this type of analysis. At large deformations line 7 tends
to merge with the curve for the mechanism, line 5.
5.8 Second-Order, Plastic Zone Analysis
If the spread of plasticity both through the cross-section and along the member length is taken into account, instead
of assuming that it is concentrated into the desirable regions of the plastic hinges, then the resulting type of analysis is
usually termed plastic zone theory. It provides an even closer representation of actual behaviour and leads to a curve similar
to line 7.
6. COMMENTS
In principle, any of the above approaches to frame analysis may be adopted. In practice, some of the effects may be found to
be of little real significance for certain classes of structure, e.g. for many low-rise frames second-order effects are very
ESDEP WG 7
small and may reasonably be neglected. Certain cases may also arise where particular forms of response should be avoided, e.
g. for buildings containing heavy cranes which will cause repeated loading, elastic design is normally employed.
The more complex approaches will almost certainly require the use of suitable computer software to implement the volume
of calculation. It is therefore important to select an approach which is compatible with both the accuracy required and the
level of importance of the project under consideration.
When calculating deflections at working load levels for the purpose of checking serviceability, it is usual to employ only
linear elastic analysis.
In order to provide guidance on the most appropriate type of analysis to use in particular cases, Eurocode 3 has introduced
the idea of frame classification [1]. A double condition is used:
● braced or unbraced.
● non-sway or sway.
7.1 Braced Frames
● A frame may be classified as braced if its sway resistance is supplied by a bracing system with a response to in-plane
horizontal loads which is sufficiently stiff for it to be acceptably accurate to assume that all horizontal loads are resisted by
the bracing system.
This may be further quantified as:
● A steel frame may be classified as braced if the bracing system reduces its horizontal displacements by at least 80%.
For such frames first-order elastic or plastic theory should be used.
When the above conditions are not satisfied the frame must be considered as unbraced.
When designing the bracing system:

ESDEP WG 7
● The effects of the initial sway imperfections, given in Clause 5.2.4.3 of Eurocode 3 [1] and discussed later in these notes, in
the braced frame shall be taken into account in the design of the bracing system.
● The initial sway imperfections plus any horizontal loads applied to a braced frame, may be treated as affecting only the
bracing system.
● The bracing system should be designed to resist:
- any horizontal loads applied to the frames which it braces.
- any horizontal or vertical loads applied directly to the bracing system.
- the effects of the initial sway imperfections (or the equivalent horizontal forces) from the bracing system itself and from
all the frames which it braces.
● Where the bracing system is a frame or sub-frame, it may itself be either sway or non-sway.
7.2 Unbraced Frames
An unbraced frame may be classified as a non-sway frame according to Clause 5.2.5.2 of Eurocode 3 [1] providing:
● Its response to in-plane horizontal forces is sufficiently stiff for it to be acceptably accurate to neglect any additional
internal forces or moments arising from horizontal displacements of its nodes.
This classification may be further quantified as:
● A frame may be classified as non-sway for a given load case if the elastic critical load ratio VSd /Vcr for that load case
satisfies the criterion:
VSd /Vcr ≤ 0,1
where VSd is the design value of the total vertical load.
Vcr is its elastic critical value for failure in a sway mode.

ESDEP WG 7
● Beam-and-column type plane frames in building structures with beams connecting each column at each storey level may
be classified as non-sway for a given load case if the following criterion is satisfied. When first-order theory is used,
the horizontal displacements in each storey due to the design loads (both horizontal and vertical), plus the initial
sway imperfection applied in the form of equivalent horizontal forces, should satisfy the criterion:
where δ is the horizontal displacement at the top of the storey, relative to the bottom of the storey.
h is the storey height.
H is the total horizontal reaction at the bottom of the storey.
V is the total vertical reaction at the bottom of the storey.
Both requirements follow from the idea that, if satisfied, the load-carrying resistance determined by neglecting sway
effects will be only a ten per cent less than that calculated by including such effects. This approach is, in turn, based upon
the Merchant-Rankine concept for estimating the true ultimate load of a frame that fails by some from of inelastic
instability from a knowledge of its elastic critical load and its first-order, rigid-plastic collapse load. Both loads are
relatively straightforward to calculate.
The original Merchant-Rankine formulae for the failure load Vsd is:
where:
Vcr is the elastic critical load.
Vpl is the first-order, rigid-plastic collapse load.

ESDEP WG 7
From this it is clear that when Vcr >> Vpl, then Vsd ~ Vpl.
Non-sway frames should be designed using first-order elastic or plastic theory to resist safely the arrangements of loads
that lead to the most severe combinations of internal forces and moments in the individual members and connections.
The effects of restraint to columns in improving their stability should be taken into account by using the concept of
effective buckling length as explained in Lecture 7.7.
Frames that do not meet the above requirements must be designed as sway frames.
7.3 Sway Frames
Sway frames shall be analysed under those arrangements of the variable loads which are critical for failure in a sway mode.
In addition, sway frames shall also be analysed for the non-sway mode.
The initial sway imperfections, and member imperfections where necessary, shall be included in the global analysis of
all frames.
The allowance for imperfections in the analysis of sway frames is intended to cover effects such as lack of verticality, lack
of straightness, residual stresses, etc. It is expressed in Eurocode 3 by means of a set of equivalent geometrical
imperfections [1]. These imperfections are not actual construction tolerances but, because they are intended to represent
the effect of a number of factors, are likely to be larger than such tolerances. The form specified in Eurocode 3 is:
● The effects of imperfections shall be allowed for in frame analysis by means of an equivalent geometric imperfection in
the form of an initial sway imperfection φ determined from:
φ = kc ks φo
with φo = 1/200
kc = [0,5 + 1/nc]0,5 but kc ≤ 1,0
and ks = [0,2 + 1/ns]0,5 but ks ≤ 1,0

ESDEP WG 7
where nc is the number of columns per plane.
ns is the number of storeys.
● Columns which carry a vertical load NSd of less than 50% of the mean value of the vertical load per column in the
plane considered, shall not be included in nc.
● Columns which do not extend through all the storeys included in ns shall not be included in nc. Those floor levels and
roof levels which are not connected to all the columns included in nc shall not be included when determining ns.
● These initial sway imperfections apply in all horizontal directions, but need only be considered in one direction at a time.
● The possible torsional effects on the structure of anti-symmetric sways, on two opposite faces, shall also be considered.
● If more convenient, the initial sway imperfection may be replaced by a closed system of equivalent horizontal forces,
see Figure 7.
● In beam-and-column building frames, these equivalent horizontal forces should be applied at each floor and roof level
and should be proportionate to the vertical loads applied to the structure at that level, see Figure 8.
● The horizontal reactions at each support should be determined using the initial sway imperfection and not the
equivalent horizontal forces. In the absence of actual horizontal loads, the net horizontal reaction is zero.

ESDEP WG 7
First-order or second-order analysis may be used. If the analysis is first-order, second-order effects may be allowed for in
an appropriate way when designing the columns by using the results of a first-order analysis and either:
- using amplified sway moments, or

ESDEP WG 7
- using the sway-mode buckling lengths.
● When second-order elastic global analysis is used, in-plane buckling lengths for the non-sway mode may be used for
member design.
● In the amplified sway moments method, the sway moments found by a first-order elastic analysis should be increased
by multiplying them by the ratio:
where VSd is the design value of the total vertical load.
● The amplified sway moments method should not be used when the elastic critical load ratio VSd/Vcr is more than 0,25.
● Sway moments are those associated with the horizontal translation of the top of a storey relative to the bottom of that
storey. They arise from horizontal loading and may also arise from vertical loading if either the structure or the loading
is asymmetrical.
● As an alternative to determining VSd/Vcr directly, the following approximation may be used in beam-and-column type frames:
where δ, h, H and V are as defined previously.
● When the amplified sway moments method is used, in-plane buckling lengths for the non-sway mode may be used for
member design.
● When first-order elastic analysis with sway-mode in-plane buckling lengths is used for column design, the sway moments
in the beams and the beam-to-column connections should be amplified by at least 1,2 unless a smaller value is shown
by analysis to be adequate.
Rules for the application of plastic analysis procedures to sway frames are given in Clause 5.2.6.3 of Eurocode 3 [1].
ESDEP WG 7
8. MEMBER CHECK AND FRAME DESIGN

Satisfying the verification rules for resistance and stability of frames has to assure that neither the frame as a whole, nor
the isolated members in the frame on their own, will collapse under a load which is smaller than the design load. For the
safety verification of the individual members, the members may be separated from the frames to be dealt with as
independent isolated sub-structures. The end conditions of the members should then comply with the deformation conditions
of the members in the special frame in a conservative way (e.g. by assuming nominally pinned end conditions) and
the interaction effects at the ends of the members should be considered by applying equivalent end moments and end
forces, see Figure 9.

ESDEP WG 7
● In the safety verification of these separated members, the member imperfections must be taken into account;
these imperfections have normally been included when formulating the member design rules as explained in other Lectures 7.
● In general, the isolated members by their loading and end-conditions represent simply supported beam-columns with or
without restraints between their ends, see Figure 10. Beam-columns are members loaded by normal forces and moments
about one or two axes.

ESDEP WG 7

ESDEP WG 7
If, in a second-order elasto-plastic calculation, the real behaviour of the frame has been approximated and local instability
and out-of-plane buckling is prevented, then further verification is not needed. In this case the strength check - also called
the cross-sectional check - is implicity satisfied by working with the actual distribution of forces and moments. This is
also valid for the stability check. It has to be shown that the equilibrium is stable under the design load. In other words:
VSd representing the design load, must be less than the elasto-plastic collapse load Vk.
If the distribution of forces and moments, as a result of the design load, is calculated with a first-order elastic method, then it
is quite possible that the actual elasto-plastic resistance Vk of the frame is exceeded. Verification rules to overcome
this problem are therefore needed. On the one hand, cross-sectional checks are needed, to show that each cross-section
can offer enough resistance to withstand normal forces, shear forces and bending moments due to the design load. On the
other hand, stability checks are necessary to show that every member and the frame as a whole are stable.
In general, for each method of calculating the distribution of forces and moments, additional verification rules are
necessary related to the specific method of calculating the distribution of forces and moments. All collapse mechanisms
which are relevant for the frame and which have not been taken into account in calculating the distribution of forces
and moments, should be checked by using adequate verification rules.
If a frame can deform only in its own plane and plate buckling (of web and/or flange), torsion, torsional buckling and
lateral-torsional buckling are not relevant, then there are only two types of verification rules of importance: cross-
sectional checks and stability checks. Depending on the method of calculating the distribution of forces and moments,
specific verification rules must be taken into account. Table 2 shows that these rules depend on the calculation method used.
Table 2 Relation between global analysis and code check
Method for Cross- Stability

calculation the sectional checks
forces and moment verification
distribution rules

ESDEP WG 7
First-order elastic YES YES
First-order plastic NO YES
Second-order YES NO
elastic
NO NO
Second-order
plastic
When the method of calculating the distribution of the forces and moments is relatively simple, the verification rules
are complex and the other way around. In general verification rules for members are used in the step after the calculation of
the distribution of forces and moments in a frame.
● Frame behaviour and thus the approach which should be used in design has been shown to be crucially dependent upon
the type of joints used. The 2 main forms of construction are:
i. simple construction - assumed joints act as if pinned.
ii. continuous construction - assumed joints act as if rigid.
● Simple statics is usually all that is needed to determine the distribution of internal forces in the individual members of
frames designed according to the principles of simple construction.
● 8 different approaches - varying in precision and complexity - to the analysis of rigid jointed frames are possible.
● Eurocode 3 classifies frames as braced/unbraced and for the latter as either non-sway/sway. The basis for this classification
is an assessment of the extent to which deformations influence the response of the frame.
● Different design approaches are necessary for the three classes:
i. braced.
ii. unbraced and non-sway.

ESDEP WG 7
iii. unbraced and sway.
Each approach has been outlined, including the treatment of imperfections and the link between the approach adopted
to consider overall frame behaviour and that necessary when considering individual members.
10. REFERENCES
[1] Eurocode 3: "Design of Steel Structures": ENV 1993-1-1: Part 1.1, General rules and rules for buildings, CEN, 1992.

1. Galambos, T.V. "Guide to Stability Design Criteria for Metal Structures", 4th Edition, John Wiley & Son, 1988.
2. Horne, M. R, and Merchant, W., "The Stability of Frames", Pergamen Press, 1965.
3. Chen, W.F. and Lui, E.M. "Stability Design of Steel Frames", CRC Press, 1991.
Chapter on stability.
5. Trahair, N. S. and Bradford, M. A., "Behaviour and Design of Steel Structures", Chapman and Hall, 1983.
Chapter on frames.

ESDEP WG 7
ESDEP WG 7
ELEMENTS

OBJECTIVE/SCOPE
To introduce two-dimensional trusses: types, uses and principal design considerations.
PREREQUISITES
None.
RELATED LECTURES
None.
SUMMARY
This lecture presents the types and uses of trusses and lattice girders and indicates the members that are most often used in
their construction. A discussion of overall truss design considers primary analysis, secondary stresses, rigorous elastic
analysis, cross- braced trusses and truss deflections. The practical design of truss members is discussed.
1. INTRODUCTION
The truss or lattice girder is a triangulated framework of members where loads in the plane of the truss or girder are resisted
by axial forces in the individual members. The terms are generally applied to the planar truss. A 'space frame' is formed
when the members lie in three dimensions.
The main uses are:

ESDEP WG 7
● in buildings, to support roofs and floors, to span large distances and carry relatively light loads, see Figure 1.
● in road and rail bridges, for short and intermediate spans and in footbridges, as shown in Figure 2.
● as bracing in buildings and bridges, to provide stability where the bracing members form a truss with other structural
members such as the columns in a building. Examples are shown in Figure 3.

ESDEP WG 7

ESDEP WG 7

ESDEP WG 7
The principle of a truss is simple. The structure is composed of top and bottom chords triangulated with diagonals in the
webs so that each member carries purely axial load. Additional effects do exist but in a well designed truss these will be of
a secondary nature.
A global moment on a truss is carried as compression and tension in the chords. A global shear is carried as tension
or compression in the diagonal members. In the simplified case, where joints are considered as pinned, and the loads
are applied at the panel points, the loading creates no bending moment, shear, or torsion in any single member. Loads
applied in such a way as to cause bending, shear, or torsion will usually result in inefficient use of material.
Trusses and lattice girders are classified in accordance with the overall form and internal member arrangement. Pitched
trusses are used for roofs. Parallel chord lattice girders are used to support roofs and floors and for bridges, although
in continuous bridges, additional depth is often required at the piers. In the past, proper names were given to the various
types of trusses such as the Fink truss, Warren girder, etc.. The most commonly used truss is single span, simply supported
ESDEP WG 7
and statically determinate with joints assumed to act as pins.
The Vierendeel girder should also be mentioned. It consists of rigid jointed rectangular panels as shown in Figure 1d. This
truss is statically indeterminate and will not be further considered in this lecture, although it has a pleasing appearance and
is often used in foot-bridges.
The saving over a plate girder is clear when the webs are considered. In a truss the webs are mainly fresh air - hence
less weight and less wind force.
A truss can be assembled from small easily handled and transported pieces, and the site connections can all be bolted.
Trusses can have a particular advantage for bridges in countries where access to the site is difficult or supply of skilled
labour is limited.
2. TYPICAL MEMBERS
Truss, lattice girder and bracing members for buildings are selected from:
● open sections, primarily angles, channels, tees and joists.

● compound sections, i.e. double angle and channels.
● closed sections, in practice structural hollow sections.
For bridges, members are selected from:
● rolled sections.
● compound sections.
● built-up H, top hat and box sections.
Typical sections are shown in Figure 4.

ESDEP WG 7

ESDEP WG 7
The selection of members depends on the location, use, span, type of connection and the appearance required. Hollow
sections are more expensive than open sections but are cheaper to maintain and have a better appearance. However, in
exposed trusses corrosion can occur at the crevices which are formed at gusset positions. Angles are the sections
traditionally used for small span truss construction.
3. LOADS ON TRUSSES AND LATTICE GIRDERS

The main types of loads on buildings are shown in Figure 5, namely:

ESDEP WG 7
1. Dead loads. These are caused by self-weight, sheeting, decking, floor or roof slabs, purlins, beams, insulation, ceilings,
services and finishes. Dead loads for the construction to be used in any particular case must be carefully estimated
from material weights given in handbooks and manufacturers' literature.
2. Imposed loads. These are given in Eurocode 1 [1] for floors in various types of building and for roofs with or without
access. The imposed load may cover the whole or part of the member and should be applied in such a way as to cause the
most severe effect.
3. Wind loads. These are given in Eurocode 1 [1] and can be estimated from the location of the building, its dimensions and
ESDEP WG 7
the sizes of openings on its faces. Wind generally causes uplift on roofs and this can lead to reversal of load in truss
members in light construction. In multi-storey buildings, wind gives rise to horizontal loads that must be resisted by the bracing.
In special cases, trusses resist dynamic, seismic and wave loads. A careful watch should be kept for unusual loads
applied during erection. Failures may occur at this stage when the final lateral support system is not fully installed.
For bridges, in addition to the dead loads and the vertical effects of live loads due to highway or railway loading,
horizontal effects of live load have to be considered. These include braking and traction effects, centrifugal loads
and accidental skidding loads. Temperature effects are significant in some bridges.
4. ANALYSIS OF TRUSSES
4.1 General
Trusses may be single span, statically determinate or indeterminate, or may be continuous over two or more spans, as shown
in Figure 6. Only single span, statically determinate, trusses are considered in this section.

ESDEP WG 7
A truss is usually statically determinate when:
m = 2j - 3,
where m is the number of members in a truss
j is the number of joints.
However compliance with this formula for the truss as a whole does not preclude the possibility of a local mechanism in part
of the truss.
ESDEP WG 7
Manual methods of analysis for trusses, where the loads are applied at the nodes, are joint resolution, the method of
sections and the force diagram. Joint resolution is the quickest method for analysing parallel chord lattice girders when all
the forces are required. The method of sections is useful where the values of the forces in only a few critical members
are required. The force diagram is the best general manual method. Computer programs are also available for truss analysis.
4.2 Secondary Stresses in Trusses
In many cases in the design of trusses and lattice girders, it is not necessary to consider secondary stresses. These
stresses should, however, be calculated for heavy trusses used in industrial buildings and bridges.
Secondary stresses are caused by:
● Eccentricity at connections
● Loads applied between the truss nodes
● Moments resulting from rigid joints and truss deflection.
They are discussed in detail below:
1. Eccentricity at connections
Trusses should be detailed so that either the centroidal axes of the members or the bolt gauge lines meet at a point at the
nodes. Otherwise, members and connections should be designed to resist the moments due to eccentricity. These
moments should be divided between members meeting at joints in proportion to their rotational stiffnesses. Stresses due
to small eccentricities are often neglected.
2. Loads applied between the truss nodes
Moments due to these loads must be calculated and the stresses arising combined with those due to primary axial loads; that
is the members concerned must be designed as beam-columns. This situation often occurs in roof trusses where the loads
are applied to the top chord through purlins which may not be located at the nodes, as shown in Figure 7. The manual
method of calculation is first to analyse the truss for the loads applied at the nodes which gives the axial forces in the
members. Then a separate analysis is made for bending in the top chord which is considered as a continuous beam. The
ridge joint E is fixed because of symmetry, but the eaves joint A should be taken as pinned; otherwise, moment will
be transferred into the bottom chord if the joint between the truss and column is assumed to be pinned. The top chord
is designed for axial load and bending. Computer analysis is mentioned below.
ESDEP WG 7

ESDEP WG 7
3. Moments resulting from rigid joints and truss deflection
Stresses resulting from secondary moments are important in trusses with short thick members. Approximate rules specify
when such an analysis should be made. Secondary stresses will be insignificant if the slenderness of the chord members in
the plane of the truss is greater than 50 and that of most of the web members is greater than 100. In trusses in buildings,
the loads are predominantly static and it is not necessary to calculate these stresses. The maximum stresses from
secondary moments occur at the ends of members and are not likely to cause collapse. However, where fatigue effects
are significant, these secondary stresses have to be considered. The method of analysis for secondary moments is set out below.
4.3 Rigorous Elastic Analysis
Rigid jointed, redundant or continuous trusses or trusses with loads applied between the nodes can be analysed using a
plane frame program based on the matrix stiffness method of frame analysis. The truss can also be modelled taking account
of joint eccentricity. Member sizes must be determined in advance using a manual analysis. All information required for
design is output including joint deflections.
It is important that a consistent approach is adopted for analysis and design. This means that if secondary moments are to
be ignored then the primary axial forces to be used in design must be obtained from the simple analysis of the truss as a
pin jointed frame. The axial forces obtained from a rigid frame computer analysis may be modified considerably by the
joint moments.

ESDEP WG 7
5. SECONDARY CONSIDERATIONS
5.1 Cross-Braced Trusses in Buildings
In the bracing provided to stabilise multi-storey buildings, the panels often have cross-diagonals as shown in Figure 8a. It
is customary to consider the truss as statically determinate, with only the set of diagonals in tension assumed to be
effective. When the wind reverses the other set becomes active.

ESDEP WG 7
Another common case is the lattice girder with an odd number of panels. The centre panel is cross-braced as shown in
Figure 8b. Under symmetrical loading there are no forces in these diagonals. If imposed load is placed over part of the
span, only the diagonal in tension is assumed to be effective.
5.2 Lateral Bracing for Bridges
Stringer bracing, braking girders and chord lateral bracing are needed to transmit the longitudinal live loads and the wind
and/or earthquake loads to the bearings and also to prevent the compression chords from buckling.
For the top laterals, a diamond system with kickers at the panel points halves the transverse effective length of the
ESDEP WG 7
compression chord as shown in Figure 9.

ESDEP WG 7
For railway bridges, Figure 9 illustrates an economic lateral system at deck level which consists of a simple single
member which doubles up as part of the braking girder. The lateral is supported by the stringers, so the effective length is
only about a third of the panel length.
Wind loading on diagonals and verticals can be split equally between top and bottom lateral systems, remembering that the
end portals (either diagonals or verticals) have to carry the load applied to the top chord down to the bottom chord.
Obviously where only one lateral system exists (as in semi-through or underslung trusses) then this single system must carry
all of the wind load.
In addition to resisting externally applied transverse loads due to wind, etc., lateral bracing stabilizes the compression chord.
Its presence is necessary to ensure that reasonably small effective lengths are obtained for the truss members. Lateral bracing
is also required at all kinks in the chords where compressive loads are induced into the web members, irrespective of
whether the chord is in tension or compression.
5.3 Deflection of Trusses
The deflection for a pin jointed truss can be calculated using either the strain energy or virtual work method. The
deflection using the strain energy method is given by:
δ = Σ FuL/EA
where:
A is the area of a truss member
E is the modulus of elasticity
L is the length of a truss member between nodes

ESDEP WG 7
F is the force in a member due to the applied loads
u is the force in a member due to unit load applied at the truss node and in the direction of the required deflection.
The Williot-Mohr graphical method can also be used to determine truss deflections. If a computer analysis is carried out,
joint deflections are given as part of the output.
A truss may be cambered during fabrication to offset deflections due to applied loads. The term cambering means that a
given upward deflection can be built into, say, a nominally horizontal truss during fabrication by adjusting the member
lengths slightly to cause the truss to bow upwards.
6. DESIGN OF TRUSS MEMBERS

The truss should be analysed for the separate load cases. These cases are combined to give the most severe conditions
for design of each element. Some important aspects of design are set out below.
6.1 Compression Members in Buildings
Maximum slenderness ratios are normally defined in codes, and these often limit the minimum size of the members that can
be used in light trusses.
Acceptable maximum slenderness values are:
Members resisting dead and imposed load - 180
Members resisting wind load - 250
Any member normally acting as a tie but subject to reversal of stress due to wind - 350
These limits ensure that reasonably robust members are selected when only light loads are involved. Wind loads are
transient and larger slenderness values are permitted than for dead and imposed loads. These rules also reduce the likelihood
of damage occurring during transport and erection. In this regard it has been common practice to specify that the
minimum sizes for angles should be as follows:
● equal angles 50 x 50 x 6L
ESDEP WG 7
● unequal angles 65 x 50 x 6L
For the design of members in trusses where secondary bending stresses are insignificant, the following assumptions are made:
● For the purpose of analysis, the joints are taken as pinned.

● For calculating effective lengths, the fixity of connections and rigidity of adjacent members may be taken into account.
● Where the exact position of point loads on the rafter relative to the connection of the web members is not known, the
local bending moment may be taken as WL/6.
● In accordance with Clause 5.8.2 of Part 1.1 of Eurocode 3 [2], the buckling length of chord members may be taken as
the distance between connections to web members in the plane and the distance between purlins or ties out of plane of the truss.
For web members the buckling length for in-plane buckling may be taken as 0.9L, where L is the length between truss nodes.
Figure 10 shows roof trusses in place in a building with the purlins providing lateral support to the top chord, and a lower
chord bracing system providing lateral support to the bottom chord.

ESDEP WG 7
Two common internal truss members are the single angle discontinuous strut connected to a gusset or another member and
the double angle discontinuous strut connected to both sides of a gusset or another member. These should be connected by
ESDEP WG 7
at least two bolts or the equivalent in welding. Eurocode 3: Part 1.1: Clause 5.8.3 states that the end eccentricity may
be ignored and the struts designed as axially loaded members in accordance with that clause [1].
6.2 Compression Members in Bridges
Generally the truss members in bridges are much larger than in buildings, and much more attention has to be paid to
the detailed design of the member. Eurocode 3: Part 1.1 [2] applies to buildings, and the very conservative buckling
length values of L and 0,9L are not very significant for relatively small span trusses [1]. However, for bridges, where
absolute economy in steel weight is vital, it is assumed that the matter of effective length will be dealt with fully in Eurocode
3: Part 2 [3].
When making up the section for the compression chord, the ideal disposition of material will be one that produces a
section with radii of gyration such that the ratio of effective length to radius of gyration is the same in both planes. In
other words, the member is just as likely to buckle horizontally as vertically.
The depth of the member needs to be chosen so that plate dimensions are sensible. If they are too thick, the radius of
gyration will be smaller than it would be if the same area of steel was used to form a larger member using thinner plates.
The plates should be as thin as possible without losing too much material when the effective section is derived.
6.3 Tension Members for Buildings
Structural hollow sections connected by welding may be fully effective. The 'effective area' is to be used for angles
connected through one leg. Theoretically rounds or cables could be used; but these are unsuitable for practical reasons,
because they lack stiffness and are easily damaged. The same minimum sections for angle members set out above
for compression members should be adopted for tension members.
6.4 Tension Members for Bridges
Tension members should be as compact as possible, but the depths will have to be large enough to provide adequate space
for bolts at the gusset positions. The width out-of-plane of the truss should be the same as that of the verticals and diagonals
so that simple lapping gussets can be provided without the need for packing.
Allowance has to be made for the nett section when bolt holes are removed. It should be possible to achieve a nett section
about 85% of the gross section by careful arrangement of the bolts.

ESDEP WG 7
6.5 Members Subject to Reversal of Load
For buildings, Eurocode 3: [2] only requires fatigue assessment for:
a. Members supporting lifting appliances or rolling loads.
b. Members subject to repeated stress cycles from vibrating machinery.
c. Members subject to wind-induced or crowd-induced oscillations.
Even in these cases, assessment is not required if the stress range or number of stress cycles is low.
Otherwise, members subject to reversal of load should be designed for the worst condition.
For bridges fatigue assessment is required for all members subject to reversal of load.
7. PRACTICAL DESIGN
a. Buildings
1. It is not always economic to make every member a different size. The designer should rationalise the sizes and use only
two or three different sections in small span trusses.
2. Minimum sizes should be adopted to prevent damage during transport and erection. Recommendations are set out above.
3. Safe load tables are very useful and members subjected to axial load can be selected directly. Members subjected to
axial load and moment must be designed by successive trials. Select the initial size by assuming the compression resistance
is 60% of full resistance.
4. Large trusses must be sub-divided for transport. Bolted site splices are used to assemble the truss on site.
b. Bridges
1. The optimum value for the span-to-depth ratio depends on the magnitude of the live load that has to be carried. It should
be in the region of 10, being greater for road traffic and less for rail traffic. (For twin track rail loading the ratio would drop
ESDEP WG 7
to about 71/2.) However, one should always make a check on the economic depth for the given bridge.
2. An even number of bays should be chosen to suit the configuration of diagonals. If an odd number is chosen there will be
a central bay with crossed diagonals. This is not usually desirable except perhaps at the centre of a swing bridge. The
diagonals should be at an angle between 50° and 60° to the horizontal.
3. Grade 50 steel should be used for the main members with Grade 43 used only for members carrying nominal load, unless
the truss has to be fabricated in a country where the supply of higher grade steel is a problem. For a truss designed using
Grade 50 steel, the amount of Grade 43 steel used would normally be about 7%.
4. The problems that may confront the bridge maintenance team should be fully appreciated. Details which could
trap rainwater, dirt and debris should be avoided. All exposed areas should be fully accessible for painting. Box sections
make painting easier, but rolled hollow sections leave nasty crevices at gusset positions unless the joints are welded.
● Trusses and lattice girders are important elements in building where they are used to support floors and roofs and
provide bracing.
● For bridges, trusses can be economic for spans of 30m to 200m. They can be assembled from small pieces and are
particularly advantageous where site access is difficult.
● Statically determinate trusses are generally used. Keep the configuration simple, using a minimum of members and connections.
● Avoid eccentricity of loading and connections to reduce secondary stresses. Secondary stresses due to loads applied
between the nodes must be calculated.
● Careful consideration must be given in design to the provision of lateral support.
● Fatigue effects have to be considered in bridges and in some elements of buildings.
● Configuration of members and careful design of connections are particularly important.
● Avoid potential corrosion areas on all exposed steelwork.
9. REFERENCES
[1] Eurocode 1: "Basis of Design and Actions on Structures": CEN (in preparation).
[3] Eurocode 3: "Design of Steel Structures", Part 2: Bridges, CEN (in preparation).
ESDEP WG 7

ESDEP WG 8
PLATES AND SHELLS
Lecture 8.1: Introduction to Plate

Behaviour and Design
OBJECTIVE/SCOPE
To introduce the series of lectures on plates, showing the uses of plates to resist in-plane and out-of-plane loading and their
principal modes of behaviour both as single panels and as assemblies of stiffened plates.
PREREQUISITES
None.
RELATED LECTURES
Lecture 8.2: Behaviour and Design of Unstiffened Plates
Lecture 8.3: Behaviour and Design of Stiffened Plates
SUMMARY
This lecture introduces the uses of plates and plated assemblies in steel structures. It describes the basic behaviour of plate
panels subject to in-plane or out-of-plane loading, highlighting the importance of geometry and boundary conditions. Basic
buckling modes and mode interaction are presented. It introduces the concept of effective width and describes the influence of
imperfections on the behaviour of practical plates. It also gives an introduction to the behaviour of stiffened plates.
1. INTRODUCTION
Plates are very important elements in steel structures. They can be assembled into complete members by the basic rolling
process (as hot rolled sections), by folding (as cold formed sections) and by welding. The efficiency of such sections is due to
their use of the high in-plane stiffness of one plate element to support the edge of its neighbour, thus controlling the out-of-
plane behaviour of the latter.
The size of plates in steel structures varies from about 0,6mm thickness and 70mm width in a corrugated steel sheet, to about
100mm thick and 3m width in a large industrial or offshore structure. Whatever the scale of construction the plate panel will
have a thickness t that is much smaller than the width b, or length a. As will be seen later, the most important geometric
parameter for plates is b/t and this will vary, in an efficient plate structure, within the range 30 to 250.
2. BASIC BEHAVIOUR OF A PLATE PANEL

Understanding of plate structures has to begin with an understanding of the modes of behaviour of a single plate panel.
2.1 Geometric and Boundary Conditions
The important geometric parameters are thickness t, width b (usually measured transverse to the direction of the greater direct

stress) and length a, see Figure 1a. The ratio b/t, often called the plate slenderness, influences the local buckling of the plate
panel; the aspect ratio a/b may also influence buckling patterns and may have a significant influence on strength.

In addition to the geometric proportions of the plate, its strength is governed by its boundary conditions. Figure 1 shows how
response to different types of actions is influenced by different boundary conditions. Response to in-plane actions that do not
cause buckling of the plate is only influenced by in-plane, plane stress, boundary conditions, Figure 1b. Initially, response to
out-of-plane action is only influenced by the boundary conditions for transverse movement and edge moments, Figure 1c.
However, at higher actions, responses to both types of action conditions are influenced by all four boundary conditions. Out-of-
plane conditions influence the local buckling, see Figure 1d; in-plane conditions influence the membrane action effects that
develop at large displacements (>t) under lateral actions, see Figure 1e.
2.2 In-plane Actions
As shown in Figure 2a, the basic types of in-plane actions to the edge of a plate panel are the distributed action that can be
applied to a full side, the patch action or point action that can be applied locally.

When the plate buckles, it is particularly important to differentiate between applied displacements, see Figure 2b and applied
stresses, see Figure 2c. The former permits a redistribution of stress within the panel; the more flexible central region sheds
stresses to the edges giving a valuable post buckling resistance. The latter, rarer case leads to an earlier collapse of the central
region of the plate with in-plane deformation of the loaded edges.
2.3 Out-of-plane Actions
Out-of-plane loading may be:
● uniform over the entire panel, see for example Figure 3a, the base of a water tank.
● varying over the entire panel, see for example Figure 3b, the side of a water tank.
● a local patch over part of the panel, see for example Figure 3c, a wheel load on a bridge deck.

2.4 Determination of Plate Panel Actions
In some cases, for example in Figure 4a, the distribution of edge actions on the panels of a plated structure are self-evident. In
other cases the in-plane flexibilities of the panels lead to distributions of stresses that cannot be predicted from simple theory.
In the box girder shown in Figure 4b, the in-plane shear flexibility of the flanges leads to in-plane deformation of the top
flange. Where these are interrupted, for example at the change in direction of the shear at the central diaphragm, the resulting
change in shear deformation leads to a non-linear distribution of direct stress across the top flange; this is called shear lag.

In members made up of plate elements, such as the box girder shown in Figure 5, many of the plate components are subjected
to more than one component of in-plane action effect. Only panel A does not have shear coincident with the longitudinal
compression.

If the cross-girder system EFG was a means of introducing additional actions into the box, there would also be transverse
direct stresses arising from the interaction between the plate and the stiffeners.
2.5 Variations in Buckled Mode
i. Aspect ratio a/b
In a long plate panel, as shown in Figure 6, the greatest initial inhibition to buckling is the transverse flexural stiffness of the
plate between unloaded edges. (As the plate moves more into the post-buckled regime, transverse membrane action effects
become significant as the plate deforms into a non-developable shape, i.e. a shape that cannot be formed just by bending).

As with any instability of a continuous medium, more than one buckled mode is possible, in this instance, with one half wave
transversely and in half waves longitudinally. As the aspect ratio increases the critical mode changes, tending towards the
situation where the half wave length a/m = b. The behaviour of a long plate panel can therefore be modelled accurately by
considering a simply-supported, square panel.
ii. Bending conditions
As shown in Figure 7, boundary conditions influence both the buckled shapes and the critical stresses of elastic plates. The
greatest influence is the presence or absence of simple supports, for example the removal of simple support to one edge
between case 1 and case 4 reduces the buckling stress by a factor of 4,0/0,425 or 9,4. By contrast introducing rotational
restraint to one edge between case 1 and case 2 increases the buckling stress by 1,35.

iii. Interaction of modes
Where there is more than one action component, there will be more than one mode and therefore there may be interaction
between the modes. Thus in Figure 8b(i) the presence of low transverse compression does not change the mode of buckling.
However, as shown in Figure 8b(ii), high transverse compression will cause the panel to deform into a single half wave. (In
some circumstances this forcing into a higher mode may increase strength; for example, in case 8b(ii), predeformation/
transverse compression may increase strength in longitudinal compression.) Shear buckling as shown in Figure 8c is basically
an interaction between the diagonal, destabilising compression and the stabilising tension on the other diagonal.

Where buckled modes under the different action effects are similar, the buckling stresses under the combined actions are less
than the addition of individual action effects. Figure 9 shows the buckling interactions under combined compression, and
uniaxial compression and shear.

2.6 Grillage Analogy for Plate Buckling
One helpful way to consider the buckling behaviour of a plate is as the grillage shown in Figure 10. A series of longitudinal
columns carry the longitudinal actions. When they buckle, those nearer the edge have greater restraint than those near the
centre from the transverse flexural members. They therefore have greater post buckling stiffness and carry a greater proportion
of the action. As the grillage moves more into the post buckling regime, the transverse buckling restraint is augmented by
transverse membrane action.

2.7 Post Buckling Behaviour and Effective Widths
Figures 11a, 11b and 11c describe in more detail the changing distribution of stresses as a plate buckles following the
equilibrium path shown in Figure 11d. As the plate initially buckles the stresses redistribute to the stiffer edges. As the
buckling continues this redistribution becomes more extreme (the middle strip of slender plates may go into tension before the
plate fails). Also transverse membrane stresses build up. These are self equilibrating unless the plate has clamped in-plane
edges; tension at the mid panel, which restrains the buckling is resisted by compression at the edges, which are restrained from
out-of-plane movement.

An examination of the non-linear longitudinal stresses in Figures 11a and 11c shows that it is possible to replace these stresses
by rectangular stress blocks that have the same peak stress and same action effect. This effective width of plate (comprising
beff/2 on each side) proves to be a very effective design concept. Figure 11e shows how effective width varies with slenderness
(λp is a measure of plate slenderness that is independent of yield stress; λp = 1,0 corresponds to values of b/t of 57, 53 and 46
for fy of 235N/mm2, 275N/mm2 and 355N/mm2 respectively).
Figure 12 shows how effective widths of plate elements may be combined to give an effective cross-section of a member.

2.8 The Influences of Imperfections on the Behaviour of Actual Plates
As with all steel structures, plate panels contain residual stresses from manufacture and subsequent welding into plate
assemblies, and are not perfectly flat. The previous discussions about plate panel behaviour all relate to an ideal, perfect plate.
As shown in Figure 13 these imperfections modify the behaviour of actual plates. For a slender plate the behaviour is
asymptotic to that of the perfect plate and there is little reduction in strength. For plates of intermediate slenderness (which
frequently occur in practice), an actual imperfect plate will have a considerably lower strength than that predicted for the
perfect plate.

Figure 14 summarises the strength of actual plates of varying slenderness. It shows the reduction in strength due to
imperfections and the post buckling strength of slender plates.
2.9 Elastic Behaviour of Plates Under Lateral Actions

The elastic behaviour of laterally loaded plates is considerably influenced by its support conditions. If the plate is resting on
simple supports as in Figure 15b, it will deflect into a shape approximating a saucer and the corner regions will lift off their
supports. If it is attached to the supports, as in Figure 15c, for example by welding, this lift off is prevented and the plate
stiffness and action capacity increases. If the edges are encastre as in Figure 15d, both stiffness and strength are increased by
the boundary restraining moments.

Slender plates may well deflect elastically into a large displacement regime (typically where d > t). In such cases the flexural
response is significantly enhanced by the membrane action of the plate. This membrane action is at its most effective if the
edges are fully clamped. Even if they are only held partially straight by their own in-plane stiffness, the increase in stiffness
and strength is most noticeable at large deflections.
Figure 15 contrasts the behaviour of a similar plate with different boundary conditions.
Figure 16 shows the modes of behaviour that occur if the plates are subject to sufficient load for full yield line patterns to
develop. The greater number of yield lines as the boundary conditions improve is a qualitative measure of the increase in
resistance.

3. BEHAVIOUR OF STIFFENED PLATES

Many aspects of stiffened plate behaviour can be deduced from a simple extension of the basic concepts of behaviour of
unstiffened plate panels. However, in making these extrapolations it should be recognised that:
● "smearing" the stiffeners over the width of the plate can only model overall behaviour.
● stiffeners are usually eccentric to the plate. Flexural behaviour of the equivalent tee section induces local direct stresses
in the plate panels.
● local effects on plate panels and individual stiffeners need to be considered separately.
● the discrete nature of the stiffening introduces the possibility of local modes of buckling. For example, the stiffened
flange shown in Figure 17a shows several modes of buckling. Examples are:
(i) plate panel buckling under overall compression plus any local compression arising from the combined action of the plate
panel with its attached stiffening, Figure 17b.
(ii) stiffened panel buckling between transverse stiffeners, Figure 17c. This occurs if the latter have sufficient rigidity to
prevent overall buckling. Plate action is not very significant because the only transverse member is the plate itself. This form
of buckling is best modelled by considering the stiffened panel as a series of tee sections buckling as columns. It should be
noted that this section is monosymmetric and will exhibit different behaviour if the plate or the stiffener tip is in greater
compression.
(iii) overall or orthotropic bucking, Figure 17d. This occurs when the cross girders are flexible. It is best modelled by
considering the plate assembly as an orthotropic plate.


● Plates and plate panels are widely used in steel structures to resist both in-plane and out-of-plane actions.
● Plate panels under in-plane compression and/or shear are subject to buckling.
● The elastic buckling stress of a perfect plate panel is influenced by:
⋅ plate slenderness (b/t).
⋅ aspect ratio (a/b).
⋅ boundary conditions.
⋅ interaction between actions, i.e. biaxial compression and compression and shear.
● The effective width concept is a useful means of defining the post-buckling behaviour of a plate panel in compression.
● The behaviour of actual plates is influenced by both residual stresses and geometric imperfections.
● The response of a plate panel to out-of-plane actions is influenced by its boundary conditions.
● An assembly of plate panels into a stiffened plate structure may exhibit both local and overall modes of instability.
1. Timoshenko, S. and Weinowsky-Kreiger, S., "Theory of Plates and Shells" Mc Graw-Hill, New York, International
Student Edition, 2nd Ed.

ESDEP WG 8
ESDEP WG 8
PLATES AND SHELLS

OBJECTIVE/SCOPE
To discuss the load distribution, stability and ultimate resistance of unstiffened plates under in-plane and out-of-plane
loading.
PREREQUISITES
Lecture 8.1: Introduction to plate behaviour and design
RELATED LECTURES
Lecture 8.3: Stiffened Plates
Lectures 8.4: Plate Girder Behaviour and Design I and II
Lecture 8.6: Introduction to Shell Structures
SUMMARY
The load distribution for unstiffened plate structures loaded in-plane is discussed. The critical buckling loads are derived
using Linear Elastic Theory. The effective width method for determining the ultimate resistance of the plate is explained
as are the requirements for adequate finite element modelling of a plate element. Out-of-plane loading is also considered
and its influence on the plate stability discussed.
1. INTRODUCTION
Thin-walled members, composed of thin plate panels welded together, are increasingly important in modern steel
construction. In this way, by appropriate selection of steel quality, geometry, etc., cross-sections can be produced that
best fit the requirements for strength and serviceability, thus saving steel.
Recent developments in fabrication and welding procedures allow the automatic production of such elements as plate
girders with thin-walled webs, box girders, thin-walled columns, etc. (Figure 1a); these can be subsequently transported
to the construction site as prefabricated elements.

ESDEP WG 8
Due to their relatively small thickness, such plate panels are basically not intended to carry actions normal to their plane.
However, their behaviour under in-plane actions is of specific interest (Figure 1b). Two kinds of in-plane actions are
distinguished:
a) those transferred from adjacent panels, such as compression or shear.
b) those resulting from locally applied forces (patch loading) which generate zones of highly concentrated local stress in

ESDEP WG 8
the plate.
The behaviour under patch action is a specific problem dealt with in the lectures on plate girders (Lectures 8.5.1 and
8.5.2). This lecture deals with the more general behaviour of unstiffened panels subjected to in-plane actions
(compression or shear) which is governed by plate buckling. It also discusses the effects of out-of-plane actions on the
stability of these panels.
2. UNSTIFFENED PLATES UNDER IN-PLANE LOADING
2.1 Load Distribution
The stress distribution in plates that react to in-plane loading with membrane stresses may be determined, in the elastic
field, by solving the plane stress elastostatic problem governed by Navier's equations, see Figure 2.

ESDEP WG 8
where:
u = u(x, y), v = v(x, y): are the displacement components in the x and y directions
νeff = 1/(1 + ν) is the effective Poisson's ratio
G: is the shear modulus
X = X(x, y), Y = Y(x, y): are the components of the mass forces.
The functions u and v must satisfy the prescribed boundary (support) conditions on the boundary of the plate. For
example, for an edge parallel to the y axis, u= v = 0 if the edge is fixed, or σx = τxy = 0 if the edge is free to move in the
plane of the plate.
The problem can also be stated using the Airy stress function, F = F(x, y), by the following biharmonic equation:
∇4F = 0
This formulation is convenient if stress boundary conditions are prescribed. The stress components are related to the
Airy stress function by:
; ;
2.1.2 Distribution resulting from linear elastic theory using Bernouilli's hypothesis
For slender plated structures, where the plates are stressed as membranes, the application of Airy's stress function is not
necessary due to the hypothesis of plane strain distributions, which may be used in the elastic as well as in the plastic
range, (Figure 3).

ESDEP WG 8
However, for wide flanges of plated structures, the application of Airy's stress function leads to significant deviations
from the plane strain hypothesis, due to the shear lag effect, (Figure 4). Shear lag may be taken into account by taking a
reduced flange width.

ESDEP WG 8
When using finite element methods for the determination of the stress distribution, the plate can be modelled as a
perfectly flat arrangement of plate sub-elements. Attention must be given to the load introduction at the plate edges so
that shear lag effects will be taken into account. The results of this analysis can be used for the buckling verification.
2.2 Stability of Unstiffened Plates
The buckling of plate panels was investigated for the first time by Bryan in 1891, in connection with the design of a ship
hull [1]. The assumptions for the plate under consideration (Figure 5a), are those of thin plate theory (Kirchhoff's theory,
see [2-5]):
a) the material is linear elastic, homogeneous and isotropic.
b) the plate is perfectly plane and stress free.
c) the thickness "t" of the plate is small compared to its other dimensions.
d) the in-plane actions pass through its middle plane.
e) the transverse displacements w are small compared to the thickness of the plate.
f) the slopes of the deflected middle surfaces are small compared to unity.

ESDEP WG 8
g) the deformations are such that straight lines, initially normal to the middle plane, remain straight lines and normal to
the deflected middle surface.
h) the stresses normal to the thickness of the plate are of a negligible order of magnitude.

ESDEP WG 8
Due to assumption (e) the rotations of the middle surface are small and their squares can be neglected in the strain
displacement relationships for the stretching of the middle surface, which are simplified as:
εx = ∂u/∂x , π2E/λ2 γxy = ∂u/∂y + ∂v/∂x (1)
An important consequence of this assumption is that there is no stretching of the middle surface due to bending, and the
differential equations governing the deformation of the plate are linear and uncoupled. Thus, the plate equation under
simultaneous bending and stretching is:
D∇4w = q-kt{σx ∂2w/∂x2 + 2τxy ∂2w/∂x∂y + σy ∂2w/∂y2} (2)
where D = Et3/12(1 - ν2) is the bending stiffness of the plate having thickness t, modulus of elasticity E, and Poisson's
ratio ν; q = q(x,y) is the transverse loading; and k is a parameter. The stress components, σx, σy, τxy are in general
functions of the point x, y of the middle plane and are determined by solving independently the plane stress elastoplastic
problem which, in the absence of in-plane body forces, is governed by the equilibrium equations:
∂σx/∂x + ∂τxy/∂y = 0, ∂τxy/∂x + ∂σy/∂y = 0 (3)
supplemented by the compatibility equation:
∇2 (σx + σy) = 0 (4)
Equations (3) and (4) are reduced either to the biharmonic equation by employing the Airy stress function:
∇4 F = 0 (5)
defined as:
σx = ∂2F/∂y2 , σy = ∂2F/∂x2 , τxy = -∂2F/∂x∂y
or to the Navier equations of equilibrium, if the stress displacement relationships are employed:
∇2 + [1/(1- )] ∂/∂x {∂u/∂x + ∂v/∂y} = 0
∇2 + [1/(1- )] ∂/∂y {∂u/∂x + ∂v/∂y} = 0 (6)
where = ν/(1 + ν) is the effective Poisson's ratio.
Equation (5) is convenient if stress boundary conditions are prescribed. However, for displacement or mixed boundary
conditions Equations (6) are more convenient. Analytical or approximate solutions of the plane elastostatic problem or
the plate bending problem are possible only in the case of simple plate geometries and boundary conditions. For plates
with complex shape and boundary conditions, a solution is only feasible by numerical methods such as the finite

ESDEP WG 8
element or the boundary element methods.
Equation (2) was derived by Saint-Venant. In the absence of transverse loading (q = 0), Equation (2) together with the
prescribed boundary (support) conditions of the plate, results in an eigenvalue problem from which the values of the
parameter k, corresponding to the non-trivial solution (w ≠ 0), are established. These values of k determine the critical
in-plane edge actions (σcr, τcr) under which buckling of the plate occurs. For these values of k the equilibrium path has a
bifurcation point (Figure 5b). The edge in-plane actions may depend on more than one parameter, say k1, k2,...,kN, (e.g.
σx, σy and τxy on the boundary may increase at different rates). In this case there are infinite combinations of values of
ki for which buckling occurs. These parameters are constrained to lie on a plane curve (N = 2), on a surface (N = 3) or
on a hypersurface (N > 3). This theory, in which the equations are linear, is referred to as linear buckling theory.
Of particular interest is the application of the linear buckling theory to rectangular plates, subjected to constant edge
loading (Figure 5a). In this case the critical action, which corresponds to the Euler buckling load of a compressed strut,
may be written as:
σcr = kσ σE or τcr = kτ σE (7)
where σE = (8)
and kσ, kτ are dimensionless buckling coefficients.
Only the form of the buckling surface may be determined by this theory but not the magnitude of the buckling
amplitude. The relationship between the critical stress σcr, and the slenderness of the panel λ = b/t, is given by the
buckling curve. This curve, shown in Figure 5c, has a hyperbolic shape and is analogous to the Euler hyperbola for
struts.
The buckling coefficients, "k", may be determined either analytically by direct integration of Equation (2) or
numerically, using the energy method, the method of transfer matrices, etc. Values of kσ and kτ for various actions and
support conditions are shown in Figure 6 as a function of the aspect ratio of the plate α =a/b. The curves for kσ have a
"garland" form. Each garland corresponds to a buckling mode with a certain number of waves. For a plate subjected to
uniform compression, as shown in Figure 6a, the buckling mode for values of α < √2, has one half wave, for values √2
< α < √6, two half waves, etc. For α = √2 both buckling modes, with one and two half waves, result in the same value of
kσ . Obviously, the buckling mode that gives the smallest value of k is the decisive one. For practical reasons a single
value of kσ is chosen for plates subjected to normal stresses. This is the smallest value for the garland curves
independent of the value of the aspect ratio. In the example given in Figure 6a, kσ is equal to 4 for a plate which is
simply supported on all four sides and subjected to uniform compression.

ESDEP WG 8

ESDEP WG 8
Combination of stresses sx, sy and t
For practical design situations some further approximations are necessary. They are illustrated by the example of a plate

ESDEP WG 8
girder, shown in Figure 7.
The normal and shear stresses, σx and τ respectively, at the opposite edges of a subpanel are not equal, since the bending
moments M and the shear forces V vary along the panel. However, M and V are considered as constants for each
subpanel and equal to the largest value at an edge (or equal to the value at some distance from it). This conservative

ESDEP WG 8
assumption leads to equal stresses at the opposite edges for which the charts of kσ and kτ apply. The verification is
usually performed for two subpanels; one with the largest value of σx and one with the largest value of τ. In most cases,
as in Figure 7, each subpanel is subjected to a combination of normal and shear stresses. A direct determination of the
buckling coefficient for a given combination of stresses is possible; but it requires considerable numerical effort. For
practical situations an equivalent buckling stress σcreq is found by an interaction formula after the critical stresses σcreq
and τcro , for independent action of σ and τ have been determined. The interaction curve for a plate subjected to normal
and shear stresses, σx and τ respectively, varies between a circle and a parabola [6], depending on the value of the ratio
ψ of the normal stresses at the edges (Figure 8).

ESDEP WG 8
This relationship may be represented by the approximate equation:
(9)
For a given pair of applied stresses (σ, τ) the factor of safety with respect to the above curve is given by:
= (10)
The equivalent buckling stress is then given by:
σcreq = γcreq √{σ2 + 3τ2} (11)
where the von Mises criterion has been applied.
For simultaneous action of σx, σy and τ similar relationships apply.
2.2.2 Ultimate resistance of an unstiffened plate
General
The linear buckling theory described in the previous section is based on assumptions (a) to (h) that are never fulfilled in
real structures. The consequences for the buckling behaviour when each of these assumptions is removed is now
discussed.
The first assumption of unlimited linear elastic behaviour of the material is obviously not valid for steel. If the material
is considered to behave as linear elastic-ideal plastic, the buckling curve must be cut off at the level of the yield stress σy
(Figure 9b).

ESDEP WG 8
When the non-linear behaviour of steel between the proportionality limit σp and the yield stress σy is taken into account,
the buckling curve will be further reduced (Figure 9b). When strain hardening is considered, values of σcr larger than
σy, as experimentally observed for very stocky panels, are possible. In conclusion, it may be stated that the removal of
the assumption of linear elastic behaviour of steel results in a reduction of the ultimate stresses for stocky panels.
The second and fourth assumptions of a plate without geometrical imperfections and residual stresses, under symmetric
actions in its middle plane, are also never fulfilled in real structures. If the assumption of small displacements is still
retained, the analysis of a plate with imperfections requires a second order analysis. This analysis has no bifurcation
point since for each level of stress the corresponding displacements w may be determined. The equilibrium path (Figure
10a) tends asymptotically to the value of σcr for increasing displacements, as is found from the second order theory.

ESDEP WG 8
However the ultimate stress is generally lower than σcr since the combined stress due to the buckling and the membrane
stress is limited by the yield stress. This limitation becomes relevant for plates with geometrical imperfections, in the
region of moderate slenderness, since the value of the buckling stress is not small (Figure 10b). For plates with residual
stresses the reduction of the ultimate stress is primarily due to the small value of σp (Figure 9b) at which the material
behaviour becomes non-linear. In conclusion it may be stated that imperfections due to geometry, residual stresses and
eccentricities of loading lead to a reduction of the ultimate stress, especially in the range of moderate slenderness.

ESDEP WG 8
The assumption of small displacements (e) is not valid for stresses in the vicinity of σcr as shown in Figure 10a. When
large displacements are considered, Equation (1) must be extended to the quadratic terms of the displacements. The
corresponding equations, written for reasons of simplicity for a plate without initial imperfections, are:
(12)
This results in a coupling between the equations governing the stretching and the bending of the plate (Equations (1) and
(2)).
(13a)
(13b)
where F is an Airy type stress function. Equations (13) are known as the von Karman equations. They constitute the
basis of the (geometrically) non-linear buckling theory. For a plate without imperfections the equilibrium path still has a
bifurcation point at σcr, but, unlike the linear buckling theory, the equilibrium for stresses σ > σcr is still stable (Figure
11). The equilibrium path for plates with imperfections tends asymptotically to the same curve. The ultimate stress may
be determined by limiting the stresses to the yield stress. It may be observed that plates possess a considerable post-
critical carrying resistance. This post-critical behaviour is more pronounced the more slender the plate, i.e. the smaller
the value of σcr.

ESDEP WG 8
Buckling curve
For the reasons outlined above, it is evident that the Euler buckling curve for linear buckling theory (Figure 6c) may not
be used for design. A lot of experimental and theoretical investigations have been performed in order to define a
buckling curve that best represents the true behaviour of plate panels. For relevant literature reference should be made to
Dubas and Gehri [7]. For design purposes it is advantageous to express the buckling curve in a dimensionless form as
described below.
The slenderness of a panel may be written according to (7) and (8) as:
λp = (b/t) √{12(1−ν2)/kσ} = π√(Ε/σcr) (14)
If a reference slenderness given by:
λy = π√(Ε/fy) (15)
is introduced, the relative slenderness becomes:

ESDEP WG 8
p = λp/λy = √(σy/σcr) (16)
The ultimate stress is also expressed in a dimensionless form by introducing a reduction factor:
k = σu /σy (17)
Dimensionless curves for normal and for shear stresses as proposed by Eurocode 3 [8] are illustrated in Figure 12.

ESDEP WG 8
These buckling curves have higher values for large slendernesses than those of the Euler curve due to post critical
behaviour and are limited to the yield stress. For intermediate slendernesses, however, they have smaller values than
those of Euler due to the effects of geometrical imperfections and residual stresses.
Although the linear buckling theory is not able to describe accurately the behaviour of a plate panel, its importance
should not be ignored. In fact this theory, as in the case of struts, yields the value of an important parameter, namely
p, that is used for the determination of the ultimate stress.
Effective width method
This method has been developed for the design of thin walled sections subjected to uniaxial normal stresses. It will be
illustrated for a simply-supported plate subjected to uniform compression (Figure 13a).

ESDEP WG 8
The stress distribution which is initially uniform, becomes non-uniform after buckling, since the central parts of the
panel are not able to carry more stresses due to the bowing effect. The stress at the stiff edges (towards which the
redistribution takes place) may reach the yield stress. The method is based on the assumption that the non-uniform stress
distribution over the entire panel width may be substituted by a uniform one over a reduced "effective" width. This
width is determined by equating the resultant forces:
b σu = be σy (18)
and accordingly:
be = σu.b/σy = kb (19)
which shows that the value of the effective width depends on the buckling curve adopted. For uniform compression the
effective width is equally distributed along the two edges (Figure 13a). For non-uniform compression and other support
conditions it is distributed according to rules given in the various regulations. Some examples of the distribution are
shown in Figure 13b. The effective width may also be determined for values of σ < σu. In such cases Equation (19) is
still valid, but p, which is needed for the determination of the reduction factor k, is not given by Equation (16) but by
the relationship:
p= √(σ/σcr) (20)
The design of thin walled cross-sections is performed according to the following procedure:
For given actions conditions the stress distribution at the cross-section is determined. At each subpanel the critical stress
σcr, the relative slenderness p and the effective width be are determined according to Equations (7), (16) and (19),
respectively. The effective width is then distributed along the panel as illustrated by the examples in Figure 13b. The
verifications are finally based on the characteristic Ae, Ie, and We of the effective cross-section. For the cross- section of
Figure 14b, which is subjected to normal forces and bending moments, the verification is expressed as:

ESDEP WG 8
(21)
where e is the shift in the centroid of the cross-section to the tension side and γm the partial safety factor of resistance.
The effective width method has not been extended to panels subjected to combinations of stress. On the other hand the
interaction formulae presented in Section 2.2 do not accurately describe the carrying resistance of the plate, since they
are based on linear buckling theory and accordingly on elastic material behaviour. It has been found that these rules
cannot be extended to cases of plastic behaviour. Some interaction curves, at the ultimate limit state, are illustrated in
Figure 15, where all stresses are referred to the ultimate stresses for the case where each of them is acting alone.
Relevant interaction formulae are included in some recent European Codes - see also [9,10].

ESDEP WG 8
Finite element methods

ESDEP WG 8
When using finite element methods to determine the ultimate resistance of an unstiffened plate one must consider the
following aspects:
● The modelling of the plate panel should include the boundary conditions as accurately as possible with respect to
the conditions of the real structure, see Figure 16. For a conservative solution, hinged conditions can be used
along the edges.
● Thin shell elements should be used in an appropriate mesh to make yielding and large curvatures (large out-of-
plane displacements) possible.
● The plate should be assumed to have an initial imperfection similar in shape to the final collapse mode.
The first order Euler buckling mode can be used as a first approximation to this shape. In addition, a disturbance to the

ESDEP WG 8
first order Euler buckling mode can be added to avoid snap-through problems while running the programme, see Figure
17. The amplitude of the initial imperfect shape should relate to the tolerances for flatness.
● The program used must be able to take a true stress-strain relationship into account, see Figure 18, and if
necessary an initial stress pattern. The latter can also be included in the initial shape.
● The computer model must use a loading which is equal to the design loading multiplied by an action factor. This
factor should be increased incrementally from zero up to the desired action level (load factor = 1). If the structure
is still stable at the load factor = 1, the calculation process can be continued up to collapse or even beyond
collapse into the region of unstable behaviour (Figure 19). In order to calculate the unstable response, the
program must be able to use more refined incremental and iterative methods to reach convergence in equilibrium.

ESDEP WG 8

ESDEP WG 8
3. UNSTIFFENED PLATES UNDER OUT-OF-PLANE ACTIONS
If the plate deformations are small compared to the thickness of the plate, the middle plane of the plate can be regarded
as a neutral plane without membrane stresses. This assumption is similar to beam bending theory. The actions are held
in equilibrium only by bending moments and shear forces. The stresses in an isotropic plate can be calculated in the
elastic range by solving a fourth order partial differential equation, which describes equilibrium between actions and
plate reactions normal to the middle plane of the plate, in terms of transverse deflections w due to bending.
∇ 4w =
where:
q = q(x, y) is the transverse loading

ESDEP WG 8
D = Et3/12(1- 2) is the stiffness of the plate having thickness t,

modulus of elasticity E, and Poisson's ratio υ .
is the biharmonic operator
In solving the plate equation the prescribed boundary (support) conditions must be taken into account. For example, for
an edge parallel to the y axis, w = ∂w/∂n = 0 if the edge is clamped, or w = ∂w2/∂n2 = 0 if the edge is simply supported.
Some solutions for the isotropic plate are given in Figure 20.

ESDEP WG 8
An approximation may be obtained by modelling the plate as a grid and neglecting the twisting moments.
Plates in bending may react in the plastic range with a pattern of yield lines which, by analogy to the plastic hinge
mechanism for beams, may form a plastic mechanism in the limit state (Figure 21). The position of the yield lines may
be determined by minimum energy considerations.
If the plate deformations are of the order of the plate thickness or even larger, the membrane stresses in the plate can no
longer be neglected in determining the plate reactions.
The membrane stresses occur if the middle surface of the plate is deformed to a curved shape. The deformed shape can
be generated only by tension, compression and shear stains in the middle surface.
This behaviour can be illustrated by the deformed circular plate shown in Figure 22b. It is assumed that the line a c b
(diameter d) does not change during deformation, so that a′ c′ b′ is equal to the diameter d. The points which lie on the
edge "akb" are now on a′ k′ b′ , which must be on a smaller radius compared with the original one.

ESDEP WG 8
Therefore the distance akb becomes shorter, which means that membrane stresses exist in the ring fibres of the plate.
The distribution of membrane stresses can be visualised if the deformed shape is frozen.
It can only be flattened out if it is cut into a number of radial cuts, Figure 22c, the gaps representing the effects of
membrane stresses; this explains why curved surfaces are much stiffer than flat surfaces and are very suitable for
constructing elements such as cupolas for roofs, etc.
The stresses in the plate can be calculated with two fourth order coupled differential equations, in which an Airy-type
stress function which describes the membrane state, has to be determined in addition to the unknown plate deformation.

ESDEP WG 8
In this case the problem is non-linear. The solution is far more complicated in comparison with the simple plate bending
theory which neglects membrane effects.
The behaviour of the plate is governed by von Karman's Equations (13).
where F = F(x, y) is the Airy stress function.
More or less the same considerations hold when using FEM to determine the stress distribution in plates which are
subject to out-of-plane action as when using FEM for plates under in-plane actions (see Section 2.1.3), except for the
following:
● The plate element must be able to describe large deflections out-of-plane.

● The material model used should include plasticity.
3.2.1 Deflections
Except for the yield line mechanism theory, all analytical methods for determining the stress distributions will also
provide the deformations, provided that the stresses are in the elastic region.
Using adequate finite element methods leads to accurate determination of the deflections which take into account the
decrease in stiffness due to plasticity in certain regions of the plate. Most design codes contain limits to these deflections
which have to be met at serviceability load levels (see Figure 23).

ESDEP WG 8
3.2.2 Ultimate resistance
The resistance of plates, determined using the linear plate theory only, is normally much underestimated since the
additional strength due to the membrane effect and the redistribution of forces due to plasticity is neglected.

ESDEP WG 8
An upper bound for the ultimate resistance can be found using the yield line theory.
More accurate results can be achieved using FEM. The FEM program should then include the options as described in
Section 3.1.2.
Via an incremental procedure, the action level can increase from zero up to the desired design action level or even up to
collapse (see Figure 23).
4. INFLUENCE OF THE OUT-OF-PLANE ACTIONS ON THE STABILITY

OF UNSTIFFENED PLATES
The out-of-plane action has an unfavourable effect on the stability of an unstiffened plate panel in those cases where the
deformed shape due to the out- of-plane action is similar to the buckling collapse mode of the plate under in-plane
action only.
The stability of a square plate panel, therefore, is highly influenced by the presence of out-of-plane (transversely
directed) actions. Thus if the aspect ratio α is smaller than , the plate stability should be checked taking the out-of-
plane actions into account. This can be done in a similar way as for a column under compression and transverse actions.
If the aspect ratio α is larger than the stability of the plate should be checked neglecting the out-of-plane actions
component.
For strength verification both actions have to be considered simultaneously.
When adequate Finite element Methods are used, the complete behaviour of the plate can be simulated taking the total
action combination into account.
● Linear buckling theory may be used to analyse the behaviour of perfect, elastic plates under in-plane actions.
● The behaviour of real, imperfect plates is influenced by their geometric imperfections and by yield in the
presence of residual stresses.
● Slender plates exhibit a considerable post-critical strength.
● Stocky plates and plates of moderate slenderness are adversely influenced by geometric imperfection and
plasticity.
● Effective widths may be used to design plates whose behaviour is influenced by local buckling under in-plane
actions.
● The elastic behaviour of plates under out-of-plane actions is adequately described by small deflection theory for
deflection less than the plate thickness.
● Influence surfaces are a useful means of describing small deflection plate behaviour.
● Membrane action becomes increasingly important for deflections greater than the plate thicknesses and large
displacement theory using the von Karman equations should be used for elastic analysis.
● An upper bound on the ultimate resistance of plates under out-of-plane actions may be found from yield live
theory.
● Out-of-plane actions influence the stability of plate panels under in-plane action.
6. REFERENCES
[1] Bryan, G. K., "On the Stability of a Plane Plate under Thrusts in its own Plane with Application on the "Buckling" of
the Sides of a Ship". Math. Soc. Proc. 1891, 54.

ESDEP WG 8
[2] Szilard, R., "Theory and Analysis of Plates", Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, 1974.
[3] Brush, D. O. and Almroth, B. O., "Buckling of Bars, Plates and Shells", McGraw-Hill, New York, 1975.
[4] Wolmir, A. S., "Biegsame Platten und Schalen", VEB Verlag für Bauwesen, Berlin, 1962.
[5] Timoshenko, S., and Winowsky-Krieger, S., "Theory of Plates and Shells", Mc Graw Hill, 1959.
[6] Chwalla, E., "Uber dés Biégungsbeulung der Langsversteiften Platte und das Problem der Mindersteifigeit",
Stahlbau 17, 84-88, 1944.
[7] Dubas, P., Gehri, E. (editors), "Behaviour and Design of Steel Plated Structures", ECCS, 1986.
[9] Harding, J. E., "Interaction of direct and shear stresses on Plate Panels" in Plated Structures, Stability and Strength".
Narayanan (ed.), Applied Science Publishers, London, 1989.
[10] Linder, J., Habermann, W., "Zur mehrachsigen Beanspruchung beim"
Plattenbeulen. In Festschrift J. Scheer, TU Braunschweig, 1987.

ESDEP WG 8
ESDEP WG 8
PLATES AND SHELLS
Lecture 8.3: Behaviour and Design of

Stiffened Plates
OBJECTIVE/SCOPE
To discuss the load distribution, stability and ultimate resistance of stiffened plates under in-plane and out-of-plane loading.
PREREQISITES
Lecture 8.1: Introduction to Plate Behaviour and Design
RELATED LECTURES
Lecture 8.4.1: Plate Girder Behaviour & Design I
SUMMARY
The load distribution for in-plane loaded unstiffened plate structures is discussed and the critical buckling loads derived
using linear elastic theory. Two design approaches for determining the ultimate resistance of stiffened plates are described
and compared. Out-of-plane loading is also considered and its influence on stability discussed. The requirements for
finite element models of stiffened plates are outlined using those for unstiffened plates as a basis.

ESDEP WG 8
1. INTRODUCTION
The automation of welding procedures and the need to design elements not only to have the necessary resistance to
external actions but also to meet aesthetic and serviceability requirements leads to an increased tendency to employ
thin-walled, plated structures, especially when the use of rolled sections is excluded, due to the form and the size of
the structure. Through appropriate selection of plate thicknesses, steel qualities and form and position of stiffeners,
cross-sections can be best adapted to the actions applied and the serviceability conditions, thus saving material
weight. Examples of such structures, shown in Figure 1, are webs of plate girders, flanges of plate girders, the walls of
box girders, thin-walled roofing, facades, etc.

ESDEP WG 8
Plated elements carry simultaneously:
a) actions normal to their plane,
b) in-plane actions.
Out-of-plane action is of secondary importance for such steel elements since, due to the typically small plate
thicknesses involved, they are not generally used for carrying transverse actions. In-plane action, however, has
significant importance in plated structures.
The intention of design is to utilise the full strength of the material. Since the slenderness of such plated elements is large
due to the small thicknesses, their carrying resistance is reduced due to buckling. An economic design may, however,
be achieved when longitudinal and/or transverse stiffeners are provided. Such stiffeners may be of open or of torsionally
rigid closed sections, as shown in Figure 2. When these stiffeners are arranged in a regular orthogonal grid, and the spacing
is small enough to 'smear' the stiffeners to a continuum in the analysis, such a stiffened plate is called an orthogonal
anisotropic plate or in short, an orthotropic plate (Figure 3). In this lecture the buckling behaviour of stiffened plate
panels subjected to in-plane actions will be presented. The behaviour under out-of-plane actions is also discussed as is
the influence of the out-of-plane action on the stability of stiffened plates.

ESDEP WG 8

ESDEP WG 8
Specific topics such as local actions and the tension field method are covered in the lectures on plate girders.
2. STIFFENED PLATES UNDER IN-PLANE LOADING
The stress distribution can be determined from the solutions of Navier's equations (see Lecture 8.2 Section 2.1.1) but,
for stiffened plates, this is limited to plates where the longitudinal and transverse stiffeners are closely spaced, symmetrical
to both sides of the plate, and produce equal stiffness in the longitudinal and transverse direction, see Figure 4.
This configuration leads to an isotropic behaviour when the stiffeners are smeared out. In practice this way of stiffening is
not practical and therefore not commonly used.

ESDEP WG 8

ESDEP WG 8
All deviations from the "ideal" situation (eccentric stiffeners, etc.) have to be taken into account when calculating the
stress distribution in the plate.
2.1.2 Distribution resulting from linear elastic theory using Bernouilli's hypothesis
As for unstiffened plates the most practical way of determining the stress distribution in the panel is using the plane
strain hypothesis. Since stiffened plates have a relatively large width, however, the real stress distribution can
differ substantially from the calculated stress distribution due to the effect of shear lag.
Shear lag may be taken into account by a reduced flange width concentrated along the edges and around stiffeners in
the direction of the action (see Figure 5).

ESDEP WG 8
The stiffeners can be modelled as beam-column elements eccentrically attached to the plate elements, see Lecture 8.2,
Section 2.1.3.
In the case where the stiffeners are relatively deep beams (with large webs) it is better to model the webs with plate
elements and the flange, if present, with a beam-column element.
2.2 Stability of Stiffened Plates
The knowledge of the critical buckling load for stiffened plates is of importance not only because design was (and to a
limited extent still is) based on it, but also because it is used as a parameter in modern design procedures. The assumptions
for the linear buckling theory of plates are as follows:
a) the plate is perfectly plane and stress free.
b) the stiffeners are perfectly straight.
c) the loading is absolutely concentric.

ESDEP WG 8
d) the material is linear elastic.
e) the transverse displacements are relatively small.
The equilibrium path has a bifurcation point which corresponds to the critical action (Figure 6).

ESDEP WG 8
Analytical solutions, through direct integration of the governing differential equations are, for stiffened plates, only possible
in specific cases; therefore, approximate numerical methods are generally used. Of greatest importance in this respect is
the Rayleigh-Ritz approach, which is based on the energy method. If Πo, and ΠI represent the total potential energy of the
plate in the undeformed initial state and at the bifurcation point respectively (Figure 6), then the application of the principle
of virtual displacements leads to the expression:
δ(ΠI) = δ(Πo + ∆Πo) = δ(Πo + δΠo + δ2Πo + ....) = 0 (1)
since ΠI is in equilibrium. But the initial state is also in equilibrium and therefore δΠo = 0. The stability condition
then becomes:
δ(δ2Πo) = 0 (2)
δ2Πo in the case of stiffened plates includes the strain energy of the plate and the stiffeners and the potential of the
external forces acting on them. The stiffeners are characterized by three dimensionless coefficients δ, γ, υ expressing
their relative rigidities for extension, flexure and torsion respectively.
For rectangular plates simply supported on all sides (Figure 6) the transverse displacements in the buckled state can
be approximated by the double Fourier series:
(3)
which complies with the boundary conditions. The stability criterion, Equation (2), then becomes:
(4)
since the only unknown parameters are the amplitudes amn, Equations (4) form a set of linear and homogeneous

ESDEP WG 8
linear equations, the number of which is equal to the number of non-zero coefficients amn retained in the Ritz-
expansion. Setting the determinant of the coefficients equal to 0 yields the buckling equations. The smallest Eigenvalue is
the so-called buckling coefficient k. The critical buckling load is then given by the expression:
σcr = kσσE or τcr = kτσE (5)
with σE =
The most extensive studies on rectangular, simply supported stiffened plates were carried out by Klöppel and Scheer[1]
and Klöppel and Möller[2]. They give charts, as shown in Figure 7, for the determination of k as a function of the coefficients
δ and γ, previously described, and the parameters α = a/b and ψ =σ2/σ1 as defined in Figure 6a. Some solutions also exist
for specific cases of plates with fully restrained edges, stiffeners with substantial torsional rigidity, etc. For relevant
literature the reader is referred to books by Petersen[3] and by Dubas and Gehri[4].

ESDEP WG 8
When the number of stiffeners in one direction exceeds two, the numerical effort required to determine k
becomes considerable; for example, a plate panel with 2 longitudinal and 2 transverse stiffeners requires a Ritz expansion
of 120. Practical solutions may be found by "smearing" the stiffeners over the entire plate. The plate then
behaves orthotropically, and the buckling coefficient may be determined by the same procedure as described before.
An alternative to stiffened plates, with a large number of equally spaced stiffeners and the associated high welding costs,
are corrugated plates, see Figure 2c. These plates may also be treated as orthotropic plates, using equivalent
orthotropic rigidities[5].
So far only the application of simple action has been considered. For combinations of normal and shear stresses a
linear interaction, as described by Dunkerley, is very conservative. On the other hand direct determination of the
buckling coefficient fails due to the very large number of combinations that must be considered. An approximate method
has, therefore, been developed, which is based on the corresponding interaction for unstiffened plates, provided that
the stiffeners are so stiff that buckling in an unstiffened sub-panel occurs before buckling of the stiffened plate. The
critical buckling stress is determined for such cases by the expression:
σvcr = kσ Z1s σE (6)
where σE has the same meaning as in Equation (5).
s is given by charts (Figure 8b).
Z1 =
kσ , kτ are the buckling coefficients for normal and shear stresses acting independently
For more details the reader is referred to the publications previously mentioned.

ESDEP WG 8
Optimum rigidity of stiffeners
Three types of optimum rigidity of stiffeners γ*, based on linear buckling theory, are usually defined[6]. The first type γI*,
is defined such that for values γ > γI* no further increase of k is possible, as shown in Figure 9a, because for γ = γI*
the stiffeners remain straight.
ESDEP WG 8
The second type γII*, is defined as the value for which two curves of the buckling coefficients, belonging to different
ESDEP WG 8
numbers of waves, cross (Figure 9b). The buckling coefficient for γ < γII* reduces considerably, whereas it increases
slightly for γ > γII*. A stiffener with γ = γII* deforms at the same time as the plate buckles.
The third type γIII* is defined such that the buckling coefficient of the stiffened plate becomes equal to the buckling
coefficient of the most critical unstiffened subpanel (Figure 9c).
The procedure to determine the optimum or critical stiffness is, therefore, quite simple. However, due to initial imperfections
of both plate and stiffeners as a result of out of straightness and welding stresses, the use of stiffeners with critical stiffness
will not guarantee that the stiffeners will remain straight when the adjacent unstiffened plate panels buckle.
This problem can be overcome by multiplying the optimum (critical) stiffness by a factor, m, when designing the stiffeners.
The factor is often taken as m = 2,5 for stiffeners which form a closed cross-section together with the plate, and as m = 4
for stiffeners with an open cross-section such as flat, angle and T-stiffeners.
2.2.2 Ultimate resistance of stiffened plates
Behaviour of Stiffened Plates
Much theoretical and experimental research has been devoted to the investigation of stiffened plates. This research
was intensified after the collapses, in the 1970's, of 4 major steel bridges in Austria, Australia, Germany and the UK, caused
by plate buckling. It became evident very soon that linear buckling theory cannot accurately describe the real behaviour
of stiffened plates. The main reason for this is its inability to take the following into account:
a) the influence of geometric imperfections and residual welding stresses.
b) the influence of large deformations and therefore the post buckling behaviour.
c) the influence of plastic deformations due to yielding of the material.
d) the possibility of stiffener failure.
Concerning the influence of imperfections, it is known that their presence adversely affects the carrying resistance of the
plates, especially in the range of moderate slenderness and for normal compressive (not shear) stresses.
Large deformations, on the other hand, generally allow the plate to carry loads in the post-critical range, thus increasing
ESDEP WG 8
the action carrying resistance, especially in the range of large slenderness. The post-buckling behaviour exhibited
by unstiffened panels, however, is not always present in stiffened plates. Take, for example, a stiffened flange of a box
girder under compression, as shown in Figure 10. Since the overall width of this panel, measured as the distance between
the supporting webs, is generally large, the influence of the longitudinal supports is rather small. Therefore, the behaviour
of this flange resembles more that of a strut under compression than that of a plate. This stiffened plate does not,
accordingly, possess post-buckling resistance.

ESDEP WG 8
As in unstiffened panels, plastic deformations play an increasingly important role as the slenderness decreases,
producing smaller ultimate actions.
The example of a stiffened plate under compression, as shown in Figure 11, is used to illustrate why linear bucking theory
is not able to predict the stiffener failure mode. For this plate two different modes of failure may be observed: the first mode
is associated with buckling failure of the plate panel; the second with torsional buckling failure of the stiffeners. The
overall deformations after buckling are directed in the first case towards the stiffeners, and in the second towards the
plate panels, due to the up or downward movement of the centroid of the middle cross-section. Experimental investigations
on stiffened panels have shown that the stiffener failure mode is much more critical for both open and closed stiffeners as
it generally leads to smaller ultimate loads and sudden collapse. Accordingly, not only the magnitude but also the direction
of the imperfections is of importance.

ESDEP WG 8
Due to the above mentioned deficiencies in the way that linear buckling theory describes the behaviour of stiffened panels,
two different design approaches have been recently developed. The first, as initially formulated by the
ECCS-Recommendations [7] for allowable stress design and later expanded by DIN 18800, part 3[8] to ultimate limit
state design, still uses values from linear buckling theory for stiffened plates. The second, as formulated by recent Drafts
of ECCS-Recommendations [9,10], is based instead on various simple limit state models for specific geometric
configurations and loading conditions. Both approaches have been checked against experimental and theoretical results;
they will now be briefly presented and discussed.
ESDEP WG 8
Design Approach with Values from the Linear Buckling Theory
With reference to a stiffened plate supported along its edges (Figure 12), distinction is made between individual panels, e.
g. IJKL, partial panels, i.e. EFGH, and the overall panel ABCD. The design is based on the condition that the design stresses
of all the panels shall not exceed the corresponding design resistances. The adjustment of the linear buckling theory to the
real behaviour of stiffened plates is basically made by the following provisions:
a) Introduction of buckling curves as illustrated in Figure 12b.
b) Consideration of effective widths, due to local buckling, for flanges associated with stiffeners.
c) Interaction formulae for the simultaneous presence of stresses σx, σy and τ at the ultimate limit state.
d) Additional reduction factors for the strut behaviour of the plate.
e) Provision of stiffeners with minimum torsional rigidities in order to prevent lateral-torsional buckling.

ESDEP WG 8
Design Approach with Simple Limit State Models
Drafts of European Codes and Recommendations have been published which cover the design of the following elements:
a) Plate girders with transverse stiffeners only (Figure 13a) - Eurocode 3 [11].
b) Longitudinally stiffened webs of plate and box girders (Figure 13b) - ECCS-TWG 8.3, 1989.
c) Stiffened compression flanges of box girders (Figure 13c) - ECCS [10].

ESDEP WG 8

ESDEP WG 8
Only a brief outline of the proposed models is presented here; for more details reference should be made to Lectures 8.4,
8.5, and 8.6 on plate girders and on box girders:
The stiffened plate can be considered as a grillage of beam-columns loaded in compression. For simplicity the
unstiffened plates are neglected in the ultimate resistance and only transfer the loads to the beam-columns which consist of
the stiffeners themselves together with the adjacent effective plate widths. This effective plate width is determined by
buckling of the unstiffened plates (see Section 2.2.1 of Lecture 8.2). The bending resistance Mu, reduced as necessary due
to the presence of axial forces, is determined using the characteristics of the effective cross-section. Where both shear
forces and bending moments are present simultaneously an interaction formula is given. For more details reference should
be made to the original recommendations.
The resistance of a box girder flange subjected to compression can be determined using the method presented in the
ECCS Recommendations referred to previously, by considering a strut composed of a stiffener and an associated
effective width of plating. The design resistance is calculated using the Perry-Robertson formula. Shear forces due to torsion
or beam shear are taken into account by reducing the yield strength of the material according to the von Mises yield
criterion. An alternative approach using orthotropic plate properties is also given.
The above approaches use results of the linear buckling theory of unstiffened plates (value of Vcr, determination of beff
etc.). For stiffened plates the values given by this theory are used only for the expression of the rigidity requirements
for stiffeners. Generally this approach gives rigidity and strength requirements for the stiffeners which are stricter than
those mentioned previously in this lecture.
Discussion of the Design Approaches
Both approaches have advantages and disadvantages.
The main advantage of the first approach is that it covers the design of both unstiffened and stiffened plates subjected
to virtually any possible combination of actions using the same method. Its main disadvantage is that it is based on
the limitation of stresses and, therefore, does not allow for any plastic redistribution at the cross-section. This is illustrated
ESDEP WG 8
by the example shown in Figure 14. For the box section of Figure 14a, subjected to a bending moment, the ultimate
bending resistance is to be determined. If the design criterion is the limitation of the stresses in the compression thin-
walled flange, as required by the first approach, the resistance is Mu = 400kNm. If the computation is performed with
effective widths that allow for plastic deformations of the flange, Mu is found equal to 550kNm.
The second approach also has some disadvantages: there are a limited number of cases of geometrical and
loading configurations where these models apply; there are different methodologies used in the design of each specific case
and considerable numerical effort is required, especially using the tension field method.
Another important point is the fact that reference is made to webs and flanges that cannot always be defined clearly, as
shown in the examples of Figure 15.

ESDEP WG 8
For a box girder subjected to uniaxial bending (Figure 15a) the compression flange and the webs are defined. This is
however not possible when biaxial bending is present (Figure 15b). Another example is shown in Figure 15c; the cross-
section of a cable stayed bridge at the location A-A is subjected to normal forces without bending; it is evident, in this
case, that the entire section consists of "flanges".
Finite Element Methods
In determining the stability behaviour of stiffened plate panels, basically the same considerations hold as described in
Lecture 8.2, Section 2.2.2. In addition it should be noted that the stiffeners have to be modelled by shell elements or by
a combination of shell and beam-column elements. Special attention must also be given to the initial imperfect shape of
the stiffeners with open cross-sections.
It is difficult to describe all possible failure modes within one and the same finite element model. It is easier, therefore,
to describe the beam-column behaviour of the stiffeners together with the local and overall buckling of the unstiffened
plate panels and the stiffened assemblage respectively and to verify specific items such as lateral-torsional buckling
separately (see Figure 16). Only for research purposes is it sometimes necessary to model the complete structure such that
ESDEP WG 8
all the possible phenomena are simulated by the finite element model.
3. STIFFENED PLATES UNDER OUT-OF-PLANE ACTION APPLICATION
The theory described in Section 3.1.1 of Lecture 8.2 can only be applied to stiffened plates if the stiffeners are
sufficiently closely spaced so that orthotropic behaviour occurs. If this is not the case it is better to consider the
unstiffened plate panels in between the stiffeners separately. The remaining grillage of stiffeners must be considered as a
beam system in bending (see Section 3.1.2).
3.1.2 Distribution resulting from a grillage under lateral actions filled in with unstiffened sub-panels
ESDEP WG 8
The unstiffened sub-panels can be analysed as described in Section 3.1.1 of Lecture 8.2.
The remaining beam grillage is formed by the stiffeners which are welded to the plate, together with a certain part of the
plate. The part can be taken as for buckling, namely the effective width as described in Section 2.2.2 of this Lecture. In
this way the distribution of forces and moments can be determined quite easily.
Similar considerations hold for using FEM to determine the force and moment distribution in stiffened plates which are
subject to out-of-plane actions as for using FEM for stiffened plates loaded in-plane (see Section 2.1.3) except that the
finite elements used must be able to take large deflections and elastic-plastic material behaviour into account.
All considerations mentioned in Section 3.2 of Lecture 8.2 for unstiffened plates are valid for the analysis of stiffened
plates both for deflections and ultimate resistance. It should be noted, however, that for design purposes it is easier to
verify specific items, such as lateral-torsional buckling, separately from plate buckling and beam-column behaviour.
4. INFLUENCE OF OUT-OF-PLANE ACTIONS ON THE STABILITY

OF STIFFENED PLATES
The points made in Section 4 of Lecture 8.2 also apply here; that is, the stability of the stiffened plate is
unfavourably influenced if the deflections, due to out-of-plane actions, are similar to the stability collapse mode.
● Stiffened plates are widely used in steel structures because of the greater efficiency that the stiffening provides to both
stability under in-plane actions and resistance to out-of-plane actions.
● Elastic linear buckling theory may be applied to stiffened plates but numerical techniques such as Rayleigh-Ritz are needed
for most practical situations.
● Different approaches may be adopted to defining the optimum rigidity of stiffeners.
● The ultimate behaviour of stiffened plates is influenced by geometric imperfections and yielding in the presence of
residual stresses.
● Design approaches for stiffened plates are either based on derivatives of linear buckling theory or on simple limit state models.
● Simple strut models are particularly suitable for compression panels with longitudinal stiffeners.
ESDEP WG 8
● Finite element models may be used for concrete modelling of particular situations.
6. REFERENCES
[1] Klöppel, K., Scheer, J., "Beulwerte Ausgesteifter Rechteckplatten", Bd. 1, Berlin, W. Ernst u. Sohn 1960.
[2] Klöppel, K., Möller, K. H., "Beulwerte Ausgesteifter Rechteckplatten", Bd. 2, Berlin, W. Ernst u. Sohn 1968.
[3] Petersen, C., "Statik und Stabilität der Baukonstruktionen", Braunschweig: Vieweg 1982.
[4] Dubas, P., Gehri, E., "Behaviour and Design of Steel Plated Structures", ECCS, 1986.
[5] Briassoulis, D., "Equivalent Orthotropic Properties of Corrugated Sheets", Computers and Structures, 1986, 129-138.
[6] Chwalla, E., "Uber die Biegungsbeulung der langsversteiften Platte und das Problem der Mindeststeifigeit", Stahlbau
17, 1944, 84-88.
[7] ECCS, "Conventional design rules based on the linear buckling theory", 1978.
[8] DIN 18800 Teil 3 (1990), "Stahlbauten, Stabilitätsfalle, Plattenbeulen", Berlin: Beuth.
[9] ECCS, "Design of longitudinally stiffened webs of plate and box girders", Draft 1989.
[10] ECCS, "Stiffened compression flanges of box girders", Draft 1989.
[11] Eurocode 3, "Design of Steel Structures": ENV 1993-1-1: Part 1.1: General rules and rules for buildings, CEN, 1992.

ESDEP WG 8
PLATES AND SHELLS
Lecture 8.4.1: Plate Girder Behaviour and

Design I
OBJECTIVE
To introduce basic aspects of the behaviour and design of plate girders. To explain how the typical proportions
employed influence the types of behaviour that must be addressed in design, and to identify the various buckling
considerations involved, as a preparation for subsequent consideration of the design approaches of Eurocode 3 [1].
PREREQUISITES
None
RELATED LECTURES
Lectures 3.2: Erection
Lecture 7.2: Cross-section Classification
Lecture 8.4.2: Plate Girder Behaviour and Design - II
Lecture 8.4.3: Plate Girder Design - Special Topics

Lecture 11.8: Splices in Buildings
Lecture 15B.3: Plate Girder and Beam Bridges
SUMMARY
Modern plate girders are introduced by explaining typical usage, types and the reasons for their inherent slender
proportions. Their behaviour is described with particular emphasis on the different forms of buckling that can occur.
The general basis of plate girder design is discussed in a simplified way as a prelude to a more detailed presentation in
Lectures 8.4.2 and Lecture 8.4.3. Post-buckling and tension field action are introduced and the roles of the main components
in a plate girder identified.
1. INTRODUCTION
Modern plate girders are normally fabricated by welding together two flanges and a web plate, as shown in Figure 1.
Such girders are capable of carrying greater loads over longer spans than is generally possible using standard rolled sections
or compound girders. Plate girders are typically used as long-span floor girders in buildings, as bridge girders, and as
crane girders in industrial structures.

Plate girders are at their most impressive in modern bridge construction where main spans of well over 200m are feasible,
with corresponding cross-section depths, haunched over the supports, in the range of 5-10m. Because plate girders
are fabricated separately, each may be designed individually to resist the applied actions using proportions that ensure low
self-weight and high load resistance.
For efficient design it is usual to choose a relatively deep girder, thus minimising the required area of flanges for a
given applied moment, Msd. This obviously entails a deep web whose area will be minimised by reducing its thickness to
the minimum required to carry the applied shear, Vsd. Such a web may be quite slender (i.e. a high d/tw ratio) and may be
prone to local buckling (see Lecture 7.3) and shear buckling (see below). Such buckling problems have to be given
careful consideration in plate girder design. One way of improving the load carrying resistance of a slender plate is to
employ stiffeners (Lecture 8.1); the selection of appropriate forms of stiffening is an important aspect of plate girder design.
1.1 Types
There are several forms of plate girder; Figure 2 illustrates three different types - unstiffened, transversely stiffened,
and transversely and longitudinally stiffened. The three girders shown have bisymmetric I-profile cross-sections,
although flanges of different size are sometimes used, as already shown in Figure 1. Other types of cross-section (see Figure
3) are monosymmetric I-profiles, which are popular in composite construction with the smaller flange on top (see
Lecture 10.2), or as crane girders (see Lecture 14.4) with the larger flange on top. Figure 3 also shows two other (less
common) variations - the "delta girder" and the tubular-top-flange girder - both being possible solutions in cases of
long laterally-unsupported top compression flanges prone to lateral-torsional buckling (see Lecture 7.9.1 and 7.9.2).



There is also considerable scope for variation of cross-section in the longitudinal direction. A designer may choose to
reduce the flange thickness (or breadth) in a zone of low applied moment, especially when a field-splice facilitates the
change. Equally, in a zone of high shear, the designer might choose to thicken the web plate (see Figure 4).
Alternatively, higher grade Fe E355 steel might be employed for zones of high applied moment and shear, while standard
grade Fe E235 would be used elsewhere. So-called "hybrid" girders with different strength material in the flanges and the
web offer another possible means of more closely matching resistance to requirements. More unusual variations are adopted
in special circumstances, such as bridgework (see Lecture 15B.4) e.g. tapered girders, cranked girders, haunched girders
(see Figure 5), and of course, plate girders with web holes to accommodate services, see Figure 6.



1.2 Proportions
Since the designer, in principle, is quite free to choose all the dimensions of a plate girder, some indication of the more
usual proportions is now given (see also Figure 7):

Depth: Overall girder depth, h, will usually be in the range Lo/12 ≤ h ≤ Lo/8, where Lo is the length between points of

zero moment. However, for plate girder bridges the range will extend to approximately Lo/20.
Flange breadth: The breadth, b, will usually be in the range h/5 ≤ b ≤ h/3, b being in multiples of 25mm. 'Wide flats' may
be used unless the flange is very wide.
Flange thickness: The flange thickness, tf, will usually at least satisfy the requirements of Eurocode 3 (Table 5.3.1) for Class
3 (semi-compact) sections, i.e. c/tf ≤ 14ε. The thickness will usually be chosen from the standard plate thicknesses.
Web thickness: Web thickness, tw, will determine the exact basis for web design, depending on whether the web is
classified with regard to shear buckling as "thick" or "thin" (see later). Thin webs will often require stiffening; this may take
the form of transverse stiffeners, longitudinal stiffeners or a combination, see Figure 2. Longitudinally stiffened girders
are more likely to be found in large bridge construction where high d/tw ratios are appropriate, e.g. 200 ≤ d/tw ≤ 500, due to
the need to minimise self-weight.
Clearly, depending on the particular loading pattern, and on depth and breadth restrictions, one can expect wide
variations within all the above limits which should be regarded as indicative only.
2. DESIGN CONCEPTS
Under static loading, ultimate limit states such as strength and stability will normally govern most plate girder design,
with serviceability limit states such as deflection or vibration being less critical. Some absolute limits on plate slenderness
are advisable so as to ensure sufficient robustness during erection. A generally accepted method [2] for designing plate
girders (which is permitted by Eurocode 3) subject to a moment Mad and a coincident shear Vad is to proportion the flanges
to carry all the moment with the web taking all the shear. This provides a particularly convenient means for obtaining an
initial estimate of girder proportions.
Thus, at any particular cross-section along a laterally-restrained plate girder, subject to specific values of bending moment
and shear force, the flange and web plates can be sized separately. The required flange plate area may readily be obtained
as follows:
Af = M/[(h - tf)fy/γMO] ≅ M/(hfy/γMO) (1)
(An iteration or two may be required depending on an assumed value of tf and its corresponding fy value from Table
3.1, Eurocode 3). Because the (normally) slender web will prevent the plastic moment of resistance of the cross-section
from being attained, the flange b/tf ratio need only comply with the Eurocode 3 (Table 5.3.1) requirements for a Class 3
(semi-compact) flange. The cross-sectional moment of resistance may then be checked using:
Mf.Rd = b tf (h - tf)fy/γMO (2)
Unfortunately, economic sizing of the web plate is not quite as straightforward, although where a thick web (defined later)
is acceptable it can be rapidly sized by assuming uniform shear stress τy over its whole area. The web-to-flange fillet
welds must be designed to transmit the longitudinal shear at the flange/web interface.
3. INFLUENCE OF BUCKLING ON DESIGN

Provided that the individual plate elements in a girder are each kept sufficiently stocky, the design may be based
on straightforward yield strength considerations. Economic and practical considerations will, however, dictate that not all
of these conditions will always be met. In most cases various forms of buckling must be taken into account. Figure 8 lists
the different phenomena.

3.1 Shear Buckling of the Web
Once the d/tw value for an unstiffened web exceeds a limiting figure (69ε in Eurocode 3) the web will buckle in shear before
it reaches its full shear capacity Awτy. Diagonal buckles, of the type shown in Figure 9(a), resulting from the
diagonal compression associated with the web shear will form. Their appearance may be delayed through the use of
vertical stiffeners, see Figure 9(b) since the load at which shear buckling is initiated is a function of both d/tw and panel

aspect ratio a/d.

3.2 Lateral-Torsional Buckling of the Girder
This topic is covered in Lecture 7.9.1 and 7.9.2.
3.3 Local Buckling of the Compression Flange
Provided that outstand proportions c/tf are suitably restricted, local buckling will have no effect on the girder's load
carrying resistance.
3.4 Compression Buckling of the Web
Webs for which d/tw ≤ 124ε and which are not subject to any axial load will permit the full elastic moment resistances of
the girder to be attained. If this limit of d/tw (or a lower one if axial compression in the girder as a whole is also present)
is exceeded, then moment resistance must be reduced accordingly. If it is desired to reach the girder's full plastic
moment resistance a stricter limit will be appropriate.
3.5 Flange Induced Buckling of the Web
If particularly slender webs are used, the compression flange may not receive enough support to prevent it from
buckling vertically rather like an isolated strut buckling about its minor axis. This possibility may be eliminated by placing
a suitable limit on d/tw. Transverse stiffeners also assist in resisting this form of buckling.
3.6 Local Buckling of the Web
Vertical loads may cause buckling of the web in the region directly under the load as for a vertical strut. The level of
loading that may safely be carried before this happens will depend upon the exact way in which the load is transmitted to
the web, the web proportions, and the level of overall bending present.
4. POST-BUCKLING STRENGTH OF WEB

Owing to the post-buckling behaviour (see Lecture 8.3) plates, unlike struts, are often able to support loads considerably
in excess of their initial buckling load. In plate girder webs a special form of post-buckling termed "tension field action"
is possible. Tension field action involves a change in the way in which the girder resists shear loading from the development
of uniform shear in the web at low shear loads, to the equivalent truss action, shown in Figure 10, at much higher loads. In
this action the elements equivalent to truss members are: the flanges, which form the chords; the vertical stiffeners which
form the struts; and the diagonal tension bands which form the ties. The compressive resistance of the other diagonal of
each web panel is virtually eliminated by the shear buckling. The way in which this concept is utilized in design is explained
in Lecture 8.4.2.

The principal functions of the main components found in plate girders may be summarised as follows:
Flanges resist moment
Web resists shear
Web/flange welds resist longitudinal shear at interface
Vertical stiffeners improve shear buckling resistance
Longitudinal stiffeners improve shear and/or bending resistance.
● The main components in a plate girder have been identified and their principal functions noted.
● Initial sizing may be made on the basis that the flanges carry all of the moment and the web takes all of the shear.
● Shear buckling is likely to prevent the full web shear resistance from being attained in slender webs. Its appearance need
not imply failure since additional load may be carried through tension field action.
● Web stiffeners (transverse and/or longitudinal) enhance both initial buckling and post-buckling resistance.
7. REFERENCES
[1] Eurocode 3: "Design of Steel Structures": European Prestandard ENV1993-1-1: Part 1, General rules and rules
for buildings, CEN, 1992.
[2] Narayanan, R. (ed)., "Plated Structures; Stability and Strength", Applied Science Publishers, London, 1983.

Chapter 1 covers basic aspects of plate girder behaviour and design.
1. Dubas, P. and Gehri, E. (eds), "Behaviour and Design of Plated Steel Structures", Publication No 44, ECCS, 1986.
Chapters 4 and 5 provide more detailed accounts of the main features of plate girder behaviour and design.

ESDEP WG 8
ESDEP WG 8
PLATES AND SHELLS
Lecture 8.4.2: Plate Girder Behaviour and

Design II
OBJECTIVE/SCOPE
To present the basic design methods for plate girders subjected to either shear or moment, or a combination of both.
PREREQUISITES
Lecture 8.4.1: Plate Girder Behaviour and Design I
RELATED LECTURES
Lecture 8.4.3: Plate Girder Design - Special Topics

ESDEP WG 8
SUMMARY
The design methods for plate girders subject to bending and shear, according to the methods of Eurocode 3[1], are
presented. For shear loading two methods are described: the "simple post-critical method", and the "tension field
method"; interaction diagrams can be used with both methods to allow for the effect of coincident moments.
1. INTRODUCTION
Any cross-section of a plate girder is normally subjected to a combination of shear force and bending moment. The
primary function of the top and bottom flange plates of the girder is to resist the axial compressive and tensile forces
arising from the applied bending moment. The primary function of the web plate is to resist the applied shear force.
Plate girders are normally designed to support heavy loads over long spans in situations where it is necessary to produce
an efficient design by providing girders of high strength to weight ratio. The search for an efficient design produces
conflicting requirements, particularly in the case of the web plate. To produce the lowest axial flange force for a given
bending moment, the web depth (d) must be made as large as possible. To reduce the self weight, the web thickness (tw)
must be reduced to a minimum. As a consequence, in many instances the web plate is of slender proportions and is
therefore prone to buckling at relatively low values of applied shear. A similar conflict may exist for the flange
proportions. The required flange area is defined by the flange force and material yield stress. The desire to increase weak
axis second moment of area encourages wide, thin flanges. Such flanges are prone to local buckling.
Plate elements do not collapse when they buckle; they can possess a substantial post-buckling reserve of resistance. For
an efficient design, any calculation relating to the ultimate limit state should take the post-buckling action into account. This
is particularly so in the case of a web plate in shear where the post-buckling resistance arising from tension field action can
be very significant.
Thus, in designing a plate girder it is necessary to evaluate the buckling and post-buckling action of webs in shear, and
of flange plates in compression. The design of plate girder flanges largely follows procedures already discussed in Lecture
7.8, Lecture 7.9.1, and Lecture 7.9.2 for beams. However, the design of web plates operating in the post-buckling range is
very different and will be discussed here in some detail. The lecture will start by concentrating upon the resistance of
plate girders to predominantly shear loading. The effects of high co-existent bending moments will be considered.
The lecture will concentrate only on the main aspects of girder design assuming a basic cross-section. In particular, it
is assumed that:
1. Only transverse web stiffeners are present (i.e. there are no longitudinal stiffeners).
ESDEP WG 8
2. Transverse web stiffeners possess sufficient stiffness and strength to resist the actions transmitted to them by the web.
3. An appropriate means is available to anchor the tension field.
4. No vertical patch loads are applied between the positions of the transverse web stiffeners.
5. Only solid webs are considered (i.e. there are no web openings or holes).
Lecture 8.4.3 considers other important cases that do not comply with the above assumptions.
2. SHEAR BUCKLING RESISTANCE

A typical transversely stiffened plate girder is shown diagrammatically in Figure 1, which also defines the notation used.
The shear buckling resistance of the web depends mainly on the depth to thickness ratio (d/tw), and upon the spacing (a) of
the transverse web stiffeners.
Intermediate transverse stiffeners are normally employed to increase the shear buckling resistance of the web,
although designers may sometimes choose to use a thicker web plate rather than incur the additional fabrication costs
arising from the use of intermediate stiffeners. Girders without intermediate stiffeners are normally termed
ESDEP WG 8
"unstiffened" girders, even though they will normally have stiffeners at points of support and possibly at the position of
load application.
Web buckling should be checked in all cases where the depth to thickness ratio, (d/tw), of the web exceeds 69ε . Eurocode
3 then offers the choice of 2 methods for plate girder design. The methods are:
a) the simple post-critical method, which may be applied to both stiffened and unstiffened girders and is therefore of
general application.
b) the tension field method, which may only be applied to girders with intermediate transverse stiffeners. Even for
such girders its range of application is limited to a range of stiffener spacing defined by:
1,0 ≤ a/d ≤ 3,0
There is now considerable evidence [2] that tension field action does develop in girders where the stiffener spacing lies
outside this range, and also in unstiffened girders; such evidence, however, has yet to be presented in a form that is suitable
for inclusion in a design code.
The simple post-critical method is seen as a general-purpose method which can be applied to the design of all girders.
The tension field method, on the other hand, can be applied to a certain range of girders only, but will lead to
considerably more efficient designs for these girders, because it takes full account of the post-buckling reserve of
resistance. Each method will now be discussed.
2.1 Calculation of the Shear Buckling Resistance by the Simple Post-Critical Method
This simple approach allows the design shear buckling resistance (Vba.Rd) to be determined directly as follows:
Vba.Rd = d tw τba/γM1 (1)
where all the terms in the expression are familiar, except the post-critical shear strength, τba. The calculation of this
term depends upon the slenderness of the web which may be conveniently expressed by the following parameter:

ESDEP WG 8
(2)
Here, kτ is a shear buckling factor calculated from elastic buckling theory [3]. For simplicity, it is conservatively assumed
in this calculation that the boundaries of the web panel are simply supported, since the true degree of restraint offered by
the flanges and adjacent web panels is not known. The resulting expression obtained for the shear buckling factor is
dependent upon the spacing of the transverse web stiffeners as follows:
for closely spaced intermediate stiffeners (a/d < 1,0) :
kτ = 4 +
for widely spaced intermediate stiffeners (a/d ≥ 1,0) :
kτ = 5,34 +
for unstiffened webs: kτ = 5,34
Knowing the shear buckling factor, the slenderness parameter is determined from Equation (2) and the calculation of the
post-critical shear strength then depends, as illustrated in Figure 2, upon whether the web is:
a) stocky or thick ( w ≤ 0,8 , region AB in Figure 2) in which case the web will not buckle and the shear stress at failure
will reach the shear yield stress of the web material:
τba = fyw/
where fyw is the tensile yield strength

ESDEP WG 8
b) intermediate (0,8 < w < 1,2, region BC in Figure 2) which represents a transition stage from yielding to buckling
action with the shear strength being evaluated empirically from the following:
τba = [1 - 0,625 ( w- 0,8)] (fyw/ )
c) slender or thin ( w≥ 1,2, region CD in Figure 2) in which case the web will buckle before it yields and a certain amount
of post-buckling action is taken into account empirically:
τba =
The calculation of the shear buckling resistance by the simple post-critical method is then completed by substitution of
the appropriate value of τba into Equation (1).

ESDEP WG 8
2.2 Calculation of the Shear Buckling Resistance by the Tension Field Method
For transversely stiffened girders where the transverse stiffener spacing lies within the range 1,0 ≤ a/d ≤ 3,0, full account
may be taken of the considerable reserve of post-buckling resistance. This reserve arises from the development of "tension
field action" within the girder.
ESDEP WG 8
Figure 3a shows the development of tension field action in the individual web panels of a typical girder. Once a web panel
has buckled in shear, it loses its resistance to carry additional compressive stresses. In this post-buckling range, a new
load-carrying mechanism is developed, whereby any additional shear load is carried by an inclined tensile membrane
stress field. This tension field anchors against the top and bottom flanges and against the transverse stiffeners on either side
of the web panel, as shown. The load-carrying action of the plate girder than becomes similar to that of the N-truss in
Figure 3b. In the post-buckling range, the resistance offered by the web plates is analogous to that of the diagonal tie bars in
the truss.

ESDEP WG 8
The total shear buckling resistance for design (Vbb.Rd) is calculated in Eurocode 3, by superimposing the post-
buckling resistance upon the initial elastic buckling resistance as follows:
Total shear resistance = elastic buckling resistance + post-buckling resistance:
Vbb.Rd = (d tw τbb)/γM1 + 0,9 (gtw σbb sin φ)/γM1 (3)
The basis for this assumed behaviour is shown diagrammatically in Figure 4.

ESDEP WG 8
Figure 4a shows the situation prior to buckling, as represented by the first term in Equation (3). At this stage, equal tensile
and compressive principal stresses are developed in the web. The shear buckling strength, τbb, is calculated from
elastic buckling theory and leads to equations similar, but not identical, to those given earlier in Section 2.1 for the simple
post-critical shear strength τba. Thus, the calculation of the shear buckling resistance again depends, as shown in Figure 5,
upon whether the web is:
a) stocky or thick ( w = 0,8, region AB in Figure 5) in which case the web will not buckle and the shear yield stress is
ESDEP WG 8
again taken:
τbb = fyw/
where fyw is the tensile yield strength
b) intermediate (0,8 < w < 1,25, region BC in Figure 5) where, in the transition from yield to buckling:
τbb = [1 - 0,8 ( w - 0,8)] (fyw/ )
c) slender or thin ( w ≥ 1,25, region CD in Figure 5) where the web will buckle and, from elastic buckling theory:
τbb = [1/ w
2][f /√3]
yw
Thus, knowing τbb, the first term of the expression in Equation (3) can be evaluated.
The evaluation of the second term, corresponding to the post-buckling action, is more complex although it may still be
reduced to a convenient design procedure, as described below.

ESDEP WG 8
In the post-buckling range, as shown in Figure 4b, an inclined tensile membrane stress field is developed, at an inclination φ
to the horizontal. Since the flanges of the girder are flexible, they will begin to bend inwards under the pull exerted by
the tension field.

ESDEP WG 8
Further increase in the load will result in yield occurring in the web under the combined effect of the membrane stress field
and the shear stress at buckling. The value of the tension field stress (σbb) at which yield will occur, termed the "strength of
the tension field" in Eurocode 3, may be determined by applying the Von Mises-Hencky yield criterion [2]. This results in
the following expression for the strength of the tension field:
σbb = [fyw2 - 3τ2bb + ψ2] 0.5 - ψ
where the term ψ = 1,5 τbb sin 2φ is introduced for convenience only.
Once the web has yielded, final failure of the girder will occur when the mechanism comprising 4 plastic hinges has formed
in the flanges, as shown in Figure 4c. A detailed analysis of this collapse mechanism, by considering the internal
forces developed in the web and imposed upon the flanges (see [2]) allows the width (g) of the tension field, which appears
in the second term of Equation (3), to be evaluated:
g = d cos φ - (a - sc - st) sin φ
where, as in Figure 4c, sc and st denote the positions at which the plastic hinges form in the compression and tension
flanges respectively.
The hinge positions are calculated [2] from the knowledge that the hinges will form at the point of maximum moment,
and therefore zero shear, in the flanges; the appropriate expression is as follows:
S = [2/sin θ][MNf.Rk/tw σbb]1/2 ≤ a (4)
where MNf.Rk is the plastic moment of resistance of the flange, i.e. 0,25 btf2 fyf. When high bending moments are applied to
the girder, in addition to shear, then axial forces (Nf.Sd) will be developed in the flanges. Such axial forces will, of
course, reduce the plastic moment of resistance of the flanges. Their effects can be calculated from standard plasticity theory as:
MNf.Rk = 0,25 btf2 fyf {1 - [Nf.Sd / (btf fyf /γmo )]2} (5)
All the terms required for the calculation of the total shear resistance from Equation (3), other than the inclination φ of
the tension field, are now known. Unfortunately, the value of φ cannot be determined directly and an iterative procedure has

ESDEP WG 8
to be adopted in which successive values of φ are assumed and the corresponding shear resistance evaluated in each case.
The process is repeated until the value of φ providing the maximum, and therefore the required, value of the shear
resistance has been established. The variation of the shear resistance with φ is not very rapid. The correct value of φ
lies between a minimum of θ/2 and a maximum of θ, where θ is the slope of the panel diagonal tan-1(d/a), as shown in
Figure 6. A parametric study [2] has established that, for girders of normal proportions, the value of φ which produces
the maximum value of shear resistance is approximately given by:
φ = θ /1,5

ESDEP WG 8
The assumption of this value of φ will lead either to the correct value or to an underestimation of the shear resistance. It
will therefore give a safe approximation and will also give a good starting value of φ if a more accurate process of iteration is
to be carried out. The correct value of φ is that which gives the maximum value of Vbb.Rd.
3. INTERACTION BETWEEN SHEAR AND BENDING

In general, any cross-section of a plate girder will be subjected to bending moment in addition to shear. As discussed in [2],
this combination makes the stress conditions in the girder web considerably more complex. In the first place, the stresses
from the bending moment will combine with the shear stresses to give a lower buckling load. Secondly, in the post-
buckling range, the bending stresses will influence the magnitude of the tension field membrane stresses required to
produce yield in the web. Finally, as already discussed with reference to Equation (5), the axial flange forces arising from
the bending moment will reduce the plastic moment of resistance of the flanges.
The proper evaluation of all these effects is complex but, as discussed in [2], certain assumptions may be made about
the interaction of moment and shear to produce a simple and effective design procedure. In Eurocode 3, the procedure
for allowing for moment/shear interaction naturally depends upon whether the simple post-critical method of Section 2.1 or
the tension field method of Section 2.2 is being used to calculate the shear buckling resistance. Each case will now
be considered separately.
3.1 Interaction between Shear and Bending in the Simple Post-Critical Method
The interaction between shear and bending can be conveniently represented by the diagram shown in Figure 7a (Figure
ESDEP WG 8
5.6.4a of Eurocode 3) where the shear resistance of the girder is plotted on the vertical axis and the moment resistance
is plotted horizontally. The interaction represents a failure envelope, with any point lying on the curve defining the co-
existent values of shear and bending that the girder can just sustain.

ESDEP WG 8
The interaction diagram can be considered in 3 regions. In region AB, the applied bending moment Mad is low and the
girder can then sustain a shear load Vad that is equal to the full value of the shear buckling resistance calculated from the
simple post-critical method, as in Equation (1). Thus, in this region:
Msd ≤ Mf.Rd
Vsd ≤ Vba.Rd (6)
The moment that defines the end of the range at point B (Mf.Rd) is the plastic moment of resistance of the cross-
section consisting of the flanges only, i.e. neglecting any contribution from the web. In this calculation it is necessary
to appreciate that the plates of the compression flange may buckle and, if necessary, to take this into account by adopting
an effective width beff for the flange. The calculation of this effective width is as described in Lecture 7.3 for an
outstand element in compression.
At the other extreme of the interaction diagram in region CD, the applied shear Vad is low. Provided it does not exceed
ESDEP WG 8
the limiting value of 0,5 Vba at point C then the plastic moment of resistance of the complete cross-section Mpl.Rd need not
be reduced to allow for shear.
In the intermediate region BC the co-existent applied moment MSd and shear VSd values must satisfy the following relationship:
MSd ≤ Mf.Rd + (Mpl.Rd - Mf.Rd) [1 - (2VSd/Vba.Rd - 1)2] (7)
The complete range of moment/shear interaction has thus been defined for the simple post-critical method.
3.2 Interaction between Shear and Bending in the Tension Field Method
The procedure for the tension field method follows that described above for the simple post-critical method. It leads to
the construction of a similar, though not identical, interaction diagram, see Figure 7b (Figure 5.6.4b of Eurocode 3).
In the low moment region AB, again defined by values of the applied moment less than Mf.Rd, the girder can sustain a
shear load Vad that is equal to the "web only" shear resistance Vbw.Rd calculated from tension field theory. Thus:
MSd ≤ Mf.Rd
VSd ≤ Vbw Rd
The "web only" shear resistance is the specific value of the total shear resistance Vbw.Rd calculated from Equation (1), for
the case when MNf.Rk in EC3=0 in Equation (5). This is, in effect, a conservative approach which neglects the contribution
of the flanges to the tension field action.
At the other extreme in region CD, the procedure remains as for the simple post-critical method except that the limiting
value of shear at point C is now taken as 0,5Vbw. Similarly, the procedure for the intermediate region BC remains as
before except that the substitution of the tension field value Vbw for Vba in Equation (7) gives:
MSd ≤ Mf.Rd + (Mpl.Rd - Mf.Rd) [1 - (2VSd / Vbw.Rd - 1)2] (8)

ESDEP WG 8
The complete range of moment/shear interaction is thus defined for the tension field method.
● Procedures for the design of plate girders subject to shear utilize varying degrees of post-buckling resistance and correspond
to either the "simple post-critical" or "tension field" methods of Eurocode 3.
● Moment resistance of plate girders may normally be based on the plastic moment resistance of a cross section consisting of
the flanges only.
● Design for coincident shear and moment should be undertaken using an interaction diagram. The simplest approach consists
of designing the web to carry the whole of the shear, with the flanges resisting the moment.
● The "tension field" method is more restricted in application than the "simple post-critical" method, but gives higher strengths.
● Other aspects of design (stiffeners, etc.) are discussed in Lecture 8.4.3.
5. REFERENCES
[1] Eurocode 3 "Design of Steel Structures": European Prestandard ENV1993-1-1: Part 1.1, General rules and rules
[2] Narayanan, R. (ed), "Plated Structures; Stability and Strength", Applied Science Publishers, London 1983.
Chapter 1 covers basic aspects of plate girder behaviour and design.
[3] Bulson, P. S. "The Stability of Flat Plates", Chatto & Windus, London, 1970.
General coverage of plate buckling and explanation of kτ values for numerous cases.
1. Dubas, P. and Gehri, E. (eds)., "Behaviour and Design of Plated Steel Structures", Publication No. 44, ECCS, 1986.
Chapters 4 and 5 provide a detailed coverage of plate girder design, taking the reader well beyond the content of this
lecture. They also refer to numerous original sources.
2. Galambos, T. V. (ed)., "Guide to Stability Design Criteria for Metal Structures", 4th Edition, John Wiley, 1988.

ESDEP WG 8

ESDEP WG 8
ESDEP WG 8
PLATES AND SHELLS
Lecture 8.4.3: Plate Girder Design -

Special Topics
OBJECTIVE/SCOPE
To extend the coverage of plate girder design previously given in Lectures 8.4.1 and Lecture 8.4.2. To include
the design of transverse web stiffeners and end posts and consideration of patch loading. To outline design
procedures for longitudinally stiffened girders and for girders with large web openings.
PREREQUISITES
Lecture 8.4.2: Plate Girder Behaviour and Design II
RELATED LECTURES
Lectures 3.1: Fabrication
SUMMARY
The detailed design of particular elements of plate girders is considered in this lecture. The structural action of
web panels, designed as described in earlier lectures, imposes stringent requirements on adjacent boundary
elements. This lecture considers the design of transverse web stiffeners and end posts according to Eurocode 3
[1] and also considers the particular problems caused by patch loading. Two other aspects of design, not
currently covered by Part 1.1 of Eurocode 3, viz. the design of longitudinally stiffened girders and girders
with large web openings, are also discussed.
1. INTRODUCTION
The two previous lectures on plate girders, Lectures 8.4.1 and Lecture 8.4.2, have concentrated upon the main
aspects of the structural behaviour upon which the design principles are based. The two design approaches
proposed in Eurocode 3 [1] have been outlined; these are the "simple post-critical" method, which is generally

ESDEP WG 8
applicable, and the "tension field" method which gives significantly higher load resistances by taking the post-
buckling resistance of the girders into account.
This lecture seeks to complete the discussion of plate girder design by considering further aspects of detailed
design. For example, the development of post-buckling action in a web plate, assumed in the previous
lectures, can only occur when the elements at the boundary of that web plate are able to provide an adequate
anchorage for the tension field forces developed within the plate. This lecture will consider the design of these
boundary elements. These elements may be in the form of intermediate transverse stiffeners or end posts.
Girders may be subjected to high loads in localised regions, away from stiffener positions, creating a
possibility that crippling of the web plate may occur. An example of this occurs in crane gantry girders
subjected to a vertical loading which travels along the flange. The effects of such "patch loading" must be
carefully taken into account in design. This aspect is very thoroughly treated in Eurocode 3 [1]. This lecture
outlines the relevant design principles.
Two other important aspects of plate girder design are the treatment of girders with longitudinal web
stiffeners, and of girders with large openings in the web plates. Openings are frequently required, particularly
in building construction, to allow access for service ducts, etc. Neither of these two situations is covered in
Part 1.1 of Eurocode 3. This lecture discusses good practice in relation to the two situations.
2. TRANSVERSE WEB STIFFENERS

To achieve an effective design, i.e. a plate girder of high strength/weight ratio, it is usually necessary to
provide intermediate transverse web stiffeners. Eurocode 3 [1] only allows the application of the tension field
method, which has been shown in earlier lectures to give a significantly enhanced load resistance, when the
web is stiffened. The Eurocode also specifies that such stiffeners must be spaced such that the stiffener
spacing/web depth ratio (a/d) is within the following range:
1,0 ≤ a/d ≤ 3,0
Transverse stiffeners play an important role in allowing the full ultimate load resistance of a plate girder to be
achieved. In the first place they increase the buckling resistance of the web; secondly they must continue to
remain effective after the web buckles, to provide anchorage for the tension field; finally they must prevent
any tendency for the flanges to move towards one another.
The satisfactory performance of a transverse stiffener can best be illustrated by comparing the girders shown,
after testing, in Slides 1 and 2. In Slide 1 the stiffeners have remained straight and have clearly fulfilled the
function of vertical struts in the simplified N-truss model of the post-buckling action discussed in Lecture
8.4.2, see Figure 1. In Slide 2 the stiffener has failed and has been unable to limit the buckling to the adjacent
sub-panels of the girder; instead, the buckle has run through the stiffener position extending over both panels.
Consequently, significant reduction in the failure load of the girder occurred.

ESDEP WG 8

ESDEP WG 8
Slide 1
Slide 2
The requirements to ensure adequate stiffener performance are given in Section 5.6.5 of Eurocode 3. First, the
stiffener must be of adequate rigidity in the direction perpendicular to the plane of the web to prevent web
buckling. This condition is satisfied provided the stiffener has a second moment of area Is that satisfies the

ESDEP WG 8
following empirical formulae:
Is ≥ 1,5 d3tw3 /a2 when a/d <
Is ≥ 0,75 dtw3 when a/d ≥
Secondly, the buckling resistance of the vertical "stiffener strut" must be sufficient to support the tension field
forces shown in Figure 2a (which has been reproduced from Fig. 5.6.3a of Eurocode 3). It must also resist the
resultant axial compressive force Ns that is imposed upon it. This force is calculated as follows:
Ns = Vsd - dtw τbb /γM1
where τbb is the initial shear buckling resistance of the web panels, calculated as given in Lecture 8.4.2. When
the two web panels adjacent to the particular stiffener being designed are not identical, the lower value of τbb
for the two panels should be taken. As previously, Vsd is the design value of the shear force.

ESDEP WG 8
The buckling resistance of the stiffener strut to this axial compressive force is then calculated using Section
5.7.6 of Eurocode 3. Since the stiffener is attached to the web plate, a portion of the web acts effectively with
the stiffener in resisting the axial compression. It is difficult to calculate the extent of this portion of the web
but experimental observations have allowed an empirical effective web width of 30εtw to be established, as
shown in Figure 3 (which has been reproduced from Figure 5.7.4 of Eurocode 3). Having established the
effective cross-section of the stiffener strut in this way, its buckling resistance is determined as for any other
compression member according to Section 5.5.1 of the Eurocode.

ESDEP WG 8

ESDEP WG 8
For a "load bearing" stiffener, i.e. a transverse stiffener located at a position where an external load is applied
to the girder, an additional consideration is necessary. The resistance of the effective cross-section of the load
bearing stiffener should also be checked at a position close to the loaded flange.
3. END PANELS AND POSTS

The requirement for adequate boundary members to support the loading imposed by the post-buckling tension
field is particularly onerous in the case of the end panel of the girder. The situation of the transverse stiffener
at the end of the girder, i.e. the "end post", is very different from that of an intermediate stiffener, compare
Figure 2b to Figure 2a. At the end of the girder, the forces imposed by the tension field in the end panel have
to be resisted entirely by the end post without support from any further adjacent panels.
Design procedures for end panels and posts are given in Clauses 5.6.4.3 and 5.6.4.4 of Eurocode 3 [1].
Basically, they allow the designer two options.
Firstly, the designer may choose not to design an end post that will provide adequate anchorage for the tension
field. As a consequence, the end panel of the web must be designed according to the simple post-critical
method so that a tension field does not develop within it. This option offers a simple design procedure but has
the disadvantage that the calculated shear resistance of the end panel will be significantly lower than that of
the internal web panels in the girder. Since it is probable that the applied shear in the end region will be higher
than at any point on the span, this procedure will not provide an effective design solution if the stiffener
spacing remains constant over the complete length of the girder. As shown in Figure 4a, the designer should
then reduce the spacing of the stiffeners bounding the end panel so that the shear resistance of that panel as
calculated by the simple post-critical method becomes equal to that calculated by the tension field method for

ESDEP WG 8
the internal panels.
The more effective, but more complex, option is to design the end post to provide an adequate anchorage for
the web tension field. The end panel of the web can then be designed according to the tension field method, so

ESDEP WG 8
that the design shear buckling resistance (Vbb.Rd ) can be calculated as described in Lecture 8.4.2 for internal
web panels, i.e.
Vbb.Rd = [(d tw τbb ) + 0,9 (g tw σbb sin φ)]/γM1
The slight difference for the end panel arises in the calculation of the width g of the tension field. For an
internal panel the width is given by:
g = d cos φ - (a - sc - st) sin φ
where, sc and st denote the lengths over which the tension field anchors onto the compression and tension
flanges, see Figure 2a. For an end panel, the failure mechanism may be different since, as shown in Slide 3, a
plastic hinge may also form in the end post.
Slide 3
This hinge affects the anchorage length for the compression flange which must now be calculated as:
sc =
where Mpl.1 is the reduced plastic moment of the flange at the internal hinge position, allowing for the
presence of the axial force (Nf1) at that position.
The other plastic hinge will form either at the end of the flange, as in the case of an internal panel, or in the
end post. The location of the hinge, as defined by ss in Figure 2b, will depend upon which of these two

ESDEP WG 8
elements has the lower plastic moment of resistance. Mpl.2 takes the lesser of these two values.
In this way, Clause 5.6.4.3 of Eurocode 3 allows the geometry of the tension field developed in the end panel
to be fully defined, see Figure 2b. The design shear buckling resistance Vbb.Rd of the panel can then be
calculated together with the horizontal component Fbb of the anchorage force of the tension field imposed on
the end post:
Fbb = tw ss σ bb cos2 φ
The end post resists this force by acting as a vertical beam spanning between the two flanges. For this purpose
it must satisfy the following criterion:
Mpl.2 + Mpl.3 ≥ 0,5 Fbb ss
where the reduced plastic moment of the end post:
Mpl.3 = 0,25 bs ts2 fys {1 - [Ns3 /(bs ts fys )]2}
allows for the effect of the axial force in the end post:
Ns3 = Vsd - τ bb tw (d - ss )
If it proves difficult to provide an end post in the form of a single plate to resist these forces, then the designer
may consider providing an end arrangement such as that shown in Figure 4b. In this case, two transverse
stiffeners are used. These two stiffeners and the portion of the web projecting beyond the end support form a
rigid end post to provide the necessary anchorage for the tension field in the end panel. The disadvantage of
such an arrangement is that adequate space must be available to allow the girder to project beyond its end
support.
4. WEB CRIPPLING
There are many situations where it is not possible to provide transverse web stiffeners at all points where
vertical loads are applied to the girder. For example, a crane gantry girder is subjected to a vertical loading
that travels along the flange; also, girders may be launched during construction so that the flange actually
moves over the fixed point of support. In such cases, special consideration must be given to the design of the
unstiffened web in the local region underneath, or above, the applied point or "patch" loading to prevent "web
crippling". The webs of all beams must be checked for this possible local failure. Plate girders are particularly
susceptible to this form of failure because of the slenderness of the web plates that are normally used in their
construction.
"Web crippling" is discussed in Section 5.7 of Eurocode 3. It distinguishes between the two different loading
cases that are shown in Figure 5 (taken from Figure 5.7.1 of the Eurocode). In Figure 5a, the force is applied
to one flange only and is therefore resisted by shear forces developed within the web plate. In this case the
web plate has to be checked for its "crushing" and for its "crippling" resistance. In the other case, shown in
Figure 5b, the force is applied to one flange, transmitted directly by compressive forces developed in the web,

ESDEP WG 8
and resisted by a reactive force on the other flange. The web must again be checked for its "crushing"
resistance. The "buckling" resistance of the web must also be considered in this case.
There are, therefore, three types of web resistance that must be calculated. In each case the resistance is
dependent upon the length over which the applied force is effectively distributed on the flange. This is termed
the "stiff bearing length" (ss ). It is calculated on the assumption of a dispersion of load through solid steel
material at a slope of 1:1.
The terms "crushing", "crippling" and "buckling" resistance are introduced to differentiate between the
phenomena being considered. In each case the appropriate resistance is calculated from empirical formulae:
"Crushing" resistance, where crushing is local yielding of the web without any buckling, is given by:
Ry.Rd = (ss + sy) tw fyw /γM1
"Crippling" resistance, where crippling is localised buckling of the web in the presence of plasticity, is given
by:
Ra.Rd = 0,5 tw2 (E fyw )1/2 [tf /tw )1/2 + 3 (tw /tf ) (ss /d)]/γM1
"Buckling" of the web occurs with out-of-plane deformation over most of the depth of the web.
The "buckling" resistance (Rb.Rd ) for the compressive loading situation illustrated in Figure 5b is determined
simply by considering the web plate as a vertical compression member. First it is necessary to determine the
breadth of the web "strut" (beff ) that is effective in resisting the compression. This breadth may be calculated
as:
beff = [h2 + ss2 ]1/2
where:
h is the overall depth of the girder.
ss is the stiff bearing length discussed above.
The buckling resistance of this idealised strut is then determined as for any other compression member
according to Section 5.5.1 of Eurocode 3.
5. LONGITUDINAL WEB STIFFENERS

To increase the strength/weight ratio of plate girders, slender webs may be reinforced by longitudinal, as well
as transverse, stiffeners. A typical longitudinally stiffened girder is shown after failure in Slide 4. The main
function of the longitudinal stiffeners is to increase the buckling resistance of the web with respect of both
shear and bending loads. An effective stiffener will remain straight, thereby sub-dividing the web panel and
limiting the buckling to the smaller sub-panels. The resulting increase in the ultimate resistance of the girder

ESDEP WG 8
can be significant.
Slide 4
The design of webs with longitudinal stiffeners is not covered in Part 1 of Eurocode 3. It will be addressed in
Part 2, for bridges. Because of the greater need for high strength/weight ratios in bridges, girders with
longitudinal stiffeners are more commonly encountered in bridge than in building construction.
Design of longitudinal stiffeners is usually based on a number of empirical design curves derived from the
results of a parametric study employing numerical modelling techniques. The design procedure is relatively
straightforward, although somewhat conservative. Additional information on the behaviour of longitudinally
stiffened girders has been presented [2] which will assist the designer to gain a better understanding of the
structural action.
6. GIRDERS WITH OPENINGS IN SLENDER WEBS

Holes often have to be cut in the webs of plate girders used in building construction to provide access for
service ducts, etc. No mention of such openings is made in Part 1 of Eurocode 3. Such holes have a particular
influence on the behaviour of slender webs because the hole interrupts the tension field. (Design methods are
available for stocky webs with web openings - see Reference3).
Detailed fundamental work by Narayanan [2] has shown that girders with slender webs and web openings
possess a post-buckling reserve of resistance. The collapse mechanism for such girders, illustrated in Slide 5,
is similar to the shear sway mechanism that is characteristic of all plate girders, as discussed in Lecture 8.4.2.
However, some codes adopt a conservative approach. They do not take account of such post-buckling action
in any girder which has a web opening with any dimension exceeding some percentage of the minimum
dimension of the web panel in which it is located. To provide a simple design procedure, the shear resistance
of the perforated panel is calculated as the buckling resistance.

ESDEP WG 8
Slide 5
The disadvantage of such a procedure is that the shear resistance of the perforated panel will then be
substantially lower than that calculated allowing for the full post-buckling reserve of resistance in adjacent
unperforated panels. The designer should therefore reduce the spacing of the transverse stiffeners either side
of the web opening so that the initial buckling resistance of the resulting narrow perforated panel is
approximately equal to the full post-buckling resistance of adjacent panels.
● To develop post-buckling action, the elements bounding the web plate of a girder must be designed to
provide adequate anchorage for the tension field forces developed in the web panel.
● The tension field method can only be applied when transverse web stiffeners are provided such that the
stiffener spacing/web depth ratio lies within the range: 10,0 ≤ a/d ≤ 3,0. The stiffeners must have
adequate rigidity in the direction perpendicular to the plane of the web to prevent web buckling. The
buckling resistance of the vertical stiffener strut must also be sufficient to support the tension field
forces.
● Careful consideration must be given to the design of the end post. The designer has the option of either
not allowing the development of tension field action in the end panel or, for a more efficient design,
providing an end post of sufficient rigidity and strength.
● The possibility of web crippling, web crushing and web buckling must be considered in those localised
areas where patch loads are applied to the girder flange.
● Longitudinal web stiffeners allow girders of higher strength/weight ratios to be designed. They are
particularly relevant in bridge construction. They are not considered in Eurocode 3: Part 1.1.
● Large web openings are frequently necessary in building construction to allow the passage of services.
Plate girders with openings are not considered in Eurocode 3 Part 1.1.
8. REFERENCES
[1] Eurocode 3 "Design of Steel Structures".
European Prestandard ENV1993-1-1: Part 1.1, General rules and rules for buildings, CEN, 1992.

ESDEP WG 8
[2] Narayanan, R (Editor), "Plated Structures; Stability and Strength", Applied Science Publishers, London,
1983.
This reference gives detailed information, including the experimental background to the structural action
covered in the clauses of Eurocode 3 referred to in this lecture.
[3] Lawson, R. M., Design for Openings in the Webs of Composite Beams, SCI Publication 068. The Steel
Construction Institute, 1987.
1. "European Recommendations for the Design of Longitudinally Stiffened Webs and of Stiffened
Compression Flanges", Publication 60, ECCS, 1990.

Lecture 8.5.1 [Other]
ESDEP WG 8
PLATES AND SHELLS
Lecture 8.5.1: Introduction to Design

of Box Girders
OBJECTIVE/SCOPE
To describe the main features and advantages of box girders; to introduce the methods of global analysis; to describe aspects
of behaviour particular to box girders.
PREREQUISITES
Lectures 8.4: Plate Girder Behaviour and Design
RELATED LECTURES
Lecture 8.5.2: Advanced Design of Box Girders
SUMMARY
A general overview is given of the form and behaviour of box girders. Typical configurations are illustrated and the
advantages of box girders over plate girders are highlighted. The structural behaviour of box sections is described;
global analysis is discussed; the particular features of the design of webs and flanges are introduced; the function and form
of cross sectional restraints. including diaphragms, are described.

1. INTRODUCTION
A box girder is formed when two web plates are joined by a common flange at both the top and the bottom. The closed
cell which is formed has a much greater torsional stiffness and strength than an open section and it is this feature which is
the usual reason for choosing a box girder configuration.
Box girders are rarely used in buildings (box columns are sometimes used but these are axially loaded rather than in loaded
in bending). They may be used in special circumstances, such as when loads are carried eccentrically to the beam axis.
Steel and composite box girders are used for highway bridges, though they are most expensive than plate girders
(because fabrication requires more time and effort).
The use of box girders for bridges offers the following advantages over plate girders:
● Very good torsional rigidity

● Wide flanges may be used
● Clean external surfaces
● A non-rectangular cross-section can be used.
Torsional rigidity is particularly advantageous when the girder needs to be curved in plan. A box section can carry the
torsion resulting from vertical loading without the need for lateral bracing.
The use of wide flanges facilitates the choice of shallow construction depth (that is, a large span-to-depth ratio) which may
be desirable when space or headroom is restricted. Shallower girders will be heavier but this may be a lesser consideration
in such circumstances.
Any stiffening needed to the webs and flanges can usually be arranged inside the box section. The clear external surfaces
offer a neater, more pleasing, appearance and avoid the corners and crevices which are difficult to protect adequately
against corrosion.
The use of inclined webs (closer together at the bottom than at the top) reduces the width of the bottom flange plate
(often advantageous to structural performance, particularly when the flange is in compression). Inclined faces are
frequently considered to give a better appearance than vertical faces. Inclined webs also offer better aerodynamic
performance. The cross-sectional shape of the box girders of many long-span cable-stayed and suspension bridges are
chosen after wind-tunnel testing to find the shape which offers minimum drag and optimum dynamic response.
Box girder bridges are constructed with single, twin or multiple box girders. The deck of the bridge may be of
reinforced concrete or it may be a stiffened steel deck. When reinforced concrete is used the steel girders may be closed
box sections or may be open sections (U-shaped) which are closed when the slab is cast across the top. A selection
of configurations is shown in Figures 1 - 3.
The method of erection is often an important factor in choosing a cross-section for a box girder bridge. The torsional
stability of the box section avoids the need for temporary bracing (such as is needed with plate girders). The bridge can be
built by lifting consecutive pre-assembled units of the complete cross section and joining them end-to-end. This is
particularly suitable for cantilever erection of long spans.
2. MAIN FEATURES OF BOX GIRDERS

Many of the features of box girders illustrated in Figures 1, 2 and 3 are similar to those of plate girders, though the
proportions may be different. There are a few features which are particular to box girders.



Web plates carry shear forces and bending moments. Thin webs need transverse stiffeners to achieve adequate resistance, in
the same way as they do in plate girders. Inclined webs are deeper (in their planes) and may therefore require more stiffening.
Flange plates connecting two webs are wider than those of corresponding I-beam girders. Consideration must be given to
shear lag. When the flange plate is in compression its stability (against out-of-plane buckling) must be considered;
longitudinal and transverse stiffeners are frequently necessary.
When open steel sections are used, made into composite box girders by a concrete deck slab, separate (and relatively
small) flange plates are provided at the top of each web. These flanges need to be stabilised laterally by bracing
during construction. Shear connection on the top of the flanges is similar to that on the flanges of I-beam girders.
When closed steel boxes are used, overlaid by a reinforced concrete slab to form a composite section, shear connection
is required over the full width of the top flanges.

When the bridge deck is steel, the top flanges are stiffened orthotropically to carry wheel loads from traffic as well as acting
as a box girder flange. This stiffening usually takes the form of longitudinal trough stiffeners supported at regular intervals
by transverse beams.
At supports plated diaphragms are provided. At each support there are one or two bearings, located between the webs
and directly below the diaphragms. The diaphragms serve to transfer the load from the webs to the bearings (generally acting
as a deep beam) and to prevent distortion of the section.
In all except smaller boxes restraint against distortion is also required at intermediate positions; this can be achieved
with braced cross-frames, stiff ring frames or plated diaphragms.
Access inside box sections is necessary during construction and during the life of the structure. Manholes must be provided
in support and intermediate diaphragms, to permit passage along the length of the box; the size and location of the holes
is taken into account in the design of the diaphragm.
3. GLOBAL ANALYSIS
As for I-beam girders, global analysis determines the bending moments and shears in the main beams due to the
applied loading. Since the principal loads are vertical, greatest attention is given to moments and shears in the vertical
plane, though horizontal loading and effects must also be considered.
However, when box girders are used, two additional effects must be considered, torsion and distortion. As we shall see
later, consideration of distortional effects may be limited to local regions between intermediate diaphragms. Torsional
effects must be determined by the global analysis.
For a single straight uniform section girder any simple line beam analysis would suffice for bending, shear and
torsional effects, but in general the most appropriate model for evaluating the effects due to vertical loading is the
grillage analogy. Beam elements in a grillage model have three degrees of freedom - vertical deflection, rotation about
a transverse axis and rotation about a longitudinal axis - and are thus able to determine directly the three principal effects
which are to be considered in the stress analysis. Computer programs are available specifically for grillage analysis,
though many designers make use of general purpose space-frame programs (in which the elements have the full 6 degrees
of freedom).
In very wide flanges shear lag effects must be taken into account. When the axial load is fed into a wide flange by shear
from the webs the flange distorts in its plane; plane sections do not remain plane. The resulting stress distribution in the
flange is not uniform (see Figure 4). This effect is not taken into account in a grillage analysis and must be
separately determined.

The calculation of distortional effects, which include transverse bending stresses and longitudinal warping stresses can
be carried out by methods based on beam-on-elastic-foundation analogy. Where stiff intermediate cross-frames or
diaphragms are provided the stresses are usually quite small.
In very complex configurations finite element analysis might be used. Shell elements are connected to model the
complete cross-section along the whole length of the girder. Provided that the mesh is sufficiently fine and the
element behaviour is appropriate, effects such as warping, distortion and shear lag are determined at the same time as
the principal bending, shear and torsion effects.
Folded plate analysis is sometimes used, but it is only appropriate when the box section is uniform along its length, when
there are no intermediate cross-frames and when the loading can be represented by harmonic series. It is difficult to apply
to ordinary design situations.

4. TORSION AND DISTORTION

The general case of an eccentric load applied to a box girder is in effect a combination of three components - bending,
torsion and distortion. As a first step, the force can be separated into two components, a pair of symmetric vertical loads and
a force couple, as shown in Figure 5(a). However, torsion is in fact resisted in a box section by a shear flow around the
whole perimeter and the couple should in turn be separated into two parts, representing pure torsion and distortion, as shown
in Figure 5(b).

The first two components, vertical bending loads and a torsional shear flow, are externally applied forces, and they must
be resisted in turn at the supports or bearings. The third component, distortional forces, comprises an internal set of
forces, statically in equilibrium, which do not give rise to any external reaction. Distortional effects depend on the behaviour
of the structure between the point of application and the nearest positions where the box section is restrained against distortion.
4.1 Torsion and Torsional Warping
The theoretical behaviour of a thin-walled box section subject to pure torsion is well known and is treated in many
standard texts. For a single cell box, the torque is resisted by a shear flow which acts around the walls of the box. This
shear flow (force/unit length) is constant around the box and is given by q = T/2A, where T is the torque and A is the
area enclosed by the box. (In Figure 2 the torque is QB/2 and the shear flow is Q/4D.) The shear flow produces shear
stresses and strains in the walls and gives rise to a twist per unit length, θ , which is given by the general expression:
or,
where J is the torsion constant.
However, it is less well appreciated that this pure torsion of a thin walled section will also produce a warping of the
cross-section, unless there is sufficient symmetry in the section. This is illustrated in Figure 6 for a rectangular section that
is free to warp at its ends. However, in practice boxes are not subject to pure torsion; wherever there is a change of torque (at
a point of application of load or at a torsional restraint) there is restraint to warping, because the 'free' warping
displacements due to the different torques would be different (restraint is high, for example. over intermediate supports
where torsion is restrained). Such restraint gives rise to longitudinal warping stresses and associated shear stresses in each
wall of the box.

4.2 Distortion
When torsion is applied directly around the perimeter of a box section, by forces exactly equal to the shear flow in each of
the sides of the box, there is no tendency for the cross section to change its shape. Torsion can be applied in this manner if,
at the position where the force couple is applied, a diaphragm or stiff frame is provided to ensure that the section
remains square and that torque is in fact fed into the box walls as a shear flow around the perimeter.
Provision of such diaphragms or frames is practical, and indeed necessary, at supports and at positions where heavy point
loads are introduced. But such restraint can only be provided at discrete positions. When the load is distributed along the
beam, or when point loads can occur anywhere along the beam such as concentrated axle loads from vehicles, the
distortional effects must be carried by other means.

The distortional forces shown in Figure 5(b) are tending to increase the length of one diagonal and shorten the other.
This tendency is resisted in two ways, by in-plane bending of each of the wall of the box and by out-of-plane bending. this
is illustrated in Figure 7.
In general the distortional behaviour depends on interaction between the two sorts of bending. The behaviour has
been demonstrated to be analogous to that of a beam on an elastic foundation (BEF), and this analogy is frequently used
to evaluate the distortional effects.
If the only resistance to transverse distortional bending is provided by out-of-plane bending of the flange plates there were
no intermediate restraints to distortion, the distortional deflections in most situations would be significant and would affect
the global behaviour. For this reason it is usual to provide intermediate cross-frames or diaphragms; consideration
of distortional displacements and stresses can then be limited to the lengths between cross-frames.
5. FLANGE DESIGN
5.1 Tension Flanges
Tension flanges are designed mainly on the basis of longitudinal bending stresses, in the same way as for plate
girders. Torsional and distortional effects and the effects of shear lag do need to be taken into account in some
circumstances. The strength is taken as the yield stress.
At the Serviceability Limit State elastic behaviour is normally specified. Then the stresses due to the restraint of
torsional warping, distortional warping stresses and the variation of stress across the flange due to shear lag must be
calculated. Stresses are highest adjacent to the web.
At the Ultimate Limit State, plastic behaviour is normally accepted. Then the stresses due to the restraint of torsional
warping and shear lag can be neglected, since they are secondary effects.
5.2 Compression Flanges
In addition to considering the load effects in relation to yield strength, the stability of the compression flange must also
be considered.
Relatively narrow flanges may be unstiffened. The strength of the flange plate then depends on ordinary panel-
buckling resistance. It is convenient to express this in design by the determination of an effective width of compression
flange; this is the width which has the same resistance, at yield stress, as the buckling resistance of the full panel. Typically
a panel is considered fully effective up to a width of 24t (where t is the flange thickness), but thereafter the effective width
is less than the actual width.
Wider flanges are provided with longitudinal stiffeners to provide stability and these in turn are supported at intervals
by transverse stiffeners, cross-frames, or diaphragms.
Usually the longitudinal stiffeners can be designed using rules which effectively treat them as struts. For this purpose
the transverse members restraining them must be sufficiently stiff. If, when the flanges are particularly wide, the

transverse stiffeners are not sufficiently stiff, the flange would have to be treated as a panel stiffened in two directions and
the overall buckling strength determined; this is too complex for most design purposes.
In some bridges, notably long-span bridges and movable bridges, where minimum weight is desirable, the roadway is
carried on an all-steel deck. This form of deck is stiffened longitudinally; transverse members or diaphragms support
the longitudinal stiffeners.
The design of such a deck, to carry the direct loads from the traffic wheels, is an extremely complex matter. Connection
details are subject to onerous fatigue loading. Configurations currently in use are the result of many years
development, analysis, testing and feedback from previous designs.
6. WEB DESIGN
The determination of the strength of webs in bending and shear follows the same general rules as for plate girders.
Shear buckling resistance of thin webs is improved by the presence of intermediate stiffeners. Tension field action can
develop in the web in the same way as in plate girders. However, the further increase in tension field action on account of
the bending stiffness of the flange plate is not normally achievable.
7. CROSS SECTIONAL RESTRAINTS
7.1 General Function and Description
The main functions of cross sectional restraints are:
● to preserve the shape of the box against distortion

● to transfer an externally applied torque to the box walls through shear flow
● to provide transverse support to longitudinal stiffeners under compression
● to support traffic loads directly (from an orthotropic deck)
● to transmit forces from box walls to the supports.
7.2 Support Diaphragms
At support positions a plate diaphragm is normally provided, see Figure 8, although occasionally a heavily braced frame can
be used. Plate diaphragms may be thick and unstiffened in fairly small boxes; in larger boxes vertical stiffeners are
provided over the bearings and sometimes horizontal stiffening is also provided.
The main purpose of support diaphragms is to transfer the large shear forces from the webs to the bearings. They must
also transmit horizontal forces when the bearing is guided or fixed in position into shear flow along the web of the box section.
For large box sections, with large support forces, the use of a finite element program is recommended for the design of
support diaphragms.
7.3 Intermediate restraints
For large deep box girders, intermediate restraint against distortion is usually provided by cross frames, see Figure 9. The
frame comprises a ring of four members, each being an effective section comprising a width of flange or web and
the transverse stiffener attached to it. The corners of the ring need to be designed to provide moment continuity.
Diagonal bracing is connected to the frame as necessary, usually either across the section diagonal or as a V to the midpoint
of a flange stiffener.
7.4 Load-carrying transverse stiffeners
When a box girder has a stiffened steel deck, or a composite box girder is arranged with cross-girders, such that the deck
slab designed to span longitudinally, the transverse stiffeners must also carry the traffic loads and transfer them to the
webs. Such configurations usually also have cantilevers on the outer faces. Moment continuity must be provided between
the transverse stiffeners, the cantilevers and the cross-girders.
Transverse flange stiffeners which are required to provide support must usually be arranged to coincide with transverse
web stiffeners, so that the load can be transferred into the web.

8. ARTICULATION
The arrangement of the bearings which support the girder, known as the articulation arrangement, should take account of
the high degree of torsional rigidity provided by the box girders.
For a relatively short bridge of a few spans it is not necessary to provide two bearings at each intermediate support.
Twin bearings at the ends will restrain the box against twist; single bearings on the box centreline are sufficient at
intermediate supports.
If the bridge is highly curved, single bearings may be sufficient at all supports; restraint against twist is provided by
the combined effects of torsional rigidity and geometrical arrangement of the group of bearings.
● Box girders are used because of their good resistance to torsion
● box girders can be designed to have a good aerodynamic shape
● the clear external surfaces and the use of inclined webs gives a good appearance
● the grillage method is sufficiently accurate for global analysis
● shear lag and the stability of the compression flange both require consideration in wide flanges
● design of webs is generally similar to that for plate girders
● distortional effects must be considered

1. Eurocode 3: Design of steel structures: European Prestandard, ENV1993-1-1: Part 1.1: General rules and rules for
buildings, CEN, 1992.
2. Dubas, P. and Gehri, E., Behaviour and Design of Steel Plated Structures, Technical Committee 8 Group 8.3, ECCS-
CECM-EKS No44, 1986.
3. Johnson, R. P. and Buckby, R. J., Composite Structures of Steel and Concrete, Volume 2: Bridges, Collins, London, 1986.
4. British Standard 5400: Part 3: Steel, Concrete and Composite Bridges, Part 3: Code of Practice for Design of Steel
Bridges, British Standards Institution, 1982.
5. Horne, M.R., CIRIA Guide 3, Structural action in steel box girders, Construction Industry Research and
Information Association, London, 1977
6. Kollbrunner, C. F. and Basler, K.: Torsion, Spes/Bordas Lausanne/Paris, 1955.
7. Stahlbau Handbuch: Stahlbau Handbuck für Studium und Praxis, BandI, Stahbau Verlag, Köln, 1982.
8. Dalton, D. C. and Richmond, B., Twisting of Thin Walled Box Girders, Proceedings of the Institution of Civil
Engineers, January 1968.

9. Iles, D.C., Design Guide for Composite Box Girder Bridges, The Steel Construction Institute, Ascot, 1994

Esdep Lecture 8.5.2 [Other]
ESDEP WG 8
PLATES AND SHELLS
Lecture 8.5.2: Advanced Design

of Box Girders
OBJECTIVE/SCOPE
To introduce methods of global analysis, methods of determining cross-section distortion, and shear lag in box girder bridges.
PREREQUISITES
None.
RELATED LECTURES
Lecture 8.5.1: Introduction to Design of Box Girders
SUMMARY
Global analysis may be made by the grillage, orthotropic plate, folded plate and finite element methods.
Distortion of the box may have to be controlled by diaphragms or cross frames. Simple or refined methods are available for
the calculation of the forces in the diaphragms or cross frames.
In very wide flanges, shear lag effects have to be taken into account.
1. INTRODUCTION
Although steel or steel-concrete composite box girders are usually more expensive per tonne than plate girders, because
they require more fabrication time, they can lead to a more economic solution overall.
For bridges, box girders have several advantages over plate girders which make their use attractive:
● a very high torsional stiffness. (In closed box sections torque is resisted mainly by Saint Venant shear stresses and the
torsional stiffness is normally much greater than that of open sections.)
● closed steel boxes provide torsional stiffness during their erection. (They thus avoid the need for the expensive
temporary bracing which is required with plate girders and which also interferes with the construction of the concrete slab.
For highly curved spans torsional stiffness is almost always essential during their construction.)
● wide flanges can be used. (This allows large span to depth ratios without resource to very thick material.)
● box girders have a neat appearance. (The stiffening can remain unseen inside the box.)
● the facility to choose a good aerodynamic shape. (This is particularly important for large suspension or cable-stayed bridges.)
● box girders use fewer bearings. (Usually torsional restraint need be provided at only one position along a continuous
box; single bearings can be used at all other supports. Further, with a highly curved box girder, single bearings at all supports
is often sufficient.)
Box girders are sometimes used in building structures, but this is not common. This lecture deals mainly with box girders
as used in bridges, both all-steel construction and composite construction with a reinforced concrete deck slab; most of
the general remarks are applicable to box girders used in buildings
2. GLOBAL ANALYSIS METHODS

Global analysis determines the load effects, bending moments, shear forces, torsional moments, etc., which occur in all parts
of the structure as a result of the applied load. From this analysis stresses are determined, for comparison with the
calculated strengths.

Methods of analysis for composite bridge decks fall into one of three groups.
● those that treat the bridge as a series of interconnected beams

● those that treat separately the various parts of the box section (flanges, webs, diaphragms)
● those that treat the bridge deck as a continuum
Those in the first group are the simplest to analyse, since beam theory can be used for the behaviour of the individual
elements. For a single straight girder a line-beam analysis can be used, provided this takes account of torsional effects as
well as bending effects, but in general a grillage model is needed. Such an analysis gives good results for the distribution
of moments and forces in multiple girder structures and when a curved single beam is modelled as a series of straight
elements. However, simple beam theory does not take account of the distortion of the cross section or of shear lag effects
and these must be determined separately.
Analysis in the second group is by use of finite element techniques and inevitably involves the use of a powerful
computer program. Provided suitable elements are available within the computer program, the analysis is able to give
results which include most of the structural effects, including distortion and shear lag, but choice of element type and
size requires much experience, and interpretation of the results also requires careful consideration.
The third group applies more exact theoretical modelling techniques. Examples are treatment of the whole deck as
an orthotropic plate and analysis of folded plate models. However such techniques can only be properly applied when there
is uniformity throughout the structure and for distributed loading. They are also only able to represent separately some
aspects of the behaviour: the loading therefore needs to be divided into components such as uniform bending,
uniform torsional, warping torsion, and distortion.
3. GRILLAGE
3.1 General
In a grillage analysis, the structure is idealised as a number of longitudinal and transverse beam elements in a single
horizontal plane, rigidly interconnected at nodes. Transverse beams may be orthogonal or skewed with respect to
the longitudinal beams, so that skew, curved, tapering or irregular decks can be analysed.
In a simple grillage analysis, each beam is allotted a flexural stiffness in the vertical plane and a torsional stiffness.
Vertical loads are applied only at the nodes. Computer software is used to carry out a matrix stiffness analysis to determine
the displacements (rotations about the two horizontal axes and the vertical displacement) at each node and the forces
(bending moments, torsional moments and vertical shear forces) in the beams connected to each node.
Grillage analysis does not determine warping and distortional effects, nor the effects of shear lag. Local effects under
point loads (wheel loads) can only be studied with a grillage by the use of a fine mesh of beams locally to the load; local
effects are usually determined separately and added to global results as required.
3.2 Grillage Modelling for Box Girder Bridges
The global structural action of a box girder bridge can be seen as the essentially separate actions of a reinforced concrete
slab (or an ortotropically stiffened steel deck) which bends transversely and a series of longitudinal beams which
deflect vertically and twist. The slab (or steel deck) bends as a result of being supported along several lines which deflect
by different amounts and in a manner which varies along the span. The global analysis therefore needs to model accurately
the way in which these support lines deflect, so that the interaction between longitudinal and transverse bending is
properly established.
The slab is effectively supported along each web line. The vertical deflection of each web line depends on a combination of
the vertical and torsional deflections of the box girder of which it is a part. The best way to model these effects is to create
a torsionally stiff beam element along the centreline of each box (i.e. the shear centre) and to connect it to the slab at the
web positions. To do this, short 'dummy' transverse beams are needed; they do not physically represent any particular part
of the structure and the forces in them do not need to be analyzed, but they must be given sufficient stiffness that their
bending is insignificantly small. This form of model for a twin-box bridge with cantilevers is illustrated in Figure 1 (note
that, for clarity, the dummy beams and longitudinal beams are shown slightly below the slab, whilst they would actually
be treated in the analysis as co-planar).

3.3 Longitudinal Grillage Elements
The main longitudinal beams are assigned the flexural properties of the full section of each girder (including the slab or
deck). In multi-girder structures it is usual to consider the slab to be divided midway between boxes and for the full width
of the cantilever to be included with the outer box. Strictly this is not exact, since it would introduce a discontinuity in the
level of the neutral axis, but the inaccuracy is negligible.
The longitudinal elements representing the slab (shown dotted in Figure 1) are not strictly necessary, as they are much
more flexible than the main girders, though they may be helpful in the application of distributed loads. They are shown here
to illustrate the division of the slab.
The longitudinal edge elements may be added to represent the edge beam. They do not have a major effect on
overall performance but are often helpful in the application of load on the cantilevers.
3.4 Transverse Grillage Elements
Where there are no transverse beams, the transverse elements simply represent a width of slab equal to the node
spacing. Where there are transverse beams, including cross-beams and diaphragms inside the box, the elements
should represent the stiffness of the effective transverse member.
The slab elements are supported only on the dummy elements, they are not connected directly to the longitudinal beams.
There is no moment continuity between slab elements and the dummy beams.

3.5 Torsional Rigidities
For an open box section, the torsional stiffness K is given by the general expression:
Where A is the area of the box and t is the thickness of element ds.
When the section is composite, the concrete slab should be transformed into an equivalent thickness of steel by dividing by
the modular ratio.
For a strip of solid slab the torsional stiffness is given by:
Where t is the thickness and b is the width of the strip.
However, in the grillage model only half this stiffness should be assigned to the transverse elements, since no Saint
Venant shear stress flux goes around the perimeter of the strip's cross-section. Similarly, for an orthotropic steel deck, only
the value H should be used for the torsional rigidity, not 2H.
3.6 Skew Bridges
Skewed arrangements of multiple boxes can be devised, provided that support diaphragms can remain essentially square to
the box centrelines and that there are either no cross-girders between boxes or the cross-girders are square to the
boxes. Similarly, grillage analysis with skew cross-members is difficult to interpret and gives uncertain results for all
except small skews.
3.7 Interpretation of the Output of a Grillage Analysis
Computer software usually gives values of the vertical shear, bending moments and torsional moment for each grillage
member at each joint in the grillage. Because the continuous structure has been idealised into discrete elements
this discontinuity is unreal. A slightly 'better' value of moments in the main longitudinal members can be obtained
by smoothing, as shown in Figure 2, though the difference is usually very small.

4. ORTHOTROPIC PLATE ANALYSIS

In orthotropic plate analysis, the deck structure is 'smoothed' across its length and breadth and treated as a continuum.
The elastic properties of an orthotropic plate are defined by the two flexural rigidities Dx and Dy and a plate torsional
rigidity H. The governing equation relating deflection w to load P acting normal to the plane of the plate is:
= p(x, y)
Design charts for decks that can be idealised as orthotropic plates have been derived from series solutions. They
give deflections and longitudinal and transverse moments due to a point load, and so provide a rapid method for
distribution analysis. Their applicability is limited to simply supported decks of skew not exceeding 20° whose
elastic properties can be represented solely by length, breadth, and the three quantities Dx, Dy and H.
In composite structures, they can be used for beam-and-slab decks with not less than five equally spaced longitudinal
members of uniform diaphragms over the supports.
5. FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS

The finite element method is used increasingly in civil engineering. It is the most versatile of the matrix stiffness methods
of elastic analysis, and can, in principle, approach the solution of almost any problem of global analysis of a bridge deck.
In box girders, the finite element method allows the study of shear lag and the computation of effective flange breadths. It
can also analyse local effects in slabs. To do this the webs, flanges and diaphragms are each divided into a suitable mesh
of elements; the detail of the effects which can be revealed (for example the variation in stress across a flange due to shear
lag) depends on the fineness of the mesh and the capabilities of the element types provided by the program.
The disadvantage of finite element analysis is its cost, especially because of the high level of expert time required for
the idealisation of the structure. The expert's know-how is needed in selecting an appropriate pattern of elements, in
selecting the right type of element and in determining the right limit conditions for boundary nodes along the supports.
The interpretation of results also requires experience. The choice of inappropriate elements can be misleading in regions
of steep stress gradient, because the conditions of static equilibrium are not then necessarily satisfied. The selection of
the discretisation density level, or of the material behaviour, may have serious repercussions on the accuracy of the results.

Nevertheless, for complex situations, or for complex portions of a major structure, there is no better substitute for a
finite element analysis.
6. FOLDED PLATE ANALYSIS

The folded plate method is normally limited to assemblages of rectangular plates. It is not applicable to skew decks due
to coupling between the harmonics. The orthotropic plates may extend over several spans but must be simply-supported at
the extreme ends, with rigid diaphragms over the end supports. When folded plate diaphragms are used to represent
the transverse frames, the advantages are that it can give a complete and accurate solution in less computer time than is
needed for the finite element method, and it can accept a wide variety of types of loading and both displacement and
force boundary conditions.
To apply the method to a double cellular box-girder bridge with one single internal web, the distortion must be divided
into symmetric and asymmetric deformations. For boxes with more internal webs, it is possible to divide the deformations
of the cross-section into eigenvalue functions of deformation.
7. TORSIONAL WARPING
Pure torsion of a thin walled section will also produce a warping of the cross-section, unless there is sufficient symmetry in
the section. To illustrate how warping can occur, consider what would happen to the four panels of a rectangular box
section subject to torsion.
Assume that the box width and depth are B and D respectively, and that the flange and web thicknesses are tf and tw. Under
a torque T, the shear flow is given by q=T/2BD.
Consider first the flanges. The shear stress in the flanges is given by τf = q/tf =T/2BDtf. Viewing the box from above,
each flange is sheared into a parallelogram, with a shear angle φ =tf/G; if the end sections were to remain plane, the
relative horizontal displacement between top and bottom corners would be φL at each end (see Figure 3a), and thus there
would be a twist between the two ends of 2φL/D = 2τf L/DG = TL/BD2Gtf.
By a similar argument, viewing the box from the side and considering the shear displacements of the webs, if the end
sections were to remain plane the twist of the section would be TL/B2DGtw. As the twist must be the same irrespective
of whether we consider the flanges or the webs, it is clear that the end sections can only remain plane if TL/BD2Gtf =

TL/B2DGtw, i.e. Dtf = Btw. If this condition is not met, the end sections cannot remain plane; instead there will be a
slight counter-rotation in their planes of the two flanges and of the two webs, and a consequent warping of the section.
Typical warping for this example is shown in Figure 3b.
Of course, for a simple uniform box section subject to pure torsion this warping is unrestrained and does not give rise to
any secondary stresses. But if, for example, a box is supported and torsionally restrained at both ends and then subjected
to applied torque in the middle, warping is fully restrained in the middle by virtue of symmetry and torsional warping
stresses are generated. Similar restraint occurs in continuous box sections which are torsionally restrained at
intermediate supports.
This restraint of warping gives rise to longitudinal warping stresses and associated shear stresses in the same manner
as bending effects in each wall of the box. The shear stresses effectively modify slightly the uniformity of the shear
stress calculated by pure torsion theory, usually reducing the stress near corners and increasing it in mid-panel.
Because maximum combined effects usually occur at the corners, it is conservative to ignore the warping shear stresses and
use the simple uniform distribution. The longitudinal effects are, on the other hand greatest at the corners. They need to
be taken into account when considering the occurrence of yield stresses in service and the stress range under fatigue
loading. But since the longitudinal stresses do not actually participate in the carrying of the torsion, the occurrence of yield
at the corners and the consequent relief of some or all of these warping stresses would not reduce the torsional resistance.
In simple terms, a little plastic redistribution can be accepted at the ultimate limit state (ULS) and therefore there is no need
to include torsional warping stresses in the ULS checks.
8. CROSS-SECTION DISTORTION
When torsion is applied directly around the perimeter of a box section, by forces exactly equal to the shear flow in each of
the sides of the box, there is no tendency for the cross section to change its shape.
If torsion is not applied in this manner, there is effectively a set of forces which is trying to extend the length of one
diagonal across the section and reduce the other (see Figure 4). Diaphragms or frames can be provided to restrain
distortion where large distortional forces occur, such as at support positions, and at intervals along a box, but in general
the distortional effects must be carried by other means.

To illustrate how distortion occurs and is carried between effective restraints, consider a simply supported box with
diaphragms only at the supports and which is subject to a point load over one web at midspan. Under the distortional
forces, each side of the box bends in its own plane and, provided there is moment continuity around the corners, out of its
plane as well. The deflected shape is shown in Figure 5.
The in-plane bending of each side gives rise to longitudinal stresses and strains which, because they are in the opposite sense
in the opposing faces of the box, produce a warping of the cross section (in the example shown the end diaphragms warp out
of their planes, whilst the central plane can be seen to be restrained against warping by symmetry). The longitudinal stresses
are therefore known as distortional warping stresses. The associated shear stresses are known simply as distortional
shear stresses.

The bending of the walls of a box, as a result of the distortional forces, produces transverse distortional bending stresses in
the box section.
The introduction of stiff intermediate cross-frames will restrict distortional effects to the lengths between frames (rather
than between supports). but they must be stiff enough for this purpose.
In general the distortional behaviour depends on interaction between the two sorts of behaviour, the warping and the
transverse distortional bending. The behaviour has been demonstrated to be analogous to that of a beam on an
elastic foundation (BEF), with the beam stiffness representing the warping resistance and the elastic foundation
representing the transverse distortional bending resistance. A comprehensive description of the analogy is given in a paper
by Wright [1].
A diagrammatic illustration of the distortional behaviour of a box with a single intermediate diaphragm is given in Figure 6.

9. SHEAR LAG
When the axial load is fed into a wide flange by shear from the webs the flange distorts in its plane; plane sections do
not remain plane. The resulting stress distribution in the flange is not uniform In very wide flanges, shear lag effects have to
be taken into account for the verification of stresses, especially for short spans, since it causes the longitudinal stress at a
flange/web intersection to exceed the mean stress in the flange.
Shear lag can be allowed for in the elementary theory of bending, by using an effective flange breadth (less than the
real breadth) such that the stress in the effective breadth equals the peak stress in the actual flange (see Figure 7). This
effective flange breadth depends on the ratio of width to span.
For a simply supported beam, for example, the effective breadth of the portion between the webs is Φe.b , where Φe ,
the effective breadth ratio, is given in Table 1.
b/L Mid-span Quarter-span Support
α=0 α=1 α=0 α=1 α=0 α=1
0,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00
0,05 0,98 0,97 0,98 0,96 0,84 0,77
0,10 0,95 0,89 0,93 0,86 0,70 0,60
0,20 0,81 0,67 0,77 0,62 0,52 0,38
0,30 0,66 0,47 0,61 0,44 0,40 0,28
0,40 0,50 0,35 0,46 0,32 0,32 0,22

0,50 0,38 0,28 0,36 0,25 0,27 0,18
0,75 0,22 0,17 0,20 0,16 0,17 0,12
1,00 0,16 0,12 0,15 0,11 0,12 0,09
Table 1: Effective breadth ratio Fe for simply supported beams
where
b is the distance between webs.
L is the span of the beam
α=
Φe is the elastic effective breadth ratio.
Fortunately, in most situations the span/breadth ratio is not sufficiently large to cause more than 10-20% increase in
peak stress, on account of shear lag.
10. DIAPHRAGMS
At supports, forces are transferred from the box girder, through bearings, to the substructure below. Principally, these forces
are vertical, though lateral restraint also has to be provided at certain selected positions. Where there is only a single
bearing under the box and it offers little resistance to transverse rotation (e.g. elastomeric pot bearings), there will be
no torsional restraint; the loads transferred from the two webs will be equal (presuming that the bearing is on the
centreline). When there are two bearings, under or close to each of the webs, torsional restraint is provided to the box; the
load from each web will be different, and there will be a transfer of torsional shear from the flanges. Whenever there is
lateral restraint there will be an associated torque, because the restraint will not be at the level of the shear centre of the box.
The principal function of a support diaphragm is to provide an adequate load path to transfer shear forces from the webs to
the bearings below the box. In doing so it also resists distortional forces.
Plated diaphragms are normally provided at supports, since they provide these functions most easily, although, strictly,
an adequately braced cross-frame could also do so.
Clearly, full diaphragms close the box section, yet access into the box is necessary for completion of fabrication and for
future inspection and maintenance. Openings are usually provided to permit access along the box, but the effect of
these openings on the performance of the diaphragm has to be carefully considered; the size and position of any opening
needs to be limited. This can be a particular problem with small boxes, because the minimum hole size may be a
large proportion of the diaphragm size.
Diaphragms are usually provided with vertical stiffeners above the bearings because of the large forces involved, though
with small boxes a thick unstiffened diaphragm may on occasion be appropriate.
A diaphragm behaves essentially as a deep beam, with the diaphragm plate acting as its web and an effective width of each
of the box flanges acting as its top and bottom flange.
An example of an intermediate diaphragm in a large box girder of a cable stayed bridge is shown in Figure 8.


● Grillage analysis is most often used for grillage analysis. It allows a simple idealisation of the structure, and a
sure interpretation of the output.
● Finite element analysis can be used for complex situations. It is the most versatile of the matrix stiffness methods of
elastic analysis.
● Orthotropic plate analysis and folded plate analysis have a limited application.
● Eccentric loading of the girder section causes distortion which may have to be controlled by the provision of
intermediate diaphragms or cross frames.
● In very wide flanges shear lag effects have to be taken into account.
12. REFERENCE
1. Wright, R N, Abdel-Samad, S R and Robinson, A R, BEF Analogy for analysis of box girder bridges, Proc. ASCE, vol
94, ST7, 1968.

1. Eurocode 3: "Design of Steel Structures", ENV1993-1-1: Part 1.1, General rules and rules for buildings, CEN, 1992.
2. Dubas, P. and Gehri, E., Behaviour and Design of Steel Plated Structures, Technical Committee 8 Group 8.3, ECCS-
CECM-EKS, No44, 1986.
3. Johnson, R. P. and Buckby, R. J., Composite Structures of Steel and Concrete, Volume 2: Bridges, Collins London, 1986.
4. British Standard 5400: Part 3: Steel, Concrete and Composite Bridges, Part 3: Code of Practice for Design of Steel
Bridges, British Standards Institution, 1982.
5. Horne, M.R., CIRIA Guide 3, Structural action in steel box girders, Construction Industry Research and
Information Association, London, 1977
6. Kollbrunner, C. F. and Basler, K., Torsion in Structures - An Engineering Approach (translated from the German),
Springer Verlag, Berlin 1969.
7. Stahlbau Handbuch: Stahlbau Handbuck für Studium und Praxis, BandI, Stahbau Verlag, Köln, 1982.
8. Dalton, D. C. and Richmond, B., Twisting of Thin Walled Box Girders, Proceedings of the Institution of Civil
Engineers, January, 1968.
9. Iles, D.C., Design Guide for Composite Box Girder Bridges, The Steel Construction Institute, Ascot, 1994

ESDEP WG 8
ESDEP WG 8
PLATES AND SHELLS

OBJECTIVE/SCOPE
To describe in a qualitative way the main characteristics of shell structures and to discuss briefly the typical
problems, such as buckling, that are associated with them.
PREREQUISITES
None.
RELATED LECTURES
Lecture 8.5.1: Design of Box Girders
SUMMARY
Shell structures are very attractive light weight structures which are especially suited to building as well as
industrial applications. The lecture presents a qualitative interpretation of their main advantages; it also discusses
the difficulties frequently encountered with such structures, including their unusual buckling behaviour, and
briefly outlines the practical design approach taken by the codes.
1. INTRODUCTION
The shell structure is typically found in nature as well as in classical architecture [1]. Its efficiency is based on its
curvature (single or double), which allows a multiplicity of alternative stress paths and gives the optimum form
for transmission of many different load types. Various different types of steel shell structures have been used for
industrial purposes; singly curved shells, for example, can be found in oil storage tanks, the central part of some
pressure vessels, in storage structures such as silos, in industrial chimneys and even in small structures like
lighting columns (Figures 1a to 1e). The single curvature allows a very simple construction process and is very
efficient in resisting certain types of loads. In some cases, it is better to take advantage of double curvature.
Double curved shells are used to build spherical gas reservoirs, roofs, vehicles, water towers and even hanging
roofs (Figures 1f to 1i). An important part of the design is the load transmission to the foundations. It must be
remembered that shells are very efficient in resisting distributed loads but are prone to difficulties with
concentrated loads. Thus, in general, a continuous support is preferred. If it is not possible to have a foundation

ESDEP WG 8
bed, as shown in Figure 1a, an intermediate structure such as a continuous ring (Figure 1f) can be used to
distribute the concentrated loads at the vertical supports. On occasions, architectural reasons or practical
considerations impose the use of discrete supports.

ESDEP WG 8
As mentioned above, distributed loads due to internal pressure in storage tanks, pressure vessels or silos (Figures
2a to 2c), or to external pressure from wind, marine currents and hydrostatic pressures (Figures 2d and 2e) are
very well resisted by the in-plane behaviour of shells. On the other hand, concentrated loads introduce significant
local bending stresses which have to be carefully considered in design. Such loads can be due to vessel supports
or in some cases, due to abnormal impact loads (Figure 2f). In containment buildings of nuclear power plants, for
example, codes of practice usually require the possibility of missile impact or even sometimes airplane crashes to
be considered in the design. In these cases, the dynamic nature of the load increases the danger of concentrated
effects. An everyday example of the difference between distributed and discrete loads is the manner in which a
cooked egg is supported in the egg cup without problems and the way the shell is broken by the sudden impact of
the spoon (Figure 2g). Needless to say, in a real problem both types of loads will have to be dealt with either in
separate or combined states, with the conceptual differences in behaviour ever present in the designer's mind.

ESDEP WG 8
Shell structures often need to be strengthened in certain problem areas by local reinforcement. A possible
location where reinforcement might be required is at the transition from one basic surface to another; for instance,
the connections between the spherical ends in Figure 1b and the main cylindrical vessel; or the change from the
cylinder to the cone of discharge in the silo in Figure 1c. In these cases, there is a discontinuity in the direction of
the in-plane forces (Figure 3a) that usually needs some kind of reinforcement ring to reduce the concentrated
bending moments that occur in that area.

ESDEP WG 8
Containment structures also need perforations to allow the stored product (oil, cement, grain, etc.) to be put in, or
extracted from, the deposit (Figure 3b). The same problem is found in lighting columns (Figure 3c), where it is
general practice to put an opening in the lower part of the post in order to facilitate access to the electrical works.
In these cases, special reinforcement has to be added to avoid local buckling and to minimise disturbance to the
general distribution of stresses.
Local reinforcement is also often required at connections between shell structures, such as commonly occur in
general piping work and in the offshore industry. In these cases additional reinforcing plates are used (Figure 3d),
which help to resist the high stresses produced at the connections.
In contrast to local reinforcement, global reinforcement is generally used to improve the overall shell behaviour.
Because of the efficient way in which these structures carry load, it is possible to reduce the wall thickness to
relatively small values; the high value of the shell diameter to thickness ratios can, therefore, increase the
possibility of unstable configurations. To improve the buckling resistance, the shell is usually reinforced with a
set of stiffening members.
In axisymmetric shells, the obvious location for the stiffeners is along selected meridians and parallel lines,
creating in this way a true mesh which reinforces the pure shell structure (Figure 4a). On other occasions, the
longitudinal and ring stiffeners are replaced by a complicated lattice (Figure 4b), which gives an aesthetically
pleasing structure as well as mechanical improvements to the global shell behaviour.

ESDEP WG 8
2. POSSIBLE FORMS OF BEHAVIOUR

ESDEP WG 8
There are two main mechanisms by which a shell can support loads. On the one hand, the structure can react with
only in-plane forces, in which case it is said to act as a membrane. This is a desirable situation, especially if the
stress is tensile (Figure 5a), because the material can be used to its full strength. In practice, however, real
structures have local areas where equilibrium or compatibility of displacements and deformations is not possible
without introducing bending. Figure 5b, for instance, shows a load acting perpendicular to the shell which cannot
be resisted by in-plane forces only, and which requires bending moments, induced by transverse deflections, to be
set up for equilibrium. Figure 5c, however, shows that membrane forces only can be used to support a
concentrated load if a corner is introduced in the shell.
It is worthwhile also to distinguish between global and local behaviour, because sometimes the shell can be
considered to act globally as a member. An obvious example is shown in Figure 6a, where a tubular lighting

ESDEP WG 8
column is loaded by wind and self-weight. The length AB is subjected to axial and shear forces, as well as to
bending and torsion, and the global behaviour can be approximated very accurately using the member model. The
same applies in Figure 6b where an offshore jacket, under various loading conditions, can be modelled as a
cantilever truss. In addition, for certain types of vault roofs where the support is acting at the ends, the behaviour
under vertical loads is similar to that of a beam.
Local behaviour, however, is often critical in determining structural adequacy. Dimpling in domes (Figure 7a), or
the development of the so-called Yoshimura patterns (Figure 7b) in compressed cylinders, are phenomena related
to local buckling that introduce a new level of complexity into the study of shells. Non- linear behaviour, both

ESDEP WG 8
from large displacements and from plastic material behaviour, has to be taken into account. Some extensions of
the yield line theory can be used to analyse different possible modes of failure.

ESDEP WG 8
To draw a comparison with the behaviour of stiffened plates, it can be said that the global action of shell
structures takes advantage of the load-diffusion capacity of the surface and the stiffeners help to avoid local
buckling by subdividing the surface into cells, resulting in a lower span to thickness ratio. A longitudinally-
stiffened cylinder, therefore, behaves like a system of struts-and-plates, in a way that is analagous to a stiffened
plate. On the other hand, transverse stiffeners behave in a similar manner to the diaphragms in a box girder, i.e.
they help to distribute the external loads and maintain the initial shape of the cross-section, thus avoiding
distortions that could eventually lead to local instabilities. As in box girders, special precautions have to be taken
in relation to the diaphragms transmitting bearing reactions; in shells the reaction transmission is done through
saddles that produce a distributed load.
3. IMPORTANCE OF IMPERFECTIONS
As was explained in previous lectures, the theoretical limits of bifurcation of equilibrium that can be reached
using mathematical models are upper limits to the behaviour of actual structures; as soon as any initial
displacement or shape imperfection is present, the curve is smoothed [2]. Figures 8a and 8b present the load-
displacement relationship that is expected for a bar and a plate respectively; the dashed line OA represents the
linear behaviour that suddenly changes at bifurcation point B (solid line). The plate has an enhanced stiffness due
to the membrane effect. The dashed lines represent the behaviour when imperfections are included in the analysis.

ESDEP WG 8
As can be seen in Figure 8c, the post-buckling behaviour of a cylinder is completely different. After bifurcation,
the point representing the state of equilibrium can travel along the secondary path BDC. Following B, the
situation is highly dependent on the characteristics of the test, i.e. whether it is force-controlled or displacement
controlled. In the first case, after the buckling load is reached, a sudden change from point B to point F occurs
(Figure 8c) which is called the snap-through phenomenon, in which the shell jumps suddenly between different
buckling configurations.
The behaviour of an actual imperfect shell is represented by the dashed line. Compared with the theoretically
perfect shell, it is evident that true bifurcation of equilibrium will not occur in the real structure, even though the
dashed lines approach the solid line as the magnitude of the imperfection diminishes. The high peak B is very
sharp and the limit point G or H (relevant to different values of the imperfection) refers to a more realistic lower
load than the theoretical bifurcation load.
The difference in behaviour, compared with that of plates or bars, can be explained by examining the pattern of
local buckling as the loading increases. Initially, buckling starts at local imperfections with the formation of outer
and inner waves (Figure 9a); the latter represent a flattening rather than a change in direction of the original
curvature and set up compressive membrane forces which, along with the tensile membrane forces set up by the
outer waves, tend to resist the buckling effect. At the more advanced stages, as these outer waves increase in size,
the curvature in these regions changes direction and becomes inward (Figure 9b). As a result, the compressive
forces now precipitate buckling rather than resist it, thus explaining why equilibrium, at this stage, can only be
maintained by reducing the axial load.

ESDEP WG 8
The importance of imperfections is such that, when tests on actual structures are carried out, the difference
between theoretical and experimental values produces a wide scatter of results (see Figure 10). As the
imperfections are unavoidable, and depend very much on the quality of construction, it is clear that only a broad

ESDEP WG 8
experimental series of tests on physical models can help in establishing the least lower-bound that could be used
for a practical application. Thus it is necessary to choose:
1. The structural type, e.g. a circular cylinder, and a fixed set of boundary conditions.
2. The type of loading, e.g. longitudinal compression.
3. A predefined pattern of reinforcement using stiffeners.
4. A strict limitation on imperfection values.
In consequence, the experimental results can only be used for a very narrow band of applications. In addition, the
quality control on the finished work must be such that the experimental values can be used with confidence.
To allow for this, Codes of Practice [3] use the following procedure:
1. A critical stress, σcr or τcr, or a critical pressure, pcr, is calculated for the perfect elastic shell by means of
a classical formula or method in which the parameters defining the geometry of the shell and the elastic
constants of the steel are used.
2. σcr, τcr or pcr is then multiplied by a knockdown factor α, which is the ratio of the lower bound of a great
many scattered experimental buckling stresses or buckling pressures (the buckling being assumed to occur
in the elastic range) to σcr, τcr or pcr, respectively. α is supposed to account for the detrimental effect of
shape imperfections, residual stresses and edge disturbances. α may be a function of a geometrical
parameter when a general trend in the set of available test points, plotted with that parameter as abscissa,
points to a correlation between the parameter and α; such a trend is visible in Figure 10, where the

ESDEP WG 8
parameter is the radius of cylinder, r, divided by the wall thickness, t.
● The structural resistance of a shell structure is based on the curvature of its surface.
● Two modes of resistance are generally combined in shells: a membrane state in which the developed
forces are in-plane, and a bending state where out-of-plane forces are present.
● Bending is generally limited to zones where there are changes in boundary conditions, thickness, or type
of loads. It also develops where local instability occurs.
● Shells are most efficient when resisting distributed loads. Concentrated loads or geometrical changes
generally require local reinforcement.
● Imperfections play a substantial role in the behaviour of shells. Their unpredictable nature makes the use
of experimental methods essential.
● To simplify shell design, codes introduce a knock-down factor to be applied to the results of mathematical
models.
5. REFERENCES
[1] Tossoji, Ei., "Philosophy of Structures", Holden Day 1960.
[2] Brush, D.O., Almroth, B.O., "Buckling of Bars, Plates and Shells", McGraw Hill, 1975.
[3] European Convention for Constructional Steelwork, "Buckling of Steel Shells", European Recommendation,
ECCS, 1988.

ESDEP WG 8
ESDEP WG 8
PLATES AND SHELLS
Lecture 8.7: Basic Analysis

of Shell Structures
OBJECTIVE/SCOPE:
To describe the basic characteristics of pre- and post-buckling shell behaviour and to explain and compare the
differences in behaviour with that of plates and bars.
PREREQUISITES
RELATED LECTURES:
Lecture 8.4.1: Plate Girder Behaviour & Design I
Lectures 8.5.1: Introduction to Design of Box Girders
SUMMARY:
The combined bending and stretching behaviour of shell structures in resisting load is discussed; their buckling
behaviour is also explained and compared with that of struts and plates. The effect of imperfections is examined and
ECCS curves, which can be used in design, are given. Reference is also made to available computer programs that
can be used for shell analysis.
1. INTRODUCTION
Lecture 8.6 introduced several aspects of the structural behaviour of shells in an essentially qualitative way. Before
moving on to consider design procedures for specific applications, it is necessary to gain some understanding of the
possible approaches to the analysis of shell response. It should then be possible to appreciate the reasoning behind
the actual design procedures covered in Lectures 8.8 and 8.9.
This Lecture, therefore, presents the main principles of shell theory that underpin the ECCS design methods for
unstiffened and stiffened cylinders. Comparisons are drawn with the behaviour of columns and plates previously
discussed in Lectures 6.6.1, 6.6.2 and 8.1.

ESDEP WG 8
2. BENDING AND STRETCHING OF THIN SHELLS

The deformation of an element of a thin shell consists of the curvatures and normal displacements associated with
out-of-surface bending and the stretching and shearing of the middle surface. Bending deformation without
stretching of the middle surface, as assumed in the small deflection theory for flat plates, is not possible, and so both
bending and stretching strains must be considered.
If the shape and the boundary conditions of a shell and the applied loads are such that the loads can be resisted by
membrane forces alone, then these forces may be found from the three equilibrium conditions for an infinitely small
element of the shell. The equilibrium equations may be obtained from the equilibrium of forces in three directions;
that is, in the two principal directions of curvature and in the direction normal to the middle surface. As a result, the
three membrane forces can be obtained easily in the absence of bending and twisting moments and shear forces
perpendicular to the surface. An example is an unsupported cylindrical shell subjected to uniform radial pressure
over its entire area (Figure 1). Obviously, the only stress generated by the external pressure is a circumferential
membrane stress. The assumption does not hold if the cylinder is subjected to two uniform line loads acting along
two diametrically opposed generators (Figure 2). In this case, bending theory is required to evaluate the stress
distribution, because an element of the shell cannot be in equilibrium without circumferential bending stresses.
Circumferential bending stresses are essential to resist the external loads, and because the wall is thin and has very
little flexural resistance, they greatly affect its load carrying resistance [1].

ESDEP WG 8
Significant bending stresses usually only occur close to the boundaries, or in the zone affected by other disturbances,
such as local loads or local imperfections. Locally, the resulting stresses may be quite high, but they generally
diminish at a small distance from the local disturbance. Bending stresses may, however, cause local yielding which
can be very dangerous in the presence of repeated loadings, since it can result in a fatigue fracture.
It is normally more structurally efficient if a shell structure can be configured in such a way that it carries load
primarily by membrane action. Simpler design calculations will usually also result.
3. BUCKLING OF SHELLS - LINEAR AND NON-LINEAR BUCKLING

THEORY
Buckling may be regarded as a phenomenon in which a structure undergoes local or overall change in configuration.
For example, an originally straight axially loaded column will buckle by bowing laterally; similarly a cylinder may
buckle when its surface crumples under the action of external loads. Buckling is particularly important in shell
structures since it may well occur without any warning and with catastrophic consequences [2-4].
The equations for determining the load at which buckling is initiated, through bifurcation on the main equilibrium
path of a cylindrical shell, may be derived by means of the adjacent equilibrium criterion, or, alternatively, by use of
the minimum potential energy criterion. In the first case, small increments (u1, v1, w1) are imposed on the pre-
buckling displacements (u0, v0, w0)
u = u0 + u1

ESDEP WG 8
v = v0 + v1 (1)
w = w0 + w1
The two adjacent configurations, represented by the displacements before (u0, v0, w0) and after the increment (u, v,
w) are analysed. No increment is given to the load parameter. The function represented by (u1, v1, w1) is called the
buckling mode. As an alternative, the minimum potential energy criterion can be adopted to derive the linear
stability equations. The expression for the second variation of the potential energy of the shell in terms of
displacements is calculated. The linear differential equations for loss of stability are then obtained by means of the
Trefftz criterion. Readers requiring a more detailed coverage of shell buckling are advised to consult [4].
In practice, for some problems, the results obtained by these analyses are adequate and in accordance with
experiment. In other cases, such as the buckling of an axially compressed cylinder, the results can be positively
misleading as they may substantially overestimate the actual carrying resistance of the shell. The use of these
methods leads to the following value for the axial buckling load of a perfect thin elastic cylinder of medium length:
(2)
Assuming ν = 0,3 for steel gives σcr = 0,605 E
This buckling load is derived on the assumption that the pre-buckling increase of the radius due to the Poisson effect
is unrestrained and that the two edges are held against translational movement in the radial and circumferential
directions during buckling, but are able to rotate about the local circumferential axis. These edge restraints are
usually called "classical boundary conditions".
Equation (2) is of little use to the designer because test results yield only 15-60% of this value. The reason for the
big discrepancy between theory and experimental results was not understood for a long time and has been the subject
of many studies; it can be explained as follows:
The boundary conditions of the shells have a significant effect and can, if modified, give rise to lower critical loads.
Many authors have investigated the effects of the boundary conditions on the buckling load of cylindrical shells. The
value given by Equation (2) refers to a real cylinder only if the edges are prevented from moving in the
circumferential direction, i.e. v = 0 (Figure 3). If this last condition is removed and replaced by the condition nxy = 0
(i.e. free displacement but no membrane stress in the circumferential direction) a critical value of approximately 50%
of the classical buckling load is obtained. This boundary condition is quite difficult to obtain in practice and
cylinders with such edge restraints are much less sensitive to imperfection than cylinders with classical boundary
conditions; they are, therefore, not of primary interest to the designer. If, instead, the top edge of the cylinder is
assumed to be free, the critical buckling load drops down to 38% of the critical value given by Equation (2). In
general, it can be stated that if a shell initially fails with several small local buckles, the critical load does not depend
to any great extent on the boundary conditions, but, if the buckles involve the whole shell, the boundary conditions
can significantly affect the buckling load.

ESDEP WG 8
The critical buckling load may also be reduced by pre-buckling deformations. To take these deformations into
account, the same boundary conditions in both the pre- and post-buckling range must be included. The consequence
is that during the compression prior to buckling, the top and bottom edges cannot move radially (Poisson's ratio not
being zero) and, therefore, the originally straight generators become curved. The post-buckling deformations are not
infinitely small and the critical stress is reduced.
The complete understanding of the reason for the large discrepancies between theoretical and experimental results in
the buckling of shells has caused much controversy and discussion, but now the explanation that initial imperfections
are the principal cause of the phenomenon is generally accepted.
4. POST-BUCKLING BEHAVIOUR OF THIN SHELLS

ESDEP WG 8
The starting point for this illustrative study of the post-buckling behaviour of a perfect cylinder, under axial
compression (Figure 3), is Donnell's classical equations [2]. A suitable function for w (trigonometric) may be
assumed and introduced into the compatibility equation, expressed in terms of w and of an adopted stress function F.
The quadratic expressions can be transformed to linear ones by means of well known trigonometric relations. Then
the stress function F, and as a consequence the internal membrane stresses, may be computed. The expression for the
total potential energy can then be written, and minimized, to replace the equilibrium equation. The solution is
improved by taking more terms for w.
In Figure 4, the results obtained by using only two buckling modes are shown and compared with the curves
obtained later, i.e. with a greater number of modes. The results show that the type of curve does not change by
increasing the number of modes, but the lowest point of the post-buckling path decreases and can attain a value of
about 10% of the linear buckling load. In the limiting case, i.e. where the number of terms increases to infinity, the
lowest value of the post-buckling path tends to zero, while the buckling shape tends to assume the shape of the
Yoshimura pattern (Figure 5). It is the limiting case of the diamond buckling shape that can be described by the
following combination of axi-symmetric and chessboard modes.
(3)

ESDEP WG 8
It is worth noting that the buckling load associated with either the combination or the two single modes is the same
and is given by Equation (2).
A comprehensive overview of post-buckling theory is given in [5]. As will be discussed later, a realistic theory for
shell buckling has to take into account the unavoidable imperfections that appear in real structures. Figure 6 shows
the influence of imperfections on the strength of a cylinder subject to compressive loading and Figure 7 shows
typical imperfections.

ESDEP WG 8

ESDEP WG 8
5. NUMERICAL ANALYSIS OF SHELL BUCKLING

Simple types of shells and loading are amenable to treatment by analytical methods. The buckling load of complex
shell structures can, however, be assessed only be means of computer programs, many of which use finite elements
and have a stability option. CASTEM, STAGS, NASTRAN, ADINA, NISA, FINELG, ABAQUS, ANSYS, BOSOR
and FO4BO8 are some of the general and special purpose programs available. Correct use of a complicated program
requires the analyst to be well acquainted with the basis of the approach adopted in the program.
The stability options and the reliability of the numerical results depend on the method of analysis underlying each
specific program, and on the buckling modes considered. Analysis of various types may be performed:
1. Geometrical changes in the pre-buckling range are ignored, the pre-buckling behaviour of the structure is thus
assumed to be linear, and the buckling stress corresponds to that at the bifurcation point B which is found by
means of an eigenvalue analysis (Figure 8a). Applied to a simple shell, this procedure yields the classical
critical load. w denotes the lateral deflection of the shell wall at some representative point.
2. Non-linear collapse analysis enables successive points on the non-linear primary equilibrium path to be
determined until the tangent to the path becomes horizontal at the limit point (Figure 8b). At that stage,
assuming weight loading, as is normally the case for engineering structures, non-linear collapse ("snap-
through") occurs.
3. Investigating bifurcation buckling from a non-linear pre-buckling state involves a search for secondary
equilibrium paths (corresponding to different buckling modes, e.g. different numbers of buckling waves along
the circumference of an axi-symmetric shell) that may branch off from the non-linear primary path at
bifurcation points located below the limit point (Figure 8c). The lowest bifurcation point provides an estimate
of the buckling load.
4. General non-linear collapse analysis of an imperfect structure consists of determining the non-linear
equilibrium path and the limit point L for a structure whose initial imperfections and plastic deformations are
taken into account (Figure 8d). The limit load, which is the ordinate of L, causes the structure to "snap-
through".

ESDEP WG 8
The four load-deflection diagrams given in Figure 8 may relate, for example, to a spherical cap subjected to uniform
radial pressure acting towards the centre of the sphere; in this case the critical failure mode depends on the degree of
shallowness of the cap.
6. BUCKLING AND POST-BUCKLING BEHAVIOUR OF STRUTS,

PLATES AND SHELLS
Equilibrium paths, for a perfectly straight column, a perfectly flat plate supported along its four edges, and a
perfectly cylindrical shell, presented in the preceding Lecture 8.6, are repeated here (Figure 9) for completeness.

ESDEP WG 8
In each diagram, σ represents the uniformly applied compressive stress, σcr its critical value given by classical
stability theory, and U the decrease in distance between the ends of the members.

ESDEP WG 8
Each point on the solid or dashed lines represents an equilibrium configuration which is at least theoretically
possible, in the sense that the conditions for equilibrium between external and internal forces are met.
Simple elastic shortening, according to Hooke's law, is reflected by the three straight lines OA. They represent the
pre-buckling, primary, or fundamental state of equilibrium, in which the column, the plate and the shell remain
perfectly straight, flat and cylindrical, respectively.
As long as σ < σcr, the primary equilibrium is stable, i.e. if a minute accidental disturbance (a very small lateral
force, for example) causes a slight transverse deformation of the member, the deformation disappears when its cause
is removed, and the member returns of its own accord to its previous configuration. Any point of the line OA, which
is located above B, represents, however, unstable equilibrium, i.e. the effect of a disturbance, even an infinitely small
one, does not disappear with its cause, but instantaneously increases and the member is set in (violent) motion,
deviating further and irreversibly from its previous equilibrium configuration. Some minor cause of disturbance
always exists, for example, in the form of an initial shape imperfection or of an eccentricity of loading. A state of
unstable equilibrium, therefore, although theoretically possible, cannot occur in real structures.
When the stress reaches its critical value, σcr, a new equilibrium configuration appears at point B. This configuration
is quite different from the primary one and features lateral deflections and bending of the strut, the plate, or the wall
of the shell.
If the new configuration is characterised by displacements with respect to the primary state of equilibrium which
increase gradually from zero to high (theoretically infinite) values, the post-buckling states of equilibrium are
represented by points on a secondary equilibrium path which intersects with the primary path at the bifurcation point
B.
In fact, B is the lowest of an infinite number of bifurcation points, but the paths branching off from all the others
represent highly unstable equilibrium and have no practical significance.
The great difference between the strut, the plate and the cylinder is embodied in their post-buckling behaviour. In the
case of the column (Figure 9a), the secondary path, BC, is very nearly horizontal, but in reality it curves
imperceptibly upwards; the equilibrium along BC is almost neutral (it is, strictly speaking, weakly stable). For the
plate (Figure 9b) the secondary path, BC, climbs above B, although less steeply than before; the plate deflects
laterally, more and more under a gradually increasing load, but the equilibrium at points on BC is stable.
After bifurcation, the point representing the state of equilibrium of an axially loaded cylinder (Figure 9c), in theory,
can travel along the secondary path BDC. The equilibrium at points located below B on the solid curve is, however,
highly unstable and, hence, cannot really exist. What would happen after point B is reached, if it were possible to
manufacture a perfect cylinder from material of unlimited linear elasticity and to support and load or deform it in the
theoretically correct manner, depends on the loading method.
When displacements, u, of one plate of a supposedly rigid testing machine with respect to the other plate are
imposed in a controlled manner, buckles suddenly appear in the wall of the cylinder. The compressive stress drops at
once from σcr to the ordinate of point E (only a fraction of σcr), while the shortening of the cylinder remains equal to
ucr, the abscissa of B. In contrast with bifurcation, finite displacements are involved in the transition between the
equilibrium configurations represented by points B and E; such an occurrence is called snap-through. The buckling
process is further complicated by the existence of different intersecting equilibrium paths, which correspond to
different numbers of circumferential buckling waves and which have the same general shape as BDC. Some parts of
these paths represent stable equilibrium, while other parts represent unstable equilibrium; after the initial snap-
through from state B to state E, the shell can jump repeatedly from one buckling configuration to another.

ESDEP WG 8
When the load, rather than the displacement, u, is controlled a different effect occurs; if, for example, a load =
2πrtσcr is imposed, the overall shortening of the cylinder almost instantly increases from ucr to the abscissa of point
F, and its wall suddenly exhibits deep buckles, while the average compressive stress remains equal to σcr. It should
be noted that this "snap-through" has dynamic characteristics which are not considered in this description.
Esslinger and Geier [5] explain the fundamentally different behaviour of columns, plates and shells by the following
argument illustrated by Figures 10, 11 and 12.

ESDEP WG 8

ESDEP WG 8
The differential equation
expresses the lateral equilibrium of any element of an axially loaded strut when bifurcation occurs (Figure 10a) by
stating that the deflecting force per unit length, due to the external loads, Fcr, given by the first term, cancels out the
restoring force per unit length, due to the internal bending stresses, given by the second term. Both the deflecting
forces (Figure 10b) and the restoring forces (Figure 10c) are proportional to the lateral deflection. Consequently,
equilibrium of the column is independent of the magnitude of the transverse deformation and of u, for a given
constant axial force Fcr.

ESDEP WG 8
The restoring forces which balance the lateral forces (Figure 11b) deflecting a buckling plate (Figure 11a), are due
not only to longitudinal and transverse bending moments (Figure 11c), but also to transverse membrane forces
(Figure 11d). The restoring forces due to membrane action are zero, as long as the plate is flat, but they then increase
proportionately to the square of its lateral deflection. As a result, the compressive external load required for
equilibrium increases together with the lateral deformation and with the plate shortening u.
Figure 12a shows the radial component of the buckling pattern of a compressed cylinder at the bifurcation point.
Outward displacements of a curved surface cause tensile membrane forces, while inward displacements generate
compressive membrane forces. Figure 12b gives a more accurate picture of an inward buckle of very small
amplitude; it is seen that the original sign of the circumferential curvature of the shell wall is not reversed at the start
of buckling. The radial forces arising from the combination of the membrane forces with the curvature of the
deformed cylinder, which still has its initial sign, are shown in Figure 12c. These radial forces all tend to counteract
buckling. Hence the high resistance of a perfect cylinder to the initiation of buckling, given by Equation (2).
Increasing inward displacements cause the change of circumferential curvature to exceed the magnitude, 1/r, of the
original curvature of the cylinder, as shown in an exaggerated manner in Figure 12d, and more realistically in Figure
12e. In the region of the inward buckles, the wall of the cylinder is now curved inwards and, as a result, the
compressive membrane forces in these areas no longer resist the appearance of dents, but precipitate them (Figure
12f). Hence, the total restoring effect of the membrane forces has now weakened substantially compared with the
state prevailing at the bifurcation point. The upshot is that, once buckling has started, equilibrium is conceivable only
under decreasing axial load.
7. IMPERFECTION SENSITIVITY
The behaviour of actual imperfect components differs from the theoretical behaviour described above and is
represented by the dotted curves in Figure 9. They show that true bifurcation of equilibrium does not actually occur
in the case of real structural members. However, the solid lines provide an approximate picture - the smaller the
initial imperfections, the truer the picture is - of the behaviour of the component, and therein lies the significance of
the bifurcation buckling concept.
The dotted lines in Figures 9a and 9b, have been drawn for a column and a plate with slight initial curvature. It can
be seen that the carrying resistance of the strut is not much lower than the theoretical buckling load, provided that the
imperfection is not too great. One can conclude from Figure 9b that the equilibrium path of an imperfect plate may
not exhibit any discontinuity when the compressive stress increases beyond σcr, and also that the plate may possess a
considerable post-buckling strength reserve. If it is thin, this reserve may be considerably greater than the bifurcation
buckling load. Raising the stress beyond σcr for the perfect plate does not bring about immediate ultimate failure.
Both the column and the plate finally fail by yielding caused by excessive bending.
Owing to the imperfection of a real cylinder, the dotted equilibrium path does not display the very sharp high peak B
which is a feature of the theoretical equilibrium path OBDC. The culminating point G or H (Figure 9c) of the dotted
line, called a limit point, is at a much lower level than the bifurcation point, even when the amplitude of the initial
deviations from the perfect cylindrical shape is minute. The lower dotted curve is the equilibrium path for a cylinder
with somewhat larger imperfections. When the loading is due to weight and happens to correspond to the limit point,
the curve must jump horizontally from G or H towards the right hand branch of the curve. The concomitant
shortening, u, of the steel shell is so large, and due to buckles which are so deep, that normally part of the wall
material is strained into the plastic range and so the buckling phenomenon, in this case a snap-through or non-linear
collapse, is almost always catastrophic.
One should not infer from the description in the preceding paragraph that only imperfect structural components
display behaviour characterized by a limit point. Due to gradual changes in the geometry of a perfect structure, its
primary equilibrium path may be non-linear from the outset of loading and, indeed, feature a limit point.

ESDEP WG 8
As a summary two points can be established:
1. The real collapse stress, σuG or σuH (Figure 9c), is much lower than the theoretical critical stress, σcr, for the
perfect shell, even though the imperfections may be hardly perceptible.
2. Nominally identical shells collapse under markedly different loads because the unintentional actual
imperfections of such shells, as erected, are different in magnitude and in distribution, and because an
appreciable decrease in ultimate load may result from slightly larger imperfections.
A sweeping generalization to the effect that all shells are always very sensitive to deviations from the perfect shape
would be unwarranted. The imperfection sensitivity depends on the type of shell and loading. It may vary from slight
to extreme, even for the same kind of shell under different loading conditions. For example, the imperfection
sensitivity of cylindrical shells under uniform external pressure is quite low, whilst the same shells are highly
imperfection sensitive when they are compressed in the meridional direction. The difference relates to the buckling
mode; under axial load, the buckling modes are characterised by waves which, compared to the diameter, are short in
both the longitudinal and the circumferential direction. Small initial imperfections, which may occur anywhere on
the surface of the cylinder and which are likely to have roughly the same shape as some of the critical buckles, tend
to deepen under increasing load and to trigger off a snap-through at an early loading stage. The buckling pattern
under external pressure, however, consists of buckles which are long in the meridional direction, and less numerous
in the hoop direction, and therefore probably of considerably larger size than the principal initial dents and bulges.
Another factor that should be mentioned as contributing to the imperfection sensitivity of axially loaded cylinders is
the multiplicity of different buckling modes associated with the same bifurcation load. Any realistic theoretical
treatment of the buckling problem is complicated further by the existence of residual stresses due to cold or hot
forming and/or due to welding. Behaviour is also affected by the appearance of plastic deformations in the steel and,
in some cases, by the presence of stiffeners. The non-linear structural behaviour of the shell may be due to the latter,
as well as to changes in the geometry resulting from the deformation of the shell.
In conclusion, imperfections are the main cause of the large difference between the ultimate load obtained in tests
and the theoretical buckling load. A wide scatter of results for nominally identical shells can be seen in Figure 13a
where the ratio of experimental buckling loads, Fu, against the theoretical values, Fcr, for axially loaded cylinders are
given for different r/t ratios. Figure 13b gives the factors proposed by ECCS to reduce the theoretical buckling load
to values appropriate for design.

ESDEP WG 8

ESDEP WG 8
● Bending and stretching are the modes by which shell structures carry loads.
● For shell structures, in industrial applications, buckling may be the critical limit state due to slenderness
effects.
● Imperfections are the main cause of the very significant difference between the theoretical and the
experimental buckling load.
● There are fundamental differences in initial buckling behaviour between shells and plates.
● In practice, shell buckling analysis can be applied only to special structures which have been manufactured/
constructed using strict quality control procedures that minimise imperfections.
9. REFERENCES
[1] Timoshenko, S. and Woinowsky-Krieger, S., "Theory of Plates and Shells", McGraw-Hill, New York and
Kogakusha, Tokyo, 1959.
[2] Flügge, W., "Stresses in Shells", Springer-Verlag, New York, 1967.
[3] Bushnell, D., "Computerised Buckling Analysis of Shells", Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, Dordrecht, 1985.
[4] Timoshenko, S. and Gere, J.M., "Theory of Elastic Stability", McGraw-Hill, New York and Kogakusha, Tokyo,
1961.
[5] Esslinger, M. T., and Geier, B. M., "Buckling and Post Buckling Behaviour of Thin-Walled Circular Cylinders",
International Colloquium on Progress of Shell Structures in the last 10 years and its future development, Madrid,
1969.

ESDEP WG 8

1. Koiter, W.T., "Over de Stabilitteit van het Elastisch Evenwicht Diss.", Delft, H.J.Paris, Amsterdam, 1945.

ESDEP WG 8
ESDEP WG 8
PLATES AND SHELLS
Lecture 8.8: Design of Unstiffened Cylinders

OBJECTIVE/SCOPE
To describe the buckling behaviour of cylindrical shells subjected to two different types of external loading, axial
compression and external pressure, acting independently or in combination. To identify the key parameters
influencing behaviour and to present a design procedure, based on the European recommendations.
PREREQUISITES
None.
RELATED LECTURES
Lecture 8.7: Basic Analysis of Shell Structures
SUMMARY
The buckling behaviour of a cylindrical shell depends on several key parameters, such as geometry, material
characteristics, imperfections and residual stresses, boundary conditions and type of loading. A reliable and
economic procedure for the design of cylindrical shells against buckling should take into account all the above
parameters, clearly specifying the range over which the design predictions are valid. The lecture presents the
relevant design procedure contained in the ECCS Shell Buckling Recommendations [1] and briefly discusses
alternative methods and identifies the important differences.
1. INTRODUCTION
In Lectures 8.6 and Lecture 8.7 several aspects that influence the structural behaviour of shells have been
introduced and the main principles of shell theory have been presented. In particular, it is worth recalling the
following points:
i. The critical (bifurcation) buckling load of a perfect thin elastic cylinder under idealised loading, such as
uniform axial compression, may be calculated using classical methods.
ii. The boundary conditions affect the critical buckling load and, for the same shell and type of loading, certain
sets of boundary conditions can result in significantly lower buckling loads compared to those corresponding to
other sets.
iii. Geometric imperfections caused by manufacturing are the main cause of the significant differences between

ESDEP WG 8
critical buckling loads calculated using classical methods and experimental buckling loads. Even very small
imperfections can cause a substantial drop in the buckling load of the shell.
iv. The sensitivity to imperfection depends primarily on the type of shell and type of loading, and, to some extent,
on the boundary conditions. It may vary from moderate to extreme, even for the same shell geometry under
different loading or boundary conditions. For example, a cylinder under axial compression is extremely sensitive
to imperfections whilst the same shell under external pressure exhibits much lower imperfection sensitivity.
This lecture deals with the design of unstiffened cylinders. The buckling behaviour under two different types of
loading, axial compression and external pressure, is first described qualitatively. An appropriate design procedure
based on the ECCS Shell Buckling Recommendations [1] is then presented. The interaction behaviour for the two
types of loading is also discussed.
2. UNSTIFFENED CYLINDERS UNDER AXIAL COMPRESSION

General Considerations
When a cylindrical shell is subjected to uniform axial compression (Figure 1) buckling can occur in two possible
modes:
● Overall column buckling, if the l/r ratio is large. This type of buckling does not involve local deformation
of the cross-section and can be analysed using methods for columns, e.g. the Perry-Robertson formula. It
will not be examined further in this lecture.
● Shell buckling, which involves local deformation of the cross-section, and can, in general, be either:

ESDEP WG 8
axisymmetric, where the displacements are constant around any circumferential section, Figure 2(a), or
asymmetric (also called chessboard), where waves are formed in both axial and circumferential directions, Figure
2(b).

ESDEP WG 8
It can be shown theoretically that both modes of shell buckling correspond to the same critical buckling load.
Assuming simply-supported boundary conditions (w = 0 and mx = 0, see Figure 3) that also preclude tangential
displacements at both edges (v = 0) the critical elastic buckling stress, σcr, is given by:
σcr = (1)
where
E is the elastic modulus
t is the cylinder thickness
r is the cylinder radius
ν is Poisson's ratio
It is worth noting that the critical buckling stress is independent of the length of the cylinder.

ESDEP WG 8
Axisymmetric buckling is more often encountered in short and/or relatively thick cylinders. Asymmetric buckling
is more common in thin and/or relatively long cylinders.
If one of the cylinder ends is free (w ≠ 0) the critical buckling stress drops to 38% of that given by Equation (1).
If, however, the cylinder is clamped at both ends, rather than being simply supported, the increase in the critical
buckling stress is not that significant from a design point of view.
On the other hand, the cylinder is sensitive to the tangential displacement at the boundaries [2,3]. If it is not
prevented (v ≠ 0), the critical stress drops to about 50% of the value given by Equation (1).
Equation (1) cannot be used directly for design because cylindrical shells are extremely sensitive to imperfections
under axial compression. Imperfection sensitivity is taken into account in design codes by introducing a "knock-

ESDEP WG 8
down" factor, α, so that the product ασcr represents the buckling load of the imperfect shell. In addition plasticity
effects, which are important for a certain range of cylinder geometries, must be taken into account.
The "knock-down" factor is in general a function of shell geometry, loading conditions, initial imperfection
amplitude and other factors and is normally evaluated from comparison with experimental results. The "knock-
down" factor is selected so that a high percentage of experimental results (for example, 95%) should have
buckling loads higher than the corresponding loads predicted by the design method. Figure 4 shows a typical
distribution of test data for cylinders subjected to axial compression together with a typical design curve.
Due to the high sensitivity to imperfections, the design method should specify the maximum allowable level of
imperfections. These tolerances are related to the imperfection amplitudes measured in the tests used in
determining the appropriate "knock-down" factors. Clearly, the tolerances should not be so strict that they cannot
be achieved using normal manufacturing processes. It should be noted that the use of experimental databases
containing a large number of test specimens which are not representative of full-scale manufacturing, may lead to
erroneous "knock-down" factors.
Ideally, the design method should also enable a designer to evaluate the buckling load of a cylinder with

ESDEP WG 8
imperfections which exceed the allowable limits. Currently, very few design methods are valid for larger
imperfections and the importance of adhering to the stated tolerances cannot be over-emphasised.
The experimental databases used by various codes in estimating "knock-down" factors can vary substantially. It
is true to say that some design proposals are based on old, limited or inappropriate data. For this reason, design
predictions for the buckling load of nominally identical cylinder geometries can vary substantially. References
[4,5] present comparisons between various codes and attempt to explain the reasons for the observed differences.
The ECCS Design Procedure
The general philosophy adopted in the ECCS recommendations [1] is given in [6]. The design method for axially
compressed cylinders is presented below, together with some clarifying comments.
The proposed method is valid for cylinders that satisfy w = v = 0 at the supports, i.e. radial and tangential
displacements prevented, see Figure 3, and also for geometries that do not exceed the following geometric limit:
(2)
This limit is imposed to preclude the possibility of overall column buckling interacting with shell buckling.
The cylinder should also satisfy the imperfection tolerances. They should be checked anywhere on the surface of
the shell, using either a straight rod or a circular template, as shown schematically in Figure 5.

ESDEP WG 8
The length of the rod or template, lr, is related to the size of the potential buckles [1]. The allowable imperfection,
, is given by:
= 0,01 lr (3)
The strength requirement for cylinders under uniform axial compression is given by:
σd ≤ σu (4)
where σd is the applied axial compressive stress (characteristic load effect).
σu is the design value of the buckling stress (characteristic resistance).
Thus, the objective is to determine the value of σu, or, equivalently, the value of the ratio σu/fy, where fy is the
specified characteristic yield stress.
The proposed method is schematically shown in Figure 6, where σu/fy is plotted against a slenderness parameter,
λ. This parameter is defined as:
λ= (5)
where σcr is the elastic critical buckling stress of a perfect cylinder given by Equation (1)
α is the "knock-down" factor, which accounts for the detrimental effect of imperfections, residual stresses and
edge disturbances.

ESDEP WG 8
As can be seen from Figure 6, two regions are defined; the first, for which λ ≥ , defines the region of elastic
buckling, whereas λ ≤ defines the region of plastic buckling.
For λ ≥ or, equivalently, for ασcr ≤ 0,5fy (i.e. when the buckling stress of the imperfect shell is less than half
of the characteristic value of the yield stress), it is deemed that elastic buckling governs and the design curve is
given by
σu/fy = (1/γ) (1/λ2) (6a)
where 1/γ is an additional safety factor introduced for this type of geometry and loading to account for the
extreme sensitivity to imperfections and the unfavourable post-buckling behaviour; a value of 3/4 is
recommended for l/γ .
For λ ≤ (ασcr ≥ 0,5fy), material non-linearities also play a role (plastic buckling) and the design curve is
given by:

ESDEP WG 8
σu/fy = 1 - 0,4123 λ1,2 (6b)
The "knock-down" factor α, which appears in Equation (5), has been derived from comparisons with
experimental results and is determined from the following equations, which are plotted in Figure 7. These
equations are applicable if the amplitude of the imperfections anywhere on the shell is less than or equal to the
value given by Equation (3). It is worth pointing out the dependence of α on cylinder slenderness, r/t.
α= for r/t < 212 (7a)
α= for r/t > 212 (7b)

ESDEP WG 8
Details of the experimental database used in deriving these equations are presented in [7].
It is also worth noting in Figure 6 that σu/fy approaches unity for very stocky cylinders (λ close to 0) and,
furthermore, that there is a smooth transition from elastic to plastic buckling at the change-over of formulae, as
would be expected from a physical point of view.
If the maximum amplitude of the actual cylinder imperfections is twice the value given by Equation (3) then the
value of the "knock-down" factor given by Equations (7a) and (7b) is halved. When 0,01 lr ≤ ≤ 0,02 lr linear
interpolation between α and α/2 gives the required "knock-down" factor.
Although a slight, practically unavoidable unevenness of the supports of the cylinder is covered by the "knock-
down" factor α, care must be exercised to introduce the compressive forces uniformly into the cylinder and to
avoid edge disturbances. The design method does not cover cylinders loaded over part of their circumference, e.g.
a cylinder resting on a number of point supports.
Finally, the above procedure covers shell buckling design of cylinders satisfying the limit imposed by Equation
(2). However, very short cylinders fail by plate-type buckling which depends on the length of the cylinder, rather
than by shell buckling. In this case, meridional strips of the cylinder wall buckle like strips of a "wide" plate
under compression and do not exhibit the sensitivity to imperfections associated with shell-type behaviour.
In this case σu is given by:
For σE ≤ 0,5 fy (elastic buckling)
σu = σE (8a)
For σE ≥ 0,5 fy (plastic buckling)
σ u = fy (8b)
where σE is the elastic critical buckling stress of a "wide" plate of length l and thickness t, given by
σE = (9)
In general, for any particular geometry, both Equations (6) and (8) should be evaluated and the higher value taken
for σu. However, Equation (8) gives a value higher than Equation (6) only for very short cylinders. It is quite easy
to work out that for elastic buckling, i.e. comparing Equation (6a) and Equation (8a), this is true when

ESDEP WG 8
< (10)
3. UNSTIFFENED CYLINDERS UNDER EXTERNAL PRESSURE

General Considerations
External pressure may be applied either purely radially, as "external pressure loading" (Figure 8(a)), or it may be
applied all round the cylindrical shell, that is both radially and axially (Figure 8(b)) as "external hydrostatic
pressure loading".

ESDEP WG 8
For external lateral pressure, the hoop stress σθ , in the pre-buckling state away from the supports is related to the
applied pressure, p, by a simple expression:
σθ = (r/t) p (11)
In this case, the axial stress σx = 0.
For external hydrostatic pressure, the hoop stress is again given by Equation (11) but the axial stress σx = 0,5σθ .
In the latter case, the cylinder is, in fact, subjected to combined axial and pressure loading. This case will be
examined in Section 4, where the complete interaction behaviour is described.
Assuming classical simply supported conditions (v = w = 0 and nx = mx = 0, at the supports) and neglecting the
effect of boundary conditions on the pre-buckling state, it is possible to derive the elastic critical buckling
pressure of the cylinder. This is known as the von Mises critical pressure, pcr
pcr = (12)
As can be seen, pcr depends on shell geometry, and in particular the ratios l/r and t/r, the material characteristics,
E and ν, and the number of complete circumferential waves, n, forming at buckling. Thus, for a given geometry
and material, Equation (12) must be minimised with respect to n in order to obtain the lowest pcr.
Simpler expressions for pcr have also been developed, for example using the so-called Donnell equations for
"shallow" shells giving good results provided that the value of n minimising pcr is greater than two [3].
For reasons similar to those mentioned in Section 2, namely sensitivity to imperfections and plasticity effects, the
value obtained from Equation (12) is not directly suitable for design.
The sensitivity to imperfections of cylindrical shells under external pressure is not as severe as under axial
compression. This difference has been demonstrated both theoretically and experimentally and is reflected in the
"knock-down" factors used in design.
Despite the reduced imperfection sensitivity, considerable differences exist between various codes [5], possibly
due to the different theoretical approaches adopted (see also [4]).

ESDEP WG 8
The ECCS Design Procedure
The procedure described below applies only to uniform external pressure. Pressure due to wind loading is not
covered by this method. Furthermore, cylinders should be circular to within 0,5% of the radius measured from the
true centre. At least 24 equally spaced points around the circumference should be chosen in order to establish
whether the cylinder satisfies this out-of-roundness tolerance. Finally, the procedure is valid for cylinders having
the "classical" simple supports during buckling (i.e. nx = v = w = mx = 0) and does not apply to cylinders which
have one or two free edges.
The strength requirement is given by:
pd ≤ pu (13)
where pd is the applied uniform external pressure (characteristic load effect).
pu is the design pressure (characteristic resistance).
The first step consists of calculating the pressure py, at which the hoop stress at cylinder mid-length reaches the
yield stress. From Equation (11), it follows that
py = (t/r)fy (14)
Clearly, when pu = py the cylinder is so stocky that buckling plays no part in determining the design pressure.
Then, pcr, the elastic critical buckling pressure is calculated using a formula, which is a slight modification of the
von Mises equation (12), as discussed in [8]. The equation has the following form:
pcr = E (t/r) βmin (15)
where βmin is the minimum value of β with respect to n. The expression for β is given by
β=
+ (16)
A chart is also given in [1] which can be used in the evaluation of βmin. Furthermore, βmin may be approximately

ESDEP WG 8
estimated from
βmin = (17)
for l/r ≥ 0,5.
Having calculated py and pcr, an appropriate slenderness parameter is defined by
λ= (18)
If λ ≥ 1, elastic buckling takes place and the design pressure is determined from
pu/py = α/λ2 (19)
where α is the "knock-down" factor to account for the imperfection sensitivity.
From the results of about 700 tests, α = 0,5. Notice that, in contrast to the "knock-down" factor relevant to axial
compression, in this case, α is independent of shell slenderness, r/t.
In the plastic region, 0 ≤ λ ≤ 1, the value of pu/py is obtained from the curve shown in Figure 9.

ESDEP WG 8
This curve is closely approximated by the following expression:
pu/ py = 1/(1+λ2) (20)
4. UNSTIFFENED CYLINDERS UNDER AXIAL COMPRESSION AND

EXTERNAL PRESSURE
Buckling of unstiffened cylinders under combined loading is of considerable interest to designers. For example,
combined axial compression and lateral pressure is often encountered in offshore design practice.
The available design recommendations are mostly empirical. They are based on a much more limited number of
experiments compared to the number used for the two basic cases reviewed in Sections 2 and 3.

ESDEP WG 8
Buckling under combined axial and pressure loading can be quite sensitive to imperfections, especially in cases
where the loading is dominated by axial compression.
The ECCS recommendations [1], in common with some other codes, adopt a simple piece-wise linear interaction
based on the buckling strength under axial compression or external pressure acting alone. The cylinder must be
constrained so that v = w = 0 at both ends. Furthermore, the cylinder must comply with the imperfection
tolerances outlined in Sections 2 and 3.
The interaction curve is shown in Figure 10.
Any combination of σd/σu and pd/pu falling within the region defined by the two straight lines is safe. Thus, the
applied loads (σd, pd) should satisfy the following two conditions:
I: σd ≤ σu (21a)

ESDEP WG 8
II: ≤ 1 if σd ≤ (21b)
or
≤ 1 if σd > (21c)
Equation (21b) states that if the applied axial compression is less than or equal to that produced by applying
uniform hydrostatic pressure, then the design pressure corresponding to uniform external pressure may be
achieved. A reduction due to the simultaneous presence of axial compression is not deemed necessary. If
however, the axial compression is higher than this limiting value then the design strength is reduced linearly as
expressed by Equation (21c).
Experimental evidence has shown that this interaction diagram is conservative.
● The buckling behaviour of unstiffened cylinders under axial compression and external pressure has been
described and the key parameters have been identified.
● A good design procedure must consider:
⋅ the imperfection sensitivity, appropriate to the geometry, loading and boundary conditions and
hence, derive appropriate "knock-down" factors using reliable experimental data.
⋅ the limitations that must be imposed on allowable imperfections due to available experimental
data and the characteristics of the manufacturing processes.
⋅ the interaction between elastic buckling and yielding.
⋅ the effect of boundary conditions.
● The procedure proposed by the ECCS recommendations has been presented. The main steps for the two
single loading cases are similar and can be summarised as follows:
1. Determine the elastic critical buckling stress of the perfect shell.
2. Calculate the "knock-down" factor and, hence, the buckling stress of the imperfect shell.
3. Depending on shell slenderness, modify the value from step (2) to account for plastic buckling.
● The designer should be fully aware of the idealisations made in the design models and of their limitations
in respect of loading, boundary conditions and imperfections.
● In general, design recommendations are limited to shells of revolution only, having uniform thickness and

ESDEP WG 8
subjected to idealised loading distributions. In practical applications, various problems arise which are not
covered in any of the current design codes [6]. Much work remains to be done in this area and shell
designers should try to keep in touch with new developments.
6. REFERENCES
[1] ECCS - European Convention for Constructional Steelwork - Buckling of Steel Shells European
Recommendations, Fourth Edition, 1988.
[2] Timoshenko S P and Gere J M, Theory of Elastic Stability, McGraw-Hill, 1982.
[3] Brush D O and Almroth B O, Buckling of Bars, Plates and Shells, McGraw-Hill, 1975.
[4] Beedle L S, Stability of Metal Structures: A World View, Structural Stability Research Council, 1991.
[5] Ellinas C P, Supple W J and Walker A C, Buckling of Offshore Structures, Granada, 1984.
[6] Samuelson L A, "The ECCS Recommendations on Shell Stability; Design Philosophy and Practical
Applications", in "Buckling of Shell Structures, on Land, in the Sea and in the Air", J F Jullien (ed), Elsevier
Applied Science, 1991, pp. 261-264.
[7] Vandepitte D and Rathe J, "Buckling of Circular Cylindrical Shells under Axial Load in the Elastic-Plastic
Region", Der Stahlbau, Heft 12, 1980, S. 369-373.
[8] Kendrick, S B, "Collapse of stiffened cylinders under external pressure", Paper C190/72 in proc. Conf. on
Vessels under Buckling Conditions, Instn of Mech. Engrs., London, 1972.

ESDEP WG 8
ESDEP WG 8
PLATES AND SHELLS
Lecture 8.9: Design of Stringer-Stiffened

Cylindrical Shells
OBJECTIVE/SCOPE
To describe the buckling behaviour of stiffened shells and to analyse the different types of failure. A practical
design procedure, based on the European recommendations, for stringer stiffened cylinders subject to axial load is presented.
RELATED LECTURES
Lecture 8.7: Basic Analysis of Shell Structures
Lecture 8.8: Design of Unstiffened Cylinders
SUMMARY
The buckling behaviour of stiffened shell structures is presented and the different types of failure are discussed. The shell
has to be designed with respect to local shell buckling (limited to the shell panel between the stiffeners) and the stiffened
panel buckling (or bay instability) in which both the shell panel and the stringers participate. Buckling of the
stringers themselves must also be prevented. The design procedure relevant to this problem, as proposed by
ECCS recommendations [1], is presented.
1. INTRODUCTION
In Lectures 8.6 and Lecture 8.7 several aspects that influence the structural behaviour of shells have been introduced and
the main principles of the shell theory have been presented. In particular it has been shown how the buckling strength of
shell structures is influenced by residual stresses, geometric imperfections, and in some cases by the eccentricity of the
load and by the boundary conditions. For these reasons axially compressed cylindrical shells often fail at a buckling
strength considerably lower than the theoretical elastic value.
The buckling strength of cylindrical shells is often improved by the use of circumferential and/or longitudinal stiffeners.
Their size, spacing and position on the outside or inside of the cylinder surface are factors that complicate the
buckling behaviour of the shell.
In this lecture the general aspects of the buckling behaviour of stiffened shells are presented and, as an example of
the application of practical design procedures, the buckling behaviour of stringer stiffened axially compressed cylinders
is treated.
2. BUCKLING OF STIFFENED SHELLS

The shell may fail by overall buckling, by local buckling, or by a combination of the two. If the critical loads relevant to

ESDEP WG 8
the first two kinds of buckling differ from each other, there is no interaction and, of course, the dominant mode of failure is
the one relevant to the lowest buckling load. If the two phenomena occur at about the same load the interaction of the two
types of buckling can theoretically cause a considerable reduction of the critical load. The buckling modes interact because
of the non-linear relations governing post-buckling and cause a sharp drop in the post-buckling load bearing resistance [2,3].
In general, the design procedure of a stiffened shell (Figure 1) subjected to axial compression and bending must consider
the following types of failure:
● Overall column buckling or yielding (if L/r ratio is large).

● Local buckling between stiffeners (panel buckling) (Figure 2).
● Local buckling encompassing several stiffeners (stiffened panel buckling) (Figure 3).
● Local buckling of the individual stiffeners (Figure 4).
● Local yielding of the shell or of the stiffeners.

ESDEP WG 8

ESDEP WG 8

ESDEP WG 8
The longitudinal stiffeners (stringers), which may be placed on the outside of the shell wall or on the inside, are frequently
used to increase the axial or bending resistance of cylinders. In what follows the procedure proposed in the
ECCS Recommendations [1] for the case of a cylindrical shell with longitudinal stiffeners and subject to
meridional compression is examined. Ring stiffened or orthogonally stiffened shells are not treated here but the relevant
design recommendations are similar to those presented here for stringer stiffened shells and may be found in [1].
3. CYLINDRICAL SHELLS WITH LONGITUDINAL STIFFENERS

AND SUBJECTED TO MERIDIONAL COMPRESSION
In the ECCS design rules for a circular cylindrical shell with longitudinal stiffeners and subjected to axial compression and/
or bending, it is assumed that the stringers are distributed uniformly along the circumference of the cylinder (Figure 1).
The properties of the stiffeners are:
As is the cross-section area of the stiffener only
EIs is the bending stiffness of the stiffener only about the centroidal axis parallel to the cylinder wall
GCs is the torsional stiffness of the stiffener only
es is the distance between the shell midsurface and the stiffener centroid, (positive for an outside stiffener).
Cs may be evaluated by the formula for open sections consisting of flat strips

ESDEP WG 8
(1)
The following recommendations apply when
As < 2bt, Is < 15 bt3, GCs < 10bt3E/[12(1-ν2)] (2)
4. LIMITATION OF THE IMPERFECTIONS

The initial imperfections of the shell panel between the stiffeners must be limited. The limitations are similar to those stated
in Lecture 8.8 for unstiffened cylinders.
The inward and outward lack of straightness of the stiffener in the radial direction shall not exceed the following values:
≤ 0,0015 lg when ≥ 0,06 (3)
≤ 0,0015 lg and ≤ 0,01 lr when 0 ≤ ≤ 0,06 (4)
See (3) for details.
The limits given for also apply to the initial circumferential out-of-straightness which is the lateral misalignment of
the stiffeners attachment to the shell (Figure 5). Also the initial tilt of the stringer web and of the stringer flange (Figure 6)
shall be limited by:
(5)

ESDEP WG 8

ESDEP WG 8
5. STRENGTH CONDITIONS
The design value of the extreme meridional acting stress is obtained from:
(6)
where:
ts = t +
The shell must be designed with respect to local shell bucking (subscript l) which is limited to the shell panels between
the stringer (Figure 2), and stiffened panel buckling (Figure 3) or bay instability (subscript p) in which both the shell panel
and the stringers participate. Buckling of webs or flanges of the stiffeners themselves should be prevented by limiting the
ratio of certain stringer cross-section dimensions (Figure 4).
The value of the compressive stress causing local shell buckling is denoted by σul while the value of the stress relevant to
the stiffened panel buckling is denoted by σup. The design value σd of the highest meridional acting stress shall not exceed
any of the two buckling stresses
σd ≤ σul and σd ≤ σup (7)
6. LOCAL PANEL BUCKLING

The elastic critical stress, σcr, l, for a perfect shell panel between stringers may be taken equal to the higher of the two
critical stresses for
a perfect complete cylinder σcr, l, = 0,605E(t/r) [b/√(rt) > 2,44] (8)
a perfectly flat plate σcr, l = 3,6 E(t/b)2 [b/√(rt) ≤ 2,44] (9)
The use of Equation (9) implies the neglect of the torsional rigidity of the stringers and of the post-buckling reserve
of resistance of the supposedly flat panel.
The elastic local shell buckling stress, σul, for an imperfect panel is the higher of the stresses σul1 and σul2, provided
that neither 4σul1 /3 nor σul2 exceeds 0,5fy; σul1 and σul2 are the stresses σcr, l reduced to account for imperfections and, in
the case of cylindrical panel buckling, also for imperfection sensitivity. They are in fact the values determined from
Equations (8) and (9) reduced to (αl σcr, l / γ) by a factor αl and a partial safety factor γ, where αl accounts for
the imperfections and γ accounts for the imperfection sensitivity.
For a cylindrical panel, αl is given by Equation (13) of [1], halved if the imperfection is equal to 0,02 lr and obtained by

ESDEP WG 8
linear interpolation if is in the range between 0,01 lr and 0,02 lr, while γ is taken equal to 4/3.
For plane panels the following factors are assumed:
αl = 0,83 and γ = 1,0
Thus the following design values of the elastic shell buckling stress are obtained for an imperfect panel:
σul1 = ¾αo × 0,605E(t/r) (10)
σul2 = 0,83 x 3,6 E (t/b)2 (11)
When either 4σul1 /3 or σul2 exceeds 0,5 fy, plastic deformation comes into play and σul is the higher of the stresses σul1
and σul2 obtained from:
if 0,605 αo E > 0,5 fy (12)
if 0,83 x 3,6 E > 0,5 fy (13)
7. STIFFENED PANEL BUCKLING

The elastic critical stress for a perfect stiffened cylindrical shell is given by:
(14)
for n = 0 or n ≥ 4 and m ≥ 1
where ts is defined in Equation (6) and the quantities A11 to A33 are defined in the following way:
(15)

ESDEP WG 8
The half wave number in the longitudinal direction, m, and the full wave number in the circumferential direction, n, must
be chosen so that expression (14) is minimised. m and n are integers, but decimal values for m and n may be allowed in the
minimizing processes. n = 0 represents axisymmetric buckling. n = 1 represents column buckling. When n = 2 or 3 the
results of the minimization process may contain an error of the order of 20 to 25% on the unsafe side.
The critical stress resulting from Equation (14) is valid only if the stringers are spaced so closely that their number, ns,
fulfils the condition
ns ≥ 3,5 n (16)
Although comparisons with experiments have shown that Equation (14) yields safe results even for numbers ns well below the
limit of Equation (16), Equation (14) should be used with circumspection. Evaluation of the torsional stiffness, GCs, of
the stringers, which has a marked influence on σcr, p, is not always straightforward. Setting Cs = 0 in Equation (15),
indicates the effective width of the panel (Figure 7). This concept was introduced first within the theory of buckling of
plane panels (Lecture 8.1). The stress distribution in plan or curved panels becomes non-linear when the load exceeds
the buckling limit (Figure 7a). The most common way of considering the post-buckling strength is to substitute an
idealised stress distribution for the actual one such that the maximum stress and the average stress are conserved. See
for example Figure 7b where the maximum stress σmax is the same as in Figure 7a and the dashed areas have the
same resultant. In practice, the effective panel width, be, may be obtained, but not explicitly, from
1,9t√(Ε/fy) ≤ be = b√(αl σcr,l/σcr,p) ≤ b (17)
where αl σcr, l is the higher of the values 0,605 αo E(t/r) and 0,83x3,6E(t/b)2. Because in practical applications the stringers
are spaced rather closely, only the influence of local shell buckling and of yielding on the effective width is considered
in Equation (17).

ESDEP WG 8

ESDEP WG 8
The lower limit of the effective width (Equation 17) was originally proposed by von Karman. If b ≤ 1,9 t , be should
be set equal to b. When b>1,9t , σcr, p and be must be determined through the iterative procedure depicted in Figure
8 which can easily be implemented into a computer program. As a starting trial value of be take b, then the quantities A11
to A33 may be calculated, expression (14) minimized and, after the introduction of the tentative value σcr, p into Equation
(17), a new value of be may be obtained. The iteration process is stopped when successive values of be and σcr,p are
almost equal.
Example
Evaluate σcr, p for a mild steel cylinder having the following characteristics:
r/t = 1000
l/r = 1,6
ns = ns(min) outside flat bar stringer
E = 205000 Nmm-2 fy = 240 Nmm-2

ESDEP WG 8
As /(bt) = 0,5 hw /tw = 10
Applying the iterative procedure of Figure 8, which includes the effective width be according to Equation (17), yields
the minimum σcr, p = 202 Nmm-2 for m=1, n=11. The final effective width gives be = 0,4 b which, in this case, is von
Karman's lower bound of Equation (17).
An alternative procedure for determining σcr,p, which may be used when the stringers are flat bars, may be found in [1]. It
is based on charts and contains also a non-iterative method to evaluate σcr, p.
The results obtained so far are referred to the perfect panel. They must be corrected to include the effect of imperfections.
The stiffened panel buckling stress for an imperfect stiffened cylinder may be obtained from:
σup = αsp σcr, p (18)
where:
αsp = 0,65 when > 0,2
αsp = αo when < 0,06 and also when < 60
αsp may be obtained by linear interpolation in the intermediate range of provided that αsp σcr, p ≤ 0,5 fy. αo is
the knockdown factor for an unstiffened cylinder of radius r and thickness t (see Lecture 8.8).
As the stringer stiffeners decrease the imperfection sensitivity of meridionally compressed cylinders, the value αsp is
higher than αo when the stiffening effect is fairly substantial.
It has been shown [4] that external stiffeners make the shell more sensitive to the imperfections.
In the case of elastic-plastic buckling Equation (18) must be replaced by:
σup = fy {1 - 0,4123[fy /(αsp σcr, p)]0,6} if αsp σcr, p > 0,5 fy (19)
8. LOCAL BUCKLING OF STRINGERS

To prevent the local buckling of stringers (Figure 4), the ratios of the stringers cross-section dimensions shall be limited
as follows:
hw /tw ≤ 0,35 for flat bar stiffeners with tw ≅ t
hw /tw ≤ 1,1 and bf /tf ≤ 0,7 for flanged stiffeners.

ESDEP WG 8
● The buckling behaviour of stiffened shells has been examined and the different types of failure discussed.
● The design procedure must prevent:
a. local shell buckling (limited to the shell panel between the stiffeners)
b. stiffened panel buckling (in which the stiffeners and the panel participate)
c. bucking of the stiffeners themselves.
The procedure proposed by the ECCS [1] has been discussed in detail for stringer stiffened cylinders.
10. REFERENCES
[1] European Convention for Construction Steelwork: "Buckling of Steel Shells - European Recommendations",
Fourth Edition, ECCS, 1988.
[2] Samuelson, L. A., Vandepitte, D. and Paridaens, R., "The background to the ECCS recommendations for buckling
of stringer stiffened cylinders", Proc. of Int. Coll. on Buckling of Plate and Shell Structures, Ghent, pp 513-522, 1987.
[3] Ellinas, C. P. and Croll, J. G. A., "Experimental and theoretical correlations for elastic buckling of axially
compressed stringer stiffened cylinders", J Strain An., Vol. 18, pp 41-67, 1983.
[4] Hutchinson, J. W. and Amazigo, J. C., "Imperfection Sensitivity of Eccentrically Stiffened Cylindrical Shells", AIAA
J, Vol. 5, No. 3, pp. 392-401, 1967.

ESDEP WG 9
Lecture 9.1: Thin-Walled Members

and Sheeting
OBJECTIVE/SCOPE
To introduce cold-formed members, and to discuss their manufacture, applications and design.
PREREQUISITES
RELATED LECTURES
Lecture 4A.3: Practical Corrosion Protection for Buildings
Lecture 14.1.1: Single-Storey Buildings: Introduction and Primary Structure
SUMMARY
This lecture introduces cold-formed sections and members; it discusses methods of manufacture and applications and
shows how these sections have certain advantages over more conventional steelwork. The design methods generally
used are explained and advice is given on practical considerations.
1. INTRODUCTION TO THE DESIGN OF COLD- FORMED SECTIONS

Formerly the use of cold-formed thin-walled steel sections was mainly confined to products where weight saving was of
prime importance, e.g. in the aircraft, railway and motor industries. Simple types of cold-formed profiles (mainly similar
to hot-rolled shapes), as well as profiled sheeting, have also been used as non-structural elements in building for about
one hundred years.
Systematic research work, carried out over the past four decades, as well as improved manufacturing technology,
protection against corrosion, increased material strength and the availability of codes of practice for design, have led to
wider use of cold-formed sections within the building industry. In many countries cold-formed steel construction is the
fastest growing branch of the structural steel market.

1.1 Typical Products and Uses
Cold-formed sections are prismatic elements, of constant sheet thickness, formed by a sequence of plane sub-elements
and folds in order to perform specific load bearing functions for members and also sometimes a space-covering function
(see Figures 1-3).


A characteristic feature of cold-formed sections is that slender parts in compression are stiffened by folding
(intermediate and edge stiffeners), which delays or prevents premature buckling of the compressed zones. This
phenomenon is discussed in Section 2.

1.2 Applications
The types of products available for use in building structures are:
● linear members, mainly used in the higher range of thickness, as beams for comparatively low loads on small
spans (purlins and rails), as columns and vertical supports, and in trusses.
● plane load-bearing members in the lower range of thickness and with load-bearing resistance, are used in cases
where a space-covering function under moderate distributed loading is needed, e.g. floors, walls, roofs.
Cold-formed thin-walled building elements are, therefore, mainly used in low-rise and light industrial buildings with
small spans, where combination of cold-formed sections and profiled sheeting can be utilised to the best advantage.
Stressed skin design of profiled sheeting can also have applications in the more interesting field of space structures such
as folded plates or hyperbolic paraboloid shells.
1.3 Advantages
The use of cold-formed structural members offers many advantages over construction using more standard steel
elements;
● the shape of the section can be optimised to make the best use of the material.
● there is much scope for innovation (in practice this has proved to be very significant).
● cold-formed members combined with sheeting offer economic and reliable solutions which provide a space-
covering function and lateral restraint against buckling. Light-weight industrial buildings constructed form cold-
formed members and sheeting are an example of the combination of these two effects (Figure 4).

These advantages can, therefore, be generally classified as weight-saving, by optimization of the products with respect
to the load-bearing function and constructional demands; and functional performance in terms of space-covering ability.
1.4 Manufacture
Cold-formed sections can be manufactured either by folding (Figure 5), press braking (Figure 6), or cold rolling (Figure
7).



For small batches of building elements with lengths ≤ 6m (in exceptional cases ≤ 12m), it is normally advantageous to
use hydraulic folding or press-braking machines. The effort required to form the shape depends on the sheet thickness,
the ductility of the material and the shape of the section, which is limited by the strip width.
These manufacturing methods allow the sections to be shaped for optimum load- bearing resistance, intended purpose
and further product processing.
1.5 Materials
The type of steel used should be suitable for cold-forming and, if required, for galvanising. For cold-formed sections
and sheeting it is preferable to use cold-rolled continuously galvanized steel with yield stresses in the range of 280-320-
350N/mm2, and with a total elongation of at least 10% for a 12,5mm wide strip, referred to a gauge length lo =80mm,
and a ratio of ultimate tensile strength to yield stress of at least 1,1.
Under normal conditions, zinc protection Z275 (275g/m2) is sufficient; in more corrosive environments, improved
protection using suitable coating systems may be necessary. Continuously applied zinc protective coating systems are

generally limited in core thickness to about 3,5mm. For increased material thickness, hot-dip galvanizing and site- or
shop-applied top coats may be used.
1.6 Effects of Cold Forming
Cold-forming techniques allow the geometrical properties of a shape to be readily varied. It is possible, therefore, to
influence the load-bearing behaviour of the element with respect to strength, stiffness and failure modes by, for
example, the introduction of intermediate stiffeners or by ensuring adequate width-to-thickness ratios in adjacent flat
parts of the section.
As cold forming of the steel sheet involves work hardening effects, the yield stress, the ultimate strength and the
ductility are all locally influenced by an amount which depends on the bending radius, the thickness of the sheet, the
type of steel and the forming process. The average yield stress of the section then depends on the number of corners and
the width of the flat elements. The effect of cold forming on the yield stress is illustrated in Figure 8.
The average yield stress can be estimated by approximate expressions given in the appropriate codes. In the example,
the average yield stress ratio fya/fyb≈ 1,05 and the corner yield stress ratio fyc/fyb≈ 1,4.

During the cold-forming process varying stretching forces can also induce residual stresses, which can significantly
change the load-bearing resistance of a section. Favourable effects can be observed if residual stresses are induced in
parts of the section which act in compression and, at the same time, are susceptible to local buckling.
1.7 Connections
The development of lightweight construction requires the availability of adequate fastening techniques; suitable
fasteners are bolts with nuts, blind rivets, self-tapping screws, self-drilling screws and powder actuated fasteners (Figure
9); industrialized production spot welding and adhesives may also be used. In order to use fasteners in building
construction, it is necessary to be familiar with the behaviour of the connections and to lay down design criteria for
serviceability and stability. Comprehensive experimental and theoretical investigations form the basis of the analytical
evaluation of the load-bearing behaviour of the fasteners under static and dynamic loading. Figure 10 shows fields of
application and the appropriate failure modes.

Generally, failure modes causing sudden failure of connections should be avoided. Local over-stressing is indicated by
large deformations and should be reduced by load transmission to adjacent fasteners.
1.8 Codes
Extensive research and product development in the past has led to national design specifications for cold-formed
sections and structures in many countries. European Recommendations for the design of cold-formed sections have been
developed by the European Convention for Constructional Steelwork [1,2], and form the basis for Part 1.3 of Eurocode
3 "Cold-formed thin-gauge members and sheeting" [3].

2. CHARACTERISTIC BEHAVIOUR
2.1 General
Compared with conventional steel members, thin-walled structural elements are characterised by:
● relatively high width to thickness ratios.

● unstiffened or incompletely restrained parts of sections.
● singly symmetrical or unsymmetrical shapes.
● geometrical imperfections of the same order as or exceeding the thickness of the section.
● structural imperfections caused by the cold-forming process.
As a consequence, a number of factors must be considered when designing these elements:
● buckling within the range of large deflections.

● effects of local buckling on overall stability.
● combined torsional and flexural buckling.
● shear lag and curling effects.
● effects of varying residual stresses over the section.
Under increasing load, thin-walled structural elements are generally subject to varying non-linear distributions of stress
and strain over the cross-section, often in conjunction with substantial out-of-plane deflections. There is also the
possibility of different failure modes, particularly for sections with flat parts in compression which are unstiffened, i.e.
elastically restrained along one edge only.
The influence of stiffeners on the load-bearing resistance is illustrated in Figure 11, where the mass and nominal force at
failure of a hot-rolled profiled HEB240 is compared with different shapes of thin-walled elements. In addition, this
example shows the advantage of the space-covering function of thin-walled elements. Another example is given in
Figure 12, where the increase in moment resistance due to intermediate flange and web stiffeners is shown.


It is evident from the above discussion that an accurate analysis of the mode of action is usually extremely complicated,
especially when imperfections and plasticity have to be taken into consideration. For practical design there is a need for
simplified analytical models which allow an approximate but conservative estimate of the failure load and the behaviour
of the structure under service load to be made.
3. LOCAL BUCKLING AND THE EFFECTIVE WIDTH CONCEPT

As illustrated above, the effect of local buckling in the compression elements of a section often determines the
behaviour and load-bearing resistance. The theoretical solution to this problem, taking into account the post-buckling
strength, is not practical for design purposes, for which the effective width design model has been developed.
It is evident from the stress distribution of a simply supported plate strip under normal forces (see Figure 13a) that in the
post-buckling range the stresses are concentrated along the plate supports. Thus, the ultimate load can be determined
from a uniform stress distribution within an effective width bef, which depends on the critical buckling stress
(σcr=bifurcation stress) and the yield stress (fy) of the plate material. The expression for bef, given by Von Karman, has
been subsequently modified by Winter with provision for unintended geometrical imperfections (see Figure 13b).

The "Winter-Formula"

ρ=
implies that bef=0,78 bp, when σcr=fy.
Substituting σcr, the relative slenderness p is given by:
p= (1,052/√k )(bp/t)(√fy/E)
σ
and
ρ = (1/ p)(1 - 0,22/ p)
i.e. that ρ = 1,0 if p≤ 0,673.
If the buckling factor kσ for the bifurcation stress is known, the effective width bef can be calculated; for example,
bef=bp for a doubly supported plate element under constant normal stress with kσ =4, if bp/t ≤ 1,33 E/fy; or for a singly
supported plate element with kσ =0,43 if bp/t ≤ 0,42 E/fy. Assuming a yield stress fy=320N/mm2, the elements are fully
effective if bp/t ≤ 34 or bp/t ≤ 11 respectively.
Where appropriate these reduced effective widths should be taken into account by using the effective values of the
section properties, i.e. the effective area (Aef), section modulus (Wef), and moment of inertia (Ief). Appropriate kσ values
are given in [1].
3.1 Doubly and Singly Supported Elements
Elements of a section are either doubly supported (flanges or webs of trapezoidal sheeting) or singly supported (flanges
of U- or L-shaped profiles). Doubly supported elements are much stronger, especially when they also have low b/t
ratios; this can be achieved by longitudinal edge stiffeners, (lips, bends folds) and/or by intermediate V, U or trapezoidal
shaped stiffeners (see Figures 1, 2). These stiffeners, located in the compression zone, are subjected to normal forces
and, working as beam columns on elastic foundations, are prone to buckling. This behaviour gives the basis for a
simplified design model where the stiffener and adjacent parts of the flat elements are treated as beams on elastic
foundation, with a spring stiffness dependent on the boundary conditions of the element.
The buckling mode and load depend on the effective area and stiffness of the stiffener. If the stiffener has an adequate
stiffness, it may be treated as a rigid support for the adjacent flat element; codes of practice gives approximate criteria
for assessing this. Depending on the buckling load of the stiffener, an interaction of local and global buckling may
occur, as illustrated in Figure 14.

3.2 Effective Cross-sections
The first step when analyzing the load-bearing behaviour and estimating the failure load of a cold-formed member is to
evaluate the effective width of the compression elements of the section, based on the appropriate stress distribution over
the cross-section; the next step is to calculate the geometric properties of the effective section, taking into account the
shift of the neutral axis caused by disregarding the ineffective parts of the section. Thereafter the design procedure is the
same as for thick-walled sections. In general, the resistance of a thin-walled effective cross-section is limited by the
design yield stress at any part of the section, based on an elastic analysis. Deviations from this rule are only permitted in
special cases.
In the following, only basic design rules are used in order to explain the design procedure; the interaction of different
effects, causing biaxial stress distributions, follows the same principles as for hot-rolled members.
In general terms, the design resistance is based on the value fy/γM, where γM is a partial safety factor for resistance
(normally γM=1,1).

If the member does not buckle the moment resistance is given by:
RM = Weff.fy/γM
where Weff is the section modulus of the effective cross-section. In order to avoid an iterative procedure, the effective
portions of the web may be based on χ =σ2/σ1, obtained by assuming the compression flange to be reduced, but the web
being fully effective (see Figure 15).
When yielding first occurs on the tension side, the plastic reserves of the tension zone can be utilized until the
compression stress reaches fy. This will normally lead to iterative calculations.
If the same section is affected by a normal force acting at the centre of gravity of the cross-section, the effective section
has to be determined with respect to compressive stresses in each element. As illustrated in Figure 16, it may happen
that the centre of gravity of the effective section moves, causing an additional bending moment (M=Ne). This implies
that cross-sections, where the effective neutral axis has shifted, have to be checked for compression and bending.

3.3 Web Buckling and Crippling
Web buckling can be caused by compressive bending stresses or by shear stresses above the critical buckling strength.
In both cases, the buckling strength depends on the web slenderness (sw/t). For a yield stress of about fy=320N/mm2,
webs are prone to buckling if sw/t>80 for pure bending and sw/t>60 for pure shear. However, buckling does not
necessarily imply a limit state for the structure, if post-critical equilibrium can be relied on (Figure 17).

Crippling is a phenomenon associated with local loading of high intensity perpendicular to the plane of the web. It is
most evident in the case of concentrated loading (Figure 17) or at intermediate supports of continuous beams. It is often
more severe than web buckling, since crippling reduces the effective depth of a section and there is no post-critical
strength. Depending on the webs' eccentricity relative to the load direction, and on the category of loads (see below),
various values for web crippling resistance can be expected (Figure 18).
First category loads include end supports of beams, loads near the ends of a cantilever, and loads applied so close to a
support that the distance from the support to the nearest edge of the load, measured parallel to the beam axis, is less than
1,5sw.
Second category loads include intermediate supports and loads situated more than 1,5sw from a support or an end of a
cantilever.
It should be noted that expressions given in the codes are semi-empirical.

3.4 Lateral-torsional Buckling
Unbraced members in flexure are generally susceptible to lateral-torsional buckling; this type of failure is more likely if
the section is subjected to torsion due to the inclination of the main axis relative to the load direction, or if the shear
centre of the section is not on the loading axis.
In order to minimise these effects, varieties of Z- and C-sections have been developed (see Figures 19 and 20).

The susceptibility of thin-walled open sections to twisting and lateral-torsional buckling can effectively be neutralized
by restraints provided by adjacent building elements, for example, metal sheeting connected to the sections using self
drilling or self tapping screws.
In the case where Z-purlins are used for roof structures, the lower flange is normally free to rotate whereas the upper
flange is attached to the sheeting. The in-plane stiffness of the sheeting prevents a lateral displacement of the upper
flange and the distance between the fasteners and the edges of the section provides the lever arm for torsional restraint.
The rotational spring stiffness Cυ [Nm/rad] depends on the bending stiffness of the sheeting (Cυm), the distortion of the
section (Cυp) and the stiffness of the connection between the sheeting and the purlin (CυA); the last value must be
estimated by tests.
From 1/Cυ = 1/Cυm + 1/Cυp + 1/CυA
the effective value of Cυ can be derived.
The exact analytical solution of the problem of lateral buckling of continuous beams is too complicated for practical
use; however, the beam-on-elastic-foundation model can help to solve the problem.
3.5 Interaction of Local and Global Buckling
It is obvious that local buckling influences the load-bearing resistance of a section subjected to axial loading. Using the
effective width method, the reduced (effective) area Aef has to be taken into account when calculating the slenderness of
the column (lπ/ief).(Aef/Ag)1/2 and when determining the design resistance Nd=k Aef fy/γM. The buckling factor k is
taken from the relevant European buckling curves (a-d) for the appropriate value of . The classification of section
types shows that members without end stiffeners should be avoided since the load-bearing resistance is relatively low
(see also Lecture 9.2).

4. PRACTICAL CONSIDERATIONS
4.1 Good Practice Notes
As cold-formed sections are characterised by relatively low sheet thicknesses and/or high width thickness ratios account
must be taken of:
● local buckling which can occur in the serviceability state.

● special requirements regarding corrosion protection.
● protection against unacceptable deformations during transport and erection of the structure.
Members and structures should be designed so that:
● deformations in the serviceability state are within acceptable limits with regard to functional requirements.
● preferably symmetrical (double-, single- or point-symmetrical) section shapes are chosen.
● the effective area of the section is as close as possible to the gross area (this can be achieved by the addition of
intermediate stiffeners in flat parts of the section under compression).
● joints and connections have sufficient rigidity and rotation capacity.
● local instability phenomena are prevented by adequate stiffeners.
● global instability phenomena such as lateral buckling or increased stresses due to torsion of the section, can be
prevented by adequate external restraint (for example, by connecting to building elements such as sheeting or
bracing).
● essential load-bearing parts of the structure are protected against impact loads.
● corrosion due to poor detailing, e.g. detailing which allows accumulation of water, is avoided.
4.2 Influence of Joint Flexibility
If thin-walled members are connected to each other by mechanical fasteners, the rigidity of the joints is influenced by
slip and by local buckling effects in front of the fasteners - the latter may occur if bolts are used in order to transmit
relatively high forces; another possible problem is where the rigidity is reduced by large reductions in effective areas
within the joint. The flexibility of the joint may influence the distribution and redistribution of bending moments and
shear within the structure, and also the calculation of the load-bearing resistance. These effects must be properly
investigated - by testing if necessary.
● Cold-formed products are typically used in building construction as light duty beams or columns, or as sheeting.
● Their shape can be optimised to reduce weight and facilitate functional performance.
● They are manufactured by folding, press braking or cold rolling. All of these processes can result in an increase
in yield strength.
● Design of cold-formed sections uses the concepts of effective width, giving effective section properties.
● For beam design maximum moment of resistance, lateral-torsional buckling (if unrestrained), and web buckling
and crippling are the principles checks required.
6. REFERENCES
[1] European Convention for Constructional Steelwork: "European Recommendations for the Design of Light Gauge
Steel Members", Publication 49, ECCS, 1987.
[2] European Convention for Constructional Steelwork: "European Recommendations for the Design of Profiled
Sheeting", Publication 40, ECCS, 1983.

[3] Eurocode 3, Part 1.3: "Cold-formed Thin-gauge Members and Sheeting" CEN (in preparation).

ESDEP WG 9
Lecture 9.2: Design Procedures for

Columns
OBJECTIVE/SCOPE
To outline the design procedures required for cold-formed (thin-walled) columns.
PREREQUISITES
RELATED LECTURES
SUMMARY
The procedures for the design of thin-walled sections in compression are outlined [1, 2]. This involves the calculation of
the effective section properties, determination of related slenderness values, and calculation of the design buckling load.
For unsymmetric sections the effective section centroid will not be in the same position as that of the gross section.
Bending will also have to be considered.
1. INTRODUCTION
In the design of compression members, two phenomena must be distinguished: global buckling which depends on
the slenderness of the member, and local buckling which may occur if the b/t ratios of elements of the section are
relatively large. The latter occurs in cold-formed members at a loading level lower than the global buckling level. In such
a case, an interaction of local and global buckling gives a reduced global buckling load compared to that of a compact section.
The interaction can be simulated by replacing the cross-section with an effective section, taking into account the
stress redistribution at each element of the section (see Lecture 9.1). This method allows the calculation of the load-
bearing resistance of thin-walled members ("Class IV - sections") in the same way as for compact sections. Axial loading
may be assumed if the compressive force is acting at the centroid of the effective cross-section.

The design procedures outlined in Section 3, require the evaluation of the effective area and slenderness of the section,
taking into account such appropriate geometrical properties as b/t ratios, rounding of corners, stiffeners and lips.

Limits for b/t ratios
The design rules give limits for b/t ratios as shown in Figure 1. These maximum width-to-thickness ratios depend partly
on limited experimental evidence, and partly on experience from manufacturing and handling sections. Wide and
flexible elements are prone to mechanical damage; the effective area is small compared to the total area, and buckles at
service loads may be visible; some sections with high b/t ratios may, however, perform well and "design by testing"
is, therefore, also recommended.
Formulae for effective width
Elements of a section can be doubly supported (e.g. webs or flanges with adequate edge stiffeners); singly supported, e.
g. flanges of U- or L-profiles, or elastically supported, e.g. flanges with insufficiently stiff edge stiffeners. For doubly

and singly supported elements, the critical buckling stress fcr (bifurcation stress) under uniformly distributed normal stresses
or even stress gradients provides the basis for the effective-width concept of the Winter formula (see Lecture 9.1) with
the buckling factor kσ referred to the actual system and loading case. Appropriate kσ values can be obtained in the design codes.
Doubly supported elements
The effective width ratio of a compression element is as follows:
ρ = bef / bp (1)
with bef = effective width and bp = total width,
At the ultimate limit state (see Lecture 9.1):
ρ = (1 - 0,22/ p)/ p ≤1 (2)
and p = 1,052(bp/t) √(σ1/Ekσ) ≤ 0,673 (3)
For p = 0,673 this formula gives ρ = 1,0, i.e. the element is fully effective. Corresponding values of ρ and p are
illustrated in Figure 2. The effective width is allocated to both sides of the plate element for constant stress in the
subcritical state. If non-uniform stress distributions are present, the total effective width is divided into two parts (bef1 and
bef2), depending on the stress ratio ψ = σ2/σ1, with σ1 = fy as the maximum compressive stress and σ2 ≥ 0. In the area of
tensile stresses (bt), the section is always taken as fully effective (see Figure 3).


At the ultimate limit state, the compressive stress σ1 corresponds to the yield strength fy (σ1 = fy); at serviceability limit
state σ1 may be taken as equal to fy/1.5.
Singly supported elements
For singly supported elements similar solutions can be derived, using appropriate kσ values. In this case, however,
when calculating the effective width it is important to note whether the maximum compressive stress is located at the
supported or unsupported side of the element (Figure 3).
Validity of the effective width concept
Comparisons between test results and analytically derived buckling loads of C-shaped sections (Figure 4) and other
profiles with different element boundary conditions, have confirmed the practical validity of the design model. One
advantage of the effective width concept is that it allows relatively simple methods to be used; it also permits the effect of
the section geometry on load bearing resistance to be visualised. This effect can be seen from the values of effective
widths referred to different stress distributions and support conditions shown in Figure 3. A practical consequence is
that unsupported parts of elements subjected to compressive stresses are ineffective and should be avoided. Their
effectiveness can be easily increased by reinforcement of the section by edge stiffeners (lips, bends, folds) and/or
intermediate stiffeners. This effect is also qualitatively illustrated in Figure 3.

It can also be seen from Figure 5, which shows the load-bearing resistance of Z-shaped profiles with different types of
end stiffeners under bending moments and normal forces respectively, that even small changes of geometrical
properties provide increased load-bearing resistances.
Treatment of stiffeners and lips
An effective measure to increase the load-bearing resistance and stiffness of thin-walled sections, is to reduce the flat width
of elements of a section in compression by intermediate stiffeners, and to provide singly-supported flat parts with
edge stiffeners (bends or folds). If the stiffness of the stiffener itself is sufficiently high, it can act as a rigid support to
adjacent flat parts (see also Fig. 14 of Lecture 9.1). This means that no collapse of the stiffener, caused either by yielding
or instability of the stiffener itself, is allowed to occur before the supported element is itself at the ultimate state. Normally it
is impossible to provide such an amount of stiffness which means that an interaction between the adjacent element and
the stiffener has to be considered.
Since the analytical solution to the problem is very difficult and impractictical, an approximate solution has been
developed based on the component's physical behaviour. In Figure 6, three different buckling modes are illustrated,

which represent the following:
● a singly supported strip where a large wave length and free development of the buckling amplitude at the unstiffened side
of the strip are expected (Figure 6a).
● the local buckling mode of a doubly supported plate strip where the junction between the strip and the lip remains
straight, but where the lip follows the buckling mode (Figure 6b).
● an interaction between the buckling behaviour of the strip and the lip, resulting in a lateral-torsional buckling mode of the
lip and adjacent parts of the strip at a wave length which depends on the stiffness of the lip, the b/t ratio and the restraint
to the strip (Figure 6c).

This behaviour can be simulated by the "beam on elastic foundation" model in which the beam is represented by parts of the
lip and the strip, and the elastic foundation by a spring stiffness which represents the restraint to the strip.
Simplified design of stiffeners
Based on the physical behaviour described above, the design model requires the estimation of an effective section, and
the spring stiffness of the "foundation". Then, the ideal critical buckling load of the section (Ncr) and the reduced ultimate
load (Nu), depending on the relative slenderness, can be determined. The spring stiffness of an intermediate stiffener
mainly depends on the bp/t ratio of the compressed element and that of an edge stiffener (e.g lips or foldings) on the amount
of restraint at the opposite side of the strip. The determination of the spring stiffness is demonstrated in Figure 7.
The procedure for the determination of the load-bearing resistance of the compression flange of a Z section is illustrated
in Figure 8 where the steps are as follows:
Step 1 The spring stiffness CR = 1/fR is determined, taking into account the rotational stiffness at the support due to the
adjacent web.
Step 2 Determination of the effective width of the plate element and the lip respectively, assuming a hinged support at the
junction
⇒ ΣAef = bef,1.t + AR [= (bef,1 + Cef,1).t].

Step 3 Having calculated IR, the moment of inertia of the cross-section with area AR (referred to the axis a-a of AR), the
ideal buckling stress σki,R is given by:
σki,R = (2/AR) √(CR EIR)
representing the bifurcation stress of the beam on elastic foundation.
Step 4 Determination of the related slenderness = √(fy/σki,R) and evaluation of the reduction factor from a buckling
curve (normally curve b), which gives σk = κ.f and the load-bearing resistance of the "beam section" Nu,2 = κ.fy.AR.
Step 5 or, referred to the yield stress, Nu,2 = fy (κ .AR) which means that AR has to be reduced to a value of Aef,2 = κ .AR
(equivalent section).
If κ is substantially less than 1,0, an iterative process with at least two steps (6 and 7) can improve the load-bearing
resistance so that at the end of the iteration κ ≈ 1,0 and Nu,n = fy.Aef,*2. The total load-bearing resistance is then ΣNu = fy
(Aef,1 + Aef,*2).
The effect of an intermediate stiffener can be determined in a similar way. The validity of this model has been confirmed
by tests.

Other considerations
In preparing the design procedure, the enhancement of the yield strength caused by the cold-forming process (see Lecture
9.1), can be taken into account, bearing in mind that roundings of corners (radii) have to be considered in the evaluation
of section properties.
3. DESIGN OF AXIALLY LOADED COLUMNS

The design procedure for axially loaded thin-walled columns mainly follows the procedure for compact sections, that is:
choice of the buckling curve (a-c) with reference to the type of the section; calculation of the section properties (Ief,Aef) and
the slenderness (λ) of the columns; derivation of the related slenderness, f(λ, fy); and estimation of the buckling factor α
and the design buckling load Nd. For this procedure the following aspects must be considered:
Buckling curves and types of sections
Types of sections and related buckling curves (a-c), represented here by imperfection factors α = 0,21 - 0,34 - 0,49, are
shown in Figure 9. The more the section is prone to local buckling or to twisting the more the α-values increase and
the buckling reduction factors decrease. This fact underlines the need to consider in the design the actual type of loading
the section undergoes.

Buckling of symmetrical sections

The effective cross-section is calculated on the assumption of constant compressive stresses, acting on the gross cross-
section. For symmetrical sections the neutral axis of the effective section is identical with that of the gross cross- section
and the member has to be checked for pure compression forces only.
The procedure is then as follows:
● Determination of the necessary section properties (see Figure 10):
Ag, Aef, Q = Aef/Ag
Ief,ief = √(Ief/Aef), λ = L/ief referred to the appropriate axis (y,z)
● Determination of related slenderness values:
λ1 = √(E/fy)
λ/λ1 =
● Choice of buckling curve, depending on the type of section:
α-value according to Figure 9.
● Calculation of the curve parameter:
φ = 0,5[1 + α( - 0,2) + 2]
● Determination of the reduction factor:
κ = 1/{φ + [φ2 - 2]1/2} <1 (5)
● Determination of the design value for the buckling load:
NRd = κAeffy/γM (6)

Buckling of unsymmetrical sections
For unsymmetrical sections (see Figures 11 and 12), the neutral axis of the effective section (if Aef/Ag< 1) shifts with respect
to that of the gross cross-section. Since concentric compression is defined as the normal force acting at the centroid of
the effective section, this case will be only valid if the load is made concentric by constructional arrangements.

Normally the shift of the neutral axis will produce an additional bending moment, Mb = N.e, which has to be taken into
account in the same way as flexural buckling. The additional moment caused by an interaction of normal forces and
external bending moments. In general, all members subjected to combined bending and axial compression must satisfy

the following conditions:
(7)
where:
∆My, ∆Mz are the additional bending moments due to the shift of the neutral axis.
My, Mz are the nominal external bending moments according to first order theory.
MRd,y, MRd,z are the design bending moments referred to the effective cross section.
ky, kLT, kz are enhancement factors to cover second order effects.
Equation (7) covers the case of combined bending, and axial compression with lateral-torsion buckling if Md,y is the
design bending moment considering lateral- torsional buckling, and if kLT is the appropriate enhancement factor.
● The design of thin-walled members in compression must take into account the flexibility of such elements by means of an
effective width approach leading to a reduction of the total area used to calculate load resistance.
● The load-bearing resistance can be increased by the provision of lips and stiffeners.
● The design of axially loaded thin-walled columns takes into account the general form of the effective area of the section
(symmetric or non-symmetric).
● Symmetric sections are checked for pure compression but non-symmetric sections must be checked for axial compression
and bending moments.
5. REFERENCES
[1] European Convention for Constructional Steelwork: "European Recommendation for the Design of Light Gauge
[2] Eurocode 3, Part 1.3: "Cold-Formed Steel Sheeting and Members" CEN (in preparation).

ESDEP WG 9
Lecture 9.3 Design Procedures for Beams

OBJECTIVE/SCOPE
To present design methods for thin-walled flexural members.
PREREQUISITES:
Lecture 9.1: Thin-walled Members and Sheeting
Lecture 9.2: Design Procedures for Columns
RELATED LECTURES:
SUMMARY:
Design methods for thin-walled flexural members are presented which take into account the different kinds of buckling
acting in such members and also shear lag. In particular the design of purlins is discussed.
1. INTRODUCTION

Thin-walled flexural members are applied for carrying lateral loads such as gravity loads in roofs for example. Their
behaviour can be affected by local buckling, shear lag, web crippling, flange curling and lateral buckling.
The effect of local buckling is covered in design by effective widths of the cross-section based on the stress
distribution produced by bending moments and axial force.
For shear lag, web crippling and flange curling design rules are given in Eurocode 3, Part 1.3 [1].
Lateral-torsional buckling has to be evaluated similarly to hot-rolled sections taking the effective cross-section values
into account.
Thin-walled cold-formed flexural members have their most important application in wall and roof constructions as purlins.
The structural connection with the sheeting provides purlins with lateral and torsional restraints at one flange. This
connection gives the purlin high additional stiffness compared to that of a free purlin spanning from frame to frame. The
values of torsional restraints have to be measured by testing.
2.1 Resistance Moment MRd
The resistance moment MRd is the ultimate bending moment of a cross-section with pure bending.
2.1.1 Plastic resistance moment
If flexural members are not subjected to twisting or lateral-torsional buckling the resistance moment MRd may be
found utilizing plastic reserves. By iterative calculations the resistance moment MRd can be determined under the
following conditions:
● At the compression side the effective widths due to the given compressive stress distribution in the iteration step are
used. Under particular conditions the compression strain may reach a maximum strain higher than fy/E. Otherwise
the compression edge may only reach yield stress fy.
● At the tension side the full cross-section can be utilised. Plastic strain may occur. The tension strains are not limited.
Figure 1 shows an example: Plastic strains occur at the tension side beyond the elastic limit until the compression stresses
just reach yield stress, too.
2.1.2 MRd with respect to buckling
The resistance moment MRd which takes lateral or torsional buckling into account is calculated with the value kd from
the European buckling curves (parameter α). This value is a reduction factor for determination of MRd from the

plastic resistance moment fy . Weff due to the slenderness of the member. The formulae are given below:
2 =
LT
φLT = 0,5 . [1 + αd . ( LT - 0,2) + LT

2]
χLT = but ≤ 1,0
MRd = χLT . fy . Weff
2.2 Shear Lag
In wide flanges (b ≥ L/20) the normal stress distribution due to axial force and bending moment can be affected by
shear deformations (see Figure 2). Shear lag appears at locations with large shear stresses, for example at supports.
The effective area is calculated similarly to the effective widths due to local buckling by multiplying the gross area with
a reduction factor ψs. The final effective widths which take into account local bucking and shear lag are given by:
bef = ψs . ρ . bp


Singly supported elements have a further reduction of 15%. The reduction factor ψs may be taken from Figure 3 as
an approximation.

2.3 Flange Curling
Cross-sections with wide flanges or arched profiles subjected to flexure may show an effect which is called "flange
curling": The membrane stresses due to the bending moment have to be turned around the curvature of the element or of
the deformation which causes lateral loads. Hence the wide flange is bent additionally as shown in Figure 4 and
consequently the cross-section stiffness and modulus W decreases. The amplitude of this deformation may be estimated
using formulae in Eurocode 3 [1]. The cross-section properties are calculated now on the basis of the cross-section with
curved geometry due to flange curling.

Flange curling is a second order effect. In many cases, however, cross-section deformations similar to flange curling
occur already due to first order theory. This cross-section distortion may become much bigger than flange curling and
should be taken into account using an appropriate theory. For example cassettes without lateral supports at the free
flanges show this behaviour.
2.4 Lateral and Torsional Restraints
Lateral and torsional restraints may be given to the beam by the adjacent construction. These restraints are found mostly
when dealing with purlins which are directly connected to the sheeting of the roof. Figure 5 shows an example.


For the design of the beam these restraints may be idealised as a rigid lateral support and a torsional restraint cν at the
flange which is connected to the sheeting (Figure 6).

The stiffness cν has to be determined partly by testing, partly by calculation. cν is a serial combination of the stiffness
of sheeting and the local connection. The stiffness of the local connection can be determined with the test setup in Figure
7. Since the deformation δ involves the web bending, the flange deflection has to be reduced by the cross-section deformation.

3. DESIGN OF BEAMS
3.1 Design of Beams without Lateral-Torsional Buckling
Beams may be stressed by axial force and bending moments. If local buckling has to be considered, effective widths have to
be introduced in the cross-section. As a consequence the neutral axis determined on the basis of the gross cross-section
may shift (Figure 8). The additional bending moment ∆M=N . ∆e has to be considered.

Lateral-torsional bucking can be disregarded if torsion of the cross-section is prevented by the construction.
The design rule below adds separately the different stress resultants related to the yielding load under one stress resultant
only. If lateral displacements of the cross-section are not prevented the yielding axial force takes flexure buckling due to
both axes into account. The lower value has to be taken in the design rule:
where ky and kz are coefficients to take into account the interaction of bending and axial force.

For detailed information, see Eurocode 3 [1].
3.2 Design of Beams with Lateral-Torsional Buckling
The design rule for beams where lateral-torsional buckling is not prevented is very similar to the case in Section 3.1.
There are only two differences:
● The resistance moment MRd,y takes account of lateral-torsional buckling.

● The coefficient ky changes to kLt and so respects the interaction between bending and axial force in another form.
For detailed information, see Eurocode 3 [1].
3.3 Design for Torsion
If the load is applied eccentrically to the shear centre of a beam, torsional effects have to into account. Thin-walled open
cross-sections have very small stiffness in respect to torsion. Hence the load-bearing resistance is reduced substantially
by torsion so that torsional moment should be avoided in construction.
If there are torsional moments, the warping stresses in the cross-section have to be considered. (Warping stresses arise
as follows. Cross-sections with less than three axes of symmetry will generally deform out-of-the-plane under
torsional movements. Where these warping displacements are restrained in some way, a system of longitudinal
warping stresses will arise.) In design the superposition of stresses due to axial force, bending moments and torsional
moments must remain below the limit of yield stress. Additionally the superposition of shear stresses has to be proved. Figure
9 shows the effect of torsion on the stress distribution.


4. DESIGN OF PURLINS
4.1 Cross-Sections
Purlins represent the major application of cold-formed beams in construction. Several cross-section types have been
developed for purlins (Figure 10). The manufacturers' aims are:
● The cross-section shall have full effective widths in the compression zone. This aim is reached by stiffeners or limitation
of slenderness.
● Load application shall be as near as possible to the shear centre. For example, sigma-purlins have shear and gravity
centres close together and almost directly below the load application point (Figure 11).
● Purlins shall stack easily for transportation. Therefore flanges often have minute differences in widths. At overlaps
the connection of two purlins is easily made by taking the second purlin upside down.


4.2 Purlin Systems
Depending on the supporting construction there are single span purlin systems and multi-span systems. For the
continuously connected purlins two systems have been developed (Figure 12):
● In sleeve systems two purlins are connection by a short sleeve element with a fitting cross-section which overlaps both ends
of the two purlins.
● In overlap systems one of the purlins overlaps the end of the other purlin and the two purlins are connected directly web to web.


In both constructions the effect of slip in the screw connectors on the bending moment distribution of the continuous
system should be taken into account. Additionally the designer should pay particular attention to the yield load of the
screw connections.
4.3 Design Models
Since the behaviour of purlins is rather complicated different models have been developed for design. There are two
main deformation modes: Bending around the strong axis of the cross-section and torsion. For the calculation of torsion
effects and the stability of the free flange two types of design models exist (Figure 13):
● Models which consider the whole cross-section with lateral and torsional restraints and distortion: This model involves
the major deformation modes and the correct load factors for bending and torsion but it is necessary to determine
warping functions due to torsion.
● Models which consider only the free flange of the purlin as a beam on a lateral elastic foundation: The foundation parameter
is given by the torsional restraint of the upper flange and the cross-section distortion. This model is helpful but the
major difficulty with it is the definition of which part of the web belongs to the flange. The model is sensitive to this factor.

A model due to the second type has become part of Eurocode 3 Part 1.3 [1]. The stresses due to bending around the strong
axis and axial force are determined with the whole cross-section and effective widths. Additional stresses arise because
of bending of the free flange around the vertical axis. These stresses are calculated using the system shown in Figure 14.
The flange is embedded on elastic foundation K. The foundation modulus can be found using Figure 15. It depends on
the torsional restraint at the upper flange and the distortion of the cross-section.

The actual stresses are calculated with the following formulae:

Braced flange:
σx =
Free flange:
σx =
4.4 Stability Check
If the free flange of a purlin is under compression a stability check has to be performed. The free flange of single
spanned purlins is compressed in cases where there is wind suction only. The free flange of multispan purlins is compressed
in the midspan region in the case of windsuction, whereas the support region is compressed under gravity loads. Wind
suction is the more severe loading case in respect of stability.
For the stability check the code [1] proposes a w - rule: The stresses which cause instability are amplified by a w - value in
the superposition of stresses.
The w - value depends on the slenderness of the compressed free flange.
4.5 Design of Special Purlin Systems
4.5.1 Single span systems
Under gravity load without axial force the free flange of the purlin is under tension. Bending of the flange may be
disregarded. Design takes into account only bending stresses and support reactions. Deflections are checked.

Under uplift loads the whole free flange is compressed (Figure 16). Flange bending is taken into account and the stability has
to be checked.
4.5.2 Double span systems with continuous cross-sections

In continuous systems (no sleeve or overlap systems) plastic behaviour at the middle support may be taken into account for
the ultimate state. This means that with increasing load the bending moment over the support increases until it reaches
the moment resistance Mu of the cross-section (Figure 17). Increasing the load further leads to a redistribution of moments.
The moment rotation behaviour shows a decrease of moment at the support whereas the midspan moment increases because
of equilibrium. The limit state is reached when the midspan moment is equal to the moment resistance of the cross-section.

Stability has to be checked additionally.
4.5.3 Overlap and sleeve systems
The stiffness of the overlap or sleeve connection has to be found by testing. The moment distribution is calculated using
this stiffness. The stresses due to the moment distribution have to be within the stress limits. Particular consideration must
be given to end spans, which only benefit from continuity at one end.
Additionally stability of the compressed flanges must be checked and the deflections evaluated. The shear or support
failure can be checked by testing.
4.6 Further Aspects in Design
Additional to the cross-section check of the purlin some further aspects have to be considered:
● The sheeting of roofs or walls has to carry in-plane loads from the purlins. These in-plane loads have two components
(Figure 18):
- The first component is the component of the external load in the direction parallel to the sheeting. This
perpendicular component is carried by the purlin.
- The second component is the lateral force at the upper flange of purlins with unsymmetrical cross-section.

These forces in the plane of the sheeting have to be carried to the sag bars. Usually this is done using the cleats at
the connection of the purlin on the sag bar. The connection has to be checked for this condition.
● Failure at the support of the purlin has to be checked. One failure mode is web-crippling; another failure mode is shear
failure near to the support. Interactions between bending moments and support reactions have to be considered.
● Deflections should not exceed span/180 for serviceability.
4.7 Design by Testing
Testing is necessary to investigate the properties and behaviour of parts of the construction which cannot be
analysed theoretically with the necessary accuracy.
Guidance is given in Part 1.3 of Eurocode 3 [1] concerning the number of tests, and the test set-up.
In the design of purlins several aspects of the construction may be examined by testing:
● Torsional restraint of the purlin by the sheeting (see Section 2.4).

● Maximum moment resistance of the purlin and the moment rotation capacity after plastic hinges form. The maximum
bending moment resistance may be found also by calculation (yield stress multiplied by the section modulus of the
effective cross-section), but the moment rotation behaviour can be found only by testing.
● Failure at the support given by an interaction between bending moment and support reaction. In the support test, Figure 19, s
is made equal to the distance between points of zero moment.
● Stiffness of the overlapping or sleeved parts of multispan beams (evaluated also by a support test).

4.8 Some Practical Aspects
There are many constructional details in roof systems for connections of purlins between themselves or with the frames, for
the in-plane forces of the sheeting or for the prevention of lateral-torsional buckling. Brief comments are given below.
4.8.1 Connection of purlins to frames
In some constructions the purlins are fixed directly to the frame by screws. Other systems use cleats as shown in Figure
20. Cleats shall be designed for the vertical and horizontal forces according to the rules common for steel construction.

4.8.2 In-plane forces in sheeting
The in-plane forces in the sheeting have to be considered in the design. The forces have to be carried to the frames using
the cleats at the supports of the purlin or ties between them along the frame (Figure 21). Some roof constructions connect
the sheeting of one part of the roof at the ridge with the other part of the sheeting with opposite inclination. The purlins at
the ridge have then to be stiffened (Figure 22) and the screws have to be checked.


As an alternative to using the membrane action of the sheeting, metal strips can be used to hold the upper flange of the
purlins. These strips span over the whole roof. They have to be anchored to the frame.
4.8.3 Prevention of lateral-torsional buckling
If the torsional restraint of the purlin has too low a stiffness to prevent lateral- torsional bucking, additional elements have to
be added to the construction to hold the free flange of the purlin. There are two elements in use (Figure 23):

● Multilok ties carry tension forces only and stabilize the free flange. This element is usually used.
● Flexural members hold the purlin against twisting and carry compression forces too.
● The effective area of the cross-section is modified by reduction factors to take into account the effect of shear lag,
local buckling in compression, and flange curling.
● Eccentricity moments arising from displacement of the effective neutral axis from the nominal neutral axis must be
considered in design.
● Where the beam is adequately restrained, no account need be taken of lateral torsional buckling.
● Without adequate restraint, due account must be taken of lateral torsional buckling.
● Purlins represent a major application of cold-formed beams. Several special purlin systems have been developed.
● A particular feature of some purlin systems is the account taken of partial continuity from overlap and sleeve systems.
● Roof and wall systems using cold-formed beams have usually been developed as overall systems. The beams are only
fully effective within these systems with appropriate restraint from the other components.
6. REFERENCES
[1] Eurocode 3, Part 1.3: "Cold-Formed Steel Sheeting and Members" CEN (in preparation).

ESDEP WG 9
Lecture 9.4: Design Procedures for

Sheeting
OBJECTIVE/SCOPE
To introduce the different types of sheeting and to discuss test requirements and calculation methods for
trapezoidal sheeting.
PREREQUISITES
Lecture 9.1: Thin-Walled Members and Sheeting
Lecture 9.7: Application of Thin-Walled Construction
Worked Example 9.3: Trapezoidal Sheeting
RELATED LECTURES
SUMMARY
The lecture illustrates how the different types of sheeting are typically used in roof, floor and wall construction.
Product development is discussed and the reasons for "design by testing" explained. Calculation procedures for
design of trapezoidal sheeting are given involving checks on bending, shear, web crippling and bending/shear
interaction at internal supports.
1. INTRODUCTION - TYPES OF SHEETING

As discussed in Lecture 9.1, cold-formed sheeting can be developed not only to give adequate load bearing
resistance but also to satisfy the functional requirements of the design. This aspect is now considered in more
detail in relation to the common usage of cold-formed sheeting in roof, wall and floor structures.
Roof structures
Roof sheeting systems can be used for either "cold" or "warm" roofs as described below:
a) A "cold roof" has an outer waterproof skin with internal insulation if required (Figure 1). The main

requirement of preventing penetration by rain water leads to shallow profiles with a sequence of wide and narrow
flanges; sheets are fixed using fasteners applied to the crests of the corrugations or by means of clips (standing
seam profiles). The use of few points of fastening means that the forces at these points are relatively high; for
these types of profile spans are relatively small.

b) A "warm roof" (Figure 2) includes insulation and water proofing, and is built up using a load-bearing profile,
insulation (mineral wool or plastic foam), and an outer layer, e.g. metal skin, as mentioned above.

The load-bearing profiled sheeting in this type of roof normally has the wider flanges turned up in order to
provide sufficient support for the insulation. Fasteners are placed in the bottom of the relatively narrow troughs.
In this case, the tendency is towards longer spans, using more complex profiles provided with intermediate
stiffeners.
Wall structures (Figure 3)

Wall structures comprise an outer skin of "architectural" sheeting of relatively small span, and a substructure
which transmits the wind loading to the main building structure. The substructure can be a system of wall rails or
horizontal deep profiles (cassettes) with integrated insulation. Another solution combines the load-bearing and
protecting function in a "sandwich" panel built up by metal profiles of various shapes and a core of polyurethane.
Floor structures (Figure 4)

Floor structures have sheeting, e.g. trapezoidal sheeting or cassettes, as the load bearing part, either alone or in
composite action with other materials such as board or plywood decking or cast in-situ concrete. In the first case,
the composite action is provided by adhesives and mechanical fasteners, in the second by means of indentations
and/or special shear studs.
Since bending moment resistance is the main requirement, the profiles selected for flooring purposes are similar
to those for roof decking.
Design objectives
For trapezoidal sheeting with "normal" geometric properties of depth, width, stiffness and sheet thickness, design
based on analytical expressions is possible (see Worked Example 3). Testing is required for profiles outside the
defined range of geometrical properties and where composite action of other materials acting with the sheeting is
to be assessed.
2. DESIGN PROCEDURES
Because of the many types of sheeting available and the diverse functional requirements and loading conditions
that apply, design is generally based on experimental investigations (except for trapezoidal sheeting where
analytical methods can be used). This experimental approach is generally acceptable for mass produced products,
where optimization of the shape of the profiles is a competitive need.
During the 1960's, more and more countries established their own production of trapezoidal sheeting and export
of these products increased. As a consequence of increased competition and trade, product development quickly
led to new types of profiles with intermediate stiffeners, higher material strength and geometrical improvements
(see Figure 5). The developments all led to increase of load bearing resistance.

The product development, however, was based more on experience of the functional behaviour of the products
than on analytical methods. The initial "design by testing", and subsequent growing understanding of the
structural behaviour allowed analytical design methods to be developed; theoretical (semi-empirical) design

formulae were then created based on the evaluation of test results. This type of interaction of analytical and
experimental results occurs whenever special phenomena are responsible for uncertainties in the prediction of
design resistance (ultimate limit state) or deformations (serviceability limit state).
Thousands of tests - as described below - have been carried out and evaluated, and design formulae have been
developed which adequately predict the load bearing resistance of trapezoidal sheeting. However it is necessary
to restrict design values to a relatively low level so that the design load resistance is somewhat lower than the
actual resistance. This low level is necessary because a wide range of geometrical properties has to be covered by
the design rules and, depending on the geometrical shape, different types of failure can occur.
Calculation procedures for trapezoidal sheeting are described in Section 3 below:
Types of testing (Figure 6)

Testing may be required for optimization purposes or due to lack of appropriate analytical design methods; if
necessary, tests may be carried out to ascertain the following:
● bending resistance and bending stiffness, estimated by "single span beam tests".
● combined bending and shear or crippling resistance, estimated by either "intermediate support tests" or
"two-span beam test" (allowing for possible moment redistribution).
● shear resistance at the end support, estimated by "end support tests".
● resistance to concentrated loads both during and after erection, representing "walkability".
Normally tests are performed under both gravity, e.g. dead weight and snow load, and uplift loading, i.e. wind
suction; in addition, if the sheeting is unsymmetrical the loads are placed in two positions, depending on the
application. Practical support and loading conditions are taken into account, which implies, for example, that for
uplift loading the resistance of the fasteners and connections at the end and interior supports must be measured.
More detailed information is presented in Part 1.3 of Eurocode 3 [1].
The tests should simulate the real behaviour of the sheeting under practical conditions. It is important that the
testing equipment and the testing procedures are kept simple in order to achieve reliable and comparable results.
The rate of load application should usually be such that the stresses can be treated as quasi-static and be
approximately equal in a test series. Furthermore an adequate number of load steps should be used in building up
the load.
The load-bearing tests must be accompanied by standard tensile tests, using test specimens taken from the plane
parts of the profiles. The load-bearing test results are then corrected with respect to the actual values of the core
thickness (tf), yield strength (fyt) and the specified values (t, fy).
The corrected test result is derived from the actual test result as follows:
Rn = Rt(ff/fyt)α (t/tt)β
β = 1 for t ≥ tt
β = 2 for t < tt

α = 0 for fy ≥ fyt
α = 0,5 for fy < fyt if failure is caused by local buckling, otherwise α = 1
Using this procedure, the test results are transformed into values, with reference to nominal or specified values of
sheet thickness and yield strength.
3. CALCULATION PROCEDURES FOR TRAPEZOIDAL SHEETING

When designing sheeting the following checks should be carried out:
● bending resistance.
● shear resistance.
● concentrated load resistance (crippling resistance).
● interaction of bending and shear and/or crippling.
● stiffness of the sheeting.
Design formulae for the above have been developed using the notation given in Figure 7.

3.1 Calculation Procedures for Bending
Step 1: Check the section geometry complies with the appropriate limits, i.e. b/t ≤ 500, sw/t ≤ 500 (otherwise
design by testing)
Step 2: Check whether rounding of corners can be ignored, i.e. r/t ≤ 5, r/bp ≤ 0,15 (otherwise use the section
properties from Figure 8)
Step 3: Check the effect of flange curling (see 3.1.2)
Step 4: Check the effect of shear lag (see 3.1.3)
Step 5: Calculate the section values of the gross cross-section (Ag, Wg, Ig)

Step 6: Calculate the effect of intermediate stiffeners in flanges and webs (see 3.1.4)
Step 7: Calculate the section values of the effective cross-section (Aef, Wef, Ief) at ultimate limit state (for fy) and
serviceability limit state (for σc < fy)
Step 8: Determine the moment resistance Mc,Rd = fy. Wef. Plasticity in the tension zone, (see 3.1.5) may also be
taken into account. Determine the bending stiffness (Elef) at serviceability limit state.
The following sections 3.1.1 - 3.1.5 are only intended as an explanation; design formulae and procedures should
be taken from the codes.
3.1.1 Effective portions of the web
Normally it is assumed that the bending resistance (Mc,Rd) at the ultimate limit state can be calculated by
assuming the stress in the compression zone is at yield (see Figure 11a). The effective width bef of the
compression flange is calculated in the usual way. With a reduced compression flange (see Lecture 9.1), and the
web treated as fully effective, the depth ec to the approximate position of the neutral axis is calculated. The
effective portions of the compression zone of the web are then positioned as shown in Figure 7, having lengths
given by:
Sef,1 = 0,76 . t
Sef,2 = 1,5 Sef,1
where σc is the compressive stress at the flange level. The ultimate moment of resistance Mc may then be
calculated for the doubly reduced cross-section with ec and et referred to the approximate neutral axis.

3.1.2 Effect of flange curling
Due to the curvature of the sheeting, flanges of trapezoidal sheeting with high b/t ratios are prone to an inward
deflection towards the neutral plane, caused by a radial component of tensile or compressive bending stresses.
Normally this effect has only to be considered if the bp/t ratio is more than 250(sw/bp), where sw is the width of
the web and bp the width of the flange. Approximate formulae for calculating the effect of flange curling, which
in principle reduces the moment resistance, are given in the codes.
3.1.3 Effect of shear lag
Shear lag is associated with wide flanges with relatively short span lengths (L/bp ≤ 20). Owing to the action of in-
plane shear strain in the flanges, the longitudinal displacements in the parts of the flange remote from the webs
lag behind those nearer the webs. As the stress distributions, due to shear lag, have similarities to those of local
buckling, an effective width approach can be applied. Normally this phenomenon can be ignored for trapezoidal
sheeting. For other cases appropriate design rules are given in the codes.
3.1.4 Effect of intermediate stiffeners in flanges and webs
The design of profiles with stiffeners is not within the scope of this lecture, nor is it explicitly illustrated in Part
1.3 of Eurocode 3 [1]; such advanced profiles with intermediate stiffeners in flanges and/or webs are normally
developed by manufacturers who will supply load resistance information derived from testing programmes.
Intermediate stiffeners, as shown in Figure 9, can substantially increase the load-bearing resistance with respect
to bending, shear and crippling as well as the stiffness (see Lecture 9.1). The basic idea is to reduce the flange
width (b) and the web height (h) by means of supporting springs perpendicular to the plane elements (flanges and

webs), where the spring stiffness depends on the flexibility of the elements and their boundary conditions (see
Figure 10). The interaction of the elements, however, implies an iterative design procedure, resulting in increased
effective section properties, compared to those of plane elements without stiffeners.

3.1.5 Effect of plasticity in the tension zone
There are two cases of neutral axis position that should be considered:
If the neutral axis of the effective section is located closer to the compression flange than the tension flange, then
tensile yield will occur first and plasticity of the tension zone may generally be utilized. According to Figure 11b,
the equilibrium of a section under bending is given by:
Mp,Rd =Aef∫ ziσc.dA/ γM (1)
and the position of the neutral axis can be derived from the equation:
Aef∫ σ.dA = 0 (2)
If the neutral axis is located closer to the tension flange, then compression yielding occurs first. No plasticity is
permitted. Hence, for a linear stress distribution (Figure 11a) without plasticity and for max σc ≤ fy, Equation (1)
can be written as:
Mc,Rd = σc.Wef/γM (3)

where Wef is the section modulus of the effective cross-section.
Where plasticity in the tension zone of the effective cross-section occurs, the location of the neutral axis has to be
determined by an iterative process.
3.2 Calculation Procedures for Shear
The maximum shear stress in the web of trapezoidal sheeting is as follows:
● for compact sections, τw = fy/√3
● for webs prone to web buckling, the buckling stress τsp = f( w), where w is the related slenderness of
the web expressed as:
w = 0,346 (sw/t) √(fy/E) (4)
It may be assumed that the shear stresses are uniformly distributed along the web, so that the design shear
resistance along the web is given by the following:
Vw,Rd = τsp . sw . t/γM (5)
where:
τsp is taken from a buckling curve for w> 0,8, or if w ≤ 0,8, is equal to the maximum value of 0,58 fy.
Sw is the distance between the points of intersection of the system lines of the web and flanges.
t is the core thickness of the section.
If the web is provided with intermediate stiffeners, the design strength is increased.
3.3 Calculation Procedures for Web Crippling
This phenomenon, which is similar to that of shear buckling, is related to the stability of the web under
concentrated loading (see also Lecture 9.1). It is, however more severe with respect to the load-bearing resistance
of the sheeting since the post-critical bearing reserve is quickly exhausted if buckling occurs. This is especially
true if the concentrated loading is accompanied by shear and bending stresses, as is usually the case. Formulae for
the design resistance (Rd) are based on test results.
Among other parameters, the design resistance depends on the width of the sheeting support, i.e. the bearing
length on the substructure. One means of avoiding the web crippling effects is to provide the sheeting with
special support cleats, so that the support reaction is transmitted from the sheeting to the substructure by tension
forces instead of compression.
3.4 Calculation Procedures for the Interaction of Bending and Support Reactions

The load resistance of continuous sheeting greatly depends on its behaviour in the region of the intermediate
support (see also Section 3.5) where the maximum bending moment occurs; the design resistance in this area
must, therefore, also be checked. Interaction formulae which have been derived from a large number of test
results (see Figure 12), show that interaction need not be taken into account if the actual support reaction or
concentrated load is less than 25% of the design load; in this case the bending resistance can be fully utilized. In
practice, the load ratio will often be above this limit, requiring a reduction in the bending resistance, as follows:
(6)
where:
(7)
3.5 Calculation Procedures for Developing Moment Redistribution
Continuous beams of compact (thick-walled) sections may be designed, as a rule, according to plastic hinge
theory allowing moment redistribution by rotation of plastic hinges. For thin-walled sections with adequate

rotational capacity the same method can be used; as a rule, however, the plastic capacity is limited by buckling
phenomena and only part of the full plastic moment can be used for the moment redistribution. On the other
hand, the rotational capacity provided by the "buckling hinges" may be sufficient for a new equilibrium state of
the continuous beam to arise after buckling at the support has occurred (Figure 13). The moment redistribution
must be investigated by tests, in which the rotational capacity with respect to the geometrical properties can be
quantified.

3.6 Calculation Procedures for Estimation of the Bending Stiffness
Knowledge of the bending stiffness is important for calculating deflections at the serviceability limit state. As the
section properties depend on the effective area, which is a function of the actual stresses, it is necessary to relate
the moment of inertia to the appropriate stress level (σc < fy).
● Sheeting is typically used in roof (cold and warm), wall and floor construction.
● Product development, based on experience of functional behaviour, resulted initially in "design by testing"
rather than using analytical methods.
● Analytical methods were subsequently developed for trapezoidal sheeting which were based on
experimental data. These methods involve checking bending, shear, web crippling and the interaction of
these effects at internal supports.
5. REFERENCES
[1] Eurocode 3, Part 1.3: "Cold Formed Steel Sheeting and Members" CEN (in preparation).
1. European Convention for Constructional Steelwork, "European Recommendations for the Design of
Profiled Sheeting", Publication40, ECCS, 1984.
2. European Convention for Constructional Steelwork, "European Recommendations for Good Practice in
Steel Cladding and Roofing", Publication 34, ECCS, 1983.
3. Höglund, T., "Design of Trapezoidal Sheeting provided with Stiffeners in the Flanges and Webs",
Swedish Council for Building Research, Document D28: 1980.

ESDEP WG 9
Lecture 9.5 Stressed Skin Design

OBJECTIVES/SCOPE
To introduce the concept of stressed skin design and to discuss the practical applications of this method.
PREREQUISITES
RELATED LECTURES
Lecture 9.4: Design Procedures for Sheeting
Worked Example 9.1: Stressed Skin Design
SUMMARY
This lecture explains the contribution that panels of roofing, flooring and walls make to the resistance and stiffness
of frameworks by virtue of their resistance and stiffness in shear ("shear diaphragms"). Procedures and tables for the
calculation of the resistance and flexibility of diaphragms are given. The practical applications of stressed skin
design are also discussed.
NOTATION
a = length of diaphragm in a direction perpendicular to the corrugations (mm)
A = cross-section area of longitudinal edge member (mm2)
b = depth of diaphragm in a direction parallel to the corrugations (mm)
c = overall shear flexibility of a diaphragm (mm/kN)
d = pitch of corrugations (mm)
E = modulus of elasticity of steel (205 kN/mm2)

fy = yield strength of steel in sheeting (kN/mm2)
Fp = design shear resistance of individual sheet/purlin fastener (kN) (see Table1)
Fs = design shear resistance of individual seam fastener (kN) (see Table 1)
Fsc = design shear resistance of individual sheet/shear connector fastener (kN) (see Table 1)
h = height of profile (mm)
k = frame flexibility (mm/kN)
K = sheeting constant (see Tables 4 and 5)
l = width of corrugation crest (mm)
L = span of diaphragm between braced frames (mm)
n = number of panels in the length of the diaphragm assembly
nb = number of sheet lengths within depth of diaphragm
nf = number of sheet/purlin fasteners per sheet width
np = number of purlins (edge + intermediate)
ns = number of seam fasteners per side lap (excluding those which pass through both sheets and the supporting
purlin)
nsc = number of sheet/shear connector fasteners per end rafter
n1sc = number of sheet/shear connector fasteners per intermediate rafter
nsh = number of sheet widths per panel
p = pitch of sheet/purlin fasteners (mm)
q = distributed shear load on diaphragm (kN/mm)
sp = slip per sheet/purlin fastener per unit load (mm/kN) (see Table1)
ss = slip per seam fastener per unit load (mm/kN) (see Table1)
ssc = slip per sheet/shear connector fastener per unit load (mm/kN) (see Table1)

t = net sheet thickness, excluding galvanising and coating (mm)
V = applied shear force on diaphragm (kN)
V* = design shear resistance of diaphragm (kN)
Vcr = shear force on diaphragm to cause overall shear buckling (kN)
VR = resistance associated with a given failure mode or ultimate load (kN)
α1, α2, α3 = factors to allow for intermediate purlins (see Table 3)
α4 = factor to allow for number of sheet lengths.
For the case considered α4 = (1 + 0,3nb)
ß1,ß2 = factors to allow for the number of sheet/purlin fasteners per sheet width (see Table 2)
ß3 = distance between outermost fasteners across the sheet width divided by sheet width.
For sheeting (seam fasteners in the crests) ß3 =
For decking (seam fasteners in the troughs) ß3 = 1,0
∆ = midspan deflection of a panel assembly (mm)
υ = Poisson's ratio for steel (0,3)
1. INTRODUCTION - DESIGN PRINCIPLES
1.1 Diaphragm Action
It has long been recognised that a building framework is considerably strengthened and stiffened once the roof,
floors and walls have been added. Frame stresses and deflections calculated on the basis of the bare frame are
usually quite different from the real values. By taking the cladding into account, the actual behaviour of the building
can be predicted and usually worthwhile savings may be made in the costs of the frames.
The contribution that panels of roofing, flooring and side cladding make to the resistance and stiffness of
frameworks is by virtue of their resistance and stiffness in shear, i.e. the resistance of rectangular panels to being
deformed into parallelograms. Hence such panels are known as "shear diaphragms" or simply "diaphragms". In the
United States, the design method which takes this effect into account is called "diaphragm design" whereas in
Europe it is called "stressed skin design".
Profiled steel sheeting used as roof sheeting or decking, floor decking or side cladding, is very effective as a shear

diaphragm. Provided it is positively attached to the secondary members and main frames by mechanical fasteners or
welding, it is extremely reliable and predictable and may be confidently used as a structural component. Moreover, it
has been verified by many full scale tests and proven by practical experience of many buildings designed on this
basis.
The principles of stressed skin design may be illustrated with reference to flat- roofed or pitched-roof buildings. In a
flat-roofed building subjected to side load (Figure 1) each of the roof panels acts as a diaphragm taking load back to
the gable ends which are stiffened in their own planes by bracing or sheeting.
In a pitched-roof building (Figure 2) under vertical or side load, there is a component of load down the roof slope so
that the roof diaphragms tend to prevent the building from spreading or swaying. The flatter the roof pitch, the less
effective the diaphragms are in resisting vertical load, but the more effective they are in resisting horizontal load.

The sheeting in Figures 1 and 2 acts in the roof such that the roof behaves like a deep plate girder. Under in-plane
load, the end gables take the reactions, the sheeting acts as a web and takes the shear, and the edge members act as
flanges and take the axial tension and compression. In no case does the sheeting help the frames to resist bending out
of the plane of the sheeting.
1.2 Suitable Forms of Construction
If the frames of Figure 1 are pin-jointed, then the horizontal loads are resisted entirely by stressed skin action. In this
case the structure must be adequately braced during erection and the sheeting panels must not be removed without
proper consideration.
If the frames of Figure 1 have rigid joints, then the horizontal loads are shared between the frames and the
diaphragms. In this case it is good practice for the frames alone to be designed to carry the full characteristic load
without collapse, and for the completed stressed skin building to be designed to carry the full design load. The
diaphragms then effectively provide the required load factor.
Stressed skin design should be used predominantly in low-rise buildings where the roof and floors can behave as a
deep plate girder as shown in Figure 1. It should be noted that diaphragm action will always occur in a building,
whether or not it is taken into account in design.
1.3 Benefits, Conditions and Restrictions

Benefits
Some of the benefits of stressed skin design are as follows:
a. Calculated frame stresses and deflections are usually much less than in the bare frame.
b. Calculated and observed stresses and deflections agree, so the design is more realistic.
c. Bracing in the plane of the roof is eliminated or frame sizes are reduced.
d. Frame details are standardised.
e. The method is particularly effective where lateral loads act only on one or two frames, e.g. cross surge from light
overhead cranes.
f. By taking diaphragm action into account the actual forces on the cladding and fasteners can be calculated.
Conditions
In order for steel sheeting to act as a diaphragm the following conditions must be met:
a. End gables must be braced or sheeted.
b. Edge members must be provided to panels and these members and their connections must be designed to carry the
flange forces.
c. Sheeting must be fastened to members with positive connections such as self drilling screws, cartridge fired pins
or welding.
d. Seams between sheets must be fastened with positive connections.
e. Suitable structural connections must be provided to transmit diaphragm forces into the main framework.
f. It is recommended that the shear stress in the sheets be less than 25% of the ordinary bending stress in the sheets,
so that if the sheets are corroded they will fail in bending long before the stressed skin building is endangered.
g. It is recommended that roof light openings should be less than 3% of the relevant roof area unless detailed
calculations are made, in which case up to 15% may be allowed.
Restrictions
Buildings designed on stressed skin principles should normally be umbrella type structures rather than structures
which carry fixed loads. In order to ensure the safety of the building at all times, the following restrictions should be
placed on design:
a. Most of the load on the building should be applied via the sheeting itself, e.g. self weight, snow load, wind load.
b. If the sheeting is removed, most of the load will also be removed.

c. Sheeting should not be used for helping to resist other fixed loads, e.g.mechanical plant.
d. Sheeting must be regarded as a structural member and so must not be removed without proper consideration.
e. The calculations and drawings should clearly draw attention to the fact that the building is designed by stressed
skin methods.
1.4 Types of Diaphragm
Sheeting may span perpendicular to the length of the building (Figure 3) or parallel to the length of the building
(Figure 4). Whenever possible each panel of sheeting should be fastened on all four edge members since this gives
the greatest diaphragm resistance and stiffness. If all members are not at the same level, "shear connectors" as shown
in Figure 5 may be used to provide fastening on all four sides. If this is not possible, diaphragms may be fastened to
purlins on two edges only provided that the end panels are fastened on their third side to the end gables. If sheeting is
fastened only to the purlins, then the purlin/rafter connections at the intermediate rafters must be adequate to
introduce the loads at these rafters into the diaphragm.


The typical diaphragm panel shown in Figure 5 is for sheeting spanning perpendicular to the length of the building.
In calculating the shear resistance and flexibility of a panel, the design expressions refer to the direction parallel to
the corrugations. For sheeting spanning parallel to the length of the building, a modification to the design
expressions must be made. This modification is not considered in this lecture.
2. RESISTANCE OF SHEAR DIAPHRAGMS
2.1 Principles
For a typical panel attached on all four sides as in Figure 5, the diaphragm resistance VR in the direction of the load
V depends on the failure resistance of:
a. a line of seam fasteners
or
b. a line of shear connector fasteners.
These two failure modes, being ductile, are taken as the design criteria. Any other failure mode, being less ductile, is
required to have a considerably greater resistance than the lesser of the above calculated values. Such other modes
include failure at the sheet/purlin fasteners, failure of the sheeting due to shear buckling, end collapse of the sheeting
profile and failure of the edge members under tension or compression. Because of the low level of shear stress in the
sheeting, it is not normally necessary to take diaphragm action into account when designing sheeting for its primary

function in bending.
For a typical panel attached to purlins on two edges only (Figure 5 without the shear connectors) an additional
design criterion is the tearing resistance of the end sheet/purlin fasteners in the sheeting in an intermediate panel.
This case is not considered in this lecture.
It is not possible in one lecture to derive and explain the design expressions used, but see [1]; instead, the design
expressions are presented in this section, and a guide to their use is given in the worked example.
Important note: in the following expressions, design values are used throughout, so that there is no further need to
incorporate a material factor.
For a panel attached on all four sides, the expressions for diaphragm resistance are as follows:
Seam resistance
(1)
Shear connector fastener resistance (at end gables)
(2)
Shear connector fastener resistance (at internal rafters)
(3)
In an assembly of panels, Figure 6, V = ½ qa (n-1) so it can be determined whether case (2) or case (3) is more
critical. The design shear resistance of the diaphragm V* is then the lesser of the values given by case (1), case (2) or
case (3) above.

In order to avoid the possibility of failure in the sheet/purlin fasteners which may be subject to combined load under
wind uplift and shear, and to prying action by the sheeting, a 40% reserve of safety is allowed. It should be checked
that
0,6bFp / (p.α3) ≥ V* (4)
In order to avoid shear buckling of the sheeting, which is a sudden mode of failure, a 25% reserve of safety is
allowed. The design expression is given in [1].
In order to avoid gross distortion or collapse of the profile at the end of the sheeting, see [2] and [3], the following
limitations on shear force in a panel should be observed:
Every corrugation fastened: 0,9t1,5 b fy/d0,5 ≥ V* (5)
Alternate corrugations fastened: 0,3t1,5 b fy/d0,5 ≥ V* (6)
In order to avoid failure of the edge members and their connections, especially buckling of the compression flange, a

25% safety reserve is allowed. Referring to Figure 6, the maximum load in an edge member may be taken as (qL2.
α3)/8b.
3. FLEXIBILITY OF SHEAR DIAPHRAGMS
3.1 Principles
The shear flexibility of a diaphragm, e.g. the panel in Figure 5, is the shear deflection per unit shear load in a
direction parallel to the corrugations.
It is therefore the value in Figure 5, or more generally the value of c (mm/kN) shown in Figure 7.
The total shear flexibility of a panel of profiled steel sheeting is the sum of the separate component flexibilities due
to the following:
a. profile distortion (c1.1)
b. shear strain in the sheet (c1.2)
c. slip in the sheet/purlin fasteners (c2.1)
d. slip in the seam fasteners (c2.2)

e. slip in the sheet/shear connector fasteners (c2.3)
f. purlin/rafter connections (in the case of the sheet fastened to the purlins only)
g. axial strain in the longitudinal edge members (c3)
Generally, profile distortion (a) is the largest component flexibility and it is influenced greatly by the sheet thickness,
size of profile and especially whether the sheeting is fastened in every corrugation or alternate corrugations. The
latter case is much more flexible than the former. Slip in the seam fasteners (d) is often an important component
flexibility.
The design expressions for the various component flexibilities of a panel attached on all four sides are given below.
The derivations are given in [1] and a guide to their use is given in the Worked Example 9.1.
a. profile distortion c1.1 = (ad2,5 α1α4K)/(Et2,5 b2) (7)
b. shear strain c1.2 = {2a α2(1 + ν)[1 + 2h/d]}/Etb (8)
c. sheet/purlin fasteners c2.1 = (2 asp p α3)/b2 (9)
d. seam fasteners c2.2 = (10)
e. shear connector fasteners c2.3 = (11)
f. axial strain c3 = (n2 a3 α3)/(4,8 EAb2) (12)
Notes The sheeting constant K can take the value K1 for sheeting fastened in every corrugation (Table 4) or K2 for
sheeting fastened in alternate corrugations (Table 5).
The sum of the component shear flexibilities gives the total shear flexibility c of the panel. The midspan deflection
of the typical panel assembly, shown in Figure 6, is given by ∆ = (n2/8) c (qa).
4. APPLICATION OF STRESSED SKIN DESIGN
4.1 Shear Diaphragms Alone
If the frames of the flat roofed building in Figure 1 are pinjointed, the roof diaphragm carries all the side loads. The
arrangement is as shown in Figure 6. The design criterion for resistance is the end panel, and the design criterion for
flexibility is the deflection at midspan. Both of these values must be checked as shown in the Worked Example 9.1.

4.2 Shear Diaphragms with Rigid Frames
If the frames of Figure 1 are rigid jointed, the frame flexibility may be defined by k mm/kN as shown in Figure 8.
The relative flexibility of the diaphragms to the frames is given by ψ = c/k and the distribution of load between the
diaphragms and the frames may be shown to depend on ψ, on the number of panels in the length of the building, and
on the position of the frame in the building. Table 6 gives the reductions to be applied to the sidesway moments for a
small range of values of ψ. The application of this table is shown in the Worked Example 9.1.
4.3 Complex Diaphragms
In schools, libraries and similar buildings the flat roof may consist of a number of diaphragms in different directions
and at different levels (Figure 9). Each diaphragm must be braced in the end frames, or if one end cannot be braced
(a "cantilever" diaphragm) the other three sides must be braced to prevent body rotation of the roof.

This method of construction has been used in many buildings and it eliminates the need for horizontal bracing in the
roof.
4.4 Openings in Diaphragms
If a roof has roof lights, particularly if they are in a continuous line, this has the effect of weakening the diaphragm
and making it more flexible. Generally, openings should be avoided if possible in the end panels where the shear is
greatest. If openings are small and staggered, it is recommended that openings up to 3% of the panel area may be
permitted without special calculation. Above this amount, openings up to 15% of the panel area may be allowed if

calculations are made for the effect as given in [1].
4.5 Diaphragm Bracing
In addition to resisting side load on a building, roof and floor diaphragms may be used to provide horizontal bracing
for loads on the end gable of a building, lateral support to the main beams or trusses, and bracing to the eaves of a
building. In such cases it is generally only necessary to carry out the calculation for diaphragm resistance and not for
diaphragm flexibility.
End gable bracing
Load on the end gable, as shown in Figure 10, is usually considered to be taken on the depth of two diaphragms.
Vertical bracing must be provided in the side walls. For the case shown, the maximum shear per unit depth in the
diaphragms occurs at the ends and is equal to kN/mm. If the decking is fastened on all four sides, this shear
flow is equal in the x and y directions and the fasteners throughout should be checked to ensure that they are
adequate to take this shear.
Lateral bracing to beams
If the decking is supported by main beams or trusses, then the decking may be considered to give lateral support as
shown in Figure 11. If the force in the compression flange of the beam is P, then codes of practice specify that the
lateral force to be resisted is some 3% times P, distributed along the length of the beam. For a diaphragm of depth b,
the maximum shear per unit depth is , acting in the x and y directions and the fasteners should be checked
to ensure that they can take this shear.

It should be noted that if the same sheeting is required to provide bracing to both the gables and the main beams,
then the fasteners should be adequate to take the sum of the shears.
Eaves bracing
In pitched roof frames, the bottom two purlins are sometimes cross-braced together in order to provide resistance to
any horizontal eaves forces between the frames. This function can easily be performed by the sheeting acting as a
diaphragm between the bottom one or two purlin spacings.
4.6 Simplified Design Method
For common sheeting and decking profiles, fixed in accordance with normal practice, simplified design tables have
been calculated by computer for a wide range of diaphragm sizes. These design tables, given in [1], give the shear
resistance and deflection of the diaphragms. Although they represent standard diaphragms, the results may be
sufficiently accurate for particular cases.
● Stressed skin structures use the cladding to resist lateral load by diaphragm action.
● Stressed skin design is used predominantly in low-rise buildings where the roof and floors behave as deep
plate girders.
● For profiled steel sheeting, attached on all 4 sides, the diaphragm resistance depends on the failure strength of
a line of seam fasteners or of a line of shear connector fasteners.
● Stressed skin design can be used as the sole horizontal bracing element or in conjunction with rigid frames.
Holes in the diaphragm are permitted without justifying calculations, as long as they are small, staggered and
less than 3% of the panel area.
6. REFERENCES

[1] Davies J.M. and Bryan E.R. "Manual of Stressed Skin Diaphragm Design" Granada Publishing Ltd, London
1982.
[2] Davies J.M. and Fisher J. "End Failures in Stressed Skin Diaphragms" Proceedings Institution of Civil Engineers,
Part 2, March 1987.
[3] European Convention for Constructional Steelwork. "European Recommendations for the Stressed Skin Design
of Steel Structures," Publication 19, ECCS, 1978.
1. Davies, J. M. "A General Solution for the Shear Flexibility of Profiled Sheets. I: Development and
verification of the method. II: Applications of the method". Thin Walled Structures, Vol. 4, 1986 pp 41-68
and 151-161.
2. Maass G. "Stahltrapezprofile: Konstruktion und Berechnung Werner-Verlag GmbH, Düsseldorf 1985.
3. Baehre R. und Wolfram R. "Zur Schubfeldberechnung von Trapezprofilen" Stahlbau 6, 1986.
(1) Sheet/purlin and sheet/shear connector fasteners
Washer Overall Design resistance Slip

type diameter kN per mm
thickness of sheet mm/kN
mm
Screws Steel 6,3 6,0 0,15
5,5 5,0
Neoprene 6,3 5,0 0,35
5,5 4,0
Fired Pins 3,7 - 4,5 5,0 0,10
(2) Seam fasteners (no washers)
Overall Design Slip

diameter resistance
kN per mm/
mm mm kN
thickness
of sheet
Screws 4,1 - 4,8 2,5 0,25

Steel or 4,8 2,8 0,30

Monel
blind
rivets
Table 1 Resistance and slip values of fasteners
Total number Factor β1 Factor

of fasteners β2
per sheet
width
nf Case 1 - Case 2 -
Sheeting Decking
2 0,13 1,0 1,0
3 0,30 1,0 1,0
4 0,44 1,04 1,11
5 0,58 1,13 1,25
6 0,71 1,22 1,40
7 0,84 1,33 1,56
Table 2 Factors to allow for the number of sheet/purlin fasteners per sheet width
Total Correction factors

number
of
purlins
per
panel
(or per
sheet
length
for α1)
np α1 α2 α3

2 1 1 1
3 1 1 1
4 0,85 0,75 0,90
5 0,70 0,67 0,80
6 0,60 0,55 0,71
7 0,60 0,50 0,64
8 0,60 0,44 0,58
9 0,60 0,40 0,53
10 0,60 0,36 0,49
Table 3 Factors to allow for the effect of intermediate purlins
l/d 0,1 0,2 0,3 0,4 0,5 0,6 0,7 0,8 0,9
h/d
θ = 15° 0,1 0,017 0,031 0,040 0,041 0,041 0,047 0,066 0,115 0,241
0,2 0,062 0,102 0,118 0,115 0,113 0,134 0,209 0,403
0,3 0,139 0,202 0,218 0,204 0,200 0,254 0,440 0,945
0,4 0,244 0,321 0,325 0,293 0,294 0,414 0,796
0,5 0,370 0,448 0,426 0,371 0,396 0,636 1,329
0,6 0,508 0,568 0,508 0,434 0,513 0,941
θ = 20° 0,1 0,018 0,032 0,039 0,039 0,039 0,046 0,066 0,111 0,276
0,2 0,068 0,101 0,111 0,106 0,104 0,131 0,221 0,452
0,3 0,148 0,193 0,194 0,174 0,177 0,255 0,492
0,4 0,249 0,289 0,267 0,230 0,259 0,444 0,431
0,5 0,356 0,372 0,315 0,270 0,364 0,725 0,931
0,6 0,448 0,420 0,326 0,303 0,512

θ = 25° 0,1 0,019 0,032 0,038 0,038 0,038 0,045 0,068 0,126 0,313
0,2 0,072 0,099 0,103 0,095 0,095 0,129 0,236 0,513
0,3 0,151 0,178 0,166 0,144 0,160 0,268 0,557
0,4 0,238 0,244 0,204 0,176 0,247 0,494
0,5 0,306 0,272 0,203 0,204 0,376
0,6 0,333 0,248 0,172 0,241
θ = 30° 0,1 0,020 0,032 0,037 0,036 0,036 0,044 0,070 0,133
0,2 0,075 0,095 0,094 0,084 0,087 0,132 0,256
0,3 0,148 0,157 0,135 0,116 0,152 0,291
0,4 0,208 0,186 0,139 0,139 0,253
0,5 0,226 0,161 0,112 0,176
0,6 0,180 0,089 0,093
Table 4 Sample values of K1 for fasteners in every trough (15° £ q £ 30° )
l/d 0.1 0,2 0,3 0,4 0,5 0,6 0,7 0,8 0,9
h/d
θ= 0,1 0,093 0,142 0,188 0,231 0,271 0,313 0,364 0,448 0,682
15°
0,2 0,325 0,458 0,586 0,707 0,824 0,953 1,140 1,523
0,3 0,703 0,942 1,174 1,393 1,610 1,874 2,316 3,411
0,4 1,237 1,602 1,953 2,285 2,624 3,089 3,981
0,5 1,937 2,443 2,926 3,379 3,869 4,640 6,256
0,6 2,778 3,428 4,058 4,664 5,366 6,581
θ= 0,1 0,096 0,144 0,190 0,232 0,273 0,315 0,368 0,459 0,680
20°
0,2 0,339 0,472 0,597 0,716 0,832 0,966 1,177 1,659
0,3 0,743 0,978 1,204 1,416 1,633 1,927 2,481
0,4 1,317 1,673 2,009 2,325 2,679 3,246 3,840
0,5 2,075 2,559 3,011 3,436 3,993 4,969
0,6 3,006 3,625 4,194 4,752 5,588

θ= 0,1 0,098 0,147 0,192 0,234 0,274 0,317 0,373 0,475 0,665
25°
0,2 0,355 0,485 0,609 0,725 0,840 0,983 1,226 1,566
0,3 0,784 1,015 1,233 1,437 1,660 2,000 2,589
0,4 1,398 1,740 2,057 2,359 2,753 3,427
0,5 2,205 2,659 3,064 3,490 4,114
0,6 3,199 3,752 4,218 4,797
θ= 0,1 0,101 0,150 0,194 0,236 0,276 0,319 0,378 0,495

30°
0,2 0,372 0,500 0,621 0,734 0,850 1,005 1,298
0,3 0,827 1,051 1,260 1,456 1,697 2,098
0,4 1,477 1,801 2,092 2,393 2,830
0,5 2,319 2,727 3,075 3,499
0,6 3,320 3,738 4,041
Table 5 Sample values of K2 for fasteners in alternate troughs (15° £ q £ 30° )
No, of Frame VALUES OF RELATIVE FLEXIBILITY ψ

frames number
in
building 0,25 0,30 0,35 0,40 0,45 0,50 0,60 0,70 0,80 0,90 1,00 1,50
3 2 0,111 0,130 0,149 0,167 0,184 0,200 0,231 0,259 0,286 0,310 0,333 0,429
4 2 0,200 0,231 0,259 0,286 0,310 0,333 0,375 0,412 0,444 0,474 0,500 0,600
5 2 0,265 0,301 0,333 0,362 0,388 0,412 0,454 0,490 0,521 0,548 0,571 0,659
3 0,347 0,392 0,432 0,468 0,500 0,529 0,580 0,622 0,658 0,688 0,714 0,805
6 2 0,310 0,347 0,379 0,407 0,432 0,455 0,494 0,526 0,554 0,579 0,600 0,677
3 0,448 0,497 0,540 0,576 0,608 0,636 0,684 0,721 0,752 0,778 0,800 0,871
7 2 0,340 0,375 0,406 0,432 0,456 0,477 0,513 0,543 0,569 0,591 0,611 0,683
3 0,515 0,563 0,604 0,638 0,667 0,692 0,734 0,767 0,793 0,815 0,833 0,892
4 0,569 0,620 0,663 0,698 0,728 0,754 0,795 0,827 0,852 0,873 0,889 0,938
8 2 0,359 0,393 0,421 0,447 0,469 0,488 0,522 0,551 0,575 0,597 0,615 0,685
3 0,558 0,603 0,641 0,672 0,698 0,721 0,758 0,787 0,811 0,830 0,846 0,898
4 0,646 0,695 0,734 0,765 0,792 0,814 0,849 0,875 0,895 0,911 0,923 0,959

9 2 0,371 0,403 0,430 0,454 0,475 0,494 0,527 0,554 0,578 0,599 0,617 0,686
3 0,585 0,627 0,662 0,690 0,715 0,733 9,770 0,796 0,818 0,836 0,851 0,901
4 0,695 0,739 0,774 0,802 0,825 0,844 0,874 0,896 0,913 0,926 0,936 0,966
5 0,729 0,773 0,808 0,835 0,857 0,875 0,903 0,923 0,938 0,949 0,957 0,981
10 2 0,379 0,409 0,436 0,458 0,479 0,497 0,529 0,556 0,579 0,599 0,618 0,686
3 0,602 0,641 0,673 0,700 0,723 0,743 0,775 0,800 0,821 0,838 0,853 0,901
4 0,725 0,766 0,797 0,822 0,843 0,860 0,886 0,906 0,920 0,932 0,941 0,968
5 0,780 0,820 0,850 0,873 0,891 0,904 0,929 0,944 0,956 0,964 0,971 0,987
Note: The number of frames in the building is inclusive of the gable ends, Frame 1 is the end gable, frame 2 the
penultimate frame and so on.
Table 6 Reduction factor on sway forces and moments for each frame in a clad building - all frames loaded,
0,25 < y < 1,50

L0906
ESDEP WG 9
THIN WALLED CONSTRUCTION
Lecture 9.6: Connections in Thin-Walled Construction

OBJECTIVE/SCOPE
To provide general information on problems related to the design of connections when thin-walled members or
elements are used.
PRE-REQUISITES
Lecture 11.3.1: Connections with Non-Preloaded Bolts
RELATED LECTURES:
Lecture 11.5: Simple Connections for Buildings
Lectures 14.1.1: Single Storey Buildings: Introduction and Primary Structure
SUMMARY
Practical treatment of the main aspects of connection design in thin-walled steel sections is given, including: Types
of fasteners and connections, structural and non-structural requirements, factors affecting the forces on the
connection as well as the distribution of forces in the connection, and failure modes of fasteners.
1. INTRODUCTION
Connections play an important role in structural design. They influence significantly the performance of the structure
as well as its cost. A proper selection and design of frame connections may make a substantial contribution to the
competitiveness of steelwork. This fact was recently recognised by Eurocodes 3 [1] which introduced realistic
connection models and gave basic specifications to account for connection response in design. With reference to
lightweight structures comprising cold-formed steel sections, the connections may play a substantial role in the
behaviour of certain typical forms of construction, such as for example, in systems designed by the stressed skin
design method presented in Lecture 9.5.
A variety of joining methods between cold-formed sections is available; most of them are specific to thin steel,
though fasteners generally used for hot rolled sections, i.e. for thicker plates, may also be used provided that

L0906
differences in behaviour are taken into account.
This lecture has the main purpose of:
● providing a survey of the most used fastening methods.

● illustrating structural and non-structural requirements.
● presenting the general criteria and procedures for design.
2. CONNECTION TYPES
A relatively large number of connections of different types are needed in building construction using cold-formed
steel sections. An attempt to identify the main connection types encountered in these structural systems is illustrated
in Figure 1. Connections between sheeting and members are of great importance for frames designed by the stressed
skin design method, while connections using sleeved or overlapping purlins are typical of lightweight roofing.
Increasingly, thin steel sections are used in building frames and beam to column and beam to beam connections have
to be designed.

L0906

L0906
The important aspects of joining cold-formed sections and/or sheeting are:
● reduced bearing resistance of thin steel.

● avoidance of local buckling.
● connections often made from one side only (as in roof sheeting).
3. TYPES OF FASTENERS
Two main categories of fastening may be identified:
1. Fastening by means of mechanical fasteners (bolts, screws ...).

2. Fastening by means of welding.
Both categories will be reviewed briefly in the following sections.
3.1 Mechanical Fasteners
Different types of mechanical fasteners as well as their general field of application are presented in Table 1. The
guidelines of the manufacturers of the fasteners will provide information concerning how to treat attachments to
"thin" and "thick" steel sections.
General information about the use of each type of fastener is given below, in order to provide background for proper
selection and use.
Bolts with nuts
Bolts with nuts are threaded fasteners which are assembled in preformed holes through the elements to be joined.
Thin members will necessitate the use of fully threaded bolts.
For thin-walled sections the bolt diameter range is usually from 5 to 16mm: the preferred bolt Classes are 8.8 or
10.9. High strength slip resistance bolts are not recommended for total thicknesses less than 8mm due to loss of
preload in the bolts due to the creep of the zinc layer.
Screws
Two main types of screws can be distinguished:
a. self tapping screws: thread forming screws and thread cutting screws;
b. self drilling screws.
Most of the screws will be combined with washers to improve the load-bearing resistance of the fastening and/or to
make the fastening self-sealing.
Some types are available with plastic heads or plastic caps for additional corrosion resistance and colour matching.
Figure 2 shows the thread-types for thread forming screws: type A is used for fastening thin to thin sheets, type B for

L0906
fixings to steel elements of a thickness greater than 2mm, type C for fixings to thin steel elements of a thickness up
to 4mm.
Thread forming screws normally are fabricated from carbon steel (plated with zinc for corrosion protection and
lubrication) or stainless steel (plated with zinc only for lubrication).
Figure 3 shows some examples of thread and point-of-thread cutting screws. Thread cutting screws have threads of
machine screw diameter-pitch combinations with a blunt point, and tapered entering threads have one or more
cutting edges and chip cavities.

L0906
Thread cutting screws are used for fastening to thicker metal elements. Resistance to loosening is normally not so
high for thread cutting screws as for thread forming screws. Thread cutting screws are fabricated from carbon steel
case hardened and normally plated with zinc for corrosion and lubrication. Self drilling screws drill their own hole
and form their mating thread in one operation. Figure 4 shows two examples of self-drilling screws. Self drilling
screws are normally fabricated with carbon steel heat treated (plated with zinc) or with stainless steel (with carbon
steel drill point).

L0906
Blind rivets
A blind rivet is a mechanical fastener capable of joining work-pieces together where access to the assembly is
limited to one side only. They are installed in pre-drilled holes and are used for thin to thin fastenings. Blind rivets
are available in aluminium alloys, monel (nickel-copper alloy), carbon steel, stainless steel and copper alloy.
Figure 5 shows different types of blind rivets.

L0906
Shot fired pins
Shot fired pins are fasteners driven through the element to be fastened into the base metal structure. Depending on
the type of driving energy they can be grouped as:
● powder actuated fasteners which are placed with tools which use cartridges filled with propellant which will
be ignited.
● air driven fasteners which are placed with tools that act on compressed air.
Figure 6 shows examples of shot fired pins.
Seam locking
Seam locking (see Table 1) in structural application will be mainly used as longitudinal connection between adjacent
roof sheets.
3.2 Welds
In lightweight construction resistance welding is generally used besides more conventional arc welding techniques
(Electrode, Gas Metal Arc, Tungsten Inert Gas Welding).
Main types of resistance welding are:

L0906
● spot welding.
● seam welding.
● projection welding.
These techniques are illustrated in Figure 7.

L0906
Basically resistance welding involves a co-ordinated application of electric current and mechanical pressure of the
proper magnitude and duration and a proper surface of the steel sheet. Resistance welding is also possible for zinc
coated material, but the welding parameters differ from those for uncoated material.
Both types of welding (arc and resistance welding) can be used for connecting either thin to thin elements or thin to
thick elements.
4. CONNECTION DESIGN
4.1 General Requirements
Structural and non-structural requirements should be considered for an effective and reliable design of connections.
The former will mainly be accounted for in sizing and checking the connection, as well as when defining the most
appropriate details, whilst the latter should be referred to when selecting the most appropriate fastening type for the
specific case. A list of the most important non-structural requirements is provided in Table 2.
Structural requirements can be summarised by the main features the connection behaviour must fulfil, i.e. stiffness,
strength and deformation capacity (see Figure 8), described as follows:

L0906
a. Stiffness
The stiffness of a connection is important because it determines the stiffness and hence deflection of the whole
structure or of its components. Moreover the stiffness of the connections will influence the force distribution within
the structure. Especially when the connection is a part of a bracing structure, then the stiffer the connection the lower
the bracing force will be.
Special systems are available where cold-formed sections interlock to form a connection with a good bending and
shear stiffness.
b. Strength
Connection strength ensures the capability of resisting forces and moments determined by the analysis of the
structure subject to the combinations of actions related to the ultimate limit state condition.
The strength of the connection mainly depends on:
1. the type of fasteners, and
2. the properties of the connected elements (thickness, yield stress).
A reliable assessment of the strength can be achieved in many cases only by testing. However, Eurocode 3: Part 1.3
[1] provides formulae to determine shear and tension resistance of most common fastener types, together with the
range of applicability.
Connections between thin elements, e.g. trapezoidal sheeting, are sensitive to repeated loads when they are working
in tension. Eurocode 3: Part 1.3 covers this case also by increasing the γM factor in presence of dynamic loads
comparable to wind load.
c. Deformation capacity
Deformation capacity is required in order to allow local redistribution of forces without detrimental effects.
Otherwise brittle fracture might be caused by local overloading. A proper detailing and fastener selection is vital in
order to ensure sufficient deformation capacity to the connection.
The main modes of failure for different types of fasteners are presented briefly in Section 4.3.
4.2 Forces in the Connections
Forces and moments, due to the response of the whole structure to design loads, are resisted by the connection
through shear and tension forces induced by the individual fasteners.
Basically each fastener will be subject to forces which depend on:
● forces and moments applied to the connection.

L0906
● stiffness of the jointed elements.

● stiffness and deformation capacity of the fastenings.
It is useful also to distinguish between:
● Primary forces - forces which are directly caused by the load.

● Secondary forces - forces which are indirectly caused by the load and which may be neglected in the presence
of sufficient deformation capacity in the fastening.
Two types of connections are now considered in more detail, in order to highlight several aspects related to the force
distribution between connected members.
a. Connections in thin-walled sections
⋅ Consider two similar sections attached together so that, in order to develop their combined strength,
the connections are loaded in shear (see Figure 9): The maximum shear force in the fastenings occurs
at the ends of the span and is calculated from the formula:
SA =
where
SA is the sum of shear forces in both fastenings in a cross-section A.
a is the distance between the fasteners in the span direction.
A is the area of one section.
V is the vertical shear force at the support.
y is the distance of the centroid of the area of one section to the neutral axis of the composite beam.
I is the moment of inertia of the combined sections.
The calculation method shown gives an upper limit to the shear force in the fasteners. In reality some
slip in the fasteners will occur. This causes a smaller section modulus and moment of inertia of the
composite beam leading to slight increase in deflections.

L0906
Consider next an I-beam made from single C-sections as shown in Figure 10. Because each C-section would twist if
not connected, tension forces occur between the C-sections when connected. The tension force T in the upper bolts
can be determined knowing the shear centre of the C-sections.

L0906
Secondary forces in connections: Care should be taken, by suitable detailing, that second order effects caused by
deformation of thin-walled sections will not generate extra forces in the fastenings.
b. Connections in profiled sheeting
It is convenient to discuss these connections by referring to types of forces they should resist:
Shear forces:
⋅ The dead weight of steel sheets in wall or facade elements.
⋅ Diaphragm action, when the diaphragm is used deliberately in the absence of a wind bracing, or to
provide lateral support for beams or columns.
⋅ Variation of the temperature of the steel sheets; with sufficient deformation capacity the shear forces
will be small and may be neglected.
⋅ Rotation of the eccentric fastened sheet ends and the membrane-action of the sheet (see Figure 11), in
the presence of sufficient deformation capacity the fastening will not fail.

L0906
⋅ Diaphragm action which is not used structurally. It may occur when a sheeting or cladding is only
used as an outer skin; it is then necessary for the cladding to follow the deformations of the sub-
structure; this is possible when the diaphragm (especially the fastenings) possesses sufficient
deformation capacity.
Tension forces:
Tension forces will be caused mainly by loads perpendicular to the plane of the steel sheets. For the
determination of the required resistance and stiffness of the sheets a simply supported static system is
assumed. In reality the sheets are to some extent restrained at the supports; but for the design of the
sheets it is safe to neglect the restraining effect.
Overstress can arise in fasteners due to bending of the steel sheet over the supports as in Figure 11.
The bending causes an accidental restraining moment of the steel sheets, which generates an extra
tension force in the fastener which is known as a prying-force. The magnitude of the prying force
depends on:
⋅ the stiffness of the sheets in relation to the span.
⋅ the flexibility of the sheets near the fastener.
⋅ the diameter of the head of the fastener or the diameter and stiffness of the washer.
⋅ the distance between the fastener and the contact points A or B.
⋅ the torsional rigidity of the support.
When sufficient deformation capacity is available the required rotation can take place and design can
be based on the reaction ignoring these effects.

L0906
4.3 Failure Modes of Connections
Strength and deformation capacity of connections depend substantially on the failure mode of the fastenings. These
modes are reviewed below.
4.3.1 Mechanical fasteners
a. Fasteners Loaded in Shear
Several failure modes can occur which are illustrated in Figure 12.

L0906
⋅ Shear Failure (Figure 12a)
Shear failure may occur when the sheet is thick with reference to the fastener diameter, or when an
unsuitable fastener is used. This is a relatively brittle form of failure and is not preferred.
⋅ Crushing of the Fastener (Figure 12b)
Crushing may occur with hollow fasteners, and in combination with tilting and yield in bearing.
⋅ Tilting and Pull-out of Fasteners: inclination failure (Figure 12c)
It is the normal mode of failure in thin sheet to thin sheet fastening in which the threads or the site
formed rivet heads pull out of the lower sheet. It may occur in combination with yield of both sheets in
bearing, and in conjunction with considerable sheet distortion.
⋅ Yield in Bearing: bearing failure (Figure 12d)
Two cases may be encountered: yield may occur only in the thinner sheet or in both the connected
sheets. It is the most ductile mode of failure.
⋅ End Failure (Figure 12e)
This failure may occur only when recommended end distances are not achieved.
⋅ Failure at the Net Cross-Section
Failure by fracture of the net cross-section may occur if the tensile resistance of the steel sheet is less
than the shear resistance of the fastener.
b. Fasteners Loaded in Tension
Several failure modes can occur which are illustrated in Figure 13.

L0906
⋅ Tension failure of the fastener (Figure 13a)

L0906
Tension failure may occur when the sheet is thick with reference to the fastener, or when an unsuitable
fastener is used.
⋅ Pull Out (Figure 13b)
It may occur when the support member is insufficiently thick, or when there is insufficient anchorage
of fastener.
⋅ Pull Over (Figure 13c)
It may occur when the head of the fastener is too small.
⋅ Pull Through (Figure 13d)
This mode of failure involves bending of the sheet locally and can be accompanied by washer
distortion.
⋅ Gross Distortion of Sheeting (Figure 13e)
Permanent and gross distortion of the sheeting profile may be considered a failure mode, and occurs
when the fastener is attached to wide unstiffened sheets.
4.3.2 Failure modes of welded attachments
In thin-walled structures the welded fastenings (fillet and spot welds) should be designed in such a way that the
fastening will be loaded in shear.
For fillet welds the weld cross-section should be such that the strength of the fastening is governed by the thickness
of the sheet. The failure modes can then be:
● tearing or shearing near the fillet weld.

● failure of the net section.
For spot welds the following failure modes can appear:
● shear of the spot weld itself, which occur with less deformation.
● tearing and bearing at the contour of the weld.
● end failure, when the end distance is relatively short.
● failure of the net section.
4.4 Applications
4.4.1 Fastening of outer profiled sheeting to cassettes
Figure 14 shows the detailing of a typical wall cladding. A diagonal pattern of the blind rivets, is chosen because a
horizontal pattern would mean that only a few cassettes were loaded. This pattern would lead to over-loading of the
fasteners of the relevant cassettes compared to the bearing resistance of the fastenings.

L0906
Furthermore the fastener force at B in the cassettes at distance r2 will become negligible in comparison with the
fastener force at A at distance r1. This force differences is caused by the differences in deformations. This means that
during design only the resistance of fastener A has to be taken into account.
4.4.2 Fastening of outer profiled sheeting to inner profiled sheeting via Z-sections
Figure 15 shows the principle of the build-up of a wall comprising two skins of profiled with Z-sections in between.

L0906
As a result of relatively high stiffness of the Z-sections prying forces will occur in the structure as shown by forces
k1 and k2. They will lead to high forces in the fasteners (forces N1 and N2). The strength of fastenings between Z-
section and sheeting (see Section 4.1.b) will often be much lower than the forces N1 or N2.
A symmetric loaded connection (by choosing a hat-section instead of a Z-section) will prevent prying forces
occurring.

L0906
● A wide variety of fasteners is used in thin walled construction, including: bolts with nuts, self-tapping screws,
self-drilling and self-tapping screws, blind rivets, shot fired pins, seam locking systems, spot welding, seam
welding and projection welding.
● Structural and non-structural requirements are both important in selecting the most appropriate fastening
system.
● Structural design of fasteners needs to consider stiffness, strength and deformation capacity.
● A variety of failure modes occur for fasteners loaded in shear or tension. Several of these arise from the type
of fastening, e.g. crushing of hollow fasteners, or the thinness of the material being fastened, e.g. pull through
of a threaded fastener.
6. REFERENCES
[1] Eurocode 3: Part 1.3: "Cold-Formed Thin Gauge Members and Sheeting" (in preparation).
1. European Convention for Constructional Steelwork: "The Design and Testing of Connections in Steel
Sheeting and Sections", Publication2.1, ECCS, May 1983.
2. European Convention for Constructional Steelwork: "Mechanical Fasteners for use in Steel Sheeting and
Sections", Publication 4.2, ECCS, June 1983.
TABLE 1 Global survey of application field for mechanical fasteners
Thin Steel to Thin Fastener Remark

to Wood to
Thick Thin
Steel Steel
X X Bolts M5 - M16 diameter
Self tapping screw 6,3 diameter

with washer ≥ 16mm diameter
X and 1mm thick with elastomer.
Hexagon head screw 6,3 diameter

or 6,5 with washer ≥ 16mm
X X diameter and 1mm thick with
elastomer.

L0906
Self drilling screw with diameters:
X X 4,22 or 4,8mm
5,5mm
6,3mm
Thread cutting screw 8mm

diameter with washer ≥ 16mm
X diameter and 1mm thick with or
without elastomer
Blind rivets with diameters:
X 4,0mm, 4,8mm, 6,4mm
X Shot fired pins
X Seam locking
TABLE 2 Requirements for connections in thin-walled structures
Structural requirements:
1. Strength
2. Stiffness
3. Deformation capacity

L0906
Non-structural requirements:
1. Economic aspects, such as:
a. total number of fastenings which have to be made.
b. skill required.
c. ability to be dismantled.
d. design life.
e. installed costs of the fastening. The cost factors are:
⋅ individual fastener cost.
⋅ direct labour cost.
⋅ indirect labour cost.
⋅ application tools cost.
⋅ maintenance cost.
2. Durability, which depends on:
a. chemical aggressiveness of the environment.
b. possible galvanic corrosion.
c. stress corrosion (can be important with elevated temperatures and aggressive chemical
environments).
3. Watertightness
4. Aesthetics

ESDEP WG 9
Lecture 9.7: Application of Thin-Walled

Construction
OBJECTIVE/SCOPE
To present the range of available cold-formed, light gauge products and to illustrate their range of application.
PREREQUISITES
Lecture 5.1: Introduction to Computer Aided Design and Manufacture
RELATED LECTURES
Lecture 9.2: Design Procedures for Columns
Lecture 9.3: Design Procedures for Beams
Lecture 9.4: Design Procedures for Sheeting
Lecture 9.5: Stressed Skin Design
Lecture 9.6: Connections in Thin-Walled Construction

SUMMARY
The range of cold-formed products currently available is described and the particular features offered by products produced
in this way are explained. Current uses of such products, often acting to provide several functions, are discussed.
1. INTRODUCTION
The general trend in recent years towards lighter and more economic forms of steel construction has led to increases in the
use of cold-formed, light-gauge elements. These elements may be either members or flat products.
Members such as purlins, sheeting rails and main framing components may be used in place of heavier and more costly
hot-rolled products or substituted for alternative materials such as timber. Flat products such as wall cladding, roof sheeting
and floor decking are often used most effectively by combining them with other materials.
The main advantages in using cold-formed products are:
i. A very wide range of components are available through the flexibility provided by the forming process.
ii. Good corrosion resistance through the use of previously coated material.
iii. Good quality surface finish, available in a variety of different types.
iv. Ability to provide high levels of thermal and acoustic insulation when used in conjunction with suitable insulating materials.
v. Availability of relatively simple fastening methods, several of which may be used on site.
vi. High ratios of load-bearing resistance to structural weight.
vii. Permits the use of considerable off-site prefabrication.
Cold-formed products are usually produced from the original coils of thin sheet material by either:
● Roll-forming in which the coil is progressively unwound and various shapes made in a continuous process by passing the
sheet through a series of rolls that progressively develop the required shape, Figure 1, or
● Folding in which pre-cut lengths are bent to form a suitable structural element.

Whilst the first of these methods is suitable for large volume production, e.g. sheeting for cladding, the second is
more appropriate for low volume production of items that need to be tailored for specific applications, e.g. flashings used
to seal the joins between components.
1.1 Available Products
1.1.1 Profiled sheeting
Profiled sheeting is available in a wide range of geometries and may be adapted for several different uses.
In single or double skin roof sheeting, Figure 2, the steel sheet is normally used as the external profile. Its main function is
to ensure the security of the roofing. The main function of the internal sheet in a double skin roof is to support the
insulation, although by incorporating suitable perforations it may assist in improving the acoustic properties of the
building. Double skins may use the same profile for both sheets - in which case the roofing is generally called
"parallel texture", or it can use a different profile internally, thereby replacing the purlins. In this latter case the arrangement
is termed "crossed texture".
For flat roofs, Figure 2b, the steel profile has, in addition to supporting its own dead weight, the function of carrying
the insulation and the maintenance and climatic (snow and wind) loads.
In such arrangements it is important to ensure that the insulation can safely span the troughs between adjacent upper flanges
of the corrugations.
For vertical walls, the outer skin of either a single or double wall-cladding, Figure 3, has to ensure air tightness and

water tightness of the vertical walls, whilst at the same time providing an attractive visual aspect to the building. The
internal skin is then effectively a structural tray or cassette, spanning horizontally between columns that provides a flat
internal wall and supports the insulation.
Trapezoidal sheeting may also be used for flooring, e.g. in pre-fabricated houses.

Sheeting may also be used as permanent shuttering to concrete, in which case it may be designed merely to support the
weight of the wet concrete and any construction loading. A more efficient arrangement is, however, to use the steel sheeting
in the final condition also to produce composite action in the floor as shown in Figure 4.
Because precoated sheeting is used for these flooring arrangements, the lower face may be used to provide a
sufficiently visually attractive ceiling in some cases.

Since many steel cladding and roofing profiles are also available in equivalent geometrical shapes manufactured
from translucent material, it is normally quite straightforward to create areas of natural lighting in buildings using
this arrangement.
In order to properly fix cladding and roofing panels it is necessary to employ a range of smaller components at the
various junctions. These products are termed flashings and will frequently need to be provided in a range of shapes and
sizes. The products may sometimes also fulfil additional functions, e.g. to act as gutters. The folding operation is ideally
suited to the production of this multiplicity of different items.
1.1.2 Members
Cold-formed members are available in a very wide range of shapes and sizes. Since they are normally formed from a
single sheet, the cross-section should be such as not to require additional jointing, e.g. an I-section can only be formed
by joining two channels back to back at the web. Figure 5 provides some idea of the range of products currently available.

1.1.3 Sandwich panels

In recent years the use of prefabricated sandwich panels, (Figure 6) formed from two metal sheets with a foam core,
has increased considerably. Such an arrangement, which may be installed very rapidly, is particularly suitable as a means
of providing thermal insulation at the same time as the basic weather shield. It consists of two metal faces bonded to an
internal layer of rigid foam. Such panels may be installed very quickly thus saving time on site.
2.1 Cold-Formed Sections and Sheeting
It is commonplace to use the opportunity offered by the flexibility inherent in the forming processes to arrange for cold-
formed products to act in conjunction with other components. One of the most common examples is the use of Z
purlins, Figure 7, acting in association with roof sheeting to provide horizontal diaphragm action which helps to stabilise
the building. In addition the sheeting acts to provide torsional restraint that improves the load-carrying resistance of the
purlins themselves. The concept of deliberately relying on diaphragm action of sheeting has led to the concept of "stressed
skin action" in buildings in which a significant contribution is made by the cladding. Such an arrangement can
substantially reduce the need for bracings.
2.2 Profiled Sheeting and Concrete
In the construction of multi-storey steel framed buildings, the use of composite metal deck flooring has increased
significantly in recent years. Metal decking, typically spanning about 3 metres between secondary beams, may be laid
rapidly and, when secured to the top flanges of the beams using shot fired steel pins, provides both a working platform and
a protection to the operatives further down in the building. Concrete may be pumped or supplied by skips using a crane to
the floors, which are normally reinforced with a light prefabricated mesh to control any cracking that might occur as a result
of shrinkage during hardening of the concrete. Composite action with the metal decking is ensured through the use either of
the decking profile itself or through indentations on part of the sheeting that provides a shear key arrangement
preventing relative movement between the hardened concrete and the metal decking. Shear studs may be welded through
the decking onto the top flanges of the beams so as to provide composite action with the primary beams spanning
between columns in the frame.
2.3 Fasteners
Various proprietary types of fasteners, including spot welding, may be used with light gauge products. Figure 8,
which illustrates the main types of mechanical fasteners, shows:
● Bolts with nuts.

● Shot fired pins.
● Screws:
- self tapping.
- self drilling.
- special types for translucent sheeting.
● Blind rivets.
● Crimping of the seams to provide a mechanical interlock between adjacent sheets.
● Welding may be either:
- Arc welding.
- Resistance welding.
- Weld-brazing.
This last process is relatively new and is specifically designed to avoid damage to galvanised or pre-painted coatings. It
works by introducing another metal that melts more easily than those to be joined and, using a blowpipe flame, results in
a quickly made, tight and resistant joint.

3. PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS

Thermal insulation is often required for walls and may be provided by any of rockwool, glass-wool, chipboard,
polystyrene, cellular glass or expanded perlite. Since insulated panels are proprietary products, relevant
manufacturers literature should be consulted as a way of ascertaining specific properties and recommendations on usage.
Of particular concern are dimensional stability, voluminal mass, heat conductivity coefficient, resistance to
compression, resistance to bending, reaction to fire, resistance to water vapour, dew point, ability to act as a heat bridge,
and fixing arrangements.
3.1 Acoustics
The need for adequate sound insulation is an increasingly stringent requirement for buildings. The two characteristics
required for limiting the transmission of noise are absorption and insulation. It is often possible to combine the dual
functions of thermal and acoustic insulation in the one type of composite panel. Particular ways to improve acoustic
insulation are to increase the thickness of the profile and/or the density of the insulation or to add an additional sheet
between the two skins.
3.2 Fire Resistance
Because light gauge sheets are so thin, they do not posses much inherent fire resistance if exposed directly to
elevated temperatures. However, properly insulated double-wall cladding can attain a fire resistance of at least 90
minutes. Support roofing and composite flooring may well reach at least 60 minutes without additional protection.
3.3 Condensation
A steel wall, especially when not insulated, may be exposed to condensation since its coefficient of thermal conductivity
is rather high. However, several anti-condensation coatings have been developed. These coatings are applied using an
industrial process to the inside of the wall. They largely prevent subsequent condensation. One such example is "Grafo
Therm". It is a water based mixture including porous components with large specific surfaces suitable for absorbing water.
It appears in the form of a coating containing very fine granules of a light grey shade which have a pleasing appearance.
3.4 Durability
Profiled sheeting is always pre-coated and is obtainable in thicknesses between 0,3mm and 4 mm and widths of up to
1.500 mm. Typically steel strengths are 320N/mm2 to 350N/mm2, with values up to 550 N/mm2 presently
available. Galvanising is the normal form of pre-coating. This coating provides cathodic protection to surfaces where the
steel is uncoated, e.g. either accidentally or at edges formed by shearing or drilling, Figure 9. The zinc film may be painted
in order to improve further the corrosion resistance, as well as to enhance appearance. Specially produced galvanised and
pre-painted systems provide very significant corrosion resistance due to the synergy that exists between the two processes.
For members it is also possible to apply paint after roll forming, such as polyester powders by the electrostatic process. In
all cases coatings are available in a large range of colours.
4. USE IN SERVICE
Advances in manufacturing technology enable the range of products and the features that may be included directly in
the forming process to increase continually. Clearly clever utilisation of this facility will lead to a progressive reduction
in expensive site operations. Figure 10 shows how the termination of the section may now be integrated into the roll-
forming process.

Cold-forming products are normally so light in weight that easy handling is possible. Since most can be handled manually,
fast and easy erection is the norm. For transportation, sections and sheeting can normally be nested, thus requiring little
space and permitting unloading in quantity. Use of precoated material ensures corrosion protection during transport
and erection.
5. TYPES OF LIGHT-WEIGHT STRUCTURES

Early applications of cold-formed thin-walled steel sections were restricted to situations where weight saving was
important. With the advance in the raw material itself and the manufacturing processes, the range of actual and potential use
is virtually unlimited.
5.1 Industrial Buildings
Trusses of the types shown in Figure 11 may be found in industrial and storage buildings. The main chords are usually
channel sections joined back to back. The web members are normally single channels. A high degree of lateral stability may
be provided by using suitably wide chord members. Pre-galvanised high yield steel is normally used, with joints being made
by simple bolting. Clear spans of up to 50 metres are possible.

A parallel development is the use of lattice portal frames, with both the rafters and the columns being lattice members. Spans
of up to 60 metres are possible.
One of the more traditional applications has been in purlins spanning between the heavier main frames in portal
frame buildings. For smaller frames, the columns and rafters themselves may be suitable cold-formed sections, as indicated
in Figure 12.

The insulation of mezzanine floors for storage or as a means of creating office space is a particularly suitable application
for cold-rolled sections. Their use as columns and beams permits a lightweight construction using pre-galvanised sections
and straightforward fastening.
The availability of cold-formed sections up to 500 mm in depth permits their use as main framing members, either in
multi-storey braced frame construction or in portal frames. For the latter, spans up to 25 m are possible. In office
buildings concrete filling of columns to provide fire protection is possible, whilst powder painting eliminates the need for
final site painting. Members may have all the holes required for fixings automatically produced during the roll-forming process.
One of the largest uses of cold-formed material is in purlins Figure 13, spanning between 4 and 15 metres. Sections of
heights between 100 and 300 mm are used and a number of proprietary systems are available. These systems include
concepts such as purlin sleeves and overlapping, Figure 14, in order to obtain optimum structural performance.
Because manufacturers have often undertaken extensive testing and other development work themselves, design information
in support of particular systems is normally available. This information substantially reduces both the labour and complexity
of the design process.


Trussed rafters are also used in greenhouse construction.
5.2 Housing
Light gauge sections are appropriate for use as the steel frame of housing, Figure 15.


Two types are available:
● A skeleton completely assembled by bolting on site, Figure 16.

● A skeleton based on the use of steel panels preassembled in the works.

Using the second principle, it is possible with quite large panels, e.g. 3mx12m to introduce a large degree of pre-
fabrication into the structure. All sections are pregalvanised and contain all the holes necessary for wiring, plumbing, etc.
5.3 Temporary Accommodation
Modular units for houses, offices, construction site accommodation, etc., may conveniently be produced using cold-
formed sections and flat products.
5.4 Storage
Storage racking systems, Figure 17, may conveniently be made from cold-formed components, with the forming process
being used to produce not simply the most appropriate shapes but also to introduce slots and holes that facilitate rapid
assembly and demounting.

● Cold-formed products provide the designer with a very wide range of items, capable of being used in a variety of
different ways.
● Very efficient structural elements may be produced by combining different types of cold-formed element or by using
such elements in association with other materials.
● Use of precoated sheeting, together with the incorporation of as many features as possible in the factory production
process drastically reduces the need for expensive site operations.
● Corrosion protection, thermal and acoustic insulation and good visual appearance are all readily achievable.
● The use of this material permits several simple techniques of site jointing to be employed.
1. European Convention for Constructional Steelwork: "European Recommendations for the Design of Light Gauge
2. European Convention for Constructional Steelwork: "European Recommendations for the Design of Profiled
Sheeting", Publication 40, ECCS, 1983.
3. Eurocode 3, Part 1.3: "Cold-formed Thin-gauge Members and Sheeting" (in preparation).

ESDEP WG 10
Lecture 10.1: Composite Construction

- General
OBJECTIVE/SCOPE
To introduce steel-concrete composite members and construction; to explain the composite action of the two different
materials and to show how the structural members are used, particularly in building construction.
PREREQUISITES
RELATED LECTURES
All subsequent lectures in Group 10.
SUMMARY
The two complementary materials, structural steel and reinforced concrete, are introduced and it is shown how
composite action is achieved in the case of composite slabs, beams and columns. The use of composite construction
for buildings and bridges is outlined and illustrated by several typical examples; its main advantages are also illustrated
by comparison with structures of steel and concrete used independently. Attention is drawn to the effect of this form
of construction on other more general problems such as: fire resistance rating, speed of construction, flexibility and final
fitting out.
1. INTRODUCTION
The most important and most frequently encountered combination of construction materials is that of steel and concrete,
with applications in multi-storey commercial buildings and factories, as well as in bridges. These materials can be used
in mixed structural systems, for example concrete cores encircled by steel tubes, as well as in composite structures
where members consisting of steel and concrete act together compositely.
These essentially different materials are completely compatible and complementary to each other; they have almost the
same thermal expansion; they have an ideal combination of strengths with the concrete efficient in compression and the steel
in tension; concrete also gives corrosion protection and thermal insulation to the steel at elevated temperatures and
additionally can restrain slender steel sections from local or lateral-torsional buckling.
In multi-storey buildings, structural steelwork is typically used together with concrete; for example, steel beams with
concrete floor slabs. The same applies to road bridges, where concrete decks are normally preferred. The extent to which
the components or parts of a building structure should embody all steel construction, be constructed entirely in
reinforced concrete, or be of composite construction depends on the circumstances. It is a fact, however, that engineers
are increasingly designing composite and mixed building systems of structural steel and reinforced concrete to produce
more efficient structures when compared to designs using either material alone. The first two slides give an impression of
how and to what extent composite construction is used for multi-storey buildings: Slide 1 shows a construction site for
a commercial building in London; Slide 2 shows a factory building for the car industry in Germany.

Slide 1 : Typical composite multi-storey steel-framed building during construction - a commercial building in London.

Slide 2 : Typical composite multi-storey steel-framed building during execution - a factory building for the car industry
in Germany.
It should be added that the combination of concrete cores, steel frame and composite floor construction has become
the standard construction method for multi-storey commercial buildings in several countries. Much progress has been made,
for example in Japan, where the structural steel/reinforced concrete frame is the standard system for tall buildings. The
main reason for this preference is that the sections and members shown in Slide 3 are best suited to resist repeated
earthquake loadings, which require a high amount of resistance and ductility.

Slide 3 : The combination of concrete cores, steel frame and composite floor construction has become the standard method
for multi-storey construction in several countries.
Building with steel and composite elements experienced a renaissance during the 1980's, resulting in a profusion of
new construction concepts and structural details.
Single composite elements, such as isolated beams, columns and slabs (Figure 1), whilst they are of high quality and
resistance, they are also, in many cases, expensive. This is the case particularly for buildings with small column spacings,
floor beam spans well below 9 m and low loadings. On the other hand, composite floor construction is highly competitive
if spans are increased to 12, 15 or even 20 m. There is, of course, a demand for larger column-free spans in buildings
to facilitate open planning or greater flexibility in office layout, as shown in Figure 2.

A further important consideration is that the use of rolled steel sections, profiled metal decking and/or prefabricated
composite members speeds up execution. For maximum efficiency and economy the joints should be cheap to fabricate
and straightforward to erect on site.
Many experts feel that the further development of steel framed buildings depends largely on the use of composite
construction. Unfortunately these two important building materials, steel and concrete, are promoted by two
different industries. Since these industries are in direct competition with each other, it is sometimes difficult to promote the
best use of the two materials.
Figure 2 shows three examples of the use of composite floor construction comprising steel beams and concrete slabs,
in buildings: Figure 2a shows a typical office building with offices on both sides of the corridor, the walls of which are
defined by the positions of the internal columns; Figure 2b shows a large span, column-free structure, which allows a
high amount of flexibility; the structure in Figure 2c has a reduced number of columns, with main and secondary beams.


2. COMPOSITE ACTION IN BEAMS

Composite beams, subject mainly to bending, consist of a steel section acting compositely with one (or two) flanges
of reinforced concrete. The two materials are interconnected by means of mechanical shear connectors. It is current
European practice to achieve this connection by means of headed studs, semi-automatically welded to the steel flange, see
Slide 4.
Slide 4 : Composite beams, subject mainly to bending, consist of a steel section acting compositely with one (or two) flanges
of reinforced concrete.
Figure 3 shows several composite beam cross-sections in which the wet concrete has been cast in situ on timber shuttering.
For single span beams, sagging bending moments, due to applied vertical loads, cause tensile forces in the steel section
and compression in the concrete deck thereby making optimum use of each material. Therefore, composite beams, even
with small steel sections, have high stiffness and can carry heavy loads on long spans.


If slip is free to occur at the interface between the steel section and the concrete slab, each component will act independently,
as shown in Figure 4. If slip at the interface is eliminated, or at least reduced, the slab and the steel member will act together
as a composite unit. The resulting increase in resistance will depend on the extent to which slip is prevented. It should be
noted that Figure 4 refers to the use of headed stud shear connectors. The degree of interaction depends mainly on the degree
of shear connection used.

The following definitions are used to make clear the differences between resistance (strength) and stiffness properties:
● With regard to resistance, distinction is made between complete and partial shear connection. The connection is considered
to be complete if the resistance of the composite beam is decided by the bending resistance, not the horizontal shear resistance.
● Complete or incomplete interaction between the concrete slab and the steel section results in a more or less stiff
composite beam. Such incomplete interaction arises when flexible connectors such as headed studs are used and slip
(relative displacement) occurs at the steel-concrete interface.
● The use of composite action has certain advantages. In particular, a composite beam has greater stiffness and usually a
higher load resistance than its non-composite counterpart, see Figure 5. Consequently, a smaller steel section is
usually required. The result is a saving of material and depth of construction. In turn, the latter leads to lower storey heights
in buildings and lower embankments for bridges.

3. COMPOSITE MEMBERS
3.1 Composite Beams
Figure 3 shows the use of different shapes and types of steel beam (rolled or welded sections) together with in situ concrete.
Instead of an in situ concrete slab, precast concrete floor or deck units can be used, see Figure 6. Careful detailing
and construction practice are needed to ensure adequate containment for the connectors. Figure 6a shows a system using
large prefabricated deck elements with longitudinal joints. The gaps between the units would be filled with mortar in the
final structure, thereby giving composite action with the beams. Such structural systems were introduced during the
early 1960's. In Germany more than 100 car parks, university, school and office buildings (see Slide 5) have been built in
this way. The use of precast deck units reduces on-site construction operations and avoids wet trades. The units themselves
are cast on steel formwork in a shop to ensure high quality and small (strict) tolerances.



Slide 5 : Instead of an in situ concrete slab, precast concrete floor or deck units can be used.
Figure 6b shows thin prefabricated concrete elements, supported by the steel beam flange. These elements act as
permanent formwork when casting the in situ concrete. The transverse distances between the stud shanks and the edge of
the prefabricated concrete element may be small however, making it difficult to ensure adequate containment for
the connectors. The main reason for the use of these thin plate elements (usually 4-5cm thick) is that they are easy to
handle, and almost as convenient to handle as metal decking.
Figure 6b also shows a partly encased composite beam, the voids of which are filled with concrete. This type of
composite section is often used in parts of Europe today, in order to enhance the fire resistance rating without
additional protection measures. The lower steel flange remains unprotected.
The usual practice however, in the case of commercial and industrial buildings (see Slide 6), is to construct the floors
using metal decking which incorporates additional embossments or indentations to provide composite action. This is a
very economical way to speed up construction, and is an important part of modern structural systems. The deck supports
the loads developed before and during concreting and later acts compositely with the in situ concrete. Steel decking with
re-entrant and trapezoidal profiles are typically used, see Figures 7 and 15.



Slide 6 : The usual practice for commercial and industrial buildings is to construct the floors using metal decking which
is embossed to provide composite action.
Composite beams do not need any falsework or timber shuttering. This advantage is considered in the following
section together with two different construction methods, "propped" and "unpropped".
3.1.1 Propped construction
The efficiency in structural performance will be greatest if it is possible to ensure that the concrete slab and steel member
act compositely at all times. For this purpose, all loads, including the dead weight of the structure, should be resisted by
the composite section. This requirement can be met by supporting the steel beam until the concrete has hardened. Such
support is known as "propping". The number of temporary supports need not be high; propping at the quarter-span points
and mid-span is generally sufficient. The props are left in place until the concrete slab has developed adequate resistance.
Different construction methods lead to different stress states, force distributions and deflections under service
conditions. However, composite beams loaded up to failure fail at the same bending moment (assuming local instability
is prevented) irrespective of whether propped or unpropped construction has been used. Their bending resistance can be
easily calculated by means of rectangular stress blocks as outlined below.
3.1.2 Resistance of section
A typical form of composite construction consists of a slab connected to a series of parallel steel members. The
structural system is therefore essentially a series of interconnected T-beams with wide, thin concrete flanges as shown in
Figure 2. In such a system, the flange width may not be fully effective in resisting compression due to "shear lag".
This phenomenon, which is taken into account by the well known "effective width" approach, is explained later.
No account needs usually to be taken of local buckling in the steel section in simply supported composite beams, since
the compression flange is attached to the concrete slab by shear connectors, and the depth of the web in compression is
usually small. In the case of partial interaction however, the depth of the compressed part of the web is greater. In this
case, therefore, there remains at least theoretically the possibility that local buckling could occur in the web of a deep
plate girder or in a flange with a wide outstand beyond the shear connectors.
The dimensions of most steel beam sections in buildings are such that plastic analysis can be applied to the cross-section of
the composite beam. The calculation of the ultimate moment of resistance is, therefore, an application of the rectangular
stress block diagram on the assumption that the steel sections belong to Class 1 or 2.
3.1.3 Continuous beams and slabs
Many composite beams in buildings are - from the point of view of the static calculation -continuous beams over
simple supports. The concrete slabs are also usually continuous since they are cast without joints. Continuous beams
in comparison with single span beams, therefore, have the following advantages:
● greater load resistance due to the redistribution of bending moments

● greater stiffness
● smaller steel section to withstand the same loading.
On the other hand, the continuity can complicate the design, particularly in regard to lateral-torsional and local buckling
in negative moment regions. Local buckling of steel can reduce the bending resistance of the section below the plastic
moment, unless certain limitations to the breadth/thickness ratios of the elements making up the section are met. Based on
these ratios steel sections are grouped in Classes 1 to 4: Class 1 sections allow for global plastic analysis, using
moment redistribution, which gives a very economic design; Class 2 sections allow for plastic calculation of the moment
of resistance but do not permit redistribution. Hot rolled sections conform to Class 1 or 2 in most cases and when they are
used local buckling is not, therefore, a problem.
Adequately proportioned anti-crack reinforcement should be provided in the concrete slab over interior supports where
joints are not present. If the reinforcing bars have enough ductility they will increase the bending resistance substantially
in these hogging moment regions.
3.2 Shear Connection
Mechanical connectors are used to develop the composite action between steel beams and concrete. This connection
is provided mainly to resist longitudinal shear, and is referred to as the "shear connection".
Figure 8 shows several types of shear connectors. They have to fulfil a number of requirements, as follows:
● they must transfer direct shear at their base.

● they must create a tensile link into the concrete.
● they must be economic to manufacture and fix.

In the industrialised countries the most common connector is the headed stud. It can be welded semi-automatically (see Slide
4) to the upper flange either directly in the shop or through thin galvanised steel sheeting on site (see Figure 8a).
Shot fired connectors, as shown in Figure 8b, have been used as an alternative in cases where metal decking is used
and sufficient electrical power is not available on site. These connectors have the advantage that modified cartridge guns can
be used instead of the special equipment required for complex through-deck welding.
In the case of prefabricated concrete deck units preloaded high strength bolts have sometimes been used to connect them to
the beams, see Figure 8c. This type of connection has been used, for example, in temporary car parks because the
connection can be removed (although all such existing car parks are in permanent use at the present time).
The behaviour and resistance of headed studs and other connectors are examined by means of "shear" or "push out" tests.
These tests yield load-slip curves such as is shown in Figure 9 for headed studs. The behaviour is characterised by
great stiffness at low loading (under service conditions) and large deformations at high loadings up to failure. Such
ductile behaviour makes shear force redistribution at the steel-concrete interface possible and allows for partial
shear connection. In addition, headed studs may be spaced uniformly along the beam length between critical cross-sections.

Composite beams are often designed under the assumption that the unpropped steel beam supports the weight of the
structural steel and wet concrete plus construction loads. It may, therefore, be decided for reasons of economy to provide
only sufficient connectors to develop enough composite action to support the loads applied afterwards. This approach results
in many less connectors than are required to enable the maximum bending resistance of the composite beam to be reached.
The use of such partial shear connection results in reduced resistance and stiffness.

Partial shear connection may be unavoidable when a slab is constructed with metal decking. The number of shear
connectors attached to the steel beam may then be limited by the restriction of being able to place them only in the troughs
of the profiled steel sheeting.
3.3 Beam-to-Column Connection
Highly developed connection techniques can be used for connecting together structural steel members. Economy
requires, however, that the joints are economic to fabricate and straightforward to install on site. Studies have indicated that
the cost effectiveness of composite structures may be improved, if the actual degree of continuity provided by
nominally simple joints is recognised in design.
In composite steel-concrete structures, however, significant additional stiffness and resistance can be provided simply
by placing continuous reinforcing bars in the slab around the columns, since the single major factor governing the behaviour
of joints is the slab action.
This effect can be augmented by a special sequence of construction and concreting, as follows: during concreting the
steel section acts as a single span beam; the beam should be connected to the steel column by means of double web angles
or flange cleats with or without web angles; after the concrete has hardened (assuming it is without joints as shown in
Figure 10c) it is considered as a continuous beam supporting the additional applied loads. By following this
construction sequence, the required bending moment redistribution is not extensive and plastic rotation can be
significantly reduced. In addition the designer can take the decision whether or not to use shims between the steel
compression flange and the column mainly depending upon the plastic end moment of the joint.

Figure 10 compares simple, rigid and semi-rigid composite joints. The construction detail without shims, shown in Figure
10c, is consistent with the growing interest in flexibly connected (semi-rigid) steel frames with simple construction
details which speed up construction. It is proposed that the following performance criteria should be met:
● joints should behave much like a hinge before concreting.

● joints should be stiff and behave elastically up to a predetermined moment value.
● joints must be able to resist the governing plastic moment with adequate plastic rotation.
Beam-to-column connections in tall buildings demand somewhat different solutions. Until recently such structural
systems employed only simple shear connections between structural steel and reinforced concrete elements. However,
mixed structures should also be considered which are built by first erecting a frame of light steel columns and deep
spandrel beams. The steel columns are later encased by reinforced concrete.
Three different types of composite columns are principally in use, see Figure 11:
● concrete encased steel columns (a)

● concrete filled steel tubes and (c and d)
● rolled section columns partly encased in concrete (b).

In calculating the strength of such columns, full composite interaction without any slip at the steel-concrete-interface
is assumed. Strictly speaking all geometrical and physical non-linearities of the different materials should be observed. It
is only possible, however, to meet these requirements by using comprehensive numerical methods of analysis and
computer software. The assumed complete interaction enables definition of section properties, and stiffness and
slenderness ratios, for the whole inhomogeneous cross-section. This information is necessary to determine the load
carrying resistance, including slenderness or P-∆-effects. Eurocode 4 gives simplified design methods for practical use.
Instead of more precise buckling curves, Eurocode 4 [1] has adopted the European buckling curves a,b and c which
were originally established for bare steel columns.
The complete interaction must be ensured by means of mechanical connections. The connections have to be provided at least
at the column ends and where loads or forces are acting. They should be distributed over the whole cross-section.
Such connectors can be headed studs, top and bottom plates, suitable brackets, vertical gusset plates, shear heads or
other structural means.

Concrete encased columns have the advantage that they meet fire resistance requirements without any other protection.
In addition, they can be easily strengthened by reinforcing bars in the concrete cover. They do not, however, present
an accessible structural steel surface for later fastenings and attractive surface treatment. In the case of prefabricated
encased columns, the structural steel sections are fabricated in a workshop and include all welds, connection plates and
other necessary attachments. These steel columns (the longest have been up to 30 m long) can then be transported to
another workshop, where concreting takes place. After the concrete encasement has cured the completed columns can
be brought to the construction site.
Concrete filled steel tubes are also in use. The tubes are generally filled with high strength concrete, with a minimum
cube strength of 45 to 55N/mm2. These strengths, however, are far below those which have been developed recently in
North America.
If the bearing forces from the floor beams are transferred by means of vertical connection plates, these plates run through
the tube and are welded on both sides. This welding ensures both parts, the steel tube as well as the concrete core, are
loaded directly without excessive slip at the steel-concrete interface. In order to meet the required fire resistance rating,
the concrete core must be longitudinally reinforced. It is impossible, however, to take advantage of the full column resistance
in many cases.
3.5 Partially Encased Steel Sections
Partially encased steel sections, for both beams and columns, are an interesting development of the last 10 years. The
most important feature of such a partially encased section is its inherent high fire resistance. The fire resistance is due to
the fact that the concrete part prevents the inner steel parts - structural steel as well as reinforcing bars - from heating up
too fast. Figure 12 shows two partly encased composite beams (on the right hand side) compared with conventional
fire protection by means of boards. Slide 7 shows a typical composite floor construction, where partly encased sections
are used; no further fire protection for beams and slabs is necessary.


Slide 7 : Partially encased steel sections, for both beams and columns, are an interesting development of he last ten years.
The concrete parts are cast in a workshop or on site before erection. This procedure enables rapid construction
with prefabricated composite members. The concrete between the flanges should be reinforced by longitudinal bars
and stirrups, and should be attached to the web by stud connectors, welded bars, or bars through holes.
In addition to the enhanced fire resistance, crippling and local buckling of the steel web is prevented and the resistance of
the steel beam against lateral-torsional buckling is significantly increased. These beams also have greater stiffness
under bending and vertical shear which results in a reduction of final deflection. They look very massive, as can be seen
from Figure 13, and are characterised by their free bottom flange, to which ducts, other services and plant can be clamped
or fastened.
3.6 Composite Slabs
In floor construction, the use of the solid reinforced concrete slab is being replaced more and more by metal decking,
see Figure 14. Modern profiled steel sheeting with additional indentations or embossments acts as both permanent
formwork during concreting and tension reinforcement after the concrete has hardened. At this final stage the composite
slab consists of a profiled steel sheet and an upper concrete topping which are interconnected in such a manner that
horizontal shear forces can be resisted at the steel-concrete interface. Slip (relative displacements) at the interface must
be prevented completely or partly, as should vertical separation of the steel decking from the concrete topping.

The required composite action can be achieved by various means, see Figure 15. To allow for the large variety of current
and possible future products on the market Eurocode 4 permits the following methods of achieving shear load:
a. mechanical interlock provided by deformations in the profile (indentations or embossments).
b. frictional interlock for profiles shaped in a re-entrant form.
c. end anchorage provided by welded studs or shot fired shear connectors.
d. end anchorages by deformation of the ribs at the end of the sheeting in combination with (b).
The use of profiled steel sheeting undoubtedly speeds up construction. It is also often used with lightweight concrete to
reduce the dead load due to floor construction. In the UK, for example, this use of lightweight concrete is common practice
for commercial buildings.
The composite slabs are supported by steel beams, which normally act compositely with the concrete slab. The spacing of
the beams, and therefore the slab span, depends on the method of construction, as follows:
● if the beam spacing is about 2,50 m, then no temporary propping is necessary during concreting of the slab. In this case,
the construction stage controls the design of the metal decking. Due to the short slab span, the stresses in the composite slab
in the final state after the concrete has hardened, are very low. For such floors, trapezoidal steel sheets with limited
horizontal shear resistance and ductility are most often used. They have the lowest steel weight per square metre of floor area.
● for other floor layouts where the lateral beam spacing is much larger, props are necessary to support the metal decking
during concreting. Due to the longer slab span, the final composite slab is highly stressed. As a result this final state
may govern the design. In this case the steel sheeting will require good horizontal shear bond resistance. Re-entrant profiles
are often used leading to greater steel weight per square metre of floor area.
4. COMPOSITE FLOOR CONSTRUCTION

Composite floor construction is essentially an overlay of one-way structural elements. The slabs span between the secondary
or floor beams, which span transversely between the primary beams. The latter in turn span onto the columns, see Figure
16, Slides 1 and 2. This set of load paths leads to rectangular grids, with large spans in at least one direction (up to 12, 15
or even 20 m). Up to 15 m, rolled sections are mainly used, while from 12 m upwards welded plate girders, stub girders or
truss girders tend to be more economical.

During the life of a structure changes in use must be expected. Whilst many of these changes affect service
requirements, others will primarily affect layout. The best way to maximise flexibility of internal planning is to minimise
the number of columns. Figure 2 shows typical examples of ways in which primary beams of larger span, can reduce
or eliminate internal columns. These large span beams may be so deep that services can only be accommodated by
providing holes in the primary webs, see Figure 17. Stiffening around the openings may be necessary, particularly in
the presence of very high vertical shear forces.

Other methods of incorporating services within the structural depth are shown in Figure 18. One additional alternative is
the possibility of tapering the beams near to their ends.



In the case of longer span floors, the designer may need to consider the susceptibility of the floor structure to vibration.
The parameter commonly associated with this effect is the natural frequency of the floor: the lower the natural frequency,
the more the structure may respond dynamically to occupant- induced vibration.
For this purpose floors (or beams) are normally designed to have a natural frequency not less than 3Hz, and in the case of
floors that may be subject to rhythmic group activities, not less than 4Hz. An alternative more precise approach is to assess
the likely vibrational behaviour and, taking into account the human reaction to vibration, thereby establish acceptance criteria.

In summary, composite floor construction used for commercial and other multi-storey buildings, offers the following
main advantages to the designer and client:
● speed and simplicity of construction (metal decking, simple steel connections).

● lighter construction than a traditional concrete building (structural steel and lightweight concrete, slender structural elements
of small dimensions).
● less on site construction (steelwork, prefabricated structural elements).
● small (strict) tolerances achieved by using steel members manufactured under controlled factory conditions to
established quality procedures.
Composite beams are designed using plastic design methods and partial interaction theory, combining steel and concrete
to great effect. To obtain maximum advantage from this form of construction, planning and design should be integrated
from the start. The involvement of experienced site managers at an early stage will help avoid problems later on. With
this carefully planned approach, different operations such as steel erection, metal decking and stud welding, concreting,
fire protection, cladding, facade work, services and finishing can be carried out at different floor levels simultaneously.
5. COMPOSITE BRIDGES
Medium span composite bridges are normally constructed from welded, built up, steel plate girders and a wide
reinforced concrete deck, as shown in Figure 19. Box girders, see Figure 20, which look very attractive but which are
more expensive, are used less frequently. For the smaller spans, from 20 up to 35m, rolled steel sections are more
popular. They can be used with a concrete deck slab or embedded in concrete (upper flange and web). Slide 8 gives
an illustration of rolled sections, which can be fabricated curved if required, used in this way.



Slide 8 : Medium span composite bridges are normally constructed from welded, built up, steel plate girders and a
wide reinforced concrete deck.
Since the 1950's, several large span continuous composite highway bridges have been erected. During the years
immediately after World War II, structural steel was very expensive, and advantage was taken of the light composite
cross-section to save material costs. The sections of today are more compact and simpler, and do not have so many
secondary beams, bracings and stiffeners. This form of structure saves labour costs in the workshop as well as on
the construction site.
Due to the unsymmetrical nature of the cross-section, concrete shrinkage always causes compression and positive bending
in the steel section leading to greater deflections.
In propped construction the compression in the concrete flange due to the self weight of the beam causes creep
deformations. The concrete sheds compression. Stresses and forces are then redistributed from the concrete flange to the
steel beam, and the steel beam, therefore, has to resist a greater part of the loading. This redistribution also results in
increased deflections.
A simple way to take creep and shrinkage effects into account is to reduce the stiffness of the concrete by means of
appropriate reduction coefficients "n". These n-factors depend not only on duration and time of loading after concreting,
but also on the cross-section properties and the environmental conditions. It should be noted that this procedure does not
apply to beams in buildings, where less precision is required.
At the ultimate limit state strains due to load are much larger than the strains due to creep and shrinkage, and the latter
can therefore be neglected.
The design considerations for composite bridges are discussed further in Lecture 10.10.
● Composite construction, particularly that using profiled steel sheeting, allows rapid construction.
● The weight of steelwork required in composite construction is significantly less than if the materials were used independently.
● There is no need for expensive falsework and formwork because the steel beam is able to sustain the self weight of steel
and concrete, by itself or with the assistance of a few temporary props. Timber formwork can be replaced by precast
concrete elements or profiled steel sheeting.
● The aforementioned advantages present a very strong argument for the use of composite beams in buildings. They are
more significant, however, for medium to long spans than for short spans.
● The main disadvantage of composite construction is the need to provide connectors at the steel-concrete interface.
● Another minor drawback is that it is somewhat more complicated than other methods to design and construct. This drawback
is particularly relevant to continuous structures and bridges. However, it is far outweighed by the significant advantages
that can be gained.
7. REFERENCES
[1] Eurocode 4: "Design of Composite Steel and Concrete Structures:" ENV 1994-1-1: Part 1.1: General rules and rules
for buildings, CEN (in press).
1. Bode, H., "Verbundbau, Werner-Verlag", Dusseldorf 1987.
2. Johnson, R.P., "Composite Construction 1 and 2".
3. Hart, F., Henn, W., Sontag, H., "Multi-Storey Buildings in Steel", Second Edition, Collins, London 1985.
4. Lawson, R.M., "Design of Composite Slabs and Beams with Steel Decking", SCI-Publication 055, 1989.
5. Bucheli, P., Crisinel, M., "Verbundtrager im Hochbau, Schweizerische Zentalstelle fur Stahlbau (SZS)", Zurich 1982.
6. Muess, H., "Verbundtrager im Stahlhochbau", Verlag Wilhelm Ernst & Sohn, Berlin/Munchen/Dusseldorf 1973.

ESDEP WG 10
Lecture 10.2: The Behaviour of Beams

OBJECTIVE/SCOPE
To describe the basic behaviour of composite beams including a geometric description of a typical beam, its construction,
and the stress strain relationships that develop under load.
PREREQUISITES
Lecture 7.8.2: Restrained Beams
Lecture 10.1: Composite Construction - General
RELATED LECTURES
Lecture 10.3: Single Span Beams
Lectures 10.4: Continuous Beams
Lectures 10.5: Design for Serviceability
Lectures 10.6: Shear Connection
SUMMARY
Composite beams are described in terms of the steel section, concrete slab and connectors used in a typical building floor.
The material behaviour of each of the components is briefly reviewed and reference is made to the slender nature of the
steel section and the anisotropic nature of the concrete slab. The structural behaviour of a typical composite beam is
described, in three stages, by reference to the strain and stress in each component part. Firstly at low loads when full
interaction and a linear elastic response occurs; secondly as slip takes place with increasing load, and finally as the
materials reach failure stresses. Propped and unpropped construction gives rise to different beam behaviour which is
described. Partial interaction is also explained in qualitative terms. The lecture concludes with a summary of the
constraints that the engineer must take into account when designing composite beams.
1. INTRODUCTION
This lecture outlines, in general terms, the behaviour of the most common form of composite element - the composite beam.
In doing this it will be possible to explain many of the problems associated with the analysis and design of other elements
such as columns and slabs. The lecture therefore forms a basis on which to build an understanding of composite behaviour.
A general description of a composite beam is followed by a more detailed discussion the component parts and their
individual structural behaviour. The structural action is described by reference to the strain, and resulting stress, history of
a typical composite beam as it deforms, under increasing load, to failure.
The way in which composite beams are constructed may alter their resistance to applied loads. Consequently it is essential
to design composite beams for both the construction and in-service condition. It is also possible to design a beam for
"partial connection" so that each condition is equally critical. A definition of partial connection, and brief reasons for the
two-stage design requirement, is described. Simple single spans are a common form of beam and their behaviour is
explained. The behaviour of continuous spans is also introduced.

Finally, a summary of the design criteria for composite beams is given. These criteria are covered in more detail in
subsequent lectures.
2. COMPONENT BEHAVIOUR
Since a composite beam is formed from three components, see Figure 1, it is necessary to review the behaviour of each
before describing the overall behaviour of the combination.

Under both tension and compression, steel behaves in a linearly elastic fashion until first yield of the material
occurs. Thereafter it deforms in a perfectly plastic manner until strain hardening occurs. This behaviour is
shown diagrammatically in Figure 2a together with the idealisation of steel behaviour which is assumed for design. In
general, most of the steel section is in tension for simple sagging bending and local buckling of slender sections is not
a problem. However, for continuous beams, significant parts of the steel section are subject to compression and local
buckling has to be considered. This topic will be covered in Lecture 10.4.1 and 10.4.2.
The behaviour of concrete is more complex. Two situations have to be considered. Concrete in compression follows a
non-linear stress/strain curve. This behaviour is shown in Figure 2b together with the two idealisations used in design.
The parabolic stress block is often used in reinforced concrete design but the rectangular block is normally assumed
in composite beam design. The non-linear material behaviour gives rise to an inelastic response in the structure. Concrete
in tension cracks at very low loads and it is normally assumed, in design, that concrete has no tensile strength.

The connection behaviour, see Figure 2c, will be covered in detail in Lecture 10.6.1. It is sufficient, here, to say that it is
also non-linear. This behaviour adds to the complexity of design.
3. DESCRIPTION OF A SIMPLY SUPPORTED COMPOSITE BEAM

3.1 General
Composite beams are formed with a solid, composite or precast concrete slab spanning between, and connected to, the
steel sections. Figure 1 shows a typical layout. The steel parts are often confusingly referred to as the "beams". In this
lecture they are called "steel sections" to avoid confusion .
The slab usually spans between parallel steel sections and its design is normally dictated by this transverse
action. Consequently the span, depth and concrete grade are determined separately and are known prior to the beam design.
For non-composite construction, the steel sections alone are designed to carry the load acting on the floor plus the self
weight of the slab, as shown in Figure 3. The steel section is symmetric about its mid depth and has a neutral axis at this
point. The section strains around this neutral axis and both the outer fibre tensile and compressive stresses are identical.
The stresses (σ) in tension (t) and in compression (c) in the steel section may be evaluated using simple bending theory.
σt and σc = Mservice load / Wsteel section
The concrete slab is not connected to the steel section and therefore behaves independently. As it is generally very weak
in longitudinal bending it deforms to the curvature of the steel section and has its own neutral axis. The bottom surface of
the concrete slab is free to slide over the top flange of the steel section and considerable slip occurs between the two.
The bending resistance of the slab is often so small that it is ignored.
Alternatively, if the concrete slab is connected to the steel section, both act together in carrying the service load as shown
in Figure 4. Slip between the slab and steel section is now prevented and the connection resists a longitudinal shear
force similar in distribution to the vertical shear force shown.

The composite section is non-symmetric and shown a single neutral axis often close to the top flange of the steel section.
The tensile and compressive stresses at the outer fibres are therefore dependent upon the overall moment of inertia (I) of
the composite section and their distance from the single neutral axis.
Assuming that the loading causes elastic deformation the stresses generated in the section may be determined using
simple bending theory. The stresses for the service load condition may be obtained (Figure 4) from:
σt = Mservice load * y1 / Icomposite section
σc = Mservice load * y2 / Icomposite section
where
y1 is the distance of the extreme steel fibre from the neutral axis
y2 is the distance of the extreme concrete fibre from the neutral axis
The I value of the composite section is normally several times that of the steel section. It can therefore be seen that, for
a similar load, the extreme fibre stresses generated in the composite section will be much smaller than those generated in
the non-composite beam.
This difference also has an effect on the stiffness of the beams which will be discussed in more detail in Lectures 10.5.1
and 10.5.2.
The stresses developed in the slab as it spans transversely to the length of the beam are assumed not to affect the
longitudinal behaviour. They are generally ignored when designing the composite beam. However the span of the beam
often dictates how much of the slab may be assumed to help in the longitudinal bending action. This assumption will
be covered in more detail in Lecture 10.3. Here half the transverse span, each side of the steel section, is assumed to

be effective in carrying the longitudinal compression.
The connection between the slab and steel section may be made in many ways. In general it is formed using a series of
discrete mechanical keys. The most common form of connector is the headed stud which is shown in Figure 1. Lecture
10.6.1 and 10.6.2 cover the detailed behaviour of this connector and also describe several other types.
It can be seen that composite beams form part of a complex flooring system and it is difficult to separate the transverse
and longitudinal actions of the slab. Figure 1 identifies the typical beam section which is discussed in the remainder of
this lecture.
3.2 Structural Behaviour
The way in which a composite beam behaves under the action of low load, medium load and the final failure load is
best described in stages. The load, the bending moment and shear force diagrams, deformation, strains and stresses within
the section are all shown in diagrammatic form for the three stages and related to the load deflection response in Figures 4-6.
Stage 1 - Figure 4
For very low loads the steel and concrete behaves in an approximately linear way. The connection between the two carries
very low shear stresses and it is unlikely that appreciable longitudinal slip will occur. The beam deforms so that the
strain distribution at mid span is linear, as in Figure 4, and the resulting stress is also linear.
It can be seen from the strain diagram that, in this case, the slab must be deep as the neutral axis lies within the concrete. As
a result some of the concrete is in tension. It has been assumed that this concrete cracks and therefore carries no tensile
stress. If the slab was thin it is possible that the neutral axis would be in the steel and then the area of steel above the axis
would be in compression.
This stage corresponds to the service load situation in the sagging moment region of most practical composite beams.
Stage 2 - Figure 5

As the load increases the shear stress between the slab and steel section gives rise to deformation in the connection.
This deformation is known as 'slip' and contributes to the overall deformation of the beam. Figure 5 shows the effect of slip
on the strain and stress distribution. For many composite beams slip is very small and may be neglected (exceptions to
this assumption will be covered later in this lecture and in Lecture 10.6.2).
This stage corresponds to the service load stage for that class of composite beams which has been designed as
partially connected. This class of composite beam will be described more fully later in the lecture and in detail in
Lecture 10.6.2.
Stage 3 - Figures 6 and 7

Eventually the load becomes sufficient to cause yield strains in one or more of the materials.
Stage 3a

In the case of yield occurring in the steel, plasticity develops and the stress block develops as shown in Figure 6. It is
normally assumed that, for the ultimate limit state, the plastic stress block develops such that the whole steel section
may eventually reach yield as shown by the dotted line in Figure 6.
Stage 3b
Concrete is not a plastic material. If strains develop such as to cause overstress it is potentially possible that explosive
brittle failure of the slab would occur. This behaviour would be similar to the brittle failure expected in an over-
reinforced concrete beam. The volume of concrete in most practical slabs means that it is unlikely that this situation could
ever arise in practice.
With increase in stress within the concrete, induced by increasing strain, the stress block changes from the triangular
shape shown in Figure 5 to the shape shown in Figure 6. For design this shape is difficult to represent in mathematical form
and approximations are used. These approximations will be covered in more detail in Lecture 10.3. For composite beams
the most common approximation is the rectangular stress block shown by the dashed line in Figure 6 and in more detail
in Figure 2b.
Stage 3c
The remaining components of the composite beam that may fail before the steel yields or the concrete crushes are
the connectors. As the load increases the shear strain, and therefore the longitudinal shear force between the concrete slab
and steel section, increases in proportion. For a uniformly loaded, single span, composite beam which is assumed to deform
in an elastic manner the longitudinal shear force per m length of the beam (T) between slab and steel section can be
obtained from the expression:
T = V S/I
where S is the first moment of area.
Since the longitudinal shear force is directly proportional to the applied vertical shear force, the force on the end connectors
is the greatest. For low loads the force acting on a connector produces elastic deformations. This the slip between the slab
and the steel section will be greatest at the end of the beam. The longitudinal shear and deformation of a typical
composite beam, at this stage of loading, are shown in Figure 7a.
If the load is increased the longitudinal shear force increases, and the load on the end stud may well cause plastic
deformation. A typical load slip relationship for the connectors is shown in Figure 7. The ductility of the connectors means
that the connectors are able to deform plastically whilst maintaining resistance to longitudinal shear force. Figure 7b shows
the situation when the two end connectors are deforming plastically.
Increasing applied load will produce increasing longitudinal shear and connector deformation. In consequence,
connectors nearer to the beam centreline also begin sequentially to deform plastically. Failure occurs once all of the
connectors have reached their ultimate resistance as shown in Figure 7c. This sequence of shear load and connector straining
is shown in an exaggerated manner in Figures 7a, b, and c.
This failure pattern is dependent upon the connectors being able to deform plastically. The end connector in Figure 5 must
be able to deform to a considerable extent before the connector close to the beam centreline even reaches its ultimate
capacity. This requirement for ductility will be discussed further in Lecture 10.6.1 where it will be shown to dictate beam span.
It can be seen that the failure of the composite beam is dictated by the resistance of its three main components. As the
elastic interaction of these components is very complex it is normal to design these sections assuming the stress
distribution shown in Figure 2b.
Composite beams designed to fail when the steel yields, the concrete just reaches a failing strain and all of the
connectors deform plastically would appear to be the ideal situation. There are however several reasons why this
situation rarely occurs. The reasons are investigated below.
3.3 Practical Load Situations

It has been assumed so far that the loading on the beam is uniformly distributed and gives rise to a parabolic bending
moment diagram. This is a common situation but it is also equally possible to find situations where concentrated loads act
on beams.
In the case of uniform loading the maximum bending moment occurs at mid span. This section is then termed the
critical section in bending. The stress block at the critical section is that described in Figure 6. It results in a longitudinal
shear distribution to the shear connectors shown in Figure 7c. It can be seen that the longitudinal shear developed at the
critical section must be resisted by the connectors between this point and the end of the beam. It can be deduced that, if
the critical section is closer to the beam end, as would be the case for a single point load close to the support, the number
of connectors between this point and the support needs to increase.
In practice the number of connectors between each load point on a beam subject to multiple point loads must be
determined. This calculation often gives rise to variable spacing of connectors along the span length.
Point loads may also give rise to high vertical shear force. Although some of the vertical shear may be carried by the slab
and beam flanges, it is common practice to ignore that and assume all the vertical shear is carried by the web of the
steel section.
For continuous beams, discussed later in the lecture, there is a possibility of high shear and bending occurring together. In
this case the moment resistance of the section is reduced. This aspect has been covered in detail in Lecture 7.8.2 and is
also discussed in Lecture 10.4.2.
3.4 Creep and Shrinkage
Concrete is subject to two phenomena which alter the strain and therefore the deflection of the composite beam.
During casting the wet concrete gradually hardens through the process of hydration. This chemical reaction releases
heat causing moisture evaporation which in turn causes the material to shrink. As the slab is connected to the steel
section through the shear connectors, the concrete shrinkage forces are transmitted into the steel section. These forces cause
the composite beam to deflect. For small spans this deflection can be ignored, but for very large spans it may be significant
and must be taken into account.
Under stress, concrete tends to relax, i.e., to deform plastically under load even when that load is not close to the ultimate.
This phenomenon is known as creep and is of importance in composite beams. The creep deformation in the concrete gives
rise to additional, time dependent, deflection which must be allowed for in the analysis of the beam at the service load stage.
3.5 Propped and Unpropped Composite Beams
The geometry of most composite beams is often predetermined by the slab size, as previously discussed, and by the
capability of the steel section to carry the load of wet concrete during construction. This construction limitation gives rise
to two composite beam types, the propped and the unpropped composite beam.
Consider first the case of the propped beam shown in Figure 8. During construction the steel section is supported on
temporary props. It does not have to resist significant bending moment and is therefore unstressed and does not deflect.
Once the concrete hardens the props are removed. Each of the component parts of the beam then takes load from the
dead weight of the materials. However, at this stage, the beam is acting as a composite element and its stiffness and
resistance are very much higher than that of the steel section alone. The deformation due to dead loads is, therefore, small.
Any further live loading causes the beam to deflect. The total stresses present in the beam can be found by summing
the stresses due to dead and live loads.

Consider now the unpropped beam shown in Figure 9. During construction the steel section is loaded with the dead weight
of wet concrete. The steel section is stressed and deforms. The concrete and the connectors remain largely unstressed,
apart from the shrinkage stresses developed within the hardened concrete. It can be seen, in Figure 9, that the wet
concrete ponds, i.e. the top surface of the concrete remains level and the bottom surface deforms to the deflected shape of
the steel section. The dead load due to the weight of wet concrete is a substantial proportion of the total load and the
stresses developed in the section are often high.

Additional live loads are carried by the composite section which has almost the same stiffness as that of the propped beam.
The stresses present in the unpropped section can therefore be obtained by summing the wet concrete stresses and
the composite stresses. This calculation leads to a different stress distribution in the section to that present in the
propped composite beam. However the yield stresses developed in the steel and concrete are the same in both cases and
both unpropped and propped composite beams carry the same ultimate load.
The steel section of an unpropped composite beam often needs to be substantial so that the weight of wet concrete can
be carried. The section is, in fact, often substantially larger than would be required if the beam had been propped.
The load deflection response of a steel section alone and of a composite beam, both propped and unpropped, is shown in
Figure 10. The strains present and stresses developed are shown in sequence with the section upon which they act. In
the unpropped case the steel section alone takes the load of wet concrete and the strains due to this wet concrete load are
added to the strains caused by the subsequently applied service loads. The resulting stresses are shown in the stress
block. Whilst the overall deflection of the unpropped beam may be larger than the propped beam at the working load stage
this is often not important as the deflection occurring during construction can be hidden by the finishes.

Despite the drawbacks discussed above, unpropped construction is often preferred for the following reasons:
● the extra cost involved in providing props.

● the restricted working space available in propped areas.
● the adverse effect on speed of construction.
3.6 Partial Connection
In unpropped construction the size of the steel section is often determined by the weight of wet concrete, and the size of
the slab is determined independently by its transverse span. If sufficient connectors are provided to transfer the
maximum longitudinal force in the steel section or concrete slab, the resistance of the unpropped composite beam
becomes very high. Indeed composite beams so formed are often capable of carrying several times the required live load.
To avoid providing such excess resistance the partially connected composite member is used.
It has been assumed so far that the connection will carry all the shear force in the beam up to the time when the steel
section has fully yielded. However, because the resistance of the unpropped beam is so high, it is often possible to reduce
the number of connectors. This reduction results in a beam where the failure mode would be by connector failure prior to
the steel having fully yielded or the concrete having reached its crushing strength.
Such beams require fewer connectors thereby reducing the overall construction cost. They are, however, less stiff since
fewer connectors allow more slip to occur between the slab and steel section. Partial connection will be covered more fully

in Lecture 10.6.2.
4. CONTINUOUS COMPOSITE BEAMS

Although simply supported beam design is most common there may be situations where use of continuous beams
is appropriate. These beams will be covered in detail in Lecture 10.4.1 and 10.4.2 and only a brief review will be
presented here.
The mid span regions of continuous composite beams behave in the same way as the simple span composite beam.
However the support regions display a considerably different behaviour. This behaviour is shown diagrammatically in
Figure 11.

The concrete in the mid span region is generally in compression and the steel in tension. Over the support this
distribution reverses as the moment is now hogging. The concrete cannot carry significant tensile strains and therefore
cracks, leaving only the embedded reinforcement as effective in resisting moment.
The steel section at the support then has to carry compressive strains throughout a considerable proportion of its depth.
Slender sections are prone to local buckling in this region and any intervening column section may need to be strengthened
to absorb the compression across its web.
As well as local buckling it is possible that lateral-torsional buckling of the beam may occur in these regions.
● Composite beams, subject to sagging moments, fail by yielding of the steel section, crushing of the concrete slab or shear of
the connectors.
● Unpropped composite beams need the steel section to be strong and stiff enough to carry the weight of wet concrete.
● Partially connected composite beams may be used to ensure economy of shear connection.
● Continuous composite beams need to be designed to resist both sagging and hogging bending. The slab reinforcement carries
the tensile strain in the hogging region. The steel section must also be checked for possible buckling.
1. Book, H., "Verbundbau", Werner Verlag, Dusseldorf, 1987.
2. Johnson, R.P., "Composite Construction 1 and 2".
3. Hart, F., Henn, W., Sontag H., "Multi-storey Buildings in Steel", Second Edition, Collins, London 1985.
4. Lawson, R.M., "Design of Composite Slabs and Beams with Steel Decking". SCI Publication 055, 1989.
5. Bucheli, P., Crisinel M., "Verbundtrager im Hochbau", Schweizerische Zentralstelle fur Stahlbau (S25), Zürich 1982.
6. Huess, H. "Verbundtrager im Stahlhockbau", Verlag Wilhelm Ernst & John Berlin, Muenchen, D_sseldorf, 1973.
7. Eurocode 4: "Design of Composite Steel and Concrete Structures": ENV1994-1-1: Part 1.1: General rules and rules for
building, CEN (in press).

L1003
ESDEP WG 10

OBJECTIVE/SCOPE
To describe the design of a single span steel-concrete composite beam with full shear connection, using a plastic design
method to determine the internal force distribution at ultimate limit state; to describe an approximate method to check
the deflection at serviceability limit state.
PREREQUISITES
RELATED LECTURES
SUMMARY
This lecture introduces the design criteria for a single span composite beam, concentrating on the determination of its
resistance to positive bending moment, to vertical shear, or to a combination of both. A plastic design method is used.
The conditions for which this method applies are summarised to show the differences between simply supported
and continuous beams. The design method also assumes that only symmetrical steel sections are used and that full
shear connection between the steel and concrete exists at ultimate limit state. Special attention is paid to the concrete
slab acting as the compression flange of the composite beam. The effective width and maximum longitudinal shear force of
the concrete slab are defined. The internal force distribution within the cross-section is described. Formulae based on
the distribution are given which determine the moment and shear resistance of the beam. Serviceability aspects are also
briefly discussed.
1. INTRODUCTION
The object of this lecture is to explain the principles and rules for the design of a simply supported, i.e. single span,
composite steel-concrete beam with full shear connection. Typical cross-sections of composite beams are shown in Figure
1. For simplicity, only the symmetrical steel sections 1a, 1c and 1d are considered. The relevant symbols are given in Figure 2.

L1003

L1003
For full shear connection the total longitudinal shear resistance of the shear connectors (Rq), distributed between the point
of maximum positive bending moment and a simple end support, must be greater than (or equal to) the lesser of the
resistance of the steel beam (Rs = Afy/γa) when the plastic neutral axis is in the slab, or the resistance of the concrete flange
(Rc = 0,85 beff hc fck/γc) when the plastic neutral axis is in the steel section.
The resistance to longitudinal shear (see Figure 3, criterion III) of a shear connection is not discussed here. An idealised
load-slip behaviour of the connector, as illustrated in Figure 4, is assumed; the type of shear connector which exhibits
this behaviour is discussed in Lectures 10.6.1, 10.6.2 and 10.6.3.

L1003

L1003
This lecture concentrates on the resistance of the beam to moment and vertical shear, which have maximum values at
cross-sections I and II respectively, as shown in Figure 3). Between these critical cross-sections, each cross-section is
subjected to a bending moment and a vertical shear. This combination is usually only of importance in the case where
the loading includes point or line loads, as shown in Figure 5; here the maximum moment and maximum vertical shear
act together at a critical cross-section adjacent to the point load or line load; special attention must be paid to this critical
cross-section.
In the case of statically determinate beams, such as simply supported single span beams, it is easy to determine the
distribution of bending moments from the equilibrium conditions. To determine the stress distribution over the cross-
section, plastic behaviour is assumed. The advantage of this method is that the calculation of the resistance is based on
the "maximum moment at failure" condition; this method is also easy to understand and apply.
Steel sections can be classified into 4 classes depending on the local buckling behaviour of the flange and/or web
in compression. In the case of a simply supported single span, plastic design methods may be used for Class 1 and 2
sections; sections of Class 2 are only allowed when no rotation capacity is required. These classes are described as follows
(see also Figure 6 and Lecture 7.2):
● Class 1: plastic cross-sections which can form a plastic hinge with sufficient rotation capacity for plastic analysis.
● Class 2: compact cross-sections which can develop the plastic moment of resistance but have limited rotation capacity.

L1003
The steel compression flange, if properly attached to the concrete flange, may be assumed to be of Class 1.
Table 1 (part of Table 4.2 of Eurocode 4 [1]), classifies steel webs in compression according to their width to thickness
ratios. In a composite beam the compression part of the web, in positive bending, is always less than half the total depth for
a symmetrical section. A width-to-thickness ratio less than 83ε will, therefore, always be sufficient for a symmetric
steel section in positive bending. Therefore, instability of the web is not critical for the IPE-sections (according to CEN-EN
19-1986) and the HE-sections (according to CEN-EN 53-1986).
Because the part in compression is always laterally restrained when the beam is in positive bending, it is not necessary to
check lateral-torsional buckling (see Lecture 10.4.1 and 10.4.2). Other aspects, such as shear buckling are discussed briefly
in Section 4. Web crippling, however, is beyond the scope of this lecture - see Eurocode 3 for further information [2].
For simply supported single spans, the concrete flange is in compression and cracking of the concrete is not relevant.
Only deflections and vibrations are important. Lectures 10.5.1 and 10.5.2 discuss these topics.
2. DESIGN ASPECTS OF THE CONCRETE FLANGE IN COMPRESSION
2.1 Effective width
A typical form of composite construction consists of a slab connected to a series of parallel steel members. The construction
is essentially a series of interconnected T-beams with wide, thin flanges, as shown in Figure 7(a). In such a system "shear
lag" may cause the flange width to be not fully effective in resisting compression [3]. This phenomenon can be explained
by reference to a simply supported member, part of whose length is shown on plan in Figure 7(b).

L1003
The maximum axial force in the slab is at midspan, while the force at the ends is zero. The change in longitudinal force
is associated with shear in the plane of the slab. The resulting deformation, shown in Figure 7(b), is inconsistent with
simple bending theory, in which initially plane sections are assumed to remain plane after bending. The edge regions of the
slab are effectively less stiff, and a non-uniform distribution of longitudinal bending stress is obtained across the

L1003
section. Simple theory gives an effective value for width, beff, such that the area GHJK equals the area ACDEF.
The ratio beff/bv depends not only on the relative dimensions of the system, but also on the type of loading, the
support conditions and the cross-section considered; Figure 7c shows the effect of the ratio of the beam spacing to span
length, bv/L, and the type of loading, on a simply supported span.
In most codes of practice very simple formulae are given for the calculation of effective widths, although this may lead to
some loss of economy. According to Eurocode 4 [1], for simply supported beams, the effective width on each side of the
steel web should be taken as , but not greater than half the distance to the next adjacent web, nor greater than the
projection of the cantilever slab for edge beams.
The length lo is the approximate distance between points of zero bending moment. It is equal to the span for simply
supported beams.
A constant effective width may be assumed over the whole of each span. This value may be taken as the midspan value for
a beam.
2.2 Maximum Longitudinal Shear in the Concrete Slab
In the concrete slab, a complex (three-dimensional) force distribution occurs in the region of the connector. The reason for
this behaviour is that bending moments and vertical shear forces act parallel as well as perpendicular to the beam. It is
difficult to find a physical design model for this complex stress distribution, and therefore, most design rules are
empirical. Two design criteria can be identified:
● longitudinal shear in the concrete slab, along the shear planes indicated in Figure 8.
● splitting of the concrete.
It is possible to avoid these failure modes by providing sufficient transverse reinforcement and choosing the correct
distance between the connectors. In some cases, satisfying these criteria may lead to an increase in concrete slab thickness
or resistance.
Longitudinal shear resistances are given in Chapter 6 of Eurocode 4 [1].
If the connectors are welded or shot fired through a continuous profiled steel sheet of a composite slab, the cross-section of
the steel sheet can also be considered as transverse reinforcement.

L1003
3. DESIGN CALCULATION
There are design performance requirements for both the ultimate and serviceability limit states.
Ultimate Limit State
In designing a composite beam for the ultimate limit state, it is necessary to check the resistance of the critical cross-
sections, and the resistance to longitudinal shear between each adjacent pair of critical cross-sections (see Figure 3). The
forces and moments due to factored loads are required to be less than the design resistance. This can be expressed by:
Sd ≤ Rd
where
Sd is the design value of an internal force or moment
Rd is the corresponding design value of the resistance
The design value of an internal force or moment, Sd, can be determined when the static system, its geometrical data
(when relevant) and the combination of the design values of the loads are known.
Characteristic values for loadings are given in Eurocode 1: Basis of Design and Actions in Structures [4]. To determine Sd,
for example for criteria I of Figure 3, the characteristic permanent and variable (in this case uniformly distributed) loads
must be multiplied by the corresponding γ -factors and combined as follows:
Sd = (l2/8){γGΣGkj + γQ(Qk1 + ΣQki)} (1)
which, using the values recommended in Eurocode 4 gives:
Sd = (l2/8){1,35ΣGkj + 1,50(Qk1 + ΣQki)} (2)
where
Gk,j is the characteristic value of the permanent load
Qk,l is the characteristic value of one of the variable loads
Qk,i is the characteristic value of the other variable loads.
To determine the design resistance, Rd, of members or cross-sections, the design values of the material strengths
and geometrical data (when relevant) are necessary. The design value of a material property represents its lower
characteristic value divided by its corresponding partial safety factor; the partial factors for material properties (and
strengths) are:
Combination Structural Concrete Steel reinforcement Profiled steel sheeting

steel
Fundamental γa = 1,1 γc = 1,5 γs = 1,15 γap = 1,1

L1003
Other γM values, such as that for the shear connection (studs, friction grip bolts etc.) are given in Eurocode 4 [1].
The use of these material factors in determining design resistances is shown in Section 4, Equations (3) to (9), for the case
of moment resistance, ie. criterion I of Figure 3.
Serviceability Limit State
In the design of a composite beam for the serviceability limit state, it must be shown that, under service conditions,
the deflections and vibrations do not exceed allowable values and that cracking of the concrete is limited. The design value
of the effect of loads Ed shall be less than (or equal to) a nominal value Cd (or a related function Rd):
Ed ≤ Cd or, Ed ≤ Rd
This aspect of design is discussed in greater detail in Lecture 10.5.1.
4. PLASTIC DESIGN METHOD
4.1 Positive Bending Moment
The ultimate load resistance of a simply supported beam is determined by the moment of resistance of the critical cross-
section [5]. The determination of the moment of resistance of the cross-section is based on the following assumptions:
a. The shear connectors are able to transfer the forces occurring between the steel and the concrete at failure (full
shear connection).
b. No slip occurs between the steel and the concrete (complete interaction).
c. Tension in concrete is neglected.
d. The strains caused by bending are directly proportional to the distance from the neutral axis; in other words, plane
cross-sections remain plane after bending, even at failure.
e. The relationship between the stress σa, and the strain εa of steel is schematically represented by the diagram shown in
Figure 9a.

L1003
f. The relation between the stress σc and the strain εc of concrete is schematically represented by the diagram shown in
Figure 9b.
Both materials are assumed to behave in a perfectly plastic manner, and therefore, the strains are not limited. This
assumption is similar to that made when calculating the plastic moment resistance for Class 1 steel sections
used independently. The idealised diagram for steel is shown in Figure 9a. The deviation between the real and the
idealised diagram is much smaller than for concrete as shown in Figure 9b. The use of fck for the maximum stress in
the concrete will clearly result in an unconservative design although in practice the overestimate does not appear to be
very significant. To allow for this overestimate a conservative approximation for concrete strength (kfck) is used in design.
Experimental research has proved that the plastic method with k = 0,85, leads to a safe value for the moment of resistance.
This is only true if the upper flange cross-section is less than or equal to that of the lower flange, as will usually be the case.
Application of these assumptions leads to the stress distributions shown in Figures 10 - 12. Clearly, the calculation of
the moment of resistance Mc is dependent on the position of the neutral axis, which is determined by the relationship
between the cross-section of the concrete slab and the cross-section of the steel beam. Two cases can be identified as follows:
a. the neutral axis is situated in the concrete slab:
1. in the solid part of the composite slab (Rs < Rc; see Figure 10)

L1003
2. in the rib of the composite slab (Rs= Rc)
b. the neutral axis is situated in the steel beam:
1. in the flange of the steel section (Rs > Rc > Rw; see Figure 11)
2. in the web of the steel section (Rs > Rc < Rw; see Figure 13)

L1003

L1003
The plastic moment resistance, assuming full shear connection and a symmetric steel section, is expressed in terms of
the resistance of various elements of the beam as follows:
Resistance of concrete flange : Rc = beff hc 0,85 fck /γc
Resistance of steel flange : Rf = b tf fy /γa
Resistance of shear connection : Rq = N Q
Resistance of steel beam : Rs = A fy /γa

L1003
Resistance of clear web depth : Rv = d tw fy /γa
Resistance of overall web depth : Rw = Rs - 2 Rf
where
A is the area of steel beam
b is the breadth of steel flange
beff is the effective breadth of concrete flange
h is the overall depth of the steel beam
hp is the depth of profiled steel sheet
hc is the depth of concrete flange above upper flange of profiled steel sheet
d is the clear depth of web between fillets
fck is the characteristic cylinder compressive strength of the concrete
Mpl is the plastic moment resistance of steel beam
N is the number of shear connectors in shear span length between two critical cross-sections
Q is the resistance of one shear connector
tf is the thickness of steel flange
tw is the thickness of web
ε is
Full shear connection applies when Rq is greater than (or equal to) the lesser of Rc and Rs.
The concrete flange is assumed to be a solid concrete slab, or a composite slab with profiled steel sheets running
perpendicular to the beam. The Equations are conservative for a composite slab where the profiled steel sheets run parallel
to the beam because in the resistance Rc, the concrete in the ribs is neglected.
For a composite section with full shear connection, where the steel beam has equal flanges, the plastic moment resistance
Mc for positive moments is given by the following:
Case a1:
If the neutral axis is situated in the concrete flange as shown in Figure 10, Rs < Rc and the positive bending moment
of resistance is:
Mpl.Rd = Rs z

L1003
where: z = h/2 + hp + hc - x/2
x = (Afy /γa) / (beff kfck /γc).hc = (Rs/Rc ).hc
Mpl.Rd = Rc (h/2 + hp + hc - Rs.hc/2Rc) (3)
Case a2:
If the neutral axis is situated in the rib of the composite slab, Rs = Rc and Equation (3) can be rewritten as:
Mpl.Rd = Rs (h + 2hp + hc)/2
or, Mpl.Rd = Rs.h/2+ Rc.(hc/2 + hp) (4)
Case b1:
If the neutral axis is situated in the steel flange, Rs > Rc > Rw. From equilibrium of normal forces it can be shown that the
axial compression force R in the steel flange (see Figure 11) is:
Rc + R = Rs - 2 R + R → 2 R = Rs - Rc → R = (Rs - Rc)/2
This axial force R is located in the middle of the upper part of the flange, with a depth equal to: (Rtf)/Rf = (Rs - Rc).
tf/2Rf . Therefore, the moment of resistance is equal to the resistance expressed by the Equation (4) minus (2R)½(Rs -
Rc).tf/2Rf equal to (Rs-Rc)2.tf/4Rf as illustrated in Figure 11.
This can be written as:
Mpl.Rd = Rs.h/2+ Rc (hc/2 + hp) - (Rs - Rc)2.tf/4Rf (5)
Case b2:
If the neutral axis is in the web of the steel section, Rs > Rc < Rw. In this case, a part of the web is in compression and,
as already discussed, this could influence the classification of the web.
Webs not fully effective ("non-compact webs") are not treated in this lecture. If the depth to thickness ratio of the web of a
steel section is less than or equal to 83ε/(1-Rc/Rv) where ε = , it is considered as a compact web and the total
depth is effective. The positive bending resistance is as illustrated in Figure 12:

L1003
Mpl.Rd = Rc z + Mpl,N-red.Rd = Rc.(h + 2 hp + hc)/2+ Mpl,N-red.Rd (6)
where:
Mpl,N-red.Rd = plastic moment resistance of the steel beam reduced by a normal force Rc.
According to Eurocode 3 [2] the plastic moment reduced by a normal force for standard rolled I and H steel sections, can
be approximated by:
Mpl,N-red.Rd = 1,11 Mpl.a.Rd (1 - Rc/Rs) ≤ Mpl.Rd (7)

L1003
So the resistance can be written as:
Mpl.Rd = Rc.(h + 2 hp + hc)/2 + 1,11 Mpl.a.Rd (1 - Rc/Rs) (8)
Mpl,N-red.Rd can also be written as Mpl.a.Rd - (Rc2/Rv2)(d/4)
In this case the moment of resistance is:
Mpl.Rd = Rc.(h + 2 hp + hc)/2 + Mpl.a.Rd - (Rc2/Rv2)(d/4) (9)
The formulae for the positive moment of resistance values are summarised in Table 2.
4.2 Vertical Shear
Cross-section II of Figure 3 is only subjected to vertical shear. The contribution of the concrete slab to the resistance to
vertical shear is small and difficult to determine and is, therefore, neglected. Therefore, only the web of the steel section
and adjacent parts of the steel flange are taken into account. The vertical shear resistance, according to Eurocode 3 [2], is
given by:
Vpl,Rd = Av fy /(γa√3) (10)
The shear area Av, for rolled I, H and channel sections loaded parallel to the web, can be taken as: 1,04 h tw.
In addition, the shear buckling resistance of a steel web must be verified when d/tw>69ε for an unstiffened (and uncased)
web. For a simply-supported beam, without intermediate transverse stiffeners, with full shear connection and subjected
to uniformly distributed loading, Eurocode 4 [1] gives the following simplified rules:
for w≤ 1,5 → VRd = Vpl,Rd (11)
for 1,5 < w< 3,0 → VRd = Vpl,Rd (3/ w + 1/5 w- 1,3) (12)
for 3,0 < w< 4,0 → VRd = Vpl,Rd 0,9/ w (13)
In accordance with Eurocode 3 the web slenderness w is given by:
w = {fy/√3τcr}1/2 ≤ 4 (14)
In practice, an I-section girder has usually a transverse load bearing stiffener at the support, but no intermediate
transverse stiffeners. In such a case the elastic critical shear resistance τcr is given by:
τcr = (15)
If the factored internal force VSd, is less than Vcr = d tw τcr, the shear connectors can be uniformly distributed; if not,
more connectors should be placed near the support.

L1003
4.3 Vertical Shear in Combination with Bending Moment
Where the vertical shear VSd exceeds half the plastic shear resistance Vpl.Rd given by Equation (10) due allowance shall
be made for its effect on the plastic moment of resistance. This is of importance at cross-section (I+II) of Figure 5, where
both load effects, vertical shear and bending, are at a maximum. The following methods are used for such cases:
● If the neutral axis of the composite beam is situated in the concrete slab or in the flange of the steel section, the previous
Equations (3) - (5) can be used where Rs is replaced by the reduced resistance of the steel beam, such that:
Rs,red = Rs - (2VSd/VRd - 1) Vpl.Rd for: 0,5 < VSd/VRd ≤ 1 (16)
In this case, part of the middle of the web of the steel section, is reserved to resist the vertical shear. The depth of this part
of the web is
(2VSd/VRd - 1) h
providing a depth equal to zero when VSd/VRd = 0.5 and equal to h where VSd/VRd = 1,0
● If the neutral axis of the composite beam is situated in the web of the steel section, the previous Equations (8) and (9) can be
used where Mpl.Rd is replaced by a reduced plastic moment of resistance; according to Eurocode 3 [2] this resistance should
be calculated from the stress distribution given in Figure 13 as briefly discussed below.
The part of the web that is reserved for vertical shear is located in the middle of the web depth. The section modulus of the
web will, therefore, be reduced by:
¼tw ( (2VSd/VRd - 1) h)2 for 0,5 < VSd/VRd ≤ 1 (17)
which becomes:
¼tw h2 (1 - (2VSd/VRd - 1)2 ) (18)
If the factor ρ is assumed to be equal to (2VSd/VRd - 1)2 the section modulus of the web can also be written as:
¼tw h2 (1 - ρ )
In other words, it is possible to take into account the vertical shear by reducing the design yield stress in the web by a factor
(1 - ρ) for the area Av (1 - do/d) where do is the depth of web neglected when calculating Mpl.Rd. The plastic moment
of resistance reduced by vertical shear can be expressed approximately by:
Mpl,V-red.Rd = {1 - ρ(1 - do/d).A/(2A - Av)}.Mpl.Rd (19)
These rules are shown in Figure 14 in which Mpl.Rd is the plastic moment of resistance when ρ = 1.

L1003
● Plastic analysis of the cross-section is used to determine the positive bending moment resistance of composite beams
(assuming that either Class 1 or 2 sections are used).
● Eurocode 4 gives simple formulae for the effective width of concrete slab acting compositely with the steel; this "concrete
flange" must be detailed to avoid longitudinal shear and splitting.
● Design of composite beams involves ensuring that the forces and moments due to factored loads are less than the
corresponding design resistance.
● Various expressions for the design positive moment of resistance can be derived; these depend on the position of the neutral
axis relative to the concrete slab, steel flanges, etc.
● Eurocode 4 gives simplified rules governing the design shear resistance of simply supported composite beams, with full shear
connection, subject to uniformly distributed loading.
● Where high shear and moment are coincident part of the steel web is reserved to carry shear, resulting in a decrease in
moment resistance.
6. REFERENCES
[1] Eurocode 4: "Design of Composite Steel and Concrete Structures": ENV1994-1-1: Part 1.1: General rules and rules
[3] Dowling, P. J., Knowles, Owens, G., "Structural Steel Design", Steel Construction Institute, 1988 (UK).
[4] Eurocode 1: "Basis of Design and Actions on Structures", CEN (in preparation).
[5] Stark, J.W.B., van Hove, B. W. E., "Composite Steel and Concrete Beams with Partial Shear Connection", HERON,
TNO-Building and Construction Research/TU-Delft publication, 2nd quarter 1990 (UK).

L1003
1. Essentials of EC4, prepared by the ECCS-TC 11, "Composite Structures" will be published early 1993 by the European
Convention for Constructional Steelwork, Brussels.
2. Bode, "Verbundbau, Konstruktion und Berechnung", Werner Verlag, 1987 (Germany).
3. Stark, J. W. B.; "Introduction of Eurocode 4, General Methods of Design of Composite Construction", IABSE Short Course,
Brussels, September 1990, IABSE Report No. 61, ISBN 3-85748-062-2.
4. Verbundträgen im Hochbau. Theoretische Grundlagen, Beispiele, Bemessungstabellen, Schweinerische Zentralstelle für
Stahlbau, Bericht A3, 1982.
5. Narayanan, R. (ed), Composite Steel Structures. Advances in Design and Construction. Proceedings of the International
Conference, Cardiff, UK, July 1987. Elsevier Applied Science, London.
Table 1 Maximum width-to-thickness ratios for steel webs
Table 2 Positive moment of resistance values
Rs < Rc

L1003
Rs = Rc
Rs > Rc > Rw
Rs > Rc < Rw
OR:
and compact webs

ESDEP WG 10
Lecture 10.4.1: Continuous Beams I

OBJECTIVE/SCOPE
To describe the behaviour of continuous composite beams; to explain the use of rigid-plastic analysis to determine
internal moments and forces, and to derive plastic resistance moments.
PREREQUISITES
RELATED LECTURES
Lecture 10.4.2: Continuous Beams II
SUMMARY
The advantages of continuous beams are summarised and failure modes which result from continuity in composite
beams are identified. Plastic methods may be used to determine internal moments and forces, provided that rotation
capacity is sufficient and lateral-torsional buckling does not occur. The scope for plastic methods is related to
classification of cross-sections in terms of limiting breadth/thickness ratios for structural steel elements in compression.
Other measures needed to ensure adequate rotation capacity are also described. Simple values for effective width of the
concrete flange are presented and expressions for the negative resistance moment of Class 1 and Class 2 sections are
given. The application of rigid-plastic analysis to determine the distribution of bending moments is demonstrated.
1. INTRODUCTION
Continuous beams offer the following advantages over simple construction:
1. greater load resistance.

2. greater stiffness.
These result in a smaller steel section being required to withstand specified loading.

In this lecture, members are assumed to be continuous over simple supports or to be rigidly connected to columns in
braced frames. Additional cost will be incurred if special methods, such as more complicated jointing, have to be
provided to achieve continuity. However, continuity of structural steel can be achieved economically by running a
single length of section across two or more spans. The concrete is cast continuously over the supports and, to control
shrinkage and other cracking, the concrete is reinforced. A typical cross-section of a composite beam, in the region of an
internal support, is shown in Figure 1.
The disadvantages associated with continuous construction are:
1. increased complexity in design.

2. susceptibility to buckling in the negative moment region over internal supports (see Figure 2a). Indeed this
negative moment region may extend over the whole of one span during construction (see Figure 2b). Two forms
of buckling may also be involved: local buckling of the web and/or bottom flange, and lateral-torsional buckling.
Only the former is treated here; lateral-torsional buckling is discussed in the following Lecture 10.4.2.

After conceptual structural design has been done, which might possibly include initial sizing of members based on
experience or rough calculations, the designer will wish to proceed to detailed calculations for the structure. The next
stage is therefore determination of internal moments and forces in critical regions for the various loading cases and limit
states. This is known as "global analysis" and procedures for this, at the ultimate limit state, are discussed here and in
the following lecture.
Internal moments in continuous composite beams may be conveniently determined by elastic analysis or, subject to
certain conditions, by rigid-plastic analysis. Whether plastic analysis is appropriate depends on the ductility of the
reinforcement and on the susceptibility of the steel section to local buckling, as explained below. Elastic analysis is
treated in the following lecture.
2. RIGID-PLASTIC GLOBAL ANALYSIS

This is a well-established method of analysis for determining internal moments and forces in continuous steel structures.
It is based on the assumption that plastic regions are concentrated at discrete points which may be represented by
"plastic hinges". For the analysis to be valid, critical cross-sections must be capable of developing and sustaining their
plastic resistance moment until, under increasing load, sufficient regions have fully-yielded for the plastic hinges to
form a mechanism.
The mechanism arises as a result of redistribution of moment which is achieved by rotation of the already-yielded

regions. To ensure that the resulting strains can be accommodated without a reduction in resistance below the plastic
moment, limitations must be placed on the slenderness of the elements of the cross-sections which are in compression.
For steel structures, sections which can form a plastic hinge with the rotation capacity required for plastic global
analysis, are designated Class 1 cross-sections. The limitations on flange slenderness and web slenderness for such
sections are given in design recommendations, such as Eurocode 3 [1], as discussed in Lectures 7.2 and 7.3. These
limitations recognise that some loss of rotation capacity due to local buckling will be offset by beneficial effects such as
strain-hardening and the finite length of plastic regions. However, because of the latter effect, it is necessary that cross-
sections away from the theoretical locations are also in Class 1, or at least in Class 2. By definition, Class 2 cross-
sections can develop the plastic resistance moment of the section although local buckling limits the rotation capacity and
prevents full redistribution of moment at such sections.
3. BEHAVIOUR OF CONTINUOUS COMPOSITE BEAMS

The flexural performance of continuous composite beams has been investigated by tests in which the secondary
elements (shear connectors, transverse slab reinforcement) were conservatively designed in order to preclude forms of
failure such as loss of interaction and longitudinal splitting of the slab. Initially, the behaviour is substantially linear
(Figure 3), but as load increases reduction in flexural stiffness occurs.

In hogging moment regions, fine cracks appear in the concrete at relatively low levels of load. As loading continues,
cracking continues over an increasing length and yielding and later strain-hardening may occur in the reinforcement and
in the lower (compression) part of the steel section. Redistribution of moment will occur to the mid-span regions.
Provided that collapse of the beam is not triggered by crushing of the midspan concrete, by failure in shear, or by
fracture of the reinforcement, the support section will develop flange buckles, eventually causing a loss of moment of
resistance which initiates collapse (Figure 4).
In mid-span sagging moment regions, yielding occurs in the lower part of the steel section and crushing occurs in the
top of the concrete slab, causing redistribution of moment to the supports. Typical sagging moment-curvature curves are
shown in Figure 5. The moment achieved can be significantly greater than the theoretical plastic resistance moment

(Mpl) of the composite section, mainly on account of strain-hardening of the structural steel. It is evident from Figure 5,
that deformation may continue without drop in moment for a considerable curvature. However, the rotation is small in
composite beams having small slabs and/or weak concrete, large steel sections and/or high yield stress; in such beams
crushing limits the rotation that will take place before reduction in moment occurs.
4. ROTATION CAPACITY FOR PLASTIC ANALYSIS

The nature of composite beams implies that a large amount of redistribution may be required before the collapse
mechanism is complete.

In the early stages of loading the beam behaves substantially elastically, with the bending moments at the supports and
in the midspan region being unequal. For example, with a continuous beam of equal spans supporting uniform
distributed loading (Figure 6), the bending moment at the supports is up to twice as large as that at midspan. However,
the plastic resistance moment of midspan regions ranges from being larger than that at the support, sometimes by a
factor as high as three, to being smaller (not usually the case). Consequently, a large amount of deformation can be
required with redistribution being either from or to the support, the former being the usual case. Figure 7 shows as an
example a two-span continuous beam subject to uniform distributed loading. The rotation required on each side of the
support to complete a plastic hinge mechanism clearly increases as the resistance moment at the support (M′pl)
decreases relative to that at midspan (Mpl).

In continuous composite beams therefore, the rotation capacity required at a particular critical cross-section will depend
on:
1. the relative length of each span.

2. the type and position of loading on each span (uniformly distributed, central point load, loads at quarter-points,
etc).
3. the patterns of load on the spans (adjacent spans fully loaded, alternate spans fully loaded, etc).
4. the relative magnitudes of the hogging and sagging moments of resistance along the beam.
5. the moment-rotation characteristics of cross-sections along the beam.
The eventual failure mode of a beam is strongly influenced by the strain-hardening and falling branch parts of the
moment-rotation curves in the hogging and sagging regions, for which there is no simple method of prediction.
Requirements for the satisfactory use of rigid-plastic analysis are therefore based on test results, supplemented by
parametric studies undertaken by computer. The scope for the application of the method is therefore bounded by that of
the parametric studies.

5. RIGID-PLASTIC ANALYSIS IN EUROCODE 4

The requirements proposed in Eurocode 4 [2], Section 4.5.2.2, to achieve sufficient rotation capacity, permit the scope
for rigid-plastic analysis to be given without reference to the strain-hardening properties of steel, which are not usually
known by the designer. The requirements are:
1. At each plastic hinge location, the cross-section of the structural steel component shall be symmetrical about the
plane of its web.
2. All effective cross-sections at plastic hinge locations are in Class 1; all other effective cross-sections are in Class
1 or Class 2.
3. Adjacent spans do not differ in length by more than 50% of the shorter span.
4. End spans do not exceed 115% of the length of the adjacent span.
5. In any span in which more than half the total design load is concentrated within a length of one-fifth of the span,
then at any hinge location where the concrete slab is in compression, not more than 15% of the overall depth of
the member should be in compression (this condition does not apply if the hinge will be the last to form in that
span).
6. The steel compression flange at a plastic hinge location is laterally restrained (this is usually so, as explained
later).
6. CLASSIFICATION OF CROSS-SECTIONS
It can be seen from the above requirements that, unlike steel structures, the definition of a Class 1 section in terms of
limiting breadth/thickness ratios is not in itself sufficient to ensure always that enough rotation capacity will be available
for plastic analysis in composite construction. Provided, however, that the requirements given above concerning relative
lengths of spans and arrangement of loading are satisfied, the limits on breadth/thickness ratios for a Class 1 composite
section can be taken as those for steel sections given in Eurocode 3 [1]. The limits for Class 1 and Class 2 sections,
given in Tables 1(a) and (b) of this lecture, have been taken from Tables 4.1 and 4.2, respectively, of Eurocode 4 [2].
For Class 2 sections, web encasement may be assumed to contribute to resistance to local buckling, provided that it is
reinforced and mechanically connected to the steel section.
7. PLASTIC RESISTANCE MOMENTS

The plastic resistance of a composite beam in sagging bending has been described in Lecture 10.2. The upper flange of
the steel section may be in compression but is restrained laterally through its connection to the concrete slab.
The negative moment of resistance can be determined as described below. The lower flange of the steel section is now
in compression. However, this flange is usually restrained laterally by connection to a supporting element, such as a
column, which is itself prevented, at beam level, from moving out-of-plane.
It is assumed that the effect of co-existent vertical shear on the bending resistance can be neglected. When the shear
force exceeds half the plastic shear resistance of the web of the steel section, allowance should be made for its effect on
the resistance moment, as described in the previous lecture.
The cross-sections considered are shown in Figure 8(a) (for a solid slab) and Figure 9(a) (for a slab formed with profiled
steel sheeting). As in positive moment regions, an effective width is used to make allowance for in-plane shear
flexibility (shear lag) of the concrete flange.

The ratio of the effective width to the real flange width depends on many factors, including the type of loading, the

support conditions, the cross-section considered and the ratio of beam spacing to span. In most design recommendations
(particularly for buildings), however, very simple formulae are given for effective width, related to the span(s) of the
beam and expressed in terms of a length lo between points of contraflexure; these should be taken simply as follows:
End span lo = 0,8L
Internal span lo = 0,7L
where L is the distance between supports for the span concerned, i.e. L1 or L2 in Figure 10, which has been taken from
Figure 4.3 of Eurocode 4 [2]; this also gives a value appropriate for a span next to a cantilever, i.e. L3.
Research on shear lag in negative-moment regions has shown that when transverse reinforcement appropriate to the

shear connector spacing is provided, the cracked slab is able to transfer shear to longitudinal reinforcement at a distance
of several slab thicknesses on either side of the steel member. Over an internal support, Eurocode 4 gives:
lo = 0,25 (L1 + L2)
where L1 and L2 are the lengths of adjacent spans (Figure 10). Figure 10 also gives a value appropriate to the support
region of a cantilever.
To determine the negative moment of resistance, generally all properly anchored reinforcing bars within the effective
width are assumed to be stressed to their design yield strengths fsk/γs (Figure 8b). If the area of this reinforcement is Ar,
then the tensile resistance of the reinforcement, Rr, within the effective width of the slab under negative moment is
given by:
Rr = (fsk/γs)Ar
Due to the possibility of fracture caused by lack of ductility, nominal slab reinforcement (i.e. welded mesh or bars of
less than 10mm diameter) should be neglected in calculating Rr. All bars included when calculating Rr should be of high
ductility (Class H) as defined in Eurocode 2 [3].
At flexural failure, the whole of the concrete slab may be assumed to be cracked, whilst all the structural steel is at its
design yield strength fy/γa in tension or compression. The plastic neutral axis may be in the top flange or in the web. For
the latter case, the stresses are shown in Figure 8(b). The position of the neutral axis is determined by considering
longitudinal equilibrium.
Let Rw be the axial resistance of the web over a depth d between the flanges. Then for a steel section with equal flanges,
the plastic neutral axis will lie in the web if Rr<Rw, whilst if Rr>Rw, the neutral axis will lie in the steel flange. For each
case an expression for the negative plastic resistance moment M′pl, can be determined by considering the moment of
each rectangular stress block about the neutral axis.
Case 1: Rr < Rw (plastic neutral axis lies in web)
M′pl = Ma + Rr
where Ma is the plastic resistance moment of the steel section alone;
D is the overall depth of the steel section;
Dr is the distance from the top of the steel beam to the centroid of the reinforcement.
Case 2: Rr > Rw (plastic neutral axis lies in steel flange)
Assuming the thickness of the flange is small:

M′pl = Rs + Rr Dr
where Rs is the tensile resistance of the steel section. For a section of cross-sectional area Aa,
Rs = (fy/γa)Aa.
The cross-section shown in Figure 9 shows a slab formed with profiled steel sheeting. The sheeting component is
usually neglected when determining the negative moment of resistance. For construction with profiled steel sheeting, it
is common practice to provide only a light mesh reinforcement in the slab, which, as mentioned above, is neglected
when calculating Rr. Thus if no further reinforcement is provided (additional to the sheeting and the mesh), the negative
plastic resistance moment is given by M′pl=Ma.

To design a suitable cross-section against flexure, it remains to determine the distribution of bending moments due to
the applied load.
Let the ratio of the negative to the positive moments of resistance in a proposed section be ψ. Therefore:
ψ = M′pl/Mpl
Consider the end span of a continuous composite beam, subject to a uniformly distributed design load of wf per unit
length. The bending moment diagram at collapse is as shown in Figure 11.
It can be shown by analysis of the collapse mechanism that:

ß=
and the required value of Mpl is:
Mpl = wfß2L2
For an internal span with equal support moments (Figure 12) it can similarly be shown that:
Mpl = wfL2/(8(1+ψ))
For other arrangements of loading and/or resistance moments, the required resistance may be determined from first
principles.
● Rigid-plastic analysis can be applied to continuous composite beams provided that the rotation capacity at each
plastic hinge location is sufficient to enable the required hinge rotation to develop and lateral-torsional buckling
does not occur.
● For composite beams in buildings, the requirement concerning rotation capacity may be assumed to be satisfied
when all cross-sections at plastic hinge locations are in Class 1, and restrictions on relative length of adjacent
spans and depth of neutral axis are satisfied.
● The plastic moment of resistance, in a hogging moment region, can be determined by application of rectangular
stress block theory to the structural steel section and ductile reinforcing steel within the effective cross-section.
● The effective widths of the concrete flange can be determined from approximations of the sagging and hogging
lengths of the beam.

● Distribution of internal moments is dependent on the ratio of the negative ("hogging") moment of resistance to
that in positive ("sagging") bending.
10. REFERENCES
[3] Eurocode 2: "Design of Concrete Structures": ENV 1992-1-1: Part 1.1: General rules and rules for buildings, CEN,
1992.

1. Johnson R.P., "Composite Structures of Steel and Concrete: Volume 1: Beams, Columns, Frames and
Applications in Building", Granada, 1975.
2. Johnson R.P. and Buckby R.J., "Composite Structures of Steel and Concrete: Volume 2: Bridges", Second
edition, Collins, 1986.
3. Brett P.R., Nethercot D.A. and Owens G.W., "Continuous Construction in Steel for Roofs and Composite
Floors", Structural Engineer, Volume 65A, October 1987, pp. 355-368.
4. Johnson R.P. and Hope-Gill M.C., "Tests on Three Three-Span Continuous Composite Beams", Proc.Inst.Civ.
Engrs., Part2, Vol.61, June 1976, pp. 367-381.
5. Johnson R.P. and Hope-Gill M.C., "Applicability of Simple Plastic Theory to Continuous Composite Beams",
Proc.Inst.Civ.Engrs., Part 2, Vol.61, March 1976, pp. 127-143.
6. Ansourian P., "Experiments on Continuous Composite Beams", Proc.Inst.Civ.Engrs., Part 2, Vol.71, December
1981, pp. 25-51.
The references given in Lecture 10.1 are also relevant.

ESDEP WG 10
Lecture 10.4.2: Continuous Beams II

OBJECTIVE/SCOPE
To describe the effects of cracking of concrete and yielding of steel on the distribution of bending moments; to
explain methods of elastic structural analysis which allow for these effects and for local buckling of the structural
steel section, and to discuss lateral-torsional buckling in continuous composite beams.
PREREQUISITES
Lecture 10.2: Behaviour of Beams
RELATED LECTURES
Lecture 10.10: Composite Bridges
Worked Example 10.3: Design of a Continuous Composite Beam
SUMMARY
Elastic analysis for internal moments and forces in continuous composite beams is of more general application than
plastic analysis. Redistribution is permitted, to allow for cracking of concrete and yielding of steel in the negative
moment regions. The extent of the redistribution depends on the classification of cross-sections at internal supports
and the assumptions made concerning the flexural rigidity in hogging bending.

For a cross-section in Class 3 or Class 4, stresses should be calculated by elastic theory, using an effective width for
the concrete flange. Account may be taken of creep of concrete in compression by means of an appropriate modular
ratio.
The typical pattern of bending moments in a continuous beam results in the lower flange being in compression over
internal supports. As the upper flange of the steel section is restrained by the concrete slab, lateral buckling of the
compression flange is accompanied by distortion of the cross-section. Account can be taken of the distortional
stiffness to reduce the effective slenderness for lateral-torsional buckling.
The design methods established in the lecture are illustrated by Worked Example 10.3.
1. INTRODUCTION
Bending moments in continuous composite beams at the ultimate limit state (ULS) may be determined by elastic
analysis or, subject to certain conditions, rigid-plastic analysis; the latter method is discussed in the previous Lecture
10.4.1. Elastic analysis has the advantage of more general application, and may also be more convenient to use as
this approach is also required to check the serviceability limit state (see Lectures 10.5.1 and 10.5.2).
In composite building structures no consideration of temperature effects is normally necessary in verifications for
ULS. Similarly, the effects of shrinkage may be neglected, except in analysis involving Class 4 sections. These
effects, therefore, are not considered in this lecture.
The scope of Eurocode 4 [1] does not include members with semi-rigid connections. Thus this lecture concerns
beams in which the steel section is either continuous over simple supports or is jointed by rigid connections.
In general, elastic analysis requires that the relative stiffnesses of adjacent spans be known. As the stiffnesses depend
on the second moment of area of cross-sections, it is necessary to know the effective width of the concrete flange and
the modulus of elasticity of concrete relative to that of steel (the modular ratio).
2. GENERAL PRINCIPLES
2.1 Effective Width of Concrete Flange
An effective width approach is used to make allowance for in-plane shear flexibility (shear lag). Values of effective
width may be related to distances along the beam between points of zero bending moment. Different values can be
calculated therefore for sagging moment regions and hogging moment regions, as described in Fig. 10 of the
previous lecture (taken from Fig. 4.3 of Eurocode 4 [1]). For global analysis, however, it has been found that shear
lag has little effect on the results. Hence a constant effective width may be assumed for the whole of each span,
which greatly simplifies the analysis. As the greater part of each span of a beam will usually be subject to sagging
bending moment, it is appropriate that the constant effective width be taken as the value at mid-span. For a
cantilever, however, the width should be that applicable at the support.
In determining the elastic section properties, the concrete is usually assumed to be uncracked under positive sagging
moment. If the slab is formed with profiled steel sheeting whose ribs are transverse to the steel section, as discussed
in Lecture 10.1, the area of concrete within the profile depth is ignored.
2.2 Modular Ratio
The elastic section properties of a composite beam may be expressed as those of an equivalent steel section by
dividing the effective width of the concrete flange by a modular ratio. Account is taken of the effects of creep of

concrete in compression by choice of an appropriate value for the ratio, as described in Lectures 10.5.1 and 10.5.2.
2.3 Load Arrangements and Load Cases
For continuous beams in buildings, without cantilevers, subject to mainly uniformly distributed loading, only the
following arrangements of variable load need be considered:
1. Alternate spans loaded.

2. Two adjacent spans loaded.
In both cases, the same value of the partial safety factor, γG, for permanent load may be taken for each span, whether
or not such load on a particular span is a favourable or unfavourable action.

Loss of stiffness due to cracking of concrete in negative moment regions has more effect on distribution of bending
moment in continuous composite beams than in continuous reinforced concrete members. This is because in the
latter loss of stiffness also occurs due to cracking in the mid-span regions. It has been found that in continuous
composite beams the bending moment at an internal support at the serviceability limit state (SLS) may be 15 to 30%
lower than that given by an elastic analysis in which no account is taken of cracking. At the ultimate limit (ULS) the
distribution of moments will also be influenced by yielding of steel.
The redistribution of moments cannot be predicted accurately because the longitudinal tensile stress in the concrete
slab, in negative moment regions, is influenced by the sequence of casting and the effects of temperature and
shrinkage, as well as by the proportions of the composite member and the dead and imposed loading. A wide
variation in flexural rigidity can occur along a composite beam of uniform cross-section, leading to uncertainty in the
distribution of bending moments and hence the amount of cracking to be expected.
Two methods of elastic global analysis are permitted by Eurocode 4 [1] for the ultimate limit state:
1. Cracked section method.

2. Uncracked section method.
Both may be used in conjunction with redistribution of support moments, the degree of redistribution being
dependent on the susceptibility of the steel section to local buckling.
3.1 Cracked Section Analysis
It is assumed that for a length of 15% of the span on each side of internal supports, the section properties are those of
the cracked section for negative moments. The assumption of a fixed proportion of the span as "cracked" is a
considerable simplification, since it makes feasible the use of formulae or standard computer programs for the global
analysis, without the need for iteration. The second moment of area of the cracked section is calculated using a
section comprising the steel member together with the effectively anchored reinforcement located within the
effective width of the concrete flange at the support (see Figure 1a). Outside the "15% length", the section properties
are those of the uncracked section. They are calculated using the mid-span effective width for the concrete flange but
ignoring any longitudinal reinforcement (Figure 1b).

The effect of assuming a length other than 15% to be cracked has been studied (see Figure 2). It was found that
bending moments calculated assuming a cracked length of 15% would be correct to within 5% if any proportion of
the span between 8% and 25% was in fact cracked; the simplifying assumption is therefore justified.

3.2 Uncracked Section Method
The properties of the uncracked section are used throughout. Thus, the analysis is not dependent on the amount of
reinforcement over the supports. Indeed for a continuous beam of uniform section, the analysis can be carried out
without any prior calculation of the cross-section. For equal spans, standard bending moment coefficients from
reference books can be used.
3.3 Redistribution of Support Moments for Elastic Analysis
Design codes commonly permit negative (hogging) moments at supports to be reduced, except at cantilevers, by
redistribution to mid-span. The extent of the redistribution is dependent, in part, on the method of analysis, as shown
in Table 1, which is taken from Eurocode 4 Table 4.3 [1].
Table 1 also shows that the degree of redistribution depends on the classification of the cross-section at the supports
(the limits which define the various classes of composite section will be discussed further in a later part of this
lecture).
Consider first a Class 4 section, i.e. one in which local buckling may prevent the design resistance from being
attained. If redistribution is less than the designer assumes, the steel web or the compression flange at the support
may buckle prematurely. For safety therefore, the maximum amount of redistribution to mid-span must be no greater
than the minimum redistribution likely to occur in practice. Redistribution is therefore not permitted if a "cracked"
analysis has been used.
Studies on composite beams with critical sections in Class 3 or Class 4 have shown that provided at least 10% of the
span is cracked, as is likely in practice, the reduction in support moment due to cracking will exceed 8% (Figure 2).
It is reasonable to assume therefore that in round terms the difference between an 'uncracked' and a 'cracked' analysis
with such beams is equivalent to 10% redistribution of the 'uncracked' support moments, as shown in Table 1 for
Class 3 and Class 4 sections.
There is no need to be so cautious for Class 3 ("semi-compact") sections as these can reach the design resistance,
with local buckling only preventing the development of the full plastic moment. Numerical analysis, using
experimental data on the falling branch of moment-rotation relationships for locally-buckling Class 3 cantilevers,
confirms that up to 20% redistribution can be allowed, as given in Table 1.
In a Class 2 section the full plastic moment resistance can be developed. It has been proposed that a redistribution of
30% be permitted from an "uncracked" analysis to allow for local yielding at the supports and cracking of concrete.
Comparisons with test results made during the assessment of Eurocode4 confirm the latter figure as appropriate for
sections which can attain the plastic resistance moment at the supports.
A beam with Class 2 (or Class 1) sections at supports will typically have a relatively low neutral axis, in order to
meet the restrictions on the depth of the web in compression required in such sections. Hence only light tensile
reinforcement can be provided and the ratio of "uncracked" to "cracked" flexural stiffness (I1/I2) can exceed 3.0. For
such beams, the bending moment at the internal support from "cracked" analysis may then be less than 70% of the
value from "uncracked" analysis and is almost always less than 85% of the "uncracked" value. This contrasts with
the studies referred to above and summarised in Figure 2, for which the ratio I1/I2 was nearer 2 than 3. It follows that
for Class 2 and Class 1 sections a 15% difference between "uncracked" and "cracked" analysis is more appropriate
than the 10% difference adopted for beams with sections in Class 3 or Class 4. A 15% difference is given in Table 1
for Class 2 and Class 1 sections.
Finally, a Class 1 section is one which can, not only attain the plastic resistance moment, but also sustain this level of
moment whilst rotation occurs. In steel structures, the limits on flange and web slenderness which define a 'plastic'

section are sufficiently restrictive to permit plastic global analysis without further checks on rotation capacity. This
is not true for composite beams, partly because the degree of redistribution needed to attain a plastic hinge
mechanism will be higher due to the greater relative moment resistance at mid-span. The conditions required for
plastic global analysis have been discussed in the previous lecture. The redistribution of elastic support moments
permitted in Table 1 for Class 1 sections is based on the recognition that some rotation capacity exists for such
sections.
4. CLASSIFICATION OF CROSS-SECTIONS OF BEAMS

The limitations on flange slenderness and web slenderness for Class 1 and Class 2 sections have been given in the
previous lecture. For a section in Class 1 or Class 2, the bending resistance can be calculated by rectangular stress
block theory, as described in Lectures 10.3 and 10.4.1. The determination of the plastic resistance moment is not
considered further in this lecture.
The limiting slendernesses for Class 3 cross-sections are those beyond which local buckling occurs in the structural
steel section prior to the yield stress being reached. It is logical, therefore, that the limits for composite beams,
without web encasement, are the same as those for steel beams. Eurocode 4 [1] specifies these, as shown in Tables
1a and 1b of Lecture 10.4.1; a Class 4 section is one which does not comply with these requirements.
Web encasement may be assumed to contribute to resistance to local buckling provided that it is reinforced and
mechanically connected to the steel section. A Class 3 web which is encased, may be treated effectively as if it was
in Class 2.
Provided the flanges are Class 1 or Class 2, the moment resistance of a section with an uncased web in Class 3 may
still be determined by plastic analysis, provided that part of the web is discounted. The resulting effective section in
hogging bending is shown in Figure 3. Without this approach, change of classification of the web from Class 2 to
Class 3, due to small changes in longitudinal reinforcement, would prevent plastic analysis from being used. As a
consequence, the calculated resistance moment would be unduly sensitive to changes in reinforcement.

5. ELASTIC RESISTANCE MOMENT

Following global analysis at ULS, it is necessary to ensure that the proposed sections possess adequate resistance to
the internal moments and forces.
For a section in Class 3 or Class 4, stresses should be calculated by elastic theory. To determine the section
properties, allowance should be made for shear lag using the appropriate effective width of the concrete flange for
sagging or hogging bending (see Figure 10 of Lecture 10.4.1). In the analysis it is assumed that strain varies linearly
over the full depth of the composite cross-section. This implies that there is negligible slip at the steel-concrete
interface. Use is made of the theory of transformed sections, assuming that both concrete in compression and steel
are linearly elastic materials. This assumption enables the composite section in sagging bending to be replaced in the
analysis by an equivalent all-steel cross-section. The breadth of the equivalent steel slab depends upon the modular
ratio αe, defined by:
αe = Ea/E1c
where Ea is the elastic modulus of steel.
E1c is an appropriate elastic modulus for concrete.

The transformation is illustrated in Figure 4a for the case where the slab is formed with profiled sheeting. The ribs of
depth Dp run transverse to the beam and all concrete above the ribs is in compression. The area of concrete within
the depth of the profiled steel sheet is ignored.
As elastic theory is being used, calculations are therefore similar to those to be made for all classes of section when
checking serviceability, and reference should be made to Lectures 10.5.1 and 10.5.2 for detailed explanation of the
analysis of the transformed section. Account should be taken of creep of concrete in compression due to permanent
loads by use of an appropriate value for the modular ratio.
In hogging bending, the whole of the concrete slab may be assumed to be cracked. The effective section therefore
comprises the structural steel section and effectively anchored reinforcement within the effective width for hogging
bending (Figure 5a).

The ultimate bending resistance of the member is attained when a stress reaches the limiting strength of one of the
components in the cross-section. In Eurocode 4 [1] the limiting strengths for ULS are as follows:
1. Structural steel in tension or compression fy/γa

2. Reinforcing steel in tension fsk /γs
3. Concrete in compression 0,85fck/γc
These limits are illustrated in Figure 4b for a section in sagging bending and in Figure 5b for a section in hogging
bending. In the particular cases shown, the neutral axes are in the structural steel section.
For sections in Class 4, account should be taken of local buckling, for example by using effective widths for the
compression elements as described in Eurocode 3 [2] and discussed in Lecture 7.3.
Where unpropped construction is used, stresses due to loads on the structural steelwork alone need to be added to
stresses due to loads on the composite member.
When high vertical shear co-exists with high bending moment, account needs to be taken of the resulting interaction.
The manner in which vertical shear affects the plastic resistance moment has been described in Lecture 10.3. For
sections in Class 3 and Class 4, Section 4.4.3 of Eurocode 4 generally reduces the elastic resistance moment to
account for vertical shear.
6. LATERAL-TORSIONAL BUCKLING
In composite beams, the upper flange of the steel section is restrained against lateral buckling by the concrete slab.
However, the typical pattern of bending moments in a continuous beam (see Figure 6a) results in the lower flange

being in compression in the region of internal supports. The length of the lower flange in compression can be
considerable when only dead load acts on the span under consideration (Figure 6b).

Methods for the design of unrestrained steel beams against lateral-torsional buckling, as discussed in Lectures 7.9.1
and 7.9.2, are not applicable to negative moment regions of continuous composite beams because in the former case
it is assumed that each cross-section of the member rotates as a whole, without distortion (see Figure 7a). In the
negative moment region of a composite member, the restraint afforded to the upper flange results in distortion of the
cross-section if the lower (compression) flange is to buckle laterally (Figure 7b). This restraint is provided by the
torsional stiffness of the slab, acting together with adjacent steel sections as an inverted U-frame (Figure 8). The
effectiveness of the restraint is also dependent on the stiffness of the shear connection.

For composite beams whose steel member is a conventional hot-rolled I-section, inverted U-frame action may
provide full restraint to the lower (compression) flange. The conditions under which this can be assumed to be
achieved are given in Section 4.6.2 of Eurocode 4 [1]; they include some limitation on the depth of the steel member,
the restriction becoming more severe as the design strength of the steel increases.
The effect of the restraint to the compression flange resulting from the distortional stiffness of the cross-section, and
other components in the U-frame action, can also be accounted for by reducing the effective slenderness of the beam
when calculating the buckling resistance moment. Despite the possibility of local plastification at the ends of the
beam, the plastification is not considered to affect the elastic mode of instability of the beam (Figure 9) because of
the reducing negative moment over the buckled length. A method for the calculation of the slenderness is given in
Eurocode 4, Annex B [1].

6.1 Lateral Restraint
The above method relates to the lateral stability of the member between restraints. Two possible forms of discrete
lateral restraint of the lower compression flange are shown in Figure 10. It is necessary to ensure that such restraint is
sufficiently strong and stiff to be effective and that the pull-out strength of the shear connectors is not exceeded. It is
usual to check the resistance of the restraint components to a lateral force calculated as a small percentage of that in
the compression flange. This is discussed further in Lecture 10.10 on composite bridges.

● When elastic analysis is used to determine internal moments and forces (global analysis), moment may be
redistributed from internal supports to allow for cracking of concrete and yielding of steel.
● The extent of the redistribution is dependent on the classification of the steel section at each internal support
and on the assumptions made concerning flexural rigidity in the negative moment regions.
● The properties of the uncracked section may be used to determine the flexural rigidity for every cross-section
along the beam ("uncracked section method"). Alternatively, it may be assumed that over a fixed length, on
each side of internal supports, the properties are those of the cracked section ("cracked section method").
● The ultimate bending resistance of sections in Class 3 and Class 4 are determined by elastic analysis of the
effective cross-section, based on the attainment of limiting strengths.
● In determining the effective section, account is taken of shear lag, cracking of concrete in negative moment
regions and, for Class 4 sections, the buckling of steel elements in compression. An appropriate modular ratio
is used to allow for creep of concrete in compression.
● The concrete slab may be assumed to prevent the upper flange of the steel section from moving laterally.

Torsional restraint is provided by inverted U-frame action. In negative moment regions the tendency of the
lower flange to buckle laterally is partially restrained by the distortional stiffness of the cross-section. These
effects result in a reduction in the effective slenderness for lateral-torsional buckling, and may provide full
restraint against this form of buckling.
● Discrete lateral restraint may be provided to the compression flange, for example by bracing or transverse
web stiffeners.
8. REFERENCES
[1] Eurocode 4: "Design of Composite Steel and Concrete Structures": ENV1994-1-1: Part 1.1: General rules and
rules for buildings, CEN (in press).
[2] Eurocode 3: "Design of Steel Structures": ENV1993-1-1: Part 1.1: General rules and rules for buildings, CEN,
1992.
1. Johnson R.P., "Composite Structures of Steel and Concrete: Volume 1: Beams, Columns, Frames and
Applications in Building", Granada 1975.
2. Johnson R.P. and Buckby R.J., "Composite Structures of Steel and Concrete: Volume 2: Bridges", Second
edition, Collins, 1986.
3. Brett P.R., Nethercot D.A. and Owens G.W., "Continuous Construction in Steel for Roofs and Composite
Floors", Structural Engineer, Volume 65A, October 1987, pp. 355-368.
4. Lawson R.M. and Rackham J.W., "Design of Haunched Composite Beams in Buildings", Steel Construction
Institute, Ascot, England 1989.
The references given in Lecture 10.1 are also relevant.
Table 1 Limits to redistribution of moments, per cent of the initial value of the bending moment to be reduced
Class of cross 1 2 3 4
section in
hogging moment
region
For "uncracked" 40 30 20 10
elastic analysis
For "cracked" 25 15 10 0
elastic analysis

ESDEP WG 10
Lecture 10.5.1: Design for Serviceability I

OBJECTIVE/SCOPE
To present serviceability criteria within a limit-state framework; to derive the elastic properties of the section; to introduce
time-dependent behaviour of concrete; to discuss the factors influencing cracking and deflection in composite structures; and
to outline "deemed-to-satisfy" procedures for checking cracking and deflection.
PREREQUISITES
RELATED LECTURES
Lecture 10.5.2: Design for Serviceability II
SUMMARY
The criteria for design for the serviceability limit state are discussed. Elastic analysis of simply supported and
continuous composite beams with respect to cracked and uncracked sections is described. Serviceability limits for cracking
and deformation in an "explicit" and a "deemed-to-satisfy" approach are outlined.
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 General
In order that a structure should remain fit for use and that its appearance and durability remain satisfactory, consideration has
to be given, during design, to "serviceability limit states". These limit states relate to aspects of a structure's behaviour such
as cracking, deformation, and vibration, when checked under normal service conditions.
The economic consequences, for the client, of failure to satisfy serviceability criteria can prove every bit as severe as
structural failure. At the least, failure to meet serviceability criteria is likely to result in increased maintenance and repair
costs. In some cases it will result in a loss of utility, of durability, and ultimately, of the integrity of the structure.
Factors such as the "design life" of the structure (which can vary within wide limits) and exposure conditions will influence
the design values of serviceability parameters. The classification of the "design situation" (as defined in the Eurocodes 1, 2,
3 and 4 [1-4]) as persistent, transient or accidental, will similarly, have a bearing on these values. Transient situations,
which merit separate consideration from the serviceability point of view, are those which might, for example, apply
during construction.
1.2.1 Explicit Methods
1.2.1.1 Criteria

Serviceability limit state criteria may be categorised for composite structures as follows:
(a) Slip at the steel-concrete interface, when it becomes large enough to invalidate design checks.
(b) Excessive compressive stress in the concrete, leading to microcracking and affecting durability.
(c) Excessive cracking in concrete tension zones.
(d) Unacceptable deformations or deflections, which affect the appearance or efficient use of a structure or cause damage
to finishes or other non-structural elements. These deformations are affected by cracking, creep and shrinkage; and by
slip, where significant.
(e) Vibrations producing discomfort or affecting non-structural elements or equipment.
Within these categories, a variety of limit states may be defined, corresponding to different structural types and conditions.
Some of the serviceability requirements are satisfied implicitly - by virtue of assumptions made or restrictions
introduced whilst designing the section for strength. Thus Eurocode 4 [4] requires no specific checks for compressive
stresses in the concrete under service loading, and slip at the steel-concrete interface need not be checked provided the
design of the shear connection is in accordance with Chapter 6 of Eurocode 4. In addition, vibration need not be considered
in detail for the majority of composite elements.
The serviceability limit states, which are considered particularly in this lecture are those of excessive cracking and
deformation. In the design of a composite beam for the serviceability limit state, it must be shown that under service
conditions (γF = 1) the deflections (δ), and the cracking of concrete (w), is limited. The design value of the effect of actions
Ed shall be less than (or equal to) a limiting value Cd.
1.2.1.2 Calculation of Ed
Elastic analysis is used for the calculation of Ed. (See Eurocode 4, Section 5.2 and 5.3 [4]).
1.2.1.3 Limits for Cd
Limits for deflections and cracks are given in Eurocodes 2, 3 and 4, see Eurocode 4, Sections 5.2 and 5.3 [4].
1.2.1.4 Design Procedure
It must be shown that:
Ed ≤ Cd
Ed are calculated crack widths w or deflection δ.
Cd are limits for crack width wlim or deflections δlim.
1.2.2 Deemed-to-satisfy Provisions
It is frequently the case that the length or the complexity of calculations required for the explicit satisfaction of
serviceability criteria is not warranted by the accuracy obtainable. For example, the detailed calculation of deflection,
taking into account creep and shrinkage, is based on values of certain parameters which are of necessity approximate:
the stiffness of a cracked reinforced concrete section, for example, or the values of creep and shrinkage coefficients.
A considerable degree of approximation must therefore attach to the laboriously calculated deflection.
In the present lecture simplified procedures are described for satisfying serviceability requirements. In some cases,
the procedure enables the use of indirect criteria. Such simplified methods are termed "deemed-to-satisfy" methods. They
are perfectly adequate for the majority of situations encountered in design, and are widely used in practice because of
their greater ease of application.

Detailed consideration is given in the accompanying lecture (Lecture 10.5.2) to explicit criteria for serviceability.
2. ELASTIC ANALYSIS
2.1 General
The mechanical and geometrical properties of the composite section are required for the calculation of service stresses
and deformations. At service stress levels, the concrete in compression and the steel are assumed to behave in a linearly
elastic fashion. Where Eurocode 4 [4] permits the use of the uncracked flexural stiffness, (EI)1 (see Section 2.4), concrete
in tension may be considered uncracked. Where the flexural stiffness of the cracked section, (EI)2, must be used, the strength
of concrete in tension is ignored.
Even after cracking has occurred, the section derives stiffness from the concrete. This "tension stiffening" is due to
the uncracked concrete between cracks. This effect is not taken into account in the calculation of section stiffness in
this lecture. It is, however, taken into account indirectly in the calculation of deflections and crack widths.
In calculating the section properties of the composite section for serviceability checks, use is made of the concept of
the transformed section. Using this concept, the steel-concrete composite section is replaced by an equivalent
homogeneous section in steel. For a section subjected to positive bending, the concrete flange of area Ac is replaced with
a fictitious steel flange of area Ac/n, where n is the modular ratio (see Section 2.2.4). The fictitious steel flange is of
similar depth to the concrete flange, see Figure 1. Geometrical properties are readily calculated for the transformed section,
and strains may be obtained using the elastic modulus for steel. Use is again made of the modular ratio in calculating
elastic stresses in the concrete flange of the original composite section as shown in Figure 2.

2.2 Elastic Moduli
2.2.1 Young's modulus for steel
The value of the elastic modulus for structural steel, Ea, is given as 210x103N/mm2 in Eurocode 4. A value of 200x103N/
mm2 is given in Eurocode 2 [2] for the elastic modulus of reinforcing steel, Es. For simplicity, the Eurocode4 value,
210x103N/mm2, is adopted in this lecture for structural and for reinforcing steel alike.
2.2.2 Elastic modulus for concrete - short-term
Concrete is a non-linear, non-elastic material. It does not display a unique or constant value of elastic modulus as shown
in Figure 3, and sustains permanent deformation on removal of load. When subjected to a constant stress, concrete
strains increase with time - a phenomenon known as creep - see Figure 4. It is also subject to changes of volume caused
by shrinkage (or swelling), and by temperature changes.

Notwithstanding this non-linearity, it is necessary to be able to quantify the relationship between stress and strain in order

to obtain a realistic estimate of deformations. Various elastic moduli are shown in Figure 3. These are: an initial
tangent modulus; a tangent modulus corresponding to a given stress level; a secant modulus; and a "chord" modulus.
The values of a number of these moduli are seen to depend on the reference stress level. They are, in addition, affected by
rate of loading. The value used in design codes is generally a secant modulus corresponding to a specified rate of loading.
An estimate of the mean value of the secant modulus Ecm for short-term loading, for normal-weight concretes, can be
obtained from Table 1 for the range of concrete strengths normally used in composite construction.
2.2.3 Elastic modulus for concrete - long term
Time-dependent deformation of concrete may be calculated as outlined in Section 2.2.4 below. Additional information is
given in the accompanying Lecture 10.5.2, and in the relevant sections of Eurocode 2 [2].
2.2.4 Modular Ratio
In the calculation of the geometrical properties of the section, and of stresses, reference is made to the modular ratio, n. This
is the ratio Ea/Ec, where Ea is the elastic modulus of structural steel, and Ec is that of the concrete. The effect of the
modular ratio on stresses is illustrated in Figure 2.
For the calculation of long-term effects in buildings, and in bridges without prestressing or pre-cambering, sufficiently
accurate results will be obtained by using an effective modulus for concrete, Ec , in the calculation of the modular ratio.
′
The effective modulus is the short-term modulus for concrete modified for the effects of creep.
Eurocode 4 [4] gives three sets of values for short-term and long-term modular ratios. These values are listed in order
of increasing simplicity in Table 2. It will not usually be necessary to resort to method (a) in that table, which involves
explicit calculation of the creep coefficient φ. The choice of method should take account of the purpose of the analysis and
the accuracy required. It is noted in Eurocode 4 that the value of the modular ratio has much less influence on the accuracy
of calculated action effects than on calculated stresses or deformations. Method (c), which adopts the same high value of
the modular ratio for both short-term and long-term effects, could thus be used conveniently for the global analysis
of structures; this would remove the need for separate analyses for these two conditions.
More detail is given on creep in the accompanying Lecture 10.5.2.
2.3 Geometrical Properties of the Section
2.3.1 Introduction
In considering the geometric properties of the composite section for use in elastic analysis, a variety of options appear to
exist, depending on:
● whether the applied bending moment is positive or negative.

● whether or not reinforcement is taken into account.
● the position of the neutral axis of the composite section, whether it is within the depth of the steel section or the concrete flange.
In practice, however, it is only necessary to consider a small number of options. For the uncracked section, in positive
bending, the contribution of reinforcement to the section stiffness is ignored; in any case, the quantity provided is
often nominal and is generally not known at the beginning of analysis. If the uncracked section is being used in an area
of negative bending, the reinforcement may be taken into account. However, the result will be that, in the initial analysis of
a continuous beam, stiffness will vary along the length of the member. In order to avoid complexity in the initial
analysis, therefore, it is sometimes preferred to neglect the reinforcement in such situations. For cracked sections, however, it
is common to include the area of tension reinforcement.
2.3.2 Effective Breadth
The concepts of effective breadth and shear lag have been introduced in Lecture 10.3. Similar values are used in
serviceability calculations, for both positive and negative moment regions.
2.3.3 Second moment of area
The second moment of area for the sections described in Section 2.3.1 are as follows (see Figures 1 and 2):

(a) The Uncracked Section
(i) General case - including reinforcement:
Taking moments of area about the neutral axis of the steel section, with Ac = be.hc and with At = Aa + (Ac/n) + As:
(Ac/n) . a + As . (a + as) = At.aa
giving:
aa = ( (Ac/n) . a + As . (a + as) ) / At
The second moment of area of the transformed (all-steel) section is:
I = Ia + (Ac/n) . (hc2/12) + (Ac/n) . ac2 + As . (ac + as)2
(ii) Uncracked section - reinforcement excluded:
Taking moments of area about the neutral axis of the steel section, with Ac = be.hc and with At = Aa + (Ac/n), this simplifies to:
(Ac/n) . a = At.aa
giving:
aa = (Ac/n) . a / At
The second moment of area of the transformed (all-steel) section is then:
I = Ia + (Ac/n) . (hc2/12) + (Ac/n) . ac2
(b) The cracked section
Reinforcement is included in this case, and the area of concrete in tension (and its tension stiffening effect) is neglected.
Taking moments of area as before about the centroid of the steel section, with At = Aa + As, then:
As . (a + as) = At.aa
giving:
aa = As . (a + as) ) / At
The second moment of area of the transformed (all-steel) section is:
I = Ia + As . (ac + as)2
2.3.4 Service stresses
The preceding values for I are used to calculate stresses under service conditions. Thus, if xe = (ac + hc/2), the concrete
stresses at the top (t) fibre of the uncracked section are:
ft = M.xe/n.I
while bottom (b) fibre stresses in the steel section are:
fb = M.(D + hc - xe)/I

The service stress in the steel reinforcement is:
fs = M.(ac + as)/I
2.4 Section stiffnesses
Reference is made in Eurocode 4 [4] to the following values of section stiffness:
(EI)1 is the uncracked section stiffness, where:
E is the Ea
I is the elastic second moment of area of the effective equivalent steel section, calculated using the short-term modular ratio.
Calculations are based on the assumption that the concrete in tension is uncracked, and may be taken as being reinforced
or unreinforced.
(EI)2 is the cracked section stiffness, where:
E is Ea
I is the elastic second moment of area of the effective equivalent steel section, calculated using the long-term modular
ratio. The area of concrete in tension (and its tension stiffening effect) is neglected, but account is taken of steel reinforcement.
2.5 Simply supported and continuous composite beams
In many cases, serviceability checks can be carried out without the need for a separate analysis. The required bending
moments can be obtained by factoring the results of analysis for the ultimate limit state.
For those cases where separate analysis is required, the recommendations of Eurocode 4 regarding analytical models
for cracking and deflection checks on continuous beams, are summarised in Table 3.
These analytical models are summarised graphically in Figure 5. Analysis is carried out initially assuming a uniform
member stiffness (that of the uncracked section, (EI)1) throughout, see Figure 5a. If re-analysis is required, the section
stiffness adjacent to supports is modified to (EI)2 as shown in Figure 5b.

In reinforced concrete, cracking of the concrete is a normal and acceptable part of its response to structural actions. The
fact that much of the cracking originates in the early stages when concrete strength is low, and shrinkage and thermal
strains are high, makes it very difficult to eliminate it completely. Even when mature, concrete cracks at relatively low levels
of tensile strain. The restriction of tensile strains to a level at which such cracking could be avoided would entail
very uneconomical use of steel reinforcement.
Fortunately, cracking need not affect the serviceability of a structure. Indeed, it can be of benefit in redistributing action
effects from heavily stressed regions. Such redistribution can be used to permit the use of more economical sections.
Cracking also has the effect of neutralising the residual stresses on the element due to shrinkage.
Cracking is of concern because of its potential effect on the durability and on the appearance of reinforced concrete
elements. Durability is affected if cracking is sufficiently penetrating to permit ingress of moisture to reinforcement. It
should be noted, however, that cover to reinforcement by porous concrete may be even more significant in this respect.
In relation to appearance, the significance of cracking will obviously be related to its visibility. Visibility of cracking will
vary depending on factors such as the surface texture of the concrete and its distance from possible observers. Cracks
on exposed surfaces can be highlighted by streaks of dirt or by materials leaching out. In this way quite small cracks
can become visually obtrusive.

The width of a crack will vary with structural actions. Crack widths arising from unusually heavy transient loading are
not significant as regards durability; rather it is the effect of sustained (or "quasi-permanent") loading which is relevant in
this regard. It should also be noted that cracks caused by infrequent loading will sometimes seal autogenously.
A general aim in designing for crack control is to have distributed cracking. A large number of narrow cracks is preferable to
a smaller number of wide cracks.
Detailed consideration is given in Lecture 10.5.2 to the development of cracking in reinforced concrete, and to its control
by the explicit calculation of crack widths. In the present lecture attention is focused on deemed-to-satisfy measures for
crack control, which suffice in the great majority of cases, and which entail significantly less calculation.
Regardless of the approach adopted, correct detailing practice, in accordance with Eurocode 2, is essential for the
satisfactory control of cracking.
3.2 Deemed-to-satisfy approach
The "deemed-to-satisfy" approach to crack control entails two steps:
(a) Where there is a likelihood of significant tension due to restraint of imposed deformation (whether or not this is
combined with direct loading) a minimum amount of bonded reinforcement should be provided, sufficient to ensure that
the reinforcement will remain elastic when cracking first occurs.
(b) Bar diameters and/or spacings should be limited.
The practical application of (b) above may result in the provision of more reinforcement than is envisaged in (a).
A suitable arrangement of reinforcement may be selected, as outlined below using Tables 4 and 5, which is intended to
ensure that crack widths will not generally exceed 0,3mm in reinforced concrete. An explanation of the background to
these tables is given in Lecture 10.5.2. It should be noted that calculation of reinforcement areas required for crack
control should neglect any contribution from profiled steel sheeting. The method is as follows:
1. For cracking caused predominantly by restraint:
(a) Using Table 4 provide minimum steel based on σs = fyk.
(b) Using the actual area of reinforcement provided, calculate the service stress in the reinforcement, taking account of
tension stiffening, as follows:
σs = σs,0 + 0,4 (fctm.Ac/As)
Then use Table 5 (column 2) to limit bar size. If it is desired to use a larger bar size, it will be necessary to reduce the
service stress in the reinforcement to the corresponding level (using Table 5, column 1) by increasing the area of reinforcement.
2. For cracking caused predominantly by loading:
(a) Using Table 4 provide minimum steel based on σs = fyk.
(b) Calculating the service stress in the reinforcement as at 1(b) above, use Table 5 to limit either:
⋅ bar diameter (column 2), or
⋅ bar spacing (column 3).
It may again be necessary, as at 1(b), to modify the area of reinforcement if it is desired to adopt a particular bar size.
It should be noted that Part I of Eurocode 4 Clause 5.3.3(3) suggests that in certain instances the minimum reinforcement
may be reduced or dispensed with altogether [4].
4. SERVICEABILITY LIMIT STATES: DEFLECTION

Owing to a variety of factors, the deflections of composite elements deviate from the values which would be predicted by
a simple elastic model. These factors include:
● the continuous variation in member stiffness arising from cracking and from variations in the areas of reinforcing steel.
● the effects of tension stiffening in the cracked regions of reinforced concrete.
● the variation with time of Young's Modulus for concrete.
● shrinkage and creep of the concrete.
● yielding of the steel member, as may happen at supports in continuous members.
● slip at the steel-concrete interface.
● shear lag.
● temperature.
The time-dependence of certain of these factors means that the actual sequence of loading will have a bearing on the
final deflections, and may invalidate simple calculation procedures based on the superposition of effects. Additionally,
material properties (Young's Modulus, creep factor, etc.) which are used in analysis will depend on factors such as the
actual concrete mix used, and on temperature and humidity levels during the early life of the structure.
The magnitude of final deflections may be reduced by pre-cambering or by propping. With pre-cambering, a slight curvature
is rolled into the steel section, opposite in sense to that caused by the permanent loading. This deformation may be such as
to counteract the deformation due to self-weight, or due to a proportion of imposed loading in addition to the self-weight of
the composite element. With propping, the steel beam is additionally supported during construction, until such time as
the concrete has reached a specified percentage of its characteristic strength. The propping ensures that the dead load of
the concrete is taken by the stiffer composite section rather than by the steel section alone, as happens with
unpropped construction. Propped construction allows the use of lighter steel sections. It is however, more susceptible to
creep effects, unlike unpropped construction where the dead weight of the concrete is taken by the steel beam, and
the permanent component of the remaining loading is frequently small.
In spite of the variety of parameters influencing deflections, it is usually possible to arrive at an assessment of their
magnitude by relatively simple means.
In the calculation of deflections for buildings, it will normally be satisfactory to consider deflections under typical
load combinations and to assume that this loading is of long duration.
4.1.1 Criteria
The serviceability limit state is reached when a deflection reaches a limit determined by:
● fitness for the intended use.

● damage to non-structural components.
● deflection of the structure or components beyond acceptance limits, e.g. resulting in ponding of rainwater or
objectionable appearance.
or other possible forms of unserviceability.
4.1.2 Calculation of Deflection (Ed)
Eurocode 4 [4] requires that the calculation of stresses and deformations at the serviceability limit state should take
into account the effects of (see Section 2):
● shear lag.
● increased flexibility resulting from incomplete interaction at the steel concrete interface.
● cracking and tension stiffening of concrete in hogging moment regions.
● creep and shrinkage of concrete.
● yielding of steel, especially when unpropped construction is used.
● yielding of reinforcement in hogging moment regions.
4.1.3 Limit for deflection (Cd)
For floor and roof construction in buildings, the deflection limits recommended in Eurocode 3 [3] are as in Tables 6 and
7. These limits are expressed in terms of span or cantilever length, as appropriate. Deflection components δb and δmax

are illustrated in Figure 6.
In bridges, calculation of deflections is normally only necessary when:
● specified minimum clearances may be at risk.

● surface water drainage could be impaired.
● the method of construction requires careful control of profile.
4.1.4 Design procedure
Deflections due to loading applied to the steel member acting independently, should be calculated in accordance with
Eurocode 3 [3]. Elastic analysis of the composite member can be carried out by one of the methods listed in Table 3.
Factors which require consideration are summarised in Table 8, with associated Eurocode 4 prescriptions.
The serviceability limit state must be checked when designing simply supported and continuous composite beams. The
main points to consider are:
● The use of an "explicit" or "deemed to satisfy" approach.

● The main design criteria are, deflection, control of crack width and limitation of stresses.
● For elastic calculations in positive moment regions, an uncracked section, with or without reinforcement, can be assumed.
● In negative moment regions, cracked sections must be assumed.
● The influence of shrinkage, creep and temperature must be included.
6. REFERENCES
[2] Eurocode 2: "Design of Concrete Structures": ENV 1992-1-1: Part 1.1: General rules and rules for buildings, CEN, 1992.
for buildings, CEN, (in press).

[5] ENV 206 "Concrete-Performance, Production, Placing and Compliance Criteria", CEN.
1. Dowling, P. J., Knowles, P., Owens, G. W., Structural Steel Design, 1988.
2. Johnson, R. P., Composite Structures of Steel and Concrete, Volume 1, 1975, Constrado Monographs.
3. Johnson, R. P., Composite Structures of Steel and Concrete, Volume 2, 2nd Edition 1986, Constrado Monographs.
Strength Class of Concrete (Normal weight 20/25 25/30 30/37 35/45 40/50 45/55
concrete) - per ENV206 (S.7.3.1.1) [5]
Characteristic
compressive strength
- cylinder fck 20 25 30 35 40 45
- cube fck,cube 25 30 37 45 50 55
Associated mean tensile strength fctm 2,2 2,6 2,9 3,2 3,5 3,8
Secant modulus of elasticity Ecm 29 30,5 32 33,5 35 36
Table 1. Characteristic compressive strength, fck (N/mm2 or GPa), the associated mean tensile strength, fctm (N/
mm2 or GPa), and the mean value of the secant modulus of elasticity for normal-weight concrete, Ecm (kN/
mm2or MPa), .
Value of the modular ratio,

Option Short-term effects Long-term effects Comments
(a) Secant modulus Ecm Various, depending on This method takes account of
(Table 1) concrete grade concrete grade and age.
(b) 6 18 Takes account of concrete

grade, but not concrete age.
*(c) 15 15 Takes no account of concrete
grade or age
*Restricted to beams, the critical sections of which are in Class 1 or 2
Table 2. Short term and long term values of the modular ratio, n, as given in Eurocode 4 [4].
Method Number Stiffness for use in elastic global analysis Aspects Comments
Redistribution Re-analysis
(a) CRACKING
C1

C2
(EI)1 throughout no no for general use
(EI)1 throughout; then use (EI)2 adjacent to no yes see note 1

internal supports at which σ ct > 0,15 fck,
for any loading condition, and reanalyse
(b) DEFLECTIONS
D1 Initially, as method C1 above - i.e. (EI)1 yes no see note 2

throughout; then at every support at which
σ ct > 0,15fck, reduce bending moment by
40% (and increase span moments
accordingly)
as method C2 above no yes for general use

D2
Notes:
1. For mild conditions of exposure only
2. For beams with critical sections in classes 1, 2 and 3 only.
Table 3. Methods of global structural analysis for the serviceability limit states of cracking and deflection as given
in Eurocode 4 [4].
Stress in reinforcement (MPa or N/ Required minimum reinforcing steel ratio (*), for the following types
mm2) of stress distribution at onset of cracking:
Linearly varying Uniform

450 0,0038 0,0054
400 0,0042 0,0060
360 0,0047 0,0067
320 0,0053 0,0075
280 0,0060 0,0086
240 0,0070 0,0100
200 0,0084 0,0120
160 0,0105 0,0150
(*) Reinforcement ratio is As/Ac.
(**) These are minimum values, based on kc = 0,7; this corresponds to hc/2zn ≥ 0,43 in Equation 5,2 of Clause 5.3.3(2)
of Eurocode 4, Part 1 [4]. For cases intermediate between 1 and 2, reference should also be made to this Clause. The value
of fctm has been taken as 3 N/mm2.
Table 4 Crack control: minimum reinforcement areas

Service stress in reinforcement Alternative (i): Alternative (ii):

(*)
Maximum bar diameter Maximum bar spacing
(MPa or N/mm2)
160 32 250
200 25 200
240 20 160
280 16 110
320 12 -
360 10 -
400 8 -
450 6 -
(*) Under quasi-permanent loads
Table 5. Crack control - "deemed-to-satisfy" approach: reinforcing bar size and spacing limits.
Deflection Component Simply supported Cantilever span

or continuous span
δb additional positive deflection due to variable

actions, plus eventual time dependent
deformations due to permanent loads and quasi-
permanent loads:
- in general
0,003 0,006
- for floors and beams which
support brittle partitions 0,002 or 15mm 0,004 or 10mm
δmax sag, in the final state, where it can impair the 0,004 0,008
appearance of a building
Table 6 Limiting values for floor deflections in buildings as given in Eurocode 3 [3]
Deflection Component Simply supported or Cantilever span

continuous span

δb additional positive deflection due to variable actions,

plus eventual time dependent deformations due to
permanent loads: (*)
- in general
0,004 0,008
- if the roof frequently carries personnel
other than for maintenance purposes 0,003 0,006
δmax sag, in the final state, if the correct discharge of 0,004 0,008
rainwater has to be ensured (**)
(*) Measured perpendicular to the plane of the roof
(**) Provided the slope of the roof is not less than 1,5%; calculations are required if the slope of the roof is less than 1,5%.
Table 7. Limiting values for roof deflections in buildings as given in Eurocode 3 [3]
Item Factor influencing deflections Eurocode 4 prescription
(see Sections 4.2 and 5 of Eurocode 4: Part 1)
(a) Slip at the steel-concrete interface may be ignored when the design of the shear connection is in accordance
with Chapter 6 of Eurocode 4.
(b) Shear lag can usually be ignored: taken into account in the calculation of effective
breadth (see Clause 4.2.2 Eurocode 4: Part 1).
(c) Cracking of concrete taken into account in the methods of analysis outlined in Table 3 of this
lecture.
(d) Local yielding of steel in continuous especially with unpropped construction: with unpropped beams (other
members, over supports than cantilevers), in buildings, account may be taken of this factor by
halving the bending moment at the support - determined according to the
methods described in Table 3 - and by making corresponding increases
to the bending moments at mid-span.
(e) creep in composite members subject to permanent loads, account should be

taken of creep of concrete. This may be done:
(i) in explicit fashion, in accordance with the procedures outlined in

Eurocode 2
(ii) in bridges without prestressing or precambering, and in buildings, by

using effective moduli for concrete Ec in calculations of the modular
′
ratio, n, and section stiffnesses. (see Table 2)
(iii) for further simplification, for beams with critical cross-sections in

Classes 1 and 2 only (which are not prestressed by tendons or pre-
cambered), by using an appropriate single value for the modular ratio, n,
and of section stiffnesses for both short-term and long-term effects.
(option (c) of Table 2)
(f) shrinkage in statically-determinate beams in buildings, the effect of curvature due

to shrinkage of concrete should be included when the ratio of span to
overall depth of the beam is high and the predicted free shrinkage of the
concrete exceeds 400 x 10E-6. For estimates of long-term free shrinkage
strain, see Table 9.
(g) temperature no specific serviceability requirements in Eurocode4.
Table 8. Factors affecting deflection: Eurocode 4 prescriptions [4]

Location of the member Relative humidity (%) Notional size
(2Ac/u (mm))
150 600
Inside 50 0,60 x 10-3 0,50 x 10-3
Outside 80 0,33 x 10-3 0,28 x 10-3
Where
Ac cross-sectional area of concrete

u perimeter of that area
Linear interpolation between the values in Table 9 is permitted.

(for details see Chapter 3.1.2 of Eurocode 2)
Table 9. Final shrinkage strains eCS¥ of normal-weight concrete as given in Eurocode 2 [2]

ESDEP WG 10
Lecture 10.5.2: Design for Serviceability - II

OBJECTIVE
To discuss, in more detail, the serviceability criteria introduced in Lecture 10.5.1; to elaborate on creep and shrinkage effects
in concrete; to describe the development of cracking; and to examine, in detail, the Eurocode 4 serviceability requirements
for composite structures [1].
PREREQUISITES
Lecture 10.5.1: Design for Serviceability I
RELATED LECTURES
SUMMARY

The lecture provides general information on creep, shrinkage and cracking of concrete, so that the student can orientate
himself towards the literature available.
Serviceability limit state design for cracking is discussed in detail using two different approaches: "Deemed to satisfy"
and "Explicit" methods.
1. INTRODUCTION
This lecture provides further background information on some of the aspects of composite construction discussed in
Lecture 10.5.1. It deals, in particular, with creep, shrinkage, and cracking of concrete. It is not possible, within the confines
of this lecture, to deal comprehensively with these topics - particularly that of creep; rather, it is sought to provide
sufficient information to permit a student to orientate himself towards the available literature.
2. CREEP AND SHRINKAGE
2.1 General
In addition to the non-linearity displayed under short-term loading (Section 2.2.2 and Fig. 1 of Lecture 10.5.1),
concrete displays a time-variant response to sustained loading. The increase in strain which occurs, over time, under the
action of sustained constant stress is termed creep (Figure 1a). It is to be noted that recovery, on unloading, is
neither instantaneous nor complete, but comprises an instantaneous portion followed, over a period of time, by a
deferred recovery. At the end of this recovery there remains a residual creep deformation. Another phenomenon, which
is related to creep, is the relaxation of stress under sustained constant strain (Figure 1b).



Even in the absence of applied loading, concrete is subject to deformation due to volume changes arising from changes in
water content, from long-term chemical processes occurring within the cement paste, and from thermal dilation. The
most significant of these changes is shrinkage, which is the reduction in concrete volume due to loss of water by evaporation
or hydration of the cement, or by carbonation. The opposite effect is the swell in concrete during hydration. Swelling
of concrete is normally an order of magnitude less than shrinkage, and is not usually of concern in design.
The significance of such volume changes is due to the fact that they are usually wholly or partially restrained, and thus give
rise to tensile stresses and cracking. The resulting change in stiffness will in turn influence deformations.
Creep and shrinkage are related phenomena. These delayed strains of loaded or unloaded concrete can be considered as
two aspects of a single physical phenomenon.
2.2 Creep
2.2.1 Creep: Influencing factors
In concrete made with normal-weight aggregates, creep occurs in the hardened cement paste, and is resisted by the
aggregate. Material and environmental factors influencing creep are:
● the composition of the concrete.

● the rate of hardening of the concrete.
● the dimensions of the element.
● ambient humidity.
● ambient temperature.
In addition, the magnitude of creep deformations is affected by age at loading, the duration of the loading, and the stress level.
The theories of creep, normally applied to concrete structures, assume creep strain to vary linearly with stress. It is a
reasonable simplifying assumption for normal levels of serviceability stress.
For a detailed discussion on the factors influencing the development of creep, reference should be made to standard texts
on concrete technology.
2.2.2 Creep functions F and creep coefficient f

2.2.2.1 Definitions
Creep is conventionally described by reference to a creep function and to a creep coefficient. The creep function, Φ(t, t0),
refers to the total strain - instantaneous elastic and creep strain - at a given time, under the action of constant unit stress
(Figure 2a). The creep coefficient φ(t, t0), is the ratio of the creep component of this strain to the instantaneous
elastic component (Figure 2b).

The creep function may be written as the sum of an instantaneous elastic strain and specific creep as follows:
Φ(t, t0) = 1/Ec(t0) + C(t, t0)
where:
● Φ(t, t0) is the creep function at time t, relating to a unit stress applied at time t0.
● Ec(t0) is the longitudinal modulus of deformation of the concrete at time t0.
● C(t, t0) is the specific creep at time t, resulting from a unit stress applied at time t.
● t0 is the age of the concrete at loading, measured (as is t) in days from time of hardening.
or, in terms of a creep coefficient:
Φ(t, t0) = 1/Ec(t0) . (1 + φ(t, t0))
where the creep coefficient is:
φ(t, t0) = Ec(t0) . C(t, t0)
On occasion, reference is made to a 'normalised' creep coefficient, such as the creep coefficient calculated on the basis of

the elastic modulus (or instantaneous strain) at 28 days and denoted φ28 (t, t0). In this case:
Φ(t, t0) = 1/Ec(t0) + φ28 (t, t0)/Ec28
where Ec28 is the elastic modulus at 28 days, and where
φ28 (t, t0) = φ(t, t0) . Ec28/Ec(t0)
2.2.2.2 Creep: Alternative formulations
Because creep is a complex phenomenon, there is considerable diversity in approach to the formulation of the creep
function for concrete. The diversity arises from efforts, on the one hand, to model more accurately the various facets of
the creep phenomenon - the effect of age at loading, the effect of load duration, the deferred aspect of response on unloading
- and on the other hand, from efforts to avoid a degree of complexity in calculation which is inappropriate to the
accuracy obtainable. It must be remembered that the basic creep data upon which such calculations are based will rarely
be precise, and the accuracy of the calculations will reflect this imprecision. In Eurocode 2, Clause 2.5.5.1 [2] it is stated
that the accuracy of the procedures for calculating the effects of creep and shrinkage should be consistent with:
❍ the reliability of the data available describing these phenomena, and

❍ the importance of the effects on the limit state considered.
Generally creep is modelled in one of two ways: on the one hand it can be modelled as the product of two functions
which represent age at loading and duration of loading (the CEB-FIP recommendations of 1970, as well as the 1971 ACI
Code used such a formulation); on the other hand, the creep function can be modelled as the sum of a number of
components, instantaneous and time-dependent, reversible and irreversible. These components are typically:
instantaneous - elastic (reversible)
time-dependent - deferred elasticity (reversible)
- flow (irreversible)

An additional term - for initial creep - is introduced into the CEB-FIP Model Code Method [3].
Various methods encountered in the literature are:
1. Effective Modulus (EM) Method (Faber 1927).

2. Rate of Creep (RC) Method (Glanville 1930, Whitney 1932, Dischinger 1937).
3. Rate of Flow (RF) Method (England and Illston 1965).
4. Improved Dishinger (ID) Method (Nielson 1970, Rusch, Jungwirth and Hilsdorf 1973).
5. CEB/FIP 1978 Model Code Method [3].
For a detailed discussion of these and other methods, reference should be made to the specialist literature on creep in concrete.
The approach presented in this lecture is based on Eurocode 2 [2].
2.2.2.3 Creep: Eurocode 2 formulation
The treatment of creep, given in Eurocode 2 [2], is based on linear theory, which permits superposition of the
creep deformations due to stress fractions applied at different times. The proposals for creep contained in this document
relate to concrete which has been allowed to harden under constant ambient conditions, and which is subjected to
a compressive stress not exceeding 0,4fckj at age j. This stress limit encompasses the range of values encountered in the
vast majority of concrete structures under service conditions.
In this code, creep deformation is described in terms of a creep coefficient, as already defined in Section 2.2.2.1 and
total deformation in terms of a creep function. The creep coefficient corresponds to the "normalised" - φ28(t, to) -
value previously referred to, which for the sake of convenience, will be referred to simply as φ (t, t0) in the remainder of
this lecture.
In Eurocode 2 [2], the creep coefficient is expressed as a product of various components, taking the form:
φ(t, t0) = φRH.β(fcm).β(t0).βc(t-t0)
The significance of each component is summarised below:

Component: Taking account of:
φRH ⋅ relative humidity of the ambient environment
β(fcm) ⋅ concrete strength
β(t0) ⋅ age at loading
βc (t-t0) ⋅ development of creep with time, after loading
The total strain at time t due to a stress σo applied at time t0 is given by:
εtot (t, t0) = σo.φ(t, t0)
Or, in the more general case:
εtot (t, t0) = εn (t) + σo.φ(t, t0) + Σσ∆(ti).φ(t,ti)
In this expression:
εn (t) denotes an imposed deformation independent of the stresses, e.g. shrinkage or temperature effects.
∆σ(ti) denotes stress variations applied at times ti, subsequent to t0.
This is sometimes expressed in a different form, incorporating an ageing coefficient, χ :
εtot (t, t0) = εn(t) + σ(t0).φ(t,t0) + (σ(t)-σ(t0)) . (1/Ec(t0) + χ .φ(t, t0)/Ec28)
where the value of the ageing coefficient, χ, depends on the development of strain with time. In many cases this value may
be taken as 0,8.
If the stresses in the concrete vary only slightly, the deformations may be calculated using an effective modulus of elasticity:
Ec,eff = Ec(t0)/(1 + φ(t, t0))
for which values of φ may be taken from Table 1.
From this table it can be seen that creep is substantially greater for dry atmospheric conditions and for early age at loading.
2.3 Shrinkage
Shrinkage is the shortening that takes place in concrete - separately from the effects of external loading or changes in
ambient temperature - whilst hardening is in progress. The strain due to shrinkage, εcs, which develops in an interval of time
(t-t0) is given in Eurocode 2 [2] by the following expression:
εcs (t, ts) = εs (fcm) . βRH.βs(t-ts)
in which the components have the following significance:
Component: To allow for the effect of:
β(fcm) ⋅ concrete strength
βRH ⋅ environmental conditions
βs (t-ts) ⋅ development of shrinkage with time
Reference should be made to Eurocode 2 for values of these parameters. Where a less accurate estimate will suffice, the
values given in Table 2 may be used.
2.4 Methods of Analysis for Creep and Shrinkage
Theories of creep and shrinkage, as developed for reinforced concrete, require adjustment before they can be applied to
a composite beam. This is because of the substantial effect the steel beam has on the behaviour of the section. The difference
in the effects of creep and shrinkage on a simple unpropped beam is shown in Figure 3 in terms of a modified modular ratio.

Figure 4 illustrates the effects of shrinkage on a composite beam. The concrete flange is initially allowed a shrink
freely, experiencing no restraint from the steel beam (Figure 4a). A tensile force NSH is then applied to the concrete flange
to restore it to its original length. The value of this force is:

NSH = Ac.Ec.εcs (t, t0)
Assuming stresses to be in the elastic range, the stress in the concrete is then:
σc = NSH/Ac
and in the structural steel section:
σs = 0
At this stage, the composite connection between the steel beam and the concrete flange is considered to come into
effect, preventing relative movement (slip) at the interface. Equilibrium is established by balancing the tensile force with
an equal and opposite compressive force, -NSH, applied to the composite section. This gives rise to a bending moment MSH
= NSH.aSH about the centroid of the composite section. The resulting stresses are shown in Figure 4b.
As well as being influenced by the presence of the steel beam, shrinkage effects in composite members are modified by
creep; hence the different effective modular ratios shown in Figure 3 for shrinkage and for creep. The basis for the
adjustment of the modular ratio is outside the scope of this lecture; for further explanation reference should be made
to specialist literature on creep in concrete. For simplicity, adjusted values of n for the calculation of section properties - for
use in determining the effects of creep and shrinkage - can be obtained from Table 3.

Lecture 10.5.1 introduced the concept of cracking in reinforced concrete elements. Further details are now given on
the "deemed-to-satisfy" and crack width calculation approaches of Eurocode 2 [2].
Cracking in reinforced concrete may be partially or fully penetrating, depending on the nature of the stress distribution
across the section, as indicated in Figure 5. The two cases shown - corresponding to flexural and axial loading - give rise
to notably different stress increases in the reinforcing steel at the onset of cracking. It is important that the reinforcing
steel should not reach yield at any early stage in the development of cracking (Figure 6). This condition is avoided
by prescribing the minimum amount of reinforcement necessary to prevent a sudden transition to yield. This amount
varies depending on the stress distribution in the concrete at cracking.

Figure 7 illustrates several aspects of cracking in reinforced concrete. There is a local loss of adhesion between concrete
and steel in the vicinity of a crack; the reinforcing bar exercises a restraining effect on the crack width; the crack width at
the surface is greater than that at the bar. Similarly, the surface crack width midway between two bars will be greater than
on the surface adjacent to a bar. The maximum surface crack width is of significance from the point of view of
appearance, whilst the value affecting durability - through ingress of moisture to the reinforcement - is the crack width
adjacent to the bar.
Figure 8 illustrates the stresses associated with cracking in an axially loaded member. The formation of the first crack
is accompanied by a complete transfer of load from the concrete to the reinforcement at the crack, with a consequent loss
of bond. There is a transitional region on either side of the crack within which, by virtue of bond, the original stress regime
is gradually re-established. The bond characteristics of the materials determine the position of subsequent cracks relative to
the first. The second crack is unlikely to form within the transitional region, because of the lower concrete stresses
applying there. It will form at a slightly increased load, and will give rise to stress distributions of the type shown in Figure 8b.


One of the effects of cracking is to neutralise the residual stresses due to shrinkage.
The effect of initial and subsequent cracking on the stiffness of a composite section is shown in Figure 9. This illustrates
the tension stiffening effect of concrete in the tensile zone. A consequence of this is that the flange tensile force is higher
than the value obtained using cracked section properties, which is calculated on the assumption that concrete is ineffective
in tension.

The hogging moment, M, acting on the composite section may be decomposed into a bending moment, Ma, acting on the
steel section, together with a couple formed by the direct forces, Na and Ns, acting through the centroid of the steel
section (compression) and of the concrete flange (tension), see Figure 9. It is common to ignore the small bending
moment contributed by the concrete flange to the overall equilibrium of the section. If the distance between the centroid of
the steel section and that of the concrete flange is a, then the equilibrium of the section can be expressed as follows:
M = Ma + Na.a
The response of the section is initially governed by the uncracked section stiffness, indicated by line I in Figure 9, and
the tensile force in the concrete increases linearly with M up to the commencement of cracking. The loss of stiffness in
the concrete flange, resulting from cracking, gives rise to an increased rotation (AB in Figure 9c) and a redistribution of
forces within the composite section. The bending moment in the steel section, Ma, is increased and Ns is reduced
accordingly (AB on Figure 9b). As the overall moment, M, is further increased, the value of Ns increases again (BC in
Figures 9b and 9c), until such time as the cracking stress is once more attained in the concrete flange, and a
further redistribution occurs.
The process repeats itself, with no significant increase in the tension flange force, and with progressive reduction of
the effective stiffness of the section, until cracking stabilises. This is termed the phase of initial crack formation. It
is characterised by the fact that the concrete flange force, Ns, does not exceed the tensile resistance of the section. The
phase which follows shows an increase once again of Ns with increasing applied moment M. This phase, however, displays
the "tension stiffening" role of the concrete, in spite of cracking. The composite section displays a greater stiffness, up
to ultimate moment, than would be predicted by a calculation based on the concrete being ineffective in tension (line II
in Figure 9). The consequences of this greater stiffness are reduced rotation of the section and a greater force, Ns, in
the concrete flange.
Eurocode 2 provides two approaches to crack control:
1. An indirect (or "deemed-to-satisfy") approach, requiring the satisfaction of rules relating to bar size or bar spacing.
2. An explicit approach, requiring the calculation of crack widths, for comparison with limiting values.
In each case a specified minimum quantity of reinforcement must be provided to restrain deformations.
3.1 Deemed-To-Satisfy Approach
3.1.1 General
This section gives further details on the minimum reinforcement areas specified in Lecture 10.5.1 (Tables 5 and 6) which
are required to resist the stress arising from restrained deformations.
3.1.2 Minimum reinforcement areas
Factors influencing the minimum reinforcement areas required by Eurocode 2 [2] are as follows:
a. The nature of the imposed deformations which are being restrained. They are categorised as:
i. intrinsic deformations - which are due to dimensional changes in the member - for example, those arising from shrinkage.
ii. extrinsic deformations - which are externally applied - for example, support settlements.
b. The type of stress distribution within the member at the onset of cracking. The distribution may be classed as due to:
i. bending - resulting in a triangular stress distribution with some part of the section remaining in compression.
ii. tension - with the whole section subject to tensile stress.
The required minimum reinforcement area is calculated from the following expression:
As = kc . k . fct ef . Act/σs
where
As is the area of reinforcement within the tensile zone.
Act is the area of concrete within the tensile zone; the tensile zone is that part of the section which is calculated to be in
tension just before the formation of the first crack.
σs is the maximum stress permitted in the reinforcement immediately after formation of the crack. This may be taken as
100% of the yield stress of the reinforcement, fyk. A lower value may, however, be needed to satisfy the crack width limits
(see Tables 5 and 6, Lecture 10.5.1).
fct ef is the tensile strength of the concrete effective at the time when the cracks may first be expected to occur. A
minimum value suggested in Eurocode 2 is 3N/mm2 [2].
kc is a coefficient which takes account of the type of stress distribution occurring within the section immediately prior
to cracking. The stress distribution is that resulting from the combination of the effects of loading and of restrained
axial deformations. Values of kc are:
kc = 1,0 for pure tension.

kc = 0,4 for bending without normal compressive force.
In Table 5 of Lecture 10.5.1, values are given for the minimum reinforcement ratios (As/Act) required to control
cracking arising from restraint of imposed deformations, for various levels of stress.
3.2 Explicit Calculation of Crack Widths
3.2.1 Cracking: Limit state design
For limit state design, cracking in reinforced concrete is generally described with reference to a limiting crack width. In
a satisfactory structure, it is to be expected that a small number of cracks will exceed this reference value under
maximum loading. The limiting value will be established with reference to environmental conditions, and to the
requirements of durability and appearance. With certain structures, there could be an additional performance requirement
to satisfy - such as watertightness - which would determine the reference crack width to be used in design.
3.2.2 Maximum design crack widths: limits
The crack width limitations for reinforced concrete in Eurocode 2 are specified with reference to the exposure classes listed
in Table 4.1 of Part I of Eurocode 2, and relate to a quasi-permanent combination of loads [2].
For exposure classes 2 to 4, it may be assumed that limitation of the maximum design crack width to about 0.3mm
will generally be satisfactory for reinforced concrete members in buildings, with respect to both appearance and
durability. Where dry environmental conditions prevail (exposure class 1), the maximum design crack width does not
affect durability, and the above restriction can be relaxed if this is acceptable on visual grounds.
3.2.3 Crack width calculations
The design crack width may be obtained from:
wk = β.srm.εsm
where

wk is the design crack width.
srm is the average final crack spacing.
εsm is the mean strain under the relevant combination of loads, allowing for the effects of tension stiffening, shrinkage, etc.
β is a coefficient relating the average crack width to the design value.
The value of β is as follows:
❍ β = 1,7 for load induced cracking, or for restraint cracking in sections with a minimum dimension in excess of 800mm.
❍ β = 1,3 for restraint cracking in sections with a minimum dimension of 300m or less.
For restraint cracking of intermediate section sizes, values of β may be interpolated.
εsm may be calculated from the relationship:
εsm = σs/Es (1 - β1 . β2 . (σsr/σs)2)
where
σs is the stress in the tension reinforcement, calculated on the basis of a cracked section, for the loading condition
under consideration.
σsr is the stress in the tension reinforcement, calculated on the basis of a cracked section, for the loading condition causing
first cracking.
β1 is a coefficient which takes account of the bond properties of the bars. Values of β1 are:
β1 = 1,0 for high bond bars

β1 = 0,5 for plain bars
β2 is a coefficient which takes account of the duration or of the repetition of loading. Values of β2 are:
β2 = 1,0 for a single, short term loading

β2 = 0,5 for a sustained load, or for many cycles of repeated load.
The average final crack spacing for members subjected principally to flexure or tension, srm, can be calculated from
the equation:
srm = 50 + 0,25 k1 k2 φ /ρr
where
φ is the bar size in mm.
k1 is a coefficient which takes account of the bond properties of the bar. Values of k1 are:
k1 = 0,8 for high bond bars

k1 = 1,6 for plain bars
k2 is a coefficient which takes account of the form of the strain distribution. Values of k2 are:
k2 = 0,5 for pure bending

k2 = 1,0 for pure tension
Eurocode 2 provides a method for the calculation of intermediate values of k2, for use in cases of eccentric tension or for
local areas [2].
ρr is the effective reinforcement ratio, As/Ac.ef, where

As is the area of reinforcement contained within the effective tension area, Ac.ef.
Ac.ef is generally the area of concrete surrounding the tension reinforcement, of depth equal to 2,5 times the distance from
the tension face of the section to the centroid of the reinforcement (Figure 10). For slabs, where the depth of the tension
zone may be small, the height of the effective area should not be taken as greater than (h-x)/3, where h is the overall depth
of the concrete section, and x is the depth to the neutral axis, measured from the face.

❍ Crack development in the concrete element of a composite beam is described.
❍ The influence of creep and shrinkage on the crack width calculation is outlined.
❍ The tension stiffening effect of the reinforced concrete has to be included in the design.
❍ Design for crack control can be done using either "deemed-to-satisfy" or "explicit" methods.
5. REFERENCES
for buildings. CEN (in press).
[2] Eurocode 2: "Design of Concrete Structures": ENV1992-1-1: Part 1.1: General rules and rules for buildings. CEN, 1992.
[3] Comité Euro-International du Béton - Féderation Internationale de la Précontrainte (CEB-FIP), CEB-FIP Model Code
for concrete structures, Paris, London, Berlin, 1978.
1. Comité Euro-International du Béton (CEB), CEB manual on structural effects of time-dependent behaviour of concrete,
(Ed. Chiorino et al) Georgi Publishing Company (Saint-Saphorin, Switzerland) 1984.
2. Comité Euro-International du Béton (CEB), Bulletin d'information No. 199, Evaluation of the time-dependent behaviour
of concrete, (Ed. Mueller & Hilsdorf), EPF Lausanne (Switzerland) 1990.
3. Haensel J., Effects of creep and shrinkage in composite construction, Technisch-wissenschaftliche Mitteilung Nr. 75-
12, Institut für Konstrucktiven Ingenieurbau, Ruhr-Universität Bocham Oktober 1975.
4. Neville A. M, Dilger, W. H., and Brooks, J. J., Creep of plain and structural concrete, Construction Press (London) 1983.
Age at Notional size 2 Ac/u (in mm)

loading to
(days) 50 150 600 50 150 600
Dry atmospheric conditions (inside) (RH Humid atmospheric conditions (outside)

= 50%) (RH = 80%)
1 5,4 4,4 3,6 3,5 3,0 2,6
7 3,9 3,2 2,5 2,5 2,1 1,9
28 3,2 2,5 2,0 1,9 1,7 1,5
90 2,6 2,1 1,6 1,6 1,4 1,2
365 2,0 1,6 1,2 1,2 1,0 1,0
Table 1 Final creep coefficient f(¥, t0) of normal-weight concrete

Location of the member Relative Humidity (%) Notional size (2Ac/u (mm) )
150 600
Inside 50 0,60 x 10-3 0,50 x 10-3
Outside 80 0,33 x 10-3 0,28 x 10-3
Table 2 Final shrinkage strains ecs of normal-weight concrete as given in Eurocode 2

¥
Age at Loading Creep Shrinkage
Internal External Internal External
7 days 4,5 3,8 2,8 2,4
14 days 4,0 3,4 2,5 2,2
28 days 3,5 3,0 2,2 2,0
90 days 3,0 2,5 2,0 1,8
Table 3 Effective values of the modular ratio n - for use in the calculation of creep and shrinkage effects

ESDEP WG 10
Lecture 10.6.1: Shear Connection 1

OBJECTIVE/SCOPE
To describe the types and behaviour of shear connectors and to explain the load transfer between the concrete slab
and steel section.
PREREQUISITES
RELATED LECTURES
Lectures 10.6: Shear Connection II and III
SUMMARY
The forces in a typical composite beam are reviewed and their action on the connectors is described. Several basic
forms of connectors are introduced and thereafter the lecture concentrates mainly on the most commonly used of
these - the welded shear stud. Design values for ultimate strength and their experimental evaluation will be covered
together with the weld qualification tests used to ensure quality control. Full connection is explained together with
the use of reductions of connector strength by recourse to moment interaction diagrams. The use of uniformly spaced
connectors and the use of through-deck welding is discussed.
1. INTRODUCTION
This lecture deals with the way that forces are transferred between the concrete slab and steel section in composite
beams. The forces are discussed together with the various types of connectors commonly used. The most common
form of connector - the welded shear stud - is described in detail and methods for predicting stud resistance and
stiffness are compared. The resistance, stiffness and spacing of the connectors affects the behaviour of the beam and
these aspects are also discussed. The use of through-deck welded connectors in composite deck floors is also covered
together with alternatives such as shot fired connectors or preloaded high strength bolts.
1.1 The Forces Applied to Connectors
In the preceding lectures it has been assumed that the concrete and steel were fully connected together (full

connection). If there is no connection then the concrete slab and steel section slide relative to one another and the
bending stresses in the section are as shown in Figure 1a.

Clearly, if longitudinal shear resistance is provided by some form of connection, so that the stresses at the interface
of the two materials are coincident, then the beam acts as a fully composite section. If it is assumed that the fully
connected composite beam acts in an elastic way then the shear flow (shear force per unit length) between the
concrete slab and the steel section may be calculated from:
T= (1)
where
V is the applied vertical shear force at the point considered.
I is the second moment of area of the section.
S is the first moment of area of either the concrete slab or the steel section about the elastic neutral axis.
Figure 1 also shows the elastic shear stress developed in the section for the conditions of both full and zero
connection.
It can be seen, from the above equation, that the longitudinal shear forces that must be carried by the connection will
vary depending upon the vertical shear present. Figure 2a shows the distribution of longitudinal shear, along the
interface between the steel section and slab, for a beam that has a rigid full connection. It must be remembered,
however, that this applies only when the beam is assumed to be behaving in an elastic manner. As the ultimate
moment of resistance is reached, the steel section or concrete slab will yield or crush and a plastic hinge will form at
the critical section. The bending stresses in the beam are as shown in the dashed lines of Figure 1; the distribution of
longitudinal shear in the beam also changes and the connectors close to the hinge are subject to higher loads. The
dashed line, in Figure 2a, shows the plastic distribution of shear force along a uniformly loaded beam.

In practice, connectors are never fully rigid, and there is always some slip between the slab and the steel section. The
flexibility of the connectors allows more ductility and a variation in the distribution of longitudinal shear between
slab and steel section. The longitudinal shear force present in a composite beam with flexible connection is shown in
Figure 2b.
At ultimate load, when the plastic hinge has formed, it is likely that the end connectors will have deformed to a
considerable extent and yet still be expected to carry a high longitudinal shear load. Hence the requirement that shear
connectors must have substantial ductility to perform adequately.
In determining the resistance of the beam, it is assumed that all the connectors, even when deformed, will be capable
of resisting a longitudinal shear force. It is this shear resistance of the connectors that determines the resistance of the
beam. If sufficient connectors are provided to withstand the longitudinal shear force generated when the full plastic
resistance of the beam is developed, the beam is said to be "fully connected". It is also possible, as described in
Lecture 10.2, to reduce the amount of connection so that the moment resistance of the beam is limited accordingly;
this is a resistance criterion and the beam is termed "partially connected".
The slip that occurs as the connectors deform has a profound effect upon the stiffness of the beam. Very flexible but
strong connectors may allow high bending resistance but because of the substantial slip there will be a loss of

stiffness. The stiffness of the connection, in relation to the stiffness of the steel section and concrete slab, is often
termed the interaction. Consequently, a beam where the connectors are infinitely stiff is said to have "full
interaction" and one where the connection is relatively flexible is said to have "partial interaction".
It may be deduced that the strength and stiffnesses of both connector and concrete will affect the connection.
The major force acting on the connector is one of direct shear. The shear force is generally assumed to be greatest at
the level of the weld between the steel section and the connector itself. The area and shear strength of the connector
and weld must, therefore, be adequate to carry the forces generated. It is unlikely that any substantial deformation
will take place due to this shear.
However, relative movement between the slab and steel section does occur. The mechanism for this movement can
be seen in Figure 3. The concrete may crush at the connector base allowing some deformation of the connector itself.
However, at the head of the connector the confining concrete is not so highly stressed and this part of the connector
remains in its original position. The result is bending deformation in the connector, which can be seen clearly in
Figure 3. Long connectors are more likely to deform into this characteristic "S" shaped pattern and therefore tend to
be ductile. Short stocky connectors tend to be brittle and are therefore undesirable. Most codes of practice require
stud connectors to be at least three or preferably four times longer than their diameter.

The major force resisted by the concrete is one of bearing against the leading edge of the connector. It has already
been mentioned that the concrete in this region is likely to crush allowing bending deformation to occur in the
connector. The bearing resistance of the concrete in this region is dependent upon its volume as well as strength and
stiffness. In fact, where there is sufficient concrete around the connector, the bearing stress may reach several times
the unconfined crushing strength of the concrete.
There is also likely to be direct tension in the connector. The different bending stiffnesses of the slab and the steel
section, coupled with the deformed shape of the connectors, gives rise to the tendency for the slab to separate from
the steel section. It is, therefore, usual for connectors to be designed to resist this tensile force.
In most composite beams the connectors are spaced along the steel section and, therefore, provide a resistance to
longitudinal shear only locally to the top flange. The longitudinal shear force must, therefore, be transferred from the
narrow steel section into the much wider slab. This transfer is normally achieved using bar reinforcement that runs
transverse to the beam line. These bars are normally placed below the head of the stud and extend into the slab, as
shown in Figure 4.

To summarise, the connection must be capable of transferring direct shear at its base, resisting bending forces and
creating a tensile link into the concrete. The concrete must have sufficient volume around the connector and be of

sufficient strength to allow a high bearing stress to be resisted; bar reinforcement is often provided to ensure
adequate lateral distribution of longitudinal shear.
1.2 Basic Forms of Connection
Early forms of shear connector were shop welded, using conventional arc welding. Various forms of connector
welded in this way are shown in Figure 4. The most common types are the hoop connector and T connector which
serve to show the complexity of the forming and welding operation necessary. The popularity of composite beam
construction has led manufacturers to develop very simple forms of shear connector such as the Perfobond strip [1].
Despite the plethora of connection types available, the shear stud connector has now become the primary method of
connection for composite beams. The stud can be forge welded to the steel section in one operation, using micro-
chip controlled welding equipment. These machines, operating at current settings of up to 2000 amps allow operators
to weld approximately 1000 studs per day. The most advanced machines allow studs to be welded through
galvanised steel sheeting. This ability has enabled the economic advantages of composite floor decks to be fully
exploited. Figure 5 shows a typical shear stud before and after welding and the sequence of weld current required.

Such complex welding technology does have disadvantages when used on construction sites. The weld relies on the
two surfaces being clean, free of mill-scale and, above all, dry. These conditions are often difficult to achieve
especially when the studs are welded through a galvanised steel sheet; in this case, the weld current is maintained for
a sufficient period to burn away the zinc galvanising, which would otherwise cause imperfect welds. Welding 22mm,
rather than the more common 19mm studs, through deck also demands care. An alternative to through deck welding
is to punch holes in the steel deck and then weld the studs directly to the steel section. A more reliable weld is
obtained in this way but the construction process is made more complex.
2. DESIGN VALUES FOR SHEAR CONNECTORS

The load-carrying mechanism of stud shear connectors is complex and analytical methods for predicting the shear
resistance are not applicable. Instead the resistance of the connectors may be determined using empirical formulae or
from tests.
The empirical formulae relate to stud and concrete resistance; the design shear resistance is therefore given by the
smaller of:
● stud shear resistance:
PRd = 0,8 fu (πd2/4) / γv (2)
where the shear resistance of the connector is related to the tensile strength of the steel fu, using a
factor of 0,8;
● concrete resistance:
PRd = 0,29 α d2 √(fckEcm)/γv (3)
where:
d is the diameter of the shank of the stud (not greater than 22mm).
fu is the specified ultimate tensile strength of the stud material (not greater than 500N/mm2).
fck is the characteristic cylinder strength of concrete at the age considered.

Ecm is the mean value of the secant modulus of concrete.
and α is given by:
● for 3 ≤ h/d ≤ 4; α = 0.2 [(h/d) + 1]
where h is the overall height of the stub,
● for h/d > 4; d = 1.
The partial safety factor γv is normally taken as 1,25.
Instead of using the above formulae the designer may also obtain stud resistance values from tests. Full beam tests
are expensive and a model test known as the "push-out" test is often used. This test is shown in Figure 6, together
with a typical graphs of load against slip from the test. The resistance is, of course, dependent upon the concrete cube
strength and is also reduced if the concrete is made from lightweight aggregate.

Shear studs carry very high loads and are normally made from drawn steel rod. Most codes quote steel properties for
stud shear connectors; in addition to a high yield value the studs must be ductile and a minimum elongation is often
specified. The necessity for ductility has already been explained.
The weld itself must be very well formed to ensure that the connector can carry the design loads. Elaborate weld
qualification tests have been devised in America [2], to ensure that both stud and welding equipment are capable of
providing consistent weld quality. Site methods of testing the weld quality are less complex, and involve bending or
impact loading a certain percentage of the studs. Any studs breaking off should be replaced and further tests carried
out.
3. APPLICATION OF DESIGN VALUES

In Lectures 10.2 and 10.3, it was established that, when the ultimate moment resistance of the beam is reached at a
critical section, the connection is required to carry a force equal to that acting in the concrete slab between the
critical section and the support. This force is the smaller of the axial resistance of the concrete slab or the steel beam.
If each connector can carry a force of PRd at failure, then the total force that all the connectors can resist between the
critical section and the support is:
Fc = N.PRd (4)
where
N equals the number of connectors between the critical section and the support.
Fc is the force in the concrete slab.
PRd is the design shear resistance of each connector.
The ultimate resistance of stud connectors is relatively consistent and the partial safety factor γv of 1,25 is often
considered more than just a material factor. The factor has been incorporated as a result of the work of investigation
of the possible results of connector failure [3]. Figure 7 shows the results of this work; in this diagram the moment
resistance, expressed as a fraction of the fully composite resistance moment (as calculated in Lecture 10.3) is plotted
for beams with varying numbers of shear connectors. The number of shear connectors may be expressed as a fraction
of the number of shear connectors required for complete interaction (r in the figure); the value r is known as the
degree of shear connection.

For very low degrees of shear connection the concrete contributes little to the resistance of the composite beam, and
the moment resistance is that of the steel section alone (A-B). Higher numbers of connectors allow the slab to
contribute more to the resistance but failure occurs as a result of connectors failing in shear (B-C). When more than
approximately 50% of the connectors required for full connection are provided (r = 0,5), the beam may fail in flexure
with the concrete crushing, steel yielding and the connection deforming (C-D). It should be noted that despite a
flexural failure the resistance moment of the beam is less than the fully plastic resistance moment (denoted by the
lower dashed line in Figure 7). The transition between shear failure and flexural failure will depend upon the
ductility of the connectors. Beams formed with very brittle connectors will fail in shear even at very high degrees of
connection.
In order to ensure that the full plastic resistance moment is achieved it is necessary to provide more connectors than
the theoretical calculated value would suggest. It could reasonably be assumed that the fully plastic resistance
moment would be achieved when the connection ratio is equal to one. However, Figure 7 shows that the connection
ratio needs to be about 1,5 before this moment is approached.

If strain hardening is taken into account, the stress levels in the steel section increase, the composite beam can take a
higher moment, and the interaction curve will rise to that shown on Figure 7 as E-F-G. To ensure that the composite
beam failed in a flexural mode and that the fully plastic resistance moment was achieved, it has been suggested that
the connection ratio should be 1,25 [3].
The graph in Figure 7 is non-dimensional and, therefore, does not depend upon the material properties of the steel
section, concrete slab or shear connectors. It can be concluded, therefore, that the 1,25 value is not a material safety
value, but a factor to take into account the reduction in flexural resistance that occurs as a result of connector
flexibility.
4. SPACING OF SHEAR CONNECTORS

If the beam is assumed to behave elastically and is being designed so that elastic stresses are not exceeded in the
steel section, concrete slab or shear connection, it is preferable to space the connectors along the beam so that the
higher shear loads near the supports or concentrated load positions are resisted by a closer spacing of connectors.
This spacing ensures that each connector carries an equal share of the longitudinal shear force (see Lecture 10.2).
However, it is now more common to design the beam at the ultimate limit state, using factored loads and a plastic
section analysis. In this case, as shown in Figure 2, the shear flow along the beam is more uniform and a uniform
spacing of connectors is more appropriate.
Most beams carrying uniform loads are designed with a uniform spacing of shear connectors. For this purpose the
connectors must be ductile and allow some straining associated with the relative movement between slab and steel
section.
A further reason for the use of the partial factor γv, when determining the design resistance of connectors, can be
seen when the uniform spacing of connectors is examined in relation to the applied moment diagram. Figure 8 shows
the applied bending moment for a uniform loading and the moment of resistance generated by the beam. The major
component of bending resistance is provided by the composite action and, as the shear connectors are uniformly
spaced, the resisting moment varies linearly from a maximum at mid span to a minimum at the support. The shaded
portions of the applied bending moment diagram are, therefore, greater than the moment resistance of the beam. If
the connector resistance is assumed to be only 0,8 of its full value (1/γv), then the actual resistance moment
generated will be increased sufficiently to ensure safety.

The uniform spacing of connectors makes detailing much easier but care needs to be taken if heavy concentrated
loads are to be applied to the beam. In these cases connectors should be spaced broadly in accordance with the shear
flow along the beam. A minimum spacing of 600mm for connectors is normally recommended to ensure that the
shear flow along the beam is not too irregular.
5. SHEAR CONNECTORS IN SLABS FORMED USING PROFILED STEEL

SHEETING
The use of profiled steel sheeting in composite slabs has revolutionised office construction, mainly due to the ease
with which "Through Deck" shear studs can be welded. There are three possible causes for concern when using this
form of construction:
1. The first is the quality of the weld. Modern welding equipment has been developed that can safely weld the
stud through galvanised steel sheets of thicknesses up to 1,5mm.
2. The presence of troughs in the sheeting, when running transverse to the main span, reduces the area of
concrete effective in resisting compression forces, as shown in Figure 9. In this case it is necessary to
discount the area of concrete in the troughs when calculating section properties.
3. The reduced volume of concrete around each shear connector means that the connector is less well confined
than when in a solid concrete slab. A reduced resistance and stiffness results. The reduction in resistance is
dependent upon the size and shape of the profiled sheeting. There has been some attempt to provide design
formulae quantifying the reduction in stud resistance for varying profiled steel sheet geometries. These
formulae are generally empirical and depend on the orientation and height of the deck, and on the height and
position of the stud connector. Push-out tests which incorporate the particular geometry of profiled steel
sheeting are a preferable way of determining the connector resistance in these situations.

6. ALTERNATIVE FORMS OF CONNECTION

Although welded shear studs are the major type of connector used, there are situations where alternatives are more
applicable. For example, alternatives may be preferable on construction sites where only a small number of
connectors are required and the hiring of expensive generators cannot be economically justified.
An alternative in these situations, is the shot-fired connector shown in Figure 10. This connection can be fixed using
modified cartridge guns which do not require any power supply. The connection itself fails when the pins pull out
and is, therefore, weaker than the welded shear stud. When used in pairs these connectors can provide sufficient
resistance for small beams and for beams designed with partial shear connection (see Lecture 10.6.2).

Another situation where welded connectors are inappropriate is the case where precast concrete slabs are used
compositely with the support beam. In this case high strength friction grip bolts (HSFG) have been used to fix the
slabs to the steel flange, see Figure 10. HSFG bolts rather than simple bolts are needed so that, at the serviceability
stage, no slip between the concrete slab and steel section can take place. Consequently, for serviceability design, the
slip resistance of the HSFG bolt should be used and for the ultimate moment design, the bearing or shear resistance
of the bolt is used.

● The shear connectors between the slab and steel section in a composite beam are required to resist shear,
bending and tensile forces. Transverse bar reinforcement is often required to ensure adequate transfer of shear
into the slab.
● The stiffness, resistance and amount of confining concrete around each connector affects the performance of
the connection.
● Welded shear studs are the most common form of connector.
● Connector resistances may be determined using empirical formulae or "push-out" tests.
● The design resistance of a connector is normally assumed to be 0,8 times the ultimate resistance.
● Studs may normally be uniformly spaced along the beam unless high local shear loads exist.
● Slabs formed with profiled steel sheeting may be used with composite beams as long as the concrete in the
troughs is ignored when calculating section properties and the possibility of reduced connector resistance is
taken into account.
● Alternative forms of connection include the shot-fired connector and HSFG bolts.
8. REFERENCES
[1] Andra, H.P., "Economical Shear Connectors with High Fatigue Strength", Proc. IABSE Symposium on Mixed
Structures, Brussels, 1990.
[2] ANSI/AWS, "American Welding Society Structural Welding Code Steel", 1985, (Appendix K) Doc. D1 1-85.
[3] Yam, L.C.P. and Chapman, J.C., "The Inelastic Behaviour of Simply-supported Composite Beams of Steel and
Concrete", Proc. I.C.E., 41, 651-684, Dec 1968.
1. Eurocode 4: "Design of Composite Steel and Concrete Structures": ENV1994-1-1: Part 1.1: General rule and
rules for buildings, CEN (in press).

ESDEP WG 10
Lecture 10.6.2: Shear Connection II

OBJECTIVE
To explain the behaviour of partial shear connection in composite beams and to present the practical methods used for design
at ultimate and serviceability limit states.
PREREQUISITES
Lecture 10.6.1: Shear Connection I
RELATED LECTURES
Lecture 10.6.3: Shear Connection III
SUMMARY
Partial shear connection is defined and its advantages when used for beams in buildings, are summarised. The effect of slip
at the steel/concrete interface cannot be analysed by means of simplified approaches; for this reason, a clear
distinction between ductile and non-ductile connectors is made.

For simply supported beams, a practical method is proposed for partial-interaction design at ultimate limit state, using
a reduced plastic moment curve; limitations are placed on this method depending on the degree of connection and
connector ductility. Practical formulae are given to check the serviceability limit state (maximum deflection, stresses
in extreme fibres, and connector forces), which is important if a low degree of connection is used.
1. INTRODUCTION
This lecture describes the design of partial shear connection in composite beams. In general "full shear connection" is
defined as the least number of connectors for a given beam, loading, and design method, such that the bending resistance of
the beam would not be increased if more connectors were provided; otherwise, the shear connection is partial. In
practice, partial shear connection is often used in multi-storey, multi-bay buildings for the following reasons:
● to save costs-design may be governed by serviceability requirements or other criteria (architectural aspects, ease
of construction), and not by ultimate flexural resistance.
● to enable the use of a wider connector spacing and a corresponding reduction of transverse reinforcement in the slab.
● to coordinate with the floor system used, e.g. with precast floor slabs, or when the slab is cast on profiled steel sheeting
with corrugations transverse to the axis of the steel beam.
Accurate models dealing with partial connection are difficult to develop [1, 2]. Therefore, the main objective in this lecture
is to present and explain simplified design methods, which are appropriate if an idealisation of the connectors' behaviour
with regard to their deformation capacity in slip is accepted. So, in conformity with the classification adopted in Eurocode
4 [3], a clear distinction is made here between ductile and non-ductile connectors. The case of absolutely rigid non-
ductile shear connectors is addressed briefly in Section 3; the best solution, in this case, is to design the shear connection by
a simple and safe process based on an elastic analysis of the beam, which does not raise theoretical difficulties.
The lecture is devoted principally to the case of ductile shear connectors in simply supported beams. As explained in Section
4, the concept of partial shear connection is relatively easy to apply to simply supported beams because plastic theory may
be used for determining the resistance of cross-sections. This ease of application is because, according to the definitions
given in Lecture 10.3, critical cross-sections in sagging bending are often in Class 1 (even with thin webs), or at worst in
Class 2 (if the plastic neutral axis lies in the steel web). Attention is also drawn to restrictions on the use of partial
shear connection, e.g. at ultimate limit state for very long spans, and also at serviceability limit state because of amplification
of deflections due to bending.
2. CLASSIFICATION OF SHEAR CONNECTORS

The most important material property of a shear connector is its ductility. According to Eurocode 4 [3], ductile connectors
are defined as those having sufficient deformation capacity, in slip, to justify the assumption of perfectly plastic behaviour
for the shear connection. When compared to the real load-slip curve for a given connector, this definition determines the
values of two relevant properties (see Figure 1a): the shear resistance of the connector, PR, which corresponds to the
yield plateau of an equivalent load-slip curve and is often taken as the characteristic resistance of the connector; and the
slip capacity of the connector, su, which may be taken as the maximum slip measured at the characteristic load level. It is to
be noted that in real applications, the resistance PR should be replaced by the design resistance PRd obtained by dividing PR
by an appropriate partial safety factor γV. This factor allows for uncertainties in both the material properties and in the
design formula used to calculate the shear resistance. For slip capacity su, Eurocode 4 estimates that a value greater than 6
mm allows shear connectors to be considered as ductile. Experimental tests have shown that this requirement is
commonly satisfied by headed studs welded to a steel beam, provided that they have an overall length after welding not
less than 4 times the diameter, and their shank diameter lies within the range 16 mm - 22 mm. Moreover, it has been
shown that, when the studs are welded through profiled steel sheeting and extend sufficiently above the top of the steel ribs,
the slip capacity may become much higher than for solid slabs, with for example, su equal to 10 or 15 mm. This
favourable increase in slip capacity is often accompanied by more complicated connector behaviour such as the occurrence of
a falling-branch in the load-slip curve, which is difficult to take into account in ordinary design. Other connectors may
also exhibit ductile behaviour, e.g. friction grip bolts used with precast solid slabs if detailed appropriately.

Alternatively, absolutely rigid shear connectors, i.e. non-ductile, can be defined as those which fracture when the ultimate
load PR of the connector is reached without any significant slip; in this case, the subsequent shear resistance falls suddenly
to zero. In practice, a block connector should be so classified because its only slip capacity is due to the concrete
compressed just in front of its face. Compared to this type, other connectors such as angles or hoop connectors would
seem ductile because of the flexibility and partial ductility of their steel components. Nevertheless, in the absence of an
explicit relationship for their load-slip behaviour, and a rigorous calculation of the longitudinal shear along the steel
and concrete interface, it is recommended that they are considered as absolutely rigid non-ductile connectors. This is
a conservative assumption for shear connection design.
3. DESIGN WITH NON-DUCTILE CONNECTORS

When absolutely rigid, i.e. non-ductile, shear connectors are used in a composite beam under increasing load, the ultimate
load is reached as soon as the longitudinal shear force on the most heavily loaded shear connector becomes equal to its
shear resistance PRd. Therefore, the optimum design adopts the distribution of the shear connectors which corresponds to
the distribution of the longitudinal shear force. No simple application of elastic-plastic analysis is possible here and so
elastic analysis only is used to calculate the internal forces in the beam. As, in theory, no slip is possible before failure, there
is complete interaction between the concrete slab and the steel member. It is logical, therefore, to determine the
longitudinal shear per unit length of interface by means of the familiar elastic beam theory. This theory gives the
following formula:
T(x) = V(x) (1)
where
V(x) is the shear at cross-section x.
S is the first moment of area taken at the steel-concrete interface.
I is the second moment of area of the whole cross-section.
S and I must, of course, be calculated by replacing the concrete area Ac, by an equivalent steel area equal to Ac/n, where n
is the modular ratio:
n = Ea/Ec (2)
In this context, the principle of design for the shear connection is similar for simply supported and continuous beams.
Except for specific rules applying near to the end of each span, it is generally accepted that the size and spacing of
the connectors may be kept constant over any length l where, under the design load considered, the extreme values of the
shear flow T(x) do not exceed its mean value T by more than 10 per cent (some codes adopt 5 per cent). On every such
length, the total longitudinal shear force should not exceed the product of the number N of connectors and the design
resistance per connector. Therefore, N can be obtained from the following:
N≥ (3)

The distribution of shear connectors may be influenced by preloading of the steel beam (propped/unpropped construction),
and by internal stresses possibly caused by shrinkage and creep of the concrete. For shrinkage and creep, the calculation
of stresses and the longitudinal shear flow T(x) must be based on a larger value of the modular ratio n (for long-term
effects, the original ratio is multiplied by a factor of 2 or 3).
4. DESIGN OF SIMPLY SUPPORTED BEAMS WITH DUCTILE CONNECTORS
4.1 Definition of Full and Partial Shear Connection
For simplification, only a simply supported beam with constant cross-sections, subject to either a uniformly distributed
loading or one concentrated load (but not both), is considered. Two general terms must first be defined:
● "critical cross-section" of the beam is the cross-section of maximum bending moment. (There is zero bending moment at
the supports).
● "critical length" of the beam is the length between two adjacent critical cross-sections.
Considering any critical length of a simply supported beam (see Figure 2), the maximum value of the total longitudinal
shear force, Vlf, in the length can be determined by assuming that the plastic resistance moment is reached in the
internal critical cross-section. Consequently, Vlf is equal to the lesser plastic axial resistance of either the steel member or
the concrete slab in the critical cross-section concerned. As shown in Lecture 10.3, the tension resistance of the steel member
is equal to Aa fy/γa and the compressive resistance of the concrete slab is equal to 0,85fck/γc times its area Ac (within
the effective width beff). Therefore:
Vlf = lesser value of (Aa fy/γa or 0,85Ac fck/γc) (4)
It should be noted that the small effect of the longitudinal reinforcement in compression is neglected in this derivation.

As each shear connector is able to transfer a force equal to its ultimate resistance PRd (assuming adequate ductility),
the required number Nf of connectors to obtain full shear connection for the critical length in question is given by:
Nf = Vlf/PRd (5)
If the number N of shear connectors within the critical length is less than Nf:
N < Nf (6)

the critical length is in partial shear connection and its degree of connection is defined by the ratio N/Nf. Obviously a beam
is fully connected only if all its critical lengths are fully connected.
4.2 Design Method for Partial Shear Connection
For the purpose of design (assuming ductile connectors are used), it will be sufficient to introduce the concept of a
reduced ultimate moment curve, without having to calculate the slip along the steel-concrete interface.
a) Reduced ultimate moment curve
The reduction in the ultimate moment of the internal critical cross-section, due to the reduction in the number of
connectors, can be easily calculated. Assuming that each connector develops its design shear resistance, the total
longitudinal shear force Vl in each critical length is equal to the sum of the shear resistances of the connectors and also to
the maximum compressive force Fu(r) in the slab:
Vl = N PRd = Fu(r) (7)
where N < Nf (see Figure 3). The corresponding depth of the concrete stress block is equal to:
yc = Fu(r)/[0,85fckbeff /γc] ≤ hc (8)

The position of the neutral axis in the steel beam can be determined from equating Fu(r) to the tensile force in the steel
beam, and the reduced ultimate moment Mu(r) can be calculated accordingly. The result is (see Figure 3):
● if the neutral axis is in the upper steel flange, its position ya and the ultimate moment Mu(r) are given by the
following relationships:
ya = [As(fy/γa) - Fu(r)]/[2b1(fy/γa)] with: ya ≤ t1 (9)
Mu(r) = Fu(r)(hc + da- yc/2) + 2b1ya(fy/γa)(da - ya/2) (10)
● if the neutral axis is in the steel web:
ya = {(As + 2t1tw - 2b1t1)(fy/γa) - Fu(r)}/[2tw(fy/γa)] (11)
where
t1 ≤ ya ≤ da
and
Mu(r) = Fu(r)(hc+da-yc/2)+2b1t1(fy/γa)(da-t1/2)+tw(ya-t1)(fy/γa)(2da-ya-t1) (12)
This approach is known as the "stress block method" in the referred literature.
Therefore, a well defined relationship between the flexural resistance Mu(r) and the number of shear connectors N per
critical length, i.e. Mu(r)(N), can be deduced analytically. By introducing Equations (8) and (9) into (10) and also (8) and
(11) into (12), it is clear that the variation of each function to obtain Mu(r)(Fu(r)), hence Mu(r)(N), is quadratic. Moreover,
it should be noted that (see Figure 4):
● for N = Nf, the value of the moment Mu(r) deduced from Equation (10) is equal to the full plastic resistance moment Mu of
the composite beam.
● for N = 0, the value of Mu(r) deduced from Equation (12) is equal to the plastic moment Mapl of the steel beam alone (in
this case, ya=da).
● for the particular value N = N1 corresponding to the value Fu(r), when ya = t1, the continuity of the functions Mu(r)(N) and
its first derivative is ensured.
● the second derivative of the function has a constant negative value when N varies within the respective intervals (0, N1)
and (N1, Nf).

Finally, the global relationship between Mu(r) and N can be represented by a convex curve ABC, as shown qualitatively
in Figure 4. This relationship can also be considered in a non-dimensional form (Mu(r)/Mu, N/Nf).
The convexity of curve ABC allows an alternative simplified approach which is always safe. This approach defines
the moment resistance Mu(r) in terms of a linear interaction with the degree of shear connection N/Nf, such that:
Mu(r) = Muapl + (N/Nf)(Mu - Muapl) (13)
This "linear interaction method" is represented by the dashed line AC in Figure 4. Generally, a significant benefit may
be obtained by using the stress block method, Equations (9) - (12), in the range of N/Nf = 0,5 to 0,7.
b) Ultimate loading of the beam
The above example assumes the simply supported beam is subject to either a uniformly distributed loading W or
one concentrated load Q (see Figure 2). Since beam collapse is reached when a plastic hinge occurs in the critical cross-
section subject to the maximum moment, it is logical to adopt an ultimate load curve W/Wu or Q/Qu, rather than Mu(r)/
Mu, plotted against the connection degree N/Nf. Here, Wu or Qu corresponds to the ultimate load for full shear connection.
c) Requirement of minimum degree of shear connection
If the degree of shear connection is too low, the reduced ultimate moment curve will become irrelevant because
connector failure will occur before flexural failure.
Figure 5a shows the results of numerical calculations for a uniformly loaded beam with a 6,5 m span. The cross-
section dimensions and material properties are indicated in Figure 5b, and two different ultimate slip values, su, are
considered for the connectors: 3mm and 5mm. Here, the curve ABC corresponds to the reduced ultimate moment
curve according to the relationships in Equations (7) - (12). Assuming an elastic-perfectly plastic behaviour of steel, and
su equal to 3 mm, the calculated values for W/Wu are plotted along the curve (1), representing 10 different degrees
of connection, for the beam. It can be seen immediately that part BC of the moment curve is unsafe and therefore not usable.
If strain-hardening is taken into consideration for the steel stress-strain curve (here a linear variation of σa from fy = 240
N/mm2 up to fu =360N/mm2 when εa lies between 10εay and 25εay), curve (1) is replaced by curve (2) which is safer, but
the intersection of curve (2) with the reduced moment curve is almost the same as the intersection of curve (1). This result
is logical since failure by stud rupture occurs in both cases and does not seem susceptible to the influence of strain-
hardening. On the other hand, a favourable shift of the intersection point to the left can be observed if more ductile
connectors are used, see curve (3), for which the ultimate slip su is assumed equal to 5mm.



Theoretical investigation and experimental tests on beams have demonstrated that shear connector failure does not
matter, provided that the method used to calculate the ultimate load gives the same degree of safety both for shear failure
and flexural failure. The beam behaviour for shear failure may show as much ductility as for flexural failure, even for
low degrees of connection, because ductile connectors used in practice have large deformation capacities. Consequently,
the main problem is in locating the transition point, B in Figures 4 and 5, on the reduced ultimate moment curve,
without having to use complicated methods. Another problem, which is not examined here, concerns the shape of diagram
used to calculate the ultimate load associated with shear failure.
The first draft of Eurocode 4 [3] neglected shear failure and used only part AB of the reduced moment curve; it prescribed
that the connection degree at point B, must not be less than (N/Nf)B=0,5, provided that the beam span does not exceed
20 metres. But a recent theoretical investigation [4] has demonstrated that this ratio is unsafe in some cases because
the transition point B may shift rapidly to the right when the beam span L increases but is still less than 20 metres.
Eurocode 4 gives a more correct definition of the usable part AB of the reduced moment curve, taking into account that
the connection degree (N/Nf)B must depend on the beam span L. Its specification, for ductile connectors, based on
various research results in France and UK is as follows:
● for steel sections with equal flanges:
(N/Nf)B = 0,4 where L ≤ 5 m (14)

(N/Nf)B= 0,25 + 0,03 L ≤ 1 where L > 5 m (15)
● for steel sections having a bottom flange with an area not exceeding 3 times the area of the upper flange:
(N/Nf)B = 0,4 + 0,03 L ≤ 1 (16)
The above formulae are appropriate for the case of headed studs in solid slabs. In the case of slabs cast on profiled
steel sheeting it is reasonable to consider an increase in the ductility of the connectors and, therefore, the use of
lower connection degrees; for example, the following formula is put forward:
0,4 ≤ (N/Nf)B = 0,04 L ≤ 1 (17)
for steel profiles with equal or unequal flanges.
4.3 Checking of the Serviceability Limit State
Partial shear connection has several effects on beam behaviour at the serviceability limit state.
(a) For beams with partial shear connection, it has been found [5], that for a given load, maximum deflection δ is related to
the number N of connectors, by a curve similar to DEF in Figure 6; where δf is the deflection for full connection and δa is
the deflection of the steel beam alone.

In practice, assuming values below 0,5 for the ratio N/Nf are not used, a reasonable approximation for δ is given by
the following relationship:
⋅ for propped beams:
δ = δf + 0,5 (1 - N/Nf) (δa - δf) (18)
⋅ for unpropped beams:
δ = δf + 0,3 (1 - N/Nf) (δa - δf) (19)
Another approach, which is valid for a larger interval of connection degree (0,2 ≤ N/Nf ≤ 1,0), and seems more accurate
than Equations (18) and (19), calculates the elastic deflection δ using an effective moment of inertia Ie for the
partially composite beam. The effective moment of inertia is given approximately by:
Ie = Ia + (N/Nf)α(If - Ia) (20)
where If and Ia are the moments of inertia of the full composite and steel sections respectively, and the exponent α is
dependent on the beam span L.
Convenient practical values of α have been suggested [4], such as 1,5, 1,0 and 0,8 when L is equal to 5, 10 and 15
metres respectively.
b) The effect of partial shear connection on the increase of stresses in concrete and steel extreme fibres is generally
neglected when N/Nf lies between 0,5 and 1. If N/Nf lies within a larger interval (0,2 ≤ N/Nf ≤ 1,0), it is possible to use
an effective section modulus We (which refers to the tension flange of the steel section) given by:
We = Wa + (N/Nf)β(Wf - Wa) (21)
where Wf and Wa are the section moduli of the full composite and steel sections respectively, and the exponent β
is approximately equal to α/2 [4].
c) In addition, the connector behaviour must remain reversible at the serviceability loads. This reversible behaviour is
ensured by requiring that the shear force on each connector does not exceed 0,7 PRd. To check this requirement is met, it
is possible to use an elastic analysis such as that presented in Section 3; if N/Nf is not too low (for example N/Nf ≥ 0,5),
this analysis can be assumed valid for ductile connectors working in the reversible part of their load-slip curve.
● Partial shear connection is an important option for the economic use of composite beams in buildings. Design methods
for simply supported beams, which depend on the connector ductility, are presented in the lecture.
● When non-ductile shear connectors are used, the simplest design method uses elastic beam theory to calculate the
longitudinal shear force per unit length.
● When ductile shear connectors are used, the design method is based on plastic resistance of cross-sections using the
stress block method. Attention is drawn to the requirement for a minimum degree of connection depending on the beam span.
7. REFERENCES
[1] Aribert, J.M. et Abdel Aziz K., "Calculation of Composite Beams up to Ultimate State with the Effect of Uplift at
Steel-Concrete Interface", Revue Construction Métallique no 4 - 1985 - p 3-36.
[2] Aribert, J.M. et Abdel Aziz K., "General Model for the Ultimate State Design of Statically Indeterminate
Composite Beams", Revue Construction Métallique no 4 - 1986 - p 3-41.
[4] Aribert, J.M., "Span Limitations in Design of Composite Steel and Concrete Beams with a Partial Shear
Connection", IABSE Symposium Brussels, Belgium - Theme 1 - September 5-7 1990.
[5] Johnson, R.P., "Composite Structures of Steel and Concrete - Volume 1", Crosby Lockwood, 1975.
1. Stark, J.W.B., "Composite Steel and Concrete Beams with Partial Shear Connection", Heron - Volume 34 - No 4 - 1989 -
The Netherlands.


ESDEP WG 10
Lecture 10.6.3: Shear Connection III

OBJECTIVE/SCOPE
To explain the design of shear connection in continuous composite beams, with special emphasis on hogging moment regions.
PREREQUISITES
RELATED LECTURES
SUMMARY
The aim of the lecture is to explain simply the basis of designing full and partial shear connection in continuous
composite beams, mainly dealing with the connector distribution in hogging moment regions. The greatest care must be
taken regarding the validity of plastic cross-section behaviour. For critical cross-sections in Class 1, a general method
is developed, illustrated by examples. For critical cross-sections in Class 2, an outline is given using a simplified method.
1. INTRODUCTION
This lecture describes the design of shear connection in continuous composite beams. The problem is discussed mainly
with regard to a practical method for determining the connector distribution along the shear span in the hogging
moment region. The use of partial shear connection in a continuous beam is considered; this is a complicated problem
which must be related to the validity of plastic theory and take account of the increased risk of local flange buckling at
internal supports.
2. SHEAR CONNECTION DESIGN IN CONTINUOUS COMPOSITE BEAMS
2.1 General Aspects
The design of the shear connection in a continuous beam is more complicated than for a simply supported beam because
of hogging bending effects over the internal supports. The cross-sections in these regions may become critical and have to
be checked. Checking them is complicated by the decrease in bending stiffness (due to slab cracking) and the tendency for
the neutral axis to move up the steel web, if slab reinforcement is used, thereby changing the classification of the
section elements (according to the definitions given in Lecture 10.3). In such situations, the scope for the application of
rigid-plastic analysis of beams is more restricted. There is then the need to distinguish between several procedures
for connection design.
Before describing the procedures the following points should be noted:
● Even if an elastic analysis is used for the continuous beam (possibly in conjunction with redistribution of support
moments), plastic design of the shear connection is not completely excluded when the end cross-sections of any critical
length are at least in Class 2. This is because these cross-sections are able to develop their plastic moment resistances
without risk of local buckling - see Section 3.
● In hogging bending regions, design of partial shear connection is difficult to check with regard to the required

rotation capacities of the cross-sections at internal supports, even if these cross-sections are in Class 1. Therefore, to
conform with Eurocode 4 [1], it is preferable not to allow partial interaction in hogging regions, in order to reduce the risk
of local buckling of steel.
● In sagging bending regions, if the cross-sections at internal supports are in Class 2, 3 or 4, partial shear connection is
sufficient because the maximum positive moment due to design loads is clearly less than the plastic moment resistance
Mu. This assumes that elastic global analysis is used and that there are no special restrictions as, for example, apply in the
case of bridge beams.
● Experimental work indicates that when the slab is in tension the shear connection is less stiff and the ultimate resistance
is slightly reduced [2]. This behaviour is the reason why some codes (such as the British Standards) propose, for
composite beams in buildings, that the ultimate resistance of connectors PRd in hogging bending regions of continuous
beams should be taken as about 20 per cent less than the value PRd used in sagging bending regions. However, Eurocode 4
does not have such a requirement.
2.2 Continuous Beams with Critical Cross-Sections in Class 1
The very simple example of a two-span continuous beam under concentrated loading is taken below to illustrate the procedures.
2.2.1 Simple Case - Single Point Load Only
Figure 1a shows a span AC of a two-span composite beam, loaded by a single concentrated load Q, at point B. A
design method is now developed for both partial and full shear connection of the beam. At failure, a complete
plastic mechanism is assumed to occur (Class 1 sections), see Figure 1b, with the bending moment reaching the ultimate
cross-section resistance at each plastic hinge location. If these moments are assumed to be Mu(r) and M′u, in sagging
and hogging respectively (see Figure 1c), then the ultimate load is given by the relationship:
Q = {Mu(r)L + M′ud}/[d(L - d)] (1)

Clearly, the values of Mu(r) and M′u depend on the arrangement of the shear connection. As explained in Lecture 10.4.1,
the calculation of the hogging moment of resistance M′u is based on the following assumptions:
● tension stresses in the concrete are neglected.

● the reinforcement is yielding, so the tensile force in the reinforcement at failure is equal to:
Fs = asfsk /γs (2)
● all fibres of the steel section are yielding either in compression or tension.
The critical length BC, where the bending moment changes sign, is considered first. The number N(BC) of ductile
shear connectors uniformly distributed along this critical length can be chosen. The horizontal equilibrium condition
(see Figure 1d), for the concrete slab, gives the equation:
Vl(BC) = N(BC) PRd = Fu(r) + Fs (3)
where Vl(BC) is the total longitudinal shear force in the critical length considered, and Fu(r) is the compressive force in
the concrete slab in the internal critical cross-section B. Hence, the value of Fu(r) can be determined:
Fu(r) = N(BC) PRd - Fs (4)
and consequently the reduced ultimate sagging moment Mu(r) by using Equations (10) and (12) established for
simply supported beams (see Lecture 10.6.2).
Considering the external critical length AB, which is only in sagging bending, the required number N(AB) of shear
connectors follows directly from the Equation:
Vl(BC) = N(AB) PRd = Fu(r), (5)
hence:

N(AB) = Fu(r)/PRd = N(BC) - Fs/PRd (6)
Finally, the total number N of shear connectors uniformly distributed along the whole span AC is equal to:
N = N(AB) + N(BC) = 2 N(BC) - Fs/ PRd (7)
In summary, using the parameter N(BC), the ultimate load Q of the beam, Equation (1), can be calculated as a function of
the total number N of shear connectors, Equation (7), in the span concerned by assuming a plastic failure mechanism
occurs. Obviously, the case of full shear connection corresponds to the particular value Nf(BC) such that Equation (4) leads
to the maximum value of Fu(r), i.e. Vlf given by Equation (4) Lecture 10.6.2. Therefore:
Nf(BC) = (Vlf + Fs)/PRd (8)
The corresponding values of the total number of shear connectors and the ultimate load of the beam are defined by symbols
Nf and Qu.
To illustrate the above results, Figure 2 gives a graphical representation of the relation between Q and N (in non-
dimensional form), namely the qualitative curve A′B′C′ . For the same reasons as explained in the case of simply
supported beams, the whole curve A′B′C′ is not usable; as before, the minimum number of shear connectors must be limited
to a function of the span L of the beam. Therefore:
(9)
where the limitation (N/Nf)B may again be evaluated by means of Equations (15) and (16) given in Lecture 10.6.2. Such
′
an evaluation is conservative because partial shear connection deals here only with the region in sagging bending, and
this region is shorter than L.

The following observations are made regarding the above approach:
(i) The formulae derived are based on an assumed zero value for the compressive force possibly developed in the concrete
at the intermediate support. This is a conservative assumption and an increase in design resistance may result from a
more detailed analysis [3].
(ii) The curve A′B′C′ shown in Figure 2, is always convex, like curve ABC in Fig. 4 of Lecture 10.6.2. This property
results directly from Equation (1) and the negative value of the second derivative of function Mu(r)(N(AB)), and
consequently function Mu(r)(N). A simplified method can be proposed for the determination of the ultimate load Q of
the continuous beam with partial shear connection. This method is again based on linear interpolation between the
ultimate load Qapl of the steel beam alone and the ultimate load Qu of the composite beam with full shear connection:
Q = Qapl + (Qu - Qapl) (10)
(iii) As has already been explained, Q can be calculated when the number of shear connectors and their distribution, is
known. Vice versa, when Q is fixed, curve A′B′C′ or line A′C′ allows the determination of the total number N of
shear connectors and their distribution can then be determined from Equation (7), then (6).
(iv) The discussion thus far has concentrated on the particular load/span arrangement shown in Figure 1. However, it is
clear that the same principles can easily be applied to other more general cases of continuous beams. For these cases,
Equation (1) (used to calculate the ultimate load) will be different and the definition of the critical lengths related to the
plastic mechanism at failure may be more subtle. Section 2.2.2 covers situations where several point loads and/or
distributed loads are applied on any span of a continuous beam.
2.2.2 General Cases
Figure 3 shows the case of two equal point loads each located at a quarter span from the supports. The cross-section at point
B is the critical one and the corresponding ultimate load is given by the relationship:
Q = (4Mu(r) + M′u)/L (11)

However, if the ultimate value of Q is relatively large, compared to the section resistance, an intermediate cross-section
must be introduced at point D, resulting in the connectors not being spaced uniformly along the internal critical length BC.
Figure 4 shows a symmetrical two-span beam with a uniformly distributed load "q". The shear connection design requires
that the location of the critical cross-section B should be calculated from consideration of the plastic hinge
mechanism. Therefore:
d = L(Mu(r)/M′u){√[1+ (M′u/Mu(r))]-1} (12)
and the corresponding value of the ultimate load is:
q = 2[Mu(r)L + M′ud]/[d(L-d)L] (13)

In contrast to Figures 1 and 3, here the location of the critical cross-section B is slightly affected by the choice of the number
N(BC) of shear connectors; this makes the determination of the curve (q/qu, N/Nf), similar to curve A′B′C′ in Figure 2,
more difficult. The interpolation method, however, is still valid, symbol Q being replaced by symbol q in Equation (10).
Finally, Figure 5 shows a more complicated case: an unsymmetrical two-span beam on which a uniformly distributed load q
is applied together with a heavy point load Q on the longer span only. In this case, the position of critical cross-sections B and
B′, in sagging moment, should be found (see d and d′ in the Figure), and the critical length AB should be divided into two
sub-lengths by introducing the intermediate cross-section D for checking the adequacy of the shear connection. The
internal critical length BC can be designed in accordance with the general method or the simplified one. For the internal
critical length CB′, which is not part of the plastic hinge mechanism, its shear connection can be designed by interpreting
the external bending moment MB at failure as equal to a reduced plastic resistance moment in the cross-section B′. It should
′
be noted that the same interpretation is used for intermediate cross-sections.

3. CASE OF CONTINUOUS BEAMS WITH CRITICAL CROSS-SECTIONS

IN CLASS 2 AT INTERNAL SUPPORTS
Class 2 cross-sections are discussed here together with cross-sections with Class 3 webs which can be replaced by an
effective web in Class 2 using area reduction. Referring to the simple example of Figure 1, the ultimate design load for
the beam cannot be calculated using plastic hinge analysis. Only an elastic global analysis with limited redistribution
of moments can be used for the beam, which leads to an ultimate load Qd less than the corresponding value Qu for a Class
1 beam with full shear connection. Since MB < Mu in the sagging moment region, as shown in Figure 6, it is clear that
partial shear connection will occur even when the beam is used to its full flexural resistance. Attention must be paid here to
the fact that the convex curve A′B′C′, in Figure 2, cannot be used to calculate the total number N of shear connectors in
span AC because, the plastic hinge mechanism cannot occur at the Class 2 cross-section B. In practice, however, a line
similar to A′C′ can be used for this problem, as it gives safe results. Therefore, in the absence of a more rigorous
calculation, the degree of connection N/Nf may be calculated from the linear relationship:
N/Nf = (Qd - Qapl)/(Qu - Qapl) (14)
It should be noted that Qu and Qapl are calculated now using elastic global analysis.

● Shear connection design, for hogging moment regions of continuous composite beams, is a more complex problem than for
the simply supported case and requires special analysis.
● When ductile shear connectors are used a plastic design method can be developed for use in the hogging moment
regions, which depends on whether a Class 1 or 2 beam is being used. To avoid complex analysis a simple linear method
can be used for design.
5. REFERENCES
[2] Johnson, R.P., "Composite Structures of Steel and Concrete - Vol. 1." Crosby Lockwood, 1975.
[3] Stark, J.W.B., "Composite Steel and Concrete Beams with Partial Shear Connection", Heron, Vol. 34, No. 4, 1989.

ESDEP WG 10
Lecture 10.7: Composite Slabs

OBJECTIVE/SCOPE
To describe the design of one-way spanning composite slabs, formed using profiled steel sheeting and a concrete
topping, including consideration of ultimate and serviceability limit state design according to Eurocode 4: Part 1 [1]
for building structures.
PREREQUISITES
RELATED LECTURES
All other lectures in Group 10.
Worked Example 10.4: Design of a Composite Slab
SUMMARY
Descriptions of composite slabs, typical profiled sheeting and means of ensuring composite behaviour are given.
Design criteria are identified in terms of loads, design resistance and serviceability limits. Analysis of continuous slabs is
based on elastic or plastic theories. The resistances of critical cross-sections are calculated considering all possible modes
of failure. The design for the ultimate limit state design consists of checking that slab resistance is sufficient to
withstand maximum predicted forces; design for the serviceability limit state is performed to limit concrete cracking and
slab deflections, taking into account creep and shrinkage of the concrete. The above methods are illustrated by
Worked Example 10.4.
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 Definition
A composite slab consists of a cold-formed profiled steel sheet covered with a concrete slab containing reinforcement
(Figure 1). Such slabs are generally used in frame structures, with steel floor beams, as discussed previously in Lecture
10.1. They can also be used in combination with other materials.

In this type of construction the profiled sheet has several functions:
● it provides a working platform for construction.

● it acts as formwork for the concrete slab.
● it constitutes bottom reinforcement for the slab.

The present lecture is mainly concerned with composite slabs when the steel-concrete bond has been formed, i.e.
after hardening of the concrete. Design for the construction stage, when the profiled steel sheet supports the weight of
wet concrete, is only considered briefly.
1.2 Types of Profiled Sheet
There are many types of profiled sheet used for the construction of composite slabs (Figure 2). These types vary in form,
rib depth, rib spacing, sheet size, style of lateral over-lapping; in the methods of stiffening the flat elements of the profile;
and in the methods of mechanical connection which ensure bond between the steel sheet and concrete slab.


The thickness of the sheets can vary from 0,75 mm to 1,5 mm but in normal practice it lies between 0,75 and 1,0 mm.
The height of the profiled sheets can vary from 38 mm to 80 mm.
Whatever the particular requirements for a steel framed building, it is probable that they can be met by using a profiled
sheet from this range, as the typical criteria for sound insulation, fire protection, maximum span and maximum load can
easily be met.
1.3 Steel-Concrete Connection
The bond between the concrete slab and the profiled sheet must be capable of transmitting longitudinal shear at the
steel-concrete interface.
This connection can be made in one or more of the following ways, as shown in Figure 3 (which has been taken from Fig.
7.1 of Eurocode 4 [1]):
● by the re-entrant shape of the ribs creating bond by friction (Figure 3a,b).
● by embossments on the flanges or ribs of the sheet (Figure 3c).
● by anchorages situated at the ends of the slab, consisting of stud connectors welded through the sheet (Figure 3d), shot-
fired shear connectors (Figure 3e), or by deformation of the ribs (Figure 3f).

2. DESIGN PRINCIPLES
2.1 Design Situations
When designing composite slabs two distinct structural states must be checked: firstly, the temporary state of execution,
when only the sheeting resists the applied loads; secondly, the permanent state, after the concrete is bonded to the steel
giving composite action.
Relevant limit states and load cases are considered for both design situations.

a) Profiled sheeting as shuttering
Verifications at the ultimate limit state and the serviceability limit state are required, with respect to the safety
and serviceability of the profiled sheeting acting as formwork for the wet concrete. The effects of any temporary props
used during execution, must be taken into account in this design situation.
b) Composite slabs
Verifications at the ultimate limit state and the serviceability limit state are required, with respect to the safety and
the serviceability of the composite slab after composite behaviour has commenced and any props have been removed.
2.2 Actions
The loads and other actions to be considered, for the ultimate and serviceability limit state, are given in the relevant Eurocodes.
For the situation where the profiled sheeting acts as formwork, the following loads should be considered in the
calculations, taking into account any propping effects:
● self-weight of the profiled sheeting.

● weight of the wet concrete.
● execution loads.
● temporary storage load, if applicable.
The execution loads represent the weight of the operatives, any loads due to placing the concrete, and also take into
account any impact or vibration likely to occur during execution. In accordance with Eurocode 4 [1], a representative value
of execution loads (including any excess of concrete) can be taken to be 1,5kN/m2, distributed on an area 3m x 3m (or the
span of the sheeting, if less) and 0,75kN/m2 on the remaining formwork surface.
For the situation where the steel and the concrete act compositely, the loads acting on the slab should comply with Eurocode
1 [2].
● self-weight of the slab (profiled sheeting and concrete)

● weight of floor finishes
● imposed loads
For the serviceability limit state, long duration values of the loads are required for the calculation of deformations taking
into account creep and shrinkage of the concrete.

2.3 Material Properties
Profiled sheeting
Steel used for the fabrication of profiled sheeting has a minimum nominal yield strength of 220N/mm2. In general,
however, composite slabs are fabricated from profiled steel sheeting manufactured from galvanised steel of grades 280 to
350, according to European Standard pr EN 10147 [3]. The respective nominal values of yield strength for these steels are:
Steel grade 280 : fyb = 280 N/mm2
Steel grade 350 : fyb = 350 N/mm2
The characteristic yield strength fyap, is equal to the nominal yield strength of the basic material fyb quoted above
for calculating ultimate resistance.
Concrete
Concrete used for composite slabs can be made with normal or lightweight aggregate.
The most commonly used grades of concrete (grading according to Eurocode 2 [4]) are given in Table 1, which also gives
the following properties: characteristic cylinder 28 days compressive strength, fck; mean tensile strength, fctm, which
is associated with the shear strength τRd; and the secant modulus of elasticity, Ecm.
Reinforcement
All reinforcing steels used in composite slabs should conform to the requirements of Eurocode 2 [4]. The types concerned
are essentially ribbed bars and ribbed wires, including welded mesh, fabricated from steels of classes of ductility A or B.
Class A is recommended for negative moment reinforcement and fire resistance reinforcement.
Characteristic values for the most commonly used reinforcing steels are given in Table 2.
2.4 Deflection Limits
a) Deflection during execution (construction stage)

During execution, deflection of the profiled sheeting under loads due to self-weight and wet concrete, must not exceed
a limiting value.
For example, Eurocode 4 [1], sets this limit at l/180 or 20 mm, where l is the span of the sheeting between supports. In the
case of propped profiled sheeting, props are considered as supports. In situations where greater deflection can be
tolerated, calculation for the ultimate limit state should take into account the weight of additional concrete due to the
deflection (the "ponding" effect).
b) Deflection in the composite state (permanent state)
Deflections in the composite state must be limited, in order that the slab may fulfil its intended function and that any
other elements in contact with it (false ceilings, pipework, screens, partitions) will not be damaged. Deflection limits
should, therefore, be considered relative to the use of the slab, the execution procedure and architectural aspects (aesthetics).
The values recommended by Eurocode 3 [5], for floors and roofs in buildings, are as follows:
δmax ≤ l/250
(l is the span of the composite slab)
δ2 ≤ l/300
where
δmax is the total deflection of the floor or roof, including any pre-camber and any variation of the deflection due to
the permanent loads immediately after loading, and including δ2.
δ2 is the variation of the deflection due to variable loading acting on the slab plus any time-dependent deformations due to
the permanent loads.
If the composite slab supports brittle elements (cement floor finishes, non-flexible partitions, etc), δ2 must be limited to l/350.
2.5 Verification Conditions
Two verifications are necessary to ensure that safety and serviceability requirements are met:
● verification at the ultimate limit states

● verification at the serviceability limit states
a) Verification conditions for the ultimate limit states
The resistance of the profiled sheeting (execution stage) or the composite slab (permanent state) must be sufficient to resist
the exterior loads. Each section or member must be capable of resisting the internal forces determined by the analysis of
the structure.
When considering a limit state of rupture or excessive deformation, it shall be verified that
Sd ≤ Rd
where
Sd is the design value of load effects
Rd is the design value of the resistance
The load combinations required for design, and the calculation of their effects (moments, shears, etc.) are not discussed in
this lecture; for further information reference should be made to the relevant Eurocodes or to National Codes.
Calculation of the resistance of critical sections of composite slabs is given in Section 4.
b) Verification conditions for the serviceability limit states
The behaviour of the profiled sheeting, under its self-weight and the weight of the wet concrete, must fall within
accepted limits.
The following verifications should be made:
● deflection within the permissible limit (appearance, ponding effect).

● marks on the sheet due to the temporary construction props should not be visible.
The behaviour of the composite slab under permanent loads and variable service loads must fall within accepted limits.

The following states should be verified:
● Concrete cracking restricted to a limited width (corrosion of reinforcement, appearance).

● Deflection, or variation of deflection, within the permissible limit (use of slab, damage of non-structural elements,
appearance, etc).
● Vibrations not exceeding a limiting value (this limit state is not treated in this lecture).
3. BEHAVIOUR AND ANALYSIS
3.1 Behaviour of Profiled Sheeting
During execution when the concrete is wet, the profiled sheeting alone resists the exterior loads. Its behaviour is
then comparable to the behaviour of profiles used for roof decking.
The profiled sheeting is subjected mainly to bending and shear; compression due to bending may arise in either the flanges
or the web; shear occurs essentially near the supports. The thin-plate elements, which make up the profiled sheeting,
may buckle prior to yield under these compressive and shear stresses, thereby reducing the resistance and stiffness of
the sheeting.
Current design procedures rely on the concept of effective width, as described in Lecture 9.1, to provide a method for
the calculation for this type of thin-walled member. Clearly, the effective width of the compression flange depends upon
the maximum stress imposed on the flange, which in turn depends on the location of the neutral axis of the cross-section.
As the ineffective area of the flange increases under increasing bending moment, the neutral axis of the profile is lowered
and the extreme fibre stresses change accordingly. Iterative design calculations, therefore, become necessary both for
resistance and deflection.
3.2 Behaviour of Composite Slabs
The behaviour of composite slabs is somewhat different from that of other similar forms of composite construction, such
as reinforced concrete slabs or composite beams of steel and concrete. Composite action is achieved in reinforced concrete
by the bond of the concrete to the reinforcement due to the special profile of the bars used. This bond, verified by tests, is
the same as the ultimate resistance of the reinforcement in tension assuming always that the slab can develop full resistance
to bending. In composite beams, composite action is achieved by connectors fixed to the top flange of the steel beam.
The design of these connectors may be based on the assumption that the beam attains ultimate bending resistance
(full connection). If the number of connectors is smaller than that required for full connection then the connection is partial.
In this case the ultimate resistance to bending depends essentially on the number of connectors, the slope of the load-
slip diagram for the connectors, the span of the beam, and the method of construction, i.e. execution.
The composite slab with profiled sheeting is half-way between these two systems. On the one hand sheeting with
embossments or anchorages is comparable to reinforcement, whereas, on the other hand, sheeting is an element with
bending rigidity similar to steel beams. The difference results from the fact that profiled sheeting, and similarly
the embossments, can be deformed under load. Also, unlike reinforcement, profiled sheeting does not benefit from being
totally embedded in concrete. The numerous parameters involved, therefore, make the analysis of the actual behaviour
of composite slabs very complicated.
Recent theoretical and experimental studies have identified different parameters and revealed two behaviour modes.
These modes are based on the analysis of load-deflection curves which can be obtained, for example, when bending tests
are performed on composite slabs on two supports subjected to two concentrated loads (Figure 4).

Mode 1
The characteristic of this mode is an initial linear curve, as in Figure 5, which corresponds to the behaviour of a
homogeneous material held together by surface effects (chemical bond and friction) and mechanical effects (embossments
and anchorages). No significant relative slip between the steel and the concrete takes place; as the load increases, the
rigidity decreases because of the cracks which form in the concrete in tension. Shear stresses between the steel and
concrete increase in the zone between the concentrated load and the support. At a certain point the relative slip is such that
the bond is broken and the load suddenly decreases. All the shear force must therefore be taken up by friction and by
any embossments; the amount of load decrease is therefore dependent on the quality of the mechanical bond. With
further deformation of the slab the load increases again slightly without ever reaching the level of the initial phase. This
means that the mechanical bond is incapable of achieving a composite effect superior to that of simple surface bond. It
should be noted that the decrease in the load is not due to the sudden opening of tension cracks in the concrete, because this
is prevented by the sheeting, but by relative slip between the concrete and the sheeting.

Mode 2
This mode is characterised by an initial phase similar to that of mode 1. However, the second phase is different: after a
decrease in load, corresponding to failure of the steel-concrete bond in the sheared zone, the load increases again up to a
higher level. This increase shows that the mechanical connection is capable of transferring the shear force until failure
occurs by bending, corresponding to full shear connection, or by longitudinal shear, corresponding to partial shear connection.
The two modes described above represent brittle (or non-ductile) behaviour (mode1), and ductile behaviour (mode 2),
see Figure 5.
3.3 Analysis of Composite Slabs

The analysis of a composite slab may be made in accordance with one of the following methods:
● linear elastic.
● linear elastic with moment redistribution.
● plastic according to the theory of plastic hinges.
● a higher order analysis which takes into account non-linear material behaviour and slip between the profiled sheeting and
the concrete slab.
a) Analysis for the ultimate limit states
In most cases analysis of composite slabs, continuous over several spans, is performed according to the elastic method, for
a slab of unit width (1m), comparable to a beam of constant inertia (Figure 6, line (1)). The assumed inertia is that of
the uncracked section.

It is possible to take concrete cracking into account in several ways:
● Arbitrarily reduce the moment at the supports (maximum reduction 30%) and consequently increase the span moments
(Figure 6, line (2)).
● Totally neglect reinforcement over the supports and consider the slab as a series of simply supported beams (Figure 6, line
(3)). Minimum reinforcement must always be placed over intermediate supports for serviceability reasons.
● Consider that the slab is a beam with variable inertia, depending on the reinforcement. The assumed inertia is that of
the cracked section.
The analysis will use one of the above statical models in conjunction with the design loads determined, as discussed earlier
in Section 2.2.
Worked Example 10.4 illustrates how the actual stresses and strains are determined and how the internal forces and
moments (M, N, V) are calculated for the structural system chosen.
b) Analysis for the serviceability limit states
An analysis of the composite slab, for calculating deflection, may be made with the following assumptions:
● The slab is comparable to a continuous beam of constant inertia, equal in value to the average inertia of the cracked
and uncracked section.
● Long-term loading effects on the concrete are taken into account using a variation in the modular ratio Ea/Ec.
For simplification, Eurocode 4 recommends an average value of Ea/Ec for both long and short term effects.
Possible slip between the profiled sheeting and concrete slab must be taken into account at the serviceability limit states.
Slip may occur in the span and greatly influence deflection. It is necessary, therefore, to fully understand the behaviour
of composite slabs through approved testing.
To eliminate excessive slip it is possible to place anchorages, for example welded studs or shot-fired connectors, at the ends
of the spans (see Figure 3d and e).
4. RESISTANCES OF SECTIONS
According to Section 3, the critical sections which should be verified, are as follows (Figure 7):
● Section I : ultimate moment of resistance failure for positive bending.

● Section II : ultimate moment of resistance failure for negative bending.
● Section III-IV : ultimate resistance to vertical shear failure.
● Section V : ultimate resistance to longitudinal shear failure.

4.1 Positive Bending Resistance
The ultimate moment of resistance of a section, Mpc, may be determined by assuming a plastic distribution of stresses
(Figure 8). For an under-reinforced* section, the position of the plastic neutral axis is given by:
x = [Aap.fyap/γap]/[b.0,85fck/γc] (1)
where:
Aap is the area of the profiled sheet section.
fyap is the characteristic yield strength of the sheet steel.
γap is the partial safety factor for steel sheeting.
b is the width of the slab (b = 1000 mm).
fck is the characteristic compressive strength of the concrete.
γc is the partial safety factor for concrete.

If the neutral axis is situated above the profiles of the sheeting (x ≤ hc) the design positive bending resistance has the value:
M+p,Rd = Aap.fyap[dc - x/2]/γap (2)
All commonly used profiled sheeting (ha ≤ 60 mm), in conjunction with a concrete slab of minimum thickness hc = 50
mm, have a plastic neutral axis situated above the profiles. For deeper sheets, the neutral axis may be situated within the
height of the profiled sheeting.
In this case, the positive bending resistance of a section may be calculated as follows, by neglecting the concrete in the
troughs (Figure 9):
+
M+p,Rd = Mcz + Mpa,r (3)
+
z = ht - dc/2 - ep + (ep - e)Nc/[Aap.fyap/γap] (4)
Nc = hc.0,85fck/γc (5)
Mpa,r = 1,25Mpa [1 - Nc/(Aap.fyap/γap)] ≤ Mpa (6)
where
e is the distance from the centroid of the effective area of the sheeting to its underside.
ep is the distance from the plastic neutral axis of the effective area of sheeting to its underside.
Mpa is the plastic moment resistance of the effective cross-section of the sheeting.

4.2 Negative Bending Resistance
The section of a continuous composite slab at a support can be compared to a reinforced concrete section. As a
simplification, the contribution of the profiled sheet is neglected. The design section and the distribution of stresses at
the ultimate limit state are shown in Figure 10.

The design negative bending resistance is given by yielding of the reinforcement at the support (under-reinforced slab):
M+p,Rd = As.fysz-/γs (7)
where
As is the area of reinforcement
fys is the yield strength of the reinforcement
γs is the partial safety factor for the reinforcement

z- is the lever-arm of the internal forces Nc and Nt.
The condition of equilibrium between these forces allows the determination of z-:
Nc- = bcx0,85fck/γc= As.fys/γs= Nt- (8)
x = [As.fys/γs][bc0,85fck/γc] (9)
= d′s - x/2 (10)
where
bc is the width of the concrete in compression, taken as the width of the troughs over 1m for simplicity (bc = εbo).
d′s is the effective depth
4.3 Vertical and Punching Shear Resistance
In general the vertical and the punching shear resistances are assumed to be given by the concrete section since the
contribution of the steel sheeting is neglected.
The vertical shear design resistance, over a width equal to the distance between centres of ribs has the value:
Vv,Rd = bo ds τc (11)
where
τc is the limiting shear stress appropriate for composite slabs (γc included).
τc = τRd k1 k2
where

k1 = 1,6 - ds ≥ 1,0 (ds in m)
k2 = 1,2 + 40 po
ρo = As/bo ds < 0,02
As is the area of reinforcement in tension provided in order to distribute cracking. In positive bending regions, As is to
be replaced by Aap.
τRd is the basic shear strength (see Table 1).
The punching shear resistance Vp,Rd of a composite slab at a concentrated load should be determined from:
Vp,Rd = Cp hc τc (12)
where
Cp is the critical perimeter determined as shown in Figure 11.

hc is the thickness of the concrete slab (above the ribs).
τc is the limiting shear stress given above.

4.4 Longitudinal Shear Resistance
Resistance to longitudinal shear in composite slabs is due to the steel-concrete bond at the interface of these two
materials, established by friction, embossments or connectors placed at the ends of the spans (see Section 3). The
ultimate resistance of these connections can only be determined by testing, as described in Section 10.3 of Eurocode 4 [1].
a) Empirical "m-k" method
The most commonly used method for calculating ultimate longitudinal shear was developed in the United States [6].
This method is used in many codes of practice, including Eurocode 4. It is based on at least six tests of simply
supported composite slabs, which determine two coefficients m and k (see Figure 12), for the test profile.
The longitudinal shear resistance of a composite slab, consisting of the same type of profiled sheet as that tested, is then
given by the following maximum design vertical shear:
Vl,Rd = bds[(mAsp/bls) + k]/γvs (13)

where
ls is the shear span.
γvs is the appropriate partial safety factor for longitudinal shear only.
For a uniformly loaded slab, ls = l/4; for simply supported beams, l is the span, whereas for continuous beams l is
the equivalent simple span between points of contraflexure; for end spans, the full exterior span length is used in design
(see Figure 13 which has been taken from Fig. 7.10 of Eurocode 4 [1]).

If the connection provided by friction (due to the rib shape) or by embossments is not sufficient, it is possible to
place anchorages (generally steel-concrete connectors) at the ends of the span.
The ultimate resistance of such anchorages is generally governed by the pull-out resistance of the sheet. For a stud,
this resistance is given by the following expression:
Nt,ap = k3 dw t fyap/γap (14)
k3 = 1 + a/dw ≤ 4,0
where
dw is the diameter of weld around the stud.
a is the distance between the axis of the stud and the extremity of the profiled sheet (a ≥ 2dw).
b) Partial shear connection method
The fact that composite slabs fail by longitudinal shear in most cases, allows this structural system to be compared to
a composite steel beam and concrete slab with partial shear connection. It is also possible to represent the resistance of
such slabs by a diagram giving MSd/MRd as a function of Nc/Ncf. This diagram is different to that given for composite
beams due to the fact that the degree of partial shear connection Nc/Ncf is not a function of the number of connectors, but of
the shear length ls and of the distribution of longitudinal shear stresses τ over this length. The relative slip s between
the profiled sheeting and the concrete also plays a more important role.
The determination of such diagrams for design is therefore complicated since one of the following is necessary:
a) non-linear analysis of the resistance and behaviour of slabs combined with shear tests on specimens representative of
the connection.
b) many tests of composite slabs, with measurements taken of the normal force Nc, transferred over the shear length.
Studies are being undertaken at present to try to establish a simplified method based on scientific research. Eurocode 4
[1] gives such an alternative method in Appendix E, based on research conducted recently in Germany. This alternative
method will not be described further in this lecture.
4.5 Elastic Properties of Cross-sections
The deflection of a composite slab is calculated using elastic theory.
a) Cracked section
The second moment of area Ibc of the cracked section can be obtained from:
Ivc = [bx3/3n] + Aap(ds - x)2 + Iap (20)
where x is the position of the elastic neutral axis:
x = [nAap/b]{√[1 + (2bds/nAap)] - 1} (21)
where
Iap is the unreduced second moment of area of the sheet based upon the net sheet thickness
b) Uncracked section
The second moment of area Ibu of the uncracked section can be obtained from:
Ibu =
(22)
where
bc is the total average rib width over a slab width of 1 m.

xu is the position of the elastic neutral axis:
xu = (23)
5. VERIFICATIONS
This lecture has given a brief introduction to composite slabs constructed with profiled steel sheeting. The basic
design principles have been given, which allow a schematic structural arrangement and statical system to be determined.
The procedure for analysing the slab under the external loads to find the internal stresses and strains has then been
considered. Now, various verifications are necessary to show that structural safety (resistance, stability) and
serviceability (deflection, vibration) requirements are met.
5.1 Verification of the Ultimate Limit States
For composite slabs, this check generally consists of showing that the design internal shear forces and moments at
critical sections are smaller than the design resistances of the cross-sections.
a) Positive bending (Section 4.1 and Section I of Figure 7)
This check is made at the section of maximum positive moment, generally in the external span of a continuous slab.
The condition can be expressed as:
(24)
where
is the design value of the bending moment.
is the design value of the positive bending resistance.
b) Negative bending (Section 4.2 and Section II of Figure 7)

The negative moment, at the supports, is checked (see Section 3).
The condition can be expressed as:
(25)
where
is the design value of the negative bending moment.
is the design value of the negative bending resistance.
c) Vertical shear (Section 4.3 and Sections III or IV of Figure 7)
This check is rarely critical; however, it may be critical in the case of deep slabs with loads of relatively large magnitude.
This condition may occur at end supports where the bending moment is zero, or at intermediate supports; in the latter case,
no interaction between M and V is assumed. The condition is expressed as:
VSd ≤ Vv,Rd (26)
where
VSd is the design value of the vertical shear.
Vv,Rd is the design value of the vertical shear resistance.
d) Longitudinal shear (Section 4.4 and Section V of Figure 7)
This check is often the determining factor for composite slabs with profiled sheeting but no anchorage. It implies that
overall failure of the slab occurs by failure of the shear bond. The bending resistance at section I cannot then be attained.
If the empirical "m-k" method is used, the condition can be expressed as:

VSd ≤ Vl,Rd (27)
where
VSd is the design value of the vertical shear (equivalent span, see Figure 13).
VlRd Is the design value of the shear resistance.
5.2 Verification of the Serviceability Limit State
The following verifications should be made concerning the serviceability of the composite slab:
a) Deformations
Vertical deflections must not exceed the limiting values (see Section 2.4b).
If the slenderness (span/effective depth) of the slab does not exceed the limiting values given in Eurocode 2 [4], this
deflection check is not essential. For one way continuous slabs, with lightly stressed concrete, the limit is:
(28)
b) Crack width
Given that there is a profiled sheet on the lower surface of the concrete slab, only concrete cracking at the supports must
be verified. Such verifications should be made according to the established rules for reinforced concrete, given in Eurocode
2 [4].
In normal circumstances when, for example, the slab is designed as a series of simply supported beams,
minimum reinforcement placed at the supports is sufficient. Normal circumstances are: no exposure to aggressive physical
or chemical environments; no damage other than cracking; no requirements regarding water proofing of the slab; and no
special requirements regarding appearance.
The amount of minimum reinforcement is given by the following:

● for slabs propped at the time of concreting:
ρmin = (29)
● for slabs unpropped at the time of concreting:
ρmin = 0,2% (30)
● The design of a composite slab must consider the performance of the profiled steel sheeting, when it acts as shuttering for
the wet concrete during execution, as well as the composite performance of the steel and hardened concrete under the
imposed floor loading.
● At the execution stage, the profiled steel sheeting acts as a thin-walled member. Its design must take into account the
possibility of local buckling.
● The design of the composite slab must consider the resistance to positive and negative moments and also to vertical
and longitudinal shear.
● The resistance to longitudinal shear at the steel/concrete interface is largely derived from embossments in the steel sheet
or from connectors placed at the ends of the spans. Empirical methods are used to ensure adequate shear resistance.
7. REFERENCES
[1] Eurocode 4: "Design of Composite Steel and Concrete Structures": ENV 1994-1-1: Part 1.1: General rules and rules
form buildings, CEN (in press).
[3] prEN 10147, "Continuous Hot Dip Zinc Coated Carbon Steel Sheet of Structural Quality", European Standard, 1979.
[4] Eurocode 2: "Design of Concrete Structures": ENV 1992-1-1: Part 1.1: General rules and rules form buildings, CEN, 1992.
[5] Eurocode 3: "Design of Steel Structures": ENV 1993-1-1: Part 1.1: General rules and rules form buildings, CEN, 1992.
[6] Porter, M L and Eckberg, C E Jr, "Design Recommendations for Steel Deck Floor Slabs", ASCE Journal of the

Structural Division, New York, Vol. 102, no 11, 1976, pp2121-2136.
1. Patrick, M, "A New Partial Shear Connection Strength Model for Composite Slabs", The Broken Hill Proprietary
Company Limited, Melbourne Research Laboratories, Report MRL/PS64/90/016, Mulgrave, Victoria, Australia, March 1990.
2. Daniels, B, "Behaviour and Load Carrying Capacity of Composite Slabs: Mathematical Modelling and Experimental
Studies", Doctoral thesis No 895, Ecole polytechnique fédérale de Lausanne, ICOM-Construction métallique, Lausanne, 1990.
Concrete C20/25 C25/30 C30/37 C35/45

grade
fck [N/mm2] 20 25 30 35
fctm [N/mm2] 2,2 2,6 2,9 3,2
τRd [N/mm2] 0,26 0,30 0,34 0,37
Ecm [kN/ 29 30,5 32 33,5

mm2]
Table 1: Concrete grades and associated properties used for composite slabs
Steel grade S 500 S 550
(ribbed (welded
bars) mesh)
fsk [N/ 500 550

mm2]

ftk [N/ 550-600 580

mm2]
(ft /fsk)k 1,1 1,05

(minimum)
Es [kN/ 210 210

mm2]
Table 2 Reinforcing steel grades and associated properties

ESDEP WG 10
Lecture 10.8.1: Composite Columns I

OBJECTIVE/SCOPE
To introduce composite columns, to describe their behaviour and to explain the design method for axially loaded
composite columns.
PREREQUISITES
RELATED LECTURES
Lecture 10.8.2: Composite Columns II
SUMMARY
The different types of composite columns are introduced and their advantages summarised. Methods of fabrication
are described together with the typical connection details used at column/beam junctions. The simplified design
method for an axially loaded column, given in Eurocode 4 [1], which involves the use of buckling curves, is
explained and the restrictions to its application outlined; rules are also given to ensure local buckling does not cause
premature failure. The influence of the long-term behaviour of the concrete, i.e. creep and shrinkage, is also
considered.
1. INTRODUCTION
In the 1960s, intensive research work commenced on the assessment of the resistance of columns in which a steel
cross-section acts together with surrounding concrete. These columns could not be designed at that time by the rules
for steelwork or by those for concrete structures. The result of this research work was described in various
publications and led, in 1979, to design recommendations for composite columns [2].
These recommendations, together with further research work, have been used in Eurocode 4 [1], which deals with
composite construction in buildings.

Eurocode 4 defines the general requirements for the design of composite columns. However, if all the geometrical
and physical non-linearities of the different materials are observed, it is only possible to meet the code requirements
using numerical methods of analysis. These methods can generally only be performed using a computer. Eurocode 4,
however, also gives a more practical simplified method which is the subject of this lecture.
2. TYPES OF CROSS-SECTION FOR COMPOSITE COLUMNS AND

THEIR ADVANTAGES
Figure 1 shows typical cross-sections of composite columns together with the dimensional notation used in Eurocode
4 [1]. The sections can be classified into two groups:
● concrete filled sections in which the concrete is hidden

● totally and partly encased sections.

All cross-sections are symmetrical about both axes and in addition can be reinforced.
There are many advantages associated with the use of composite columns: small cross-sections, for example, can be
designed to withstand high loads; similarly, sections with different resistances, but identical external dimensions, can
be produced by varying steel thickness, concrete strength and additional reinforcement. Thus the outer dimension of
a column can be held constant over a number of floors in a building, simplifying architectural detailing. Economic
efficiency also results from the use of concrete - a low cost material - and from the time saved by using the highly
developed connection techniques of steelwork construction.
With concrete filled profiles (Figure 1 d-f), the steel section serves as formwork during casting. Concrete filled
sections, therefore, provide the opportunity to erect the steel frame of a building and afterwards fill the cross-sections
by pumping in the concrete. By so doing the time of erection can be reduced.
The protective steel casing also allows the concrete to achieve greater strength; in the case of concrete filled circular
hollow profiles, for example, the effect of confinement by the steel leads to an increase in overall resistances. The
influence of creep and shrinkage of the concrete can usually be neglected for these sections. However, this influence
must be considered for concrete encased profiles (Figure 1a-c).
The complete encasement of the steel section by concrete (Figure 1a), generally fulfils the technical requirements for
high classes of fire protection without any additional measures. For partly encased sections (Figure 1b and c), as well
as for concrete filled sections, these requirements can be achieved using additional reinforcement. Partly encased
sections have the advantage that they can be produced quite simply by casting the concrete whilst the steel section
lies horizontally; 24 hours later the column can be turned around and further concrete added, the formwork to the
wet concrete being provided by the steel profile. For sections similar to that shown in Figure 1b the tendency for the
concrete to drop out while turning the column must be avoided by suitable means, such as stud connectors. Another
important advantage of these partly encased sections is that there is still a considerable area of steel available for
connections, even after concreting.
3. MATERIAL GRADES AND MATERIAL SAFETY

Structural steel within the scope of Eurocode 3 [3], and concrete and reinforcement within the scope of Eurocode 2
[4], may be used for composite columns.
For the common steel grades, the nominal values of strength are given in Table 1. They are valid for material
thicknesses not greater than 40mm. For higher material thicknesses the strengths must be reduced according to
Eurocode 3.

The strengths of the different concrete grades, according to Eurocode 2, are given in Table 2. The classification
C25/30 gives the cylinder strength (25) and the cube strength (30).
Eurocode 2 mentions 3 different classes for reinforcing steel, which are given in Table 3.
For design the characteristic strengths must be reduced to design strengths by material safety factors γM.
The material safety factors for the concrete and the reinforcement are taken from Eurocode 2. The safety factor for
the steel is taken from Eurocode 3, which includes a safety factor γ RD applied if the member may become unstable.
This factor is also applied to composite columns, but only for the steel part of the cross-section.
Instability of steel parts, in composite columns, need not be taken into account if:
● the slenderness is less than 0,2 or

● the normal force in the column is less than 0,1 Ncr
with Ncr given by Equation (10) and by Equation (9).
In considering the influence of long-term load effects on the compressive strength, the concrete strength in
conventional concrete structures is normally reduced by the factor α = 0,85 in accordance with Eurocode 2. This
reduction can be neglected for concrete filled composite sections (α =1,0) since the concrete has higher strength due
to its isolation from the atmosphere and because splitting under load is prevented.
4. LOCAL BUCKLING FAILURE

In the ultimate limit state, the attainment of the full design resistance is normally assumed for all parts of the section.
However, it must be ensured that premature failure of the thin parts of the cross-section, due to instability, cannot
occur.
For those exposed parts of the steel section this form of instability can be prevented by using a limiting ratio of wall
dimension to wall thickness. In Eurocode 4 [1] these limiting ratios are given in terms of ε = . Table 4
gives the equivalent ratios for different yield strengths.
If the section comes within these limits the resistance of the cross-section can be determined assuming plastic stress
distributions. Redistribution of moments (plastic hinge method) is not allowed, as sufficient test results concerning
the rotation capacity of composite columns are not yet available.
For completely encased steel parts, verification of local buckling resistance is not necessary. For larger steel parts, e.
g. flanges in Figure 1a, sufficient concrete cover must be provided in order to avoid splitting of the concrete. The
minimum concrete cover in this case must not be less than 40mm or 1/6 of the dimension of the steel part. For cross-
sections according to Figure 1a it follows:
40 mm ≤ cz ≥ b/6 (1)
If exposed steel elements exceed the values given in Table 4, special methods of analysis, which are not covered in
this lecture, have to be applied.

5. RESISTANCE OF CROSS-SECTIONS TO AXIAL LOADS

The plastic resistance of the cross-section of a composite column is given by the sum of its component resistances:
Npl.Rd = Aa fyd + Ac αfcd + As fsd (2)
where
Aa, Ac and As are the areas of the structural steel, the concrete and the reinforcement, respectively.
fyd, fcd and fsd are the corresponding design strengths of each material.
α is 1,0 for concrete filled cross-sections and 0,85 in all other cases.
Figure 2 shows the stress distribution on which Equation (2) is based.
For concrete filled circular hollow sections the increased resistance of the concrete due to the confining effect of the
steel tube may be taken into account. This restraint to transverse strain results in a three-dimensional stress
distribution in the concrete which increases the resistance. At the same time, circular tensile stresses in the tube arise
which reduce its normal resistance.
This effect may only be considered up to a relative slenderness of ≤ 0,5 (where is given by Equation 9). In addition,
the eccentricity of the normal force, e, may not exceed the value d/10, d being the outer dimension of the tube.
The eccentricity, e, is defined by:

(3)
where
MSd is the maximum design moment from the loads without considering second order effects.
NSd is the design normal force
The plastic normal resistance of these cross-sections may be determined from:
Npl.Rd = Aaη2fyd + Acfcd {1 + η1[tfy/(dfck)]} + Asfsd (4)
where
t is the wall thickness of the circular hollow section.
(5)
and
(6)
Linear interpolation is permitted for various load eccentricities e ≤ d/10, with the basic values η10 and η20 depending
on the relative slenderness :
η10 = 4,9 - 18,5 + 17 2 but η10 ≥ 0 (7)
η20 = 0,25(3 + 2 ) but η20 ≤ 1,0 (8)
Table 5 gives the basic values η10 and η20 for different values of .
If the eccentricity e exceeds the value d/10, or the relative slenderness exceeds the value 0,5 then η1 = 0 and η2 = 1,0.
6. RELATIVE SLENDERNESS AND STIFFNESSES
The relative slenderness, , for the determination of the load-bearing resistance of a column under axial load is
given by:

(9)
where
Npl.R is the cross-section resistance, for normal force, according to equation 2 or Equation (4) with γa = γc = γs = 1,0.
Ncr is the elastic buckling load of the column.
Ncr = (EI)eπ2/le2 (10)
where
(EI)e is the effective bending stiffness.
le is the buckling length of the column.
The buckling length of a column can be determined according to Eurocode 3 [3]. For isolated columns in non-sway
systems, the column length may be considered as the buckling length.
The effective bending stiffness is determined in a similar way to the plastic resistance to a normal force, i.e. by
adding up the individual components:
(EI)e = EaIa + 0,8 EcdIc + EsIs (11)
where
Ia, Ic and Is are the moments of inertia for the structural steel, concrete (here assumed as uncracked) and
reinforcement, about the axis of bending being considered.
Ea and Es are the moduli of elasticity of structural steel and reinforcement.
0,8 EcdIc is the effective bending stiffness of the concrete part.
Ecd = Ecm / γc (12)
where
Ecm is the secant modulus of the concrete according to Eurocode 2 [4], see Table 2.
The material safety factor γc can be reduced to γc = 1,35 for the determination of the effective bending stiffness,
according to Eurocode 2.
For slender columns, the influence of the long-term behaviour of the concrete (creep and shrinkage) on the resistance

has to be considered.
If the normal force eccentricity, according to Equation (3), is more than twice the cross-section dimension, the
influence of creep and shrinkage on the bending moment distribution caused by increasing deflections is so small
that it may be neglected and creep and shrinkage need no longer be considered. This approach is also valid if the
slenderness is less than the limiting values given in Table 6.
If necessary, the influence of creep and shrinkage can be taken into account by a simple modification of the modulus
of elasticity of the concrete Ecd to Ec :
∞
Ec = Ecd (13)
∞
where
NSd is the design normal force.
NG.Sd is the permanently acting part of it.
It should be noted that, when assessing the importance of creep and shrinkage using Table 6, the value of δ is as
follows:
(14)
The factor δ represents the contribution of the structural steel to the normal force resistance. For concrete filled cross-
sections the limit values are only applied to the concrete part (1-δ).
7. RESISTANCE OF MEMBERS TO AXIAL LOADS

For each of the principal bending axes of the column it must be shown that:
(15)
where
Npl.Rd is the cross-section resistance for axial load (see Section 5).
χ is the reduction factor from the appropriate buckling curve.
Figure 3 shows the European buckling curves for composite columns:
curve a for concrete filled hollow profiles

curve b for partially and completely concrete encased I-profiles with bending about the strong axis of the steel cross-
section
curve c for partially and completely concrete encased I-profiles with bending about the weak axis of the steel cross-
section
These curves can also be described mathematically as follows:
but χ ≤ 1,0 (16)
where
(17)
The factor α is used here to allow for imperfections in the cross-sections. Table 7 gives the value of α appropriate
for each buckling curve.

8. RESTRICTIONS TO THE APPLICABILITY OF THE SIMPLIFIED

METHOD ACCORDING TO EUROCODE 4
The application of the design method described above, is subject to various restrictions. To enlarge the scope of the
method, further investigations and tests on composite columns are necessary.
The maximum slenderness of composite columns is limited to:
(18)
The steel contribution ratio δ, according to Equation (14), must satisfy the requirement:
0,2 ≤ δ ≤ 0,9 (19)
If δ is less than 0,2 the column may be designed according to Eurocode 2 [4]; if δ is larger than 0,9, design must be
done on the basis of Eurocode 3 [3].
If the longitudinal reinforcement is considered in design, a minimum of 0,3% of the concrete area must be provided.
The maximum percentage of reinforcement in the concrete cross-section, which can be used in the analysis, is 4%.
For fire protection higher percentages of reinforcement can be provided, but may not be taken into account in the
design, according to Eurocode 4 [1].
(20)
Concrete filled sections may be fabricated without any reinforcement. For concrete encased sections longitudinal
reinforcement may also be omitted; in this case only surface reinforcement is necessary.
Steel fabric reinforcement may be used as links.
The minimum value for the concrete cover of completely encased profiles is given by Equation (1). The maximum
cover to the steel profile is also restricted. As with the percentage of the reinforcement, the cover may be greater but
cannot be taken into account in design:
40 mm ≤ cz ≤ 0,3 h (21)
40 mm ≤ cy ≤ 0,4 b (22)
9. BEARING IN COMPOSITE COLUMNS

In load bearing regions it has to be ensured that the individual components of the cross-section (concrete and steel)
are loaded according to their resistances, so that no significant slip between them occurs.
Header plates can be used in single-storey columns; these represent the ideal form of load introduction. Steel collars
are welded onto the sides of concrete filled profiles, onto which the flange of the crossing beam may be fixed after
concreting.

For continuous composite columns special detailing for load transfer is necessary. The connections shown in Figure
4 have proved economical and efficient for this purpose. Figure 4a shows details of headed studs in the webs of I-
profiles. This arrangement promotes additional load transfer, which increases the resistance of the connection. The
introduction of gusset plates, punched through the steel section into concrete filled hollow profiles (Figure 4b),
activates three dimensional stresses in the concrete and increases the resistance of the connection.
The design of these load-bearing regions, as well as design for compression and bending in composite columns, is
described in Lecture 10.8.2.

● Composite columns can be either partly or totally encased open sections, or alternatively, they may be
concrete filled tubes.
● Eurocode 4 [1] gives limiting ratios for exposed steel parts of composite columns, to ensure that local
buckling does not occur. For fully encased sections local buckling is not a problem.
● Eurocode 4 gives simplified rules (European Buckling Curves, etc.), for calculating the resistance of a
composite column to axial load. Certain restrictions apply to this method.
● Careful attention must be paid to connection detailing to ensure direct transfer of bearing loads to both the
steel and concrete elements of the column sections.
11. REFERENCES
[1] Eurocode 4: "Design of Composite Steel and Concrete Structures": ENV1994-1-1: Part 1.1: General rules and
rules for buildings, CEN, 1992 (in press).
[2] CEB-ECCS-FIP-IABSE Joint Committee, "Draft Model Code for Composite Structures", September 1979.
[3] Eurocode 3: "Design of Steel Structures": ENV1993-1-1: Part 1.1: General rules and rules for buildings, CEN,
1992.
[4] Eurocode 2: "Design of Concrete Structures": ENV1992-1-1: Part 1.1: General rules and rules for buildings,
CEN, 1992.
Steel Fe 360 Fe 430 Fe 510

grades
fy [N/ 235 275 355

mm2]
Ea 210 210 210

[kN/
mm2]
Table 1: Nominal values of strength fy, and moduli of elasticity for common types of structural steel according
to Eurocode 4; material thicknesses not greater than 40 mm.
Concrete grades C20/25 C25/30 C30/37 C35/45 C40/50 C45/55 C50/60
fck [N/mm2] 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Ecm [kN/mm2] 29 30,5 32 33,5 35 36 37
Table 2: Characteristic cylinder strength fck, and mean values of the secant modulus Ecm for the different
concrete grades according to Eurocode 2 [4].

Reinforcing S S S
steel grades 220 420 500
fsk [N/mm2] 220 420 500
Es [kN/ 200 200 200

mm2]
Table 3: Characteristic strengths fsk, and moduli of elasticity Es for reinforcing steel according to Eurocode 2 [4].
Steel grade Fe Fe Fe
360 430 510
Concrete filled circular tubes 90 77 60

lim d/t
Concrete filled rectangular 52 48 42

hollow sections lim h/t
Partially encased I-sections (see 44 41 36

Figure 1) lim b/tf
Table 4: Limiting wall dimension to thickness ratios to prevent local buckling.
0,0 0,1 0,2 0,3 0,4 0,5
η10 4,90 3,22 1,88 0,88 0,22 0,00
η20 0,75 0,80 0,85 0,90 0,95 1,00
Table 5: Basic values h10 and h20 for evaluating the effect of confinement in concrete filled circular hollow
sections
Braced Unbraced
and non- and sway
sway systems
systems
Concrete 0,8 0,5

encased cross-
sections

Concrete filled
cross-sections
Table 6: Limit values of for considering creep and shrinkage.
European a b c
buckling curve
Imperfection 0,21 0,34 0,49

factor α
Table 7: Imperfection factor a for the buckling curves according to Eurocode 3 [3].

ESDEP WG 10
Lecture 10.8.2: Composite Columns II

OBJECTIVE/SCOPE
To describe the behaviour of composite columns and to explain the design method for uniaxial and biaxial bending,
including the determination of internal moments and forces.
PREREQUISITES
Lecture 7.10: Beam Columns
Lecture 10.8.1: Composite Columns I
RELATED LECTURES
SUMMARY

This lecture shows how the plastic resistance of a composite column, under combined compression and bending, can
be calculated. The design method given in Eurocode 4 for uniaxial and biaxial bending is explained [1]. Simplified methods
for determining second order internal moments are also given. The influence of shear force on the moment resistance
is considered.
1. INTRODUCTION
Lecture 10.8.1, on composite columns, explained the simplified method for designing columns subject to axial
compression only and outlined the restrictions on its application. The rules regarding local buckling, creep and shrinkage
of concrete were also described.
This lecture assumes knowledge of the above and describes the design of columns subject to combined compression
and bending, and columns subject to shear.
2. GENERAL
The design for compression and bending is carried out in stages, as follows: the composite column is examined, isolated
from the system; in so doing, the end moments which result from the analysis of the system as a whole (including second
order effects) are taken to act on the individual element; internal moments and forces within the column length are
determined from the end moments, the normal forces and any transverse forces; for slender columns second order effects
are included. In the simplified method of Eurocode 4 [1] imperfections within the column length need not be considered as
they are taken into account in the determination of the column resistance.
The resistance of the column to compression and bending is determined with the help of a cross-section interaction curve.
This curve may also be used to assess the influence of shear forces on the column.
3. ANALYSIS FOR BENDING MOMENTS

The influence of second order effects may be neglected in the analysis of bending moments for braced and non-sway
systems, provided that:
● the normal force NSd is smaller than 10% of the critical load Ncr, (see Equation (2) below).

● the slenderness of the column is:
≤ 0,2 (2 - r) (1)
where r is the ratio of the smaller to the larger end moment (see Figure 1).
For transverse loading within the column length r = 1.
The flexural stiffness, which is necessary for the analysis of second order effects, can be calculated by multiplying
the maximum first order bending moment by a factor k:

(2)
where
NSd is the design normal force.
Ncr is the critical load (see Lecture 10.8.1, Equation (10) with le as the length of the column.
β is the moment factor.
For columns with transverse loading within the column length the value for ß must be taken as 1,0. For pure end moments,
ß can be determined from:
β = 0,66 + 0,44r but β ≥ 0,44 (3)
4. COMPRESSION AND UNIAXIAL BENDING

Figure 2 shows how the cross-section of a composite column can be checked, by means of the interaction curve M-N. First
the resistance of the column under axial compression is determined according to the previous lecture. This resistance is
defined by the reduction factor χ (Lecture 10.8.1, Equation 16). For the factor χ, a value for the moment µk representing
the moment due to imperfection, can be read off the interaction curve.

The influence of this moment is assumed to decrease linearly to the value χn. For a normal force of χd = NSd / Npl.Rd
the moment factor µ represents the remaining moment resistance. It must be shown that:
MSd ≤ 0,9 µ Mpl.Rd (4)

In certain regions of the interaction curve, the normal force increases the moment resistance (µ > 1,0). If bending moment
and normal force are independent of each other, the value of µ must be limited to 1,0. The value χn accounts for the fact
that imperfection and bending moment do not always act together unfavourably.
For end moments, χn may be calculated as:
χn = (5)
with r is the ratio of end moments according to Figure 1.
If transverse loads occur within the column length, then χn must be taken as zero, i.e. r = 1.
The reduction of the resistance moment, in Equation (4), by 10% accounts for the simplifications that have been made.
The interaction curve has been determined without considering the strain limitations in the concrete. Hence the
moments, including second order effects, Equation (2), may be calculated using the effective flexural stiffness (EI)e based
on the complete concrete area of the cross-section.
5. INTERACTION CURVE FOR COMBINED COMPRESSION AND BENDING

The interaction curve described in the Section 4, can be found by adjusting the neutral axis across the whole cross-section
and determining the internal moments and forces from the resulting stress blocks. This can only be done adequately by
a computer program, due to the number of equations to be solved. It is, however, possible to calculate certain points on
the interaction curve quite simply without the help of a computer. These points (A-E) are marked on the interaction diagram
in Figure 3, and are connected by a series of straight lines. These lines are sufficiently exact for most design purposes.

Figure 4 shows the stress distributions at each point, A, B, C, D and E for the example of a concrete filled rectangular
hollow section.


Point A marks the resistance to normal force:
NA = Npl.Rd (6)
MA = 0 (7)
Point B shows the stress distribution for moment resistance only:
NB = 0 (8)
MB = Mpl.Rd (9)
Here it can be seen, that in the determination of the resistance of the cross-section, concrete regions in tension are taken
as being cracked and ineffective.
The moment of resistance at point C is identical to that at point B, since the stress resultants from the additionally
compressed parts nullify each other in the central region of the section.
These additionally compressed regions, however, create an internal normal force which is equal to the plastic axial resistance
of the concrete member alone. This can be understood by adding up the stress distributions of point B and C; the normal
force balance does not change since there is no resulting normal force for point B. All steel parts compensate each other and
the compression area of the concrete at point B is identical with the concrete tension area of point C. The axial force
is, therefore, given by the following expression:
NC = Nc.Rd = Ac α fcd (10)
where
α is 1,0 for concrete filled profiles
fcd is the design strength of the concrete
MC = Mpl.Rd (11)
At point D, the plastic neutral axis coincides with the centroidal axis of the cross- section, and the resulting normal force is
half of the resistant force at C. This stress distribution allows rapid and simple calculation of the moment and normal force.
ND = Nc.Rd / 2 (12)
MD = Mmax.Rd (13)
Mmax.Rd = Wpa fyd + 0,5 Wpc α fcd + Wps fsd (14)
where
Wpa, Wpc and Wps are the plastic moments of resistance of the structural steel, concrete and reinforcement.
fyd, fcd and fsd are the respective design strengths of the materials.
For point E, the neutral axis is placed between that of point C and the edge of the cross-section in such a way that the
stress resultant can easily be calculated. Point E need not be determined in all cases.
The positions of the neutral axis for point B (Mpl.Rd), and similarly point C, i.e. the distance hn, can be determined from
the difference in stresses at point C and point B (see Figure 5). Since parts are generally of a rectangular shape in the
central region the cross-section, the resulting forces dependent on hn can easily be determined. The sum of these forces is
equal to Nc.RD, as shown above. This calculation enables the equation defining hn to be determined. This equation is
different for various types of sections.
For the example of the concrete filled rectangular hollow section:

hn = (15)
The moment resistance Mpl.Rd can be simply calculated from the difference of stresses between point D and point B (Figure 6).
Mn.Rd = wpan fyd + 0,5 Wpcn α fcd + Wpsn fsd (16)
where
Wpan, Wpcn and Wpsn are the plastic moments of resistance of the areas in the region of 2 hn

For the moment resistance Mpl.Rd:
Mpl.Rd = Mmax.Rd - Mn.Rd (17)
For concrete encased I-profiles and for concrete filled tubes, the respective formulae are given in Annex C of Eurocode 4 [1].
The advantage of this method of calculation is its applicability to any doubly-symmetrical cross-section. Even for
more complex sections (e.g. Lecture 10.8.1, Figure 1c or (f) the characteristic points on the interaction diagram can easily
be determined.
The linear interaction diagram ABCD can sometimes underestimate the value of the moment due to the imperfection µR.
If, for example, the deviation between the polygonal path and the exact curve is very large in the region of the
imperfection moment, at the height of χ in Figure 2, and small at the normal force χd, the imperfection taken into account is
too small. In this case point E is nearly midway between point A and point C and has to be determined.
For concrete encased I-sections, with bending about the strong axis of the steel section, the exact interaction curve is
almost linear between point A and C, so that point E need not be determined in this case.
6. COMPRESSION AND BIAXIAL BENDING

For the design of a column under compression and biaxial bending the load resistance for each axis has to be
evaluated separately. It will then be clear which of the axes is more likely to fail. The imperfection then needs to be
considered for this direction only (see Figure 7).

The combined bending must also be checked using the relative values of moment resistance µy and µz, and a new
interaction curve (see Figure 7c). This linear interaction curve is cut off at 0,9 µy and 0,9µz; the existing moments My.Sd

and Mz.Sd, related to the respective resistance, must lie within the new interaction curve. The following equations result:
My.Sd/(µyMply.Rd) - Mz.Sd/(µzMplz.Rd) ≤ 1,0 (18)
and
My.Sd/(µy Mply.Rd) ≤ 0,9 (19)
Mz.Sd/(µz Mplz.Rd) ≤ 0,9 (20)
7. INFLUENCE OF SHEAR FORCES

Bond stresses between the steel profile and the concrete must not exceed the following values:
● for completely concrete encased sections 0,6 N/mm2

● for concrete filled sections 0,4 N/mm2
● for partially concrete encased sections
- for the flanges 0,2 N/mm2
- for the webs 0,0 N/mm2
An exact determination of the bond stresses between structural steel and concrete is difficult. Stresses in the composite
section may be determined in a simplified way, using elastic theory, or by means of the plastic resistance of the cross-
section. The variation of stresses in the concrete member, between two critical sections, can be used for the determination
of bond stresses.
In a similar way division of the shear force between structural steel and concrete can be made. The shear force to be resisted
by the concrete must be considered according to Eurocode 2 [2], whereas the shear force to be resisted by the steel section
can be checked, if necessary, by using an interaction relationship. Figure 8 shows the reduction of normal stresses in the
areas which transfer shear stresses.

This reduction of the yield limit, in the parts which transfer shear, can be transformed, for the purposes of design, into
a reduction of the member thickness. The influence need not be considered if:
Va.Sd < 0,5 Vpl.a.Rd (21)
where
Va.Sd is the part of the design shear resisted by the steel section
Vpl.a.Rd is the resistance of the steel cross-section in shear
Vpl.a.Rd = Av (22)

where
AV is the shear area of the structural steel cross-section.
The reduction in shear area is given by:
(23)
For a concrete encased I-section, with bending about the strong axis:
red AV = red tw h (24)
Using this reduced thickness, red tw, the method given in Section 5, for the determination of the cross-section interaction
curve, can be applied without any modification.
For simplicity, division of the shear force between the steel cross-section and the concrete is often neglected. For
concrete filled hollow profiles, for example, the total shear force is typically allotted to the steel section alone.
8. REGIONS OF LOAD INTRODUCTION

Where loads are introduced into a composite column, it must be ensured that within a specified introduction length,
the individual components of the cross-section are loaded according to their resistance. For this purpose, in a manner similar
to Section 7, a division of the loads between steel and concrete must be made.
In order to estimate the exact distribution of the load to be introduced, the stress distributions at the beginning and end of
the region of introduction must be known. From the differences in these stresses the loads to be transferred to the cross-
section components may be determined. The length II of the region of load introduction should not exceed the value:
II ≤ 2 d (25)
where d is the cross-section dimension normal to the bending axis.
The loads can be simply distributed using the plastic resistances:
(26)
(27)
(28)
(29)
where
Na.Rd is the normal force resistance of the structural steel section.
Ncs.Rd is the normal force resistance of the reinforced concrete section.
Npl.Rd is the normal force resistance of the total composite cross-section.
Ma.Rd is the moment resistance of the structural steel section.
Mcs.Rd is the moment resistance of the reinforced concrete section.
Mpl.Rd is the moment resistance of the total composite cross-section.

For the determination of Mcs.Rd the calculation should be based on Section 5, neglecting the steel section.
If loads are first introduced through a connection to the steel, the elements of load introduction, e.g. headed studs, must
be designed to transmit the concrete components of the loading, Ncs.Sd and Mcs.Sd. In the case of load introduction from
the concrete into the steel member, e.g. through brackets, the respective steel forces and moments, Na.Sd and Ma.Sd, must
be taken as the basis for design.
For single-storey columns, head plates are generally used as the elements for load introduction. Special detailing is
necessary for continuous columns. For these cases headed studs have proved to be economic when used with open
cross-sections (see Figure 9). The forces on the outward stud connectors are transmitted to the flanges and the
following friction force results:

R = µ PRd / 2 with µ = 0,5 (30)

where PRd is the design resistance of one headed stud connector.
For introducing forces into continuous concrete filled hollow profiles, the use of gusset plates, punched through the profile, is
a very economic solution. Due to the effect of confinement, high normal stresses can occur beneath the edge of the
gusset (Figure 10).

f1.Rd = (0,6 fck + 35,0)(1/γc)√(A/A1) (31)
f1.Rd ≤ Nc.Rd/A1 (32)
where
A is the total area of the concrete core.
A1 is the area beneath the edge of the gusset.
Equation (31) is taken from tests and has not yet been statistically verified.
● The influence of second order effects must be taken into account for slender columns under significant axial load.
● Combined bending and axial load can be checked using interaction diagrams which also form the basis of the approach
adopted in Annex D of Eurocode 4 [1].
● Shear forces are taken into account by reducing the effective area resisting bending; the cross-section interaction curve can
then be determined using the reduced section.
● Regions of load introduction require careful detailing. Enhanced resistance is mobilised in these regions when studs and
gussets are used.

10. REFERENCES
[1] Eurocode 4: "Design of Composite Steel and Concrete Structures: ENV1994-1-1: Part 1.1: General rules and rules
for building, CEN, (in press)
[2] Eurocode 2: "Design of Concrete Structures: ENV 1992-1-1: Part 1.1: General rules and rules for building, CEN, 1992.

1. Roik, K., Bode, H. and Bergmann, R., Zur Traglast von betongfüllten Hohlprofilstützen unter Berücksichtigung
des Langzeiverhaltens des Betons. Der Stahlbau, Vol. 7. Verlag Wilhelm Ernst and Sohn, Berlin, 1982.

L1009
ESDEP WG 10
Lecture 10.9: Composite Buildings

OBJECTIVE/SCOPE
To give an introduction to composite building structures; to describe the elements, the connections, the fabrication and
the interaction of the elements; and to discuss the structural systems used.
PREREQUISITES
RELATED LECTURES
Lecture 10.4: Continuous Beams
Lecture 10.6: Shear Connection
Lecture 10.8: Composite Columns
SUMMARY
This lecture principally discusses the types of composite building structures generally used, and their methods of erection.
The optimum arrangement (according to current practice) for beams and columns, is given. Different shapes of beams, and
the connections of decks to beams, and of beams to columns and to walls, are discussed. Some structural details are
given which exploit the shape of the structural element. The behaviour of the composite elements under seismic conditions
L1009
or subject to vibrations is discussed, and the potential for further research in this field is highlighted.
1. INTRODUCTION
The structural system of a building is a complex three-dimensional assembly of interconnected discrete or continuous
structural elements. The primary function of the structural system is to carry all the loads acting on the building effectively
and safely to the foundation. The structural system is therefore expected to:
● Carry dynamic and static vertical loads.

● Carry horizontal loads due to wind and earthquake effects.
● Resist stresses caused by temperature and shrinkage effects.
● Resist external or internal blast and impact loads.
● Resist, and help damp vibrations and fatigue effects.
In addition any structural system is usually subject to the following constraints. It should:
● conform with the architectural requirements and those of the user or owner, or both.
● facilitate, as appropriate, the service systems, such as heating, ventilation and air conditioning, horizontal and vertical
cabling, and other electrical and mechanical systems.
● facilitate simple and fast erection of the building.
● have adequate resistance to fire.
● enable the building, foundation and ground to interact properly.
● be economical.
Steel-concrete composite systems for buildings are composed of concrete components that interact with structural
steel components within the same system. By their integral behaviour, these components give the required attributes
of strength, stiffness and stability to the overall system. Composite members, as individual elements of a system, have been
in use for a considerable number of years. They consist of composite beams or trusses, encased or filled composite
columns, and steel deck reinforced composite slabs. These members are generally used in steel structures, and
their development as composite members is based on utilizing the concrete that would normally be required for floor slabs
with steel beams, or that would be required for fire - protective encasements with steel columns.
In most instances, the contribution of a composite member, which is developed to support only gravity loads, has been
ignored in the overall system resistance for lateral wind or earthquake loads. The development of an overall system
approach, where reinforced concrete and structural steel components can be used as effective contributing parts of the
whole system, is relatively recent. Considerable potential exists for evolving a variety of new structural systems in this way.
For typical structural systems used in building construction, whether they are steel, concrete or composite, there are
L1009
several subsystems, or components, common to all. These sub-systems can be grouped as follows:
1. Floor systems.
2. Vertical load resisting systems.
3. Horizontal load resisting systems.
4. Structural connections.
Section 3 discusses these systems in detail, concentrating on horizontal load resisting systems and structural connections.
These topics are not covered by previous lectures.
The choice of a steel, concrete, or composite system for any particular project depends not only on system efficiency,
material availability, cost, construction methods, and labour, but also on planning, architectural, and aesthetic criteria. It is
thus impossible to reach definitive conclusions solely on the basis of a structural system evaluation. Section 2 describes
several composite structural systems that have used successfully on commercial building projects.
2. COMPOSITE ACTION BETWEEN STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS IN BUILDINGS

Composite action between the various structural elements in a structure always exists when they are continuous (monolithic
or connected by shear connectors). Depending on the size of the building, certain simplifications may be made to
approximate their interaction, as isolated structural components, in a conservative manner. The use of higher strength
materials and composite action are important factors in making entire systems work economically. Tall buildings
require additional considerations such as slenderness, flexibility, and sensitivity to differential effects (height is not the
only criterion for "tallness").
Steel and concrete are the major materials used in composite systems. Although they have several dissimilar
physical characteristics, it is possible to use them together, beneficially, in different ways.
A number of systems have been developed in the last few decades which successfully combine steel and concrete.
The following composite systems have been used for a wide range of buildings:
1. Frame structure: Frame structures can be either rigid or flexible, depending on the relative rigidity of beams with respect
to columns. In the case of a rigid system, both these elements are connected to each other rigidly to transmit lateral loads to
the foundation. In addition, slabs provide transverse stiffness to the entire system at the floor levels.
2. Shear wall structure: Within the preceding frame structure, a system of shear walls may be provided in the direction of
lateral forces to help transmit them to the foundation. The shear walls typically surround certain services, such as elevators
or stairs, and so serve a doubly useful purpose. A suitable combination of shear wall and frame system can serve as a
very useful load transmitting system for both vertical and horizontal forces. However, for certain cases, the need for
adequate ductility must be investigated.
L1009
3. Staggered shear wall system: Shear walls in this system are staggered from floor to floor. The walls support floors both
above and below, and by virtue of staggering they can help create the large open areas needed in a commercial building.
4. Tubular system: The tubular system combines characteristics of the preceding three systems. It acts as a rigid but
perforated tube, which, by means of its monolithic action and rigidity, transmits both the transverse and vertical forces to
the foundation. Depending on the height of the building, the shear wall (as a core) may be combined with the external
tube structure. This is known as a "frame - tube" structure.
3. BUILDING COMPONENTS
Every building, whether it is large or small, must have a structural system capable of carrying all kinds of loads -
vertical, horizontal, temperature, etc. In principle, the entire resisting system of the building should be equally active under
all types of loading. In other words, the structure resisting horizontal loads should be able to resist vertical loads as well,
and many individual elements should be common to both types of systems.
3.1 Floor Structures
Floor structures are responsible for a large percentage of the cost of buildings.
Floor structures can be built using elements of steel and reinforced concrete in various combinations.
Structural floor systems are, of course, influenced by the material used, but in all cases they are a combination of slabs
and joists or secondary beams (floor beams in the case of larger spacing). The characteristic element, for the whole
floor structure, is the floor slab whose thickness and reinforcement is dependent upon the span, the loading and the
support conditions.
In categorizing types of floor slabs, the following structural systems may be distinguished: two-way systems; one way
systems; and beam and slab systems (Figures 1 - 3).

L1009

L1009

L1009

L1009
3.1.1 Floors
Floors take the form of concrete slabs of various types, spanning between floor beams. The types generally used are (Figure 4):
a. Precast concrete slabs which are not composite with the beams.
b. In situ concrete slabs on conventional removable shuttering, acting compositely with the floor beams.
c. In situ concrete slabs cast over thin permanent formwork/precast concrete slabs, to form a composite slab which also
acts compositely with the floor beams.
d. In situ concrete slabs cast on to permanent metal decking, acting compositely with the floor beams.

L1009

L1009
Internationally, the most widely used type includes metal decking, in which the composite action with the beam is provided
by shear connectors welded through the metal decking onto the beam flange. The main advantages of this form of
floor construction are the light weight of the metal decking enabling it to be manhandled easily on site, and its high
stiffness and strength allowing it to support the weight of the wet in situ concrete without propping.
The spanning capability of the construction can be extended by increasing the slab depth, but this increases the weight
of construction, and the depth of the floor beams. The overall depth of the floor system is therefore determined by a balance
of factors. Experience has shown that the most efficient floor arrangements are those using metal decking as
permanent shuttering spanning 2,5 - 3,5 m, between floor beams. For these spans the metal decking does not normally
require propping during concreting and the concrete thicknesses are near the practical minimum of 120 to 150 mm (Figure 5).

L1009
3.1.2 Floor beam arrangement
The most efficient floor plan is rectangular, not square, in which main beams span the shorter distance between columns
and closely spaced floor beams span the longer distance between main beams. The spacing of the floor beams is controlled
by the spanning capability of the concrete floor construction (Figure 5).

L1009
3.1.3 Composite beams
Composite beams are usually designed as simply supported, i.e. no account is taken of the moment continuity provided by
the beam-to-column or beam-to-beam connections. This approach is used mainly because it gives ease of design
and construction. It is also adopted partly because adequate structural performance can be achieved readily by
developing composite action alone. This result certainly holds true for beam spans of 6m to 10m, which form the bulk of
those currently specified.
However, there is now a strong demand for longer column-free spans in buildings, either for open-planning or to offer
greater flexibility in office layout. For longer spans, the selection of the appropriate structural form is more
difficult. Conventional simple construction may still be used, but often the size of the beams is such that the floor zone
is excessively deep. This problem is compounded by the need to incorporate a high degree of servicing in modern
buildings, most of which is located beneath the structural floor zone.
Various design solutions are feasible (see Table 1), within two basic options: either the structure and services are
integrated within the same horizontal zone, or the structural zone is minimised so that the services are passed beneath.
These solutions are described as follows:
a) Rolled sections
For spans in the range of 6 to 10 m, the most popular, and in many cases the most appropriate form of construction is
rolled sections and simple, shear-only connections. Secondary beams at 2,4 m or 3,0 m centres support lightweight
composite floor slabs, between 115 and 130 mm thickness, and span onto primary beams which in turn frame directly onto
the columns.
The same form of construction may also be used for longer span floors but beam weights and costs increase to the point
where other forms of construction may become more attractive.
In Figures 6 and 7 two examples are given for medium and long span.

L1009

L1009
In the long span scheme the beams are of sufficient depth for the services to run through them as shown. While the design
of such openings does not present any difficulty, the openings add significantly to the cost of construction. Of
increasing concern to developers is the fact that web openings are an inflexible way of accommodating services, and can
create difficulties in fit out for specific tenants or in subsequent reservicing during the life of the structure.
b) Fabricated sections

L1009
The potential for weight saving arises from the freedom, within practical limits, to tailor the section to suit its bending
moment and shear force envelopes. Depth, taper and shape, flange size and web thickness may all be selected independently
by the designer.
Fabricated sections are most likely to be economic for spans above 12m; above this span rolled sections are increasingly
heavy, and a fine-tuned fabricated section is likely to show savings on both flange size and web thickness.
Where girders of constant depth are used major services may have to pass through web openings.
The various structural options for achieving the twin aims of long spans, and ready incorporation of services within
normal floor zones, include:
● Beams with web openings
In this method of construction, the depth of the steel beam is selected so that sufficiently large, usually rectangular
shaped, openings can be cut into the web (Figure 8). For general guidance, it is suggested that the openings should form
no more than 70% of the depth of the web, with horizontal stiffeners welded above and below the opening. Typically,
the length of the openings should be not more than 2 times the beam depth. The best location for the openings is in the
low shear zone of the beam. A step-by-step method of design has been developed to cope with the local problems which arise.

L1009
● Fabricated beams with tapered webs
The tapered web beam is designed to provide the required moment and shear resistance at all points along the beam. The
voids created adjacent to the columns can be used for modestly sized service runs. Typically, tapered beams are most
economic for spans of 13 to 20 m. The plate sizes can be selected for optimum structural performance. The plates are welded
in an automatic single-sided submerged arc process; thicker webs are welded by double-sided fillet welds. Web stiffeners
are often required at the change of section when taper angles exceed approximately 6o. Typical tapered beams are shown
L1009
in Figure 8b.
● Stub girders
Architectural demand for square column grids with spacings of 10 to 12m led to the development of stub girder
construction. The stub girder comprises a bottom chord, which acts in tension, and a series of short beam sections (or
stubs) which connect the bottom chord to the concrete slab. Secondary beams span across the bottom chord and can

L1009
be designed as continuous members. Voids are created adjacent to the stubs for services. This form of construction is
illustrated in Figure 8c.
The major disadvantage of the conventional stub girder is that it requires temporary propping until the concrete has
gained adequate strength for composite action. However, it is possible to introduce a light steel top chord, such as a T-
section, which acts in compression, to develop the required bending resistance of the girder during execution.
● Castellated beams
Castellated beams can be used effectively for lightly serviced buildings or for aesthetic reasons, where the structure is
exposed. Composite action does not significantly increase the resistance of the beams but increases their stiffness (Figure 9).

L1009
Castellated beams have limited shear resistance and are best used as long span secondary beams or where loads are
relatively low.
Their primary use has been as long-span roof beams, their attractive shape often being expressed architecturally.
Their combination of high bending stiffness and strength per unit weight, with relatively low shear resistance, is ideal
for carrying light loads over long spans. As composite floor beams, their usage is limited by shear resistance. It is very
unlikely that they could be used, for example, as the primary beams in a grillage because the associated shears would
lead either to stiffening or infilling of the end openings. Both types of strengthening increase cost to the point where other
types of beam would be more economical.
● Composite trusses
Composite trusses, an established form of construction in North America, are beginning to be used more widely
elsewhere. Although fabrication costs are significantly greater than in many other forms of construction they do have
the following advantages.
- they do not require any special fabrication equipment. Any reputable fabricator can, therefore, be invited to tender,
thus improving competition and costs.
- they offer plenty of space to accommodate services, particularly if the Warren or modified Warren layout is adopted
(Figure 10).
L1009
- they can be designed with a Vierendeel panel at midspan (where shears are low even under non-symmetric loading);
this panel can accommodate an air conditioning duct.
The principal disadvantage, other than the increased fabrication cost, is that they are difficult to protect from fire.
Sprayed protection systems are messy while the alternative of wrapping is labour intensive.
Composite trusses are only likely to be the preferred solution for spans in excess of 12m. They can readily be designed
for unpropped construction. Where the truss is supporting beams, there is no local bending in the top chord and it can
usually be sized just for the construction condition, making it considerably lighter than the bottom chord. Where the
truss supports the composite floor slab directly, the top chord also has to be designed for bending under local loads.
For economy of fabrication it is essential that the chord sections are chosen so that gussets can be avoided. Either Tee or
RHS sections are usually chosen with single or double angles as web members.

L1009
c) Parallel beam approach
In contrast to many of the other solutions, it is the secondary beam that spans the greater distance in the parallel
beam approach. A very simple form of construction results as secondary beams run over the primary beams and
achieve continuity without complex connections. The primary or spine beams also achieve continuity simply by being used
in pairs, each passing either side of the columns; shear is transferred into the columns by means of brackets. This
"offset" construction, shown diagrammatically in Figure 11, where members are laid out in the three orthogonal
directions deliberately to miss each other, enables continuity of the beams to be achieved without the high cost of
moment resisting connections. This arrangement improves structural efficiency and, of particular importance for long
span construction, stiffness. Beam lengths are limited only by handling and transportation requirements. The number
of components is significantly lower than for conventional construction. As a result both erection time and cost are
saved. Because continuity is such an integral part of the approach, it is primarily applicable for multi-bay layouts.

L1009
Superficially, this approach appears to lead to deeper construction. However, because of continuity, the primary and
L1009
secondary beams can both be very shallow, relative to the spans, and overall depths are comparable to those in
conventional construction. Most importantly, the separation of the two beam directions into different planes creates an
ideal arrangement for the accommodation of services. Both major and minor services can share the same portion of the
floor zone as the beams to which they are parallel, with vertical cross-overs between the two directions. Ample space
is obtained, even for total air-conditioning, with a comfortable loose fit between structure and services.
d) Haunched beams
In traditional multi-storey steel frames, the conventional way to achieve economy is to use "simple" design. Beams are
about 20% heavier compared to a rigidly jointed frame but columns are typically 40% lighter, and connection costs
are significantly reduced. This "heavy beam/light column" structure makes economic sense when the weight of the beams
is similar to that of the columns.
Haunched beams are generally designed by forming a rigid moment connection between the beams and columns. The depth
of the haunch is selected primarily to provide an economic method of transferring moment into the column. The length of
the haunch is selected to reduce the depth of the beam to a practical minimum. The extra service zone created beneath the
beam between the haunches, offers flexibility in service layout.
At edge columns, it would not be normal practice to develop additional continuity through the slab reinforcement;
this, however, is an option at internal columns. This form of construction can be used for sway frames, i.e. where
vertical bracing or concrete shear walls or cores are not provided, and is practical for buildings up to 5 storeys in
height. Examples of haunched composite beams are shown in Figure 12.

L1009

L1009
Where the structure is braced against side-sway, and "plastic" sections are used, it is possible to analyse the structure
plastically for the ultimate limit state. Beams can be sized on the basis of negative moment hinges at the inner ends of
the haunches, which should be minimised in length to reduce column bending. Where haunched beams are being used as
part of a sway frame (a form of construction for which they are ideal) elastic global analysis should be used. The art of
design of elastic/plastic sway frames has still not advanced to the stage where it can be carried out in the design office. Use
of elastic analysis will increase weights substantially compared to a plastic analysis. The resulting increased stiffness will
assist sway stiffness and critical load factor as well as vertical stiffness, deflection and floor vibration response.
e) Prestressed steel beams
Essentially these beams work, in composite construction on the principle of inducing an initial prestress condition which
later counteracts that due to the service load.
Prestressing can be achieved in three ways: prestressing components with high-strength tendons, "preflex" beams, and
hybrid beams prestressed internally.
Prestressing of steel beams is achieved with high-strength tendons or cables in two ways: (1) by placing them below the
centre of gravity of the beam and attaching them to the beam at its end, which results in constant prestress; or (2) by
draping the tendons along the length of the beam (Figures 13 and 14).

L1009
Figures 15 and 16 illustrate a method of prestressing, whereby a steel beam is first deflected, after which a concrete slab is
cast against the beam. In the top view the jacking forces are applied in a downward direction, to a steel beam which has
been cambered upward. In the bottom view, a concrete slab is cast composite with the lower portion of the beam, and
following curing the jacking forces are removed. This action induces compressive forces in the concrete. This method has
been patented (preflex system).

L1009

L1009
In the case of prestressed steel hybrid beams, the tension is applied to a high-strength cover plate to induce the desired
prestress into the remaining portion of a beam made of medium-grade structural steel. The prestress is applied by welding
the high-strength plate after stressing it directly or by deflecting the remaining beam. Both techniques cause the beam to
be prestressed after release of external load. The main advantage of such prestressing is that it permits more efficient use
of hybrid sections, within the Code limitations and specifications for elastic design of homogeneous members (Figures 17
and 18).

L1009

L1009
There is no Code of Practice for these types of prestressed beams.
3.1.4 The structural depth
The maintenance of overall structural floor depth within a building, is an important objective in simplifying the coordination
of the mechanical and electrical services and the building finishes. For the range of structural grids used in
conventional buildings, traditional steel floor construction is generally deeper than the equivalent reinforced concrete flat
slab. The difference is generally 100-200mm for floor structures which utilize composite action and greater for non-
composite floors. The increased depth is only at the beam position: elsewhere, between beams, the depth is much less and
the space between them is usable for services, particularly if the beams can be penetrated. The greater depth of
steel construction does not necessarily result in an increase in building height if the services are integrated within the
building zone occupied by the structure. However, integrated systems requiring numerous and irregular penetrations
through the beams, may cost more to fabricate. Figure 19 shows possible solutions for integrated systems which overcome
this difficulty.
L1009
Depth may be reduced, however, by utilizing rigid or semi-rigid, rather than simple connections at the end of the beams.
Such connections allow the beam-bending moments to be more uniformly distributed and the beam deflection to be reduced.
L1009
The depth may also be reduced by using higher-strength steel, but this is only of advantage where the element design
is controlled by strength. The stiffness characteristics of both steels are the same. Hence, where deflection or vibration
govern, no advantage will be gained by using higher quality materials.
3.1.5 Assessment criteria
Table 1 gives some assessment criteria for the principal structural schemes that use composite beams. Most of these criteria
are based on direct experience or they are the outcome of design studies. Thus they are not exclusive and it is possible to
work outside these ranges.
3.2 Framing Systems to Resist Horizontal Loads
An important characteristic of a building is the relative importance of the lateral load-resisting and stabilising systems.
The normal lateral loads are those due to wind and earthquake. The columns of a tall building must be stabilised, or
laterally supported, by a lateral bracing system. The lateral bracing system must resist deformations associated with the out-
of-straightness and out-of-plumb of the structural members and the deformation associated with lateral forces (P-∆ effect).
For low and medium-rise structures, analysis and design generally involves checking the vertical load-resistant system for
its ability to resist lateral forces.
In broad terms there are three fundamental types of lateral resisting elements:
1. Moment resistant frames

2. Braced frames
3. Shear walls
The three fundamental elements are generally in vertical planes and may be placed in one or more of three locations:
(1) Exterior (perimeter); (2)interior; and (3) core. Most building structures include several of these elements. The first
two types are relevant to composite construction, and are now discussed:
● Composite Moment Resistant Frames
Composite frames may consist of steel beams rigidly connected to concrete columns, or concrete beams rigidly connected
to steel columns. However, the term composite has normally been applied to frames where the beams or columns, or both,
as individual members, are of composite concrete and steel construction.

L1009
In a steel-frame system, the girders along column lines function as part of a continuous frame, so that reverse bending
and consequently negative moments due to gravity and lateral loads are included.
A more feasible form of an unbraced composite-steel frame uses the normal construction of a rigid frame, with
uncased composite beams, and reinforcement in the negative moment areas. Shear studs are provided over the entire
beam length to develop moment resistance in the positive and negative moment regions of the beam.
● Composite Braced Frames
Composite braced frames may be of two types: (1) Steel diagonal bracing may be added to a concrete frame or, much
less often, concrete diagonal bracing may be added to a steel frame; and (2) composite steel and concrete linear members
may be used as elements of the frame. The flexibility of a braced frame includes the deformation of the columns and beams,
as well as diagonal braces that are part of the frame. If a steel column is encased in concrete, a reduction in deflection of
the braced frame may be achieved. If concrete is cast around the beam, or if the beam is made composite with the floor
slab, the reduced deformation of the beam will reduce the deflection of the braced frame. Concrete encasement of both
columns and composite floor beams has been commonly used.
● Composite columns
Composite columns may consist of either: (1) Concrete encased structural steel shapes; or (2) Concrete filled tubular
steel sections.
Concrete encased steel columns are common. The concrete encasement has often been considered as only fire and
corrosion protection for the steel. However, in recent years, lateral and sometimes longitudinal reinforcement has been added
to the concrete encasement, and the resultant strength of the steel and concrete interacting has been used for
structural purposes. A steel shape, encased in concrete, may be thought of as reinforcement for the concrete.
Concrete-filled tubular steel columns have been popular for use as individual column elements. The confined concrete
fill increases the axial load resistance but has little effect on the flexural resistance. For that reason, it is unlikely that
these columns would be a good choice for a moment resisting frame.
3.3 Connections
The beam-to-column connections play an important part in the overall stability of any frame. They should be simple, with
as much work as possible performed in the workshops, thereby minimising sitework. For economic reasons these
connections are generally made with bolts. On rigid frames the beam-to-column connections are made using high-
strength friction grip bolts, or alternatively they are welded.

L1009
In general, these connections have evolved from connections developed for steel framed structures and are designed
using similar procedures.
● Composite beam to steel column
The main problem in designing a composite beam to steel column connection, is in assessing the behaviour and contribution
of the slab to a joint that is mainly under horizontal loading. When gravity loading alone is applied to a frame, positive
bending moment usually develops at midspan, and negative moment at the ends of the beams. Therefore, it is customary
to assume that composite action takes place only in the positive moment region of the beam. However, when lateral loads
are subsequently applied, the total bending moment at the windward end of a beam may change its sign, and the
structural behaviour of the beam may suddenly change at the column line. When such a positive moment region develops
next to a column, the compression in the concrete side of the composite beam is transmitted primarily by bearing on the
column face and partly by torsion of the transverse beams.
Johnson and his colleagues reported results of tests on certain types of semi-rigid joint (Figure 20). This joint differs
from conventional semi-rigid joints in several ways. The continuous longitudinal reinforcement in the slab is placed close
to the column. High-strength friction grip bolts are used at point G in the joint, to resist a force F in longitudinal
compression. The joint must be designed not to slip at point G when subject to service loads, so if high-strength bolts are
not used then packing may be required at H. The bolts that connect the angle to the column flange are designed to carry
the total vertical shear. The composite beam is designed as continuous, using simple plastic theory. Shear connectors
are provided to transfer the force F from the slab to the steel beam. The tests showed that this type of semi-rigid joint has a
well defined flexural resistance and a much greater rotation capacity than a rigid joint.

L1009
The characteristics of these connections meet general requirements for economic construction and are summarised as follows:
a) Cheap to fabricate and straightforward to erect on site.

L1009
b) Capable of behaving as a hinge during the connecting of the floors.
c) Rigid up to a certain predetermined moment.
d) Capable of rotating at the predetermined moment.
e) Capable of transmitting shear to the column while undergoing this rotation.
Another type of semi-rigid connection is shown in Figure 21. Other cases are described below.

L1009
● Composite beam to encased column.
The behaviour of a composite beam to encased column connection, appears to be that of a composite beam to steel
column connection. However, the concentration of slab stress near the column flange may be lower.
Connections to both exterior and interior columns of building frames were investigated. The rolled beams were attached to
the steel column core by plated and welded joints (Figure 22). A satisfactory connection is obtained when the steel beam
is fully welded to the column flange. Since the beams are subjected to negative moment, the concrete slab is in tension
and cracks early in the load history. Above the cracking load, the longitudinal slab reinforcement contributes to
composite behaviour.

L1009
At interior columns, satisfactory composite behaviour is achieved in the beams when the longitudinal reinforcement
consists simply of straight continuous bars. At exterior columns, slab failures occur when the straight bars are cut off at the
end of the slab. Satisfactory behaviour is obtained when the bars are anchored externally to a heavy cross bar, or when
the reinforcement arrangement in Figure 23 is adopted.

L1009
● Encased beams to encased columns

L1009
Beam-to-column joints in buildings are usually made by welding, because such rigid connections are easily designed.
Diaphragms are usually needed to prevent local deformation near to flange connections, because the concrete
encasement cannot completely prevent it. Since a large diaphragm often hinders pouring of concrete into columns,
several types of stiffeners, shown in Figure 24, have been used.

L1009
In typical designs, most of the bending moment in a beam is carried by the steel section and the rest by the reinforced
concrete. In a column, however, the share of moment in the steel section is smaller than for a beam. This distribution results
in a larger steel section for the beam than for the connected column. In this case there arises the question of whether the
stresses in the steel beam section can be transferred safely to the connected column. According to tests, at least 40% to 50%
of the bending moment in a column must be resisted by the steel section. If the column steel section is too small to carry
this percentage of the moment, a special detail is needed.
● Composite beam to reinforced concrete column
The main problem with a composite beam to reinforced concrete column connection is to find an effective device for
anchoring the steel beam into the reinforced concrete column.
A series of tests was carried out on composite beams framing into exterior columns of reinforced concrete. These tests
have shown that an effective connection between a composite beam and a reinforced concrete column can be
obtained, provided due allowance is made for large anchorage stresses. The horizontal forces, forming the beam couple,
were transmitted to the column with varying degrees of success: by natural bond between the steel beam flanges and
the concrete, with or without shear connectors; by anchorage bars; and by a "hammerhead" or short piece of beam embedded
in the column. The vertical shear force, assumed transmitted through the beam web as a vertical force to the column, did
not appear to contribute to any of the failures.
Shear connectors within the joint, should be used only when sufficient axial load is present to counteract the splitting
stresses they induce. Horizontal anchor bars, initially unstressed, should be used mainly in connections to a continuous
column, or when the moment of inertia of the column is large compared to that of the beam; this requirement also applies
to vertical anchor bars. Details are shown in Figures 25 and 26.

L1009

L1009
Connections can also be achieved by corbels formed on concrete columns or walls, see Figure 27.

L1009
Special attention must be given to the connections between the structural steel and the concrete. When designing
these connections proper allowance must be made for the construction tolerances allowed in both the steel and
concrete. Adjustability must be carefully worked out to prevent site problems without becoming excessively expensive.
The use of weld plates cast in the concrete, with field welded connection angles has proved most advantageous in
many instances. Pockets are often used when stresses are almost purely vertical, but they tend to disrupt wall reinforcement
and usually require filling with concrete. In connecting steel to concrete, the use of header beams, running parallel and close
to the wall, is often desirable to reduce the number of concrete to steel connections. Moment connections and connections
not absolutely required should be avoided.
● Steel beam to encased column
The same conclusions may be drawn for steel beam to encased column connections as for composite beams to
encased columns. However, in this case the moment transmitted is the plastic moment of the bare steel section. The rotation
is limited by buckling of the compression flange.

L1009
● Steel beam to concrete filled tube column
In a steel beam to concrete filled tube column connection, it is important to prevent brittle fracture caused by local
deformation. It was found that infilled concrete gives a large beneficial effect by reducing the local deformation of steel
tubes. Diaphragms cannot be placed inside the tube because they would interfere with placing the concrete. Therefore,
the stiffeners are usually placed around the outside of the tube. The effective stiffener is assumed to be a ring composed of
the stiffener and a part of the tube.
● Shear strength
Beam-to-column connections are subjected to high shears when a multi-storey structural frame undergoes severe
lateral translations such as those imposed by strong earthquake ground movements. In structural steel frames the
connection panel zones usually have to be reinforced to resist shear. In the case of concrete encased structural steel,
however, no special shear reinforcement is usually necessary in the connection panel zone. This reinforcement is not
required because the shear strength of the concrete in the panel zone is comparatively large, even though diagonal
tension cracks form in that region at relatively low loads.
● Connection of prefabricated composite units
Properly designed connections are most important in ensuring safe and economical precast concrete encased steel structures.
The forces and deformations to be resisted by the connections arise from gravity loads, and from lateral loads due to wind
and seismic forces. Joints must have enough ductility to undergo the expected deformations. The effects of member
volume changes due to creep, shrinkage and temperature; the effects of differential column shortening and settlements; and
the effects of fabrication and construction tolerance errors, must also be considered.
Loads for connection design require careful consideration. Moreover, it is recommended that important joints have
enough resistance to transmit the full resistances of adjoining members. The design forces on joints between
prefabricated frame elements can be established as accurately as the design forces on joints of cast-in-situ reinforced
concrete frames. However, the design forces between panel elements are not as well established, so the lateral load
coefficient for designing panel elements must be larger than the coefficient for frame elements.
4. ERECTION METHODS
The construction methods typically used for composite structures have many advantages, both in terms of economy
and performance, as follows:
1. Rapid construction to suit an early schedule or rapid occupancy of the structure.

L1009
2. Suitability of construction technique, independent of adverse weather conditions.

3. Minimum interference with existing facilities, due to minimum formwork required.
4. Optimum combination of prefabrication and in situ construction technique.
5. Phased loading causing stressing of the structure at different times.
6. Possible savings in foundation due to simplification and more compact excavation operations.
In buildings, composite action results in a more rigid, stiffer structure and the encasement of columns can help provide
fire protection.
Although the principles of composite construction do not vary in terms of application, the construction techniques and
the applied loads influence its use.
A good example of the advantages of composite construction is the use of prestressed steel, especially in buildings where
there are limitations on depth. In such structures temporary props are set up from columns to cause prestressing of the
steel beams above. The props are removed after the concrete hardens, which reduces the loading on the steel members
allowing a reduction in depth and resulting economy. Figure 28 illustrates this construction technique.

L1009
A similar method was described by Dziewolski, using the bars acting as inclined jacks, which are attached to the upper part
of the beam, see Figure 29.

L1009
Many different construction methods are used in different countries and many of the methods are patented.
5. SEISMIC DESIGN
Seismic design of a building structure requires that all parts of it respond nearly simultaneously when subjected to
ground motion. Therefore, when earthquake forces must be considered, their effects on all building components must
be evaluated. In evaluating these effects, it must be remembered that earthquake motions are random, and occur
both horizontally and vertically.
The earthquake response of steel and composite building structures is a subject of much interest, because local buckling of
the compression flange is inhibited (by the shear connection between the steel and concrete slab), and resistance to

L1009
lateral buckling is greatly increased. Furthermore, concrete-filled tubes and encased rolled sections possess much higher
shear resistance than reinforced concrete columns of the same size. High shear resistance is very important for
seismic structures, as is ductility at connections, which can also be readily achieved using composite beams and columns.
Research, which needs to be continued and broadened, has shown clearly that encased steel sections in reinforced concrete,
are particularly beneficial for earthquake-resistant design. However, very few studies are available, at present, on the
suitability of other types of composite structural systems for earthquake-resistant design.
6. DYNAMIC SENSITIVITY
Shallower beams imply greater flexibility. Although the in-service performance of composite beams and floors is good,
the designer may be concerned about the susceptibility of the structure to vibrations induced by the activities within
the building. The parameter commonly associated with this effect is the natural frequency of the floor or beams.
A lower limit of 4 Hz (cycles per second) is a commonly accepted lower bound for the natural frequency of each floor
beam. This limit has been used in Design Tables. The mass of the floor is taken as its self weight and that of ceiling
and finishes, and 10% of the imposed loading. Partitions, which increase the damping of the structure, are not included.
The natural frequency, fr, of the floor or beam may be determined from the approximate formula fr = 18/√δ where δ is
the instantaneous deflection (mm) resulting from the self weight of the floor (including the above additional loads). A
10% reduction in deflection may be made to account for the increased dynamic stiffness of the composite beam.
In practice, the mass of the floor structure is normally such that the exciting force is small in comparison, and the response
of the structure is correspondingly small. In many circumstances it can be demonstrated that the natural frequency of the
floor system (primary and secondary beams and composite slab) could be reduced to 3 Hz.
7. FIRE CONDITION
The fire resistance of composite beams is assessed in the same manner as for non-composite beams. According to some
codes of practice, the limiting temperature of the steel section can be established. This temperature is used in determining
the required thickness of fire protection. It is traditional practice to seal the voids created by the deck above the top flange
of the beam. Sealing may not be necessary for dovetail profiles.
● Steel and concrete, properly combined, result in an economic structure and therein lies the success of composite
L1009
construction. Secondary effects, such as movement due to shrinkage, creep and temperature, should be considered when
using this form of construction.
● Composite construction was generally accepted by the engineering profession in the 1950s when it was used for
bridge construction in the United States and in many European countries; later on, its use was extended into the
building industry. Considerable research on this subject has been, and will continue to be, carried out in many parts of
the world.
● There is much scope for research on the use of composite structures in seismic areas. Experience shows that they possess
many desirable properties for earthquake resistance. Interest has been shown only recently in research related to this
topic, mainly in California and Japan.
● Research in the field of fire resistance of composite structures is desirable to maximise their potential use.
● Composite structures using precast concrete (and even prestressed concrete in certain applications) and steel, should also
have good market potential due to the economy that can be achieved by these components in saving time, labour and money.
● There is no simple answer to the question of what is the best system to be used. The correct choice depends on a wide range
of parameters that vary with the individual project. Experience of such structures is one of the best guides.
1. Lawson, R.M., Design for openings in the webs of composite beams, The Steel Construction Institute / CIRIA
publication, 1987.
2. Owens, G.W., Design of fabricated composite beams in buildings, The Steel Construction Institute, 1989.
3. Lawson, R.M. and Rackham, J., Design of haunched composite beams, The Steel Construction Institute, 1989.
4. Brett, P. and Rushton, J., Parallel beam approach - a design guide, The Steel Construction Institute, 1990.
5. Neil, S., Johnson, R., Lawson, R.M. and Mullett, D.L., Design of composite trusses, The Steel Construction Institute, 1992.
Economic and
Indicative density of floor Estimated unit
Likely Span Range practical maximum Accommodation of major services
steelwork for column grids
ratios of: Span/ Ability to cost index for
Scheme Structural depth contribute to sway fabricated and
As As resistance Maximum X- erected
Flexibility of
primary secondary sectional area Looseness of fit 6m x 12m 9m x 15m steelwork
layout across span
beams beams for 15m span m2
Simple Construction 6-10,5 8-18 20 Possible 1,7 Good Poor if web 26 40 1,0
with Rolled Sections openings used
28 - 1,3 with
reinforced
openings

L1009
Fabricated Sections Above 12 Above 12 15 Possible if not (Tapered) (Tapered) Fair 20 29 1,2
tapered
25 1,9 Near column lines
only
0,9
Haunched Beams Above 12 Above 12 25 Good 5,3 Anywhere away Good 23** 28** 1,3
from column line
32 3,6
Parallel Beam Spines up Ribs up 21* 14* Not developed 5,0 Good Good 25 38 0,9
Approach to 10,5 to 15
30 18 2,8
Castellated Sections N/A Up to 16 17 Possible 1,5 Near mid-span Fair 27 38 1,3

only if posts
removed
20 1,3
Stub Girders 10-15 N/A 13 Possible 3,0 Good Good N/A 41 1,4
16 2,5
Composite Trusses Above 12 Above 12 12 Possible 1,5 Near mid-span Fair 22 30 1,5
only for
Vierendeel panel
16 1,0
* Secondary beams only
+ Including main beams
** Column weights also increased due to additional moments
Table 1: Assessment of principal structural schemes for composite floors.

ESDEP WG 10
Lecture 10.10: Composite Bridges

OBJECTIVE/SCOPE
To complement the other lectures, which cover the use of composite beams and girders in buildings, with
special recommendations regarding bridge design and construction; and to introduce the conceptual and technical process
for the design of composite bridges.
PREREQUISITES
RELATED LECTURES
SUMMARY

The advantages of composite bridges are outlined with emphasis on the use of this bridge type for normal spans. The
different types of cross-sections used are introduced, concentrating mainly on box and plate girders. Attention is drawn to
the many different construction and erection stages with different "active" cross-sections and structural systems.
1. INTRODUCTION
Composite bridge construction has experienced considerable development since the first solutions in the 1950's using
simple parallel beam grids over short spans (from 20 to 25 metres), to its present usage in large framed or cable stayed
bridges, or in very important truss girders designed to meet the severe functional requirements of high speed trains. It is
now commonly used for medium and large works, and also in cases of minor spans competing with prefabricated
prestress concrete systems, where, for example, problems of quick erection or slenderness arise.
It is not possible, in this general lecture, to describe or to catalogue the complete range of actual solutions that
composite construction offers for bridges. Nor is it possible to outline the general problems of details, construction
procedures, choices of analysis, etc. The lecture therefore concentrates on emphasising the advantages that the
composite structure offers, dealing mainly with the systems and construction processes for medium span bridges. The lecture
is completed with brief references to other methods that can be useful in more important cases that require wider
specialization and experience before they can be applied.
First an understanding of the nature of the inherent aspects of the bending of composite systems and the rheological
interaction of the deck's construction materials is required. Starting from certain fundamental global considerations,
an understanding of the phenomena that principally determine the functional performance, structural behaviour and
execution problems of composite bridges can then be reached.
Therefore, the lecture analyses questions related to:
1. Regions of dominant positive bending moments (sagging), i.e. simply supported decks or the central part of spans
of continuous systems, with some consideration given to the transverse characteristics and the construction process.
2. Regions of dominant negative bending moments (hogging), i.e. supports of continuous and cantilever systems, and
their interaction with transverse shear and torsional effects, leading to the significant potential for double composite action
in these zones.
3. Shear connection of the composite systems and its influence on the analytical treatment, local effects at the beam ends, etc.
Fabrication and erection methods have a big influence on the detailed design of the steel structure. The supporting
steel members must be designed so that they do not interfere with the placing of the concrete slab.
2. COMPOSITE BRIDGES - PRINCIPAL TYPES

The following general observations can be made concerning the principal types of composite bridge decks:
For short spans, 25 to 45m approximately, solutions using multiple plate girders without any kind of transverse bracing
are preferred with the concrete deck slab performing the total function of transverse distribution and stability (Figure 1).
The number of beams should be the least compatible with the transverse distribution capability of the concrete slab.

Twin plate girders with haunched slab can be a very attractive solution for narrow bridges (Figure 2).

For longer spans (50 to 100m) the system of widely spaced twin girders (Figure 3) joined with transverse composite
beams, spaced at about 4 to 5 metres, is very suitable. Main and transverse girders can be plate girders or, in cases with
very long spans or very severe deflection limits, trusses.

Box girders, preferably with trapezoidal semi-open cross-sections (Figures 4a-b), also provide adequate solutions for all of
the above mentioned cases, especially when curvatures exist in plan. Box girders become almost obligatory if the
curvatures are very sharp.


For very large railway bridges, cross-sections formed by two large composite lattice girders (Figure 5) and used with or
without bottom concrete slabs, give very suitable solutions in terms of ease of construction, economy, serviceability
and durability.
Other solutions are based on the use of lattice webs joined to top and bottom concrete slabs (Figure 6), or profiled steel
sheet webs concreted to concrete filled and prestressed steel tubes (Figure 7).


3. MAIN ADVANTAGES OF COMPOSITE BRIDGES

By the appropriate combination of the two principal construction materials, structural steel and concrete (reinforced
or prestressed), more efficient bridge construction can be achieved than is possible using the two materials independently.
This advantage is gained particularly when the work specification is demanding in relation to short construction
periods, functional conditions of high slenderness, the site topography, road or services complexity, or complex layouts in
plan or elevation.
In particular, the use of self-supporting steel systems allows, in the same way as for steel bridge construction, the execution
to proceed without shoring during the concreting of the deck slab thereby giving rapid execution even with difficult
layouts, (strong curvatures in plan, complex transverse sections, etc.). Later the deck slab is used as an element of great
inertia and resistance, which reduces the total amount of steel required, especially in the compression zones where its
use reduces the need for additional stiffening and/or bracing.
This advantage, which is clear in the sagging regions, can be extended to the hogging regions through the correct use

of prestressing methods, or to a lesser extent, with longitudinal reinforcement of the concrete slab, giving partial
improvement to its properties. Likewise, an intelligent additional steel-concrete combination in double composite action
could extend the global application of the composite solutions, as will be explained below.
The resultant performance-structural-executional symbiosis of these two major materials improves the whole to a much
greater extent than the simple juxtaposition of the two materials. The designer should carefully combine the steel and
concrete in proportions that optimise the bridge performance in all the above-mentioned respects.
Essentially the principal advantages of composite bridges in comparison with others of similar dimensions are:
In comparison with concrete systems:
● Smaller depths and self weights.

● Greater simplicity and ease of execution, especially when the conditions are severe (high rises or plan curvature, etc.).
● Minimisation of environmental problems during execution.
● Favourable and simple use of continuous systems, including bottom concrete slabs in support regions.
In comparison with steel systems:
● Increased stiffness and better functional response.

● Better maintenance and durability characteristics.
● Reduction of secondary bracing systems.
● Lower costs because of a reduction in the total steel required, especially in continuous systems.
4. STRUCTURAL ACTION
4.1 Positive Bending Moment Regions
Irrespective of the type of bridge considered, maximum efficiency is achieved by adopting transverse cross-sections
and execution processes that maximise the potential of the composite system.
This consideration in the past gave rise to the use of propped construction of the partial steel section, or systems with
pre-deformation (prestressed, precambered, preflected). Alternatively, provisional continuity was provided by
temporary restraint of joints in the steel section, the effect being transferred to the whole composite system after the
hardening of the slab. Today, this technique is no longer necessary due to the adoption of limit state methods or non-
linear elastic-plastic analysis to establish the ultimate resistance of the cross-sections, together with adequate control
of serviceability and functional conditions. In this way the total benefit of all the structural materials included in the section
can be achieved without complicating the process of execution, but by taking into consideration some special aspects in
the design of the section.
In current practice, by including a slightly bigger top flange, a longitudinal web stiffener, and by giving the steel member
a precamber of approximately L/200 in the workshop, ultimate and serviceability conditions for the non-propped steel
beam can be obtained which are similar to those of the propped solution. Construction problems can thereby be reduced and/
or sometimes solutions that are almost impossible to achieve in any other way are feasible.
The elastic-plastic behaviour of cross-sections, with the consequent redistribution of the internal stress pattern that allows
the total usage of the materials in the ultimate state, begins earlier for the unpropped beam (γf = 1,21) than in the
propped beam. In the propped case it occurs much closer to the collapse (γf=1,35), with a higher rate of transition to the
plastic state.
The compact character of cross-sections which allows the development of a plastic hinge can be established from the
criteria defined in Eurocode 4 [1]. These criteria depend upon the steel quality and the compressed web regions. Given
the variation of the neutral axis depth in the elastic or elastic-plastic ranges, the position of the neutral axis must be
considered for the most unfavourable value that can occur.
In cases where, because of the large beam depth required, a compact section cannot be economically used, it is better to
adopt semi-compact (Class 3) or slender (Class 4) cross-sections with elastic calculation methods. The procedures for
propping and cambering, provisional restraints, preflection or prestressing, etc. could then be of interest in order to obtain
the most favourable solution.
When propped construction is used, the stability of the upper flanges of steel members during the non-composite work must
be carefully considered because of the minimum sizes usually adopted. This aspect is especially important when decking
is placed parallel to the beams.
4.2 Negative Bending Moment Regions
Negative bending moments usually imply the existence of hyperstatic systems. The redistribution over time of external
forces motivated by creep and shrinkage effects should be analysed in these cases. This analysis can be approximate, if
ultimate control of the structure that takes into consideration the elastic-plastic conditions at critical sections is

included, because in this case all time dependent processes have little effect on the ultimate bending resistance of normally
well conditioned sections.
Unlike the positive regions previously discussed, negative moment regions are highly complex analytically. They offer
many design possibilities and require strong control of conditions. The ability of the designer is put to the test in order to
derive the maximum benefit from the composite method of construction.
4.2.1 Major factors to be considered
The following should be given careful consideration:
a. The top concrete deck slab, necessary for functional reasons, is in tension and so, apparently, does not contribute to
the resistance of the cross-section. Indirectly, however, benefit should be taken from its presence through:
⋅ Internal prestressing: the use, in prestressing, of high strength economically efficient steels allows the full inertial
resistance of the concrete slab to be taken into account.
⋅ Passive reinforcement: due to the bond with the concrete, reinforcement bars remain active in the total cross-section. In
this case the inertia of the concrete slab is only partially used due to cracking. This behaviour creates some
analytical difficulties when external forces change.
⋅ External prestressing: it can give the optimum result by combining aspects of the previous two solutions.
b. The bending moment is normally accompanied by high shear forces that require the designer to check the moment
shear interaction M-V or, M-V-T when torsion occurs. This check results in the need to increase the web thickness of the
steel section and to prefer the use of even more compact sections than in the positive zones.
The compact cross-section conditions for these negative moment zones are shown in Figure 8, maintaining the
dimensional limitations of the web and flange panels according to the values indicated in the Code for the positive
moment zones.

c. The possibility of using a zone of the bottom concrete slab, in double composite action should be considered. The
suitability of this approach, in economic terms, depends on the type of cross-section and the agreed procedures for
execution. This solution is usually a competitive option in the case of semi-open box girders, and where local slabs are
located at the bottom of the steel cross-sections, (Figure 9). The concrete in these zones is situated inside the depth of
the section, and so stresses can be very high, requiring an appropriate control of the rheological phenomena.


Bottom slabs introduce, in an efficient way, a very compact character to the sections, not only to the bottom plate of steel but
to the web also, because the neutral axis lies closer to the bottom edge.
d. Buckling and lateral stability control
The type of cross-section and execution method play a very significant role in determining the importance of these
problems and in the appropriate selection of bracing and stiffening members or systems. In these cases consideration of
fatigue becomes important. The connections between the main members and the secondary bracing should be
carefully considered, the objective being to restrain the cross-section simply avoiding complex internal bracing.
4.2.2 Conceptual aspects
To be consistent for hogging regions, certain conceptual and structural aspects must be taken into account. The following
are the most important aspects:
a. Concrete slab cracking
The magnitude and extent of the cracking of the deck slab in hogging moment zones is very variable and depends of the
actual load in the structure. Thus the hypothesis of load superposition should not be used, but an alternative condition for
every complete loading state should be analysed.
Likewise, to ignore completely the contribution of the cracked concrete (in the tension zones between cracks) to the stiffness
of the structure (an effect known as tension stiffening) leads to an over estimation of the amplitude of deflections and width
of cracks, and to the calculation of incorrect bending moment envelopes.
In view of this effect, a more accurate method of analysis is required which consists of the calculation of moment-
curvature relationship diagrams for the cross-sections taking into account tension stiffening. Alternatively, the
following formula may be applied to determine an effective value (Im) of the second moment of area of the cross-section:
where

Mr is the cracking bending moment of the cross-section.
M is the actual bending moment in the section.
Io is the second moment of area of non-cracked section.
Ir is the second moment of area of cracked section neglecting concrete in tension.
Having evaluated the effective second moment of area of the cracked regions an initial moment distribution and successive
step by step analysis can be carried out. One or two steps are usually sufficient to estimate the real conditions of
compatibility between bending moments and inertias in the hogging regions.
The above discussion should be considered to be equally valid for the serviceability states as for the ultimate, with
factored loads adopted in the calculation. It is not valid to adopt characteristic loading and afterwards increase the effects by
the γf value for the cross-section design.
Additional aspects, such as the incidence of dependent effects due to permanent loading and, pre-postcracking of the
slab, introduce complexity which is usually well covered by the ultimate limit state control of cracking using the
characteristic width of crack Wk=(1,64δ).
b. Prestressing of the concrete deck slab
The introduction of prestressing in the concrete slab can be carried out in two different ways, each with different
characteristics as follows:
⋅ Postconnection prestressing. The prestress is usually applied at an early stage when the elastic modulus of the concrete has
a low value. The design for transfer of prestressing from the concrete to the structural steel can be very important in relation
to reduction of prestressing values of the concrete, and consequently reducing the cracking bending moment of resistance
Mr of the cross-section.
⋅ Preconnection prestressing. This is very efficient in the early stages, but time effects such as creep and shrinkage, tend
to reduce the final effects. The prestressing is transferred to the steel members via bond and friction with the concrete
slab. These problems can only be overcome by careful and costly procedures.
External prestressing solutions which allow use of controlled cracking in the concrete slab, can be applied at appropriate
stages, and which affect the whole system, can represent favourable intermediate solutions.
Modern design procedures for composite bridges are tending to incorporate prestressing in the transverse direction.
c. Bending moment-shear interaction
The simultaneous consideration of shear and bending can be carried out by using a simplified diagram, such as that given
in Eurocode 4, Figure 10, especially when dealing with compact or semi-compact members.

d. Lateral stability of lower compression flanges
The negative moment region of simple steel members is usually unrestrained and the effective slenderness of the beam must
be taken into account. Lateral restraint (such as U-frames or struts tied to the concrete slab or to another parallel beam,
see Figure 11) with a resistance of 1% of the axial force in the bottom flange can provide a significant increase in resistance.

e. Bottom concrete slabs

Bottom concrete slabs can withstand higher service stresses than allowed in top concrete slabs. Higher stresses may be
taken because the structural steel usually provides a confining force to the concrete and because significant stress reduction
is produced with time due to creep and shrinkage effects.
5. SHEAR CONNECTION
The shear connection must be complete and adequate, except in very big bridges with extremely slender cross-
sections designed basically for stability or stiffening conditions, and also in those cases in which the structure is analysed
by elastic methods with non-propped construction of the steel members.
The term "Complete" refers to the provision of sufficient shear connectors to resist the maximum shear force that the
partial cross-section can develop in the connecting plane, without considering the actual envelope of shear stresses that
the structural calculations define. An "incomplete" connection would be, then, the connection that resists strictly the
shear stresses that the composite system develops in the connecting surface due to construction process and loading.
The term "Adequate" means providing a connection appropriate to the resistant-deformational process assumed in the
analysis of the structure. Thus, if the system is compact and requires to use elastic-plastic redistributions fully, it is essential
to employ flexible or ductile connection systems, capable of adapting to the transfer of shear and slip in the connection
plane. However, for slender systems designed using a totally elastic analysis, stiff connectors must be used giving
minimum slip, thus ensuring that the members behave in accordance with the design assumptions.
Furthermore, the local incidence of creep and shrinkage at the ends of the beams in bridges should be estimated with
some accuracy .
Likewise, the introduction of local actions, such as prestressing, also gives rise to significant shear connection forces
which must be considered.

The detailed design of the steel components of a composite bridge has to take into account the process of fabrication
and erection of the steel structure and the technique to be used for concreting the deck slab.
In particular, the length and weight of the fabricated steel components and the provision of welded and bolted splices on
site has an influence on the design.
The cross-sections have to be built up in such a way that steel cross girders and bracings do not complicate the shuttering
and placing operations for the concrete deck slab.
It is also important to ensure that some holes are provided in the steel webs to allow flexibility in fixing temporary shuttering.
Proper attention to such details at the design stage will greatly facilitate operations during execution.
● Composite bridges can have significant advantages in comparison with bridges made entirely from concrete or entirely
from steel.
● Careful consideration must be given to the structural behaviour of composite bridges in both the positive and negative
moment regions.
● The performance of the shear connectors at the steel/concrete interface is crucial to the overall performance of the
composite bridge.
● Proper consideration of erection techniques, at the design stage, can lead to a simplification of the erection procedure and
a consequent saving in time and cost.
8. REFERENCES
[1] Eurocode 4: "Design of Composite Steel and Concrete Structures": ENV 1994-1-1: Part 1.1: General rules and rules

ESDEP WG 11
Lecture 11.1.1 Connections in Buildings

OBJECTIVE/SCOPE
To identify the ways in which structural connections are made in steel buildings, to discuss the importance of a proper
choice of connection type on both overall structural behaviour and economics and to present the basic principles of
connection design.
PRE-REQUISITES
Lecture 1B.5.1: Introduction to Design of Simple Industrial Buildings
Lecture 1B.7.1: Introduction to Design of Multi-Storey Buildings
Lecture 3.1.1: General Fabrication of Steel Structures I
RELATED LECTURES

Lectures 11.3: Bolted Connections
Lecture 11.4: Analysis of Connections
Lecture 11.6: Moment Connections for Continuous Framing
Lecture 11.7: Partial Strength Connections for Semi-Continuous Framing
Lecture 11.8: Splices
Lectures 13: Tubular Structures
SUMMARY
The need for various forms of structural connections in steel buildings is established and their basic forms are
identified. Methods of making connections are discussed within the context of transferring local forces between
components, ensuring consistency of overall structural behaviour and the practical aspects of fabrication and erection.
The basic principles of connection design are thus established.
1. INTRODUCTION
Steel frame buildings consist of a number of different types of structural elements, each of which has to be properly attached
to the neighbouring parts of the structure. This will involve the use of several forms of connection. The main classes
of connection are:
i) Where a change of direction occurs, e.g. beam-to-column connections, beam-to-beam connections and connections
between different members in trusses.
ii) To ensure manageable sizes of steelwork for transportation and erection e.g. columns are normally spliced every two
or three storeys.
iii) Where a change of component occurs, including connection of the steelwork to other parts of the building, e.g.
column bases, connections to concrete cores and connections with walls, floors and roofs.
Figure 1 gives examples of connections within the context of a multi-storey frame.
Connections are important parts of every steel structure. The mechanical properties of the connections are of great influence
on the strength, stiffness and stability of the whole structure.
The number and the complexity of the connections have a decisive influence on the time that is necessary for the
statical analysis and the production of drawings.
Production of connections, i.e. cutting, drilling and welding of main members, plates, cleats and stiffeners, consumes much
of the work content in the fabrication shop. The ease with which the site connections can actually be made is a key factor
in erection.
Thus the selection, design and detailing of the connections in a building frame has a very significant influence on costs.
2. COMPONENTS OF CONNECTIONS
Connections in steel structures are normally made using welds and/or bolts.
Welds
Although various forms of structural welds are possible, fillet welding of the type illustrated in Figure 2a is normally to
be preferred to butt welding as shown in Figure 2b, since it requires only simple preparation of the parts to be joined,
can usually be accomplished with relatively simple equipment and does not require special skills of the welder.

Although welding may be conducted on site, it tends to be expensive for the following reasons:
● Temporary platforms with safe access have to be provided.

● Work can be delayed unless welds are protected from the weather.
● Electric current has to be supplied to the working point.
● Temporary bolts and cleats are still needed to hold members together.
● Cost of inspection.
● The longer erection period means that the client cannot take over the building as quickly.
Site joints are, therefore, normally made using bolts.

Bolts
Depending on the shape of the connection and the location of the bolts, they are loaded in tension, in shear or in
combined tension and shear, see Figures 3 and 4.

To accommodate some mismatch in hole distances and bolt diameters, holes are normally drilled 2mm in diameter greater
than the bolt diameter (clearance holes). Where displacements due to these clearances are not acceptable, the bolts may
be preloaded to prevent slip. For statically loaded structures, such as buildings, preloaded bolts should normally be
avoided. The special treatment of the contact surfaces to obtain a high and reliable value for the slip factor and the
procedures to achieve the design preload are expensive.
Other Parts
In addition to bolts and welds, other parts are often also necessary to transfer forces, e.g. plates and angle cleats. Figure
5 shows some examples in beam-to-column connections.

Potentially weak areas may occur in connections. In the beam-to-column connection in Figure 6 such areas may be the
column flange and the column web. The transmission of high localised forces in the column may cause local yielding and
local buckling. These failure modes may be decisive for the moment resistance of a connection. For example, the
moment resistance of the connection shown in Figure 6 is lower than the full plastic moment of the beam.

If necessary, the moment resistance can be increased by strengthening the relevant weak areas of the connections, see Figure 7.

3. TYPES OF CONNECTIONS
For buildings designed to resist essentially static loading, including wind loads, it will normally be sufficient to
design connections to resist forces that primarily act in one direction only. However, in seismic zones large load reversals
may occur. This load reversal will normally require a different approach to the design of the load-resisting structure, leading
to different forms of connection.
For multi-storey buildings the connections between the main structural elements may conveniently be classified as:
● Beam-to-beam connections
● Beam-to-column connections
● Column splices
● Column bases
● Bracing connections.
This list does not, of course, include connections between the main framework and other parts of the structure, e.g. beams
to floors, attachment of the cladding, etc. Despite the different geometrical configurations and detailed structural
requirements of the five different types, certain general functional requirements must always be addressed:
● The connections should be strong enough to transmit the design loads. To this end, they should be arranged to transmit
internal forces from one member to another along smooth load paths so as to avoid severe stress concentrations.
● They must posses the intended degree of flexibility or rigidity.
● The connecting elements (plates or cleats) should be arranged such that, as far as possible, they are self-positioning,
accessible for fixing (in the shop and on site), and capable of providing a 'good fit'.
Thus the design of any steelwork connection must simultaneously satisfy the needs of structural adequacy, an appropriate
type of behaviour and practical engineering. Clearly it will often be possible that different arrangements satisfy each of
these needs to differing degrees. A certain amount of judgement and experience in deciding the relative importance of
the different design criteria is required to decide which requirement should be given the greatest emphasis in a given
situation. Of course, the designer does not have a completely free choice as he must always ensure that the connection is able
to transmit the required level of loads. His choice in this respect relates to the exact arrangement selected and, perhaps, to
the extent to which a more easily fabricated connection might provide more strength than is actually required.
In this respect also the workshop should have an influence on the design. Its capabilities and equipment should be taken
into consideration when detailing connections. Therefore, the detailing work should be undertaken in consultation with
the workshop.
Connections involving tubular members require special care as the arrangements used for open sections may not simply
be adapted. The main factor is, of course, the limited access that prevents the use of bolts with nuts inside the tube. In
cases where the connections may be made wholly by welding, e.g. shop fabrication of trusses, the solution is clear.
However, site joints need particular attention, especially if the clean lines which are often a factor in selecting a
tubular configuration are to be preserved. More information is provided in the Lectures in group 13.
In order to give an impression of the wide variety of possible designs, the following descriptions include figures to
provide examples of the connection types mentioned above.
3.1 Column Splices (Figure 8)

8.1 and 8.2: These are welded splices. Where there are different thicknesses of the plates, cheaper fillet welds can be used.
It should be recalled that welding may not be the most appropriate connection means for site connections.
8.3: Bolted splice. The vertical forces may be assumed to be transmitted by bearing and/or through the plates. The plates
also serve to transmit bending moments and shear forces. Where there is unequal thickness of the flanges/webs,
intermediate plates are necessary.
8.4: A frequently used splice connection. Due to the welding in the workshop, the plates may not be perfectly flat. Normally
no subsequent machining is necessary to flatten these plates.
8.5: Sometimes it is easier to make the beam continuous. To transmit the forces and for stability reasons, it is necessary
to stiffen the beam between the column flanges.
3.2 Column Bases (Figure 9)

9.1 and 9.2: Thick base plates need no stiffening. Normally this is the cheapest solution.
9.3: Thinner base plate with stiffeners as used in old designs.
3.3 Simple Beam-to-Column Connections (Figure 10)

10.1: Connection with fin plates welded to the column. The beam is connected single sided.
10.2: Bolted connection with angle cleats. Cleats may be welded to either member as an alternative.
10.3: Connection with thin flexible endplates welded to the beam.
10.4: Bolted connection with angle cleats. The horizontal angle cleat provides extra bearing resistance.
10.5: For a thick wall of a tube, the plates can be welded directly to the wall without making a sleeve in the tube to have
a continuous plate. For more details involving tubes, see Lectures 13.
10.6: The stiffness depends largely on the thickness of the end plate on the column and the thickness of the flange of the
beam. The stiffening plates may be omitted in many cases.
3.4 Moment Resisting Beam-to-Column Connections (Figure 11)
11.1: Fully welded connection.
11.2: Bolted knee - connection.
11.3: Knee-connection with welded end plates.
11.4: Welded T-connection.

11.5: Bolted T-connection.
11.6: Bolted end plate connection. It is assumed that another beam is connected on the other side of the web.
3.5 Simple Beam-to-Beam Connections (Figure 12)
12.1: Depending on the geometry and the applied forces, stiffeners may or may not be necessary. This connection has
the advantage of cheap fabrication but the disadvantage that its total construction height is higher than that of the other
designs in Figure 12.
12.2: In this connection there is no need to make a cope as in the connection 12.3. Therefore it is also a cheap design
to fabricate.
12.3: The top flanges are at the same height. The cope makes this design more costly than the design of 12.2.

12.4: The beam to be connected is higher than the main beam. This design is rather cheap to fabricate. The hinge will
be located where the plate is welded to the web.
3.6 Moment Resisting Beam-to-Beam Connections (Figure 13)
13.1: This design is comparable to the design of 12.1. Of course stiffeners should be omitted where possible.
13.2: The tensile force in the top flange is transmitted via the flange plate that crosses the web of the main beam through
a sleeve. On the compression side, small compression parts may be necessary to introduce the compression force.

13.3: In this design also a cope of the beam is necessary, as in 12.3.
13.4: Both beams have the same height.
3.7 Horizontal Bracing Connections (Figure 14)
14.1, 14.2, 14.3: The gusset plates on the top flanges may be a problem when metal roof or floor decking is used.

14.4, 14.5, 14.6: The channel section in Figure 14.4 is needed as a chord for the horizontal truss.
3.8 Vertical Bracing Connections (Figure 15)
15.1, 15.2, 15.3, 15.4: Various possibilities for the connections of bracings.
4. REQUIREMENTS FOR ECONOMY

As already indicated, there are a great number of requirements to be met when designing connections. The
requirements relating to structural behaviour are examined further in other Lectures 11. The basic requirements for
economy are discussed further below.
The costs for a steel structure can be divided into costs for material and costs for labour as follows:
Material 20 - 40%
Calculation }
Drawings }
Fabrication } 60 - 80%
Protection }
Erection. }
From this division of costs it can be concluded that a saving of labour costs has potentially more influence on the overall
costs of steel structures than saving on material.
An influencing factor is the relation between cost per kg steel and cost per man hour.
In the past decades the price of steel has increased considerably less than the price of labour. This trend, together
with developments in fabrication technology, means that structural designs that were optimal 10 years ago may not
be competitive now.
A major part of labour costs has a direct relation to the design and fabrication of connections. It is often better in design to
save labour at the expense of material. This fact can be illustrated with some simple examples. To estimate the costs,
the following assumptions are made:
● the costs for 1cm3 of weld is equivalent to 0,7 kg of steel.

● the costs for fabrication of stiffening plates are equal to the welding costs.
● the costs per hole are equivalent to 2 kg of steel.
In Figure 16 a beam in a braced frame is given. The basis is a design with simple connections to transmit shear force
only. When the "hinges" are replaced by moment connection as in [B] and [C], then for the beam an IPE 140 can be
selected instead of an IPE 180. However, due to the extra costs for the connections, the alternatives [B] and [C] are
more expensive, especially [B]. The difference with [C] which uses backing plates to strengthen the column flanges is
less. When the same exercise is carried out for a beam with greater span, e.g. 10m, it is found that alternative C is the cheapest.
The balance between moment resistance in the connection and in the beam is discussed further in Lecture 11.7 on
semi-continuous design.
Another example is the base plates illustrated in Figure 9. It can easily be shown that the thick base plate without stiffeners
is the cheapest in nearly all cases.
For the example with the beam-column connections, it should be mentioned that the alternative A has no welds. This may
mean that the flow of material in the fabricator's shop is simpler as no stop is needed at the welding station.
Some other aspects which facilitiate economy in design are:
● limit the number of bolt diameters, bolt lengths and bolt grades as far as possible. Use for instance standard M20 bolts in
grade 8.8 (ultimate strength 800 N/mm2 and proof strength 640 N/mm2), see also Lecture 11.3.
● Ensure good access so that welds can be made easily.
● Minimise situations where precise fitting is required.
● Achieve repetition of standard details.
● Provide ease of access for site bolting.
● Provide means for supporting the self weight of the piece quickly, so that the crane can be released.
● Achieve ease of adjustment for alignment.
● Consider maintenance where necessary.
For more information on these aspects, reference is made to the Lectures in group 3, on fabrication and Lectures in group
4A on corrosion.
● Connections are required when a change of component occurs, at changes in framing directions, and to ensure
manageable member sizes.
● Connections must satisfy the requirements of structural behaviour. They should be strong enough to transmit the design
loads and at the same time have the intended degree of flexibility or rigidity.
● Connection design has a major influence on the costs of real structures.
● Two types of fasteners are used for connections - welds and bolts.
● Normally welding is applied in the fabrication shop and bolts are used for erection.
● When detailing connections, thought should be given to fabrication practicalities and erection sequence and method.
1. Boston, R.M. and Pask, J.W. 'Structural Fasteners and their Applications', BCSA 1978.
Drawings of bolts of all kinds and photographs of fixings procedures, plus examples of connection design.
2. Interfaces: Connections between Steel and other Materials, Ove Arup and Partners. Edited by R. G. Ogden, 1994.
3. Hogan, T.J. and Firkins, A., 'Standardized structural connections', Australian Institute of Steel Construction, 1981, 3rd
Ed, 1985.
Presents design models and resistance tables for the main connection types.
4. Blodgett, O.W., 'Design of welded structures', James F Lincoln Arc Welding Foundation, Cleveland, Ohio, USA, 1972.
Informative and well illustrated reference manual covering all aspects of welded design and construction.
5. Ballio, G. and Mazzolani, F.M., 'Theory and design of steel structures', Chapman and Hall, London, 1983.
Comprehensive text on theory and design of steel structures. Deals extensively with connections. A detailed treatment
of combined loads on fillet welds is of particular interest.
6. Draft for Development DD ENV 1993-1-1: 1992 Eurocode 3: Design of Steel Structures, Part 1, General Rules and Rules
for Buildings.
Chapter 6 presents rules covering the design of individual items of connections, e.g. bolts, welds, hole edge distances,
etc. Annex J deals in more detail with the design of bolted and welded beam-to-column connections.
7. Essentials of Eurocode 3, Design Manual for Structures in Buildings, ECCS Publication 65, 1991.
8. Bijlaard, F.S.K. et al, Structural Properties of Semi-Rigid Joints in Steel Frames, IABSE Publications, 1989.
Explains how flexibility arises in beam-to-column connections and presents methods for assessing stiffness and
9. Joints in simple construction, Volume 1: Design methods,
SCI/BCSA Publication 205, 2nd Ed, 1993.
Provides design models and some background for the most popular types of: beams to columns, beam to beam, column
splice and column base.
10. Joints in Simple Construction, Volume 2: Practical Applications, SCI/BCSA Pub 206, 1st Ed, 1992.
Expands on the more practical aspects of connection design; provides tables to facilitate connection design in a "look-up" basis.
11. Owens, G. W. and Cheal, B. D., Structural Steelwork Connections, 1st Ed, 1989.
Comprehensive coverage of many aspects of connection behaviour and design.

ESDEP WG 11
Lecture 11.1.2: Introduction to Connection

Design
OBJECTIVE/SCOPE:
To introduce connection design, concentrating on the mechanics of load transfer in various forms of connection.
PREREQUISITES:
Basic understanding of applied mechanics, and the theories of elasticity and plasticity.
Lecture 2.3: Engineering Properties of Steels
Lecture 11.1.1: Connections in Buildings
RELATED LECTURES:
Lectures 11.4: Analysis of Connections

Lecture 11.8: Splices
SUMMARY:
The principal components of welded and bolted connections are described. The concept of load transfer from the
supported member into the supporting member is presented and the different types of load component are identified. The
steps involved in tracing the load path, assessing the strength requirements and checking the resistance of components
are established in general terms as a prelude to more detailed coverage of the subject in Lectures 11.2, 11.3 and 11.4.
1. INTRODUCTION
The reasons for connections in all forms of steel construction have already been explained in Lecture 11.1.1. The
principal structural and economical requirements were also presented. In this Lecture 11.1.2 the structural
requirements (strength, stiffness and deformation capacity) are discussed in greater detail. The Eurocode 3 [1] classification
for connections is introduced. This classification considers the stiffness and strength of beam to column connections.
The freedom of the designer to choose the type of connection, and to choose the details for each type, leads to a great variety
of connections, see for example the figures in Lecture 11.1.1. The analysis of the structural properties of connections
is presented in Section 4, where a number of basic load transfers are identified.
2. REQUIREMENTS FOR STRUCTURAL BEHAVIOUR

Relevant properties of steel are its strength, its stiffness and its ductility or deformation capacity. These properties can
be demonstrated in a tensile test, see Figure 1. A well designed steel structure should possess the same good properties.

The basic requirements for structural elements/connections concern the strength, the stiffness and the deformation capacity.
Figure 2 defines the strength, stiffness and deformation capacity of a beam-to-column connection designed to transfer
a moment from the beam into the column.

The rotation capacity is a measure of the deformation that can be obtained before failure somewhere in the connection causes
a drop in the moment resistance.
The strength, stiffness and deformation capacity of connections are discussed in greater detail below:
Strength
For the determination of the forces on the connection, a static analysis must be carried out. Such analysis includes
the determination of the design loads and the modelling of the structure, see Figure 3. In the schematization of the structure,
the stiffness of the connections is an important element. Connections can be assumed rigid, as hinges or as having a
stiffness between these two. The deformation capacity of the members (beams and columns) and of the connections plays
an important role in the ultimate distribution of forces in the structure.

All parts of the structure must be designed so that they can resist the calculated forces and have a deformation capacity that
is consistent with the assumptions made in the global analysis.
Stiffness
The stiffness of the connection affects the level of loading for which it should be designed. A connection of low
rotational stiffness does not attract major bending moments and therefore may be assumed as a pinned connection in
the schematization of the structure.
Of course, the stiffness of the connections affects the deflections of the beams. Especially in non-braced frames the stiffness
of the connections may have a major effect on the deflections of the structure as a whole and on its stability.
If the connections are assumed rigid in the modelling for the static analysis of the structure, then consequently the form of
the connections should be such that their deformations have a negligible influence on the load distribution and the
deformations of the structure.
On the other hand, if pinned connections are assumed, they should have sufficient flexibility to accommodate rotations
without causing significant bending moments that may lead to premature failure of (parts of) the connection or
connected members.
The schematization of connection stiffness is discussed further in Section 3. In many instances it is acceptable to
design connections giving explicit consideration only to their strength.
Deformation Capacity
The requirements for strength and stiffness are clear. They result from the static calculation.
The requirement for deformation capacity is more qualitative. In practice it is sometimes difficult to check this requirement.
Ductile connections that have a great deformation capacity contribute to the overall safety of the structure in the event that
the connection becomes overloaded. Such connections may also be a design requirement in certain instances, e.g. when
plastic design is employed with plastic hinges forming in the connections.
3. CLASSIFICATION AS A BASIS FOR DESIGN

Connections should be designed according to their required behaviour. Many design approaches are possible for stiffness
and strength. In Figure 4 three designs for a beam-to-column connection are given with their moment rotation characteristics.

These characteristics may be described as follows:

I Both the rotational stiffness and the moment resistance are small and may reasonably be neglected, leading to the concept of
a pinned or hinged connection. Only vertical shear is required to be transferred, with the value being equal to the beam
end reaction necessary to resist the beam loading.
II Behaviour intermediate between characteristics I and III, in which the connections possess a finite moment resistance
less than the full moment resistance of the beam and a rotational stiffness that permits some relative rotation. (Such
connections are usually both semi-rigid and partial strength. However it is possible to have connections that are full-
strength and semi-rigid or fully-rigid but only partial strength.)
III The rotational stiffness is very high and the connection's moment resistance is at least that of the beam. Continuity is
thus preserved with no rotation of the beam relative to the column; both the beam end reaction and its end moment
are transferred to the column.
All three possibilities can be applied in multi-storey frames. Type III can be applied in both braced and unbraced frames;
Type I is only suitable for braced frames. Type II may be used for both braced and unbraced frames, but in the latter case
the influence of connection flexibility on frame behaviour needs to be considered. Figure 5 gives the schematization
of rotational stiffness for the frame analysis.
Eurocode 3 [1] provides design rules for both the rotational stiffness and the moment resistance.
M-φ curves as measured in tests are in general non-linear. Another phenomenon is that stiff connections have sometimes a
low moment resistance and vice versa. Some examples are shown in Figure 6. M-φ curve E is characteristic for some types
of bolted connections in clearance holes. At small moments, slip causes a rotation before a higher moment is obtained.
For practical application, it is necessary to idealise the M-φ curves. For design a non-linear idealisation or linear
idealisations like the bi-linear or tri-linear ones in Figure 7 may be used.

Eurocode 3 [1] gives a classification on the basis of strength and stiffness.
For strength, the following classes can be distinguished:
nominally pinned MRd ≤ 0,25 Mpl.Rd

partial-strength 0,25 Mpl.Rd < MRd < Mpl.Rd
full-strength MRd ≥ Mpl.Rd
full-strength if rotation capacity is not MRd ≥ 1,2 Mpl.Rd
checked
where
MRd is the design moment resistance of the connection
Mpl.Rd is the design strength of the beam (full plastic moment).
This classification on strength is applicable if the structure is analysed using the theory of plasticity. In a full-
strength connection, the plastic hinge is theoretically formed in the beam. In reality however, it is possible that the
yield strength of the beam material may be (considerably) higher than its minimum specified value. Therefore it is possible
that the plastic hinge will form in the connection despite the calculated MRd > Mpl.Rd. In such cases, it is still necessary that
the connection has sufficient rotation capacity to develop the plastic mechanism. Rotation capacity must be proven in all
cases. An upper limit is defined, above which it may be assumed that the plastic hinge is always in the beam (1,2 Mpl.Rd).
For stiffness, the classification is as follows:
nominally pinned Sj ≤ 0,5 EIb/Lb

semi-rigid 0,5 EIb/Lb < Sj < 8 EIb/Lb (braced frames) or 25 EIb/Lb (unbraced frames)
rigid Sj ≥ 8 EIb/Lb (braced frames) or 25 EIb/Lb (unbraced frames)
where
Sj is the (secant) rotational stiffness of the connection
EIb is the bending stiffness of the beam
Lb is the span of the beam (see Figure 5).
Design of pinned connections only involves consideration of shear strength and is covered in Lecture 11.5.
For moment connections both shear resistance and moment resistance must be considered. Rigid and/or full
strength connections are covered in Lecture 11.6.
Design assuming semi-rigid and/or partial-strength behaviour is explained in Lecture 11.7.
4. LOAD TRANSFER
In Section 2 it is indicated that connections should be designed to transfer moments and/or shear forces and/or normal forces,
e.g. the connection in Figure 3. The next step in the analysis is to determine the distribution of forces within the
connection, Figure 8. It is not necessary and often not feasible to determine the real internal distribution of forces. It
is sufficient to assume a realistic distribution, provided that:


● the internal forces are in equilibrium with the applied loading

● each component is capable of resisting the forces
● the deformations implied by the assumed distribution are within the deformation capacity of the fasteners (bolts, welds) and
of the connected parts.
Determining the distribution of forces is the most difficult part of the procedure, because, of necessity, it entails the making
of certain simplifying assumptions about the way the connection "works".
In Lectures 11.4 (Analysis of Connections) this subject is covered in detail.
As already indicated in Lecture 11.1.1, a great variety of connection types and connection forms exist.
To cover the large variety of types and forms of connections, it is useful to apply the concept of a set of basic force
transfers, that can be found in the components of connections. These basic forms are shown in Figure 9. More examples of
the basic force transfers are shown in Figures 10 - 14. For each of these basic force transfers a number of failure modes
are possible. All of these should be checked. The weakest link determines the resistance of the connection to the applied
load. This procedure is illustrated in Figure 15 for the introduction of a tension force in an unreinforced (column) web.







Detailed information on fasteners is given in Lectures 11.2 (Welds) and 11.3 (Bolts), whilst Lectures 11.4 cover the
detailed analysis and design of connections using the basic force transfer concept.
● The principal structural requirement of a connection is that it be capable of safely transferring load from the
supported members to the supporting member.
● The above requirement implies that three properties of the connection needs to be considered: strength, stiffness
and deformation capacity.
● Beam-to-column connections can be classified by their stiffness as nominally pinned, semi-rigid or rigid. For their capability
to transfer moments, they can be classified as nominally pinned, partial-strength and full-strength connections.
● The analysis of connections implies the assumption of a realistic internal distribution of forces that are in equilibrium with
the external forces, where each element is capable of transferring the assumed force and the deformations are within
the deformation capacity of the elements.
● In the analysis of connections, a number of basic load transfers can generally be identified.
6. REFERENCES
[1] Eurocode 3: "Design of steel structures": ENV 1993-1-1: Part 1.1: General rules and rules for buildings, CEN, 1992.
Chapter 6 covers the design of fasteners and of connection components: Annexes J and L deal with the design of beam-
to-column connections and column base connections.
1. Essentials of Eurocode 3, Design manual for steel structures in buildings. ECCS, Publication No 65, Brussels 1991.
Design aid to facilitate the use of Eurocode 3; contains tables and guidelines.
2. Design examples to Eurocode 3
ECCS, Publication No 71, Brussels, 1993
Contains numerous worked examples for the design of bolted and welded connections.
3. Kulak, G. L., Fisher, J. W. and Struik, J. H. A., "Guide to design criteria for bolted and riveted joints". 2nd Edition, John
Wiley & Sons, 1987.
Gives a comprehensive appraisal of bolted joints and reviews in detail methods for design and analysis.
4. Hart, F., Henn, W. and Sontag, H., "Stahlbau Atlas - Gesehossbauten", International Architekture Dorkumentation,
Munich, 1982
This book presents a wide range of practical solutions for connections in steel and composite buildings. It was translated
into four different European languages (French, English, Dutch, Italian).
5. Pask, J. W., "Manual on Connections", Volume 1 - Joints in Simple Connections, BCSA, 1982
Thorough treatment of design of multi-storey frame connections. Proposes a range of standardised connections.
6. Ballio, G. and Mazzolani, F. M., Theory and design of steel structures. Chapman and Hall, London, 1983
Comprehensive text on theory and design of steel structures. Deals extensively with connections.
7. Bijlaard F. S. K. et al, Structural properties of semi-rigid joints in steel frames IABSE publications 1989
Explains how flexibility arises in beam to column connections and presents methods for assessing stiffness and
8. Owens, G. W. and Cheal, B. D., Structural Steelwork Connections, 1stEd, 1989.
Comprehensive coverage of several aspects of connection behaviour and design.
9. Joints in Simple Construction, Volume 1: Design Methods & Volume 2: Practical Applications. SCI/BCSA Publications
205 and 206. SCI/BCSA Publications 205 and 206.
Expands on the more practical aspects of connection design; provides tables to facilitate rigid design in a "look-up" basis.

6 [WG11]
ESDEP WG 11
Lecture 11.2.1: Generalities on Welded

Connections
OBJECTIVE/SCOPE:
To describe the different types of structural welds and give basic information on weld preparation and weld quality.
PREREQUISITES
Lectures 1B.5: Introduction to Design of Buildings
RELATED LECTURES:
SUMMARY:
Mechanical and geometrical characteristics of welds are described. Fundamental principles concerning edge preparation,

6 [WG11]
fit-up, and quality of welds are given.
NOTATION
As% Elongation of steel at failure
a Throat thickness of welds [mm]
fy Nominal yield stress of parent metal [MPa]
fu Nominal ultimate stress of parent metal [MPa]
1. INTRODUCTION
Where there are favourable working conditions, welding is the most economical way to make strong connections.
Therefore, workshop connections are usually welded. Where site connections are necessary (erection) they are usually
bolted, but the connections are often prepared in the workshop with welded plates, etc. necessary for the bolted joint.
Figures 1-3 show some examples on welded connections and the way they carry external loads.

6 [WG11]

6 [WG11]
2. TYPES OF WELDS
In welded construction for buildings approximately 80% of the welds are fillet welds and 15% are butt welds. The
remaining 5% are plug, slot and spot welds.
2.1 Butt Welds
A butt weld is made within the cross-section of the abutting plates in a butt or tee joint. Normally, the plate edges have
to be prepared before welding, see Figure 4b. In some cases, if the plate thickness is less than about 5mm, edge
preparation can be avoided, see Figure 4a.

6 [WG11]
The bevelled plate edges in a butt weld may take various geometrical forms, see Figure 5.

6 [WG11]
For butt welds, a distinction is made between:
● full penetration butt weld in which there is a complete penetration and fusion of weld and parent metal
throughout the thickness of the joint, see Figure 4.
● partial penetration butt weld, in which there is a weld penetration less than the full thickness of the joint, see
Figure 6.

6 [WG11]
2.2 Fillet Welds
A fillet weld is a weld of approximately triangular cross-section applied to the surface profile of the plates. No edge
preparation is needed. Therefore, fillet welds are usually cheaper than butt welds. According to the relative position of
the parts to be welded, there are three types of fillet weld applications:
● lap joint, in which the parts welded are in parallel planes, see Figure 7a.
● tee or cruciform joint, in which the parts welded are more or less perpendicular to one another, see Figure 7b.
● corner joint, in which the parts are also more or less perpendicular to one another, see Figure 7c. To improve the
strength and stiffness of the joint, the outer corner is normally butt welded, see Figure 8.

6 [WG11]
Fillet welds that can be laid in a single run are particularly economic; in the workshop 8mm welds are often possible but
if site welding is to be used this figure may be reduced e.g. to 6mm.
2.3 Plug and Slot Welds
Slot and plug welds, see Figure 9, are seldom used in building structures. They principally prevent buckling or
separation of lapped plates.

6 [WG11]
2.4 Spot Welds
Spot welds are seldom used in building structures. The parts to be joined, which must be thin, are clamped together by
two electrodes, see Figure 10. A current passing through the electrodes melts the pieces locally, and the clamping
pressure forces them together, forming a fused spot. A line of such spots constitutes a joint.

6 [WG11]
3. DESCRIPTION OF WELDS - DEFINITIONS

In this chapter some terms often used in weld design are defined.
● The parent metal or the base metal is the steel material which is welded.
● The filler metal or the weld metal is the electrode material used in the welding process.
Figure 11 shows the terminology used to describe the various parts of the weld:

6 [WG11]
● The root is the point of the joint line reached by the penetration of the filler metal.
● The face is the outside surface of the weld.
● The toe is the line on the weld face between the filler metal and the parent metal.
● The heat affected zone is a part of the parent metal which has not been melted with the filler metal, but which
undergoes fast heating and cooling during the passage of the welding arc. In this zone, the parent metal is subject
to a hardening treatment and can consequently become brittle.
The shape of a fillet welded cross-section can be convex or concave, see Figure 12.

6 [WG11]
For design, two geometrical weld parameters are used:
● The throat thickness, a, is the minimum distance from the root to the weld face ignoring the convex zone. Figure
13 shows the throat thickness a of a butt weld and a fillet weld.
● The length is the longitudinal weld dimension in the direction of the welding arc displacement. Figure 13 shows
welds for which the length l is the full length of the plates; for the lap joint of Figure 2 l would be the sum of
twice the overlapped length plus the width of the smaller plate.

6 [WG11]
4. MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS
4.1 Parent Metal
The parent metal must have the weldability properties defined by the steel qualities of each steel grade. The weldability
of a steel depends on its chemical composition and metallurgical characteristics. These aspects are described in Lecture
2.6.
In accordance with Eurocode 3 [1] and EN 10025 [2], hot-rolled steel grades S235, S275 and S355 with quality B, C or
D are suitable for all welding processes.
The mechanical characteristics adopted in calculations are the yield strength fy and the ultimate tensile strength fu.
Further, in the case of plastic analysis, steel must have an ultimate strain at least 20 times the yield strain and have a

6 [WG11]
minimum elongation As at failure of at least 15%. The values of these characteristics are given in Table 1.
Nominal Thickness t
steel
grade t < 40mm 40 mm < t <
100mm
fy fu As fy fu As
MPa MPa % MPa MPa %
Fe 360 235 360 26 215 340 24
Fe 430 275 430 22 255 410 20
Fe 510 355 510 22 335 490 20
Table 1 - Mechanical properties of hot rolled steels
The steel quality B, C, or D reflects the impact resistance determined by a Charpy-V impact test in which the impact
energy needed to fracture a V-notch specimen with a certain temperature is measured. The quality class indicates if the
steel is suitable for the application. For example, steel quality B, corresponding to an impact test at +20°C, is used for
structures with normal working conditions. The steel quality D (impact test at -20°C) is suitable when factors such as,
for example, low service temperature of the structure, thick steel material and/or impact loading are present.
4.2 Filler metal
According to Eurocode 3 the filler metal must have mechanical properties (yield strength, ultimate tensile strength,
elongation at failure and minimum Charpy V-notch energy value) equal to or better than the values specified for the
steel grade being welded.
The selection of welding consumable is to a great extent governed by the welding process, see Lectures 3.3 and 3.4. The
basic principles are:
● Welding consumables shall be appropriate to the welding process used, the parent metal welded and the welding
procedure adopted.
● Welding consumables must be stored and handled with care and in conformity with the recommendations of the
manufacturer.
● Electrodes for manual arc welding shall be stored in their original containers in a dry and warm place, efficiently
protected from adverse effects of weather.
● Flux shall be stored and transported in containers which protect it from absorbing moisture.
5. EDGE PREPARATION AND FIT-UP

Some important aspects, which are described in detail in Lectures 3.3, 3.4 and 3.5, are summarised here.
One of the following arc welding processes may be used:
● metal arc-welding with covered electrodes

● flux-cored arc welding

6 [WG11]
● submerged arc welding

● MIG (metal inert gas) welding
● MAG (metal active gas) welding.
All these processes can be used in the workshop. Usually, only bolting or metal arc welding with covered electrodes is
employed in the erection phase on the building site. With the metal arc welding process, welds can be made in all
positions. The various weld positions are shown in Figure 14, where the arrows give the arc direction during the welding
operation. It is clear that welding in the flat position is easily carried out, allowing a greater rate of metal deposition than
the other positions;by welding in this favourable position, the maximum size of weld run can be obtained. With ordinary
welding consumables and favourable welding conditions, a fillet weld with a throat thickness of 6mm can be produced
with only one run. For welds of greater thickness, more than one run is necessary. In this case, the welding sequence
must be carefully planned, see Figure 15.

6 [WG11]

6 [WG11]
The welding conditions, particularly the current limitation of the welding equipment, constitute a limit to the depth of
penetration into the parent plate. For example, if a closed butt joint (no gap between the two plates) is welded with one
run on each side, the penetration may not be complete and the central part of the joint will remain unfused (Figure 16a).
With a gap between the two parts of the joint, full penetration can be achieved with the same welding equipment. The
limitation is then set by the thickness of the plates to be joined. In practice, the limit for butt welds with square edges, i.
e. without preparation, is 10mm plate thickness with a 5mm gap. When the plate thickness exceeds this value, bevelled
edges permit full penetration by several runs, see Figure 16b.
Edge preparation consists essentially of cutting and bevelling the edges of the plates which are to be welded. These
operations can be done by thermal cutting, by machining or by chipping or grinding. The resulting surfaces of the
bevelled edges should be smooth, uniform, free from cracks and without rust. If thermal cutting or another process
which hardens the material is used, the approved welding procedure must take account of this weld preparation process.
Different bevel geometries are shown in Figure 3. Practical recommendations, for example Eurocode 3, Annex W (1),
give some tolerance values for various weld types. Finally, before welding, surfaces and edges adjacent to the weld
location must be cleaned to remove oil, grease, paint or any other contaminants, which can affect the quality of the weld
and the weld strength.
The appropriate welding method and procedure are defined in a project specification provided by the designer, see
Lecture 11.5.

6 [WG11]
6. WELD QUALITY - DISCONTINUITIES

Quality control has been for some time an important part of industrial activity. The term quality includes all the
characteristics of a product which affect its ability to serve its purpose. In the lectures of Working Group 3, and
particularly in Lecture 3.4, attention is drawn to quality control applied to welding, including the qualification of firms
and the procedure qualification for welding tests.
Normally, all welded structures undergo some weld inspection. The type and the extent for the inspection, as well as the
choice of welds to be inspected are selected in accordance with the project specification.
The principal purpose of weld inspection is to discover possible weld defects. Examples on weld defects are, see Figure
17:

6 [WG11]
● Undercut. The thickness of the parent metal is reduced near the weld toe.
● Porosity or gas inclusions. Air or gas bubbles are incorporated in the melted metal, where they remain after
cooling.
● Insufficient throat. The throat thickness is smaller than the design thickness. The resistance of the joint might be
insufficient.
● Incomplete penetration. The throat thickness is smaller than the design thickness. The resistance of the joint
might be insufficient.
All these defects can be measured. Codes of Practice specify the allowable tolerances for each defect, see for example
Eurocode 3, Annex W [1].
● Providing the right conditions with respect to welding - particularly fillet welding - normally represents the most
economical way to join two pieces of steel.
● Two types of structural weld - fillet welds and butt welds - are in common use. Wherever possible fillet welds
should be used.
● A number of standard terms are used when referring to welds. Throat thickness and length are the two most
important descriptions for determining load carrying capacity.
● Weld metal (electrodes) and parent metal (the parts to be joined) must be properly matched in terms of their
physical properties.
● For butt welds suitable edge preparations will normally be required.
● Welds must be inspected for possible defects so as to ensure adequate structural performance.
8. REFERENCES
[1] Eurocode 3: "Design of steel structures": ENV 1993-1-1: General rules and rules for buildings, CEN, 1992.
[2] En 10025: European Standard 10025, Hot rolled products of non-alloy structural steels - technical delivery
conditions.
1. Bludgett, O. W., Welded Connections Chapter 3.3 Constructional Steel Design: An International Guide, 1992.
2. Pratt, J. L., Introduction to the Welding of Structural Steelwork, 3rd Revised Edition, 1989.

ESDEP WG 11
CONNECTIONS DESIGN: STATIC LOADING
Lecture 11.2.2: Welded Connections -

Basis for Weld Calculation
OBJECTIVE/SCOPE:
To present the general methods for conducting calculations to determine the strength of butt and fillet
welds.
PREREQUISITES:
Lecture 3.2: Erection
Lecture 11.2.1: Generalities on Welded Connections
RELATED LECTURES:
Lecture 2.6: The Weldability of Structural Steels

SUMMARY:
The bases for the calculation of weld strength are set out. A large part of the lecture deals with the actual
stress distribution and the deformability of fillet and butt welds. Some experimental results are presented
to show the relevance of the design formulae.
NOTATION
a throat thickness of weld [mm]
F external force [N]
Fσ⊥ normal force perpendicular to the plane of the throat area of the weld [N]
Fτ⊥ shear force in the plane of the throat area transverse to the weld axis [N]
F shear force in the plane of the throat area parallel to the weld axis [N]
τ//
fu nominal ultimate tensile stress of parent metal [MPa]
fvw design shear strength of weld [MPa]
Lj length of lap joint [mm]
Lw length of weld (in long joint) [m]
l length of weld [mm]
βw correlation factor
βLW reduction factor for long weld
γMW partial safety factor for welds
σ1 normal stress perpendicular to the plane of the throat area of the weld [MPa]
σ2 normal stress parallel to the axis of the weld [MPa]

σeq equivalent stress [MPa]
τ1 shear stress in the plane of the throat area transverse to the weld axis [MPa]
τ2 shear stress in the plane of the throat area parallel to the weld axis [MPa]
1. INTRODUCTION
The purpose of this lecture is to present the basis for weld strength calculation according to Eurocode 3
[1], to discuss the assumptions on which the methods are based and to examine the general methods used
to determine stresses in welds. In practice, weld calculations are principally concerned with fillet welds
since these account for approximately 80% of all structural welds. For this reason the lecture concentrates
on fillet welds and gives less attention to other weld types (butt, slot, plug).
For weld design, three fundamental assumptions are made [2]:
● The welds are homogeneous and isotropic elements.

● The parts connected by the welds are rigid and their deformations are negligible.
● Only nominal stresses due to external loads are considered. Effects of residual stresses, stress
concentrations and shape of the welds are neglected in static design.
These assumptions lead to a uniform stress distribution in the weld, whereas variation of stress and strain
are observed along the weld. In fact, stress concentrations and residual stresses can reach the yield stress
locally. However, the ductility of the material leads to a redistribution of stresses along the weld length,
producing an appreciable reduction of stress magnitude. The redistribution also occurs when the weld is
subject to the action of external loads. According to the theory of plasticity, the final stress distribution
will be optimum when the yield stress is reached over the full length of the weld.
Eurocode 3 [1] specifies that the filler metal shall have mechanical properties (yield strength, ultimate
tensile strength, elongation at failure and minimum Charpy V-notch energy value) equal to, or better than,
the corresponding properties of the parent material. Therefore, for weld calculation and design, the
strength of the parent material is normally taken as the reference strength.
Although fillet welds are the more important case, butt welds are treated first since the design
requirements are simpler.
2. BUTT WELD CALCULATION

Providing the welding process has been correctly carried out, the butt weld filler metal may be considered
as parent metal. Hence, to determine the resistance of the joint, the calculation is based on the throat area, i.
e. the penetration area. Depending on the penetration, two kinds of butt welds are defined: full and partial
penetration welds.
2.1 Full Penetration Butt Welds

For a full penetration butt weld, calculation is not necessary because the filler metal strength is at least as
high as the parent metal strength of the weaker part joined and the throat thickness of the weld is equal to
the thickness of the plate, see Figure 1. Thus the butt weld may effectively be regarded simply as replacing
the parent material.
2.2 Partial Penetration Butt Welds
For a partial penetration butt weld, the throat thickness considered in the design is the depth of preparation,
slightly reduced. According to Eurocode 3 [1], the throat thickness must be taken as the depth of the butt
preparation minus 2mm, where the preparation is the depth of the bevel, see Figure 2. However, if
appropriate procedure trials have been made, the throat thickness can be taken as equal to the preparation.

A partial penetration tee-butt joint with superimposed fillet welds may be considered as a full penetration
butt weld, if the total throat thickness is greater than the material thickness and the gap dimension meets
certain conditions (Figure 3).

2.3 Stress Distribution in Butt Welds
As already pointed out, in weld calculation a uniform stress distribution along the weld length is assumed.
In the ultimate state a plastic redistribution of stresses makes this assumption more or less true. In the
elastic stage, which is of interest in fatigue design, the stresses are not uniformly distributed, especially not
when the filler metal yield point is much higher than that of the parent metal. For example, consider a bar
loaded by an axial tensile force as shown in Figure 4. The bar will elongate and, due to the Poisson's ratio
effect, its initial width will decrease. This lateral contraction is uniform if the bar is homogeneous. But
near the weld line, which has a different yield point, the lateral contraction is less than in the parent metal.
This effect causes a varying stress distribution along the weld (Figure 4), in which the tensile stress at the
centre is greater than the average stress.

It is good engineering practice to avoid high stress concentrations occurring at sharp re-entrant corners in
joints connecting different cross-sections. Avoiding stress concentrations is especially important if the
connection will be subject to fatigue loads. To reduce the stress concentration, a gradual transition from
one section to the other is recommended (Figure 5). These aspects are also discussed in the lecture on
fatigue design and in Lecture 3.5 and Lecture 3.6 concerning fabrication and erection of steel structures.

3. FILLET WELD CALCULATION
3.1 Assumptions
The assumptions adopted for fillet weld calculations according to Eurocode 3 [1] concern mechanical and
geometric characteristics. As already pointed out, the mechanical properties of the filler metal shall be

compatible with the parent material properties. The throat area of a fillet weld considered in the calculation
is shown in Figure 6. This throat area is the product of the throat thickness and the effective length of the
weld. Generally, the effective length of a fillet weld is equal to the overall length of the full size fillet,
including end returns, if the fillet weld is continuous. For long welds and intermittent welds, the effective
length may be reduced.
Fillet welds required to carry loads are normally produced with a throat thickness of at least 4mm. Welds
with effective lengths shorter than 40mm or 6 times the throat thickness, whichever is larger, should be
ignored for transmission of forces.
3.2 Basic Method

The basic method for the design of fillet welds is described here. It is given in Eurocode 3, Annex M [1] as
an alternative design method.
The load acting on the fillet weld is resolved into load components parallel and transverse to the
longitudinal axis of the weld and normal and transverse to the plan of its throat (see Figure 6). The
corresponding stresses are calculated:
σ1 = Fσ⊥/al is the normal stress perpendicular to the plane of the throat area.
τ1 = Fτ⊥/al is the shear stress in the plane of the throat area, transverse to the weld axis.
τ2 = F ///al is the shear stress in the plane of the throat area, parallel to the weld axis.
τ
σ2 is the normal stress parallel to the weld axis.
The normal stress σ2 is not considered because the cross-section of the weld is very small and has
negligible strength in comparison with the strength of the throat area subjected to the shear stress
component τ2.
Application of the von Mises criterion to these stress components gives the equivalent stress σeq in the
throat area of the weld:
σeq = √[σ12 + 3(τ12 + τ22)] (1)
Eurocode 3, Annex M [1] specifies that the fillet weld will be adequate if both the following conditions are
satisfied:
σeq ≤ fu/(βwγMw) (2)
and σ1 ≤ fu/γMw
where
fu is the nominal ultimate tensile strength of the weaker part joined.
γMw is the partial safety factor for welds (= 1,25).
The value of the correlation factor βw should be taken as follows:

EN10025 Ultimate Correlation

Steel Grade tensile strength factor βw
fu
S235 360 N/mm2 0,8
S275 430 N/mm2 0,85
S355 510 N/mm2 0,9
For intermediate values of fu the value of βw may be determined by linear interpolation.
3.3 Mean Stress Method
Eurocode 3 gives, in the main text, a simplified design formula which does not require determination of
the stress components in the weld. The formula is based on the mean stress method which considers the
weld strength as being equal to the shear strength, independent of the direction of the force acting on it.
Since the weld is weakest in pure shear the mean stress method always gives results on the safe side.
The fillet welds must satisfy:
F/a1 ≤ fvw = fu/[√3.βwγMw](3)
where
F is the external force acting on the weld.
fvw is the design shear strength of the weld.
3.4 Long welds
Figure 7 indicates the stress distribution for long welds in a lap joint. The distribution is analogous to that
observed in long riveted or bolted joints (see Lectures 11.3). Large stresses occur at the ends of the
connection. In the ultimate state, just before failure, the plastic deformation near the ends contributes to a
more uniform shear stress in the welds. However, if the connection is long the stress redistribution will not
be fully uniform.

Eurocode 3 specifies that the design resistance for a long weld in a lap joint shall be multiplied by a
reduction factor βlw to allow for the effects of non-uniform stress distribution. If the lap joint is longer than
150a
βLW = 1,2 - ≤1
where
Lj is the overall length of the lap in the direction of the force transfer.
For fillet welds longer than 1,7 metres connecting transverse stiffeners in plated members
βLW = 1,1 -
but 0,6 ≤ βLW ≤ 1,0
where
Lw is the length of the weld (in metres)
4. SLOT AND PLUG WELD CALCULATION

The strength of slot and plug welds is calculated with the mean stress method as for fillet welds. In the
calculation, the effective area of the slot or plug weld is taken as the area of the slot or hole.
● The basis for calculating the strength of welds is given.

● It is noted that residual stresses and stress concentrations are neglected since there is a considerable
stress redistribution in the ultimate state. For long welds in lap joints, however, a non-uniform
stress distribution is taken into consideration.
● Generally, butt welds require no calculations for design. Calculation is only required in the case of
partial penetration welds.
● Following Eurocode 3, a mean stress method as well as an alternative method (Annex M) are given
for fillet weld design. The mean stress method does not require calculation of individual stress
comments in the welds but generally leads to more conservative results.
6. REFERENCES
[1] Eurocode 3: "Design of steel structures": ENV 1993-1-1: Part 1: General rules and rules for buildings,
CEN, 1992.
[2] Bresler, B., Lim, T. Y., Scalzi, J. B., Design of steel structures, 2nd Edition, 1968.
1. Owens, G. W. and Cheal, B. D., Structural Steelwork Connections, 1st Edition, 1989.
2. Bludgett, O.W., 'Design of welded structures', James F Lincoln Arc Welding Foundation,
Cleveland, Ohio, USA, 1972.

ESDEP WG 11
Lecture 11.2.3: Welded Connections -

Applications of Fillet
Weld Calculation
OBJECTIVE/SCOPE
To use the design methods given in Eurocode 3 for fillet welds.
PREREQUISITES
Lecture 3.2: Erection
RELATED LECTURES:

Lectures 11.2.1 & 11.2.2: Other lectures on Welded Connections
SUMMARY
This lecture illustrates the design of fillet welds subject to loads of different directions. A comparison is made
between the mean stress method and the alternative method in Eurocode 3 [1].
NOTATION
A cross-section area of plate [mm2]
a throat thickness of weld [mm]
b width of flange [mm]
beff effective breadth [mm]
F external load [N]
fy, fyp nominal yield stress of parent metal [MPa]
fu nominal ultimate tensile stress of parent metal [MPa]
fvw design shear strength of weld metal [MPa]
l, l2 length of fillet welds [mm]
r radius of fillet in rolled sections [mm]
t, tp thickness of plate [mm]
tf thickness of flange [mm]
tw thickness of web [mm]
βw reduction factor
γMw partial safety factor for welds
γM2 partial safety factor for parent material

σ1 normal stress perpendicular to the throat area of the weld [MPa]
τ1 shear stress in the plane of the throat area transverse to the weld axis [MPa]
τ2 shear stress in the plane of the throat area parallel to the weld axis [MPa]
1. INTRODUCTION
Lecture 11.2.2 sets out the two methods proposed in Eurocode 3 [1] for designing fillet welds, the mean stress
method and the alternative method.
The mean stress method (Eurocode 3 - Clause 6.6.5.3) is a simplification of the alternative method. The
welds, must satisfy
F/al ≤ fvw = fu/[√3.βwγMw] (1)
where
F is the external force (independent of orientation) transmitted by the fillet welds
a is the throat thickness
l is the length of the weld
fvw is the design shear strength of the weld.
The alternative method (Eurocode 3, Annex M) requires a calculation of the different stress components in the
weld to determine an equivalent stress. The following conditions must be satisfied:
√[σ12 + 3(τ12 + τ22)] ≤ fu/[βwγMw] (2)
and σ1 ≤ fu/γMw (3)
where
σ1, τ1, and τ2 are the tensile and shear stress components (see Figure 1) applied to the throat area of the weld

fu is the nominal ultimate tensile strength of the weaker part joined
γMw is the partial safety factor for welds = 1,25
βw is the correlation factor for which the values are:
βw = 0,8 for S235 steel, (fu = 360MPa)

A comparison of designs produced by the two methods follows.
2. SIDE FILLET WELDS

Side fillet welds transfer an axial force F applied in a direction parallel to the weld length. Consider a lap joint
with two side fillet welds (Figure 2). Each weld transmits the force .
Condition (1) gives F/(2al) ≤ fu/[√3.βwγMw]
Hence, the throat thickness must satisfy
a ≥ (√3/2)F/(ful).βwγMw (4)
With this axial force, only the stress component τ2 is considered:
τ2 =

σ1 = τ1 = 0
Condition (2) gives
√(3τ22) = √3F/(2al) ≤ fu/(βwγMw)
and the minimum throat thickness is:
a ≥ (√3/2)Fy/(ful).βwγMw
Condition (3) need not be considered here (σ1 = 0). For side welds, the two methods lead to the same result
for the throat area of the welds.
The connection can be designed by comparison to be as strong as the connected member. For this purpose it is
not necessary to determine the magnitude of the force acting on the connection.
In the case of two side fillet welds transferring an axial force, the following condition for equal strength can
be set:
2alfu/(√3.βwγMw) ≥ A fy
or
a ≥ √3Afy/(2lfu).βwγMw (5)
where
A is the cross-section area of the connected member
fy is the nominal yield strength of the member
3. END FILLET WELDS

End fillet welds transfer an axial force applied in a direction perpendicular to the weld length. Consider a tee
joint with two end fillet welds (Figure 3). Each weld transmits the force .

Condition (1) gives
F/(2al) ≤ fu/(√3.βwγMw)
and a ≥ √3F/(2lfu).βwγMw (6)
Only the stress components σ1 and τ1 are determined in the throat area of the weld.
σ1 = τ1 =
τ2 = 0
Using condition (2)
√[σ12 + 3τ12] ≤ fu/[βwγMw]
then

The minimum throat thickness for each weld is:
a ≥ (√2/2)(F/ful)[βwγMw] (7)
Condition (3) σ1 = F/(2√2al) ≤ fu/γMw
gives a ≥ Fx/(2√2ful).γMw (7')
Comparison of (7) and (7') shows that the throat thickness given by (7) governs the choice of weld dimensions.
For end welds, the alternative method is more advantageous than the mean stress method. The reduction of the
throat thickness is = 0,82.
From (7) and (4) the equivalent strength for an end fillet weld few and a side fillet weld fsw according to the
alternative method can easily be deduced. These values as well as condition (8) for different steel grades are
given in Table 1.
S235 S275 S355
few [N/mm2] 255 286 321

(end fillets)
a≥ a≥ a≥
equal 0,46 0,48 0,55
strength with t t t
two welds
fsw [N/mm2] 208 234 262

(side fillets)
Table 1 Equivalent strength for end and side fillet welds for different steel grades
In the case of two end fillet welds transferring a force perpendicular to the weld length, the following
condition for equal strength applies (the alternative method):
2alfu /(√2βwγMw) ≥ t l fy

or
a ≥ (√2/2)(tfy/fu).βw γMw (8)
where
t is the thickness of the connected member.
4. OBLIQUE LOADING
The two loading conditions described in chapters 2 and 3 occur frequently. A fillet weld may also be subject
to oblique loading. Figure 4 shows some cases of oblique loaded welds.

Using the mean stress method, the design of oblique loaded welds is very simple. With the alternative method
the design is made as follows:
1. The load is resolved into components parallel and transverse to the longitudinal axis of the weld and
normal and transverse to the plane of its throat, see Figure 1.
2. The stress components σ1, τ1, and τ2 due to each load component are calculated.
3. Stress components of each kind are introduced into the basic formula (2).
Figure 5 shows the relation between the calculated required throat thickness according to the alternative and
the mean stress method for a tee-joint subject to an oblique load.

5. LOAD-DEFORMATION BEHAVIOUR
The load-deformation behaviour of fillet welds is illustrated in Figure 6. It is clear that an end fillet weld is
considerably stronger than a side fillet weld. The difference is actually larger than one would expect from the
calculation methods described here. One reason is that the failure plane for an end fillet weld differs from the
theoretical throat plane, resulting in a larger failure area of the weld. The failure plane for a side fillet weld,
however, is closer to the throat plane.

Figure 6 also shows that the ductility of an axially loaded weld is much larger than a weld loaded in the
transverse direction.
6. WELD TO UNSTIFFENED FLANGES

If a plate is welded to an unstiffened flange of an I- or a box section, loading will tend to deform the flange or
the box side unequally along the breadth. The result is that the parts of the weld near the web will be more
heavily loaded than the other parts, see Figure 7. Therefore a reduced effective breadth shall be taken into

account both for the parent material and for the welds.

For an I-section the effective breadth beff should be taken as:
beff = tw + 2r + 7 tf (9)
but
beff = tw + 2r + 7 (10)
where
the geometrical parameters tw, r, tf and tp are shown in Figure 7.
fy is the design yield strength of the member
fyp is the design yield strength of the plate.
If beff < 0,7 b the joint should be stiffened.
For a box section the effective breadth beff should be taken as:
beff = 2tw + 5tf (11)
but
beff ≤ 2tw + 5 (12)
7. BASE METAL CHECKING

Whatever weld design method is used it is also necessary to ascertain that the base metal of the connected
parts has sufficient resistance. To check the base metal three possible failures have to be considered, see
Figure 8:

● Tensile failure in member 1 (path 1-1)

● Tensile failure in member 2 (path 2-2)
● Failure in member 2, along the line 3-3, with tensile failure (path b-c) and shearing rupture (paths a-b
and c-d). In this case, the total resistance can be taken as the sum of the ultimate strength of each
individual path.
{2l1/√3 + l2}t2fu2 /γM2 ≥ fu2 (13)
where
t2 is the thickness of member 2
fu2 is the ultimate deign strength of member 2
γM2 is the partial safety factor against ultimate = 1,25.
Note that tensile failure in the members need not be checked again in the design of the connection. The
previous design of the members satisfies the strength requirements.
● Eurocode 3 proposes two methods for the design of fillet welds. The alternative method in Annex M is
the more economical but involves more calculations. The calculation steps are:
i) determination of the load components acting on the throat section of the fillet welds,
ii) calculation of the corresponding stress components,
iii) checking with the basic formula.

● End fillet welds are much stronger than side fillet welds but their ductility is less.
● Both the basic and the alternative methods may be used for welds loaded obliquely.
● For attachments to unstiffened flanges of members, concentration of load transfer in the stiffer regions
may be allowed for by using an effective breadth of weld.
● The possibility of tensile failure in the base metal of the connected parts should always be checked.
9. REFERENCES
[1] Eurocode 3: "Design of Steel Structures": ENV 1993-1-1: Part 1: General rules and rules for buildings,
CEN, 1992.

[1] Blodgett, O.W., "Design of welded structures", James F Lincoln Arc Welding Foundation, Cleveland,
Ohio, USA, 1972.
[2] Owens, G.W. and Cheal, B.D., Structural Steelwork Connections, 1st Ed., 1989.

ESDEP WG 11
Lecture 11.3.1: Connections with

Non-Preloaded Bolts
OBJECTIVE
To present the basic ideas of the design of connections using ordinary (non-preloaded) bolts.
PREREQUISITES
RELATED LECTURES
Lectures 11.3: Other lectures on the Design of Bolted Connections
Lecture 12.6: Fatigue Behaviour of Bolted Connections
SUMMARY
This lecture presents the geometrical and mechanical properties of ordinary bolts and describes their behaviour in shear,
tension or combined shear and tension.
The effects of the position of the bolts in a connection and of their dimensions on the potential failure modes are also discussed.
NOTATION
A Area of the shank - nominal area [mm2]
As Stress area [mm2]
d Nominal diameter of the bolt (shank) [mm]
do Nominal diameter of the hole [mm]
ds Diameter of the stress area (As) [mm]
e1 End distance [mm]

e2 Edge distance [mm]
F Applied load [N]
Fv Shear force [N]
Fv,Rd Design shear resistance of a bolt [N]
Ft Tensile force [N]
Ft,Rd Design tension resistance of a bolt [N]
Fb.Rd Design bearing resistance [N]
fu Ultimate tensile strength of a steel element [MPa]
fu,b Nominal ultimate stress of the bolt material [MPa]
fy,b Nominal yield stress of the bolt material [MPa]
p1, p2 Pitches [mm]
t Plate thickness [mm]
γMb Partial safety factor for the bolt [-]
1. INTRODUCTION
The resistance of a bolted connection is normally determined on the basis of the resistance of the individual fasteners and
the connected parts.
Linear-elastic analysis is most frequently used in the design of the connection. Alternatively non-linear analysis of
the connection may be employed, provided that it takes account of the load-deformation characteristics of all the
components of the connection. Further information about analysis of connections is given in Lectures 11.4.
The present lecture concentrates on the most common type of bolt, the non- preloaded bolt, often called an "ordinary bolt". It
is popular because of its low cost both to buy and to install. Connections made with this type of bolt are often referred to
as "bearing-type" so as to distinguish them from the slip resistant connections that employ preloaded bolts.
Where a joint loaded in shear is subject to impact or significant vibration, welding or bolts with locking devices,
preloaded bolts or other types of bolt which effectively prevent movement should be used.
Where slip is not acceptable in a joint subject to reversal of shear load (or for any other reason), preloaded bolts in a
slip-resistant connection, fitted bolts, injection bolts or other bolts with the same effect should be used, see Lectures 11.3.2
and 11.3.3.
For wind and/or stability bracing, bolts in bearing-type connections may normally be used.
2. PRINCIPLE OF LOAD TRANSMISSION

In structural connections, bolts are used to transfer loads from one plate to another. The following figures give some
examples where bolts are used, loaded by:
a. Shear force (Figure 1)

The load is transmitted into and out of the bolts by bearing on the connected plates. The forces in the bolts are transmitted
by transverse shear.
b. Tension force (Figure 2, only M)

In the case of moment loading (M) only, the tension part of the load is transmitted by axial tension in the bolt.
c. Combined tension and shear force (Figure 2, M and V)
In the case of combined moment (M) and transverse loading (V), the bolts may be required to transmit a combination
of transverse shear and axial tension.
In Figure 3, the bolts A transmit transverse shear, while the bolts B transmit a combination of shear and tension or shear
and compression.

Bolts that are not preloaded to a predetermined preload, may be called "non-preloaded bolts" or "ordinary bolts". In case of
a shear connection (Figure 1), these bolts are also called "bearing type" bolts.
The principal action on a bolt in a splice joint of the type shown in Figure 4 is shearing on its cross-sectional plane caused
by bearing between opposing plates in the joint. The elastic distribution of these bearing stresses and the stresses produced
in the bolt are complex. However, for fully developed plastic conditions, the distribution of shear stress is effectively

uniform so that the shear strength is the product of the cross-section area of the bolt in the shear plane and the shear strength
of the material.
If threads are excluded from the shear plane, the shank area may be used. Otherwise the stress area of the threaded
portion should be used. In modern detailing practice it is common to use the smaller area and not to contrive to exclude
the threads from the shear plane.
3. DIMENSIONS OF THE BOLTS

Hexagon headed bolts and nuts are available in a range of sizes up to about 68 mm shank diameter.
The bolt sizes are indicated by the designation M followed by a number multiplied by another number, for example, M 20 x
60, where the diameter of the shank is 20 mm and the length of the shank + the threaded part is 60 mm. The M stands
for metric.
The length of the bolt should be such that, after allowing for tolerances, the threaded shank will protrude not less than
one thread beyond the nut after tightening and at least one full thread (in addition to the thread run-out) will remain
clear between the nut and the unthreaded part of the shank.
4. BOLT GRADES
Bolts and nuts are available in steels of minimum tensile strengths up to about 1370 MPa.
The grade of the bolts is indicated by two numbers. The most common grades are 4.6, 5.6, 6.5, 6.8, 8.8 and 10.9.
According to Eurocode 3 (2), the design yield stress fyb and the design ultimate stress fub of the usual bolts are as given
in Table 1.
Table 1: Mechanical properties of bolts

Grade 4.6 5.6 6.5 6.8 8.8 10.9
fyb (MPa) 240 300 300 480 640 900
fub (MPa) 400 500 600 600 800 1000
The design yield stress fyb can be derived from the grade by multiplying the first number by the second number times 10.
The design ultimate stress fub is the first number times 100 (stresses in MPa).
Bolts of grade 8.8 are used most frequently.
5. DIAMETER OF THE HOLES

Because of the tolerances in the positioning of holes and the tolerances of the bolt diameter (d) and the hole diameter (db),
a clearance is necessary (Figure 4).
For bearing-type connections, this clearance may cause slip of the plates when they are loaded.
In the case of alternating loading, this movement may occur at each loading reversal. Normally, such movement is
not permitted.
Except for fitted bolts or where low-clearance or oversize holes are specified, the nominal clearance in standard holes shall be:
● 1mm for M12 and M14 bolts

● 2mm for M16 to M24 bolts
● 3mm for M27 and larger bolts.
Holes with smaller clearances than standard holes may be specified.
Holes with 2mm nominal clearance may also be specified for M12 and M14 bolts, provided that the design meets the
following requirements:
● for bolts of strength grade 4.8, 5.8, 6.8 or 10.9, the design shear resistance Fv,Rd is taken as 0,85 times the value given
in formulae (3) to (5).
● the design shear resistance Fv,Rd (reduced as above if applicable) is not less than the design bearing resistance Fb,Rd.
Holes will be formed by drilling or punching. Punching holes in steelwork is much faster than drilling but some cracking
may appear in the material and therefore, in some cases, holes will not be punched full size but must be punched 2mm
diameter less than full size and then reamed. New punching machines which operate at high speeds induce less distortion in
the material, and it is expected that more punching will be allowed in the future.
If there is no specification, punching is allowed for material up to 25mm in thickness provided that the hole diameter is not
less than the thickness of the material.
Burrs should be removed from holes before assembly except that, where holes are drilled in one operation through
parts clamped together which would not otherwise be separated after drilling, they need to be separated to remove the burrs.
6. NOMINAL AND STRESS SECTIONS OF A BOLT

Bolts in structural steelwork must comply with ISO 898/1 (1).
Figure 5 defines the various diameters of such bolts. the area of the shank that is used in design formulae is called the
shank area A :

A = πd2/4 (1)
the area of the threaded part that is used in design formulae is called the stress area As:
As = πds2 /4 (2)
The stress diameter ds is somewhat larger than the diameter of the core, because of the fact that a rupture plane always
includes at least one thread.
ds is the mean value between the core diameter (dc) and the flank diameter (df) of the thread; the flank diameter is the
mean value between the core diameter and the nominal diameter (d):
df =
ds =
The value of As for common bolt diameters is given in Table 2.
Table 2: Stress area of bolts
Nominal diameter Nominal area Stress area
db A As
(mm) (mm2) (mm2)

8 50,3 36,6
10 78,5 58,0
12 113 84,3
14 154 115
16 201 157
18 254 192
20 314 245
22 380 303
24 452 353
27 573 459
30 707 561
7. SHEAR RESISTANCE
7.1 Normal Joints
Shearing tests on bolts have shown the shear strength to be about 60% of the tensile strength. The effective shear strength
of bolts in joints is reduced by secondary bending actions caused by uneven bearing of the plates and by bending of the
bolt due to excessive hole clearance. The reduction increases with the length of the bolt for a given diameter. It is
particularly significant in lap joints with a single bolt, where the loading tends to straighten out the joint and rotate the bolt
as shown in Figure 6, causing both shear and tension in the bolt and local bending stresses under the head and the nut.
The reduction in shear resistance of a single fastener may be about 10%. Increasing the length of the joint, i.e. the number
of bolts, reduces the bending and hence the loss of shear resistance.

The local bending stresses under the head and the nut in the single bolted connection of Figure 6 may give poor performance
in the case of fatigue loading.
The design shear resistance of a bolt (Fv.Rd) in normal conditions, per shear plane, is:
(a) For the shear plane passing through the threaded portion of the bolt:
Fv,Rd = 0,6fubAs/γMb (3)
for strength grades 4.6, 5.6 and 8.8
Fv,Rd = 0,5fubAs/γMb (4)
for strength grades 4.8, 5.8, 6.8 and 10.9
The coefficient 0,5 is the result of a statistical evaluation based on a very large number of test results. It appears that bolts
of these grades are less ductile and that the rupture occurs suddenly.
(b) For the shear plane passing through the unthreaded portion of the bolt:
Fv,Rd = 0,6fubA/γMb (5)
7.2 Long Joints
The distribution of load between the bolts in a joint when the hole clearance has been taken up depends on the length,
the relative cross-sectional areas of the joined plates, the bolt pitch and the shear deformation capacity of the bolts and
their immediately surrounding plate (fastener flexibility).
Figure 7 shows the distribution of loads between the bolts in a long joint. The loads transferred through the outer bolts (1 and
9 in the Figure) are greater than those through bolts towards the centre of the joint. If the total area of the cover plates
exceeds that of the centre plate the distribution will not be symmetrical, and bolt 1 will transfer more load than any other.

When the fasteners yield, their flexibility increases causing a more uniform sharing of the load (the broken line in Figure
7). However, for long steelwork joints of normal proportions this behaviour will be insufficient to produce an equal
load distribution. This the end-bolts will reach their deformation limit and so fail before the remaining ones have been
fully loaded. This will result in progressive failure at an average shear value per bolt below the single-bolt shear
resistance. Tests have confirmed that joint length, rather than the number of bolts, is the dominant parameter [3].

Where the distance Lj between the centres of the end fasteners in a joint, measured in the direction of the transfer of force
(see Figure 8), is more than 15d, (where d is the nominal diameter of the bolts) the design shear resistance of all the
fasteners shall be reduced by multiplying it by a reduction factor βLf, given by:
βLf = 1 -
but βLf ≤ 1,0 and βLf ≥ 0,75.
This provision does not apply where there is a uniform distribution of force transfer over the length of the joint, e.g. the
transfer of shear force from the web of a section to the flange.

8. BEARING RESISTANCE
Yielding due to pressure between the bolt shank and plate material may result in excessive deformation of the plate around
the bolt hole and possibly some distortion of the bolt.
The area resisting the bearing pressure is assumed to be the product of the plate thickness and the nominal bolt diameter.
The distance (e1) of the bolt from the end of the plate must be sufficient to provide adequate resistance to the shearing-
out mode of failure shown in Figure 9, which is governed by the area of the shear path.
The presence of threads in the grip does not significantly affect the bearing resistance but will cause some increase of

the deformation.
If the shear resistance is greater than the bearing resistance of the plates, one of the failure modes shown in Figure 9 will
occur. In this case, the deformation capacity of the connection is very large. The joint has a "ductile" behaviour.
In the other case, when the failure is due to the shearing of the bolts, the deformation capacity of the connection is very
small and the joint has a "brittle" behaviour.
The design bearing resistance of a bolt [4] is given by:
Fb.Rd = 2,5αfudt/γMb (6)
where α is the smallest of:
or 1,0
This reduction coefficient α is necessary, because when the end distance is short, the capacity of deformation is small.
If the net section of the member is small, net section rupture may govern the failure load of the connection (Figure 9).
Equation (6) for the design bearing resistance applies only where the edge distance e2 is not less than 1,5 do and the spacing
p2 (Figure 12) measured transverse to the load direction is at least 3,0 do.

If e2 is reduced to 1,2 do and/or p2 is reduced to 2,4 do, then the bearing resistance Fb.Rd should be reduced to 2/3 of the
value given by Equation (6). For intermediate values 1,2 do < e2 ≤ 1,5 do and/or 2,4 do ≤ 3 do the value of Fb.Rd may
be determined by linear interpolation.
9. TENSION RESISTANCE
Axial tension resistance of a bolt is based on the stress area As and is given by:
Ft = fu,b . As
As a result of statistical evaluation based on a very large number of tests, the following formula should be adopted:
Ft = 0,9 . fu,b . As
The design tension resistance of a bolt is given by:
Ft.Rd = 0,9fubAs/γMb (7)
Generally, when the line of action of the applied force is eccentric to the axis of the bolt, additional tension will be induced
in the bolt by prying action.
This action is most easily illustrated in terms of the Tee stub, loaded by a tension force 2F shown in Figure 10. In the
bending of the flanges of the Tee, the bolts act as a pivot point so that there is a compressive reaction (Q) between the
outer edges of the flanges, which is defined as the Prying Force. The tension induced in the bolts, for equilibrium, is thus Fb
= F + Q.

The prying ratio, Q/F, depends upon the geometry and stiffness of the connected parts and the bolt stiffness. An estimate of
the prying ratio, taking full account of all the parameters, goes beyond the scope of this lecture. It will be treated in
Lecture 11.4.
10. BOLTS SUBJECT TO SHEAR AND TENSION

Bolts may be subject to combined shear and tension stresses (Figure 3). Two forces are then acting in the shear plane;
Fv (shear) and Ft (tension).
The interaction between the two forces has been investigated in tests [5] and from the results it has been found that
bolts subject to shear and tensile force must satisfy the following bi-linear relationship.
≤ 1,0
Thus the full tensile resistance is available for values of shear up to almost 30% of the shear capacity Fv.Rd as shown in
Figure 11. This feature is useful when considering situations such as that shown in Figure 2 (M and V) or for bolts B in
Figure 3.

The design resistances Fv,Rd and Ft,Rd for shear and tension through the threaded position are restricted to bolts
manufactured in conformity with the ISO Standard [1, 6]. For other items with cut threads, such as holding-down bolts or
tie rods fabricated from round steel bars where the threads are cut by the steelwork fabricator and not by a specialist
bolt manufacturer, the relevant values should be reduced by multiplying them by a factor of 0,85.
Due to the particular form of the head of a countersunk bolt (see Figure 12) the design tension and bearing resistance of such
a bolt have to be reduced.
11. SPACING REQUIREMENTS
11.1 Basis
The positioning of holes for bolts should be such as to prevent corrosion and local buckling and to facilitate the installation
of the bolts.
The positioning of the holes shall also be in conformity with the limits of validity for the rules used to determine the
design resistances of the bolts with reference to Eurocode 3 (2).
11.2 Connections of plates
11.2.1 Minimum end distance
The end distance e1 from the centre of a fastener hole to the adjacent end of any part, measured in the direction of load
transfer (see Figure 12a), should not be less than 1,2 do, where do is the hole diameter.

The end distance should be increased if necessary to provide adequate bearing resistance, see Section 8.
11.2.2 Minimum edge distance
The edge distance e2 from the centre of a fastener hole to the adjacent edge of any part, measured at right angles to
the direction of load transfer (see Figure 13a), should normally be not less than 1,5 do.

The edge distance may be reduced to not less than 1,2 do provided that the design bearing resistance is reduced accordingly
as given in Section 8.
11.3.3 Maximum end and edge distances
Where the members are exposed to the weather or other corrosive influences, the maximum end or edge distance should
not exceed 40 mm + 4t, where t is the thickness of the thinner outer connected part.
In other cases the end or edge distance should not exceed 12t or 150 mm, whichever is the larger.
The edge distance should also not exceed the maximum to satisfy local buckling requirements for an outstanding element.
This requirement does not apply to fasteners interconnecting the components of back-to-back tension members. The
end distance is not affected by this requirement.
11.2.4 Minimum spacing
The spacing p1 between centres of fasteners in the direction of load (see Figure 13b) should not be less than 2,2 do.
This spacing should be increased if necessary to provide adequate bearing resistance, see Section 8.
The spacing p2 between rows of fasteners, measured perpendicular to the direction of load, (see Figure 13b), should
normally be not less than 3,0 do. This spacing may be reduced to 2,4 do if the design bearing resistance is reduced
accordingly, see Section 8.
11.2.5 Maximum spacing in compression members
The spacing p1 of the fasteners in each row and the spacing p2 between rows of fasteners, should not exceed the lesser of 14t
or 200 mm. Adjacent rows of fasteners may be symmetrically staggered, see Figure 13b.
The centre-to-centre spacing of fasteners should also not exceed the maximum to satisfy local buckling requirements for
an internal element.
11.2.6 Maximum spacing in tension members
In tension members the centre-to-centre spacing p1,i of fasteners in inner rows may be twice that given in Section 10.2.5
for compression in members, provided that the spacing p1,o in the outer row along each edge does not exceed that given
in Section 10.2.5, see Figure 13c.
Both of these values may be multiplied by 1,5 in members not exposed to the weather or other corrosive influences.
11.3 Angles Connected by One Leg
In the case of unsymmetrical or unsymmetrically connected members such as angles connected by one leg, the eccentricity
of fasteners in end connections and the effects of the spacing and edge determine the design resistance.
Angles connected by a single row of bolts in one leg, see Figure 14, may be treated as concentrically loaded and the
design ultimate resistance of the net section determined as follows:

with 1 bolt: Nu,Rd = 2,0(e2 - 0,5do)tfu/γM2
with 2 bolts: Nu,Rd = β3Anetfu/γM2
with 3 or more bolts: Nu,Rd = β3Anetfu/γM2
where β2 and β3 are reduction factors dependant on the pitch p1 as given in Table 3. For intermediate values of p1 the value
of β may be determined by linear interpolation,

and Anet is the net section area of the angle. For an unequal-leg angle connected by its smaller leg, Anet should be taken
as equal to the net section area of an equivalent equal-leg angle of leg size equal to that of the smaller leg.
Table 3 - reduction factors b2 and b3
Pitch p1 ≤ 2,5 do ≥ 5,0 do
2 bolts β2 0,4 0,7
0,5 0,7
3 bolts or more β3

● To design a bolt, it is necessary to always verify which plane is concerned, the shank or the threaded part.
● The shear resistance of a bolt is less when the ratio between yield strength and ultimate tensile strength is larger.
● The bearing resistance of the connected plates depends on the distance between bolts and on the distance between a bolt
and the edge or the end of the plates.
● The tension resistance of a bolt decreases when the line of action of the applied force is eccentric.
● The presence of axial tension reduces the shear resistance and vice versa.
● When angles are connected by one leg, bending occurs in the profile, and the section must be reduced.
12. REFERENCES
[1] ISO 898/1 - International Standard Mechanical Properties of Fasteners.
Part 1: Bolts, screws and studs.
[2] DD ENV 1993-1-1: 1992, Eurocode 3 "Design of Steel Structures".
Part 1: General Rules and Rules for Buildings.
[3] Kulak, G. L., Fisher, J. W. and Struik, J. H., A Guide to Design Criteria for Bolted and Riveted Joints, 2nd ed, 1987, Wiley.
[4] European Recommendations for Bolted Connections in Structural Steelwork. ECCS publication - Document No. 38.
[5] Shakir-Khalil, H and Ho, C. M., Black Bolts under Combined Tension and Shear, The Structural Engineer, 57B, No
4 (1979).
[6] ISO 898/2 - International Standard Mechanical Properties of Fasteners.
Part 2: Nuts with Specified Proof Load Values.

ESDEP WG 11
Lecture 11.3.2: Connections with Preloaded

Bolts
OBJECTIVE/SCOPE:
Introduction to the design of connections using preloaded bolts in shear and/or tension.
PREREQUISITES:
RELATED LECTURES:
Lectures 11.3: Other lectures on Bolted Connections

SUMMARY:
The basic principles of connection design using high-strength preloaded bolts (HSFG bolts) are established. The
load transmission is described for both shear connections and tension connections. The influence of the preload and
the tightening of the bolts are considered.
NOTATION
Nominal diameter of the bolt (shank) [mm]
do Diameter of a hole [mm]
Fv Shear force [N]
Ft Tensile force [N]
Fp Preloading force of a bolt [N]
Fs Slip resistance of a preloaded bolt [N]
Ma Applied torque [Nmm]
k Coefficient of friction between mating surfaces [-]
Θ Rotation [degrees]
µ Slip factor [-]

n Number of friction faces [-]
γms Partial safety factors for a slip resistant bolt [-]
1. INTRODUCTION
When a connection is subject to a load reversal or to dynamic loading, a shear connection which acts by shear stress in the
bolt and bearing stress in the plates, is not acceptable (Lecture 11.3.1). By pretensioning of the bolts, however, a
clamping pressure occurs between the connected parts which enables load to be transferred by frictional resistance. Figure
1 compares the effect of using bearing and preloaded bolts to make-up a double-cover plate butt joint. Until slip occurs
the connection which uses preloaded bolts - usually termed High Strength Friction Grip (HSFG) bolts - is seen to be
much stiffer than that which employs bearing bolts. Once slip occurs the HSFG connection progressively becomes a
bearing one and, after the hole clearance has been taken up, both types of connection behave in a similar way.

In the case of bolts in axial tension, preloading improves the fatigue resistance by reducing the effective stress range.
2. LOAD TRANSMISSION
2.1 Friction Connections
Preloaded bolts exert a compressive stress on the connected plates. The compression gives rise to high frictional
resistance, which enables load to be transferred between the connected parts. When the applied load F in Figure 2 exceeds
the frictional resistance which is developed between the plates, the plates will slip relative to each other allowing the bolt to
act in bearing.

Bolts which transfer load by friction are known as High Strength Friction Grip (HSFG) bolts. Controlled tightening of the
bolts allows the frictional action to be quantified for design.
The main advantages of HSFG bolted connections are their greater stiffness and their ability to withstand alternating
forces. Their behaviour under fatigue loading is also better than that of bearing bolted connections.
Against these advantages are the costs of HSFG bolted connections. The preparation of the friction grip surfaces and
the controlled tightening require additional care (training of people). The costs are greater than for bearing connections. As
a result, HSFG bolted connections are usually used only where the stiffness of the connection is important, where
alternating loading would cause alternating slip, or where fatigue loading is present.
Typically HSFG bolts are used in bridges, cranes and crane girders.
2.2 Tension Connections
Figure 3 gives the relation between the elongation of the bolt and the shortening of the plate assembly due to preloading.
When an external tension force Fe is applied to the connection, the force in the bolt Ft will increase. At the same time
the elongation of the bolt increases, and the shortening of the plate assembly decreases by the same amount. As a result,
the force in the plate assembly decreases. In practice, the stiffness of the plate assembly is about 4 times the stiffness of the bolt.


The relation between the various forces can be illustrated by the "force triangle" in Figure 4. In Figure 4(a) contact is limited
to the central region of the bolted connection. There is no increase in bolt force until separation occurs. In Figure 4(b),
contact is limited to the edges of the bolted connection. Any external tension will increase the bending in the plate
increasing both Fc and ∆Fb. Further explanation is provided in Chapter 17 of Reference 1 and in Reference 2.


The percentage of the force which is transmitted by an increase in the force in the bolts and the other part which reduces
the clamping forces between the plates depends on the elastic behaviour of the connection (see Figure 3). Since the
elastic behaviour is the same, the location of the contact pressure produced by tightening of the bolts is of crucial
importance with regard to bolt fatigue (see Figure 4).
3. PRELOAD IN BOLTS
In order to make practical use of the friction effect, high tensile steel bolts (usually grade 10.9) are used so that an
adequate clamping force can be obtained with reasonably sized bolts. The stress induced in the bolts by the pretensioning is
at, or near, the proof stress.
The design preloading force of a bolt is given by:
Fp.Cd = 0,7 fub . As
where As is the tensile stress area of the bolt (see Lecture 11.3.1) and fub the nominal ultimate stress of the bolt.
4. TIGHTENING BOLTS
Three methods of tightening are available:
a. Torque method
For this method of tightening a calibrated torque wrench is required which may be hand operated or, for bolts of
larger diameters, power operated.
The torque applied to the nut (or the head) is used partly to overcome friction between the nut and the surface against which
it rotates, and partly - approximately half - to drive the threads up the helix, overcoming the friction between the mating
screw surfaces and the resolved component of the axial force.

If the geometry of the screw head and the coefficient of friction between the various mating surfaces were known, it would
be possible to estimate the tension induced by a given torque. The uncertainties concerning distribution of contact
pressures, and the variabilities of coefficients of friction in practice, do not justify the use of anything other than a simple
rule such as:
Ma = k d Fp (1)
where:
Ma is the applied torque (Nmm)
d is the bolt diameter (mm)
Fp is the preload in the bolt (N)
k is the coefficient of friction between mating surfaces
In practice k values have been measured for new bolts which vary between 0,12 and 0,20. For the as - delivered
condition, slightly oiled the ECCS recommendations [3] give k = 0,18 and, for case of the use of the thread
lubricant molybdenum sulphide k = 0,14.
It may be concluded from the above that the scatter in the preloads obtained will be large (Figure 5). If the coefficient k
appears to be very low, there is a danger that the bolt will break. If k is unexpectedly large, then the desired preload will not
be obtained.

Therefore, the torque method is not recommended by the ECCS [3] and Eurocode 3 [4]. If it is applied, then it is
recommended that tests are carried out before erection. Special devices are available ("bolt force metre") to measure the
bolt force as a function of the torque Ma.
b. Turn-of-nut method
This method is based on a predetermined rotation of the nut. The tightening can be achieved in two ways as follows:
● the bolt is first made "hand tight" and then turned further by a specified amount. The contact surfaces must fit snugly before
the bolts are tightened.
● using a percussion wrench, the bolt is first tightened until the plies of the joint achieve a snug fit (when the percussion
wrench goes over to hammering), after which the nut is further turned by the amount:
Θ = 90° + Σ t + d (2)
where:
Θ is the rotation in degrees
Σ t is the total thickness of connected parts in mm
d is the bolt diameter in mm.
The purpose of this method is to rotate the nut sufficiently to take the bolt well into the plastic state (Figure 6a). The
shank tension is then comparatively insensitive to variation in the nut rotation, while a large reserve exists before
rupture occurs.


It should be remembered that the ductility of the bolt largely depends on the length of the threaded portion. Care must be
taken with short bolts which have only a small amount of thread in the grip (5 threads is a minimum).
The danger of overloading (breaking) the bolt in the turn-of-nut method is far less than in the torque method.
Where the plates are not flat and parallel as indicated in Figure 6b, this method has the disadvantage that the preload will not
be reached if the construction worker does not pay enough attention to closing the gaps. A requirement of the method is that
the contact surfaces must fit snugly before the bolts are tightened up.
c. Combined method (the best)
In this method the torque method and the turn-of-nut method are combined.
1. First tighten all bolts to 75% of the full preload, using the torque method. By applying only 75%, the danger of
overloading due to an unexpected low friction between nut and thread is acceptably small. At the same time the clamping
force is usually large enough to close any gaps between the plates.
2. Then tighten by a further turn of 90° to 120° (the lower value for small bolt lengths and the larger value for large
bolt lengths).
This method has the advantage that it is not particularly sensitive to:
● variation in the friction between the nut and the thread.

● variation in the stiffness of the plate assembly (Figures 5 and 6). By applying the 75% torque, one is more sure that the
plates fit snugly than with the turn of nut method.
The above is illustrated in Figure 7:

● If after preloading to a nominal 0,75 Fp (torque method), the actual preload appears very high, the turn-of-the-nut by Θp
gives no danger for rupture.
● If the actual preload is low, the turn of nut by Θp gives a preload that is high enough for either assembly.
In connections with several bolts (Figure 8), it is necessary to tighten the bolts in two stages:

● Torque method. First stage: all bolts up to 75% of Ma. Second stage: all bolts to 100% of Ma.
● Turn-of-nut method. First stage: all bolts "hand tight". Second stage: all bolts a second time "hand tight". Finally the turn-
of-the-nuts.
● Combined method. First stage: all bolts up to 75% of Ma. Second stage: all bolts a second time up to 75% of Ma. Finally
the 90° - 120° turn-of-the-nut.
The reason for the above is that after tightening the first bolt up to 75% of Fp or even Fp, the contact surfaces may not
fit snugly. The fit depends on the imperfections of the joint (the plates not being flat) and the stiffness of the plates,
compared to the preload of the first tightened bolt.
If the contact surfaces do not fit snug after the first bolt is tightened, tightening the second bolt will decrease the preload in
the first bolt, and so on.
By applying the two stage procedure, this effect is reduced to an acceptable level.
5. NUTS AND WASHERS

Failure of threaded fasteners due to over-tightening can occur by bolt shank fracture or by stripping of the threads of the
nut and/or bolt. Shank fracture is sudden and therefore easily noticed. Stripping is gradual and therefore difficult to detect.
It introduces the danger of partly failed fasteners being left in assemblies. Figure 9 gives the results of tension tests with
both failure modes.

It would be desirable therefore to design threaded connections so that their mode of failure would always be by shank
fracture. Unfortunately, because of the many variables which govern stripping strength (nut and bolt material strengths,
thread clearances, across-flats dimensions, etc.), nuts would have to be abnormally thick to guarantee this mode in all cases.
Nuts with a width across flats according to ISO 898/2 [5] are used for preloaded bolts. Their nominal height is always
greater than the classical value 0.5 d; it is often equal to 0,8 d and it can reach 1,0 d.
In this respect an important quality requirement arises. The bolt with its nut in a tensile test as indicated in Figure 9 must have
a rupture strength of at least the so-called "proof stress". The proof stress for ISO 898/1 [6] bolts, for instance,
differs somewhat from the design values for fub.
A hardened steel washer is placed under the part that is rotated (the nut or the head). This leads to a more uniform and not
too high friction between the rotated part and the underlying plates. When the bolt axis is not normal to the contact
surface (difference of more than 3°), an appropriate taper washer must be used.
6. HOLES
Clearance values are the same as for non-preloaded bolts (see Lecture 11.3.1.).
In normal circumstances, the clearance is 2mm for diameters up to and including 24mm and 3mm for larger diameters.
To improve the resistance of the connection, holes with smaller clearance than standard holes may be specified. As a
result costs will be greater.
7. SLIP RESISTANCE
HSFG bolts in shear connections transmit the force by friction between the contact faces (Figure 1). The resistance of
these connections depends on the preload Fp.Cd, the slip factor µ and the number of friction faces n. The design slip
resistance of a preloaded high strength bolt has a value:
Fs,Rd = nµFp.Cd /γms (3)
The slip factor µ depends on the preparation of the surfaces. Some values (1) are:
surface not treated µ = 0,20

surface blasted with shot or grit, with any loose rust removed, no pitting µ = 0,50

surface blasted with shot or grit and painted with ethyl-zinc silicate coat (thickness 30 - 60 µ µ = 0,30
m)
surface blasted with shot or grit and hot dip galvanised µ = 0,10
Painting may be necessary to prevent rust in the period before or during erection. Reference standard 8 of Eurocode 3 [4]
gives more details.
Figure 2 compares the effect of using bearing and HSFG bolts to make up a double cover plate butt joint. Until slip occurs,
the connection which uses HSFG bolts is seen to be much stiffer than that which uses bearing bolts. Once slip occurs,
the HSFG connection progressively becomes a bearing connection and, after the hole clearance has been taken up,
both connections behave in a similar way. The reason for the large decrease of the force transmitted by friction can
be explained by:
● The decrease of the surface roughness during slip, which gives a decrease in µ.
● The fact that the tensile stresses in the plates around the holes increase when bearing becomes effective, reducing the
thickness of the plates (Poisson ratio) and hence decreasing the preload (consider the different longitudinal stress patterns
in Figure 1).
● For bolts in standard nominal clearance holes and for bolts in slotted holts (see Lecture 11.3.3) with the axis of the
slot perpendicular to the direction of the load transfer, the partial safety factor γms is taken as:
for the ultimate limit state γms = 1,25
⋅ for the serviceability limit state γms = 1,10
8. SHEAR AND TENSION RESISTANCE

If a slip resistant connection is subjected to an applied tensile force Ft in addition to the shear force FV tending to produce
slip, the slip resistance per bolt is taken as follows:
Fs,Rd = nµ(Fp.Cd - 0,8Ft) /γms

If, in a moment connection, the applied tensile force is counter balanced by a contact force on the compression side,
no reduction of the slip resistance is required.
9. PROVISIONS FOR FRICTION GRIP CONNECTIONS

Tests carried in several countries have shown that mill scale adhering to the contact surfaces causes a substantial reduction
in the coefficient of friction. Measures must therefore be taken to remove it.
Depending on the slip factor µ assumed, the contact surfaces shall be cleaned and roughened by blasting or shot peening
with an appropriate material (sand, steel grit, etc.).
The material used for blasting should be carefully selected (sand, steel shot, cast iron shot, wire shot, etc.) and the
treatment should be carried out, making full use of all that is known of the process, so as to achieve a favourable slip
factor. This treatment shall be followed immediately by the application of an appropriate paint, if it is specified.
When flame-cleaning is used, it is particularly important that full use should be made of experience gained with regard
to burner action (possible use of two burners), the gas-oxygen mixture and the angle of inclination of the flame to the surface
of the plate.
Parts to be joined with preloaded high strength bolts must be protected against corrosion by suitable measures designed
to prevent moisture penetrating to the contact surfaces and the bolt holes. Such a protection (e.g. sealing) may also be
necessary as a temporary measure when joint faces are left wholly or partially exposed during erection. All
necessary precautions shall be taken, during fabrication and erection, to ensure that the slip factors assumed for the
calculation are achieved and maintained.
When the joint is assembled the contact surfaces must be free from dust, oil, paint, etc. Spots of oil cannot be removed
by flame-cleaning without leaving harmful residues and must be removed by suitable chemical means. If the parts cannot
be assembled as soon as the contact surfaces have been treated, it is sufficient to remove any thin films of rust or other
loose material by brushing with a soft steel brush. During this process the prepared surface must not be damaged, oiled
or greased.
If structural components in which the contact surfaces have been prepared for friction grip bolting are stored for very
long periods, there is a risk of rusting. Under certain circumstances a lower slip factor must be considered. An effective
means of protecting the contact surfaces is to apply self-adhesive or sprayed-on films of plastic. Up to the present, however,
no protective coating is known which does not affect the slip factor adversely.

● HSFG bolted connections are very stiff and they have good performance under fatigue loading.
● There are several methods of tightening; the best one is the combined method.
● The shear resistance of a connection with HSFG bolts is determined by the compressive forces between the plies, caused by
the pretension of the bolts, and the slip factor of the mating surfaces of the plates. The presence of an external tension
reduces shear resistance and vice versa.
● The control of the value of the slip factor between the connected parts is very important.
11. REFERENCES
[1] Kulak, G. L., Fischer, J. W. and Struik, J. H. A., "Guide to Design Criteria for Bolted and Riveted Joints", 2nd edition,
John Wiley and Sons, 1987.
[2] Bouwman, L. P., "Fatigue of Bolted Connections and Bolts Loaded in tension", Delft University of
Technology, Department of Civil Engineering, Report. 6-79-9, July 1979.
[3] European Recommendations for Bolted Connections in Structural Steelwork. European Convention for
Constructional Steelwork (ECCS), Publication No. 38, 1985.
[4] Eurocode 3: "Design of Steel Structures": Part 1.1: General Rules and Rules for Buildings, CEN, 1992 (see Chapter
6: Connections Subjected to Static Loading, and Chapter 7: Fabrication and Erection).
[5] ISO 898/2, International Standard Mechanical Properties of Fasteners.
Part 2: Nuts with Specified Proof Load Values.
[6] ISO 898/1, International Standard Mechanical Properties of Fasteners.
Part 1: Bolts, Screws and Studs.

ESDEP WG 11
Lecture 11.3.3: Particular Aspects in Bolted Connections

OBJECTIVE:
To describe the influence of particular aspects on the design of bolted connections.
PREREQUISITES:
Lectures 11.3.1 & 11.3.2: Bolted Connections
RELATED LECTURES:
Lecture 12.6: Fatigue Behaviour of Bolted Joints
SUMMARY:
Non-conventional but practical situations occurring in bolted connections are discussed. The following problems
are considered:
● oversize and slotted holes

● fit of contact surfaces
● determination of the slip factor
● fitted and injection bolts
● protected plates or bolts
● hydrogen embrittlement - stress corrosion
NOTATION
A Area of the shank of a bolt [mm2]

d Nominal diameter of the bolt (shank) [mm]
Fs.Rd Design slip resistance [N]
Fp Preload of a bolt [N]
Fu,b Nominal tensile strength of a bolt [N/mm2]
ks Reduction coefficient of the slip factors
n Number of friction faces
γms Partial safety factor for a slip resistant bolt
1. GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS
The resistance of a connection should be determined on the basis of the resistance of the individual fasteners.
Bolts for structural steelwork are available in various sizes and grades. Non-preloaded bolts are used for the
majority of structures. Where special requirements on the stiffness, the prevention of slip during load reversal or
fatigue are to be met, high strength friction grip (HSFG) bolts may be used.
The resistance of a (non-preloaded) bearing connection depends on the shear resistance of the bolt and on the
bearing resistance of the plates. If the bearing resistance of the plates is lower than the shear resistance of the bolt,
the deformation capacity of the joint is large. This is particularly important in long joints and where inaccuracies
exist in the hole patterns.
The shear resistance of HSFG bolts is sensitive to the coefficient of friction µ and the applied preload.
Lectures 11.3.1 and 11.3.2 describe standard connections with the types of bolts mentioned above.
Due to practical requirements it is often necessary to use different constructional designs. In addition there may
be a combination of forces on the connections making it difficult to evaluate the stresses in the bolts.
Particular aspects of bolted connection behaviour and design are reviewed herein.
2. OVERSIZE AND SLOTTED HOLES

Restricting the nominal hole diameter to the values given in Lecture 11.3.1 (for example, 2mm in excess of the
nominal bolt diameter) can impose rigid alignment conditions between structural members, particularly in large
joints. Sometimes erection problems occur when the holes in the plate material do not line up properly.
Occasionally, steel fabricators must preassemble structures to ensure that the joint will align properly during
erection. With a larger hole size, it is possible to eliminate the preassembly process and save time and money.

An average hole provides the same clearance in all directions to meet tolerances during erection. However, if an
adjustment is needed in a particular direction, slotted holes can be used. Slotted holes are identified by their
parallel or transverse alignment with respect to the direction of the applied load.
When oversize and slotted holes are used, additional plate material is removed from the vicinity of high clamping
forces. The influence of this condition on the behaviour of connections with preloaded bolts has been investigated
experimentally [1]. The effect of oversize and slotted holes on such factors as the loss in bolt tension after
installation and the slip resistance has been examined.
The use of oversize or slotted holes reduces slightly the mean clamping force in the fasteners. This reduction is
thought to result from plastic flow in the steel plates under the head of the bolt and the nut. The influence of
plastic flow can be reduced by using hardened washers. The reduction of clamping force influences also the slip
factors. The combined effect of the change of slip factor and reduction of the clamping force is estimated to cause
a 15% reduction in slip resistance for oversize and short slotted holes and a 30% reduction for long slotted holes.
The design formulae for slip-resistant joints reflect the reduced slip resistance by introducing a reduction factor ks.
The design slip resistance of a preloaded high strength friction grip bolt is therefore given by:
Fs,Rd = [(ksµ)n/γms]. Fp.Cd
(see Lecture 11.3.2 for the design slip resistance in a connection where the holes have nominal clearance).
The coefficient of reduction ks is equal to 0,85 for oversize and short slotted holes and to 0,70 for long slotted
holes.
The nominal sizes of short slotted holes for slip resistant connections may not be greater than:
● (d + 1) mm by (d + 4) mm for M12 and M14 bolts

● (d + 2) mm by (d + 6) mm for M16 and M22 bolts
● (d + 2) mm by (d + 8) mm for M24 bolts
● (d + 3) mm by (d + 10) mm for M27 and larger bolts
where d is the nominal bolt diameter in mm.
The nominal sizes of long slotted holes for slip resistant connections may not be greater than:
● (d + 1) mm by 2,5 d for M12 and M14 bolts

● (d + 2) mm by 2,5 d for M16 and M24 bolts
● (d + 3) mm by 2,5 d for M27 and larger bolts
Long slots in an outer ply must be covered by cover plates of appropriate dimensions and thickness (see above).
The holes in the cover plates may not be larger than standard holes.
The sizes required for long slotted holes for movement joints have to be specified. Slots in an outer ply must be
covered by cover plates of appropriate dimensions and thickness (see above).
In those cases where oversize or slotted holes are used with non-preloaded bolts, then it is customary to assume

no reduction in design resistances due to the oversize effects.
3. FIT OF CONTACT SURFACES

The maximum step between adjacent surfaces in a joint may not exceed 2mm in order to avoid any reduction of
the resistance of the connection (Figure 1). When using preloaded bolts, the possible effects of lack of fit have to
be considered and smaller tolerances could be imposed. If it is not possible to adopt smaller tolerances, packing
plates should be used in order to transfer properly the load across the splice. The minimum thickness of steel
packing should be:
● 2mm if not exposed to corrosive influences

● 4mm in outdoor conditions.
Because of practical difficulties such as the need to connect plates of different thicknesses or poor fit-up after
erection on site it is sometimes necessary to insert thin steel plates to act as packs. Providing such packs are no
more than a few millimetres in thickness and good contacts are ensured, then structural performance should not
really be affected. Instances will arise, however, when their presence cannot be ignored at the design stage:
• For connections made with ordinary bearing bolts the bolt shank will be subjected to an increasing degree of
bending as the packing thickness increases. This is covered by EC3, in the following rule:
Where bolts transmitting load in shear and bearing pass through packings of total thickness tp greater than one
third of the nominal diameter d, the design shear resistance shall be reduced by the factor
• When HSFG bolts are being used for clamping lengths greater than 10 times the bolt diameter, the parameters
controlling the tightening method must be determined by tests.
• For HSFG bolts creep and relaxation effects may well be higher, leading to a larger loss of preload.
4. DETERMINATION OF THE SLIP FACTOR

The slip factor for the proposed method of surface preparation may be obtained directly from published

information as explained in Lecture 11.3.2, (generally involving a surface coating). Sometimes, however it may
be necessary to determine the slip factor by tests, in accordance with the following procedure [2, 3].
The calculations must in this case be based on the value reached in 95% of all tests. With a normal distribution of
the results, this value corresponds to µmean times 1,64 S (S = standard deviation).
The following points must be observed when the tests are carried out:
● The test specimens shall conform to the dimensional details shown in Figure 2a or 2b. The steel material
shall conform to EN 10025 grade Fe E 275 or Fe E 355.
● To ensure that the two inner plates are the same thickness, they shall be produced by cutting them
consecutively from the same piece of material and the specimen should be assembled with them in their
original relative positions.
● The plates shall not have thermally cut edges. They shall be sufficiently flat to permit the prepared
surfaces to be in full contact when the bolts have been preloaded.
● The preload applied to the bolts shall be the specified minimum preload for the size and grade of bolt
used. An accurate method of measurement shall be used to verify the actual value of the preload.
● The specified surface treatment and coating shall be applied to the contact surfaces of the test specimens
in a manner consistent with the intended structural application. The mean coating thickness on the contact
surface of the test specimens shall be at least 0,05 mm greater than the maximum mean thickness specified
for use in the structure.
● The specimens shall be assembled in such a way that the bolts are bearing in the opposite direction to the
applied tension.
● The preload Fp to be applied must be calculated from Fp = 0,7 fub As. It must be proved by measurements
that the effective preloads which are applied, correspond to these values. The displacements of the a-c
lines with respect to the b points (see Figures 2a and 2b) must be determined. The slip in the bolted
connection is denoted by the average of the displacement on both sides. The slip load (Fs) is defined as
that load at which a slip of 150 µm is observed. The slip factor µ can be calculated from:
µ = Fs/4 Fp
● The slip factor of the two bolt fastenings in one testpiece must be determined. Five testpieces (10 bolt
fastenings) must be tested. Four testpieces must be loaded at normal speed (duration of the test
approximately 10-15 min).
● With the fifth testpiece a creep test must be carried out with a specific load of 90% of the average slip load
in the first four tests. If, in the time between five minutes and three hours after the application of the load,
there are no displacements, (δ) > 2 µm, the slip loads for this testpiece, too, can be determined in the
normal way.
● If the standard deviation of the ten values obtained exceeds 8% of the mean value, further tests must be
carried out. The necessary number of testpieces in this case is given by the formula:
n≥
where:
n is the necessary number of testpieces (two fastenings each) including the first tests

S is the standard deviation in first five testpieces (10 values) as a percentage of mean value.
● If creep occurs in the joint in the fifth testpiece, further creep tests must be carried out.
● It must be established, by means of at least 3 testpieces (6 fastenings), that the load associated with the slip
factor on which the calculation is based does not cause displacements greater than 300 µm during the life
of the construction. The displacement-log time curve (Figure 2c) can be linearly extrapolated as soon as
the tangent can be ascertained with sufficient certainty.

A useful summary of slip factor test results covering a range of different surface conditions that concludes with a
series of recommended factors, is available from the ECCS (4).
5. FITTED AND INJECTION BOLTS

When the deformation of a connection under load must be very low, it is possible to use fitted bolts.
The requirements concerning fitted bolts are:
● The diameter of the screwed portion of turned barrel bolts shall be at least 1,5 mm smaller than the
diameter of the barrel. The specified diameter of the bolts shall be the nominal diameter of the barrel.
● The diameter of the turned barrel shall be within the diameter tolerances for bolts as specified in ISO
4759/1 [5]. The length of the barrel shall be such that it bears fully on all the connected parts.
● Steel plate washers not less than 6 mm thick with a hole diameter nominally 1,5 mm larger than the
diameter of the barrel shall be provided under the nut of turned barrel bolts.
● Holes for fitted bolts to be used shall align with h11 and H11 in ISOR286 [6]. The difference between the
diameter of the bolt shank and the side of the hole shall not exceed 0,3 mm.
The nomenclature h11 and H11 refer to the fits relating to deviations.
An alternative to the fitted bolt is the injection bolt, i.e. bolts where the clearance between the bolt and the wall of
the hole is completely filled with a two component resin (Figure 3) [7]. The bolts may or may not be pretensioned.

These bolts are used mainly: in new railway bridges, in heavily loaded crane runway girders and to repair riveted
connections in bridges.
Injection bolts are "normal" bolts with a small hole drilled in the head (Figure 4). The dimensions of the 5,5 mm
hole in the top of the head offer sufficient support for the nozzle of the injection equipment. The other part of the
hole, 3,2 mm, is wide enough for injecting the resin.

A hardened washer is placed under the head with the inside machined as shown in Figure 4. The extra space
under the head facilitates the flow of the resin around the bolt, filling the clearance between the bolt and the
plates completely. The inner diameter of the washer must be at least 0,5 mm larger than the diameter of the shank.
A hardened washer with a groove is placed under the nut to enable the air to escape (Figure 4). The washer must

be placed with the groove at the nut side. If the plates are painted, this position will prevent the groove from
being filled with paint during tightening.
The advantages of this type of bolt are:
● Injection bolts are a reliable and relatively cheap means of making non-slip shear connections (Figure 5).
● Injection bolts behave in almost the same way as fitted bolts. However, they are much cheaper, especially
in thick plate assemblies, where reaming may be very expensive.
● Large hole clearances are allowed, which are helpful during the assembly of large connections.
● Where there are low slip factors, e.g. hot dip galvanised or painted surfaces, injection may "help" HSFG
bolted connections considerably.
● Because of the greater design strength of HSFG injection bolts, the number of bolts in such connections
can be reduced.
● Sudden slip due to overloading is completely ruled out if injection bolts are used.
● Injection bolts may be used as an alternative to HSFG bolts. Since neither special tightening equipment
nor skilled personnel are required for the pre-tensioning, cost savings may be obtained.
● Internal corrosion is eliminated.

6. TC BOLTS - LOAD INDICATOR WASHERS

Many systems to control the preload in bolts have been tested; the most popular are "TC bolts" and "Load
Indicator washers". Their use is very simple, but the scatter of the preload magnitude is large. They represent an
alternative to the direct methods described in Lecture 11.3.2.
6.1
A "Tension Control" (TC) bolt has a torque control groove and a torque control spline at
the end of the threaded part as shown in Figure 6. When the torque reaches a definite value
determined by the groove, the end of the screw breaks and the tightening is stopped.

This type of bolt has the advantages:
● it eliminates the need for a back-up man on the bolt screw.

● it removes the possibility of operator error and checking is very rapid.
● the tool requires no calibration and tightening is not affected by field conditions.
On the other hand, the reduction in preload is rather large and tightening in two stages is not possible.
6.2
A Load Indicator washer is a specially hardened washer with protrusions on one face,
illustrated in Figure 7. The protrusions bear against the underside of the bolt head leaving a
gap. As the bolt is tightened the protrusions are flattened and the gap reduced. At a
specified average gap, measured by feeler gauge, the induced shank tension will not be less
than the minimum required by Standards. Figure 8 shows a standard assembly in place
before and after tightening the bolt.

All the bolts shall be tightened in accordance with the manufacturers instructions and to the required tension
indicator gap recommended by the manufacturer, as verified by calibration tests.
Tightening shall be carried out progressively from the middle of the joint to the free edges, to avoid loosening
previously tightened fasteners.

Tightening to the required gap shall be carried out in two stages to ensure consistency of preloading. In the first
stage 75% of the deformation of the protrusions of the tension indicator shall be reached. In the second stage of
final tightening the required gap shall be reached.
7. PLATES PROTECTED AGAINST CORROSION

The slip factor between protected plates must be determined by tests if not specified.
If the protective coating is thicker than 15 µm (hot dip galvanised plates, for example) preloaded bolts must be
retightened one or two times. The best procedure is to retighten them once after 2 weeks and a second time after 3
months.
All necessary precautions shall be taken during fabrication and erection to ensure that the slip factor assumed for
the calculation is reached and maintained.
8. PROTECTED BOLTS
At the present time, a wide range of structures are being treated with a protective surface coating to prevent
corrosion and reduce maintenance costs.
To connect plates of weathering steel or plates with a protection against corrosion, zinc coated bolts (galvanised
bolts) or weathering steel bolts are often used.
The zinc coating on the surface of a bolt does not affect the bolt static strength, but it adds a frictional resistance
on the threads. The effect of high frictional resistance can be reduced substantially by employing lubricants on
the threads of galvanised bolts, such as molybdenumdisulphide or bee's wax for example. Protected bolts are
sometimes oiled by the manufacturers.
Although galvanising provides an excellent protection against corrosion of the bolt, it may increase its
susceptibility to stress corrosion and hydrogen embrittlement.
9. HYDROGEN EMBRITTLEMENT - STRESS CORROSION

It is well known that high strength steels may be subject to delayed fracture caused by hydrogen [8]. Therefore
attention must be paid to the hydrogen content when high strength bolts are used. The hydrogen in bolts is
absorbed during manufacture, for example from electrogalvanising. In addition, it is also absorbed from their
surroundings while in use, for instance, hydrogen produced during corrosion reactions.
Cracks generally start at locations with a severe tri-axial stress.
When bolts with a tensile strength higher than 1180MPa are used, a minute content of hydrogen may cause
delayed fracture. This small content of hydrogen in bolts cannot be quantitatively analysed by conventional
methods.
Stress-corrosion cracking may be defined as failure under combined action of corrosion and stress, whether the
stress be external (applied) or internal (residual). Cracking may be either intergranular or transgranular,
depending on the metal and the corrosive media.

Microscopic examinations of specimens from stress-corrosion tests on high strength bolts show that the crack
originates at the surface, where corrosion pits occur, and propagates transgranularly and intergranularly in a
direction approximately 90 degrees to the direction of the loading. The rust is localised in the area of the
corrosion pit prior to the initiation of a stress-corrosion crack.
Susceptibility to stress-corrosion cracking in bolts depends on (1) the amount of stress present, (2) the bolt
material (including its strength and corrosion resistance), (3) how the bolt is processed, and (4) the coating used
to protect it against corrosion.
Laboratory tests indicate that the higher the strength of the steel, the more sensitive the material becomes to both
stress corrosion and hydrogen embrittlement.

● In a connection with oversize or slotted holes the outer ply must be covered by a hardened washer or a
coverplate.
● The slip factor in slip resistant joints with oversize or slotted holes has to be reduced.
● In a joint, the step between adjacent surfaces may not exceed 2mm.
● The determination of the slip factor must be done; when necessary, in accordance with the standard
method.
● Fitted bolts and injection bolts reduce the deformation of a connection.
● Protected bolts must be lubricated with an adequate product.
12. REFERENCES
[1] Kulak, L.,Fisher J.W.,and Struik J.H.- Design criteria for bolted and riveted joints - 2nd edition - John Wiley
and Sons - 1987.
[2] European Recommendations for Bolted Connections in Structural Steelwork. European Convention for
constructional Steelwork (ECCS - Publication No. 38, 1985.
[3] DD ENV 1993-1-1: 1992
Eurocode No. 3: Design of Steel Structures - Part 1 - General Rules and Rules for Buildings.
[4] ECCS Publication No. 37 "Slip Factors of Connections With HSFG Bolts".
[5] ISO 4759/1: Tolerances for Fasteners.
Part 1: Bolts, screws and nuts with threaded diameters ≥ 1.6 and ≤ 150 mm and product grades A, B and C.
[6] ISO/R286: ISO system for tolerances and adjustments. Part 1: General purposes, tolerances and gaps.
[7] Bouwman, L. P., Summary report of the research on injection bolts. Stevin Laboratory of the Delft University
of Technology.
[8] Hirth, F.W. and Speckhardt, H., "Contribution de l'hydrogène la fragilisation d'aciers de traitement
thermique", Le Trefile, Vol. 29, No. 3, 1979, pp 95-105 and Vol 29, No. 4, 1979, pp 182-187.


ESDEP WG 11
Lectures 11.4.1: Analysis of Connections I:

Basic Determination of Forces
OBJECTIVE/SCOPE
To review the behaviour and the basis for design of local elements in connections.
PREREQUISITES
Lecture 1B.5: Introduction to Design of Industrial Buildings
Lecture 1B.7: Introduction to Design of Multi-Storey Buildings
Lecture 2.3: Engineering Properties of Metals
RELATED LECTURES
SUMMARY
This group of 4 lectures (11.4.1 - 11.4.4) explains how the behaviour of local elements in connections may be analysed so
that each component may safely be proportioned to resist the loads it is required to transfer. It therefore develops the
basic concepts of force transfer that were presented in general terms in Lecture 11.1.2.
In this first lecture the general principles used in determining the forces for which each component in a connection must
be designed are explained. These make use of the fundamental structural concepts of equilibrium, stiffness and deformations
to decide how the externally developed loads are shared between the various components. This then leads to the idea of
load paths as being the most effective way that applied forces can pass through the connection.
NOTATION
The notation of Eurocode 3 [1] has been adopted.

1. INTRODUCTION
In Lecture 11.1.2 it was shown in general terms how the structural adequacy of connections can be checked by considering
the resistance of the local elements of the connection.
The resistance of a local element is determined on the basis of the resistance of the individual bolts or welds and plates.
The resistance of welds and bolts is covered in Lectures 11.2 and 11.3. In this Lecture 11.4.1 the resistance, stiffness
and deformation capacity of a number of components are discussed.
Thus the material of Lectures 11.1, 11.2 and 11.3 is brought together to explain how the individual components in
connections can be safely proportioned. This involves both a determination of the forces to which each is subjected and
the ways in which, acting in combination, the parts of the connection transfer these forces from the supported member to
the supporting member.
Having established the principles, Lectures 11.4.2 - 11.4.4 apply these to the consideration of the transfer of different types
of internal forces within connections e.g. direct tension, shear, tension as part of a moment etc., whilst Lectures 11.5 -
11.8 fully develop the ideas to cover the design of particular connection types.
2. DETERMINATION OF FORCES
2.1 Forces on the Connection
For the determination of the forces on the connection, a static analysis is carried out. Such an analysis includes
the determination of the design loads on the structure and the definition of the design basis for the structure.
In defining the design basis, consideration of the structural behaviour of the connections is necessary. Are the
connections pinned, or rigid, or semi-rigid? Are they partial strength or full strength connections? More details about
the influence of the type of connection on the distribution of forces in the structure are given in Lectures 11.1, 11.5, 11.6,
11.7 and 11.8.
2.2 Force Distribution in the Connection
After the determination of the normal forces, shear forces and bending moments on the connections, an internal distribution
of forces in the connection is chosen.
The distribution of forces in the connection may be determined in whatever rational way is best, provided that:
a. The assumed internal forces are in equilibrium with the applied forces and moments.
b. Each part of the connection is capable of resisting the forces assumed in the analysis.
c. The deformations imposed by the chosen distribution are within the deformation capacity of the fasteners, welds
and other parts of the connection.
Figure 1 gives an outline of the determination of the load on the individual elements of the connections, and the verification
of their resistance.

It is not necessary and it is often not possible to determine the real distribution of forces in the connection. A
realistic assumption of internal forces, in equilibrium with the external forces on the connection, is sufficient. In fact
selecting this assumption is the most difficult part of the analysis. It requires a sound understanding of the structural
behaviour of the connection when it is loaded.
The following rules apply:
a. The distribution of forces in the parts to be connected requires consideration
If, for instance, an I-section loaded in bending and shear, has to be connected, then the shear force is largely
concentrated in the web, whilst the flanges carry most of the bending moment. A simple and usually acceptable
assumption for the load transfer in the connection is to connect the web for the full shear force and the flanges for the
full bending moment, see Figure 1.
b. The stiffness of the various parts in the connection requires consideration
Deformations caused by loads acting in the plane of a plate are much smaller than those produced by loads acting
perpendicular to a plate (normal force versus bending moment). In many cases the understanding of the influence of the
stiffness ratio on the force distribution can be improved by considering the situation after a small deformation of the
connection has occurred. This approach is illustrated in Section 3 by examples.

c. The assumed force distribution must be consistent for all parts in the connection
Violations against this rule may occur if a separate calculation is carried out for the different parts in the connection. An
example is given in Figure 2. The indicated distribution of forces for the calculation of the bolts is not consistent with
the distribution of stresses in the beam assumed to design the welds between the beam and the end plate. Overloading
of the welds in the top flange of the beam results.
2.3 Basic Load Cases for Local Elements
The analysis of the structural behaviour of connections can be carried out by considering a number of basic load cases for
local elements. For a T-connection this analysis is demonstrated in Figure 3. The load transfer in nearly every type
of connection can be modelled with the five basic load cases. Use of these cases permits a systematic and clear presentation
of the calculation methods, despite the wide variety of possible connection types. Eurocode 3 (Chapter 6 and Annex J)
follows this approach.

In Lectures 11.4.3 and 11.4.4 calculations for the five basic load cases are presented for a number of connection designs.
For each part of the connection, a number of possible failure modes can be identified. They may refer to:
● the fasteners (welds or bolts).

● the members which are connected.
● extra parts in the connection, e.g. plates and angle cleats.
It has to be demonstrated that the weakest link in the connection system (chain) is strong enough to carry the load that acts on it.
The design of the fasteners (welds and bolts) is dealt with in Lectures 11.2 and 11.3. The design of other parts in the
connection is dealt with in the present Lectures 11.4.
3.1 Influence of Stiffness Differences
When distributing normal forces, shear forces and bending moments in the connection, the stiffness differences in
the connection must be taken into account. In particular, the deformations due to normal forces in the plane of a plate are
much smaller than the deformations due to forces acting perpendicular to it.
A calculation for the example of Figure 4 gives a good demonstration of this principle. The plate 100 × 100 × 10 mm,
clamped on one side, is loaded with 1000 N perpendicular to the plate surface.
The deflection follows from:
δ= = = 0,2 mm (3-1)
The same plate is loaded with an in-plane tensile force of the same magnitude. The displacement of the end of the plate is now:

∆l = = = 0,0005 mm (3-2)
Both plates are now connected, see Figure 5, causing both displacements at the interface to be equal. A load of 1000 N
is applied to this structure. The load is carried by both plates, shared in proportion to the stiffness ratio. The plate loaded
in tension is 0,2/0,0005 = 400 times stiffer than the plate that is bent. Consequently, nearly the whole load is carried by
the plate loaded in tension, see Figure 5b.
This knowledge is used to determine the distribution of forces for the brace connection shown in Figure 6, e.g. in a
floor structure. In this connection many distributions of the forces in the connections, each obeying equilibrium, are possible.

First it is assumed that the force is carried by both connections, whilst the direction stays the same, see Figure 7. For
the analysis, the force 0,5 F is resolved as Fs = 0,35 F and Ft = 0,35 F.

The deformation in the shear direction (Fs) is much smaller than the deformation in the tensile direction (Ft). The result is
that the deformation ∆1 at point (1) is very different from the deformation ∆2 at point (2). The deformations ∆1 and ∆2
cannot be accommodated by the gusset plate!
This means that the deformation at point (1) caused by Fs (∆S1) must be the same as the deformation at point (2) caused by
Ft (∆S2).
Therefore, Fs is much larger than Ft. The distribution of forces in Figure 7 is incorrect.
The correct distribution is indicated in Figure 8. The force F effectively causes only shear in the bolt groups (1) and (2).
The tension load in the bolts can be ignored.
Conclusion: If large differences in the stiffness between two possible types of load transfer exist, then ignore the load

transfer that gives the larger deformations (bending deformation of the plate), and assume that all load is transferred in the
way that gives the smaller deformations (deformation in the plane of the plate).
This approach also applies to welded structures, e.g. see Figure 9 which illustrates the connection of a plate to a square
hollow section. The assumed force distribution where the welds are only loaded in shear is correct.
The stiffness ratio in the connection may influence the assumption for the calculation of the bending moments. An example
is given in Figure 10. In the connection in Figure 10a, the rotation of the bolted connection is larger than the rotation of
the plate which is welded in the plane of the web of the column. Therefore, the hinge for the calculation of moments is
assumed to be the bolt row. The bolts are loaded by a shear force V. The welds must be designed for a shear force V and
a bending moment V.e.

In the connection in Figure 10b, the plate is welded to the non-rigid wall of the square hollow section. Here the more
logical place for the hinge is this wall. The weld is now only loaded in shear and consequently, the bolt row is loaded in
shear (V) and bending (V.e).
3.2 Free Centre of Rotation and Forced Centre of Rotation
a. Free centre of rotation
The plates in Figure 11 are connected by bolts arranged in an arbitrary pattern. The connection is loaded by a bending
moment M. The plates are assumed to be rigid, compared with the stiffness of the fasteners. Therefore, the rotation θ
between the plates is the result of the deformation of the fasteners. The plates rotate around the centre of rotation.
In the case of small deformations of the fasteners, a linear relation between the bolt forces Ri and the displacements δi may
be assumed, giving bolt forces Fi proportional to the distance ri to the centre of rotation and the rotation θ, see Figure 12.

δi = r i θ (3-3)
Ri = (ri/rmax)Rmax (3-4)
Rxi = (yi/ri)Ri = (yi/rmax)Rmax (3-5)
Ryi = (xi/ri)Ri = (xi/rmax)Rmax (3-6)
If the load on the connection is a pure bending moment, equilibrium requires that the resultant forces in the x and y
directions must be zero:
ΣRxi = Rmax/rmax Σyi = 0 → Σyi = 0 (3-7)
ΣRyi = Rmax/ rmax Σxi = 0 → Σyi = 0 (3-8)
The centre of rotation is therefore located at the centroid of the bolt group.
M = Σri . Ri = Σ(Rmax/ rmax) . Rmax = (Rmax/rmax) Σri2 (3-9)
Rmax = (3-10)
This situation with the centre of rotation at the centroid of the bolt group is called "free centre of rotation".
If an eccentric force acts on a bolt group with free centre of rotation, the following analysis can be carried out, see Figure 13.

The eccentric force F can be replaced by a bending moment M = F . e and a force F through the centre of rotation. The loads
on the bolts are the summation of the loads caused by M (as explained above) and the loads caused by F. For n bolts, each
bolt carries F/n. The resultant force on each bolt can be determined by resolving the forces caused by M and F in the
x-direction and in the y-direction:
Fx = FxM + FxF (3-11)
Fy = FyM + FyF (3-12)
R= (3-13)
For an arbitrary bolt pattern it is not easy to determine in advance which bolt is the most heavily loaded. Several bolts
have therefore to be checked. In practice, however, the bolt pattern is usually regular and the more severely loaded bolts
are readily identified.
b. Forced centre of rotation
In an end plate connection of the type shown in Figure 14, there is an important difference between the stiffness of the
tension zone and the compression zone.
In the compression zone, the compression force is transmitted directly from the flange of the beam to the web of the
column. The deformations in the compression zone are very small compared to the deformations in the tension zone,
where bending of the end plate and bending of the column flange occurs.
Because of this difference in the stiffness, the centre of rotation is effectively located at point (1) in Figure 14. Sometimes,
to be more conservative, the centre of rotation is taken as the lowest bolt row.
If the end plate is thick and therefore stiff, then the centre of rotation may also be assumed at the lower end of the plate.
The above situation, where the centre of rotation is not in the centre of the bolt group, is called a connection with a

"forced centre of rotation".
Assuming that the stiffness at each bolt row is the same, the forces in the bolt rows are directly proportional to their
distance from the centre of rotation. With the centre of rotation at point (1), the following analysis can be carried out:
h1 2T1 + h2 2T2 + h3 2T3 + h4 2T4 + h5 2T5 + h6 2T6 = M (3-14)
With equal bolt sizes:
2T2 = 2T1
2T3 = 2T1
2T4 = 2T1
2T5 = 2T1
From these equations, the bolt force T1 in the most heavily loaded bolt can be determined:
(3-15)
In reality, the stiffness of the bolt rows may differ considerably, e.g. the extended part of the end plate above the beam's
top flange in Figure 15 is less stiff than the part below the top flange where the web of the beam has a stiffening effect. As
a result, bolt row number 2 will transmit a higher load than bolt row number 1.
For thin end plates the differences in the stiffness of different bolt rows is more pronounced and the distribution of forces in

the bolt rows is more variable.
With "normal" dimensions of the end plate, it is reasonable to assume that the tension force in the top flange of the beam
is equally distributed between bolt rows 1 and 2.
If an end plate connection is loaded by a combination of bending moment M and a tensile force FH, the situation with a
forced centre of rotation may occur, but also a free centre of rotation is possible. This depends on the magnitude of FH,
see Figure 16.
If the centre of rotation is forced (FH is small), then FH is transferred through the rigid point (1). The bending moment about
(1) is:
M1 = M + FH . α = Σhi2 (3-16)
where
a is the distance between the centre line of the beam and the compression point (1).
From the condition of horizontal equilibrium it follows that:
D= Σ hi - FH (3-17)
If:
FH = Σ hi (3-18)
then D = 0. With D < 0, there is no longer a forced centre of rotation. From Equations (3-16) and (3-17) it follows that if:
α+ (3-19)

there is a forced centre of rotation, and if:
α+ (3-20)
there is a free centre of rotation.
● All connection designs must satisfy three fundamental requirements:
i. Internal forces must be in equilibrium with the external applied forces and moments.
ii. Each part of the connection must be capable of safely resisting the forces in it assumed by the analysis.
iii. The deformations required by the assumed internal force distribution must be within the deformation capabilities of
the component parts.
● Using 5 basic load cases the force transfers present in virtually every form of connection may be obtained by suitable
combination.
● Load transfer follows routes in which the majority of load follows the stiffer paths.
● Moment transfer by means of a group of fasteners may involve either a "free centre of rotation" or a "forced centre of rotation".
5. REFERENCES
[1] Eurocode 3: "Design of Steel Structures" ENV 1993-1-1: Part 1.1, General rules and rules for buildings, CEN, 1992.
1. Owens, G. W. and Cheal, B. D., "Structural Steelwork Connections", Butterworths & Co. (Publishers) Limited, 1989.
2. Kulak, G. L., Fisher, J. W. and Struik, J. H. A., "Guide to Design Criteria for Bolted and Riveted Joints", Willey - Interscience,
2nd Edition, 1987.
3. Ballio, G. and Mazzolani, F. M., "Theory and Design of Steel Structures", Chapman & Hall 1983.
4. W. F. Chen "Joint Flexibility in Steel Frames" Journal of Constructional Steel Research Volume 8, 1987.

ESDEP WG 11
Lectures 11.4.2: Analysis of Connections: Distribution of Forces

in Groups
of Bolts and Welds
OBJECTIVE/SCOPE
PREREQUISITES
Lecture 11.4.1: Analysis of Connections: Basic Determination of Forces
RELATED LECTURES
SUMMARY
that each component may safely be proportioned to resist the loads it is required to transfer. It therefore develops the
basic concepts of force transfer that were presented in general terms in Lecture 11.1.2.
This second lecture concentrates on the behaviour and design of groups of fasteners (bolts or welds) as used in the types
of connection described in Lecture 11.1.2. Methods are presented for assessing the load on each individual fastener (bolt
or length of weld) and for determining the total resistance of the group acting in combination. The specific topics
covered include: long bolted joints, long welded joints, weld groups, bolt groups and welds and bolts designed to act
together in resisting the same applied forces.

NOTATION
1.1 LONG CONNECTIONS
1.1.1 Long bolted connection loaded in longitudinal direction
When several bolts are placed in a row, as is indicated in Figure 1, then assuming elastic behaviour, an uneven distribution
of forces occurs. This distribution can easily be demonstrated when two extreme situations are considered, see Figure 2.

a. Assume the bolts are infinitely stiff and the plates are weak
The bolts do not deform. They remain straight and parallel to each other. Each piece of plate between a pair of bolts
therefore has the same length, the same strain and consequently also the same stress. In the example of Figure 2, this

means that the forces in the plates between bolt 1 and bolt 2 are: 0,5 F, 1,0 F and 0,5 F. But this also applies to the
plates between bolts 2 and 3 and between bolts 3 and 4.
Conclusion: the bolts 1 and 4 transmit the full load F. The other bolts are not loaded, see Figure 2a.
b. Assume the plates are infinitely stiff and the bolts are weak
The plates between the bolts do not deform. In other words, every bolt has the same deformation and therefore is
loaded to the same extent. Every bolt carries 0,5 F, i.e. 0,25 F per shear area.
The real distribution of forces is between these two extremes, as is indicated by the solid line ("elastic") in Figure 2c.
The difference between the forces in the outer bolts and the inner bolts is greater when the stiffness of the plates is low.
This situation occurs when the connection is longer (more bolts) and the plate thickness compared to the bolt diameter is small.
For practical ratios of plate thickness to bolt diameter and practical values for the pitch, the following approximate
distributions (%) of bolt forces apply:
- with four bolts 29-21-21-29
- with six bolts 25-15-10-10-15-25
- with eight bolts 24-13-8-5-5-8-13-24
Design recommendation
The part of the connection between the outer bolts must be designed to be as short and stiff as possible, in order to minimise
the differences between the bolt forces.
In practice, however, it is normally permissible to assume an even distribution of forces, owing to the plastic
deformation capacity of the bolts and plates. When a bolt is overloaded, or a plate in bearing is overloaded, it will
deform plastically. Then, through redistribution of forces, a more even distribution of the forces in the bolts is obtained.
The amount of deformation capacity that is needed, is greatly influenced by the length of the connection:
● A uniform distribution of forces is assumed if the distance between the outer bolts is not more than 15d, where d is the
nominal diameter of the bolt. This means six bolts at a pitch of 3d.
● For longer connections, the design value of the shear force Fv.Rd per bolt and per shear plane must be reduced by a factor βLf,
see also Figure 3.
βLf = 1 - (Lj - 15d)/200d (1-1)
but βLf ≤ 1,0 and βLf ≥ 0,75.

The deformation capacity is provided by the bolt (bending and shear) and/or by the plates (yield of net area, ovalization of
the bolt hole caused by bearing stresses).
Another cause of uneven distribution of forces and thus of a need for deformation capacity is the possibility of misalignment
of bolt holes. Because of fabrication tolerances the diameter of the holes is chosen as the diameter of bolt plus a clearance.
For an M20 bolt, the normal hole diameter is 22 mm. Due to this clearance, it is possible that at low loads

(elastic deformations) only one bolt in the connection of Figure 2, for example, carries the whole load.
Because the deformation capacity of plates is generally much bigger than the deformation capacity of the bolts, it
is recommended that the connection be designed such that yielding of the plates in bearing occurs before yielding of the
bolts in shear.
1.1.2 Distribution of shear stresses in long welds
In longitudinally loaded welded connections an uneven load distribution occurs, similar to that just described for
bolted connections. The highest stresses occur at the ends of the welds, see Figure 4.

In this case also a uniform distribution of forces (stresses) may be assumed, provided that the deformation capacity is
sufficient to allow for the required redistribution of stresses.
In a similar way as for long bolted connections, the differences in the stress distribution depend on the stiffness ratio of
the connectors (welds) and the plates; the longer the connection the more uneven the stress distribution.
As with bolted connections, the deformation capacity is provided by the connector (the welds) and/or the adjacent
plate material, see Figure 4a. Clearly the deformation capacity of a thick weld is greater than that of a thin weld.
The plastic zone and the deformation capacity of a weld are proportional to the weld thickness. In addition the ductility of
the weld metal and the strength of the weld metal compared with the strength of the plate, have an influence on the
deformation capacity.
If the yield strength of the weld metal is higher than the yield strength of the plate material, then plasticity occurs mainly in
the plates. This is usually the case in common lower grades of steel (up to S275), where "overmatched" weld metals are
applied (as required by Eurocode 3).

In higher strength steels it is sometimes difficult to have an overmatched weld metal with sufficient ductility. Then
an "undermatched" weld metal with better ductility properties that is easier to weld may be considered. The consequence is
that the plastic deformations tend to concentrate in the weld metal. The deformation capacity depends on (a) the size of
the plastic zones in the weld and the adjacent plates and (b) on the ductility of the metal in these zones. If due to
undermatching weld metal the plastic zones in the plate are small, then for the same deformation the strains in the weld
metal are great. This means that the ductility requirements for undermatched weld metals should be higher than
for overmatched weld metals. Therefore, it depends on ductility and yield strength of plate and available weld metals
what situation is favourable: undermatched or overmatched weld metals.
The effect of the length of the weld on the distribution of stresses along the weld has been investigated by means of
finite element calculations. To illustrate this the results of a numerical simulation carried out by Feder [2] are presented
in Figure 5. The stress distribution and the shear deformations in side fillet welds have been determined for several values
of the length l, see Figure 5. For the weld metal, a linear relation between the shear stress τ1 and the relative displacement γ
= ∆l/a is assumed. For other circumstances (geometry, cross-section of the plates, weld thickness, strength of weld metal
and plate metal, etc), other results will be obtained.
Figure 5 shows that up to a certain limited length of the weld (llim) yielding of the whole weld is possible. When the length
of the weld is equal to llim, τy is reached in the middle of the weld, at the same time as the ultimate shear stress τu and
the rupture displacement γu are attained at the ends. Then the average stress, τu, at the start of rupture is obtained by taking
the average of a parabola as:

τu = (τu + 2τy)/3 (1-2)
For l > llim the central region of the weld will not have reached yield when the rupture starts at the ends of the weld.
Figure 6 gives results for a side fillet weld in steel S355 [2]. The members have the same cross-section area A1 = A2.
The assumed τ11- γ diagram is also given in Figure 6.

For the rupture strain (γu) the value 0,110 is taken. For a weld with 5 mm throat thickness, a displacement of 0,55 mm
is obtained. A further assumption is that the plates do not yield at the gross cross-section when rupture of the weld
occurs. Under these assumptions, llim=230aw, where aw is the throat thickness of the weld.
With increasing weld length the average shear stress at rupture decreases rapidly. When l > 300a, the stress in the middle of
the weld remains zero!
According to Eurocode 3, the design resistance of a fillet weld in a lap joint should be reduced by a factor βLw.1 to allow for
the effects of non- uniform distribution of stress along its length when it is longer than 150a according to the relationship:
βLw.1 = 1,2 - 0,2 (1-3)
where Lj is the overall length of the lap joint in the direction of force transfer. In practice, lap joints with fillet welds
longer than 100a or 150a are seldom used (for a = 5 mm, a length 150 a means 750 mm!).
Of course, when the distribution of applied loads on the weld is evenly distributed along the weld, the above limitation does
not apply. Examples are the welds between the web and the flange of welded beams and the connection of the web of a beam
to a column, see Figure 7.

1.2 Distribution of Forces in Weld Groups
The design of weld groups (Figure 8) is tackled by considering the strength of the individual welds.
For this, two approaches based on the design assumptions of Clause 6.1.4 of Eurocode 3 can be followed:
1. Calculation based on the stresses in the parent material in the vicinity of the weld.
2. Calculation based on the load acting on the welded joint as a whole.
The calculation based on the stresses in the parent material is easier and quicker than the second method. The stresses in
the vicinity of the weld can be directly obtained from the structural design calculations. Because of the direct link between
the analysis for the parent material and that of the welds, it is clear that the stresses in the weld are consistent with those in
the parent material. Of course, it is necessary that in determining the stresses in the parent material, the stresses must
be consistent with other parts in the connection (Lecture 11.4.1 Section 2.2 and Figure 2). Use of the first method
is recommended.
However, there are cases where the first method cannot be applied because the stresses in the adjacent parent material
cannot be simply determined and the second method must be used. Examples are:
● a lap joint.
● the connection of a brace to a gusset plate.
1. Calculation based on the stresses in the parent material
In a double fillet weld shown in Figure 9, the following stresses act on the throat area (see also Lectures 11.2.2 and 11.2.3).

σ⊥ = τ⊥ = {0,5tσz 0,5√2}/a = [t/(2a√2)]σz (1-4)
τ// = (t/2a)τzy (1-5)
With the alternative method of Annex M of Eurocode 3 it follows:
(t/2a)√[σz2/2 + 3σz2/2 + 3τzy2] ≤ fu/(βwγMw)
or:
(t/2a)√[2σz2 + 3τzy2] ≤ fu/(βwγMw) (1-6)

The second requirement σ⊥ ≤ fu/γMw is only decisive if τ⊥ is small, i.e. if the resultant force is oblique to the plate.
If in the parent material only σz is present then it follows:
α ≥ (σz/fu)(βwγMw)t/√2 (1-7)
For S235: α ≥ 0,71(σz/ fu)t (1-8)
For S355: α ≥ 0,80(σz/ fu)t (1-9)
If the theory of plasticity is used for the design of the structure and the connection is located at a point where a plastic hinge
may develop, then the minimum throat thickness must be based on σz = fy:
This gives for S235: a ≥ 0,46 t (1-10)
and for S355: a ≥ 0,55 t (1-11)
This requirement also applies for statically indeterminate structures that are designed using the theory of elasticity. It is
important to remember that also in an elastic design, it is assumed (implicitly) that the members and the connections have
sufficient deformation capacity to accommodate loads and stresses that usually are not explicitly taken into account in the
design calculations (e.g. stresses due to uneven settlements of the supports; temperature loading; tolerance during fabrication;
local overloading by live loads, etc.) and further to allow for the approximations inherent in the design models.
Therefore, it is necessary that the connected parts can yield before rupture of the welds.
When the design formulae of Eurocode 3 [1] are applied with σz = fy, then the real rupturing strength of the weld is at least the
real rupturing strength of the plate. In other words, actual rupture occurs in the plate and not in the weld.
Thus, for the above requirement (yield in the plate before rupture in the weld), the design of the weld can be based on:
σz = (fyr/fur)fy (1-12)
where fyr is the measured yield strength and fur the measured ultimate strength of the plate material.
For the design values of the yield strength and the ultimate strength, it follows for S355:
σz = (1-13)
Because the actual value of fyr /fur can be higher than 0,70, it is required that:
If deformation capacity is necessary, the welds must be designed to transfer at least 80% of the yield force in the (weakest)
connected member.
This requirement gives the following values for the minimum throat thickness of a double fillet as presented in Figure 9:
For S235: a ≥ 0,37 t (1-14)
For S355: a ≥ 0,44 t (1-15)
It should be noted that, using the mean stress method according to Eurocode 3, Chapter 6, greater throat thicknesses are found

for end fillet welds. The difference is a factor of 1,22!
Thus the application of the mean stress method results in 1,222=1,5 times more weld metal than necessary.
2. Calculation based on the load acting on the welded joint as a whole
This method must be applied if the first method is not applicable. For the determination of the strength of a weld group,
the design values for the strength of the separate welds may be added, provided that the equilibrium requirements are fulfilled.
This approach is based on the assumption that the welds can yield to permit the redistribution of stresses necessary
to accommodate local overloading. In other words, the welds must posses sufficient deformation capacity.
To gain some idea of the deformation capacity of welds under various loading combinations, tests [3] have been carried out
as indicated in Figure 10. In these tests, the welds were thin compared with the plates in order to ensure yielding in the
welds and not in the plates. The measuring length lo is given in Figure 10. The deformation of the plates was subtracted
from the measured values, to obtain the deformation of the weld and the parent material in the direct vicinity of the weld,
see Figure 4a.

As already discussed, it appears that the deformation (mm) at the same stress in the weld is proportional to the throat
thickness. Thus, when the thickness of a weld is doubled, not only is its strength doubled, but also its deformation
capacity. This is the reason why the deformations are given as ∆l/a on the horizontal axis in Figure 11.
To demonstrate the importance of the above findings, the lap joint of Figure 12 is analyzed. Suppose that the plates
are infinitely stiff compared with the stiffness of the welds. When the thicknesses of the end fillet weld and the side fillet
welds are about the same, then, at the start of rupture (in the welds), the forces in all welds are practically equal to
their ultimate load. This can easily be seen when the lines for τ11 and σ⊥ τ⊥ are compared. With aside = aend and ∆l for the
side weld and end weld about the same, ∆l/a is the same for side weld and end weld. Therefore, the ultimate strength of
both welds may be added. This may not be true if one of the welds is very small, compared to the other. It can be
concluded therefore, that the ultimate strength of the lap joint is equal to the sum of the ultimate strengths of the separate welds.

Now suppose that the throat thickness aend of the end fillet weld is only 10% of the throat thickness aside of the side fillet
welds. At the start of rupture of the end fillet weld, the elongation ∆l=100.10-3. aend=10.10-3 aside, see Figure 11.
The stress τ11 corresponding to ∆l/aside = 10 . 10-3 is about 230N/mm2, whilst the rupture strength for τ11 is about 350N/mm2.
In this case, the ultimate strength of the lap joint is less than the sum of the ultimate strengths of the separate welds. As a
result, it is recommended the following design rule is used:
Try to give the end fillet weld and the side fillet weld the same thickness, and never design the end fillet weld to be less
than 0,5 times the thickness of the side fillet welds.
The use of a thin weld at the front of the lap joint (point A in Figure 12), e.g. to prevent corrosion, must be avoided. If such
a weld is necessary, then it should be given the same thickness as the other welds. This is particularly important because

the plates are in reality not infinitely stiff compared with the welds. The required deformation capacity therefore is larger at
the front (point A) than at the back of the lap joint (point B).
1.3 Non-Linear Distribution of Bolt Forces
In Section 3.2 of Lecture 11.4.1 it was assumed that the bolt forces Ri are proportional to the displacement δ = r θ.
This assumption is based on linear (elastic) behaviour of the connection. In the same way as for the design of
welded connections, the theory of plasticity may be used also for bolted connections, see Figure 13.
When the force on the connection increases, the force on the most heavily loaded bolt increases until the yield force Ry
is reached. Then, with increasing displacement, the bolt force stays constant until strain hardening starts.
After the start of yielding at the most heavily loaded bolt, the bolt forces in the bolts which are nearer to the centre of
rotation increase with increasing rotation. The moment increases until all bolts have reached the yield force.
From tests it may be concluded that the "plastic" moment of such bolted connections is normally reached at
acceptable displacements. Therefore, in statically loaded structures, the design of such bolted connections may be based on
the theory of plasticity.
In a plastic distribution of bolt forces, the centre of rotation does not need to be located at the centroid of the bolt group.

This can be demonstrated as follows (compare Figures 14 and Lecture 11.4.1 Figure 12).
The "plastic" bolt force Ry may be distributed in the x-direction and y-direction:
Ry.xi = (1-16)
Ry.yi = (1-17)
If only bending moment is present, the following conditions must be fulfilled:
Σ Ry.xi = 0 or: Σ = 0 or: Σ sin ψi = 0 (1-18)

Σ Ry.yi = 0 or: Σ = 0 or: Σ cos ψi = 0 (1-19)
For the general case, a direct solution for the position of the centre of rotation is not easily found, as was the case for an
elastic bolt force distribution. Usually, the solution must be found by trial and error.
However, in practical cases, the bolt pattern is nearly always symmetric. For such cases it can be concluded that the centre
of rotation lies on the intersection point of the axes of symmetry (which is also the centroid).
If the bolt group is subjected to a combination of shear force and bending moment, then the following approach can
be followed.
The bolts near the centre of rotation have a small moment arm, and therefore do not contribute very much to the
moment resistance of the connection. It is economical therefore to use these bolts for the transfer of shear force V, and to
use the outer bolts to resist the bending moment M.
Several possibilities are shown in Figure 15. The final choice depends on the proportions of the loads which must be
carried: VSd and MSd.

The above design model is based on an elementary principle in the theory of plasticity:
Any distribution of forces, where the internal forces (bolt forces) are in equilibrium with the external forces in such a way
that nowhere is the internal load-carrying resistance (the design resistance of the bolts) exceeded, gives a lower bound to
the design resistance of the connection.
This principle is only valid if sufficient deformation capacity is available. In bolted connections this capacity can be assured
by designing the bolts such that they are not the controlling item of the strength of the connection:
● In shear and bearing: let bearing be decisive, because the deformation capacity in bearing of the plate is much bigger than the
deformation capacity in shear of the bolt.
● In tension: let yielding of the plates in bending be decisive rather than rupture of the bolt.
1.4 Combination of Different Types of Fasteners
In general, the load deformation behaviour of different fasteners is such that their design resistances are reached at
different deformations, see Figure 16. For this reason the use of more than one type of fastener in the design calculations is
not normally allowed. In this respect the deformation capacity of the types of fastener used is an important factor.

In the case of welds acting in combination with preloaded bolts that are preloaded after welding is completed, the
design resistances are reached at about the same deformation. Therefore, in this case it is permissible to add the
design resistances of the preloaded bolts and the welds when determining the design resistance of the connection.
For all other arrangements only one type of fastening may be assumed to be "active" and all load must be transferred by this
e.g. for a connection made originally with bolts that must be strengthened to withstand a higher load the welds must
be designed to carry the whole of the load (not just the additional part).
● Long connections should be designed in such a way that the forces in the fasteners (bolts and welds) are, as far as possible,
equal.
● For weld groups, design should, wherever possible, be based on an approach which uses the stress in the parent material in the
vicinity of the weld as the controlling parameter.
● Bolt groups may be designed using a plastic approach providing sufficient deformation capacity to permit full redistribution of
forces is present. Deformation capacity may be ensured by:
i. for bolts in shear and bearing, ensure that bearing governs.
ii. for bolts in tension, ensure that yield of the plates in tension governs.
● Where more than one type of fastener is used to transfer the same load between the same two components in a connection, the
design should normally assume that all load is transferred by one type of fastener only.
3. REFERENCES
[1] Eurocode 3: "Design of Steel Structures" ENV 1993-1-1: Part 1.1, General rules and rules for buildings, CEN, 1992.
[2] Feder, D. and Werner, G., Ansätze zur Traglastberechnung von Schweissverbindungen des Stahlbaus. Schweissen
und Schneiden, 29 (1977), Heft 4.

[3] Ligtenberg, F. K. and Van Melle, F., Onderzoek naar de vervorming van statisch belaste hoeklassen. Heron 12 (1964) No.
1 (Dutch). Investigation in the deformations of Statically Loaded Fillet Welds.
1. Owens, G. W. and Cheal, B. D., "Structural Steelwork Connections", Butterworths & Co. (Publishers) Limited, 1989.
2. Kulak, G. L., Fisher, J. W. and Struik, J. H. A., "Guide to Design Criteria for Bolted and Riveted Joints", Willey - Interscience,
2nd Edition, 1987.
4. Chen, W. F., "Joint Flexibility in Steel Frames", Journal of Constructional Steel Research Vol 8, 1987.

ESDEP WG 11
Lecture 11.4.3: Analysis of Connections:

Transfer of Direct Tension or
Compression and Shear
OBJECTIVE/SCOPE
PREREQUISITES
Lecture 11.4.2: Analysis of Connections: Distribution of Forces in Groups of Bolts and Welds
RELATED LECTURES
SUMMARY

This group of 4 lectures (11.4.1 - 11.4.4) explains how the behaviour of local elements in connections may be
analysed so that each component may safely be proportioned to resist the loads it is required to transfer. It therefore
develops the basic concepts of force transfer that were presented in general terms in Lecture 11.1.2.
This third lecture describes the ways in which the transfer of direct tension, compression or shear forces may be
arranged within a connection. It therefore deals with the analysis of cover plates, load transfer using gusset plates
and the transfer of shear forces in beam to column, beam to beam and beam splice connections.
NOTATION
1. TRANSFER OF AXIAL TENSILE OR COMPRESSIVE FORCES
1.1 Butt Welds
The butt welded connections of Figure 1 require no real calculation, since butt welds are designed to have at least the
same strength as the connected plates.

1.2 Transfer of Axial Loads using Cover Plates
Figure 2 shows some connections in which the tensile force in the flanges or in the webs is transferred by means of
cover plates. These cover plates can be present on one side (single) or on both sides (double). They can be connected
with bolts or welds.

Double sided cover plates have the advantage that eccentricities in the load path and associated eccentric
deformations are excluded.
In the welded flange plate in Figure 3, the design strength may be governed by either the plate or by the welds.
Plate:

F ≤ bp tp fy (1-1)
Welds:
The design resistances of the end fillet weld and the side fillet welds may be added (see Section 1.2 of Lecture
11.4.2). When the mean stress method (EC3 main test) is applied, it follows:
F ≤ (2lp + bp) . a . fvw.d (1-2)
where:
lp is the length of the side weld
bp is the length of the end weld
fvw.d = fu/(√3βwγMw) (1-3)
For FeE 235: F ≤ (2lp + bp) . a . 208 (1-4)
If the stress component method according to Annex M of Eurocode 3 [1] is applied, then fvw.d is the same for the
side fillet welds, but for the end fillet welds, fvw.d is a factor greater, see Table 1.
FeE FeE FeE FeE

235 275 355 40
fvw.d.end 255 286 321 328

[N/mm2]
fvw.d. 208 234 262 268

side [N/
mm2]
Table 1: Design values for the stress in end fillet welds and in side fillet welds (based on Annex M of EC3)
With the stress component method it follows:
F ≤ 2 lp a fvw.d.side + bp a fvw.d.end (1-5)
For FeE 235: F ≤ 2 lp a 208 + bp a 255 [N/mm2] (1-6)
Flange:
The force is transferred from the flange via the welds into the cover plate. The design resistances of these elements
must be consistent:

a . fvw.d.side ≤ tf . 0,58 fy (1-7)
a ≤ 0,58fytf /fvw.d.side (1-8)
For FeE 235: a ≤ (0,58 . 235 / 208)tf = 0,65tf (1-9)
This requirement means that design of very short and very thick welds is not allowed, because the adjacent plate
material is overloaded.
For the bolted flange in Figure 4, the following checks should be carried out:
Plate:
Gross section I-I: F ≤ bp tp fy (1-10)

Net section II-II: F ≤ (1-11)
where do = hole diameter
Bolts:
If the length of the connection is less than 15 d, then the force may be assumed as uniformly distributed over all
bolts. Thus, for the connection in Figure 3a:
Fs.d = (1-12)
The bolt force Fs.d must not exceed either the shear resistance Fv.d or the bearing resistance Fc.d according to Chapter
6 of Eurocode 3, see also Lecture 11.3.1.
The bearing resistance of both the flange plate with thickness tp and the flange with thickness tf must be checked.
In the design of double cover plates (Figure 4b) it is usually assumed that each cover plate carries half the force to be
transferred. In this case the bolts have two shear planes, which means that the design shear resistance Fv.d per bolt is
twice that for the case of a single cover plate. For connections longer than 15d, see Section 1.1 of Lecture 11.4.2.
For the design of a splice in rolled members, the following general rules should be applied:
a. Design the parts of the connection according to the stress situation in the connected members, and
make the connections as short as possible.
For the HE section in Figure 4 this rule means that the flanges must be connected and also the web.
The connection of the flanges must be designed to transfer the force in the flanges whilst the
connection of the web must be designed to transfer the force in the web.
b. Avoid eccentricities as much as possible.
Though the design resistance of the connections a and b in Figure 5 does not differ very much (apart
from the shear resistance of the bolts), the deformations differ considerably, especially when the load
approaches the design resistance of the connection. Symmetry can prevent unfavourable deformations,
see Figure 6a.
In connections with angles, the eccentricity moments usually can be carried by the other leg. Using
cover plates on the outside or a somewhat thicker angle section on the inside, assists in avoiding large
deformations due to eccentricity, see Figure 6b.


1.3 Connections to Gusset Plates
Braces are often connected via gusset plates to the main structure, e.g. the connection of the braces in Figure 7.
Gussets are also used in trusses for the connection of braces to the chords.

In the connection of a channel-section to a gusset as shown in Figure 8, all elements in the load path must be
checked:
● The resistance of the channel-section.

● The resistance of the weld configuration.
● The resistance of the section I-I in the gusset plate.

The design resistance of the weld configuration can be checked in the same way as discussed in Section 1.2.
The eccentricity between the force F in the channel-section and the gusset plate has little influence on the resistance,
and may normally be disregarded.
For the check of the gusset plate (section I-I in Figure 8) it follows that:
F ≤ (2 l tp . 0,58 fy + b tp fy) (1-13)
If instead of the yield strength, the ultimate strength is taken for this check (which is consistent with the other design
calculations for connections), then as an alternative the following may be applied.
F≤ (1-14)
In the welded connection of an angle to a gusset plate (Figure 9), the forces in both side fillet welds must be in
equilibrium with the axial force in the angle section. Because of the eccentric position of the centroid of the angle
relative to the welds, the forces F1 and F2 are not equal.
F1 = and F2 = (1-15)

Thus, the side fillet weld (1) must be thicker than weld (2). Usually also an end fillet weld is applied. For reasons of
deformation capacity, the thickness of such an end fillet weld should be chosen to be equal to the thicker side fillet
weld (1), as explained in Section 1.2 of Lecture 11.4.2. Alternatively, the lengths could be adjusted to produce a
balanced arrangement. In practice one of the following is usually adopted:
- give weld 2 the same thickness and length as weld 1;
- give weld 2 the same thickness as weld 1, but reduce its length;
- ignore the eccentricity according to 6.6.10 of EC3.
In a bolted connection of angles to a gusset plate (Figure 10), it is not possible to position the bolts on the centre line
of the angle because space is required for the bolt head or nut and for access for the tightening equipment.
The eccentricity moment (F(w-e)) in Figure 11 causes extra forces in the bolts. The maximum bolt force is:
R= (1-1)
where:
H= and V = (1-17)

In practice the effect of eccentricity may be approximately accounted for by means of a multiplication factor ψ on
the force H. For usual dimensions of these connections, the following values may be used:
● For 2 bolts ψ = 1,20

● For 3 bolts ψ = 1,10
● For more than 3 bolts, the effect of eccentricity is normally neglected.
In order to prevent the deformation caused by eccentricities in the action line of the force and the gusset plate (Figure
9), see also Section 1.2, design the member with two angle sections or channel-sections, see Figure 12.

An exception can be made for secondary members, e.g. bracings with only small loads.
In trussed members with a 'material-free' axis, i.e. the centroidal axis does not coincide with any part of the member,
connected with two gusset plates, the deformation caused by eccentricity can be prevented by means of a batten
plate, see Figure 13.
In Lecture 11.3 it is explained that, for the determination of the design resistance in angle sections connected on only
one flange, the net section must be reduced to allow for the very uneven stress distribution. A similar problem arises
in truss members with an I-section, where only the flanges are connected (Figure 14). This problem can be solved by
giving the connection sufficient length to enable the force transfer from the web to those parts of the flange where
the force in the flange itself already has been transferred partly to the gusset plate.

In the design of gusset plates the spread of forces acting on the plates must be taken into account. Figure 15 shows
the stresses that are caused by a point load on a plate, when the theory of elasticity is applied.
Instead of the uneven stress distribution of Figure 15, the concept of an effective breadth may be adopted, as is
illustrated in Figure 16.

2. TRANSFER OF SHEAR FORCES

Figure 17 shows a number of connections which are designed to transfer shear force only from a beam into a
column. The designs (c) and (d) however, may also be used in moment connections, see for example Figure 3.

In the design of (a) and (b), it may be assumed that the fasteners (welds and/or bolts) are loaded by shear force only.
The design of the fasteners is virtually the same as in the design of the cover plates in Section 1.2.
Apart from the fasteners, the shear strength of the adjacent part of the web of the beam and the shear strength of the
end plate must also be checked. For example, for the flush end plate in design (b) the following checks must be
carried out.
Gross section: V ≤ 2 hp tp 0,58 fy (2-1)
Net section: V ≤ 2(hp - 2dh) tp 0,6 fu/1,25 (2-2)

In the designs (c) and (d), the connection to the column or the connection to the beam must be designed for the
eccentricity moment, because the distance between the centroids of the fasteners is too big to be ignored. The choice
of the point where the bending moment is assumed to be zero, determines which fasteners must be designed for the
eccentricity moment. In Lecture 11.4.1: Section 3.1 it was shown that the stiffness ratio should determine this choice,
see also Lecture 11.4.1: Figure 10.
In Figures 17c and 17d, the point where the moment is assumed to be zero (the "hinge"), is indicated.
The design of the weld (Figure 17c) which connects the web plate to the column may readily be conducted using the
stresses in the parent material (see Lecture 11.4.2: Section 1.2). The maximum stresses are:
τxy = and σz = (2-3)
The design of the weld configuration in Figure 17d must be based on the load acting on the welded joint as a whole
(see Lecture 11.4.2: Section 1.2). This design can be carried out in two ways, methods (a) and (b), see Figure 18.

Method (a) is based on the assumption of a simple, equilibrium system of forces. It is assumed that the vertical weld
transfers the shear force V through shear. The eccentricity moment is accounted for by shear forces in the horizontal
welds:
F1 = V and F2 = (2-4)
A disadvantage of this method is that the calculated weld thickness may differ considerably for the vertical and
horizontal welds.
Method (b) is based on the same principle as the method discussed in Lecture 11.4.1: Section 3.2 for the design of a
bolt group with a free centre of rotation, see Lecture 11.4.1: Figure 13.
The shear force V is transferred to the centroid of the weld configuration. This force V is evenly distributed over the
welds and gives a small force p1 per unit of weld length, see Figure 18b. The remaining design resistance of the
welds
p2 = α fvw.d - p1 (2-5)
must allow for the eccentricity moment. It is assumed that the forces p2 are perpendicular to the line from the centre
of rotation (the centroid), and therefore contribute to the moment resistance by r . p2.
This method is more accurate and can be applied for weld groups with constant weld thickness. A disadvantage is
that this method is too laborious for manual calculations. In computer calculations this disadvantage is absent.
Another possibility is the use of design charts that are based on this method. Figure 19 shows such a design chart.

Figure 20 shows several types of beam-to-beam connections. Taking into account the very low torsional rigidity of
the main beam (I-section), it may be assumed that the line of action of the shear force is at the web of the main beam.

Following this assumption, the design of the various fasteners and checks can be carried out as discussed above.
If the top flanges of both beams must be situated at the same level, and it is desired to keep the eccentricity moment
as small as possible, then a part of the flange of the secondary beam must be cut away to form a notch.
If the main beam and the secondary beam have the same depth, this work must be carried out on the top flange and
on the bottom flange.
The section in the secondary beam where the flange(s) is (are) cut away, are weakened. The weakened section must
be checked. Figure 21 shows the two sections that can be critical. The gross section II-II must be checked for the
combination of shear forces and bending moment. Further, the net section I-I must be checked for block shear using
Anet to Eurocode 3, see Figure 21.

In Section 1 of Lecture 11.4.3, the use of splices to transfer an axial force was discussed. Splices in beams normally
transfer shear force and may also be required to transfer a bending moment. However, in many designs the splices
are positioned at the point where the bending moment is zero. In such cases, only the beam webs need to be
connected, because the shear force is located there, see also Section 2 of Lecture 11.4.1.
Figure 22 shows two possibilities. Design (a) is the more common. Since both bolt groups I and II have the same
stiffness, it is logical to select the place where the bending moment is zero as the centre of the splice. Both bolt
groups must therefore be designed for the shear force V and the eccentricity moment V . a. For the determination of
the bolt forces see Figure 15 of Lecture 11.4.2.


If, in addition to the shear force V, a bending moment Msp must also be transferred, then the flanges may also need
to be connected. This connection may, however, not be necessary if the moment is sufficiently small that it can
safely be transferred via the web cover plates alone i.e. Msp ≤ Mweb in Figure 23a.

The moment Msp is transferred partly by the flanges and partly the web, in proportions depending on the relative
contributions to the stiffness of the whole beam (Itot).
● Moment in the flanges: Mfl = (Iflanges/Itot).Msp (2-6)

● Moment in the web: Mweb = (Iweb/Itot). Msp (2-7)
● The force in the flanges is therefore: Ffl = Mfl/(h - tfl) (2-8)
The bolt group II in Figure 23a is the more heavily loaded group in the web and must be designed for the shear force
V and a bending moment: Mweb + V . a.
Another possibility is to assume that the whole of the bending moment Msp is transferred by the cover plates on the
flanges as illustrated in Figure 23b such that:
Mfl = Msp/(h - tfl) (2-9)
In this case the web plates need only transfer the shear force V (including the eccentricity effect). The loading and
design calculations are then the same as for the splice in Figure 22a.
● When transferring axial tension by means of splices, connections should be as short as possible and
eccentricities should be avoided.
● For connections designed to transmit shear, the choice of position at which the shear force is actually
transferred determines the arrangement of eccentricity moments for which certain of the fasteners must be
designed.
● When connecting beams of similar depth such that notching is required, the reduced net section must be
checked against the possibility of failure by block shear.
● Various possibilities exist for apportioning the load between components in splices designed to transmit shear
and bending.
4. REFERENCES
[1] Eurocode 3: "Design of Steel Structures ENV 1993-1-1: Part 1.1, General rules and rules for buildings, CEN,
1992.
1. Owens, G. W. and Cheal, B. D., "Structural Steelwork Connections", Butterworths & Co. (Publishers)

Limited, 1989.
2. Kulak, G. L., Fisher, J. W. and Struik, J. H. A., "Guide to Design Criteria for Bolted and Riveted Joints",
Willey - Interscience, 2nd Edition, 1987.
4. Reprinted from Journal of Constructional Steel Research Vol 8, Edition W. F. Chen "Joint Flexibility in Steel
Frames".

ESDEP WG 11
Lecture 11.4.4: Analysis of Connections:

Resistance to Moment by Combined Tension
and Compression
OBJECTIVE/SCOPE
PREREQUISITES
Lecture 11.4.2: Analysis of Connections: Distribution of Forces in Groups of Bolts and Welds
Lecture 11.4.3: Analysis of Connections: Transfer of Direct Tension or Compression and Shear
RELATED LECTURES
SUMMARY

that each component may safely be proportioned to resist the loads it is required to transfer. It therefore develops the basic
concepts of force transfer that were presented in general terms in Lecture 11.1.2.
This final lecture in concerned with the transfer of moments - particularly at beam to column connections. The moment is
broken down into a localised tensile and a localised compressive force acting at a suitable lever arm so as to produce the
couple that equates to the design moment. The need to consider also shear on the column zone immediately adjacent to the
connection in the case of loading by unbalanced moments is also addressed.
NOTATION
1. INTRODUCTION
The transfer of moment through a connection may best be appreciated by breaking the moment down into a pair of
localised tensile and compressive forces acting at a suitable lever arm so as to produce a couple, see for example Figs. 2 and
3 of Lecture 11.4.1. The simplest form for this in a beam to column connection would be one in which only the beam's
flanges are attached to the column so that one flange transmits tension, the other transmits compression and the lever arm is
clearly the distance between flange centroids. (Any co-existing shear could, of course, be transferred through a web cleat or
finplate arrangement of the sort illustrated in Fig. 17 of Lecture 11.4.3). The introduction of these localised forces into the
column requires a careful consideration of the possible forms of failure and this topic is addressed in the first part of this
lecture.
When the column is subject to unbalanced moment e.g. because a beam is present only on one side, then the moment(s)
also produce a shearing effect on the panel of the column corresponding to the depth of the beam(s), see for example Fig. 3
of Lecture 11.4.1. This panel zone effect is considered in the second part of the lecture.
2. TRANSFER OF TENSILE FORCES
2.1 Criteria
Figure 1 shows various forms of unstiffened beam-to-column connections intended to transfer moments. In the tension
zone, marked with a circle, the tensile force must be transferred from the flange of the beam to the web of the column.

The size of the tensile force which can be transferred without stiffening the column depends on the resistance at this zone of
the connection to a series of possible forms at failure. These possibilities are indicated in Figure 2 for welded connections
and for bolted connections.

Design consists of recognising that 'the strength of the chain is determined by the weakest link'. For each of the potential
failure possibilities, the design resistance T is calculated. Rules for these calculations are given in Annex J of Eurocode 3
[1]. The smallest of the calculated values for T controls.

The presentation in Annex J of Eurocode 3 is based on beam-to-column connections. However, several calculation rules are
also applicable for other types of connections.
The calculation of the design resistance of the individual fasteners, welds and bolts, discussed in Lectures 11.2 and 11.3.
Individual fasteners are covered by criteria 3 and 4 in Figure 2. The other criteria are discussed below. Possibilities for
strengthening the connection and the design of such strengthened connections are also described.
2.2 Plastic Failure of the Column Flange
A. Welded connection
Figure 3 shows a design model for a welded connection to a column flange.

A part of the tensile force is transferred by direct normal stresses without bending the flange. The width of this part is twc
+2rc. The tensile force through this part is:
Ftl = fyb . tfb (twc + 2 rc) (1-1)
The remaining part of the tensile force must be transferred via bending of the column flange to the web of the column.
For this load case a design model can be adopted, as indicated in Figure 3, based on a plate clamped at three edges with a
line load in the middle.
Application of yield line theory gives a failure load that is proportional to the plastic moment resistance of the plate mp.
Ft2 = 2 C mp (1-2)
mp = fyc tfc2 (1-3)
Ft2 = 2 C fyc tfc2 (1-4)
The coefficient C is derived from tests [2]. A safe lower bound appears to be:
C = 14.
Therefore, the total design resistance of the unstiffened column flange follows from Equations (1-1) and (1-4):
Ft = fyb tfb (twc + 2 rc) + 7 fyc tfc2 (1-5)
or:
Ft = fyb tfb beff (1-6)
with:
beff = twc + 2 rc + 7 (fyc/fyb)(tfc2/tfb) (1-7)
This equation for beff is also discussed in Lecture 11.2.3.
Because of the limitations of the tests [3] which have been carried out to determine C, the effective width for the
determination of Ft2 is limited to 7 tfc:
Ft ≤ fyb tfb (twc + 2 rc + 7 tfc) (1-8)
In order to provide sufficient deformation capacity, it is necessary that the flange of the beam yields before rupture of the
weld or rupture of the flange of the column occurs. To obtain this behaviour the design resistance of the unstiffened column
flange must be at least 70% of the yield force of the beam flange:

Ft ≥ 0,7 Fy.bf = 0,7 fyb tfb bfb (1-9)
If this requirement is not fulfilled, then the connection must be strengthened by welded stiffening plates as indicated in
Figure 4.
The application of short stiffening plates offers advantages during fabrication, because their dimensions do not need to
correspond to the actual distance between the column flanges. The thickness and the steel grade of the stiffening plates are
normally chosen to be equal to those of the beam flange.
B. Bolted connection
In contrast to the situation for a welded connection, when using a bolted arrangement the total tensile force to be transferred
via the column flange causes only bending moments (no direct load transfer), see Figure 5.

To gain insight into the various forces present in this type of connection, it is useful to consider first a more simple case.
Two T-stubs are chosen, connected by two bolts and loaded by a tensile force Ft, see Figure 6.

Initially, it is assumed that the force in each bolt is 0,5 Ft and that the flange is designed to transfer these bolt forces via
bending, see Figure 7. The necessary thickness tf follows from:


FB = 0,5 Ft (1-10)
0,5 Ft . m = Mpl (1-11)
Ft = (1-12)
ft = (1-13)
Ft = (1-14)
tf = (1-15)
In the above Equations, the dimensions of the bolts and the flange are such that the tensile resistance of the bolts governs
the strength of the connection. At the onset of failure, the flanges separate from each other over the entire area.
If the bolts are chosen to be stronger, then the ultimate tensile force increases above the value given in Equation (1-14).
With stronger bolts the flanges of the T-stubs yield, while the bolt deformation is reduced, see Figure 8.


Now at the onset of failure the flanges do not separate over the entire area, but contact forces develop at the edges. These
contact forces are called prying forces. These prying forces produce an extra bending moment in the flanges. When the
prying forces are sufficiently large, this bending moment is equal to the plastic moment mpl. In this situation four yield lines
are present.
The following analysis can now be carried out:
0,5 Ft . m = 2 Mpl (1-16)
Ft = (1-17)
Ft = (1-18)
Ft = (1-19)
tf = √(Ftm/lfy) (1-20)
Q= (1-21)
Q= (1-22)
Ft + 2 Q = Σ FB = Σ Ft.u (1-23)
Ft + 0,5 Ft = Σ Ft.u (1-24)
with:
γ= (1-25)
it follows:
Ft = (1-26)
Between the two extremes (Figures 7 and 8), there is an intermediate case where prying forces are present, but where the
bolts rupture before the mechanism in the flanges with four yield lines has fully developed.

With the aid of the above Equations, a diagram can be drawn showing the relation between plate strength and bolt strength
and the accompanying failure modes, see Figure 9. In Figure 9, γ and β have the following meaning:
γ= but γ ≤ 1,25 (1-27)
β= (1-28)
It is recommended the connection is designed such that failure mode (1) just controls, β = 2γ /(1 + 2γ), because then the
deformation capacity is provided in the best way and the bolt strength is consistent with the flange strength (m). In failure
mode (3) the deformation arises mainly from the bolt elongations. These deformations are small compared with the plastic
deformations of the flanges in failure mode (1). The deformation capacity of failure modes (2) and (3) can be increased by
selecting bolts with threads over the entire length of the bolt.
According to Annex H of Eurocode 3 [1], the tension zone of an unstiffened column flange should be assumed to act as a
series of equivalent T-stubs with a total length equal to the total effective length Σ leff of the bolt pattern in the tension zone
of the connection.
Using yield line theory, the effective length leff appropriate for each of those T-stubs may be calculated, see Figures 10 and
11.


If the distance between the bolt rows is large, then a separate yield line pattern around every bolt is formed, see Figure 10.
The circle pattern governs if e is large with respect to m, i.e.
if e > 1,8 m (1-29)
The values for leff are:
● For one bolt row:
leff = 4 m + 1,25 e (1-30)
leff = 2 πm (1-31)
● For a combined T-stub:
leff = 0,5 p + 2 m + 0,625 e (1-32)
leff = 0,5 p + πm (1-33)
In contrast to welded connections, it is possible when using bolted connections to strengthen the connection with stiffening
plates such that the force can be transferred from the beam flange into the column web without bending of the former,
Figure 12.

If stiffening plates are used, the stiffness and strength of the column flange is increased. The increase is beneficial for the
design strength of the bolt rows near such stiffening plates.
The strength of such bolt rows can be calculated by introducing a T-stub with an equivalent length leff.
According to Annex J of Eurocode 3, the value of leff equals:
leff = α m1 (1-34)
Values for α are given in Figure 13. This diagram is established on the basis of yield line theory and test results [4]. The
value of α depends on the geometry near the stiffening plate.

In the equation for λ1 and λ2 (the values on the horizontal and the vertical axes in Figure 13), m1 is the distance between
the bolt and the column web, and m2 is the distance between the bolt and the stiffening plate.
Alternatively the column flange may be strengthened by using loose backing plates as indicated in Figure 14.

The length of the backing plates should be at least the length of leff for the bolt pattern considered.
The backing plates increase the plastic moment on the yield line through the bolts, but not the plastic moment at the
junction of the flange with the web, see Figures 7 and 8.
Clearly backing plates are only effective if failure mode (1) in Figure 9 is decisive, see also Figure 8.
Equation (1-17) can be modified to account for the extra yield line:
Ft = (1-35)
Ft = (1-36)

Ft = (1-37)
It should be noted that, because of the appearance of only one yield line, a factor 2 must be used for 2 Mp.bp in Equation (1-
35).
From the above Equations, it may be concluded that, if tf = tbp, the use of backing plates gives an increase of 50% in the
design resistance of the column flange.
2.3 Yield/Rupture of the Column Web
The force Ft spreads in the column web over a length beff, see Figure 15.

It is assumed that the failure load is reached if the average stress due to Ft over the length beff equals the yield stress:
Ft = fyc twc beff (1-38)
For a welded connection, the same expression for beff is used in the tension zone as in the compression zone. Although tests
[5] have shown that the strength in the tension zone is usually greater than in the compression zone, the same equation is
chosen for reasons of simplicity.
According to Eurocode 3, beff for a welded connection is given by:
beff = tfb + 2 ab + 5 (tfc + rc) (1-39)
For a bolted connection, the effective length of the column web in the tension zone is taken equal to the total effective
length of the equivalent T-stubs (see Section 1.2).
The column web can be strengthened by stiffening plates and/or by welded supplementary web plates, see Figure 16.

If the web plate is only single sided and is connected by butt welds, only half of the plate thickness may be used for the
calculation of the design resistance. The reasons are the eccentricity and the design of the welds. If fillet welds are present,
some spaces must be left between the flange and the edge of the plate to permit a reasonable execution of the weld. For this
reason, the force must be transferred through initially the thickness of the web. Therefore, the effective thickness of the
combined column web and supplementary web plate should not be taken greater than 1,4 times the web thickness (1,4 twc).
3. TRANSFER OF COMPRESSION FORCES

The action of a compression force on an unstiffened column may cause local buckling of the column web. Using tests on
special test specimens [5], as shown in Figure 17, and on complete beam-to-column connections, research has been carried
out to establish a design model. The derived model is that the column web starts buckling if the average stress over a
certain effective length equals the yield stress. This model, therefore, is basically the same as the model for the transfer of a
tensile force in the web, as discussed above.

Fc = fyc twc beff (2-1)
In Figure 18 the equations for beff are given which apply for various designs of the compression zone. The basic
assumption in these equations is that the spread in the column flange and the column radius have a slope 2,5 : 1, and the
slope in other parts of the connection is 1 : 1.


In the model of Figure 18b and Figure 19 with the extended end plate, it is assumed that the end plate under the beam
flange yields before the buckling load in the column web is reached. In this case, the compression force Fc spreads over the
thickness of the end plate.
The projection of the end plate should obey the following condition:
fy Wpl.endplate ≤ Fc le (2-2)
fy bp tp2 ≤ Fc le (2-3)
le ≥ (2-4)
If the condition of Equation (2-4) is not fulfilled, then a hard point is formed at the edge of the end plate. The effective
length beff is then smaller:
beff = 5 (tc + rc) (2-5)
The moment arm, however, between the tensile force in the tension zone and the compression force is somewhat greater.
This is an advantage.
In the case of large axial forces in the column, the local buckling load in the compression zone is reduced. As long as the

axial stress σn is smaller than 0,5 fy, the influence can be ignored. For greater values of σn, the design resistance for the
compression force Fc should be calculated with the following equation:
Fc = fyc twc beff [1,25 - 0,5σn / fyc] (2-6)
In this equation the second part is the reduction factor:
R = 1,25 - 0,5 [σn / fyc] but R ≤ 1,0 (2-7)
The column can also be strengthened in the compression zone with stiffening plates between the flanges or with a
supplementary web plate.
4. TRANSFER OF SHEAR FORCES (SHEAR ZONE)

In non-symmetric connections, such as T- and corner connections, the column web is also loaded by a shear force Fv.
Loading by a shear force also occurs in symmetric connections that are loaded asymmetrically.
For instance in the T-connection of Figure 20, the tensile force in the upper flange of the beam must be transferred through
the shear panel to be in equilibrium with the compression force in the lower flange of the beam.

Assuming that the web is sufficiently stocky for shear buckling not to occur, the design resistance of the shear panel is:
Fv = hc twc (3-1)
The column web can be strengthened with diagonal plates or with one or two supplementary web plates, see Figure 21.
When diagonal plates are designed, care should be taken to avoid problems with the installation of the bolts; see for
example Figure 21b.

The action of stiffeners sometimes can be better understood when thinking in terms of tension and compression; see for
example the arrangement in Figure 22.

● In order to transfer moment a connection must be capable of resisting local tensile and compressive forces.
● Design must address each item in the "chain" of components involved in transferring the loads, with connection
resistance being controlled by the weakest link in the chain.
● For bolted connections a T-stub model provides a satisfactory explanation of all important aspects of behaviour;
yield line theory supported by test evidence forms the basis for detailed rules.
● For semi-continuous framing, an acceptable balance between tensile resistance and adequate ductility may be
achieved by arranging for mode 1 failure to control; this corresponds to yielding of the plates without the
development of excessive bolt prying forces. In other moment resisting frames, it is usually more economic to use
connections that are governed by Mode 2 or Mode 3, i.e. with thicker end-plates.
● For unsymmetrical beam-to-column connection arrangements, including unbalanced loading of symmetrical
connections, the resistance of the column web panel in shear should be checked.
6. REFERENCES
[1] Eurocode 3: Design of Steel Structures: European Prestandard 1993-1-1: Part 1.1: General rules and rules for buildings,
CEN, 1992.
[2] Wood, R. H., "Yield Line Theory", Research Paper nr. 22, Building Research Station, Watford, England, 1955.
[3] Zoetemeijer, P., Summary of the research on bolted beam-to-column connections, Delft University of Technology,
Faculty of Civil Engineering, Stevin Laboratory report 6-90-02, 1990. This report is also published as a background report
for Eurocode 3, Chapter 6.
[4] WRC and ASCE, "Commentary on Plastic Design in Steel", Progress Report 6: Connections, Journal Eng. Mech, Div.,
ASCE, 86, EM2, April 1960, pp 107-140.
[5] Graham, J. D., Sherbourne, A. N., Khabbaz, R. N., and Jensen, C. D., Welded Interior Beam-to-Column Connections,
Welding Research Council Bulletin nr 63, August 1960.
1. Owens, G. W. and Cheal, B. D., "Structural Steelwork Connections", Butterworths & Co. (Publishers) Limited,
1989.
2. Kulak, G. L., Fisher, J. W. and Struik, J. H. A., "Guide to Design Criteria for Bolted and Riveted Joints", Willey -
Interscience, 2nd Edition, 1987.
4. W. F. Chen "Joint Flexibility in Steel Frames", Journal of Constructional Steel Research Vol 8, 1987.

ESDEP WG 11:
Lecture 11.5: Simple Connections for

Buildings
OBJECTIVE/SCOPE
To provide an initial introduction to the various aspects of connection design in simple steel construction.
PRE-REQUISITES

RELATED LECTURES (covering specific items in greater detail)
SUMMARY
The relation between the selection of the frame model and the connection design is first discussed. The various forms
of connections in simple buildings are identified for both the framework and the bracing system, and the main design
criteria and checking procedures are presented. Reference is also made to the economic implications concerning fabrication
and erection. Detailed aspects of behaviour and design are referred back to earlier lectures in the group.
1. INTRODUCTION
Simple connections are defined as joints between members that have not been designed with the intention that they
transmit significant moments. Their purpose is to transfer load from the supported member into the supporting member in
such a way that essentially only direct forces are involved, e.g. vertical shear in a beam to column or beam to beam
connection, axial tension or compression in a lattice girder chord splice, column base or column splice connection. They
may, therefore, only be used in situations where sufficient bracing is present that, when the joints are assumed to function
as pins, adequate overall structural resistance is present. Popular arrangements include lattice girders and bracing systems
or connections between beams and columns in rectangular frames in which lateral loadings are resisted by stiff systems
of shear walls, cores or braced bays.
Figures 1a and 1b illustrate multistorey frames in which simple connections may be used for each of the 6
different requirements A-E listed alongside Figure 1a. Thus the structural idealisations suitable for determining the
distribution of member forces will be as shown in Figure 1c and 1d, with all lateral loading being resisted by the bracing
or shear wall. When considering the design of the frame to withstand gravity loading, the assumption of pin connections
makes the overall structural analysis particularly straightforward, since loads can be traced from floors into beams into
columns and eventually into the foundations using a simple statical process.


Simple joints also lead to easier fabrication and erection and as explained in Lecture 11.1.1 are, therefore, likely to produce
the most cost-effective steel frames. Taking the example of a beam to column connection, the simple joint must:
● transfer the beam reaction into the column in shear

● have sufficient flexibility not to transfer other than small moments into the column, e.g. due to some small eccentricity in
the lines of force transfer
● possess sufficient rotation capacity to permit the beam to develop its "simple" deflected shape.
Thus, in terms of the classification system introduced in Lecture 11.1.2., the connection should function as "nominally
pinned" for both moment capacity and rotational stiffness and the only form of load transfer required will be the vertical
shear illustrated in Figs. 9(2) and 11 of that Lecture.
Simple connections will normally be either fully bolted, e.g. the arrangements using angle cleats of Fig. 10 of Lecture
11.1.1, or will involve a combination of shop welding and site bolting, e.g. the fin plate and end plate arrangements of the
same Figure. Except for connections subject to vibration, e.g. in foundations for moving machinery or in crane
support structures, untorqued bolts in clearance holes should be used.
This lecture discusses the structural design of several examples of each of the 6 connection arrangements listed in Figure 1.
In doing this it makes use of basic material on weld strength and bolt strength presented in Lectures 11.2 and 11.3
respectively, as well as the approach to the analysis of connections given in Lecture 11.4.
2. BEAM-TO-BEAM CONNECTIONS
Floor decks in buildings are usually supported by means of grids of secondary beams and main girders simply connected
to each other.
Some typical connections are illustrated in Figure 2. Types A and C, which make use of web cleats bolted to both the
girder and the beam, are the most common forms. Type B with the cleats bolted to the girder and welded to the beam, and
types D and E where a flush end plate is adopted, may cause lack-of-fit problems during erection due to the
dimensional tolerances. Connection types D and E possess some predictable stiffness and strength, but their consequent
partial continuity is usually neglected in design.

As shown in types C and D, the beam end may be coped removing part of one or both flanges, when the beam and
girder flanges meet at the same level. The beam is thus locally weakened. The appropriate checks must be made as
discussed below. Nevertheless, this solution is less expensive than type E, which requires that a tee stiffener is welded to
the girder.
As a variant to A the web angles may be replaced by a fin plate, as shown in Type F, a single plate which is shop welded to
the primary beam and site bolted to the secondary beam. A fin plate connection is particularly simple to both fabricate
and erect, but it requires careful design if it is to function as a notional pin [1]. In particular, there is a need to decide where
the "hinge" is located as explained in Section 3 of Lecture 11.6.

For web cleated connections, it is good practice to place the angles as close as possible to the upper flange of the girder in
order to minimise cracking of the concrete floor slab due to the beam rotation.
Bolts and welds in connections should be able to resist the beam reaction and any relevant moment due to the eccentricity
of the force to the centerline of the connecting components as explained in Section 2 of Lecture 11.4.3.
When a beam is coped, as in connection type C, it should be verified that no failure may occur at the section that has
been weakened (block shear) as explained in Section 2 of Lecture 11.4.3.
3. BEAM-TO-COLUMN CONNECTIONS
Several forms of simple beam-to-column connections are illustrated in Figure 3.

Type A, which is shown as fully bolted, may also be configured by welding the cleats to the beam end. For lightly
loaded beams, a single sided cleat may be used but the additional eccentricities must then be allowed for when checking
bolt strength, etc.
The finplate Type B requires the same form of attention when deciding on the design model as discussed in the
previous section where its use in beam to beam situations was discussed. It is one of the few arrangements obviously
suitable for use with SHS (either RHS or CHS) columns as no bolting to the column is necessary.
Both types A and B provide some allowance for tolerance (through the clearance in the beam web holes) on member
length. Type B permits beams to be lifted in from one side.
Types C and D require a more strict control of beam length and of squareness of the cross-section at the end of the beam.
The flush end plate scheme of type D is sometimes preferred to the part depth end plate (type C) in order to reduce the
chances of damage during transportation. Partial depth endplates should not normally be less than about 0.6 times the
beam depth or the end torsional restraint to the beam may be reduced. Figure 4 illustrates how flexibility and rotation
capacity is provided. Depending on the details, the connection behaviour of type D could change from a notational pin; it
may be more appropriate to acknowledge this semi-rigid behaviour (see Lecture 11.7). This may be avoided by keeping
the endplate thickness down to a maximum of 8-10 mm and making the bolt cross-centres as large as is practical so as to
ensure adequate flexibility and rotation capacity.

As for beam-to-beam connections, the bolts and the welds should be able to resist the beam reactions and the relevant
moment due to the eccentricity of the force to the centreline of the connecting material as explained in Lecture 11.4.3.
Since this eccentricity is relatively small the column bending moment for such a connection is much smaller than from
a moment connection as discussed in Lecture 11.6.
Since the general approach to the design of all forms of simple connections is essentially the same, it will be sufficient
to consider only one type in some detail. Figure 5 illustrates the 6 possible failure modes for a finplate connection; the
load carrying capacity for each must be calculated and the lowest value compared with the design requirements. Methods
for doing this have already been presented in Lectures 11.4. It is also necessary to ensure - usually by means of
appropriate detailing - that the connection will function in the manner intended, i.e. will not be too stiff and will
possess adequate rotation capacity. This may be achieved by:

● ensuring that strength is governed by a ductile mode of failure.
Bearing of the bolts in either the finplate or the beam web is usually arranged to form the governing condition.
When performing the structural checks it is necessary to be consistent in the assumption of the location of the line of
shear transfer, i.e. the "hinge" line. One approach (1) that removes the need for a decision is to design both the bolt group
and the welds for the combination of shear and eccentricity moment. Alternatively, the location can be chosen as the bolt
group for the stiff support arrangement illustrated in Figure 5 or the weld if the support is more flexible as would be the
case, for example, if a RHS column were used (due to bending of the column face as a plate).
4. COLUMN SPLICES
In simple frames columns are predominantly stressed in compression. In theory no splice connection is required, since
the compression force is transmittable by direct bearing. Due to the presence of geometric imperfections (lack of straightness
of the column) as well as of unavoidable eccentricities, and to the fact that even carefully machined surfaces will never
assure full contact, connections have to be provided. They should be designed to resist the internal forces (other
than compression) determined in the column at the point where they are located.
Even when the column is subject to simple compression, and full contact in bearing is assumed, codes specify stiffness
and strength requirements to be fulfilled. Eurocode 3 prescribes that the splice should provide continuity of flexural
stiffness about both axes, and should be able to carry a force, acting at the abutting ends in any direction perpendicular to
the axis of the member, not less than 2,5% of the compression.
The location of the splice should be selected so that any adverse effect on column stability is avoided, i.e. the distance of
the connection from the floor level should be kept as low as possible. A limit of 1/5th of the storey height is usually accepted.
If this requirement cannot be fulfilled, account should be taken of the (second order) moment induced by
member imperfections.
More significant bending resistance may be required in splices when columns are subject to primary moments, as in a
frame model assuming hinges at, or outside, the column outer face. In addition, in columns acting as chords of
cantilever bracing trusses, tensile forces may arise (uplift) in some loading conditions, which must be transmitted by splices.
Typical column splices suitable for use in simply designed frames are shown in Figure 6. They are of two basic types: A, B
and C all transmit the whole of the force through the cover plates, whilst D-G rely on direct bearing.

When a bolted solution is adopted (types A, B and C), both flanges and the web are usually connected. Type A uses a
double cover plate, whilst type C uses single cover plates for the flanges. These may be positioned on the outside faces of
the flanges so as to reduce the plan area occupied by the splice. Forces are distributed among the connecting plates
in proportion to the stress resultant in the cross-sectional elements, e.g. for simple compression in proportion to the areas of
the flanges and of the web. Differences in column flange thickness may be accommodated by the use of packs.
When the surfaces of the end cross-sections of the two column shapes are sawn and considered to be flat, and
squareness between these surfaces and the member axis is guaranteed, the axial force may be assumed to be transmitted
by bearing. Fillet welds (type D) or light cover plates (type E) are provided to resist possible secondary shear force and
bending moment when the upper and lower columns differ in serial size. A plate may be interposed, and welded to both
column sections as in connection type F, or, alternatively, two welded plates bolted to each other may be used (type G).
Plates are flattened by presses in the range of thicknesses up to 50m, and machined by planing for thicknesses greater
than 100mm. For intermediate thicknesses either working process may be selected.
Where there is a significant variation of cross-sectional dimensions in the arrangement of type F, the plate(s) must be
checked for bending resistance. A possible conservative model assumes the plate is a cantilever of breadth equal to the
width of, and clamped to, the upper column flange. The axial force, which is transmitted between the corresponding
column flanges, is applied as an external load at the mean plane of the flange of the lower column.
Full details of this approach are presented in ref. 2, from which it is clear that if plate thicknesses are to remain reasonable,
then only moderate offsets of the order of the column flange thickness are possible. For larger differences in column size,
a short vertical stiffener may be located directly below the flange(s) of the upper column to directly assist in transferring
the locally high force.
5. BRACING CONNECTIONS
Connections within the bracing system or between the bracing system and the main framing have to transfer forces between
a number of differently oriented members. Since the triangulated bracing arrangement will have been designed on the basis
that each member carries only axial forces (apart from any relatively small bending effects due to non-coincidence of
centroidal axes), the design requirement for the bracing connections is essentially the transfer of direct forces between
a number of differently oriented members.
Two basic arrangements are illustrated in Figure 7: Type A attaches the bracing to the main framing, Type B is an
internal bracing connection. Types C and D combine both functions by making the beams part of the bracing system. Details
of the design considerations and the calculations necessary to effect these have already been provided in Section 1.3 of
Lecture 11.4.3.


6. COLUMN BASES
A column base connection always consists of a plate welded to the foot of the column and bolted down to the foundations.
A second, usually rather thicker, steel plate is normally incorporated into the top of the foundation, as illustrated in Figure 8.
It helps both to locate the foot of the column accurately and in spreading the load into the weaker (concrete or
masonry) foundation material.

Baseplate connections in simple construction are generally modelled as pins, and designed to transfer either concentric
force (compression or tension) or a combination of axial and shear force (usually when the column is part of the bracing
system (Figure 8c)). In some instances they may, however, be designed to transmit also bending moments due to moderate
load eccentricity, or for erection stability.
The plate is always attached to the column by means of fillet welds. However, if the column carries only compression
loads, direct bearing may be assumed, provided that the contact surfaces are machined or can be considered to be flat.
No verification of the welds is then required. Machining may be omitted if loads are relatively small.
Where there are moderate tension forces or no net tension the holding down bolts are usually cast into the foundation
(Figure 9). They anchor the baseplate by bonding (Figure 9a), by bonding and bearing (Figure 9 b, c), or by bearing (Figure 9d).
When tensile forces are significant, it is necessary to provide appropriate anchorage to the bolts. For example threaded
bolts may be used in conjunction with channel sections embedded in the concrete.
In tension connections the baseplate thickness is often dictated by the bending moments produced by the holding down
bolts. The bending moments may require the use of stiffeners (Figures 8c and 8d). Such an arrangement significantly
increases the fabrication content and therefore the cost of the column base as compared with the "simple" case.

7. BEAM-TO-CONCRETE WALL CONNECTIONS

In high-rise buildings it may be convenient to combine the steel structure resisting gravity loads with a concrete core
resisting horizontal forces.
Attaching the steel frame to a concrete core is mainly a practical problem, since the two systems are built with
dimensional tolerances of a different order of magnitude. Special care should be taken to account for the relative sequence
of erection of the concrete and steel system, the method of construction of the core (on which concrete tolerances also
depend), as well as the feasibility of compensating for misalignments.
The connection should be able to transfer to the core vertical forces, V, due to loads applied to the beam, and horizontal
forces, H, due to wind and frame geometrical imperfections (lack of verticality). Some connection types are illustrated
in Figure 10. It is important to stress that the details in the concrete wall must be suitably designed to disperse
connection forces safely. In particular the details are especially important when deep beams are required to transmit
high vertical loads.


The type shown in Figure 10a, with pockets in the wall, is convenient for ease of adjustment, but complex in terms of
core erection. Types illustrated in Figures 10b to 10h where part of the connection is encased in the core wall during
concrete pouring, may be preferable.
The steel plate may be flush with the wall surface, as in types b-f, or extended outwards as in types g and h. In the first
case, which is usually the more convenient because the steel plate can be supported on the inside face of the formwork, a
single web plate is welded on site to which the steel beam is then attached. In the latter case the beam can be connected
directly to the encased plate. Reinforcing bars (rebars) and/or headed studs can be used in order to transmit both components
of the beam action. Full penetration welds are preferred when the rebars are connected directly to the flush plate (Figure
10d), so that eccentricity of the force with respect to the weldment is avoided (Figure10c).
Checking of the various components within the connection should be conducted in a consistent manner, ensuring that
the principles of connection design, e.g. the assumed distribution of forces satisfies equilibrium, are observed. As an
illustration of this, consider the structural requirements for the arrangement of Figure 10h. Assuming that the shear
transfer plane, ie. the "hinge" location of the simple connection, is the mid-plane of the wall, then the set of headed studs
must resist only shear. Alternatively, if the "hinge" is assumed as the wall face, then the studs should be designed to resist
a combination of shear and moment. This general requirement for a consistent approach to modelling the force transfers
is further explained in Figure 11, which details the load transfer for the arrangement of case 10e. The shear force V is
assumed to be resisted entirely by the shear studs, whilst the moment M is carried by a couple consisting of tension in the
upper rebars and compression transmitted by contact stresses between the concrete and the steel plate. Whichever
arrangement is adopted, however, the main requirement is to ensure a proper dispersion of forces into the core wall.

● Simple connections should be designed to transfer loads from the supported member into the supporting member as directly
as possible. Apart from small moments arising from non-coincidence of certain lines of force transfer, no significant
bending actions are involved.
● Simple connections are suitable for the 6 different tasks identified in Figure 1.
● Their structural design should be undertaken using the methods of Lecture 11.4.3 - specifically the sections dealing
with connections to gusset plates and transfer of shear forces.
● When connecting a steel frame to concrete - either at a column base or to a core - care must be taken to avoid overstressing
the weaker concrete. Load spreading using steel plates for compressive forces and proper transfer using anchored
rebars, holding down bolts, shear studs or anchored plates for tensile forces must be considered.
9. REFERENCES
[1]. BCSA/SCI "Joints in Simple Construction", Volume 1: Design
Methods (2nd edition) 1993 pp 81/94
Provides an explanation of basic behaviour, suggested proportions for the key components and detailed rules for checking
the structural adequacy of beam to beam, beam to column, column splice and column base connections.
[2] Ballio, G. and Mazzolani, F.M., "Theory and design of steel structures", Chapman and Hall, London 1983.
Comprehensive text on theory and design of steel structures. Deals extensively with connections.

1. Hayward, A. and Weare, F., "Steel Detailers Manual", BSP Professional Books, Oxford, England, 1988.
General problems of welding and bolting as well as detailing practice are extensively covered. Basic design guidance
and examples of different types of structures ranging from buildings to towers and bridges are also given.
2. Hart, F., Henn, W. and Sontag, H., "Stahlbau Atlas - Geschossbauten", Internationale Architektur Dokumentation,
Munich, 1982.
This book presents a wide range of practical solutions for connections in steel and composite buildings. It is available in
four different European languages (French, English, Dutch and Italian).

3. Connection between steel, concrete and masonry. The Steel Construction Institute 1994.
Describes a variety of practical connections between steel, concrete and masonry, including column bases and connections
to existing concrete and masonry for refurbishment projects.
4. Hogan, T.J. and Firkins, A., "Standardised structural connections", Australian Institute of Steel Construction, 1981.
Presents design models and resistance tables for the main connection types.
5. Blodgett, O.W., "Design of welded structures", James F Lincoln Arc Welding Foundation, Cleveland, Ohio, USA, 1972.
6. ENV 1993: Eurocode 3: Design of steel structures, Part 1: General rules and rules for buildings, 1992.
Chapter 6 covers the design of fasteners, and of connection components. Appendices J and L deal with the design of beam-
to-column and column base connections respectively.
7. 7.. Kulak, G.L., Fisher, J.W. and Struik, J.H.A., "Guide to design criteria for bolted and riveted joints", Wiley & Sons,
New York, 1987.
Gives a comprehensive appraisal of the behaviour of bolted joints, and reviews in detail methods for design analysis.

ESDEP WG 11
Lecture 11.6: Moment Connections for Continuous

Framing
OBJECTIVE/SCOPE
To describe the means of achieving moment resisting connections in continuous frames.
PREREQUISITES
RELATED LECTURES:
Lecture 11.3.1: Connections with Non-Preloaded Bolts
Lecture 11.3.2: Connections with Preloaded Bolts
Lecture 11.3.3: Particular Aspects in Bolted Connections

SUMMARY
This lecture discusses the requirements of rigid moment resisting connections for frames analysed elastically and full
strength moment resisting connections for frames analysed plastically. It describes the means of forming such
connections using bolts and/or welds. It summarises the design of full strength connections, reviewing the design approaches
in Annex J of EC3. Because of their popularity it draws attention to the particular arrangements for portal frame eaves and
apex connections.
1. INTRODUCTION
Building frames can be designed without moment connections. 'Simple Construction', in which the connections are
'nominally pinned' and lateral resistance is provided by some form of bracing, is economical and popular.
However, there are many practical structures in which moment-resisting connections are necessary. Unbraced frames are
an obvious example, but even in braced frames there may be a requirement for a cantilever or a midspan beam splice. In
high rise frames continuity can be advantageous in controlling lateral deflection.
Moment connections are usually required to transmit shear force - and sometimes axial force - as well, but in practice
moment tends to be the prime concern.
'Continuous' framing implies connections which are sufficiently 'performing' (in terms of stiffness and/or strength) for
their influence on frame behaviour to be ignored. In other words, they are acceptably close to the theoretical 'ideal'
connection, and their characteristics need not be part of the input for the global analysis.
Not all moment connections qualify. Those which do not are classed as 'partial strength' or 'semi-rigid' and are the subject
of Lecture 11.7.
This Lecture is concerned with connections which are 'Full Strength' and/or 'Rigid'.
2. RESUME OF WHAT 'CONTINUOUS' IMPLIES

Classification of moment connections is covered in Lecture 11.1.1 Connections in Buildings.

In this section, recall that the method of analysis determines which attribute is relevant.
Elastic global analysis implies Rigid connections.
Plastic global analysis implies Full Strength connections.
Although many practical connections would quality as both Rigid and Full Strength, it is important to recognise that this is
not essential.
An elastically analysed continuous frame could incorporate connections which are Rigid and Partial Strength, (provided
of course that they are sufficiently strong to resist the moment which results from the analysis).
Similarly, a plastically analysed continuous frame could incorporate connections which are Full Strength and Semi-
Rigid (though it might be necessary to take account of connection flexibility when serviceability and stability are
under consideration).
Some of Eurocode 3's predecessors have obscured this important distinction.
Notably, the word 'Rigid' has been expected to do double duty, being applied to all connections for continuous framing.
(In some contexts, it is even used to mean no more than 'resistant to rotation, i.e. not pinned.) In Eurocode 3, and in ESDEP,
it applies strictly to the rotational stiffness of the connection.
Traditionally, nearly all moment-resisting frames have been designed as continuous. Semi-continuous design has
been eschewed on account of additional complexity in the analysis process, but may become more popular in the
future (Lecture 11.7 covers it). Continuous design - be it elastic or plastic - prevails in practice. Designers therefore seek
to ensure that connections are Rigid or Full Strength.
Both these attributes are relative to the connected member. A connection might be full strength relative to a beam which
is S275 but not to a beam which is S355. It might be Rigid if the beam is 10m long, but not if the beam is 8m long.
Eurocode 3's 'Rigid' standard is considerably more demanding in the case of an unbraced frame, as can be seen from Figure
1 (which reproduces Fig. 6.9.8. of the standard).


Finally, it should be noted that the importance of the continuous/semi-continuous distinction is confined to
hyperstatic (indeterminate) frames. When the situation is statically determinate the connection can be designed for
strength alone.
3. RIGID AND FULL STRENGTH CONNECTIONS IN PRACTICE

Many of the features which make a connection Rigid also make it strong. In practice, a connection designed to be Rigid may
be indistinguishable from one designed as full strength, and as already mentioned, it may very well be both. Nevertheless,
the correlation between strength and stiffness is far from perfect.
3.1 Full Strength Connections
A full strength connection can generally be achieved by welding, using stiffeners as necessary. Indeed, it is advisable
(statically determinate situations excepted) that welded connections should generally be designed as full strength,
since undersized welds may fail in brittle fashion if exposed to greater than expected moment resulting from (e.g.)
differential settlement.
In bolted connections, it is all but impossible to achieve a full strength connection within the depth of the beam. Bolts
outside the tension flange, e.g. in an extended end plate, can deliver full strength up to medium depth beams; the limit
depends on the strength of the beam and the bolts but is commonly around 4-500mm. (Incidentally, 'high strength' bolts - 8.8
or 10.9 - are practically obligatory in moment connections, and designers must often resort to M24 or even larger
sizes.) Beyond this depth it is necessary to increase the lever arm, by welding on a haunch or gusseted extension. Haunches
are commonly almost as deep as the beam itself (frequently they are cut from the same section), but such deep haunches are
not always necessary.
The possibility that the beam will be significantly overstrength (making the 'full strength' connection into a 'partial
strength' one) should not be overlooked. Eurocode 3 suggests that overdesigning the connection by 20% would avert this
risk, but this is easier said than done. It would be reasonable to adopt a conservative approach to sizing the
components particularly at risk, which are the bolts and welds.
3.2 Rigid Connections
Calculating the moment resistance of a connection, to verify that it qualifies as 'full strength', is a routine procedure and
one whose results can be regarded with a fair degree of confidence. The same cannot be said of the rotational
stiffness classification. In principle, this can be calculated numerically, and Eurocode 3 Clause J.3.7 gives a formula
for application to end plate connections. It should be noted that the present (ENV 1993) formula gives inconsistent results,
and is likely to be changed in the definitive version. In practice, as mentioned in the preceding section, a qualitative
judgement remains the almost universal approach.
What are the features that make a connection 'Rigid'? Perhaps it is more instructive to approach from the opposite
direction, and consider what features introduce flexibility. The flexibility of the connection is the sum of the
component flexibilities, and one or two unduly flexible components can overshadow the rest.
Direct load paths are best, involving axial tension or compression, not bending, in the components. For this reason, virtually
all the usual types of welded connection, certainly all fully stiffened ones, will qualify as Rigid. It is in bolted connections
that flexibility is hard to avoid.

Where bolts are subject to shear, and are not preloaded, some degree of slip is to be expected. If this occurs on the
moment resisting 'load path' of a connection, it can hardly be regarded as Rigid. For this reason, axially loaded bolts
are favoured in moment connections, and bolts subject to shear (such as those in cover plated splices) should be preloaded
if the connection is required to be Rigid.
A bolt loaded in tension subjects the plates it passes through (such as the end plate and the flange of the column) to bending.
To minimise flexibility, it is advantageous to:
● place the bolts 'compactly', i.e. as close as practical to the web and flange of the beam
● provide additional stiffeners, also located close to the bolts
● avoid excessively thin plates
● maximise lever arm, e.g. by use of haunch.
In practice, provided that the bolt layout is 'compact' and the plates passed through are equal in thickness to the bolt
diameter, all haunched connections and most extended end plates are commonly regarded as Rigid. Flush end plates
are debatable. Some designers would ensure that the connection achieves a minimum of 60% of full strength, or some
other proportion. In doing so they are appealing to the correlation between stiffness and strength. Although this is imperfect,
it must be conceded that practical alternatives are elusive.
Eurocode 3's very much more rigorous criterion for unbraced frames - over three times as much stiffness as demanded for
the 'Rigid' appellation - is incompatible with current practice, which tends not to distinguish between braced and
unbraced frames. It is important to understand that in both cases there is no implication that the frame suddenly ceases
to perform if one or more of its connections do not meet the qualifying standard. All that it means is that connection
flexibility must be taken into account in the global analysis. In other words, semi-rigid analysis is called for.
4. MEANS OF FORMING CONNECTIONS

Most building frames consist of vertical columns and horizontal beams. It is a fact of life for the connection designer that
the members have to be connected at peak moment regions where the beams meet the columns*. Normally these
members occupy the same plane - it would be difficult to transmit moment between them if they did not - and only one
can pass through the connection uninterrupted. Because the column has axial compression as well as moment to bear, it
is given precedence in multistorey construction.
There may also be a requirement for end-to-end column splices to be designed as continuous.
The feet of columns may be connected to the concrete substructure by moment connections. It is perhaps more usual to
treat this joint as nominally pinned. However, provided the substructure and, if necessary, the soil, can resist the moment
(and do so 'Rigidly' if elastic analysis so demands), a 'fixed foot' may be designed.
End-to-end beam splices are occasionally required; sometimes it is necessary for one beam to cross another, at the same
level, in another direction. In these cases the requirement may be to transmit moment from one member to its
continuation, shear alone being transmitted to the beam 'passed through'.
The popular bolted moment connections used in practice are:
● End plate connections Beam to Column, Beam to Beam, Column to Column (flush, extended, gusseted, haunched ..)
● T-sections attached to both flanges Beam to Column

● Cover plate splice connections Beam to Beam, Column to Column
For base connections (to concrete) a variant of the end plate connection is generally used, though pocketed connections
(in which a suitable depth of the column is simply embedded in the concrete) can be chosen.
Popular welded moment connections are:
● All welded
● Welded flanges, bolted web (a hybrid, for ease of erection)
Figure 2 illustrates a selection of these connection types.


This discussion has related specifically to moment connections. For more general discussion on the relative merits of
welded and bolted connections of different types, reference should be made to Lecture 11.1.2: Introduction to
Connection Design.
5. STRENGTH DESIGN OF CONNECTIONS

All moment connections are designed for strength in the same way, irrespective of whether they are required to be Rigid or
full strength. The process is one of ensuring that all the components of the connection are capable of resisting the effects of
the applied moment. Simultaneously, the connection is usually required to resist an applied shear force, and sometimes an
axial force, but more often than not moment is dominant.
Take as an example a typical beam-to-column connection. Moment is transmitted by coupling compression at or near
bottom flange level with tension in the upper part of the connection. In the absence of axial force in the beam these two
forces are equal.
In a welded connection, it is customary (and not too far from the truth) to assume that the tension and compression
are concentrated in the flanges. Although this assumption, in a connection at or near full strength, violates the yield
criterion, there is experimental justification for it. In the welded flange/bolted web connection, a hybrid type popular in
North America, the 'overstress' in the beam flange may (depending on the section) exceed 40%.
In a bolted connection the upper bolts must resist the tension, and the compression is usually assumed to be transmitted
by direct bearing of the bottom flange.
A number of other components may limit the strength of the connection, and Figure 3 illustrates those which apply to an
end plate connection. Each must be checked in turn. In some cases a deficiency can be remedied by
adding 'stiffeners' (strengtheners, really) or some other form of reinforcement. Examples are shown in Figure 4.


The web of the column is subject to concentrated lateral forces in the tension and compression zones, and is checked
using empirical formulae which prescribe an effective area of web. In the compression zone, buckling as well as crushing
must be checked. For this purpose restraint from surrounding structure will usually justify an effective buckling length of 0.7
× depth between fillets of column.
Shear in the column web panel can be significant, particularly in a one-sided connection or in an unbraced frame. On the
other hand, in a two-sided connection in a braced frame, the effects induced by the two opposing beams may partially
or completely balance out. Depending on the type of frame, therefore, this component may either be governing or insignificant.
Rules for the detailed checks touched on above are available in Eurocode 3 Annex J, for both welded and bolted end
plate connections. They are largely self explanatory; the scope of a single lecture cannot embrace them, and the rules
for stiffeners and other forms of reinforcement (such as supplementary web plates), in detail.
5.1 Calculation of Bolt Tension
However, the procedures for determining the distribution of bolt force in end plate connections with multiple tension bolt
rows are anything but self explanatory. The commentary which follows describes the principles; more detail can be found
in Lecture 11.4.4.
The force a bolt row can transmit (its 'potential resistance') may be limited by either the plate passed through, the strength
of the bolt itself or a combination of the two. If the plate (which may be either the column flange or the end plate) is thin, it
will deform by bending. If it is thick, the bolt will break before the plate has yielded. In the intermediate thickness range,
the failure mechanism involves yielding of both the plate and the bolt.
5.2 The Equivalent T-stub Concept
Plate bending is complex and three-dimensional in nature. To make the problem tractable, Eurocode 3 introduces
the 'equivalent T-stub' approach. Semi-empirical formulae give the length of T-stub which is supposed to correspond to
the actual pattern of yield lines for both single bolt rows and groups whose yield patterns combine. This T-stub is free
from stiffeners, beam flanges and other complications; their effects have been allowed for in calculating its length. It bends
in two-dimensional fashion, along lines parallel to its web.
The three modes of failure described above can now be visualised rather simply; see Figure 5. The first, labelled Mode
1, involves 'double bending' along the bolt line and adjacent to the fillet. Mode 2 combines yielding of the bolts with a
single yield line at the fillet. Mode 3 is bolt failure alone. The modal formulae result from simple plastic theory and statics,
and naturally it is the one which gives the lowest effective bolt force which governs.

It may be noted that only in Mode 3 is the full resistance of the bolt available; in other modes part of it is ungainfully
occupied in resisting prying force. At best, Mode 1 can make available only about 70% of the bolt's tensile value.
5.3 Multiple Bolt Rows

What complicates matters is that bolt rows are commonly placed close enough to compete for the available plate
bending resistance. Consequently, a pair of bolt rows will mobilise less than twice the force that each could singly, and so on.
Eurocode 3's Annex JJ gives priority to the outer bolt rows which by virtue of their greater lever arm are in a position
to convert this resistance into moment more effectively. It can perhaps be more readily understood by inverting the
described procedure. The potential resistance of the outer row is calculated as if the other tensile rows were not present.
The second row is credited with the potential resistance of rows 1 and 2 taken as a group, minus that of row 1 - or, if less,
that of row 2 alone. And so on, considering (in principle at least) all possible groupings. (Stiffeners, if present, restrict
the number of rows whose yield patterns may combine.)
At the conclusion of this procedure a set of bolt row potential resistances has been established. They are 'potential'
because some other component of the connection (most often in the column web) may limit the total force transmitted. Force
is deducted from the innermost row(s) if this is the case.
Finally the connection moment resistance is calculated as Σ [Fti hi] where Fti is the bolt row force and hi is its lever
arm, measured to the centre of compression which is generally taken as coincident with that of the 'bottom' flange.
5.4 Justification for the Plastic Bolt Force Distribution
It should be noted that this calculation is based on a 'plastic' distribution of bolt force, which requires that there is
sufficient rotation for the inner tensile bolt rows, as well as the outer ones, to develop their ultimate yield patterns.
In connections with multiple bolt rows, this assumption becomes less reasonable as the end plate and column
flange thicknesses increase, and both these plates become relatively unyielding.
An alternative procedure is based on a more traditional 'triangular' distribution of bolt force, in which bolt row force
is restricted in proportion to lever arm. For this distribution there is no restriction on plate thickness, but at present its use
is restricted to full strength connections.
Particularly when more than one load combination must be considered, the design of a moment connection is an
involved process. Inevitably, it is based on trial and error. The use of specialist software is recommended, in preference
to laborious manual verification. There is also a role for predesigned standard moment connections, whose moment
resistance is tabulated by beam size for quick reference.
6. THE PITCHED-ROOF PORTAL FRAME

The pitched-roof portal frame, often plastically analysed, is a very economical and popular building type. Since it is
probably the largest market for the type of connections with which this lecture is concerned, it deserves special mention.
Haunched end plate connections are almost universal in portal frames; these adapt readily to angles of intersection other
than 90°. It is customary to make the eaves haunch depth (almost) equal to that of the beam, and to extend it some way
along the span. The haunch geometry is determined by overall frame design rather than purely a matter of connection
detailing. Apex haunches are usually of more modest size. Figure 6 illustrates typical portal frame connections.

With extended eaves haunches, it becomes a moot point whether the connection is full strength (relative to the plain
beam section) or partial strength (relative to the section as increased by the haunch). This is usually resolved by ensuring
that the latter is sufficiently 'oversized' to force the plastic hinge to occur at the haunch end, and designing the connection
for the maximum moment that this (determinate) situation can induce.
For the usual range of roof pitches, the eaves connection may be designed in the same way as an equivalent 90° beam-
to-column connection, with the compression taken as the horizontal component of haunch flange force. Axial compression
in the beam will generally be non-negligible; this can be added to bottom flange force with the design moment adjusted
to account for its offset.
Except at the interior columns of multi-bay frames, web panel shear is likely to exceed the capacity of the column section.
(The column is very likely to be an I rather than an H section.) Stiffeners are usually called for, and a common choice is
the 'Morris' stiffener shown in Figure 6a. This acts similarly to a conventional diagonal stiffener, with the advantage that
access for the bolts is not impeded.

Additional 'rib' stiffeners may be used to reinforce the column flange between lower bolt rows. The end plate thickness can
of course be chosen to avoid the need for such stiffening, but they are sometimes used on the beam side to enhance web
tension resistance.
● Connections for continuous framing have to be Rigid or Full Strength, depending on the method of analysis.
● Welded connections may more readily be made Rigid and/or Full Strength than bolted ones which tend to be
relatively elaborate and, therefore, expensive. (This gives the designer an incentive to consider semi-continuous framing,
or, where conditions permit, braced frames of 'simple' construction using nominally pinned connections.)
● 'Rigid' is a word to be approached with caution. In this context, Eurocode 3 gives it a precise meaning to describe a standard
of rotational stiffness, relative to that of the connected member. This standard is higher for unbraced frames.
● For elastic analysis, connections may, in principle, be shown to be Rigid by testing or calculation. In practice, they
are customarily judged Rigid by experience.
● Calculation of strength is always necessary, irrespective of the method of analysis. For plastic analysis, connections
are designed to be Full Strength relative to the connected member.
● Design rules for the strength calculation for commonly used types of welded and bolted moment connection are given
in Eurocode 3 Annex JJ.
● A connection may be regarded as a set of 'components' which together make up the load paths by which moment and force
are transmitted. Broadly speaking the strength of the connection is that of its weakest component, and the flexibility of
the connection (the inverse of its rotational stiffness) is the sum of the flexibilties of the components.
● Annex J of Eurocode 3 is under review at the time of preparation of this Lecture and changes are to be anticipated when
the definitive version of this design standard is issued. In the meantime it is instructive to study the relevant clauses of the
ENV version.
8. REFERENCES
[1] Eurocode 3: Design of Steel Structures ENV 1993-1-1: Part 1.1, General Rules and Rules for Buildings.
[2] Owens, G. W, and Cheal, B. D., Structural Steelwork Connections, Butterworths, Oxford 1989.

ESDEP WG 11
Lecture 11.7: Partial Strength Connections

for Semi-Continuous Framing
OBJECTIVE/SCOPE
To explain the attributes necessary in connections for semi-continuous framing, and how suitable connections can be
selected in practice.
RELATED LECTURES
Lecture 14.13: Design of Multi-storey Frames with Partial Strength and Semi-rigid Connections
SUMMARY
The fundamental importance of the ductile partial strength connection in semi-continuous design practice is reviewed. The
mechanics of such connections are discussed and a suitable candidate, the bolted end plate connection with appropriate
choice of plate thickness, is introduced. Calculation methods for strength, rotational stiffness and rotation capacity
according to Eurocode 3 Annex J [1] are briefly discussed.
1. INTRODUCTION
For beam-to-column connections of typical building frames, which may be braced or unbraced, there have traditionally
been two choices: 'simple' (nominally pinned connections) or 'continuous' (moment-resisting connections). Simple
construction requires that the frame is braced, either by triangulation or by something like a reinforced concrete core to
which it is connected at each level. In practice, continuous construction is associated with unbraced frames; it is rarely used
in braced frames except in hybrid high-rise designs and locally in other frames.
Why semi-continuous frame design?
The use of semi-continuous frame design is a matter of economics. Continuous framing implies either rigid or full strength
connections. Both are expensive to fabricate.
While 'simple' connections are cheap, beams designed as simply supported are bigger than they would otherwise need to be.
The semi-continuous approach offers a middle course. It is based on designer choice of a convenient beam end moment, as
illustrated in Figure 1. This end moment is usually set equal to the resistance of a suitable not-too-elaborate connection
detail. The beam is then sized for midspan M = M FREE - M CONN. The connection is, therefore, the key to semi-continuous
frame design.

2. DEFINING TERMS
Figure 2 demonstrates the definition of moment connections by strength, rigidity and ductility.

The important features of a connection in semi-continuous framing are that it is ductile and partial strength.
Ductile: capable of acting as a plastic hinge.
Ductility of a connection is synonymous with rotation capacity (the term used in Eurocode 3), and should not be confused
with ductility of a material such as steel.
Partial Strength: Able to resist less than the plastic moment of the beam.
Since, in continuous frames, maximum moments occur at the beam ends, it is virtually inevitable that a partial strength
connection in this location will be 'overloaded'. It must be capable of rotating plastically to the extent necessary for
compatibility with beam end (and possibly column) rotations under design load. The beam may not remain elastic. Around
midspan, there is liable to be an almost fully developed plastic hinge. The rotation which the connection must
accommodate therefore varies with the circumstances but may be as much as 0,02 to 0,04 radians.
In practice, the chosen moment resistance of the connection is often in the range 30% to 50% of the plastic moment
resistance of the beam.
3. PLASTIC AND ELASTIC GLOBAL ANALYSIS

Design of semi-continuous frames, as outlined above, is based on plastic global analysis.

In principle, semi-continuous elastic analysis could also be performed. This implies that rotational springs of appropriate
stiffness (rigidity) are used to model the connections.
Elastic global analysis is a relatively unattractive proposition to the designer of a semi-continuous frame. Reliable
prediction of rotational stiffness is difficult, and the bending moment distribution depends on this. The interaction between
element and connection stiffness and the distribution of moments in the frame makes it very difficult for the designer to
control the design and achieve overall economy.
The main reason for mentioning elastic analysis is to introduce the term:-
Semi-rigid: too flexible to qualify as Rigid, but not a pin.
A Rigid connection is stiff enough for the assumptions made in conventional elastic analysis to be valid. The perfectly rigid
connection does not exist, but practical connections can approach this ideal sufficiently closely for their flexibility to be
neglected in the analysis. In other words the bending moment distribution remains acceptably close to the theoretical one
which results from elastic analysis. Codes vary in their definition of where to 'draw the line' for this purpose. The
distinction is only relevant to elastic analysis of hyperstatic frames.
This special meaning of the word 'Rigid' is emphasized, in this lecture, by the use of the capital 'R'.
It is important to understand that a connection can be rigid enough to perform its function in the structure without
qualifying as Rigid according to the code definition. Semi-rigid connections can be adequately rigid.
It is necessary to be aware that just as the term rigid is sometimes used loosely to mean nothing more than 'rotation-
resistant', the term semi-rigid is sometimes used to describe semi-continuous construction in general. This is unfortunate.
Although the connections which are the subject of this lecture will often be semi-rigid, what matters is that they are Partial
Strength and Ductile.
The neutral term 'Partial Restraint', meaning 'Partial Strength and/or Semi-rigid', will also be encountered.
4. WHAT MAKES A CONNECTION SUITABLE?

In order to deliver the necessary rotation capacity, some component of the connection must yield in a controlled way.
Plates in bending and column webs in shear are suitable candidates.
Most importantly, other parts of the connection must be prevented from failing, because they would do so abruptly. Welds,
and bolts in tension, are in this category.
For this reason all-welded connections, apart from some unconventional ones, are not generally compatible with the semi-
continuous approach.
To protect the brittle components, e.g. welds and bolts in tension, it is necessary for at least one other component of the
connection to be designed as a deliberate 'weak link'. Unusually in structural design, the maximum strength as well as the
minimum strength of this component must be limited.
A frequently chosen connection is the bolted end plate, either 'flush' or 'extended', see Figure 3. Other styles of connection
may be suitable, but this one is unique in that it is supported by authoritative design rules in Eurocode 3 Annex J [1].

Not all end plate connections are ductile. Figures 4 and 5 demonstrate the behaviour that is required. Generally only Mode
1 behaviour achieves the required ductility.


It is usually found necessary to restrict the end plate thickness to approximately 60% of the bolt diameter (assuming bolts
not weaker than 8.8). Thicker end plates would transmit more moment but with the risk of premature failure due to the
bolts snapping before the required degree of rotation has taken place.
End plate connections designed with regard for strength alone usually have end plates whose thickness equals or exceeds
the bolt diameter. They are non-ductile. For example, as shown in Figure 5, a 25 mm thick end plate is necessary to
develop the full strength of M24 8.8 bolts.
However, in all respects other than thickness, the ductile end plate can look identical to full strength end plates.
Apart from the inevitable relative inefficiency in bolt utilisation, it should be recognised that the thinner end plate makes
the ductile connection less rigid than its orthodox counterpart.
5. THE NEED FOR RIGIDITY

Rigidity, used here as a synonym for rotational stiffness, is significantly more important in unbraced frames than in braced
ones. In the former, it contributes to frame stability and sway resistance. In braced frames, its contribution is less crucial; it
helps limit beam deflection and restrains column rotation.
The rigidity required to maintain stability and/or serviceability of an unbraced frame varies according to the circumstances
- a multibay low rise frame obviously requires less than a slender one, other things remaining equal. However, it is
generally less, maybe much less, than that required (according to code rules) for the connection to be designated 'Rigid' for
the purpose of elastic analysis.
It is hard to imagine circumstances in which too much rigidity would be an embarrassment, irrespective of whether the
frame is braced. Standard details can, therefore, be designed to maximise it. For this purpose, 'compact' bolt arrangements,
in which the bolts are placed as close to the flange and web as is practical, are preferable.
In relation to choice of end plate thickness, rigidity and ductility are in direct opposition.
Stiffness of the end plate, which tends to be the most flexible component of the connection and, therefore, dominant, is
proportional to its thickness to the power of two if not three. Ductility must not be compromised, so larger and/or stronger
bolts, which permit a thicker end plate, are advantageous.
The combination of 15mm thick end plates with M24 bolts (8.8 or 10.9) is often found suitable.
6. STANDARDIZED CONNECTION DESIGNS

Recalling that the connections in semi-continuous design are the subject of designer choice, it can be seen that a
standardized approach holds a special attraction.
It is frustrating for the designer to select a particular trial connection moment, say 30% of the free moment, only to
discover after pages of calculation that a connection using two tensile bolts just fails to achieve it.
A relatively small range of standard details, based on preferred geometries, can be presented with tabulated moment
resistances for each beam size. This shortcuts the process of trial and error choice of beam size and connection style, and
retains much of the simplicity of traditional 'simple' design. Figure 6 shows an example of standard details from the United
Kingdom [2] for ductile partial strength connections.

DETAIL NUMBER: 5 (15 M24)
Figure 6. Example of a standard detail
MOMENT RESISTANCE
M.R. (in Nm) = 193 x [h - 0,5 tf + 40]
+ 315 x [h - 0,5 tf - 60]
+ 287 x [h - 0,5 tf - 150]
Dimensions for detailing (mm) Serial size/ Moment

Mass per Resistance
Relative to top of steel d tf h
metre (kNm)
a1 a2 a3 a4 a5 a6 c
720 533 x 210
40 60 150 395 485 585 88 21,3 544,6 122 ¥ 371
40 60 150 390 480 580 90 18,8 539,5 109 ¥ 368
40 60 150 387 477 577 92 17,4 536,7 101 366
40 60 150 383 473 573 93 15,6 533,1 92 364
40 60 150 378 468 568 96 13,2 528,3 82 361

650 457 x 191
40 60 150 317 407 507 91 19,6 467,4 98 ¥ 310
40 60 150 314 404 504 93 17,7 463,6 89 ⊄ 308
40 60 150 310 400 500 95 16,0 460,2 82 306
40 60 150 307 397 497 96 14,5 457,2 74 304
40 60 150 304 394 494 98 12,7 453,6 67 302
650 457 x 152
40 60 150 315 405 505 92 18,9 465,1 82 ¥ 308
40 60 150 311 401 501 94 17,0 461,3 74 306
40 60 150 307 397 497 96 15,0 457,2 67 304
40 60 150 305 395 495 98 13,3 454,7 60 302
40 60 150 300 390 490 100 10,9 449,8 52 299
590 406 x 178
40 60 150 263 353 453 89 16,0 412,8 74 268
40 60 150 259 349 449 90 14,3 409,4 67 266
40 60 150 256 346 446 92 12,8 406,4 60 264
40 60 150 253 343 443 94 10,9 402,6 54 262
580 406 x 140
40 60 150 252 342 442 89 11,2 402,3 46 261
40 60 150 247 337 437 91 8,6 397,3 39 258
¥ - Where ‘tf’ > 18 use EFPTBW to flange
⊄ - If beam is S275 use EFPTBW to flange
COLUMN LIMITATIONS
Σ Fb ≤ 809 kN
S275 Grade S355

v iv iii ii i Zone i ii iii iv v

Web Web Web Web Flange Serial Flange Web Web Web Web Tension
Tension Crushing Buckling Shear Bending size/ Mass Bending Shear Buckling Crushing
per metre
356×368
_ _ _ 1089 _ 202 _ 1406 _ _ _
_ _ _ 940 _ 177 _ 1213 _ _ _
_ _ _ 814 _ 153 _ 1051 _ _ _
_ n n 691* _ 129 _ 892 _ _ _
305×305
_ _ _ _ _ 283 _ _ _ _ _
_ _ _ 1364 _ 240 _ _ _ _ _
_ _ _ 1124 _ 198 _ 1451 _ _ _
_ _ _ 905 _ 158 _ 1168 _ _ _
_ _ _ 791 _ 137 _ 1021 _ _ _
_ n _ 681* _ 118 _ 879 _ _ _
_ n n 565* n 97 n 730* n n _
254×254
_ _ _ 935 _ 167 _ 1207 _ _ _
_ _ _ 746* _ 132 _ 963 _ _ _
_ n _ 613* _ 107 _ 791* _ _ _
_ n n 497* n 89 _ 642* n n _
_ n n 406* n 73 n 525* n n _
203×203
_ n n 497* n 86 _ 642* _ _ _
_ n n 395* n 71 n 510* n n _
_ n n 349* n 60 n 451* n n _
_ n n 300* n 52 n 387* n n _
n n n 273* n 46 n 353* n n _

* Less than Σ Fb
n Reinforcement required
SHEAR
RESISTANCE
See Note 4
1020 kN
7. CALCULATION OF CONNECTION PROPERTIES

The strength (moment resistance) of the connection is calculated exactly as for any other end plate moment connection, see
Lecture 11.1.2.
The same is true of the rigidity (rotational stiffness) for which Eurocode 3, Annex J gives a formula [1].
The reliability of the predictions of rotational stiffness which are not based on tests is, however, limited. While
serviceability calculations may reasonably be based on predictions, the present state of the art is not such as to encourage
their use to determine the design ('ultimate') bending moment distribution.
Verification of connection ductility (rotation capacity) is outlined in the next section. It should be understood that in
practice these checks are normally made using purpose-designed software or by reference to tables of standard details.
Verification of Ductility
As shown in Figure 7, Eurocode 3, Annex J prescribes that a connection may be regarded as ductile, i.e. it will possess
sufficient rotation capacity to act as a plastic hinge, where subject to one of the following conditions:-
(i) Shear zone of the column limits the moment resistance
(ii) Column flange (in bending) limits the moment resistance with Mode 1 failure
(iii) End plate (in bending) limits the moment resistance with Mode 1 failure
Mode 1 failure is the 'double bending' mode which governs if the plate is relatively thin.
Only in the special case of one-sided connections, e.g. perimeter columns, is it realistic to design on the basis of option (i).
Where there is a beam on each side of the column, the moments can oppose one another, reducing the shear in the web
panel - perhaps to zero.

Generally, the column is already sized; any scope that the connection designer has to alter it is in the upwards direction
only. Frequently, therefore, (ii) will not be an available option either.
Option (iii), designing for Mode 1 failure in the end plate, is the only universally available route to satisfying the
requirement; standard details can be based on this.
As illustrated in Figure 8, it should be noted that Eurocode 3 Annex J offers a formula by which rotation capacity may be
calculated and compared with the designer's assessment of what the situation requires. This formula is applicable to
connections in which Mode 2 prevails, i.e. the end plate is somewhat thicker than the limit for Mode1. In practice, it is
rather unproductive of rotation capacity, except for the shallowest of beams. In any case, the designer generally prefers to
avoid quantifying the required rotation capacity. Satisfying condition (i), (ii) or (iii) above means that the connection is
'ductile' - its rotation capacity will be ample for all normal circumstances.

8. ECONOMICAL CONNECTION DESIGN

It is fundamental to the ethos of the semi-continuous approach that, where it is in competition with 'simple' framing, the

connections are little, if any, more costly than their 'nominally pinned' counterparts, see Figure 9.
A larger end plate, a slightly larger weld or an extra pair of bolts can be accepted.
However, if stiffeners become necessary in the column, or a haunch in the beam, it is likely that the point has been missed.
A saving in the beam size is unlikely to be substantial enough to compensate for these labour-intensive additions. Indeed, it
is almost always preferable to increase the weight of a column rather than to weld in stiffeners.
One form of column reinforcement, loose flange backing plates, Figure 10 can, however, be justified as a means of
upgrading the resistance of a thin-flanged column at modest cost.

The message is that the designer should exercise his/her freedom to choose the connection moment with due regard for the
cost effects of this decision.
9. UNBRACED FRAMES
Unbraced frames designed according to the wind-moment method which is traditional in some countries, i.e. connections
proportioned to resist wind moment only) are, whether their designers recognised it or not, precursors of the semi-
continuous unbraced frame. The satisfactory service performance of numerous structures of this type, not all of whose
connections would be judged ductile according to the application rules of Eurocode 3, encourages confidence in the
acceptability of semi-continuous unbraced frames.
Nevertheless, unbraced frames with ductile partial strength connections should be approached with some caution. It is
necessary to ensure that connection rigidity is not unacceptably low for serviceability or stability of the frame.
Ideally, the connection stiffness is predicted and the frame is analysed with the connections modelled as rotational springs.
(Formulae are available to modify beam bending stiffness so that this can be performed with programs which do not offer
rotational spring elements). This analysis gives sway predictions which can be compared directly with code limits,
provided second order effects are negligible, i.e. the frame is non-sway. If they are not negligible, second order analysis is
required.
This approach demands knowledge of the rotational stiffness of the connections, which may not be reliably available. It
amounts to semi-continuous elastic global analysis.
Provided that the structure is low rise and of reasonably normal proportions, a simpler approach can be followed, Figure
11. Parametric studies [3] have shown that it is acceptably accurate to apply an arbitrary multiplier of 1,5 to the sway
predicted by a conventional continuous elastic global analysis, subject to certain conditions.
These points are covered in earlier Lectures. They are repeated here as a reminder that rigidity could influence connection
design in certain cases, leading perhaps to extended or stiffened end plates where (for strength alone) less elaborate
configurations would suffice.

In the case of an unbraced frame, the objective is to avoid bracing rather than to make savings in the beams. The economic
comparison is with the full strength and/or rigid connections of the competing 'continuous' design.
The emphasis on avoiding costly welded stiffeners and other labour-intensive fabrication remains valid.

● What makes the semi-continuous approach worth pursuing is the freedom to use relatively uncomplicated and low
cost moment connections.
● The connections are partial strength and are required to be ductile. They are likely to be semi-rigid but this is of
little consequence in a braced frame.
● In an unbraced frame, connection rigidity is important in relation to stability and serviceability.
● The semi-continuous approach to design, as recognised in this lecture, is based on semi-continuous plastic analysis.
It offers designer control of the bending moment diagram to optimise overall economy.
11. REFERENCES
REFERENCES
[1] Eurocode 3: "Design of Steel Structures: Part 1.1: General Rules and Rules for Buildings", ENV 1993-1-1, 1992.
[2] Hughes, A. F. et al, "Ductile Connections for Wind-Moment Frames" Steel Construction Institute, Ascot, UK (to be
published).
[3] Anderson, D. A. et al, "Wind-Moment Design for Unbraced Frames, Steel Construction Institute, Publication P082,
Ascot, UK, 1991.

ESDEP WG 11:
Lecture 11.8: Splices in Buildings

OBJECTIVE/SCOPE
To present the basic guidelines and concepts for the design of splices in buildings as well as basic arrangements for
splices in tension and compression members and in members subject to bending. The main aspects of fabrication and
erection are briefly reviewed.
PRE-REQUISITES
Lecture 11.1.1: Connections in buildings
Lecture 11.1.2: Introduction to connection design
Lectures 11.2: Welded connections
Lectures 11.3: Bolted connections
Lectures 11.4: Analysis of connections
RELATED LECTURES
Lecture 15B.11: Splices and other Connections in Bridges
SUMMARY
Splices are designed to transfer axial force, shear force and bending including parasitic moment and second-order
effects. Initially load paths must be determined; the resistance of all components on these load paths must be
checked.
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 Types of Splices
A spliced connection is a joint made within the length of a stanchion, a beam or any other structural member. It is
aimed at transferring the internal forces from one structural part to the adjacent one without being a weak point of
the structure in relation to strength, stiffness and, ductility. This transfer is normally made through different kinds of
transitional plate elements which are appropriately fastened onto the member parts.
The reasons why splices are required as well as the advantages and disadvantages of the respective types of fasteners
have been discussed elsewhere; see Lectures 11.1. As with any other kind of connection, splices should be designed

to the general principles, and design concepts presented earlier, see Lectures 11.1.
There are many ways of making splices. For example, traditional cover plates may used for full load transfer or just
for continuity; welds or bolts may be chosen as fasteners.
Most splices transfer loads from one structural member to the adjacent part of a similar structural member through
either cover plates or end plates. Cover plates may be single, with bolts in single shear, or double with bolts in
double shear (Figure 1a).

Where end plates are used in a splice they are usually positioned perpendicular to the member axes and fixed by
fillet welds (Figure 1b).
In overlapped splices there is no need for cover plates. Such connections are used especially when splicing single
plates or sheeting components. The plate parts are simply overlapped and connected to each other by bolts or fillet
welds (Figure 1c), or even by screws for very thin plates or sheeting. Such elementary splice arrangements are not
considered further in this lecture.
In a butt welded splice, full continuity of the section is maintained across the joint cross-section. Such splices are
used when assembling members of the same or nearly the same serial size (Figure 1d).
Many factors influence the choice of type of splice, e.g. type of loads to be transferred, the types of structural
sections - open or closed sections, ease of access, nature of the loading - static or dynamic, with or without load
reversal - and stiffness.
The splices shown in Figure 1 illustrate most of the possible arrangements.
1.2 Loads in Splices
The internal forces to be transmitted by a specified splice are firstly, the axial force, bending moment and/or shear
force which occur in the joint based on elastic or plastic structural analysis of the structure, assuming continuity
through the joint. Secondly, consideration should be given to any second-order effects due to geometric non-
linearities and imperfections.
Good practice should require that spliced parts be arranged so that any eccentricity between their respective
centroidal axes is avoided. Where eccentricities cannot be prevented, then relevant additional forces and moments
should also be taken into account.
In addition, when considering the load paths of the internal forces through the components of the splice, due
attention should be paid to possible changes in the magnitudes of the lever arm when the load transfers from the
structural part into the splice components, i.e. the internal forces should be carefully identified and the magnitudes of
load components determined so that equilibrium is satisfied.
Where the loading is predominantly static, implicit allowance is normally made for plastic redistribution. The stress
resultants may thus be transferred according to a statically admissible scheme. This approach is normally acceptable
for most building structures.
In contrast bridges are subject to repeated loads. Since this raises the possibility of fatigue, the above simplification
with its implied stress redistribution is not applicable to bridge construction to the same extent.
1.3 Scope of Present Lecture

This lecture relates to splices in building structures. The splice arrangements, guidelines and design concepts
developed here are also applicable to bridge structures but subject, in addition, to the reservations described above.
Any splice in a building structure, which may be exposed to fatigue loading should, of course, be subject to the same
consideration.
Splices in structural members of building structures can be subject to axial forces, to bending and shear or to
combined axial force and bending. Only the basic cases are examined below, i.e. respectively tensile or compressive
axial force, on the one hand, and uniaxial bending with shear, on the other hand. If a splice is subject to a
combination of two or more of these basic action effects, then the combination should be considered appropriately,
see Lecture 12.8.
2. SPLICES IN TENSION MEMBERS

Compared with compression members, which are usually designed for buckling resistance, tension members are
generally much more slender and have a smaller cross-sectional area.
Tension members which are likely to be spliced include:
a. tension chords and web members in trusses and lattice girders
b. tension braces and bracing members
c. hangers
d. ropes
Any type of structural shape - open or hollow, single or compound - is appropriate for tension members. The most
common sections used in this respect are: rods, flats, channels and angles. For large tensile forces, H and I sections
and circular or rectangular hollow sections can be used.
Tensile force is transmitted by the plate elements of the structural tension member in proportion to their cross-
section areas. The splice plate(s) associated with each plate element should be designed to resist the relevant tensile
force component.
Most splices in tension members use splice plates and overlapped connections. Butt-welded splices are executed in
special circumstances; end-plated splices are not frequently used except for hollow sections.
There are two types of bolted splices for tension members, they make use of:
a. bearing bolts, when no special consideration is given to slip in the splices,
b. slip-resistant bolts, which prevent any slip in the splice under service conditions and possibly at the ultimate limit
state of the connection. Consequently they provide the joint and the tension member with a larger extensional
rigidity.
In bolted connections, the ultimate member strength is reduced by the bolt holes; it may also be reduced by the
partial effectiveness and secondary bending due to eccentricity in the connection. In design the influence of the bolt

holes is acknowledged by checking the net section. Some account is taken of strain hardening so the design strength
may still match that of the gross section. Partial strength and eccentricity effects are covered by empirical rules. Both
topics are addressed in Lecture 11.4.2.
2.1.1 Bearing-type connections
Basically such connections are checked with reference to the design rules developed in Lecture 11.3.1, which are
relevant for all the potential failure modes. Though it is desirable that the splice avoids load eccentricity (Figure 2a),
there are cases where the tensile force is transmitted eccentrically (Figure 2b). Provided the load eccentricity is kept
small, the effects of secondary bending on the ultimate strength of both member and splice may be disregarded, as a
result of plastic redistribution. Thus most of the splices in tension members are designed to resist tension only. When
the eccentricity of the force is not negligible, then either a safe approximate allowance should be made for bending
effects or explicit account should be taken of the latter when designing the splice. For instance, when angles are
spliced through one leg only, the outstanding leg is not fully effective and there is a moment due to eccentricity in
the connection (Figure 2c); of course the splice illustrated in Figure 2d is far more advisable in this respect.

In bearing-type connections, bolts are designed to resist shear. The basic problem lies in the force distribution
amongst the successive rows of bolts over the joint length. Except for long joints (see Lecture 11.4.2) full plastic
redistribution is assumed to take place, which allows a uniform load distribution between all the bolts of the splice.
Four failure modes may be considered (Figure 3):

a. Tearing at the net cross-section of the parent plate and/or the splice plate
b. Shearing of the bolt shank or threaded region
c. Bearing between the plate and the bolts
d. Shearing of the plate beyond the end fastener.
The last failure mode (d) should not occur provided that the end distance from the centre of a fastener hole to the
adjacent end of any structural part measured in the direction of load transfer is not less than 1,2 do, where do is the
hole diameter. Assessment of the resistance of the splice components with regard to other failure modes is explained
in Lecture 11.3.1. Attention must be paid to the net cross-section. Where holes are arranged in parallel rows located
perpendicular to the tensile force, the net section is obtained by deducting from the gross area the largest total hole
area in any cross-section. Should the bolts be staggered then the cross-section to be considered can be any diagonal
or zig-zag line extending progressively across the plate with an appropriate correction to take into account the holes
not being perpendicular to the direction of load transfer, see Lectures 11.4.4.
Either ordinary bolts or high strength bolts (up to grade 10.9) may be used. Ordinary (4.6) bolts are now only used
for minor connections.
2.1.2 Slip Resistant Bolts
Splice connections using preloaded high strength bolts with controlled tightening are usually designed to be slip-
resistant at the serviceability limit state. In such connections bolts may come into bearing at a load larger than the
service load but lower than the ultimate load. Therefore, there is a need to check slip resistance against the design
serviceability shear load and shear resistance of bolts and bearing resistance at the ultimate shear load. The net
section of cover plates is not necessarily the weakest component because load is transferred by friction.

2.1.3 Tension bolted connections
Tension splices are rarely designed using tension bolted connections apart from hollow section splices. Where such
connections are adopted, high strength bolts (up to grade 10.9) are usually used. Bolt preloading is advisable when
the splice is frequently subject to changes in magnitude of tensile load. Preloading is required when fatigue
resistance governs the design.
Appropriate arrangements should be made to limit the magnitude of possible prying forces.
Preloaded tension bolted connections are likely to provide the splice with a higher rigidity.
The end plate material should be carefully selected in order to avoid lamellar tearing.
2.2 Welded Splice Connections
Tensile forces can be transferred either by butt welds which restore the continuity of the material or by fillet welds
used in conjunction with overlap(s) or cover plate(s).
For the design of welds, see Lectures 11.2.
Welded connections allow member parts to be fully tensioned, thereby producing full-strength joints. For practical
and economic reasons, welding is not generally used for site splices.
2.3 Special Connections
When rods and bars are used as tension members they may be threaded at the ends and spliced by connecting them
directly through a coupler. The strength is determined by the tensile stress area at the thread. Ropes are connected
through end-sockets or terminals which develop the full static strength.
3. SPLICES IN COMPRESSION MEMBERS

Columns, struts, some web members in trusses and lattice girders, and bracings are amongst the most common
compression members.
Since they have a tendency to buckle, compression members are normally more stocky than tension members.
Rolled or fabricated sections are most appropriate.
Splices in compression members may use arrangements quite similar to those for tension members. Cover plates and
fasteners should be designed based on similar guidelines and design rules. Since they are subject to compression
forces, the plate components of the splice should be carefully examined with regard to plate buckling.
In contrast to tension members - where load paths necessarily involve fasteners - compressive loads can be
transferred by direct bearing of the adjacent ends of the compression members to be spliced. The faces do not need to
be machined providing they are flat within appropriate tolerances. Such tolerances can usually be satisfied by cutting
with a milling saw.
When the members are designed as end bearing, the compressive force is fully transmitted in that way. Such a splice

can of course be used when the connected members are of the same serial sizes (Figure 3a). Alternatively a similar
arrangement can be designed with a gap between the column ends, in which case all load must be transmitted by the
cover plates. Longer plates and more bolts will therefore be required.
When necessary, shims or packing plates should be introduced between the member flanges and cover plates to
compensate for fabrication tolerances or differences in rolling weight size.
Though satisfactory for strength, bearing does not provide continuity of bending stiffness. Therefore the splice
should include cover plates which restore continuity in flexure about both principal axes and resist any tensile force
that would possibly result from secondary moments.
Splice material and fasteners should be proportioned to resist a notional force acting at the abutting ends, in any
direction perpendicular to the axis of the member, and whose magnitude should not be less than 2,5% of the
compressive force in the member, see Figure 3d.
Bolted splice plated connections may also be used when the member ends are not prepared for bearing. Then the full
compressive force must be transferred through the cover plates and fasteners, similarly to tension members. Packings
should be used to compensate for significant change in size of the members. Bear in mind that above a certain
thickness packing reduces the shear value of the bolts.
3.2 Bolted End Plated Connections
Changes in serial size can result from considerations of economy. Major changes occur where columns have to
support heavy additional loads over a portion only of their height.
In such situations, to obtain sound load transfer a division plate is required which is fixed onto the deeper member
using site bolted cleats or shop welding. The splice is completed by additional cover plates and bolts and possibly
packs (Figures 3b and 3c).
Alternatively the arrangement of Figure 3e can be used; two end plates welded onto the adjacent members are
assembled by bolting.
Transmission of axial load in bearing requires the faces to be flat within certain defined tolerances.
Division plates are aimed at transferring the compressive force from the smaller member into the deeper one. A
dispersion angle not less than 45° should be assumed when determining load paths and bearing stresses. It is usual
practice for division plates or end plates to have a thickness not less than 20mm.
In addition to compressive load, the splice components should comply with the requirements for stiffness and
notional strength discussed in Section 3.1.
3.3 Fully Welded Connections
Fully welded splice connections can be made by butt welds of all the member plate components, when the member
parts are of the same or very similar size (Figure 3f). When splices must allow for a change in serial size, both
member parts are preferably welded onto a division plate of appropriate thickness (Figure 3g).
Butt welds should be proportioned to restore the continuity of the material.
Fully site welded splices (Figures 3f and 3g) require special consideration during erection; the adjacent structural
parts must be temporarily guyed or propped until site-welding is completed. Temporary cleats are helpful in this

respect.
Where there is an appreciable change in serial size and heavy compressive loads, an abnormally thick division plate
can be required. As an alternative, a thinner, division plate may be used with additional stiffeners to assist in
diffusing the load through the splice as shown in Figure 4.
Because division plates are subject to transverse forces, their thickness is mainly governed by bending strength.
Their material should be chosen lamination free, otherwise the bending resistance could be compromised.
3.4 Additional Comments
Compression members are seldom subject to pure axial force only. Most frequently they have also to resist some
additional bending and shear. Supplementary effects should be taken into account by the use of the guidelines in
Section 4 and appropriate design rules have been provided Lectures 11.4.
Splices in columns are most often located at their foot close to the floor level. Where necessary they can be masked
within the floor depth.
4. SPLICES IN MEMBERS SUBJECT TO BENDING

In members which are predominantly subject to bending, splices are normally placed close to points of contraflexure,

i.e. at sections where bending is the least.
In addition to the reasons for using splices already mentioned, the designer may wish to use splices as an aid to
precambering or to change sections to achieve economy by reducing member sizes in regions of low moment.
Beam splices are aimed at transferring bending and associated shear. Either welded or bolted splice connections are
possible and, for these latter, either shear connections or tensile connections can be used. The most common types of
splices when beam parts have the same serial size are shown in Figure 5.

Fully welded splices using full-penetration groove welds (Figure 5d) are common in built-up members and plate
girders and possibly in rolled beams. They are executed in the workshop. Alternatively fillet welded connections
with one sided or double sided welded cover plates may be used (Figure 5c). This type of connection may be
preferred to butt welds when executed on the site, especially when dimensional control is a critical factor.
Full-penetration butt welds are at least as strong as the base material. Therefore no strength check is necessary
provided the welds restore at least the relevant plate thickness.
When splices use bolted connections, high strength bolts are commonly used in order to reduce the splice length.
Preloaded bolts will provide a better stiffness and reduce deflections because they prevent slip. Such a consideration
can be of major importance where service conditions determine the beam design.
Each plate component of the splice shear connection should be designed to transfer the forces in the elements it
connects. Cover plates are normally placed both sides of webs and on one or both sides of flanges. For the sake of
simplicity and based on the static theorem of plastic design, reference is commonly made to a statically admissible
force distribution, where the bending moment is resolved into a pair of equal but opposite flange forces while the
web provides resistance to shear only.
Where the beam splice is at a change in serial size then the above arrangements may be used provided due allowance
is made for appropriate packs and possibly web stiffeners to diffuse flange forces. Such situations sometimes arise
from architectural considerations or tight local headroom requirements.
Where, rarely, the beam splice is located at a point of maximum moment it is important to ensure that the splice has
a rotation capacity that is consistent with the global analysis of the overall structure. Where, as is usually the case the
splice is located at a region of low moment no special consideration of rotation capacity is required.
End plates shall be lamination free.
5. SPLICES IN MEMBERS SUBJECT TO COMBINED AXIAL FORCE

AND BENDING
Splices in members subject to combined axial force and bending should be proportioned by taking appropriate
account of the guidelines listed in the above sections for the respective components of loading.
Special care should be taken when identifying the load paths as well as the forces to be transmitted by each splice
component.

● Splices are joints made within the length of any structural member.
● Splices should be designed to allow for the transfer of stress resultants existing in the joint, with due
allowance for second order effects, imperfections and load eccentricities.
● Load paths through the splice components and fasteners should be correctly identified and load components
proportioned to satisfy equilibrium.
● Shims and packs may be necessary to compensate for fabrication tolerances and changes in serial size.
● Welded splices are usually executed in the workshop and bolted splices are executed on the site.
● Splices executed on the site must allow for limited dimensional control.
1. Eurocode 3: "Design of Steel Structures" ENV1993-1: Part 1 General Rules and Rules of Building, CEN
1993.
2. Dowling P J, Knowles P, and Owens G, "Structural Steel Design", Butterworths, London, 1988, 1st edition.
3. Nethercot D A, "Limit States Design of Structural Steelwork", Chapman and Hall, London, 1991.
4. Kulak, G., Fisher J, and Struik J, "Design Criteria for Bolted and Riveted Joints", John Wiley and Sons, 1987,
2nd edition.
5. ECCS Technical Committee 10, "European Recommendation for Bolted Connections in Structural
Steelwork", Publication No. 38, 1985, 4th edition.
6. AISC, "Engineering for Steel Construction - A Source Book on Connections", 1984.
7. Malik, A S, "Joints in Simple Construction" Volume 1 and Design Methods, 2nd Edition, The Steel
Construction Institute, 1993.
8. "Joints in Simple Construction" Volume 2: Practical Applications, BCSA, 1993.

ESDEP WG 12
FATIGUE
Lecture 12.1: Basic Introduction to Fatigue

OBJECTIVE/SCOPE:
To summarize the main factors affecting fatigue strength, as opposed to static strength, of welded joints and to
illustrate the method of carrying out a fatigue check.
PREREQUISITES
Lecture 11.2.1: Generalities on Welded Connections
RELATED LECTURES
Lecture 12.12: Determination of Stress Intensity Factors
Lecture 12.13: Fracture Mechanics Applied to Fatigue
SUMMARY
This lecture gives an explanation of the mechanism of fatigue and the influence of welding on that
mechanism. It summaries the primary factors affecting fatigue strength and introduces S-N Curves. The
classification of fatigue details is presented and important details reviewed. The calculation of stress range is
summarised. The principal types of fatigue loading and the bases for their calculation are presented with an
introduction to cycle counting and damage calculations for mixed amplitude loading.
NOTATION
a design weld strength parameter
∆σR stress range
∆σD non-propagating stress, i.e. the constant amplitude stress range below which cracks will not grow
N endurance number of cycles.
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 Nature of Fatigue
Fatigue is the mechanism whereby cracks grow in a structure. Growth only occurs under fluctuating stress.
Final failure generally occurs in regions of tensile stress when the reduced cross-section becomes insufficient
to carry the peak load without rupture. Whilst the loading on the structure is stationary the crack does not
grow under normal service temperatures. Many structures, such as building frames, do not experience
sufficient fluctuating stress to give rise to fatigue problems. Others do, such as bridges, cranes, and offshore
structures, where the live loading is a higher proportion of the total load.
1.2 How Welds Fatigue
In welded steel structures, fatigue cracks will almost certainly start to grow from welds, rather than other
details, because:
● Most welding processes leave minute metallurgical discontinuities from which cracks may grow. As a
result, the initiation period, which is normally needed to start a crack in plain wrought material, is
either very short or no-existent. Cracks therefore spend most of their life propagating, i.e. getting
longer.
● Most structural welds have a rough profile. Sharp changes of direction generally occur at the toes of
butt welds and at the toes and roots of fillet welds, see Figure 1. These points cause local stress
concentrations of the type shown in Figure 2. Small discontinuities close to these points will therefore
react as though they are in a more highly stressed member and grow faster.


1.3 Crack Growth History
The study of fracture mechanisms shows that the growth rate of a crack is proportional to the square root of its
length, given the same stress fluctuation and degree of stress concentration. For this reason fatigue cracks
spend most of their life as very small cracks which are hard to detect. Only in the last stages of life does the
crack start to cause a significant loss of cross-section area, as shown in Figure 3. This behaviour poses
problems for in-service inspection of structures.

2. FATIGUE STRENGTH
2.1 Definition of Fatigue Strength and Fatigue Life
The fatigue strength of a welded component is defined as the stress range (∆σR) which fluctuating at constant
amplitude, causes failure of the component after a specified number of cycles (N). The stress range is the
difference between the maximum and minimum points in the cycle, see Figure 4. The number of cycles to
failure is known as the endurance or fatigue life.

2.2 Primary Factors Affecting Fatigue Life
For practical design purposes there are two main factors which affect the fatigue life of a detail, namely:
● The stress range (∆σR) at the location of crack initiation. There are special rules for calculating this
range.
● The fatigue strength of the detail. This strength is primarily a function of the geometry and is defined
by the parameter 'a', which varies from joint to joint.
The fatigue life (N), or endurance, in number of cycles to failure can be calculated from the expression:
N = a/∆σRm (1)
or
log N = log d - m log ∆σR (2)

where m is a constant, which for most welded details is equal to 3. Predictions of life are therefore particularly
sensitive to accuracy of stress prediction.
2.3 S-N Curve
The expression linking N and ∆σRm can be plotted on a logarithmic scale as a straight line, Equation (2), and
is referred to as an S-N curve. An example is shown in Figure 5. The relationship holds for a wide range of
endurance. It is limited at the low endurance end by static failure when the ultimate material strength is
exceeded. At endurances exceeding about 5-10 million cycles the stress ranges are generally too small to
permit propagation under constant amplitude loading. This limit is called the non-propagating stress (∆σD).
Below this stress range cracks will not grow.
For design purposes it is usual to use design S-N curves which give fatigue strengths about 25% below the
mean failure values, as shown in Figure 5. 'a' is used to define these lines.
2.4 Effect of Mean Stress

In non-welded details the endurance is reduced as the mean stress becomes more tensile. In welded details the
endurance is not usually reduced in those circumstances. This behaviour occurs because the weld shrinkage
stresses (or residual stresses), which are locked into the weld regions at fabrication, often attain tensile yield.
The crack cannot distinguish between applied and residual stress. Thus, for the purposes of design, the S-N
curve always assumes the worst, i.e. that the maximum stress in the cycle is at yield point in tension. It is
particularly important to appreciate this point as it means that fatigue cracks can grow in parts of members
which are nominally 'in compression'.
2.5 Effect of Mechanical Strength
The rate of crack growth is not significantly affected by variations in proof stress or ultimate tensile strength
within the range of low alloy steels used for general structural purposes. These properties only affect the
initiation period, which, being negligible in welds, results in little influence on fatigue life. This behaviour
contrasts with the fatigue of non-welded details where increased mechanical strength generally results in
improved fatigue strength, as shown in Figure 6.
3. CLASSIFICATION OF DETAILS

3.1 Detail Classes
The fatigue strength parameter (K2) of different welded details varies according to the severity of the stress
concentration effect. As there are a wide variety of detail in common use, details with similar K2 values are
grouped together into a single detail class and given a single K2 value.
This data has been obtained from constant amplitude fatigue tests on simple specimens containing different
welded detail types. For the most commonly used details, it has been found convenient to divide the results
into fourteen main classes. The classes are:
Detail Category d m
∆σc
(N/mm2)
160 7,962 1012 3
140 5,636 1012 3
125 3,990 1012 3
112 2,825 1012 3
100 2,000 1012 3
90 1,416 1012 3
80 1,002 1012 3
71 0,710 1012 3
63 0,502 1012 3
56 0,356 1012 3
50 0,252 1012 3
45 0,178 1012 3
40 0,126 1012 3
36 0,089 1012 3

As shown in Figure 7, these classes can be plotted as a family of S-N curves. The difference in stress range
between neighbouring curves is usually between 15 and 20%.
The above table has been taken from Eurocode 3 [1]. It does not include S-N data for unstiffened hollow
tubular joints.
3.2 Detail Types

There are usually a number of detail types within each class. Each type has a very specific description which
defines the geometry both microscopically and macroscopically. The main features that affect the detail type,
and hence its classification, are:
● Form of the member:
e.g. plate, rolled section, reinforcing bar.
● Location of anticipated crack initiation:
The location must be defined with respect to the direction of stress fluctuation. A given structural joint may
contain more than one potential initiation site, in which case the joint may fall into two or more detail types.
● Leading dimensions:
e.g. weld shape, size of component, proximity of edges, abruptness of change of cross-section.
● Fabrication requirements:
e.g. type of weld process, any grinding smooth of particular parts of the joint.
● Inspection requirements:
Special inspection procedures may be required on higher class details to ensure that detrimental
welding defects are not present.
It should be noted that if fatigue is critical in the design, the extra controls on fabrication incurred by the last
two requirements may increase the total cost significantly above that for purely static strength.
Examples of different types of welded detail and their classes are shown in Eurocode 3: Part 1.1 [1].
3.3 Commonly Used Detail Types
Figure 8 shows some of the most important details to look out for in welded steelwork.


They are:
● Load carrying fillet welds and partial penetration butt welds. These details are category 36 for failure
starting at the root and propagating through the throat.
● Welded attachments on edges. They are category 45. Note that the attachment weld may not be
transferring any stress. Failure is from the weld toe into the member.

● Ends of long flat plates, e.g. cover plates are category 50.
● Most short attachments in the stress direction are category 80 or 71 as long as they are not at an edge.
● Transverse full penetration butt welds can range from category 12,5 to 36 depending on how they are
made.
● Long continuous welds on site welded structures are found to be category 100.
It should be borne in mind that most potential fatigue sites on welded structures are found to be category 80 or
below.
4. STRESS PARAMETERS FOR FATIGUE
4.1 Stress Area
The stress areas are essentially similar to those used for static design. For a crack starting at a weld toe, the
cross-section of the member through which propagation occurs is used. For a crack starting at the root, and
propagating through the weld throat, the minimum throat area is used, as shown in Figure 8a.
4.2 Calculation of Stress Range Ds
The force fluctuation in the structure must be calculated elastically. No plastic redistribution is permitted.
The stress on the critical cross-section is the principal stress at the position of the weld toe (in the case of weld
toes cracks). Simple elastic theory is used assuming plane sections remain plane, see Figure 9. The effect of
the local stress concentration caused by the weld profile is ignored as this is already catered for by the
parameter 'd' which determines the weld class.

In the case of throat failures, the vector sum of the stresses on the weld throat at the position of highest vector
stress along the weld is used, as in static design.
Exceptions to these rules occur in the case of unstiffened joints between slender members such as tubes. In
this case the stress parameter is the Hot Spot Stress. This stress is calculated at the point of expected crack
initiation, taking into account the true elastic deformation in the joint, i.e. not assuming plane sections to
remain plane.
4.3 Effects of Geometrical Stress Concentrations and Other Effects
Where a member has large changes in cross-section, e.g. at access holes, there will be regions of stress
concentration due to the change of geometry. In static design the stresses are based on the net area as plastic
redistribution will normally reduce these peaks at ultimate load. With fatigue this is not so, and if there is a
welded detail in the area of the geometrical stress raiser the true stress must be used, as shown in Figure 10.

Similarly any secondary effects, such as those due to joint fixity in latticed structures, and shear lag and other
distortional effects in slender beams, are allowed for in calculating the stresses.
5. LOADINGS FOR FATIGUE
5.1 Types of Loading
Examples of structures and the loads which can cause fatigue are:
Bridges: Commercial vehicles, goods trains
Cranes: Lifting, rolling and inertial loads
Offshore structures: Waves

Slender chimneys: Wind gusting
The designer's objective is to anticipate the sequence of service loading throughout the structure's life. The
magnitude of the peak load, which is vital for static design purposes, is generally of little concern as it only
represents one cycle in millions. For example, highway bridge girders may experience 100 million significant
cycles in their lifetime. The sequence is important because it affects the stress range, particularly if the
structure is loaded by more than one independent load system.
For convenience, loadings are usually simplified into a load spectrum, which defines a series of bands of
constant load levels, and the number of times that each band is experienced, as shown in Figure 11.
Slender structures, with natural frequencies low enough to respond to the loading frequency, may suffer
dynamic magnification of stress. This magnification can shorten the life considerably.
A useful source of information on fatigue loading is Eurocode 1 [2].
5.2 Cycle Counting
In practice most stress histories in real structures are of the variable amplitude type, shown in Figure 12, as

opposed to the constant amplitude shown in Figure 4. Such histories pose a problem in defining the number
and amplitude of the cycles.
The first step is to break the sequence into a stress spectrum as shown in Figure 12 using a cycle counting
method. There are various methods in use. The two most used are the Rainflow Method and the Reservoir
Method. The latter, which is easy to use by hand for short stress histories, is described in Lecture 12.2. The
former is more convenient for analysing long stress histories using a computer.
6. CALCULATION OF DAMAGE
Under variable amplitude loading the life is estimated by calculation of the total damage done by each cycle
in the stress spectrum. In practice the spectrum is simplified into a manageable number of bands, as shown in
Figure 13.

The damage done by each band in the spectrum is defined as where n is the required number of cycles in
the band during the design life and N is the endurance under that stress range, see Figure 14.

If failure is to be prevented before the end of the specified design life, the Palmgren-Miner's Rule must be
compiled with. This rule states that the damage done by all bands together must not exceed unity, i.e.:
It should be noted that, when variable amplitude loading occurs, the bands in the spectrum with ∆σ values less
than ∆σD may still cause damage. Damage occurs because the larger amplitude cycles may start to propagate
the crack. Once it starts to grow lower cycles become effective. In this case, the horizontal constant amplitude
fatigue limit ∆σD shown in Figure 5, is replaced by a sloping line with a log gradient of .
● Fatigue and static failure (whether by rupture or buckling) are dependent on very different factors,
namely:

- Fatigue depends on the whole service loading sequence (not one extreme load event).
- Fatigue of welds is not improved by better mechanical properties.
- Fatigue is very sensitive to the geometry of details.
- Fatigue requires more accurate prediction of elastic stress.
- Fatigue makes more demands on workmanship and inspection.
● It is therefore important to check early in the design whether fatigue is likely to be critical. Acceptable
margins of safety against static collapse cannot be relied upon to give adequate safety against fatigue.
● Areas with a high live/dead stress ratio and low category 36 details should be checked first. The check
must cover any welded attachment to a member, however insignificant, and not just the main structural
connections. Note that this check should include welded additions to the structure in service.
● If fatigue is critical, then the choice of details will be limited. Simplicity of detail and smoothness of
stress path should be sought.
● Be prepared for fatigue critical structures to cost more.
8. REFERENCES
[1] Eurocode 3: "Design of Steel Structures": ENV1993-1-1: Part 1.1: General Rules and Rules for Buildings,
CEN 1992.
1. Maddox, S.J. "Fatigue Strength of Welded Structures", Cambridge, Abington Publishing, 1991.
2. Gurney, T. R., "Fatigue of Welded Structures", 2nd ed., Cambridge University Press, 1991.
3. Narayanan, R. (ed), "Structures Subjected to Repeated Loading", London, Elsevier Applied Science,
1991.

ESDEP WG 12
FATIGUE
Lecture 12.2: Advanced Introduction to

Fatigue
OBJECTIVE/SCOPE:
To introduce the main concepts and definitions regarding the fatigue process and to identify the main factors that influence
the fatigue performance of materials, components and structures.
PREREQUISITES
RELATED LECTURES
SUMMARY
The physical process of the initiation of fatigue cracks in smooth and notched test specimens under the influence of
repeated loads is described and the relevance of this process for the fatigue of real structures is discussed.
The basis of different stress cycle counting procedures is explained for variable amplitude loading. Exceedance diagram
and frequency spectrum effects are described.
1. INTRODUCTION
Fatigue is commonly referred to as a process in which damage is accumulated in a material undergoing fluctuating
loading, eventually resulting in failure even if the maximum load is well below the elastic limit of the material. Fatigue is
a process of local strength reduction that occurs in engineering materials such as metallic alloys, polymers and composites,
eg. concrete and fibre reinforced plastics. Although the phenomenological details of the process may differ from one
material to another the following definition given by ASTM [1] encompasses fatigue failures in all materials:
Fatigue - the process of progressive localised permanent structural change occurring in a material subjected to conditions
that produce fluctuating stresses and strains at some point or points and that may culminate in cracks or complete fracture
after a sufficient number of fluctuations.
The important features of the process relevant to fatigue in metallic materials are indicated by the underlined words in
the definition above. Fatigue is a progressive process in which the damage develops slowly in the early stages and
accelerates very quickly towards the end. Thus the first stage consists of a crack initiation phase, which for smooth and
mildly notched parts that are subjected to small loads cycles may occupy more than 90 percent of the life. In most case
cases the initiation process is confined to a small area, usually of high local stress, where the damage accumulates
during stressing. In adjacent parts of the components, with only slightly lower stresses, no fatigue damage may occur and
these parts thus have an infinite fatigue life. The initiation process usually results in a number of micro-cracks that may
grow more or less independently until one crack becomes dominant through a coalescence process at the microcracks start
to interact. Under steady fatigue loading this crack grows slowly, but starts to accelerate when the reduction of the
cross-section increases the local stress field near the crack front. Final failure occur as an unstable fracture when the
remaining area is too small to support the load. These stages in the fatigue process can in many cases be related to
distinctive features of the fracture surface of components that have failed under fluctuating loads, the presence of these
features can therefore be used to identify fatigue as the probable cause of failure.
2. CHARACTERISTICS OF FATIGUE FRACTURE SURFACES

Typical fracture surfaces in mechanical components that were subjected to fatigue loads are shown in Slide 1.
One characteristic feature of the surface morphology which is evident in both macrographs is the flat, smooth region of
the surface exhibiting beach marks (also called clamshell marks). This part represents the portion of the fracture surface
over which the crack grew in a stable, slow mode. The rougher regions, showing evidence of large plastic deformation, is
the final fracture area through which the crack progressed in an unstable mode. The beach marks may form concentric
rings that point toward the areas of initiation. The origin of the fatigue crack may be more or less distinct. In some cases
a defect may be identified as the origin of the crack, in other cases there is no apparent reason why the crack should start at
a particular point in a fracture surface. If the critical section is at a high stress concentration fatigue initiation may occur
at many points, in contrast to the case of unnotched parts where the crack usually grows from one point only see Figure
1. While the presence of any defects at the origin may indicate the cause of the fatigue failure, the crack propagation area
may yield some information regarding the magnitude of the fatigue loads and also about the variation in the loading
pattern. Firstly, the relative magnitude of the areas of slow-growth and final fracture regions give an indication of
the maximum stresses and the fracture toughness of the material. Thus, a large final fracture area for a given material
indicates a high maximum load, whereas a small area indicates that the load was lower at fracture. Similarly, for a
fixed maximum stress, the relative area corresponding to slow crack growth increases with the fracture toughness of
the material (or with the tensile strength if the final fracture is a fully ductile overload fracture).


Slide 1 : Typical fatigue failures in steel components.
Beach marks are formed when the crack grows intermittently and at different rates during random variations in the
loading pattern under the influence of a changing corrosive environment. Beach marks are therefore not observed in
the surfaces of fatigue specimens tested under constant amplitude loading conditions without any start-stop periods.
The average crack growth is of the order of a few millimetres per million cycles in high cycle fatigue, and it is clear that
the distance between bands in the beach marks are not a measure of the rate of crack advance per load cycle.
However, examination by electron microscope at magnifications between 1,000x and 30,000x may reveal characteristic
surface ripples called fatigue striations, see Slide 2. Although somewhat similar in appearance, these lines are not the
beach marks described above as one beach mark may contain thousands of striations. During constant amplitude
fatigue loading at relatively high growth rates in ductile material such as stainless steels and aluminium alloys the
striation spacing represents the crack advancement per load cycle. However, in low stress, high cycle fatigue where
the striation spacing is less than one atomic spacing (- 2.5 x 10-8m) per cycle. Under these conditions the crack does
not advance simultaneously along the crack front, growth occurring instead only along some portions during a few cycles,
then arrests while growth occurs along other segments. Striations as shown in Figure 3 are not seen if the crack grows by
other mechanisms such as microvoid coalescence or, in brittle materials, microclevage. In structural steels the crack
can propagate by all three mechanism, and striations may be difficult to observe. Slide 3 shows an example of beach marks
and striations in the fracture originating at a large defect in a welded C-Mn steel with a yield strength of about 360Mpa.


Slide 2 : Striations in an aluminium alloy.

Slide 3 : Fatigue failures in the Alexander L Kielland platform.
3. NATURE OF THE FATIGUE PROCESS

From the description of the characteristics of fatigue fracture surfaces, three stages in the fatigue process may be identified:
Stage I: Crack initiation
Stage II: Propagation of one dominant crack
Stage III: Final fracture
Fatigue cracking in metals is always associated with the accumulation of irreversible plastic strain. The crack process which
is discussed in the following applies to smooth specimens made of ductile materials.
In high cycle fatigue the maximum stress in cyclic loads that eventually cause fatigue failure may be well below the
elastic limit of the material, and large scale plastic deformation does not occur. However, at a free surface plastic strains
may accumulate as a result of dislocation movements. Dislocations are line defects in the lattice structure which can move
and multiply under the action of shear stresses, leaving a permanent deformation. Dislocation mobility and hence the amount
of deformation (or slip) is greater at a free surface than in the interior of crystalline materials due to lack of constraint
from grain boundaries. Grains in polycrystalline structural metals are individually oriented in a random manner. Each
grain, however, has an ordered atomic structure giving rise to directional properties. Deformation for example, takes place
on crystallographic planes of easy slip along which dislocations can move more easily than other planes. Since slip
is controlled primarily by shear stress, slip deformation takes place along crystallographic planes that are orientated close
to 45° to the tensile stress direction. The results of such deformation is atomic planes sliding relative to each other, resulting
in a roughening of the surface in slip bands. During further cycling slip band deformation is intensified at the surface
and extending into the interior of the grain, resulting in so-called persistent slip bands, (PSB's). The name originated from
the observation in early studies of fatigue that slip band would reappear - "persist" - at the same location after a thin
surface layer was removed by elastopolishing. The accumulation of local plastic flow result in surface ridges and troughs
called extrusions and intrusions, respectively, Figure 2. The cohesion between the layers in slip band is weakened by
oxidation of fresh surfaces and hardening of the strained material. At some point in this process small cracks develop in
the intrusions. These microcracks grow along slip planes, ie. a shear stress driven process. Growth in the shear mode,
called stage I crack growth extends over a few grains. During continued cycling the microcracks in different grains
coalesce resulting in one or a few dominating cracks. The stress field associated with the dominating crack cause
further growth under the primary action of maximum principal stress; this is called stage II growth. The crack path is
now essentially perpendicular to the tensile stress axis. Crack advancement is, however, still influenced by the
crystallographic orientation of the grains and the crack grows in a zigzag path along slip planes and cleavage planes from
grain to grain, see Figure 3. Most fatigue cracks advance across grain boundaries as indicated in Figure 3, ie. in
a transcrystalline mode. However, at high temperatures or in a corrosive environment, grain boundaries may become
weaker than the grain matrix, resulting in intercrystalline crack growth. The fracture surface created by stage II crack
growth are in ductile metals characterised by striations whose density and width can be related to the applied stress level.

Since crack nucleation is related to the magnitude of stress, any stress concentration in the form of external or internal
surface flaws can marked reduce fatigue life, in particular when the initiation phase occupies a significant portion of the
total life. Thus a part with a smooth, polished surface generally has a higher fatigue strength than one with a rough
surface. Crack initiation can also be facilitated by inclusions, which act as internal stress raisers. In ductile materials slip
band deformations at inclusions are higher than elsewhere and fatigue cracks may initiate here unless other stress
raisers dominate.
In high strength materials, notably steels and aluminium alloys, a different initiation mechanism is often observed. In
such materials, which are highly resistant to slip deformation, the interface between the matrix and inclusion may be
relatively weak, and cracks will start here if decohesion occurs at the inclusion surface, aided by the increased stress/strain
field around the inclusion. Slide 4 shows small fatigue cracks originating at inclusions in a high strength steel. Alternatively,
a hard brittle inclusion may break and a fatigue crack may initiate at the edges of the cleavage fracture.
Slide 4 : Fatigue crack initiation at an inclusion in a high strength steel alloy.
From the discussion above it is evidently not possible to make a clear distinction between crack nucleation and stage I
growth. "Crack initiation" is thus a rather imprecise term used to describe a series of events leading to stage II crack.
Although the initiation stage includes some crack growth, the small scale of the crack compared with
microstructural dimensions such as grain size invalidates a fracture mechanics based analysis of this growth phase.
Instead, local stresses and strains are commonly related to material constants in prediction models used to estimate the length
of stage I. The material constants are normally obtained from tests on smooth specimens subjected to stress or strain
controlled cycling.
4. FATIGUE LOADING
The simplest form of stress spectrum to which a structural element may be subjected is a sinusoidal or constant
amplitude stress-time history with a constant mean load, as illustrated in Figure 4. Since this is a loading pattern which is
easily defined and simple to reproduce in the laboratory it forms the basis for most fatigue tests. The following six
parameters are used to define a constant amplitude stress cycle:
Smax = maximum stress in the cycle
Smin = minimum stress in the cycle
Sm = mean stress in the cycle = (Smax + Smin)/2
Sa = stress amplitude = (Smax Smin)/2
AS = stress range = Smax - Smin = 2Sa

R = stress ratio = Smin/Smax
The stress cycle is uniquely defined by any two of these quantities, except combinations of stress range and stress
amplitude. Various stress patterns are shown in Figure 5, with definitions in accordance with ISO [2] terminology.
The stress range is the primary parameter influencing fatigue life, with mean stress as a secondary parameter. The stress ratio
is often used as an indication of the influence of mean loads, but the effect of a constant mean load is not the same as for
a constant mean stress. The difference between S-N curves with constant mean stress or constant R-ratio is discussed in
the section on fatigue testing.
The test frequency is needed to define a stress history, but in the fatigue of metallic materials the frequency is not an
important parameter, except at high temperatures when creep interacts with fatigue, or when corrosion influences fatigue
life. In both cases a lower test frequency results in a shorter life.
Typical stress-time histories obtained from real structures are one shown in Figure 6. The sequence in Figure 6a has a
constant mean stress, individual stress cycles are easily identifiable, and it necessary to evaluate this stress history in terms
of stress range only. The more "random" stress variations in Figure 10b is called a broad band process because the
power density function (a plot of energy vs. frequency) spans a wide frequency range, in contrast to the one in Figure 6a
which contains essentially one frequency. The difference is illustrated in Figure 7. The load history in Figure 6 can
be interpreted as a variation of the main load with superimposed smaller excursions that could be caused by eg. second
order vibrations or by electronic noise in the load acquisition system. In case of true mean load variations not only the
range but also the mean of each cycle needs to be recorded in order to estimate the influence of mean load on the
damage accumulation. In both cases it is necessary to eliminate the smaller cycles since they may be below the fatigue
limit and therefore cause no fatigue damage, or because they do not represent real load cycles. Thus a more
complicated evaluation procedure is required for identifying and counting individual major stress cycles and their
associated mean stresses. Counting methods such as the range pair, rainflow and the reservoir methods are designed to
achieve this. These procedures are described in paragraph 7.



5. FATIGUE LIFE DATA

The total fatigue life in terms of cycles to failure can be expressed as:
Nt = Ni + Np (1)
where Ni and Np are number of cycles spent in the initiation and propagation stages, respectively. As noted, the two stages
are distinctly different in nature and different material parameters control their length. The life of unnotched components,
for example, is dominated by crack initiation. In sharply notched parts, however, or in parts containing crack-life defects,
eg. welded joints, the crack growth stage dominates and crack propagation data may be used in an assessment of fatigue
life using fracture mechanics analysis. Therefore different test methods are necessary to assess the fatigue properties of
these types of components.
5.1 Fatigue Strength Curves
Fatigue data for components whose lives consist of an initiation phase followed by crack propagation are usually presented
in the form of S-N curves, where applied stress S is plotted against total cycles to failure, N (= Nt). As the stress decreases,
the life in cycles to failure increases, as illustrated in Figure 8. The S-N curves for ferrous and titanium alloys exhibit a
limiting stress below which failure does not occur; this is called the fatigue or the endurance limit. The branch point or
"knee" of the curve lies normally in the 105 to 107 cycle range. In aluminium and other nonferrous alloys there is no
stress asymptote and a finite fatigue life exists at any stress level. All materials, however, exhibit a relatively flat curve in
the high-cycle region, ie. at lives longer than about 105 cycles.

A characteristic feature of fatigue tests is the large scatter in fatigue strength data, this is particularly evident when a number
of specimens are tested at the same stress level, as illustrated in Figure 9. Plotting the data for a given stress level along
a logarithmic endurance axis gives a distribution which can be approximated by the Gaussian (or normal) distribution,
hence endurance data are said to have a log normal distribution. Alternatively the Weibull distribution may be used, but
the choice is not important since about 200 specimens, tested at the same stress level, are required to make a
statistically significant distinction between the two distributions. This number is about one order of magnitude larger than
the quantity of specimens that typically are available for fatigue testing at one stress level.

Assuming the life distribution to be log normal, the associated mean life curve and the standard deviation can be used to
define a design S-N curve for any desired probability of failure.
When the crack propagation stage dominates fatigue life, design data may be obtained from crack growth curves, an
example of which is shown schematically in Figure 10. The stress intensity factor K uniquely describes the stress field near
the crack tip, and is therefore used in the design against unstable fracture. Likewise, the range of the stress intensity factor,
∆K, may be expected to govern fatigue crack growth. The validity of this assumption was first proved by Paris [3], and
later verified by many other researchers. The crack growth curve, which has a sigmoidal shape, spans three regions as
indicated schematically in Figure 10. In Region I the crack growth rate drops off asymptotically as ∆K is reduced towards
a limit or threshold, ∆Kth, below which no crack growth takes place. Life fatigue endurance data, crack growth data
show considerable scatter and test results must be evaluated by statistical methods in order to derive useful design data.
5.2 Fatigue Testing
The basis for any design methodology aimed at preventing fatigue failures is data characterising the fatigue strength
of components and structures. Fatigue testing is therefore essential for the fatigue design process. The ideal fatigue test may
be defined as a test in which an actual structure is subjected to the service load spectrum of that structure. However,
life estimates are required before the design is finalised or details of the loading history are known. Additionally, each
structure will experience a particular load history that is unique for that structure, so many simplifications and
assumptions need to be made regarding the test stress sequence which is going to represent the many types of service
histories that can occur in practice.
Fatigue testing is therefore performed in several ways, depending on the stage the design or production of the structure
has reached or the intended use of the data. The following four main types of tests can be identified:
1. Stress-life testing of small specimens.

2. Strain-life testing of small specimens.
3. Crack growth testing.

4. S-N tests of components.
5. Prototype testing for design validation.
The first three tests are idealised tests that produce information on the material response. The use of the results from these
tests in life prediction of components and structures requires additional knowledge of influencing factors related to
the geometry, size, surface condition and corrosive environment. S-N tests of components are also normally standardised
tests that make life predictions more accurate compared with the three other tests because the uncertainties regarding
the influence of notches and surface conditions are reduced. Service loading or variable amplitude testing normally requires
a knowledge of the response of the actual structure to the loading environment, and is therefore normally used only
for prototype or component testing at a late stage in the production process.
Rotating bending machines were used in the past to generate large amounts of test data in a relatively inexpensive way.
Two types are shown schematically in Figure 11. The computer-controlled closed loop testing machines are widely used in
all modern fatigue testing laboratories. Most are equipped with hydraulic grips that facilitate the insertion and removal
of specimens. A schematic diagram of such a testing machine is shown in Figure 12. These machines are capable of a
precise control of almost any type of stress-time, strain-time or load pattern and are therefore replacing other types of
testing machines.


5.3 Presentation of Fatigue Test Data
Among the first systematic fatigue investigations reported in the literature are those set up and conducted by the
German railway engineer, August Wöhler, between 1852 and 1870. He performed tests on full scale railway axles and
also small scale bending, axial and torsion tests on several types of materials. Typical examples of Wöhler's original data
are shown in Figure 13. These data are presented in what is now well known as Wöhler or S-N diagrams. Such diagrams
are still commonly used in the presentation of fatigue data, although the stress axis is often on a logarithmic scale in contrast
to Wöhler's linear stress axis. Basquin's equation is often fitted to test data, it has the form:
Sa Nb = constant (2)
where Sa is the stress amplitude, and b is the slope. When both axes have logarithmic scales, Basquin's equation becomes
a straight line.


Other types of diagrams are used, for instance to demonstrate the influence of mean stress; examples are the Smith or
Haigh diagrams which are shown in Figure 14. Low cycle fatigue data are almost universally plotted in strain vs. life
diagrams since strain is a more meaningful and more easily measurable parameter than stress when the stress exceeds
the elastic limit.
6. PRIMARY FACTORS AFFECTING FATIGUE LIFE

The difference in fatigue behaviour of full scale machine or structural components as compared with small
laboratory specimens of the same material is sometimes striking. In the majority of cases the real life component exhibits
a considerably poorer fatigue performance than the laboratory specimen although the computed stresses are the same.
This difference in fatigue response can be examined in a systematic manner by evaluating the various factors that
influence fatigue strength. Qualitative and quantitative assessments of these effects are presented in the following paragraphs.
6.1 Material Effects
Effect of static strength on basic S-N data
For small unnotched, polished specimens tested in rotating bending or fully reversed axial loading there is a strong
correlation between the high-cycle fatigue strengths at 106 to 107 cycles (or fatigue limit) So, and the ultimate tensile
strength Su. For many steel materials the fatigue limit (amplitude) is approximately 50% of the tensile strength, ie. So = 0.5
Su. The ratio of the alternating fatigue strength So to the ultimate tensile strength Su is called the fatigue ratio. The
relationship between the fatigue limit and the ultimate tensile strength is shown in Figure 15 for carbon and alloy steels.
The majority of data are grouped between the lines corresponding to fatigue ratios of 0.6 and 0.35. Another feature is that
the fatigue strength does not increase significantly for Su>1400 Mpa. Other relationships between fatigue strength and
static strength properties based on statistical analysis of test data may be found in the literature.

For real life components, the effects of notches, surface roughness and corrosion reduce the fatigue strength, the effects
being strongest for the higher strength materials. The variation in fatigue strength with the tensile strength is illustrated
in Figure 16. The data in Figure 16 are consistent with the fact that cracks are quickly initiated in components that are
sharply notched or subjected to severe corrosion. The fatigue life then consists almost entirely of crack growth. Crack growth
is very little influenced by the static strength of the material, as illustrated in Figure 16, and the fatigue lives of sharply
notched parts are therefore almost independent of the tensile strength. An important example is welded joints which
always contain small crack-like defects from which crack start growing after a very short initiation period. Consequently
the fatigue design stresses in current design rules for welded joints are independent of the ultimate tensile strength.

Crack Growth Data
Fatigue crack growth rates seem to be much less dependent on static strength properties than crack initiation, at least within
a given alloy system. In a comparison of crack growth data for many different types of steel, with yield strengths from 250
to about 2000 Mpa levels of steel, Barsom [4] found that grouping the steels according to microstructure would
minimise scatter. His data for ferritic-pearlitic, matensitic and austenitic are shown in Figure 17. Also shown in the
same diagram is a common scatter band which indicates a relatively small difference in crack growth behaviour between
the three classes of steel. While data for aluminium alloys show a larger scatter than for steels, it is still possible to define
a common scatter band. Recognising that different alloy systems seem to have their characteristic crack growth
curves, attempts have been made to correlate crack growth data on the basis of the following expression
=C (3)
An implication of Equation 3 is that at equal crack growth rates, a crack in a steel plate can sustain three times higher
stress than the same crack in an aluminium plate. Thus, a rough assessment of the fatigue strength of an aluminium
component whose life is dominated by crack growth can be obtained by dividing the fatigue strength of a similarly shaped
steel component by three.


6.2 Mean Stress Effects
In 1870 Wöhler identified the stress amplitude as the primary loading variable in fatigue testing; however, the static or
mean stress also affects fatigue life as shown schematically in Figure 10. In general, a tensile mean stress reduces fatigue
life while a compressive mean stress increases life. Mean stress effects are presented either by the mean stress itself as
a parameter or the stress ratio, R. Although the two are interrelated through:
S m = Sa (4)
the effects on life are not the same, ie. testing with a constant value of R does not have the same effect on life as a
constant value of Sm, the difference is shown schematically in Figure 18.

As indicated in Figure 19a, testing at a constant R value means that the mean stress decreases when the stress range is
reduced, therefore testing at R = constant gives a better S-N curve than the Sm = constant curve, as indicated in Figure 19b.
It should also be noted that when the same data set is plotted in an S-N diagram with R = constant or with Sm = constant
the two S-N curves appear to be different, as shown in Figure 20.


The effect of mean stress on the fatigue strength is commonly presented in Haigh diagrams as shown in Figure 21, where
Sa / So is plotted against Sm / Su. So is the fatigue strength at a given life under fully reversed (Sm = 0,R = -1) conditions. Su
is the ultimate tensile strength. The data points thus represent combinations of Sa and Sm giving that life. The results
were obtained for small unnotched specimens, tested at various tensile mean stresses. The straight lines are the
modified Goodman and the Soderberg lines, and the curved line is the Gerber parabola. These are empirical relationships
that are represented by the following equations:

Modified Goodman Sa/So + Sm/Su = 1 (5)
Gerber Sa/ So + (Sm/ Su)2 = 1 (6)
Soderberg Sa/ So + Sm/ Sy = 1 (7)

The Gerber curves gives a reasonably good fit to the data, but some points fall below the line, ie. on the unsafe side.
The Goodman line represents a lower of the data, while the Soderberg line is a relatively conservative lower bound that
is sometimes used in design. These expressions should be used with care in design of actual components since the effects
of notches, surface condition, size and environment are not accounted for. Also stress interaction effect due to mean
load variation during spectrum loading might modify the mean stress effects given in the three equations.
6.3 Notch Effects
Fatigue is a weakest link process which depends on the local stress in a small area. While the higher strain at a notch makes
no significant contribution to the overall deformation, cracks may start growing here and eventually result in fracture of
the part. It is therefore necessary to calculate the local stress and relate this to the fatigue behaviour of the notched
component. A first approximation is to use the S-N curve for unnotched specimens and reduce the stress by the Kt factor.
An example of this approach is shown in Figure 22 for a sharply notched steel specimen. The predicted curve fits
reasonably well in the high cycle region, but at shorter lives the calculated curve is far too conservative. The tendency shown
in Figure 22 is in fact a general one, namely that the actual strength reduction in fatigues is less than that predicted by the
stress concentration factor. Instead the fatigue notch factor Kf is used to evaluate the effect of notches in fatigue. Kf is
defined as the unnotched to notched fatigue strength, obtained in fatigue tests:


Kf = (8)
From Figure 22 it is evident that Kf varies with fatigue life, however, Kf is commonly defined as the ratio between the
fatigue limits. With this definition Kf is less than Kt, the stress increase due to the notch is therefore not fully effective
in fatigue. The difference between Kf and Kt arise from several sources. Firstly, the material in the notch may be subject
to cyclic softening during fatigue loading and the local stress is reduced. Secondly, the material in the small region at
the bottom of the notch experiences a support effect caused by the constraint from the surrounding material so that the
average strain in the critical region is less than that indicated by the elastic stress concentration factor. Finally, there is
a statistical variability effect arising from the fact that the highly stressed region at the notch root is small, so there is a
smaller probability of finding a weak spot.
The notch sensitivity q is a measure of how the material in the notch responds to fatigue cycling, ie. how Kf is related to Kt. q
is defined as the ratio of effective stress increase in fatigue due to the notch, to the theoretical stress increase given by
the elastic stress concentration factor. Thus, with reference to Figure 21
q = (σmax,eff - σn)/(σmax - σn) = (Kfσn - σn)/(Ktσn - σn) = (Kf - 1)/(Kt - 1) (9)
where σmax,eff is the effective maximum stress, see Figure 23. This definition of Kf provides a scale for q that ranges from
zero to unity. When q = 0, Kf = Kt = 1 and the material is fully insensitive to notches, ie. a notch does not lower the
fatigue strength. For extremely ductile, low strength materials such as annealed copper, q approaches 0. Also materials
with large defects, eg. grey cast iron with graphite flakes have values of q close to 0. Hard brittle materials have values of
q close to unity. In general q is found to be a function of both material and the notch root radius. The concept of
notch sensitivity therefore also incorporates a notch size effect.

The fatigue notch factor applies to the high cycle range, at shorter lives Kf approaches unity as the S-N curves for notched
and unnotched specimens converge and coincide at N = 1/4 (tensile test). In experimental investigations involving
ductile materials it was found that the fatigue notch factor need to be applied only to the alternating part of the stress cycle
and not to the mean stress. For brittle materials, however, Kf should be applied to the mean stress as well.

6.4 Size Effects
Although a size effect is implicit in the fatigue notch factor approach, a size reduction factor is normally employed in
when designing against fatigue. The need for this additional size correlation arises from the fact that the notch size
effect saturates at notch root radii larger than about 3-4mm, ie. Kf → Kt, while it is well known from tests on full
scale components, also unnotched ones, that the fatigue strength continues to drop off with increasing size, without
any apparent limit.
The size effect in fatigue is generally ascribed to the following sources:
● A statistical size effect, which is an inherent feature of the fatigue process the nature of fatigue crack initiation which is
a weakest link process where a crack initiates when variables such as internal and external stresses, geometry, defect size
and number, and material properties combine to give optimum conditions for crack nucleation and growth. Increasing
size therefore produces a higher probability of a weak location.
● A technological size effect, which is due to the different material processing route and different fabrication
processes experienced by large and small parts. Different surface conditions and residual stresses are important aspects of
this type of size effect.
● A geometrical size also called the stress gradient effect. This effect is due to the lower stress gradient present in a thick
section compared with a thin one, see Figure 24. If a defect, in the form of a surface scratch or a weld defect, has the
same depth in the thin and thick parts, the defect in the thick part will experience a higher stress than the one in the thin
part, due to the difference in stress gradient, as indicated in Figure 24.
● A stress increase effect, due to incomplete geometric scaling of the micro-geometry of the notch. This takes place if the
notch radius is not scaled up with other dimensions.

Examples of components for which the latter effect is important are welded joints and threaded fasteners. The critical
locations for crack initiation are the weld toe and the thread root, respectively. In both cases the local stress is a function of
the ratio of thickness (diameter) to the notch radius. In welds the toe radius is determined by the welding process and
is therefore essentially constant for different size joints. The t/r ratio therefore increases and also the local stress when the
plate is made thicker, with r remaining constant. A similar situation exists for bolts, due to the fact that the thread root radius
is scaled to the thread pitch, rather than the diameter for standard (eg. ISO) threads. Since the pitch increases much slower
than the diameter the result is an increase in the notch stress with bolt size. For bolts as well as welded joints the
increased notch acuity effect comes in addition to the notch size effect discussed earlier, the result is that the
experimentally determined size effects for these components are among the strongest recorded. An example of size effects
for welded joints is shown in Figure 25. The solid line represents current design practice, according to eg. Eurocode 3 and
the UK Department of Energy Guidance Notes. The equation for this line is given by:
= (10)


The exponent n, the slope of the lines in Figure 25a, is the size correction exponent.
The experimental data points indicate that the thickness correction with n = 1/4 is on the unsafe side in some cases.
As indicated in Figure 25a thickness correction exponent of n = 1/3 instead of the current value of 1/4 gives a better fit to
the data in Figure 25a. For unwelded plates and low stress concentration joints in Figure 25b a value of n = 1/5
seems appropriate [7].
There is experimental evidence that indicate a relationship between the stress gradient and the size effect. Based on an
analysis of experimental data similar the following size reduction factor has been proposed to account for the larger
stress gradient found in notched specimens [8].
n = 0.10 + 0.15 log Kt (11)
6.5 Effects of Surface Finish
Almost all fatigue cracks nucleate at the surface since slip occurs easier here than in the interior. Additionally, simple
fracture mechanics considerations show that surface defects and notches are much more damaging than internal defects
of similar size. The physical condition and stress situation at the surface is therefore of prime importance for the
fatigue performance. One of the important variables influencing the fatigue strength, the surface finish,
commonly characterised by Ru, the average surface roughness which is the mean distance between peaks and troughs over
a specified measuring distance. The effect of surface finish is determined by comparing the fatigue limit of specimens with
a given surface finish with the fatigue limit of highly polished standard specimens. The surface reduction factor Cr is
the defined as the ratio between the two fatigue limits. Since steels become increasingly more notch sensitive with
higher strength, the surface factor Cr decreases with increasing tensile strength, Su.
6.6 Residual Stress Effects
Residual stresses or internal stresses are produced when a region of a part is strained beyond the elastic limit while
other regions are elastically deformed. When the force or deformation causing the deformation are removed, the
elastically deformed material springs back and impose residual stresses in the plastically deformed material. Yielding can
be caused by thermal expansion as well as by external force. The residual stresses are of the opposite sign to the
initially applied stress. Therefore, if a notched member is loaded in tension until yielding occurs, the notch root will
experience a compressive stress after unloading. Welding stresses which are locked in when the weld metal contracts
during cooling are an example of highly damaging stresses that cannot be avoided during fabrication. These stresses are
of yield stress magnitude and tensile and compressive stresses must always balance each other, as indicated in Figure 26.
The high tensile welding stresses contribute to a large extent to the poor fatigue performance of welded joints.
Stresses can be introduced by mechanical methods, for example by simply loading the part the same way service loading
acts until local plastic deformation occurs. Local surface deformation a such as shot peening or rolling are other
mechanical methods frequently used in industrial applications. Cold rolling is the preferred method to improve the
fatigue strength by axi-symmetric parts such as axles and crankshafts. Bolt threads formed by rolling are much more
resistant to fatigue loading than cut threads. Shot peening and hammer peening have been shown to be highly effective
methods for increasing the fatigue strength of welded joints.
Thermal processes produce a hardened surface layer with a high compressive stress, often of yield stress magnitude. The
high hardness also produces a wear resistant surface; in many cases this may be the primary reason for performing the
hardness treatment. Surface hardening can be accomplished by carburising, nitriding or induction hardening.
Since the magnitude of internal stresses is related to the yield stress their effect on fatigue performance is stronger the
higher strength of the material. Improving the fatigue life of components or structures by introducing residual stresses
is therefore normally only cost effective for higher strength materials.
Residual stresses have a similar influence on fatigue life as externally imposed mean stresses, ie. a tensile stress reduces
fatigue life while a compressive stress increases life. There is, however, an important difference which relates to the stability
of residual stresses. While an externally imposed mean stress, eg. stress caused by dead weight always acts (as long as the
load is present), residual stress may relax with time, especially if there are high peaks in the load spectrum that cause
local yielding at stress concentrations.
6.8 Effects of Corrosion
Corrosion in fresh or salt water can have a very detrimental effect on the fatigue strength of engineering materials.
Even distilled water may reduce the high-cycle fatigue strength to less than two thirds of its value in dry air.
Figure 27 schematically shows typical S-N curves for the effect of corrosion on unnotched steel specimens. Precorrosion,
prior to fatigue testing introduces notch-like pits that act as stress raisers. The synergistic nature of corrosion fatigue
is illustrated in the figure by the drastic lower fatigue strength which is obtained when corrosion and fatigue cycling
act simultaneously. The strongest effect of corrosion is observed for unnotched specimens, the fatigue strength reduction
is much less for notched specimens, as shown in Figure 28.



Protection against corrosion can successfully be achieved by surface coatings, either by paint systems or through the use
of metal coatings. Metal coating are deposited either by galvanic or electrolytic deposition or by spraying. The
preferred method for marine structures, however, is cathodic protection which is obtained by the use of sacrificial anodes
or, more infrequently, by impressed current. The use of cathodic protection normally restores the high cycle fatigue strength
of welded structural steels to its in-air value, while at higher stresses hydrogen embrittlement effects may reduce the fatigue
life by a factor of 3 to 4 on life.
7. CYCLE COUNTING PROCEDURE FOR VARIABLE AMPLITUDE LOADING

In practice the pattern of the stress history with time at any particular detail is likely to be irregular and may indeed be
random. A more realistic pattern of loading would involve a sequence of loads of different magnitude producing a stress
history perhaps as shown in Figure 29. The problem now arises as to what is meant by a cycle and what is the
corresponding stress range. A number of alternative methods of stress cycle counting have been proposed to overcome
this difficulty. The methods most commonly adopted for use in connection with Codes and Standards are the 'reservoir' or
the 'rainflow' method.

7.1 The Reservoir Method
The basis of the reservoir method is shown in Figure 30 using the stress time history as Figure 29. it should be assumed that
a stress time history of this kind has been obtained from strain gauges attached to the structure at the detail under
consideration or has been estimated by computer simulation. It is important that the results analysed should be representative
of long term behaviour. To analyse these results, a representative period is chosen so that the peak stress level repeats itself
and a line is drawn to join the two peaks as shown in Figure 30a. The region between these two peaks is then regarded as
being filled with water to form a reservoir. The procedure is then to take the lowest trough position and imaging that one
opens a tap to drain the reservoir. Water drains out from this trough T1 but remains tapped in adjacent troughs separated
by intermediate peaks as shown in Figure 30b. The draining of the first trough T1 corresponds to one cycle of stress range St
as shown, and the remaining level of water is now lowered to the level of the next highest peak. A tap is now opened at the
next lowest trough T2 as shown in Figure 30c and the water allowed to drain out. The height of the water released by
this operation corresponds to one cycle of stress range S2. This procedure is continued sequentially through each next
lowest trough, gradually building up a series of numbers of cycles of different stress ranges. It is also essential to allow for
the one cycle from zero to peak stress. For the particular stress time history shown in Figure 29 the results obtained from
the sample time period taken would be:



1 cycle at 120N/mm2, 1 at 100N/mm2, 4 at 80N/mm2, 6 at 60N/mm2, 10 at 30N/mm2.

The important principle of the above procedure is the recognition that by taking the difference between the lowest and
highest stress levels (trough and peak) it is ensured that the greatest possible stress range is counted first, and this procedure
is repeated sequentially so that the highest ranges are identified as the random fluctuations take place. In the assessment of
the effects of the different cycles the greatest damage is caused by the higher stress ranges since the design curves follow
a relationship of the kind SmN=constant. The reservoir method procedure does ensure that practical combinations of
minima and maxima are considered together whereas this is not always the case in other stress cycle coating procedures.
An alternative way of carrying out the reservoir cycle counting method is to turn the diagram upside down and use
the complementary part of the diagram as shown in Figure 31. This version of the reservoir method gives identical results to
the normal method but has the advantage of including the major cycle of stress from zero to maximum and back.

7.2 The 'Rainflow' Counting Method
The alternative 'rainflow' cycle counting procedure is illustrated in Figure 32a for the same stress time history of Figure
29. This is essentially the same picture turned onto its side as shown in Figure 32a. Water (rain) is allowed to fall from the
top onto the pattern considered as a roof structure and the paths followed by the rain are followed. However it is important
that a number of standard rules are followed and the procedure is rather more complex and subject to error than the
reservoir method. For each leg of the roof an imaginary flow of water is introduced at its highest point as shown by the dots
in Figure 32b. The flow of water is followed for the outermost starting point first, allowing the water to drop onto any parts
of the roof below and continue to drain until it falls off the roof completely. The width from the stress level at which the
water started until it left the roof represents the magnitude of one cycle of stress. It is necessary to follow the flow paths
from each starting point sequentially, moving progressively in from the points which are furthest out. If however the
flow reaches a position where water has drained from a previous flow, it is terminated at that point as shown in Figure 32c
for the flow starting from position 3 terminated by the previous flow position 1. The stress range for a cycle terminated in
this way is limited to the width between the starting point and the termination point. The complete rainflow diagram for
the stress pattern of Figure 29 is shown in Figure 32d. This procedure when correctly applied also counts the highest
stress range cycles first and ensures that only practical combinations of minima and maxima within a sequence are
considered. The rainflow method is somewhat more difficult to apply correctly than the reservoir method and it
is recommended that both for teaching and for design purposes the reservoir method should be used. The results for the
stress ranges from the rainflow method applied to the stress history from Figure 29 are identical to those from the
reservoir method ie.
1 cycle at 120N/mm2, 1 at 100N/mm2, 4 at 80N/mm2, 6 at 60N/mm2, 10 at 30N/mm2.





There are two other cycle counting methods, the 'range pair counting' method and the 'mean crossing level' which
are sometimes used although they tend not to be specified in Codes.
Example 1 This design example is based on the stress cycle history of Figure 29 as analysed above for stress cycle
counting purposes. Firstly the stress history represents a relatively short time period, and has to be extrapolated to represent
the total required life. Obviously the first requirement is to ascertain the required design life, and to multiply the numbers
of cycles of each stress range determined as above by the ratio of the design life to the period represented by the sample
time record taken. For example, if the design life was 20 years, and the sample time period was 6 hours, the numbers of
cycles should be multiplied by 20 x 365 x 4 = 29200. Caution should be exercised with such an extrapolation however, as
to whether such a short length time sample is representative of long term behaviour. For example in the case of a
bridge structure the traffic flows are likely to vary at different times of day, peaking at rush hour times and falling to low
values in the middle of the night. Furthermore there is possibility that the heaviest loads may not have occurred during
the sampling time considered. Problems of extrapolation from samples to full data are common in the statistical world
and statistical procedures may be necessary to ensure that potential differences in scaling up the data are allowed for. To a
large extent this depends on the absolute size of the sample taken.
To check whether the design is satisfactory for any particular detail, it is necessary to decide on the appropriate design S-
N design curve for the detail. The basis of doing this for Eurocode 3 will be explained in Lecture 12.9. For present purposes
it will be assumed that the stress history of Figure 29 analysed above applies to a detail for which the design S-N curve is
S90, for which the design life is 2 x 106 cycles at stress range 90N/mm2 with slope - 1/3 continued down to a stress level
of 66N/mm2 at design life 5 x 106 cycles, with a change in slope to -1/5 on down to a stress range of 36N/mm2 which is
the fatigue limit at 10 million cycles. For a twenty year design life assuming the stress history of Figure 29 is representative
of 6 hours typical loading the following table can be constructed:
Stress Cycles Available n

range applied cycles
N
N/mm2 n N
120 29200 843750 0.0346
100 29200 1.458 x 0.0200

106

80 116800 2.848 x 0.0410

106
60 175200 8.053 x 0.0218

106
30 292000 below 0
cut off
Σ n/N = 0.1174
For these assumptions the loading is acceptable for the detail and life required. Indeed the 'Damage Sum' value of 0.1174
based on a 20 year design life indicates the available design life is 20/0.1174 = 170 years. For this particular case the
stress range of 60N/mm2 fell in the intermediate range between 36 and 66N/mm2 and the available life N was calculated
using the changed slope of the S-N curve for this region. The stress range of 30N/mm2 is below the cut off for the
S90 classification and does not contribute to the fatigue damage.
7.3 Exceedance Diagram Methods
A convenient way of summarising the fatigue loading applied to structures is by the use of exceedance diagrams.
These diagrams present a summary of the magnitude of a particular event against the number of times this magnitude
is exceeded. Whilst in principle this presentation can be applied to a wide variety of phenomena for the purposes of
fatigue analyses the appropriate form is a graph of log (number of times exceeded) against the occurrence of different
stress levels. An example is shown in Figure 33. This might represent the stresses caused at a particular location in a bridge
by traffic passing over r by wave loading of an offshore structure. A typical feature of natural phenomena of this kind is that
the number of exceedances increases as the stress level decreases. The form of the exceedance diagram for natural
phenomena of this kind is often close to linear as shown. It is important to note that the diagram represents exceedances so
that any particular point on the graph includes all of the numbers of cycles of stress range above that value. For use in
fatigue analysis using Miner's law the requirement is a summary of the numbers of cycles of each stress level occurring.
Thus the loading represented by the exceedance diagram of Figure 33 can be treated as an equivalent histogram with cycles
as follows:


Stress No. of Cycles

range times occurring
exceeded
N/mm2
180 1 1
160 10 9
140 100 90
120 1000 900
100 10000 9000
80 100000 90000
60 1000000 900000
40 10000000 9000000
20 100000000 90000000
Some of the stress ranges will be found to be below the fatigue limit and hence will not contribute to the Miners law
damage sum. For example for the detail considered in Example 1 above, the cut off limit was 36N/mm2 and the stress ranges
of 20N/mm2 would not contribute to the fatigue damage. The stress ranges above this level will contribute however and
their effects must be included. This is done by finding the value of Σ SmN separately for the remaining stress levels above
and below the change in slope of the S-N curve, and for the figures given above this will be found to be 5.692 x 1010 for
stress ranges of 80N/mm2 and above, and 1.621 x 1015 for the 40 and 60N/mm2 stress ranges. For an S90 detail with
the spectrum of loading shown above, the fatigue damage from each part of the S-N curve has to be calculated based on
the appropriate value of SmN=constant as follows:
+ = 0.298
From these figures the damage sum factor calculated as 0.298 is acceptable. Detailed examination of the figures leading up
to this result would indicate that the majority of the damage calculated occurs at the lowest stress ranges of 40 and 60N/
mm2 contributing to the S5N part of the design curve.
7.4 Block Loading
Block loading is a particular case of an exceedance diagram.
Consider the particular case of a one lane bridge structure on which the loading is idealised as falling into three
categories. Suppose that there are n1 heavy lorries travelling across the bridge during its lifetime, and that at a particular
welded detail each lorry causes a stress range S1. In addition there are n2 medium lorries which cause a stress range S2, and
n3 cars which cause a stress range S3 at the same welded detail as they cross the bridge. To assess the combined effect of
the different stress ranges all being applied in some form of sequence the procedure adopted is to assume that the
damage caused by each individual group of cycles of a given stress range is the same as would be caused under
constant amplitude loading at that stress range. It is necessary first to decide on the appropriate classification for the
geometric detail being considered and to identify the appropriate S-N design curve. For present purposes, let us assume that
the design curve is as shown in Figure 34. If the only fatigue loading applied to the bridge was the crossing of the heavy
lorries with stress range S1 at the detail concerned, the available design life would be N1 cycles as shown in Figure 34. In
fact the number of cycles applied at this stress range is n1. It is assumed that the fatigue damage caused at stress range St is
n1/N1. Similarly if the only fatigue loading applied to the bridge was the crossing of the medium lorries with stress range S2
the available design life would be N2 and the fatigue damage caused would be n2/N2. For the passage of the cars at stress
range S3 the available design life if this was the only loading would be N3 and the fatigue damage caused would be n3/
N3. When all three loadings occur together the assumption for design purposes is that the total fatigue damage is the sum
of that occurring at each individual stress range independently. This is known as the Palmgren-Miner law of linear damage,
or more simply as Miner's law and is summarised as follows:

+ + + .... + = 1 (11)
7.5 Frequency and Spectrum Aspects
It is not uncommon for loading to occur at more than one frequency. It is generally considered that for non
aggressive environmental conditions, eg. steel in air, there is little or no effect of frequency on constant amplitude
fatigue behaviour. In aggressive conditions however, eg. steel in seawater, there may be significant effects of frequency on
the crack growth mechanism leading to increased crack growth rates, shorter lives and reduction or elimination of the
fatigue limit. In particular it is necessary in fatigue testing of materials where environmental conditions may be important
to carry out the testing at the same frequency as that of the service loading. An example of this is the effect of wave loading
on offshore structures where a typical frequency of waves is about 0.16Hz. Clearly this has major implications on the
time required for testing since to accumulate one million cycles at 0.16Hz would take about 70 days whereas a
conventional test in air at say 16Hz would reach the same life in less than 1 day. With any structure the response of
the structure to dynamic loading depends on the frequency or rate of the applied loading and on the vibration characteristics
of the structure itself. It is most important for the designer to ensure that the natural resonance frequencies of the structure
are well separated from the frequencies of applied loading which may occur. Even so the structure may respond
with frequencies of stress fluctuation which are a combination of the applied loading frequency and its own natural
vibration frequencies. Furthermore since the magnitude of the loading may also vary with time it is necessary to consider
both time domain and frequency domain aspects. Figure 35 shows a typical frequency domain response for stress
fluctuations at a particular location in an offshore structure. This diagram gives information on number of times different
stress levels are exceeded as well as the frequency data. The peaks at about 0.16Hz correspond to the applied loading
whereas the higher frequency peaks are those due to the vibration response of the structure.


With variable amplitude fatigue loading of this kind there are additional complexities with regard to frequency effects to
be considered. Where the stressing occurs close to or at a single frequency the condition is known as 'narrow band' and
when there are a range of different frequencies involved it is known as 'broad band'. If the frequency domain response of
Figure 35 is converted back into the time domain response in which the data was originally recorded the result would look
like Figure 36. Clearly some assumptions must have been in the conversion of one diagram into the other and in this case it
is that stress cycle counting has been carried out by the reservoir method. In Figure 36 however, it is clear that because
the higher frequency stress cycles are superimposed on top of the lower frequency cycles, some of the higher frequency
cycles occur at higher mean stress or stress ratio.

● In this lecture it has been shown that fatigue is a weakest link process of a statistical nature in which a crack will initiate at
a location where stress, local and global geometry, defects and material properties combine to give a worst case situation.
The crack thus nucleates at a local peak spot, and may cause failure of the structure, even if the rest of the structure has a
high fatigue resistance. Good fatigue design practice is therefore based on close attention to details that increases the
stress locally and therefore are potentially initiation sites for fatigue cracks.
● A positive aspect of the local nature of the fatigue process is that only a relatively small area of highly stressed material need
to be improved in order to increase the load carrying capacity of the structure when fatigue is the limiting design criterion.
● Another general conclusion is that increasing the size of a structure generally leads to a lower strength with respect to
brittle fracture as well as fatigue. Size effects must therefore be properly accounted for.
● The larger number of factors influencing fatigue strength makes the combined effects of these factors very difficult to
predict. The safest way to obtain design data is therefore still to perform fatigue tests on prototype components with
realistic environmental conditions.
● A normal structural design analysis must be carried out for the maximum design loads and for a series of intermediate
loads with known number of occurrences in the design life to give stress results at typical details. Alternatively if
the application Code gives an equivalent constant amplitude loading condition and associated number of cycles this
loading should be applied and stresses determined. The stresses should be analysed for range of variation in principal stress
or of direct stress aligned perpendicular or parallel to the geometric detail as defined in Eurocode 3. Treatments for
shear stresses are given in Eurocode 3. The stress ranges should be multiplied by appropriate partial factors, and for
variable amplitude loading either combined together to give an equivalent constant amplitude stress range and number
of cycles or used to sum up fatigue damage.
● The correct detail classification must be identified for typical critical details and the applied fatigue damage for the design
life checked against the design S-N curve for the detail concerned. If the design is not satisfactory either the stress ranges
must be reduced or the detail changed until satisfactory results are obtained.
9. REFERENCES
1. Metals Handbook, ASM 1985.
2. ISO Standard, 373 - 1964.
3. P.C. Paris and F. Erdogan, "A Critical Analysis of Crack Propagation Laws", Trans, ASME, Vol. 85, No. 4, 1963.
4. J.M. Barsom, "Fatigue Crack Propagation", Trans, ASME, SEr. B, No.4, 1971.
5. H. Neuber, "Kerbspannungslehre", Springer, 1958.
6. R.E. Peterson, "Stress Concentration Factors", John Wiley & Sons, 1974.
7. O. Ørjasæter et al, "Effect of Plate Thickness on the Fatigue Properties of a Low Carbon Micro-Alloyed Steel", Proc. 3rd
Int. ECSC Conf. on Steel in Marine Structures (SIMS'87), Delft, 15-18 June 1987.
8. P. J. Haagensen, "Size Effects in Fatigue of Non-Welded Components", Proc. 9th Int, Conf. on Offshore Mechanics and
Arctic Engineering, (OMAE), Houston, Texas, 18-23 February 1990.

ESDEP WG 12
FATIGUE
Lecture 12.3: Effect of Workmanship on

Fatigue Strength of Longitudinal and
Transverse Welds
OBJECTIVE/SCOPE
Identification of factors influencing the fatigue strength of welded joints and of the consequences for design, fabrication
and inspection.
PREREQUISITES
RELATED LECTURES
Lecture 3.6: Inspection/QA Assurance
SUMMARY
The data on fatigue strength given in Eurocode 3 [1] are briefly reviewed. The strengths of longitudinal and transverse
welds are related to the quality of workmanship. The need for inspection and the limitations of non-destructive testing

are examined. The implications for economic design, detailing and specification are set out.
1. INTRODUCTION
Any joint in a structure or in any part of it is a potential point of weakness, both in static strength and in fatigue.
For fatigue the potential weakness is evident from the fatigue strength data given in Eurocode 3 [1] (Figure 1). There
the perfect plate is in detail category 160, which is the fatigue strength at 2.106 cycles, whilst the joint detail with the
worst geometry and hence stress concentration, is in category 36.

In a welded joint potential sites for initiation of a fatigue crack are:
1. In the parent metal of either part joined, adjacent to:
(i) the end of the weld
(ii) a weld toe
(iii) a change of direction of the weld.
2. In the weld metal itself, starting from:
(i) the weld root
(ii) the weld surface
(iii) an internal flaw.
Even one type of joint, the longitudinal fillet or butt weld, can fall into any one of four categories, from 140 to 100,
depending on workmanship, see Figure 2.


Transverse butt welds can have an even wider range of strengths (Figure 2) - from category 125 to category 36, 7 categories
in all. If one excludes butt welds made from one side only, with and without backing strips, i.e. detail categories 71, 50 and
36, four categories are left for "good" butt welds. Here the category depends on both weld geometry and workmanship.
Other welds (transverse fillets, welds to attachments, etc.) also show wide variations in strength depending on geometry
and workmanship.
It is important to note that a number of other (usually accidental) results of poor workmanship can reduce the performance of
a detail to below what its category would indicate:
(a) weld spatter
(b) accidental arc strikes
(c) unauthorised attachments
(d) corrosion pitting
(e) weld flaws, particularly in transverse butt welds
(f) poor fit-up
(g) eccentricity and misalignment.
Most of these are largely unquantifiable and must be controlled by adequate inspection and repair.
It is the purpose of this lecture to describe in greater detail welded joints and the matters to be considered by the
designer before deciding the fatigue strength that will be used in calculations.
2. LONGITUDINAL WELDS
The highest category for longitudinal welds, 140, applies only where there are "no significant flaws". This implies
automatic welding, no stop/start positions, no slag inclusions or blow holes - near perfection "demonstrated by
specialist inspection".
The next category down, 125, requires automatic welding and expert repair, followed by inspection, of any accidental stop/
start positions. Leaving stop/start positions brings the category of longitudinal fillet welds down to 112 and that of
longitudinal butt welds down to 100.
Manual fillet or butt welds and one-sided butt welds are all in category 100, as are "repaired" welds.
There is experimental evidence that small slag inclusions can bring the strength of a longitudinal fillet weld down to
category 90.
A lower limit to the strength of defective longitudinal fillet welds is probably that of an intermittent weld, category 80, or
even the end of such a weld at a cope hole, category 71.
3. TRANSVERSE BUTT WELDS

Transverse butt welds can reach category 125 when "high quality welding" is obtained and proved to have been achieved
by later inspection. Amongst other requirements, the proposed welding standard limits solid inclusions in such welds to a
width of 2mm and a length of 6mm, thus acknowledging the importance of internal defects.
Lower quality welds fall into category 112 provided the welds are ground flush. Otherwise they are in category 90, or 80
for splices in rolled sections or girders. Here the category depends on the weld profile and the likely quality of
workmanship; internal defects are not mentioned.
In fact, internal defects have at least as great an influence on the fatigue strength of transverse butt welds as does the
weld profile.
Another factor which affects the strength of splices in girders, and which is not mentioned explicitly in the description of
the detail categories, is the order in which the welds are made. This can affect the level of residual stress.
The test results shown in Figure 3 illustrate these points. They are all results of tests on transverse butt welds shown against
the grid of lines representing the fatigue strengths given in Eurocode 3 [1] for the various detail categories. The short thick
lines represent test results on small plate specimens, 40mm wide and 10mm thick. All other points represent results from
tests of complete beams.

The results range from category 112 for the plate specimens down to category 63 or so for a butt joint in a rolled I beam.
The reasons for this spread of results are partly weld quality and partly residual stresses caused by different welding procedures.

3.1 Effect of Internal Defects.
It is likely that the plate specimens were reasonably free from internal defects. The butt welds in the plate girder flanges,
shown as large circles, contained various small defects, in the range of 3mm2 to 30mm2 from which the cracks leading
to failure originated. Allowing for the fact that the plate girder flanges were 35mm thick, all results would fit into category
112. So would the results from tests on small girders with 25mm thick flanges, shown as triangles.
The results shown as small dots were obtained for a butt weld between a rolled and a built-up I section. The failure was due to
a large "lack of fusion" defect in the 30mm thick flange directly above the web to which it was joined by 24mm radii.
The defect had an area of about 80mm2 and is sketched in Figure 4 and was attributed to faulty weld preparation. It must
be pointed out, however, that it was the work of experienced fabricators, who clearly had not appreciated the difficulty
of achieving full penetration at this point.

Even allowing for size effect, one would put this result into category 63. There is no information on the strength of such
welds in Eurocode 3 - they should not be used. A British Standard, BS5400: Part 10 puts such welds in a class
which corresponds, as regards strength, to category 63 [2]. This classification fits the test results.
These few test results suffice to indicate that internal weld defects occur and that they have a decisive influence on the
fatigue strength of a welded joint.
To determine this effect quantitatively, a fracture mechanics study has been undertaken, based on fatigue test results from
butt welds containing known defects. The results were used to obtain basic fracture mechanics data. These results showed
the scatter typical of all fatigue test results. A lower bound of the values was then used to calculate the fatigue strength of
butt welds of various thicknesses containing defects of various sizes. The defect size was expressed as an area; a
reasonable approximation which avoided the need to give two dimensions for every defect and to investigate various shapes.
The figures shown in Figure 5 are approximate and were obtained by interpolation, and some extrapolation, from the
results produced by the investigation.
The agreement between these figures and the few large beam results is quite good.
It will be noted that near surface defects cause a greater loss of fatigue strength than deep ones and that a 12mm2 defect,
such as suggested in the draft welding standard [1], would bring a butt weld strength down to category 100, or even 90 if
near the surface.
It is clear, therefore, that high fatigue strength in a butt weld requires nearly perfect welds.
3.2 Effect of Welding Procedure
The results in Figure 3 showing the effect of different welding procedures and, hence, residual stress are the two groups
of squares.
They were obtained from tests on butt joints through rolled I sections. The higher set, full squares, were from specimens
in which the flange butt welds were made before the web butt welds. The lower set, open squares, were obtained
from specimens in which the reverse procedure had been used - web butt weld first, then flange butt welds so that
their contraction was resisted by the web.
One set fits category 100, the other category 80 - a considerable loss of strength through using the wrong weld sequence.
These results do not stand alone; similar ones have been obtained in the United States and they are confirmed by the
results shown by the circles on the figure.
These results were obtained from plate girder specimens with 35mm thick flanges. The full circles show results
from specimens in which only the flange plates were butt welded, and that before they were welded to the webs. Allowing
for size effect, they fit category 112 or, possibly, 125. The open circles are results from butt welds right through similar
plate girders. They are little, if any, worse than those shown by full circles.
However, the welding procedure, shown in Figure 6, was designed to minimise residual stresses in the flange welds.
Initially, the webs were not welded to the flange for some 110mm either side of the joint, the flange butt welds were made
first, then the web butt weld and, finally, the web was welded to the flanges. This weld also served to close the small slot
which had been left under the flange butt weld to allow radiography of these welds. Cope holes were neither needed
nor provided.


It is clear from these results that butt joints right through a girder can have the same fatigue strength as a butt weld through
a plate provided that the right welding procedure is specified by the designer and followed in the fabrication shops.
Otherwise there is a loss of fatigue strength of the order of 25%.
The results were obtained from tests on plate girders, but the conclusions have a wider application. They apply, for example,
to joints in portal frames at or near the corners and any situation where there is a risk of high restraint of butt welds.
There is some evidence that similar considerations apply to welding attachments to girders. In one test, plates welded to
the compression flange of a plate girder caused early cracks, as was expected. When similar attachments were welded to
the flange plate before it was welded to the girder, no cracks were observed at about double the endurance; again
an improvement of about 25% in the fatigue strength.
Given the effect welding procedure can have on the fatigue strength of a joint, it must be considered at the design stage and
be specified; it cannot be left to the fabricator.
4. OTHER WELDS
4.1 General
So far discussion has been limited to those types of weld (longitudinal butt and fillet welds, and transverse butt welds)
whose fatigue strength can be very significantly affected by embedded, or usually more importantly, surface breaking
defects. Many other types of weld can be and have been used which, even if carried out perfectly, result in a considerable
loss of fatigue strength. This loss is normally a result of the welds forming geometrical discontinuities, or causing stress
raisers; frequently workmanship faults, unless gross, have little further degrading effect.
Three specific types of weld will be considered in this section:
a. Transverse fillet welds
b. Welds connecting load-carrying and non load-carrying attachments.
It is sometimes difficult to differentiate between the reduction of strength which results from poor detailed design, and
that which results from poor workmanship, since there can be a correlation between the two; however, the main
considerations are described below.
4.2 Transverse Fillet Welds

Transverse fillet welds may be used for connecting transverse stiffeners to a plate (e.g. web stiffeners, or transverse
stiffeners on a wide flange plate in compression, or diaphragms in box girders); they always reduce the fatigue strength of
the parent plate. Eurocode 3 Part 1 [1] shows that the best that can normally be achieved is category 80 if the thickness of
the stiffener or diaphragm is 12 mm or less, or category 71 if it is more than 12 mm. As is discussed later, it may be
desirable or possible in some circumstances to dispense with such stiffeners by thickening the parent plate.
As fatigue failure resulting from a transverse fillet weld is usually initiated by a crack growing into the parent plate from the
toe of the weld (Figure 7), faults in the weld itself (e.g. slag inclusions or porosity) are unlikely to reduce the strength
further. However, any faults in workmanship which damage the parent plate can be serious; in particular any residual
faults which take the form of planar cracking in the heat affected zone of the plate must be strictly forbidden, and
inspection must be specified to ensure that any such faults can be detected and rectified.

Undercut in the parent plate at the weld toe, if excessive, can also degrade the fatigue strength although a small amount
can generally be tolerated without reducing the category below the figures given above. It is generally considered that
undercut of not more than 0,5 mm is permissible, provide that the total undercut does not reduce the cross-section by more
than 5%.
One area where design and workmanship tend to overlap is where a transverse fillet weld ends near the edge of the parent
plate. For example, in the case of a web stiffener attached also to the flange of a joist, what happens to that portion
attached near to the edge of the flange? Where the stiffener is terminated within 10 mm of the edge of the flange, the
category is reduced to 50 at that point; where it is terminated 10 mm or more from the edge, the "full" category of 71 or 80
as appropriate may be used.
Other applications of transverse fillet welds where the workmanship can affect the strength arise where the weld is subject
to bending about its longitudinal axis; such conditions can arise where the traffic loads on a steel deck plate of a bridge
are transferred to stiffeners or girders through fillet welds between the plate and the stiffener web (Figure 8). In this case
the quality of the weld is all important; in particular the fit-up between the plate and the web should be very good otherwise
the flexural stresses will be increased and the root of the weld will be likely to be of very rough profile. In such
circumstances many instances have arisen of a crack initiating at the root under the flexural stresses induced, and
propagating through the throat of the weld. A failure such as this is extremely difficult to detect until the whole flexural
cross-section area of the weld has been lost; furthermore attempts to use analytical methods to anticipate such an
occurrence are almost impossible because of the extreme sensitivity of the weld to such problems of workmanship.

As a final example of transverse fillet welds, and as an introduction to load-carrying attachments, consider the attachment of
a doubling plate as shown in Figure 9. Such doubling plates have frequently been used in the past to increase the static
strength of (for example) the flange plate of a steel girder. At the end of such a doubling plate there will be a transverse
fillet weld, but because it is having to transfer load into the plate its function is significantly different from those
discussed earlier.

Firstly, because of the load transfer the stress concentration factor is high and hence the "basic" category of the weld is
50* when neither the flange plate nor the doubling plate is greater than 20 mm thick. If either exceeds 20 mm in thickness
the category is reduced to 36*.
Secondly, not only will damage to the plate reduce the fatigue strength in a similar manner to that described above, but faults
in the weld itself will reduce the strength since it is actually transferring load. An interesting development of this detail,
which largely overcomes the problems described, is to omit the welding at the ends of the doubling plate and instead connect
it to the flange plate in this region using high strength friction grip bolts, only beginning the welding (as a longitudinal
fillet) after most of the load has been transferred. This weld will then behave as described for longitudinal fillets in Section 2.
4.3 Load-Carrying and Non Load-Carrying Attachments
As can be inferred from Section 4.2 above, a load-carrying attachment is likely to have a lower category than a non
load-carrying one. This statement must be treated with care, however, since sometimes an attachment intended to be non
load-carrying may carry load; a typical case is a lug welded on, for example, to aid lifting during erection (see Figure 10).
The lug is not intended to carry load in service but will, of course, tend to attract some. This circumstance is recognised
in Eurocode 3 by varying the category depending on the length of the attachment in the direction of stress in the parent
plate (the longer it is, the more load it will attract and hence the greater the stress concentration and the lower the
category). Thus, even if it is nominally non load-carrying, it comes into the following categories (even lower categories
would apply if the attachments were within 20mm of the edge of a plate):
length ≤ 50 mm: category 80
50 mm < length ≤ 100 mm: category 71
length > 100 mm: category 50*

If such attachments come in a fatigue sensitive area, a designer will normally require them to be removed and ground
flush after use for erection; however, sometimes they are required in the final structure (e.g. batten plates, connection
of bracing, etc.). In such cases care should be taken to detail them in such a way as to minimise the load transfer and hence
the stress concentration. This is usually done by making them as short as possible and keeping them away from the
extreme edge of members.

True load-carrying attachments (such as the doubling plate of Section 4.2, or load-carrying cruciform joints), are usually
of very low detail category and are sensitive to weld defects in the same way as transverse butt welds. Furthermore,
cruciform and similar connections can be very sensitive to lamellar faults in the plates, thus leading to lamellar tearing
after welding. Such faults would have to be repaired - they cannot be quantified or allowed for by simply reducing the
category of the weld.
5. INSPECTION
Since the fatigue strength of welded joints is greatly influenced by the quality of the welds, the designer's first consideration
in choosing a fatigue strength for design calculations must be the quality which can be achieved at economically justifiable
cost and which can be shown to have been achieved by reasonably possible supervision of the welding process and
inspection of the finished product.
5.1 Inspection of Longitudinal Welds
Consider first longitudinal welds. The requirements for high fatigue strength are severe.
Any breakdown of an automatic welding process would drop a potential category 140 weld to category 125, or to category
112 unless the accidental stop/start position is repaired, and seen to be repaired, by a specialist.
To use a design strength of 140, therefore, requires faultless automatic welding under continuous supervision and rejection
of any component with an accidental stop/start position at a highly stressed point.
Even category 125 requires a high degree of supervision to ensure identification and proper repair of any stop/start. The
choice of lower categories reduces the need for supervision.
Inspection of longitudinal welds is difficult. For a start, a 30m long plate girder has 120m of longitudinal weld, some 30m
of which would be stressed within about 10%of the maximum. Secondly, practicable methods of inspection are limited
to visual - just looking at the weld - and magnetic particle methods to detect cracks.
Considerations of time and cost limit anything other than visual inspection to sample lengths, say a number of 1m
lengths, making up a total of some 5% to 10% of the total length of weld. In addition, the ends of welds should be checked
for cracks.
If such sample inspection reveals defects, the sampling rate must be increased to determine whether there is something
wrong with the welding process.

The suggested sampling rate applies where the only function of the longitudinal welds is to hold web and flange together.
In certain applications, such as crane girders or box girders, longitudinal welds may be subject to bending about
their longitudinal axis or to concentrated vertical loads applied to the flange.
Eurocode 3 [1] gives categories for welds in such bending; category 71 for longitudinal butt welds and 50 for such
partial penetration butt welds and fillet welds.
There is experimental evidence that welds at box girder corners can reach strengths corresponding to categories 80 or even
90, if butt welds, 125 if a pair of fillet welds, but only 50, as in Eurocode 3, if one-sided fillet welds. The stresses are taken
as the greater of those in the weld or the parent metal.
This suggests that the strengths required for design in accordance with Eurocode 3 can be achieved with "ordinary"
quality welds. Sample inspection, as for other longitudinal welds, should be sufficient but the sample size should be
increased, probably doubled.
In relating strength requirements to inspection and quality criteria it should be considered that at least part of the partial
factor in Eurocode 3 is intended to deal with variations in workmanship. For example, a factor of about 1,12 would cover
the difference between a "perfectly" repaired stop/start position and a reasonably good one. If the repair led to slag inclusion,
it would need a factor of 1,40 to cover the resulting loss in strength.
5.2 Inspection of Transverse Butt Welds
The total length of transverse butt weld in a girder is much less than that of longitudinal welds, say of the order of 4m. For
this, and other reasons, they are more easily inspected than longitudinal welds. Even so, it is not possible to be sure of
finding small internal defects and to size accurately those found.
In addition to visual inspection, two methods of non-destructive testing can be used - radiography and ultrasonics.
Essentially radiography records the intensity with which X-rays are transmitted through the weld onto photographic
film. Porosity, for example, shows as dark grey spots on a grey background.
Radiography is costly, requires safety precautions difficult to arrange where there is 24 hour use of a workshop, and will
not show thin defects such as lack of fusion, see Figure 11.

Ultrasonic testing can find such defects but is operator dependent. Even careful ultrasonic examination will, in most cases,
miss defects of the order of 2mm2 in area - the sort of defect which may bring fatigue strength down to category 112.
The effect of defect size on fatigue strength was discussed earlier. The use of a given strength in design therefore implies
a corresponding limit on defect size. Hence there is a need to measure the size of detected defects by ultrasonics.
In ultrasonic examination (Figure 12) defects are detected by the ultrasonic beam they reflect. The reflection is indicated on
a display against a time base. The distance from the probe sending the beam is determined by the location of the echo
mark. The height of the mark above the base measures the intensity of the reflected beam relative to that from some
standard reflector.

The boundaries of a defect are established by moving the probe until the mark of the defect echo has disappeared.
The boundary is usually taken to be the centre of the probe at the position where the defect echo height is halved. This is not
a precise measurement. Errors are of the order of 5mm on a defect dimension.
This method cannot be used when the dimension to be measured is less than the diameter of the probe - some 10mm
in diameter or 79mm2 in area. The area of such small but significant defects can be determined by the proportion of
the ultrasonic beam they reflect, i.e. the echo height. The strength of this reflection depends not only on the size of the
defect but also on the efficiency of its surface as a reflector. Again, this is not a precise measurement. The same
measurement of echo height can be produced by defects which differ in area by a factor of 2 if small, and a factor of 4 if large.
Defects which are acceptable for reasonable fatigue strength are small. The errors in determining their size by non-
destructive testing are such that safe limits have to be set. This means that welds containing only acceptable defects will have
to be rejected to be reasonably sure of not accepting welds with unacceptable defects.
Limits on defect size can be relaxed if part of the partial factor is taken to cover faults in workmanship. A factor of 1,25,
for example, applied to category 112 strength would cover the sort of defects which can occur in good quality work.

5.3 Inspection of Other Welds
As was shown in Section 4, the performance of transverse fillet welds and welds to attachments is less dependent on the
quality of the welding than is the performance of butt welds or longitudinal fillets. Hence inspection of such welds is
frequently confined to:
(a) visual inspection to ensure that the weld is of the right size, of a good profile, and does not suffer from excessive undercut.
(b) non-destructive testing (e.g. magnetic particle or dye penetrant) to ensure that there are no cracks in the weld or in
the parent plate at the weld toe.
In certain applications, such as cruciform joints, it may be necessary to check the welding, probably by ultrasonic methods,
to ensure that it has not caused lamellar tearing of the plate.
Where temporary gussets, etc. have been removed and ground, it is usual to check the surface of the ground plate for cracks.
6. CHOICE OF QUALITY
A designer must appreciate that high quality is associated with considerable cost.
The costs arise from increased care in welding and supervision, inspection and repeated repair of rejected work.
Repeated repair occurs because the quality of a repaired weld is often worse than that of the rejected weld. Added to this cost
is the major cost of the delay caused to fabrication.
It is, therefore, important not to specify a higher quality than is justified on economic grounds or necessary on
engineering grounds.
For economy must be balanced the cost of achieving a given quality against that of the extra material which would have to
be used to reduce stresses to a level for which a lower quality would be acceptable.
Two considerations can limit the necessary quality.
Firstly, a part of a structure designed for the ultimate limit state may only be lightly stressed under fatigue loading, or may
not be subject to many cycles of stress so that a detail category with a low fatigue strength is adequate. This situation
applies, for example, to certain railway bridge girders above 40m span.
Secondly, the welded joint considered may not determine the fatigue strength of the component. For example, a stiffener
or shear connector attached to the flange of a plate girder would bring the fatigue strength down to category 80 or even 71;
in such a case there is no need to specify a quality of transverse butt weld in that flange which would give a fatigue
strength corresponding to category 112. The same applies to the longitudinal welds attaching that flange to the web.
The best way of avoiding the consequences of joints with low fatigue strength is not to have such joints.
To show how to approach this desirable design, consider the plate girder shown in Figure 13, with cope holes,
stiffeners, transverse butt welds in the flanges and longitudinal fillet welds.
The cope holes limit the fatigue strength to category 71. Figure 6 showed that they are unnecessary and therefore they
should not be there. Eliminating them is the first improvement.
The stiffeners, if more than 12mm thick, are in the same low category. They may be required to strengthen the web to
resist shear forces or concentrated loads applied to the top flange, to resist lateral loads, e.g. wind forces, or to stabilise the
top flange against lateral buckling.
If the stiffeners are only required to strengthen the web, they can be avoided if the web is made thicker. This improves
the fatigue strength of the girder and will often be more economical than providing stiffeners, except in deep girders.
If the stiffeners are deleted, the fatigue strength of the girder is now limited by the transverse butt welds and the
longitudinal fillet welds.
The transverse butt welds can and should be avoided if plates for the length of the girder can be obtained in one piece. This
is on the basis that the butt welds are likely to cost more than the material which can be saved by using them. If butt welds
must be used, they can and should be placed at a point where the fatigue strength of a reasonable quality weld does not limit
the fatigue strength of the component. In short, they should not be placed at points of maximum stress.
If butt welds are made "harmless" as suggested, the longitudinal fillet welds remain. Here the choice of quality may be a
matter of economics if the fatigue loading is such that it determines the design.
In short built-up girders where severe fatigue loading is the main design criterion, even longitudinal welds can be moved
from highly stressed areas by using T sections for the flanges. This is not cheap, but may, in some cases, be economical.
Finally, if the required girder is short enough, it should be possible to find a rolled section which can be used without
any welded joints, at least in highly stressed areas. This would achieve the objective of "no joints".
This short example does not, of course, represent all design problems. It does, however, show that it is often possible to
reduce or eliminate the effect of joints on the fatigue strength of a component of a structure.
It must be remembered, however, that eliminating joints is not the primary objective in design. If joints are required they
must be provided. Their design must be based on realistic assumptions as to their quality and fatigue strength.
● All joints are potential points of weakness in a structure.
● Faults in workmanship reduce the fatigue strength of joints.
● Assuming a fatigue strength in design implies ensuring a corresponding quality of workmanship.
● Inspection and non-destructive tests have limitations in proving quality.
● Choice of quality is affected by the likely available quality of workmanship, practicable inspection and cost.
● Good design can reduce the effect of joints on the fatigue strength of a structure.
9. REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING

[1] Eurocode 3 "Design of Steel Structures" ENV 1993-1-1:Part 1.1 General Rules and Rules for Buildings, CEN, 1992.
[2] British Standard BS5400: Part 10: 1980, Code of Practice for Fatigue, British Standards Institution, London

1. ORE/D 130/RP 1. 1974 and ORE/D 86/RP 3, 1971
published by the European Rail Research Institute (ERRI), formerly ORE, Oudenoord 500, NL-3513 EX, Utrecht,
The Netherlands.
2. Gurney, T.R., "Fatigue of welded structures" Cambridge University Press, 1968.

3. Haibach, E., "Betriebsfestigkeit - Verfahren und Daten zur Bauteilberechnung." VDI Verlag, Düsseldorf, 1989.

ESDEP WG 12
FATIGUE
Lecture 12.4.1: Fatigue Behaviour of

Hollow Section Joints (I)
OBJECTIVE/SCOPE:
To gain an understanding of the fatigue behaviour of hollow section joints and the available methods of design.
PRE-REQUISITES:
Lecture 12.3: Effect of Workmanship on Fatigue Strength of Longitudinal and Transverse Welds
Lecture 13.1: Application of Hollow Sections in Steel Structures
Lecture 13.2: The Behaviour and Design of Welded Connections between Circular Hollow Sections under
Lecture 13.3: The Behaviour and Design of Welded Connection between Rectangular Hollow Sections under
RELATED LECTURES
Lecture 12.4.2: The Fatigue Behaviour of Hollow Section Joints (II)
SUMMARY

In hollow section joints the stiffness along the intersection of the connected members is generally rather non-uniform,
which may result in large peak stresses. The peak stress ranges determine the fatigue behaviour to a large extent.
This lecture describes the basic behaviour and introduces the methods of analysis. Detailed design is presented in
Lecture 12.4.2.
NOTATION
1. INTRODUCTION
Hollow sections (circular, square and rectangular) are used in many applications subjected to fatigue loading, e.g.
cranes, bridges, offshore jacket structures and several applications in mechanical engineering. The phenomenon of fatigue,
the factors influencing it, definitions and loading are described in the Lectures 12.1 to 12.3. In these lectures it is shown that
the peak stress ranges determine the fatigue life of a particular connection to a large extent.
In Lecture 13.1 it is shown that the most economical construction of hollow section structures is obtained by the direct
welded connection of hollow section members avoiding stiffeners or gusset plates. In such a connection the stiffness around
the intersection is not uniform, resulting in a geometrical non-uniform stress distribution, as shown in Figure 1, for an X-
joint of circular hollow sections. This non-uniform stress distribution depends on the type of loading (axial, bending in-
plane, bending out-of-plane) and the connection (type and geometry). Thus, many cases exist. For this reason the
fatigue behaviour of hollow section joints is generally treated in a different way to that, for example, for welded
connections between plates.

The fatigue behaviour can be determined either by ∆σ-N methods or with a fracture mechanics (F.M.) approach.
The various ∆σ-N methods are based on experiments resulting in ∆σ-N graphs with a defined stress range ∆σ on the
vertical axis and the number of cycles N to a specified failure criterion on the horizontal axis. The F.M. approach is based on
a fatigue crack growth model. The material crack growth parameters of the model can be determined from standardized
small specimens and the influence of the connection geometry is incorporated in the stress intensity factor ∆K, see
Lectures 12.10 to 12.15. This lecture describes the ∆σ-N methods.

2. GEOMETRIC STRESS OR HOT SPOT STRESS APPROACH
2.1 Definition of Geometric Stress and Stress Concentration Factors
In the ∆σ-N concepts the stress range and failure criterion have to be defined. Considering the X-joint in Figure 1,
"nominal" stresses are shown in the brace members and the peak stresses at the connection, i.e. at the intersection of the
brace and chord members.
For axial loading, the nominal stresses in the members are defined. However, for bending moments a certain cross-section
has to be defined. Considering the peak stress (Figure 2) at the intersection, the peak stress considered has to be defined,
since for a certain loading the actual peak stress is determined by:
● the global geometry of the joint (type of joint and joint parameters)
● the overall configuration of the weld (fillet weld, butt weld; flat, convex, concave)
● the local condition at the weld toe (radius of the weld toe, undercut, etc.).
The local condition at the weld toe depends on the fabrication (welder, welding conditions and welding process). This effect
is generally indirectly incorporated in the scatter of the test results. The same applies to the shape of the weld (flat, convex
or concave). The fatigue behaviour of fillet welded specimens is sometimes related by factors to that of butt welded specimens.
Initially it was thought that if a geometric (or so-called hot spot) peak stress range is used which takes the global geometry
and the loading into account, the fatigue behaviour of all types of joints could be related to one basic Sr-N line. However,
the crack propagation not only depends on the actual peak stress range, but on the whole stress pattern. Consequently, the
stress gradients also have an influence. At present these stress gradients cannot be incorporated in a proper manner in a
concept based on the geometric or hot spot stress range. Furthermore, as will be shown later the thickness also has an
influence which is independently taken into account.
In the geometric stress or hot spot stress approach the geometrical stress range is used as the basis for analysis. The
geometric hot spot stress (range) is defined as the maximum extrapolated stress (range) to the weld toe, taking the
global geometrical effects into account.
The extrapolation is defined in such a way that the effects of the global geometry of the weld (flat, concave, convex) and
the condition at the weld toe (angle, undercut) are not included in the geometric stress. Therefore, the first point
of extrapolation should be outside the influence area of the weld, see Figure 2.
For linear extrapolation, two points are defined at the crown and saddle position of chord and brace [2]. Based on the work
of Gurney [3] and Van Delft [4] this first point can be taken at 0,4 (to or t1) with a minimum of 4 mm from the weld toe.
The second point is defined depending on the type of hollow sections used (circular or rectangular).
In those cases where the geometric stress distribution is not linear, a quadratic extrapolation is defined with well
defined measuring points, see Lecture 12.5.
In some codes it is stated that the principal stress should be extrapolated to the weld toe. However, this has
several disadvantages [5]:
● The stress component perpendicular to the weld toe governs the crack growth along the weld toe.
● The direction of the geometrical principal stress close to the weld toe is (nearly) perpendicular to the weld toe, but changes
at locations further away from the weld toe. This would favour an extrapolation along a curved line, which is difficult.
● If the extrapolation is carried out along a line perpendicular to the weld toe, an extrapolation of the principal stresses
might result in a lower geometric principal stress than by an extrapolation of the stresses perpendicular to the weld toe.
● For different load cases the direction of principal stress might differ, prohibiting superposition of load cases.
● Another aspect is that the exact direction of the principal stress due to residual stresses is not known.
In view of the above arguments, extrapolation of stresses perpendicular to the weld toe is favoured.
For a particular loading case and a particular type of joint with a defined geometry, the extrapolated geometric or hot spot
stress can be determined from measurements on actual steel specimens or acrylic models or with finite element
calculations. However, this is not suitable for design. For this reason the geometric or hot spot peak stresses are related
by stress concentration factors to the nominal stress in the member (in most cases the brace) which causes the geometric
stress at the intersection of the brace with the chord. For example, for an X-joint without chord loading the stress
concentration factor for a particular location (chord, brace; crown or saddle) is defined as:
SCFi.j.k = (1)
where
i is the chord or brace
j is the location, e.g. crown or saddle for CHS joints
k is the type of loading
In this way, stress concentration factors can be determined for various load conditions (axial loading, bending in-plane
and bending out-of-plane) at various locations, e.g. crown and saddle positions of chord and brace.
Based on parametric finite element studies, parametric formulae have been developed which give the stress
concentration factors for various locations and loading. For a combined loading, the nominal stress ranges of the brace have
to be multiplied by the relevant stress concentration factor for that particular location i.j. and the relevant loading case k, e.g:
∆σi.j.k = ∆σaxbrace . SCFaxi.j + ∆σbipbrace . SCFbipi.j + ∆σbopbrace . SCFbopi.j
(2)
This has to be done for the chord and brace (i) at various locations (j), see Figure 3, for a T-joint.

The geometric stresses considered until now are caused by the forces or moments in the brace. But the forces in the chord
will also cause stress concentrations at the intersection, although they are considerably smaller. These effects also have to
be incorporated. But here the stress concentration factors are related to the nominal stress in the chord. The effect of
chord loading on the geometric peak stress in the brace is generally small and can be neglected. For the chord, however,
the stress concentration factor can reach values up to 2,5 (see Lecture 12.4.2).
With the method described above, the geometric stress range can be determined for various locations of the chord and the
brace considering the relevant loading.
Since the fatigue behaviour depends on the thickness, the maximum geometric or hot spot stress range has to be determined
for the chord and the brace considering different thicknesses. Using the ∆σ-N curve for geometric or hot spot stress,
the number of cycles to failure can be determined.
2.2 Definition of Fatigue Life

The fatigue life is generally specified as the number of cycles N for stress or strain of a specified character that a given
joint sustains before failure of a specified nature occurs.
Various modes of failure can be considered [6], e.g.
● first visible crack

● crack through the wall
● a certain crack length
● end of test (complete loss of strength)
Figure 4 shows the relationship between extrapolated, measured geometric stress at a critical location versus the number
of cycles. The fatigue life of welded hollow section joints is related to both crack initiation and crack propagation.
Their importance depends on the size and type of joint, e.g. the initiation period may cover 10 to 80% of the total fatigue life.

Usually, a crack through the wall is adopted as the failure criterion for hollow section joints, which corresponds to about
80% of the total fatigue life of a joint.
2.3 Thickness Effect
The reason that a lower fatigue strength is found for specimens with larger thicknesses, where specimens have the
same geometry and loading and the same geometric stress range but a different size, is attributed to the following [5, 7]:
● Geometrical effects
Although the geometry might be the same, the stress gradient at the notch is less steep for larger thicknesses. As a result
the stresses at the crack tip are larger, thus increasing the crack growth.
The geometry is not completely scaled, e.g. the radius of the weld toe is not increased as much as the wall thickness,
resulting in a larger thickness effect.
● Statistical effects:
Statistically, in a larger volume, the probability of a larger defect increases and the fatigue strength decreases with
increasing defect size.
● Technological effects:
In larger thicknesses, the grain size is coarser, the yield strength is lower, the residual stresses are higher, the toughness is
lower and the probability of hydrogen cracking increases, all resulting in a lower fatigue strength for thicker specimens.
● Another factor contributing to the influence of thickness is the stress state, i.e. plane strain vs plain stress.
Early work by Gurney based on plated specimens gave the following thickness correction for the fatigue strength ∆σ for
a particular number of cycles:
∆σt = ∆σt reference . [t/treference]-0,25 (3)
This influence has also been adopted in Eurocode 3 for thicknesses exceeding 25mm. For smaller thicknesses, no correction
is given in Eurocode 3 at present, although the thickness effect is even larger especially for hollow section joints, since
the effect increases with the stress or strain gradient.
Further work in France and the U.K. (within the framework of the offshore research programmes) on thicknesses of 16 mm
and more resulted in:
∆σt = ∆σt reference . [t/treference]-0,30 (4)
This relation is now proposed for new standards [8]. For smaller thicknesses there is not only a larger thickness effect, but
also the slope of the ∆σ -N curve changes from m = - 3 for higher thicknesses to m = - 4 to - 5 for very small thicknesses [5].

Based on the results of ECSC and CIDECT sponsored research programmes, the following thickness corrections for
hollow section joints have now been proposed for Eurocode 3 [1], see Figures 5a and 5b:

For thicknesses of 4 to 16 mm:
∆σt = ∆σt = 16 mm . (5)
For thicknesses of 16 mm and more:
∆σt = ∆σt = 16 mm . (6)
For thicknesses below 4 mm no guidance is given, since the fatigue behaviour may be adversely affected by the
welding imperfections at the root of the weld.
2.4 Fatigue Limit
Various investigations have shown that the fatigue limit, i.e. where the ∆σ-N line changes to a horizontal line, depends on
the notch effect. For example, for basic steel, the fatigue limit for constant amplitude loading might be of the order of 2 ×
106 cycles, whereas for welded connections with high peak stresses it will be about 107 cycles. Many offshore codes and
also the IIW recommendations adopt 107 for tubular connections. In Eurocode 3 [1], one general limit of N = 5 × 106 is given.
For random or variable amplitude loading with stresses exceeding the ∆σ, at 5 × 106 certain interaction effects may appear
with the result that smaller stress ranges can have an influence on the fatigue life. This is incorporated by changing the
slope after 5 × 106 cycles to m = - 5. The fatigue limit for variable amplitude loading is given for all welded
connections including hollow section joints at 108 cycles. In certain offshore codes 2 × 108 is given. However, no tests
are available to check whether this is correct.
2.5 Fatigue Class and Ds-N Curves

Various re-analyses of test results [5, 8, 9] have shown that for the geometric stress or hot spot stress concept, the
following classes (stress range at 2 × 106 cycles) can be adopted for hollow section joints with 16 mm thickness:
Class
(16
mm)
Circular hollow 112

section joints N/
mm2
Square or
rectangular hollow 90 N/
section joints mm2
For other thicknesses, the thickness corrections according to Equations (5) and (6) have to be adopted for N ≤ 5 × 106. For N
> 5 × 106 the ∆σ-N curve remains parallel to the ∆σ-N line for 16 mm thickness (thus, the same thickness effect is used as
for N = 5 × 106).
As stated above, the ∆σ curves for thicknesses of 16 mm and larger have a slope m = -3, whereas below 16 mm the
curves change to a smaller slope due to the thickness correction.
Figure 6 shows the resulting basic curves for 16 mm thickness. In Figure 7 this is worked out for square hollow section
joints including the thickness correction. ECSC and CIDECT [5, 9] research has proved that for thicknesses up to 8 mm,
these curves can be used for butt welded and fillet welded connections or for combinations of both welds. For
thicknesses larger than 8 mm, butt welds should be used.


In Eurocode 3 [1], Class 90 is given for butt welded joints with controlled weld profile and lower classes are given for
butt welds (Class 71) and fillet welds (Class 36). However, it is stated that higher values may be used if sufficient data

is available for justification. The outcome of the research with basic classes of 112 and 90 for 16 mm thickness will be the
basis for the next revision of Eurocode 3.
2.6 Low Cycle Fatigue
In Eurocode 3, ∆σ -N curves are given for N = 104 cycles and higher [1]. It is further stated that the stress range should
not exceed 1,5 times the yield stress in order to avoid alternating yielding. In general, in the case of low cycle fatigue, the
stress range concept is not valid and the fatigue strength is determined more by strain range. This limitation is true for
concepts based on nominal stress; but with a geometric stress concept the geometric peak stress ranges are considered,
which are only locally present.
As shown in Figure 5, the fatigue test results of hollow section joints for N = 103 are still in line with the ∆σ-N curves
given. However, this basis might result in very high theoretical stress ranges (in some cases 5 times the yield stress).
These extended ∆σ-N curves can be used; but a brittle failure check should be carried out to determine the critical crack depth.
2.7 Design Procedure
For each potential crack location the long term distribution of relevant stress ranges should be established and the
probable fatigue life should satisfy the Palmgren-Miner linear cumulative damage rule: Σ ni/Ni ≤ 1,0.
An arbitrary joint could be checked by following the steps given below, also shown in a flow chart in Figure 8, for a T- and
X-joint of square hollow sections.

1. Load and geometry of the joint should be determined first.

2. From simple formulae the nominal stresses in the members can be determined.
3. Determine the joint parameters ß = b1/bo, or 2γ = b0/t0 or and τ = t1/t0.

4. From SCF formulae or graphs, the SCFs for the various load cases can be determined, e.g. for lines A to E for square
hollow sections, see Figure 3.
5. Determine the geometric stress range for the various lines by multiplication of the nominal stress ranges with the relevant
stress concentration factors. Only the highest stress range in the chord and the highest stress range in the brace need to
be considered.
6. The number of cycles to failure N for both brace and chord is obtained from the ∆σ-N line for the appropriate wall
thickness. The lowest number of cycles in brace or chord determines the fatigue strength of the joint.
In the previous section it has been shown that the geometric (peak) stress range largely determines the fatigue life. The
stress range depends on the type of joint, geometry and loading. If the fatigue strength were to be based on nominal
stress ranges, then on the one hand it would be simpler for the designer, but on the other hand, an atlas would be required
to cover all cases [10].
The classification method now offers a compromise between both concepts. The test results are analyzed based on
nominal stress range in the brace and then grouped together in such a way that the main influencing geometrical parameters
are taken into account. For connections in which the geometrical stress concentration factor varies to a large extent, e.g. X-
or T-joints, see Figure 9, such grouping is not possible. However, for K- and N-joints, a classification can be adopted if
the thickness parameter to/ti is included and certain parameters are kept nearly constant, e.g. gap, overlap, angle.
Further, stringent limitations should be made for the range of validity. This approach is currently included in Eurocode 3 [1]
for K and N joints with thicknesses up to 12,5 mm. A more detailed description is given in Lecture 12.4.2.

4. OTHER METHODS
Other methods [7, 10] are also given in the literature and guides, e.g.
● failure criterion method

● punching shear method
● relation to static strength.
4.1 Failure Criterion Method
This method, developed at the University of Karlsruhe, is also based on the fact that the stress concentration factor is
6
indirectly taken into account by giving nominal stress ranges at 2 × 10 (all classes) in relation to the joint geometry
parameters and loading. The data is presented in diagrams. The ∆σ-N curve to be used is then fixed by the design class.
This method is not used at present.
4.2 Punching Shear Method
This method has a certain relation with the classification method. However, here the punching shear stress range is taken as
the basis instead of the nominal stress range in the brace. This method is used in American codes, such as the API and
AWS standards.
4.3 Relation to Static Strength
In many Japanese publications the stress range is related to the static strength for the same hollow section joints, but with
2
a yield stress fy = 235 N/mm . As fatigue is a quite different phenomenon from static strength, one could expect
poor correlation between the test results and the ∆σ -N line. However, the correlation is not worse than for the other
simplified methods discussed above.
This funding may be explained by the fact that the static strength depends on the same geometrical parameters which
influence the geometric stress and also that the incremental load capacity of the joint between initial localized yielding
and failure has some relation to the stress gradient. Thus, within certain parameter ranges, a reasonable relationship can
be obtained. This method has of course no general validity since various factors are not included, e.g. tension vs
compression loading, effect of secondary bending moments, etc.
5. EFFECT OF SECONDARY BENDING MOMENTS

In lattice girder joints (e.g. K- and N-joints) secondary bending moments exist. For static design these moments are
not important if the critical members or joints have sufficient rotation capacity. However, for fatigue design the peak
stress range is the governing parameter and secondary bending moments influence the peak stress (range). As a
consequence, secondary bending moments have to be considered in fatigue design.
Secondary bending moments are caused by various influences, such as:

● the overall bending stiffness of the joint

● the stiffness distribution in the joint along the intersection perimeter
● eccentricities in noding of the members
Figure 10 shows, as an example, a K-joint in which three sides at the intersection are stiffer than the side at the heel,
resulting in a secondary bending moment since the reaction force is not in line with the force in the brace member.

The secondary bending moment can only be accurately taken into account if the joints are modelled as substructures with
finite elements as shown in Figure 11. However, such modelling is still the future for engineering offices.
To avoid these complicated analyses, Eurocode 3 [1] gives factors to account for the secondary bending moment
effects (Tables 1a and 1b). The stress ranges obtained for axial loading should be multiplied by these factors if the
secondary bending moments are not included in the analysis. The values given in these tables are based on measurements
in actual girders and tests as well as finite element calculations. Comparison of the various values shows that the
secondary bending moments in girders with N-joints are larger than those in girders with K-joints. The secondary
bending moments in girders of rectangular or square hollow section joints are larger than those in girders with circular
hollow section joints. These effects are caused by the stiffness along the intersection perimeter and the stiffness of the
brace members (vertical brace for N-joints). In general, overlap joints of rectangular hollow sections give lower
secondary bending moments in the braces than in the case of gap joints. For girders of circular hollow sections a similar
effect is given in the tables, although current research does not confirm this [11]. More evidence will be obtained when
current research projects are finished.
6. SIMPLE CONNECTIONS AND ATTACHMENTS

For simple connections, such as butt welded end-to-end connections or hollow sections connected to plates, a
simple classification is used as for other sections. The same procedure is followed for attachments, cover plates, etc.
The classification is in line with the classifications given for similar welded details of I-sections, see Lecture 12.4.2.

For hollow section joints, the same partial safety factors apply for the stress range as for other structures loaded in
fatigue. Eurocode 3 recommends factors (Table 2) which depend on the type of structure (fail safe and non fail safe) and
the possibility of inspection and maintenance. For more detailed information, see Lecture 12.8.
8. CUMULATIVE DAMAGE
Eurocode 3 has adopted the Palmgren-Miner rule to determine cumulative fatigue damage, i.e.:
D= (7)
Although the real damage also depends on the spectrum of the loading and the sequence of stress ranges, the Miner rule is
the simplest available for determining damage. Its use gives results which are not worse than those given by other rules.
For more detailed information, see Lecture 12.2.
● The fatigue behaviour of hollow section joints is largely influenced by the geometric stress range (also called the hot spot

stress range)
● Various analyses and design methods are used, of which the geometric or hot spot stress method is the most generally valid one
● The determination of the geometric or hot spot stress should be carried out by extrapolation to the weld toe excluding
the effects of the weld geometry and the local effects at the weld toe
● Hollow section joints show a considerable thickness effect, especially for small thicknesses
● Stress concentration factors should be used with care (only within the range of validity of the parametric formulae)
● The classification method can only be used for K- and N-joints within a limited range of validity
● The secondary bending moments in lattice girders have to be incorporated in the fatigue analysis.
10. REFERENCES
[1] Eurocode 3: "Design of Steel Structures": ENV 1993-1-1: Part 1, General Rules and Rules for Buildings, CEN, 1992.
[2] Steel in marine structures, Proceedings of the 2nd International ECCS Offshore Conference, Institut de Recherches de
la Siderurgie Française, Paris, October 1981.
[3] Gurney, T.R.: "Fatigue of welded structures", Cambridge, 2nd ed.
[4] Van Delft, D.R.V.: "A two dimensional analysis of the stresses at the vicinity of the weld toes of welded tubular
joints", 1981, Report 6-81-8, Stevin Laboratory, Delft University of Technology.
[5] Van Wingerde, A.M.: "The fatigue behaviour of T- and X-joints made of square hollow sections", Ph.D. thesis,
Delft University of Technology, 1992.
[6] Noordhoek, C. and De Back, J., Eds.: Steel in Marine Structures, Proceedings of the 3rd International ECSC
Offshore Conference on Steel in Marine Structures (SIMS '87), Delft, The Netherlands, June 15-18, 1987.
[7] Marshall, P.W.: "Design of welded tubular connections: Basis and use of AWS code provisions", Ph.D. thesis,
Elsevier Applied Science Publishers Ltd., Amsterdam/London/New York/Tokio.
[8] Reynolds, A.G., Sharp J.V.: "The fatigue performance of tubular joints - An overview of recent work to revise
Department of Energy guidance", 4th International Symposium of Integrity of Offshore Structures, p. 261-277,
Elsevier Applied Science Publishers Ltd., Amsterdam/ London/New York/Tokio. Glasgow, U.K., July 1990.
[9] Wardenier, J., Mang, F., Dutta D.: "Fatigue strength of welded unstiffened RHS joints in lattice structures and
Vierendeel girders". ECSC Final Report, ECSC 7210-SA/111.
[10] Wardenier, J.: "Hollow Section Joints", Delft University Press, 1982, ISBN 90.6275.084.2.
[11] Romeijn, A., Wardenier, J., de Komming, C. H. M., Puthli, R. S,, Dutta,D.: "Fatigue Behaviour and Influence of Repair
on Multiplanar K-Joints Made of Circular Hollow Sections". Proceedings ISOPE '93, Singapore.
Table 1a Coefficients to account for secondary bending moments in joints of lattice girders made from circular hollow sections
Type of joint Chords Verticals Diagonals
Gap joints K 1,5 - 1,3
N 1,5 1,8 1,4
Overlap joints K 1,5 - 1,2
N 1,5 1,65 1,25
Table 1b Coefficients to account for secondary bending moments in joints of lattice girders made from rectangular
hollow sections
Type of joint Chords Verticals Diagonals
Gap joints K 1,5 - 1,5
N 1,5 2,2 1,6
Overlap joints K 1,5 - 1,3
N 1,5 2,0 1,4
Table 2 Partial safety factors gM according to Eurocode 3
Inspection and "Fail Non "fail

access safe" safe"
structures structures
Periodic γM = 1,00 γM = 1,25
inspection and
maintenance.
Accessible joint
detail.

Periodic γM = 1,15 γM = 1,35

inspection and
maintenance.
Poor accessibility.

L120402
ESDEP WG 12
FATIGUE
Lecture 12.4.2: Fatigue Behaviour of

Hollow Section Joints II
OBJECTIVE/SCOPE:
To give information for the design of hollow section joints with guidelines for an optimal design.
PRE-REQUISITES
Lecture 13.2: The Behaviour and Design of Welded Connections Between Circular Hollow Sections under
Lecture 13.3: The Behaviour and Design of Welded Connections Between Rectangular Hollow Sections under
RELATED LECTURES
Lecture 12.4.1:Fatigue Behaviour of Hollow Section Joints I
SUMMARY
L120402
The geometric stress concept and the classification method used for the fatigue design of hollow section joints are discussed
in more detail and illustrated by design examples. Guidelines and simplified design graphs are given to give insight into
the stress concentration factors to stimulate optimal design.
The limitations and the validity of various approaches are also discussed.
NOTATION
The notation of Eurocode 3 has been adopted.
1. INTRODUCTION
In Lecture 12.4.1, the fatigue behaviour of hollow section joints and methods of analyses are discussed. In Eurocode 3,
two methods are adopted for the design of hollow section joints [1].
The geometric stress method (sometimes called the hot spot stress method) can generally be used for all types of
connections between hollow sections. However, sufficient data regarding stress concentration factors for various types of
joints and loadings are required.
The classification method also given in Eurocode 3 for K- and N-type joints with wall thicknesses up to 12,5 mm is
a simplified method, only valid for a particular range of geometrical parameters.
In this lecture these two methods are discussed in more detail and the method of design is given.
2. MODELLING OF THE STRUCTURE

For fatigue design, the stress ranges in the members have to be known. The stresses determined depend directly on
the idealization of the structure.
Trusses made of hollow sections generally have welded connections with continuous chords. For ease of fabrication
the diagonals are sometimes connected with a certain noding eccentricity e, see Figure 1.

L120402

L120402
To obtain the correct load and stress distribution in the members, there are various methods of modelling [2].
a. The best method is to model the connections as substructures, as shown in Fig. 11 of Lecture 12.4.1. In this way,
the influence of the geometry of the connections is directly taken into account. Even the governing extrapolated
geometric stresses at the weld toes can be determined directly. However, this method requires excellent pre- and
post-processors for the finite element modelling and sufficient computer capacity. Only specialized research institutes
and companies can handle this method at present. Furthermore, the designer who is modelling should be a specialist in the
use of the correct elements and the correct meshes.
b. Another method is to use parametric formulae to determine the connection stiffness. The truss is then modelled
with continuous chords and the diagonals are connected by springs representing the connection stiffness to the
chord. Eccentricities should be incorporated in the model. In this way the proper bending moments in the members can
be determined. The axial load distribution in the members is hardly influenced by the modelling, e.g. pin, spring or
rigidly connected diagonals, see Figure 2. For bending moments, however, considerable differences may occur, since the
actual bending stiffness is influenced by the axial loads present (interaction). In offshore engineering it is common practice
to assume rigidly connected members. However, the value of the bending moments is reduced by taking not the moments at
the noding points but those at the chord face. Due to a lack of evidence of the stiffness characteristics and for simplicity
this simplification is used.

L120402

L120402
c. The simplest method of modelling is to use continuous chords with the diagonals connected with pins to the
chord. Eccentricities exceeding 0,55 (do or ho) ≤ e ≤ 0,25 (do or ho) should be incorporated as shown in Figure 3.
The effect of secondary bending moments should be included by multiplying the stress ranges due to axial forces by the
factors given in Tables 1a and 1b of Lecture 12.4.1.
This simplified modelling assumes indirectly that the stress concentration factors for bending are similar as those for
axial forces, which is not generally valid. The stress concentration factors for bending in-plane are generally lower than
those for axial force.

L120402
There are of course other methods of modelling, but those mentioned above represent the most commonly used ones.
3. END-TO-END CONNECTIONS AND ATTACHMENTS

End-to-end connections and connections with plates and hollow sections with attachments are classified in the normal way, i.
e. a fatigue class is given for 2 × 106 cycles as shown in Table 1. Here a slope constant of m = 3 is adopted for N ≤ 5 × 106.
For spectrum loading, a slope constant of m = 5 is adopted for 5 × 106 to the cut off limit 108. It should be noticed that for
end-to-end connections an opposite "thickness effect" is included. In these connections no or only small geometrical effects
are present, causing the crack to initiate from the root of the weld. Since these welds are made from one side (not
counter welded) the root effect is more severe for smaller thicknesses. Here the limit is taken at 8 mm. For thicknesses
larger than 25 mm the normal thickness effect should be applied, i.e.
∆σt = ∆σt=25[t/25]-0,25 (1)
4. GEOMETRIC STRESS METHOD
4.1 Reference Curves
The basic reference curves for 16 mm wall thickness, according to Eurocode 3 [1] are given in Figure 4. The equations for
the reference curves and the thickness effects to be adopted are also given.

L120402

L120402
As discussed in Lecture 12.4.1, for hollow section joints with partial penetration welds or fillet welds, sufficient evidence
is now available to use the same curves as for full penetration butt welds.
4.2 Determination of Geometric Stresses by F.E. Modelling
The geometric stress should be determined by extrapolation of the geometric stress outside the influence region of the weld
to the weld toe. For most connections of circular hollow sections the geometric stress has a linear part and a linear
extrapolation can be used as shown in Figure 5a.

L120402
For square or rectangular hollow section joints the geometric stress is non-linear and a quadratic extrapolation gives a
better accuracy and lower scatter in test results, Figure 5b. This extrapolation is more consistent with the mode of
failure (location of the crack).

L120402
Determination of the geometric stresses by F.E. modelling requires proper modelling (type of elements, mesh), preferably
by methods which have been calibrated by tests [2]. Due to the difference between actual dimensions and nominal
dimensions, the calibration should be done with care using the actual dimensions, see Figure 6.

L120402
4.3 Stress Concentration Factors
The geometric stress can also be obtained by multiplying the nominal stresses by the relevant stress concentration
factors. Many parametric formulae are now available for circular hollow section joints. The most extensive set which
L120402
gives good agreement with measurements is given by Efthymiou [3]. For square hollow section joints, a set of
parametric formulae for T- and X-joints is given by Van Wingerde [4]. For K- and N-joints of square hollow sections,
formulae are available, however only for a particular combination of axial loads and bending moments [5]. Thus, they are
not generally applicable. Currently, new parametric formulae are being developed in the framework of a CIDECT
programme. These formulae will become available in 1994.
To give formulae for all types of joints, for various locations and for various loadings is beyond the scope of this
lecture. However, some graphical presentations are given in Figures 7 - 15 for circular hollow section joints and in Figures 16
- 18 for T- and X-joints of square hollow sections. If the effect of the stiffness distribution along the intersection perimeter
is clearly understood, then the tendency of the graphs will be clear. All graphs show that the SCF for the saddle
location achieves a maximum for medium ß ratios. For T- and X-joints minimum values are obtained for ß = 1,0. Here,
the SCF changes very rapidly for small variations of ß. For this reason, for X-joints of circular hollow sections, lower
values than those for ß = 0,95 are not taken, because for ß= 1,0 the weld might cause an eccentricity.

L120402

L120402

L120402

L120402

L120402

L120402

L120402

L120402

L120402

L120402

L120402

L120402

L120402
Note that the effect of the bending moment in the chord in a T-joint is included in the SCF's for T-joints of circular
hollow sections, whereas for T-joints of square hollow sections it has been excluded, allowing the same presentation as for
X-joints.
It is recommended that a minimum stress concentration factor of 2 is adopted to cover cracking from the root of the
weld. Furthermore, the SCF's should be multiplied by the following correction factors for square hollow section joints if
fillet welded connections are used:
Brace: 1,4 (for lines A and E)
Chord: 1,0 (no correction factors)
These factors cover the effect of brace wall bending. For the chord, the weld toe is located further away from the

L120402
brace, resulting in a lower SCF. However, insufficient evidence is available yet to quantify this in general. Therefore, a
factor 1,0 is adopted for the time being.
For an optimal design the geometric stress concentration factors should be low, i.e. low τ and γ values and low ß or high
ß values.
As indicated in Lecture 12.4.1, the geometric stress range can be obtained by multiplying the relevant stress
concentration factor (location and loading) by the nominal stress range, which causes the stress peak.
Care has to be taken that the stress concentration factors are only used within the range of validity. Figure 19 shows,
for example, that the effect of multiplanar loading can be considerable.

L120402
4.4 Fatigue Life
The fatigue life is determined by checking the highest geometric stress for the chord as well as for the brace multiplied by

L120402
the appropriate γM factor with the basic ∆σ-N curve using the appropriate thickness.
The classification method is only used for axially loaded K- and N-type joints of circular and rectangular hollow sections,
since the variation in SCF is too large for other types of joints.
In principle, the classes should be a lower bound, defined by the basic reference curve for the geometric stress range divided
by the SCF's which can be obtained within the range of validity. The classification is based on an analysis of relevant
test results, taking account of the parameter τ and using a lower bound. In this approach, the effects of other
influencing parameters and the thickness effects are combined to some extent.
Multiplication of the class by a minimum SCF of 2,0 gives values far exceeding those of the basic reference curve
for geometric stress, even if the thickness effect is incorporated. On the other hand, the two approaches cannot be
compared directly, since the slopes are different, i.e. for the classification method a fixed slope constant of m = 5 is adopted.
Although Eurocode 3 [1] gives the range of validity shown in Table 1, it would be better to change some of the limits, i.e.
4 ≤ to or t1 ≤ 8 mm instead of to or t1 ≤ 12,5 mm
bo/to ⋅ t1 or do/to ⋅ t1 ≤ 100 instead of bo/to or do/to ≤ 25
These limits are in better agreement with the test results on which this classification method has been based.
In view of these comments, one could ask: "Why has the classification method been adopted?" At the time of
drafting Eurocode 3, insufficient evidence was available for SCF's of hollow section joints. Further, many designers are
not familiar with the geometric stress concept. Therefore the classification method was favoured by many countries.
The design is very simple, since the designer determines the nominal stress ranges in the brace with one of the
methods described in Section 2 considering the factors for secondary bending moments and the relevant γM factor. The
design class gives the ∆σ-N curve and the fatigue life can be determined.
6. GENERAL REQUIREMENTS FOR WELDING

L120402
The connections at the welded joints should be made over the entire perimeter of the hollow sections by means of a
full penetration weld, partial penetration weld, fillet weld, or a combination. Full penetration welds should be used if:
● The brace has a wall thickness larger than 8 mm.

● The angle at the toe of the brace is larger than 120° .
● For joints between square or rectangular hollow sections with ß = 1,0, fillet welds can only be used at the side of the
brace perpendicular to the axis of chord. Therefore, the sides parallel to the chord axis should be welded by a full
penetration butt weld.
Attention should be paid to the proper selection of materials and the welding procedure. To avoid failure of the weld
under static loading, the throat thickness of the fillet weld for steel up to S355 is equal to or greater than the wall thickness
of the brace (a ≥ t1).
Welding should start at the middle of the sides. If welding of joints commences at the corners of the brace, the fatigue
strength deteriorates. This may result in a decrease by a factor 2 on stress range.
For the geometric stress method and the classification method:
● The modelling of the structure should be done with care, considering secondary bending moment effects.
● In using F.E. modelling, proper consideration of elements and meshes is required, as well as calibration with test results.
The geometric stresses should be extrapolated to the weld toe in a standardized manner.
● Stress concentration factor formulae should be used within their range of validity. For example the formulae for
uniplanar joints cannot be used for multiplanar loading.
● Fillet welds exhibit higher SCF's in the brace than butt welds.
● For axially loaded T- and X-joints the highest SCF's occur for medium ß ratios (0,5 to 0,6)
● The classification method and the geometric stress approach are not yet consistent.
● Welding of hollow section joints should not start at the locations of high stress concentrations, e.g. not at the corners
of rectangular or square hollow sections, but at the middle of the sides.
8. REFERENCES
[1] Eurocode 3: "Design of Steel Structures": ENV 1993-1-1: Part 1, General rules and rules for buildings, CEN, 1992.
[2] Romeijn, A., Puthli, R.S., Wardenier, J.: "Finite element modelling of multiplanar joint flexibility in tubular
L120402
structures", Proceedings ISOPE '92, San Francisco, U.S.A.
[3] Efthymiou, M.: "Development of SCF formulae and generalised influence functions for use in fatigue analysis",
Offshore Tubular Joints Conference (OTJ '88), UEG Offshore Research, Englefield Green Near Egham, U.K., 1988.
[4] Van Wingerde, A.M.: "The fatigue behaviour of T- and X-joints made of square hollow sections", Ph.D. thesis,
Delft University of Technology.
[5] Mang, F., Herion, S., Bucak, Ö., Dutta, D.: "Fatigue behaviour of K-joints with gap and with overlap made of
rectangular hollow sections", p. 297-310 of Proceedings "Tubular Structures", edited by E. Niemi and P. Mäkeläinen.
1. Dutta, D., Mang, F., Wardenier, J.: "Fatigue behaviour of welded hollow section joints", CIDECT Monograph No. 7.
2. "Design of tubular joints for offshore structures", vol. 1, 2 and 3, UEG publication UR33.
3. Romeijn, A., Puthli, R.S., Wardenier, J.: "The flexibility of uniplanar and multiplanar joints made of circular hollow
sections", Proceedings ISOPE '91, Edinburgh, U.K.
Table 1 Detail category: Hollow sections and simple connections
Details loaded by nominal normal stresses

Detail Constructional detail Description
category
m=3
Rolled and extruded products
160 See Fig T1-1 Non-welded elements.
Sharp edges and surface flaws to be improved by grinding

L120402
Continuous longitudinal welds
140 See Fig T1-2 Automatic longitudinal welds with no stop-start positions;
proven free of detectable discontinuities
Transverse butt welds
Butt welded end-to-end connection of circular hollow sections
71
Requirements
See Fig T1-3
- Height of the weld reinforcement less than 10% of weld
width; smooth transitions to the flat surface
- Welds made in flat position and proven free of

detectable discontinuities
- Details with wall thicknesses greater than 8 mm may be

classified two detail categories higher, i.e. > 90
Transverse butt welds
Butt welded end-to-end connection of rectangular hollow

sections
56
Requirements
See Fig T1-4
- Height of the weld reinforcement less than 10% of weld
width; smooth transitions to the flat surface
- Welds made in flat position and proven free of

detectable discontinuities

classified two detail categories higher, i.e. > 71

L120402
Welded attachments (non load-carrying welds)
71 See Fig T1-5 Circular or rectangular section, fillet welded to another section.
Section width parallel to stress direction ≤ 100 mm

Welded connections (load-carrying welds)
Circular hollow sections, end-to-end butt welded with an

intermediate plate
50 See Fig T1-6
Requirements
- Welds proven free of detectable discontinuities

classified one detail category higher, i.e > 56
Rectangular hollow sections, end-to-end butt welded with an

intermediate plate
45 See Fig T1-7
Requirements
- Welds proven free of detectable discontinuities

classified one detail category higher, i.e. > 50
Fig T1-1
L120402
Fig T1-2
Fig T1-3
Fig T1-4
Fig T1-5
Fig T1-6
Fig T1-7

L120402
Table 1 (continued) Hollow sections and simple connections
Details loaded by nominal normal stress (continued)

Detail Constructional detail Description
category
m=3
40 See Fig T1-8 Circular hollow sections, end-to-end fillet welded

with an intermediate plate
Requirements
- Wall thickness less than 8 mm

36 See Fig T1-9 Rectangular hollow sections, end-to-end fillet

welded with an intermediate plate
Requirements
- Wall thickness less than 8 mm
80 l ≤ 50 mm Longitudinal attachments (non-load-carrying welds)
71 50 < l ≤ 100 mm See Fig T1-10 The detail category varies according to the length of
the attachment l
50 l > 100 mm
80 t ≤ 12 mm Transverse attachments
See Fig T1-11 The end of the weld more than 10 mm from the
L120402
71 t > 12 mm edge of the plate
80 t ≤ 12 mm Transverse attachments
See Fig T1-12 Diaphragms of rectangular girders welded to the

71 t > 12 mm flange or web
Transverse attachments
80 See Fig T1-13 The effect of welded shear connectors on base

material
Cruciform joints (load-carrying welds)
See Fig T1-14 Full penetration weld, inspected free of detectable

discontinuities
71
Requirements
- The maximum misalignment of the load-

carrying plates should be less than 15% of the
thickness of the intermediate plate
Cruciform joints (load-carrying welds)
See Fig T1-15 Fillet welded connection. Two fatigue assessments

are required
Firstly root cracking is evaluated by determining the

36
stress range in the weld throat area, Category 36
Secondly toe cracking is evaluated by determining

the stress range in the load-carrying plates,
Category 71

L120402
Requirements
- The maximum misalignment of the load-

carrying plates should be less than 15% of the
thickness of the intermediate plate
50 t and tc ≤ 20 mm Cover plates (load-carrying welds)
See Fig T1-16 End zones of single or multiple welded cover plates,
with or without frontal weld.
36 t and tc ≤ 20 mm
When the reinforcing plate is wider than the flange
a frontal weld, carefully ground to remove
undercut, is necessary
Fig T1-8
Fig T1-9

L120402
Fig T1-10
Fig T1-11
Fig T1-12
Fig T1-13

L120402
Fig T1-14
Fig T1-15

L120402
Fig T1-16
Table 2: Classes for classification method
Detail categories for lattice girder joints
Detail Construction Details Description

category
m=5
Joints with gap
90 to/ti ≥ 2,0 See Fig T2-1 Circular hollow sections, K

and N joints
45 to/ti ≥ 1,0
Joints with gap
71 to/ti ≥ 2,0 See Fig T2-2 Rectangular hollow sections, K

and N joints
Requirements
⋅ 0,5(bo-bi) ≤ g ≤ 1,1(bo-bi)
36 to/ti ≥ 1,0
⋅ g ≥ 2to

L120402
Joints with overlap
71 to/ti ≥ 1,4 See Fig T2-3 K joints
Requirements
⋅ overlap between 30% and

56 to/ti ≥ 1,0
100%
Joints with overlap
71 to/ti ≥ 1,4 See Fig T2-4 N joints
50 to/ti ≥ 1,0
General Requirements
to, ti ≤ 12,5 mm 35° ≤ Θ ≤ 50° bo/to ≤ 25
0,4 ≤ bi/bo ≤ 1,0 0,25 ≤ di/do ≤ 1,0 bo/to ≤ 25
bo ≤ 200 mm do ≤ 300 mm -0,5do ≤ e ≤ 0,25do
-0,5ho ≤ e ≤ 0,25ho
Out-of-plane eccentricity: ≤ 0,02bo or ≤ 0,02do
Fillet welds are permitted in braces with wall thicknesses ≤ 8 mm
Table 2: Classes for classification method

L120402
● For intermediate to/ti values, use linear interpolation between nearest detail categories
● Note that the braces and the chords require separate fatigue assessments
Note regarding General Requirements:
Preferably use 4 ≤ to or t1 ≤ 8 mm instead of ≤ 12,5 mm
Preferably use bo/to ⋅ t1 or do/to ⋅ t1 ≤ 100 mm instead of bo/to or do/to ≤ 25
Fig T2-1

L120402
Fig T2-2

L120402
Fig T2-3
Fig T2-4

ESDEP WG 12
FATIGUE
Lecture 12.5: Improvement Techniques in

Welded Joints
OBJECTIVE/SCOPE
To introduce the more commonly used weld improvement techniques and their effects on the fatigue performance of
welded joints.
PRE-REQUISITES
Lecture 12.2: Advanced Introduction to Fatigue
RELATED LECTURES
SUMMARY
This lecture introduces improvement techniques primarily as remedial measures for welded structures. Initial analyses of
the reasons for the poor fatigue performance of welded joints leads to a classification system for improvement methods.
The various methods used in practice are then described and evaluated. The methods described are:

The AWS improved profile

The use of special electrodes
Grinding
Weld toe remelting
TIG dressing
Plasma dressing
Hammer peening
Shot peening
Guidance on current design rules is summarised; the need for improvement to design standards and guidance is highlighted.
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 General
Any weld in a structure usually represents a weakness both with regard to brittle fracture and fatigue strength. The low
fatigue strength of welded joints is a limiting factor for the design of more efficient structures, in particular since the
fatigue strength normally does not increase with static strength. Upgrading the fatigue performance of a welded structure
can be achieved in several ways such as:
● Good detail design, e.g. by substituting a lower class joint with one having a higher fatigue strength.
● Improving the fatigue strength of the joint using an improvement method.
Improvement methods are usually employed as remedial measures to extend the fatigue life of welds that have
failed prematurely and have been repaired. They are also used to extend the life of welds which, through service
load monitoring, have been shown to be more severely loaded than assumed during the design phase.
The incentive for applying improvement methods is to make an improved welded joint behave like a mildly
notched component, as shown in Figure 1.

The use of higher allowable stresses for welded joints in higher strength steels entails other benefits as well: the thickness
effect in fatigue is reduced, bringing about a further reduction in weight as compared with a lower strength steel joint with
the same load bearing resistance. A reduced size of section in general also improves the brittle fracture properties of the
joint. The lower welding, handling and erection costs may partially offset the higher fabrication expenses incurred by
the improvement methods.
In this lecture the emphasis is on the degree of improvement in fatigue strength which it is possible to obtain using the
various improvement techniques. However, from a practical point of view, other considerations such as cost and reliability
of the treatment (quality assurance) may be important. Various aspects of quality control and cost are discussed briefly at
the end of the lecture.
1.2 The Potential for Improving Fatigue Strength
To understand the full potential of improvement methods for fatigue life, it is useful to look at the reasons for the poor
fatigue performance of welded joints. The low fatigue strength of welded joints as compared with other notched components
is illustrated in Figure 2. Welded joints differ from other notched components in several ways even if the elastic
stress concentration factors Kt are similar. It is important to identify the main factors that tend to reduce fatigue life in order
to choose efficacious methods for improving the fatigue performance. The main differences between welded and
unwelded, notched components are:

(a) Notch shape and defects: The geometrical notch of the weld toe region, which normally is the most fatigue critical area,
is generally less uniform than notches in a machined component, see Figure 3. Moreover, welded joints contain an
assortment of defects, most of which are so sharp that they start growing as fatigue cracks when the structure is subjected
to dynamic loads, thus reducing or eliminating the crack initiation stage of the fatigue life.

(b) Metallurgical changes in the base material: The material in the heat affected zone (HAZ), in which the fatigue crack
is likely to initiate and propagate, undergoes metallurgical changes that may affect the local fatigue properties. Thus
the softened material in the HAZ of a higher grade steel, whose high strength has been obtained by thermo-
mechanical treatment, may limit the fatigue strength that is possible to obtain by improvement techniques.

(c) Residual stresses are set up in and near the weld due to the contraction of the weld metal as it cools to ambient
temperature. These local residual stresses due to welding, which may reach the yield stress in magnitude, affect the
fatigue properties in a similar manner to externally imposed mean loads, i.e. a tensile residual stress reduces fatigue life while
a compressive stress increases life. The distribution of transverse residual stresses in a welded plate of simple shape is shown
in Figure 3(b).
Residual stresses do not arise only from the thermal strains associated with the welding process and subsequent cooling.
Global or long range residual stresses are introduced in a structure whenever members are forced together, due to
misfit, uneven thermal expansion or when restraint is being used. Long range stresses act over large areas and are therefore
not relaxed by peak loads at stress concentration or by local treatment. They are generally of smaller magnitude than
welding stresses.
(d) Environmental effects: A corrosive environment may have a strong adverse effect on fatigue life. The fatigue lives
of common welded joints are typically reduced by a factor of two or four under free corrosion in seawater. However,
the prevention of corrosion by either cathodic protection or protective coatings, which may restore the air fatigue properties
of a welded joint, are not regarded as improvement methods per se because corrosion protection is part of normal practice
for the construction and operation of offshore structures.
2. IMPROVEMENT METHODS - OPERATING PRINCIPLES

The low fatigue strength of welded connections is generally attributed to the very short crack initiation period which
is generally found to be in the range of about 10 to 30% of the total life, depending on the method of observation and
definition of the initial crack. Comparing this with a crack initiation period of more than 90% typically observed for
smooth specimens tested at low stresses, there is obviously scope for a substantial life increase by delaying crack initiation.
The principal ways of achieving this increase are by:
(a) Reducing the stress concentration factor of the weld.
(b) Removing the crack-like defects at the weld toe.
(c) Removing the harmful tensile welding residual stresses or introducing compressive stresses.
Since both (a) and (b) both involve altering the local geometry, weld improvement methods can be placed in two
broad categories:

(1) Weld geometry modification methods
(2) Residual stress methods.
Various methods which have been investigated [1,2] are listed in Figure 4. Table 1 presents an evaluation of the
improvement methods that are currently used in practise, together with some information on relative costs where available.
In addition, two other methods have been tried in the last few years; water gouging and laser remelting. However, the
two methods are still very much experimental in nature and have, as far as is known, not been employed in industry.
The following methods have reached a more mature stage in the sense that they are used in industrial applications:

(1) Weld toe grinding, using either a disk grinder or a rotary burr tool.
(2) Tungsten inert gas (TIG) remelting of the weld toe region.
(3) Weld profile control, i.e. performing the welding such that the overall weld shape gives a low stress concentration and
the weld metal blends smoothly with the plate.
(4) Special electrodes with good wetting characteristics to give a favourable weld toe geometry.

(5) Hammer peening of the weld toe region.
(6) Shot peening.
Grinding and TIG remelting methods may be classed as weld toe geometry modification methods, whereas hammer
preening and shot preening are residual stress techniques.
Particularly large improvements may be obtained when techniques from the two groups are combined.
3. SOME IMPROVEMENT METHODS AND THEIR EFFECT ON

FATIGUE STRENGTH
3.1 Improved Welding Techniques
Weld profiling and the use of special electrodes are methods that are integral parts of the welding process itself. These
methods are attractive from a production point of view since there is no need to come back with a different type of
equipment for a final treatment of the weld, which would increase costs and make quality control more difficult.
3.1.1 The AWS improved profile
In the Structural Welding Code [3] of the American Welding Society (AWS), a low stress concentration factor is sought
by controlling the overall shape of the weld to obtain a concave profile and requiring a gradual transition at the weld toe.
The "disc test" or "dime test" shown in Figure 5, as specified by AWS, is used to ensure an acceptable weld. If the weld
does not pass the disc test, remedial grinding at the weld toe or at the interbead notches has to be carried out. If profile
control is carried out the designer can use the X curve in Figure 6, if not the lower X′ curve must be used.


3.1.2 Special electrodes
Specially developed electrodes with coatings that have good wetting and flow characteristics have been used in Japanese
test programs aimed at improving the fatigue performance of high strength steels of 500 to 800 MPa yield strength [4].
These electrodes are understood to have been widely used in the construction of high strength steel bridges. The electrodes
give a smooth transition at the weld toe and a reduction of the calculated stress concentration factors, typically from around 3
to 1,2-1,5 for fillet welds. The improvements reported in the Japanese tests were from 50 to 85%, the largest increases
in fatigue life being reported for the highest strength steels. However, other tests on T-joints made recently in Norway
gave improvements of approximately 25%. The main doubts about special electrodes concern their use in positional
welding where the easy flow of the filler material may be a disadvantage.
3.2 Grinding
Grinding (Figure 7) can be carried out with a rotary burr grinder or disc grinder, the former requiring much more time
and therefore incurring higher costs. To ensure the removal of slag intrusions, grinding has to be extended to a minimum
depth of 0,5mm below the bottom of any visible undercut [5]. The lower stress concentration factor and the removal of
crack-like defects at the weld toe generally give large increases in fatigue life, typically from 25 to 100% at long lives (N >
1 million cycles), see Figure 8 [6]. However, the scatter is large, particularly for disc grinding which may be difficult
to perform in confined areas; also an inexperienced operator may inadvertently remove too much material.


Grinding is currently the only improvement method allowed in European codes for offshore structures [5,7]. However,
the higher fatigue strength is not intended for use in initial design, instead grinding may be used as a remedial measure if
the design life is shown to be inadequate at a late stage during design or construction.
3.3 Weld Toe Remelting
Remelting of the weld toe using either TIG or plasma welding equipment generally results in large gains in fatigue strength,
for several reasons. Firstly, the smoother weld toe transition reduces the stress concentration factor; secondly, slag
inclusions and undercuts are removed; and thirdly, according to some Japanese publications, the higher hardness in the
heat affected zone is claimed to contribute to the higher fatigue strength.
Plasma dressing generally tends to give better results than TIG dressing. This with plasma dressing.
3.3.1 TIG dressing
Standard TIG dressing equipment is used, usually without any filler material. For the older type C-Mn steels (e.g. St 52) with
a relatively high carbon content, a second TIG round was necessary to temper the first run at the toe [8], see Figure 9.
The second run also contributes to a better weld toe geometry. The hardness problem associated with TIG dressing of C-
Mn steel is eliminated with the use of modern low carbon steels. TIG dressing is somewhat sensitive to operator skill, the
weld and plate must be clean to avoid pores.

The magnitude of the improvement depends as for most improvement techniques, primarily on the joint severity and
base material strength. Improvements ranging from about 10% for butt welds in mild steel plates to about 100% for
fillet welded high strength steels have been reported. Figure 10 shows typical results in the latter case [8].

3.3.2 Plasma dressing
Plasma dressing is similar to TIG dressing, the main difference being the higher heat input (about twice that used in
TIG dressing), and a wider weld pool. The latter tends to make plasma dressing less sensitive to electrode position relative
to the weld toe, and the resulting improvements in fatigue strength are generally larger than for TIG dressing.
3.4 Residual Stress Methods
Some improvement in fatigue behaviour is obtained by removing residual welding stresses by postweld heat
treatment, especially if the applied load cycle is wholly or partly in compression. However, the largest benefits are obtained
if compressive residual stresses are introduced. The more commonly used residual stress methods are hammer peening and
shot peening.
3.4.1 Hammer peening
Hammer peening is carried out with a solid tool with a rounded tip of 6-14mm radius. A similar technique consists of using
a wire bundle instead of a solid tool. Both types of tool are normally pneumatically operated. The solid tool gives a far
more severe deformation and gives better improvements than either wire bundle or shot peening [6].
Optimum results for hammer peening are obtained after four passes, giving a severely deformed weld toe, with an
indentation depth of about 0,6mm, providing a simple inspection criterion [6].
Like burr toe grinding, hammer peening is a noisy and tedious operation and has perhaps, for this reason, not
attained widespread use. The improvements are among the highest reported, see Figure 11. Most test results show
larger improvements for higher strength steels [6].

3.4.2 Shot peening

In the shot peening process the surface is blasted with small steel or cast iron shots in a high velocity air stream,
producing compressive residual surface stresses of about 70 to 80% of the yield stress. Assessing the quality of the
treatment entails time consuming residual stress measurements. In practice, the intensity or the degree of surface
plastic deformation is determined by Almen strips, which are small steel strips attached to the surface of the component.
The curvature developed in the strip is a measure of the peening intensity. A second parameter is area coverage.
100% coverage is obtained when visual examination at 10X magnification of the surface shows that all dimples just
overlap. The time required to obtain 100% is doubled to obtain 200% as normally specified. A major advantage of shot
peening is that it covers large areas at low cost.
Results from fatigue tests on shot peened welded joints show substantial improvements for all types of joints, the magnitude
of the improvements varying with type of joint and static strength of the steel. Typical results are 30 to 100% increase
in fatigue in fatigue lives in the long life region; however, at shorter lives (N < 105 cycles) the improvements tend to
disappear. Tests in sea water show that the improvements are retained even under freely corroding conditions [9].
High peak loads in variable amplitude loads sequences may be assumed to relax the residual stresses and reduce the efficacy
of such methods, but German results have shown no such adverse effects [9].
3.5 Compounding
The combination of two improvement methods, particularly a weld geometry method and a residual stress method, are likely
to give large improvements. One example is full profile grinding and hammer peening which resulted in the fatigue strength
of fillet welds in mild steel being restored to that of the base material [10]. More common combinations are grinding and
shot peening and AWS weld profile control and shot peening [11]. In such cases the resulting improvement may be double
that of a single method.
4. APPLYING IMPROVEMENT METHODS TO REAL STRUCTURES

Most current knowledge on improvement methods has been gained from tests on small scale planar specimens.
When considering the application of weld improvement methods to actual structures, the differences in fatigue behaviour has
to be evaluated. One important factor is size. In a large structure long range residual stresses due to forcing the
members together are present and influence fatigue life. Another consideration is the existence of alternative failure
sites. Obviously no improvement can be expected for a joint with load-carrying fillet welds whose toe regions are ground
or TIG dressed if the untreated joint is as likely to fail from the root as from the toe; the failure would only be shifted to
the root.
In contrast to small joints where the peak stress is limited to the weld toe, the peak stress region in a large multi-pass joint
may include several weld beads. Cracks may initiate anywhere in this highly stressed area.
In some welds, e.g. in tubular joints with low beta ratios, there is a very steep stress gradient at the weld toe which is
caused partly by the global geometry. If the weld leg length is reduced, e.g. by grinding as indicated in Figure 12, the
resulting peak stress may well be higher and the resulting improvement could be marginal or non-existent.

5. IMPROVEMENT METHODS AND DESIGN RULES
5.1 Current design rules incorporating improvement techniques
As noted in Section 3.1 the weld profile improvement method is included in the AWS/API design rules in terms of the X
curve that may be used generally if profile control is carried out, otherwise the lower X must be used. The two curves
intersect at a life that is somewhat less than 104 cycles, i.e. the improvement is lost at this life.
In the UK Department of Energy rules, S-N the curves for all types of joints can be moved by a factor of 1,3 on strength (2,2
on life) if grinding is carried out [5]. Thus the two curves are parallel, and the improvement applies also in the low life/
high stress region, contradicting most test data which tend to show very small or no improvements at all in this region, i.
e. giving intersecting as-welded and improved S-N curves, as exemplified by Figure 11.
The Swedish design code [12] for welded structures consists of 10 S-N curves, each of which is identified by its Kx factor,
see Figure 13. The code also includes a weld quality system containing four basic classes plus an additional class designated
U for improved fatigue strength. Use of the improved class requires that:

● undercuts, weld reinforcements, penetration beads, un-filled grooves and root concavities must blend smoothly with the
base material.
● incomplete root penetration is not permitted.
● arc strikes must be avoided or removed.
The use of improvement techniques such as grinding, TIG dressing and hammer peening is permitted to obtain the
highest quality class. The combination of weld geometry, probability of survival level, and weld quality thus determines the
S-N curve to be used. The Swedish system of S-N curves is similar to the British rules insofar that employing an
improvement method leads to a parallel shift of the S-N curve.
5.2 Improved Welds and Size Effects
Size effects in notched components are generally attributed to three origins [13], i.e. a technological size effect, a statistical
size effect or a geometrical or stress gradient size effect.
Technological size effects result from differences in production parameters, generally leading to lower mechanical strength
for the thicker parts. Also residual stresses and surface quality may vary with thickness.
Statistical size effects arise from the higher probability of encountering a large defect in a large volume of material
compared with a smaller volume.
Geometric size effects arise from the stress gradient at the notch root. Even if geometric scaling is maintained the
stress gradient is steeper for the thicker part and a crack will grow in a higher stress field. If geometric scaling is not
maintained which is usually the case for welded joints, the stress magnification factor increases with thickness, see Figure 14.

Fracture mechanics calculations [14] have shown that the influence of thickness increases with the SCF of the joint.
A statistical analysis of published data on size effects in welded joints gave a size exponent of n=0,33 for as-welded joints
and n=0,20 for improved joints, where n is the size exponent in the thickness correction equation

S/So=(to/t)n (1)
This tendency to get a smaller influence of size for unnotched or mildly notched parts has been shown to exist for
mechanical components and the following relation between n and the SCF has been proposed [13]
n=0,1 + 0,14logKt (2)
5.3 Future Modification to Design Rules
The current status of improvement methods is not satisfactory as several methods with proven ability to improve the
fatigue strength of a large variety of small scale specimens as well as large structural components are not included in
design rules. Moreover, the European rules [5, 7, 13] which give the same improvement at all lives, are not consistent with
test data which indicate that the largest improvements are obtained in the high-cycle region, and very small or no
improvements occur in the low-cycle region (N < 104 cycles).
Secondly, both theoretical and experimental results indicate that size effects are less severe for mildly notched parts than for
the more severe joints with very short crack initiation lives. Thus a size exponent of 0,2 would probably be adequate for
low SCF joints like simple butt welds or T-joints with small attachment thicknesses. For the higher SCF joints, e.g. Class F
and lower, a size exponent of n=0,33 would be more suitable [13]. For improved welds an exponent n=0,2 for all weld
classes would probably be adequate.
Life predictions that include a crack initiation stage using local stress strain concepts plus fracture mechanics methods for
the crack growth stage have given reasonably accurate life estimates for improved welds [6], and support the
experimental observation that the fatigue lives of improved welds generally increase with base material strength. Thus a
third, and perhaps more controversial modification to the design rules, would be to allow higher fatigue strength for
higher strength steels. However more data has to be collected before specific recommendations regarding the degree
of improvement can be made.
An effort is now being made within the International Institute of Welding's Commission: Fatigue Behaviour of
Welded Components and Structure, to collect data on improvement methods with the aim of developing recommended
shop practices and design guidance for improvement methods.

● The low fatigue life of welded connections is generally attributed to the very short crack initiation period.
● Weld improvement methods are primarily aimed at extending the resistance to crack initiation.
● Substantial increases in fatigue strength can be obtained consistently when improvement methods are used.
● However, the full potential of weld improvement method can only be obtained if premature failures from other locations, e.
g. the weld root, can be avoided.
● The degree of improvement is generally large for higher strength steels than for mild steels.
● Size effects are lower for low severity joints, implying that size effects are mitigated by weld improvement methods
which reduce the local stress concentration.
● The problems of quality control are similar to those involved in the welding process itself.
● The question of employing an improvement method is related to cost and the benefit allowed in design rules.
● Further work is needed to improve the quality of design codes and design guidance.
7. REFERENCES
[1] Haagensen, P.J.: "Improving the Fatigue Strength of Welded Joints", Fatigue Handbook. Offshore Steel Structures. Ed.
A. Almar Naess, Tapir 1985.
[2] Bignonnet, A.: "Improving the Fatigue Strength of Welded Steel Structures", PS4, Steel in Marine Structures, Int.
Conf. Delft, Elsevier, June 1987.
[3] Structural Welding Code - Steel, ANSI/AWS D1.1-86, American Welding Society, Feb. 1986.
[4] Kobyashi, K. et al.: "Improvements in the Fatigue Strength of Fillet Welded Joint by Use of the New Welding
Electrode", IIW doc. XIII-828-77.
[5] Department of Energy, "Offshore Installations: Guidance on Design and Construction". HMSO, London 1984.
[6] Knight, J.W.: "Improving the Fatigue Strength of Fillet Welded Joints by Grinding and Peening", Welded Res. Int. Vol.
8(6), 1978.
[7] "Fatigue Strength Analysis for Mobile Offshore Units", Det Norske Veritas Classification Note 30.2, Aug. 1984.
[8] Haagensen, P.J.: "Effect of TIG Dressing on Fatigue Performance and Hardness of Steel Weldments", ASTM STP
648, 1978.

[9] Grimme D. et al.: "Untersuchungen zur Betriebsfestigkeit von geschweissten Offshore-Konstruktionen in

Seewasser", ECSC Agreement 7210 KG/101 Final Report 1984.
[10] Gurney, T.R.: "Effect of Grinding and Peening on the Fatigue Strength of Fillet Welded Joints", British Welding
Journal, December 1968.
[11] Haagensen et al.: "Prediction of the Improvement in Fatigue Life of Welded Joints due to Grinding, TIG Dressing,
Weld Shape Control and Shot Peening", TS35, Steel in Marine Structures, Int Conf. Delft, Elsevier, June 1987.
[12] Swedish Regulations for Welded Steel Structures 74 StBk-N2, National Swedish Committee on Regulations for
Steel Structures, 1974.
[13] Haagensen, P.J. et al.: "Size Effects in Machine Components and Welded Joints", Paper 1017, Houston, Texas, 1988.
[14] Maddox, S.J. "The Effect of Plate Thickness on the Fatigue Strength of Fillet Welded Joints", The Welding Institute, 1987.
Table 1 Evaluation of Improvement Methods
GROUP METHOD ADVANTAGE DISADVANTAGE COST

COMPARATOR
GEOMETRY GRINDING Relatively simple and easy to perform. Applicably mainly to planar joints that can be expected to
IMPROVEMENT METHODS General fail from the toe. All grinding techniques give a poor
METHODS working environment regarding noise and dust. Access to
Give large improvement
weld may be a limiting factor.
Relatively simple to perform, Marginal increase can be expected for large size welds
inexpensive. tubular joints due to stress concentration effect of groove.
Simple in section criterion (depth

min. 0,5 mm below plate surface or
undercut).
Full profile burr grinding Very slow. Expensive due to high Large improvements to be expected for all types of welds. 20
labour costs and high tool wear rate.
Disc grinding Very fast compared with burr Score marks give lower improvements than burr grinding. 2
grinding. Can cover large areas.
Improper use may introduce serious defects.

REMELTING Large improvements are possible. Operator needs special training

METHODS Suitable for mechanisation.
General
TIG dressing Small physical effort required. Careful cleaning of weld and plate necessary. 1
Inexpensive
High hardness may result in C-Mn steels due to low heat
input.
Plasma dressing Easy to perform due to large weld Lower hardness than TIG dressing N/A
pool
Somewhat large improvement than Heavy, cumbersome equipment. Accessibility may limit use
TIG dressing
WELD PROFILING The improvement is introduced in the Defects at weld toe not removed.
METHODS General welding process itself.
AWS improved profile Well defined inspection criterion (the Very large scatter in test results due to variation in N/A
"dime test") microgeometry at weld toe. Consistent improvements only
possible if method is combined with others, e.g. toe
grinding, hammer peening or shot peening.
Suitable for large welds and tubular
joints
Special electrodes Easy to perform. Suitable for small Improvement smaller than, e.g. grinding or TIG dressing. N/A
joints. Inexpensive.
Table 1 (Continued)
GROUP METHOD ADVANTAGE DISADVANTAGE COST

COMPARATOR
RESIDUAL General Large improvements Not suitable for low cycle
STRESS possible. fatigue applications.
METHODS
Beneficial effects may

disappear under variable
amplitude loading
involving peak compressive
loads.

Hammer Very large Limited to toe treatment 2

peening improvements only.
possible for poor
quality welds.
Simple inspection Excessive peening may
criterion (depth of cause cracking.
groove > 0,6mm).
Shot peening Well developed Practicable application to N/A
procedures for small large scale structures not
parts. Covers large demonstrated.
areas.
Simple methods for Best suited for mild notches.
quality control.
Improves resistance Very thin surface layer
to stress corrosion deformed; corrosion may
cracking. quickly remove beneficial
effects.

ESDEP WG 12
FATIGUE DESIGN

OBJECTIVE
Introduction to the design of bolted connections under fatigue loading.
PREREQUISITES
RELATED LECTURES:
SUMMARY
The basic principles of fatigue resistance of bolts and bolted connections are established. The load transmission is described
in shear and tension connections. In each case, the bolts can be non-preloaded or preloaded. The positive effect of the
preload of the bolts on the fatigue behaviour in both shear and tension is discussed. Some economical solutions are proposed.
NOTATION
A Nominal area of a bolt [mm2]
Aa Stress area of a bolt [mm2]

db Nominal diameter of a bolt [mm]
da Diameter of the stress area [mm]
dr Shank diameter [mm]
dc Core diameter [mm]
m Slope of a strength fatigue curve [-]
N Number of stress cycles [-]
∅σ Normal stress range [MPa]
∆τ Shear stress range [MPa]
Fb Normal force in a bolt [N]
Fp Preload in a bolt [N]
1. INTRODUCTION
All the concepts given in Lectures 12.1 and 12.2 relating to the design of structures against fatigue loading and
fatigue assessment procedures are applicable to bolted connections. However, the presence of geometrical
discontinuities (holes, changes of section) causes stress concentrations which increase the stresses locally and
influence resistance to fatigue. Stress concentrations occur in bolts at the thread roots, thread run-out and at the radius under
the head. Fatigue failures in bolts in fluctuating tension commonly occur at this last location or in the first thread under the nut.
The design of the joint is very important; the fatigue strength finally depends on the real path of the loads through
the connection, and the fluctuation in stresses of the fatigue sensitive regions.
Two types of load cases on a bolted connection can be discriminated. One where the load is in the axial direction of the
bolts and the other where the load transfer is perpendicular to the bolt axis. In this Lecture these two types are referred to as:
I Bolted connections loaded in tension

II Bolted connections loaded in shear.
An example of the first type is a bolted flange connection as shown in Figure 1. An example of the second type is a
bolted coverplate connection in a flange of a beam section or a simple strip, see Figure 2. In the latter case the load
is transferred by shear either in the bolts (for non preloaded bolts) or at the plate surfaces (for preloaded bolts).


In addition to these two load situations, combinations are possible.
2. FATIGUE BEHAVIOUR OF BOLTS LOADED IN TENSION

Before discussing bolted connections loaded in tension and their specific requirements to prevent fatigue failure, the
fatigue behaviour of the bolt (or thread) is discussed.
The thread in a bolt acts as a notch and therefore a high stress concentration is caused at the root of the thread. At two
locations of the thread the stress concentration can be even higher, i.e. at the runout of the thread and where the thread of
the nut first engages the thread of the bolt.

In addition, the head-shank transition is also a stress concentration.
There are, therefore, basically three locations in a bolt with nut axially loaded, where a fatigue crack can initiate in a bolt
with nut axially loaded. These locations are:
a. head-shank transition
b. runout of thread
c. thread at nut.
In standard bolts the radius at the bolt-head shank transition is large enough to prevent fatigue cracks at this point.
Normally, if fatigue cracks occur, they will be located at the first engagement of the threads of the bolt and nut (c in Figure
3). This is due to the load transfer from nut to bolt.

The load transfer at the contacting thread faces of the bolt and nut give rise to extra bending stresses in the threads, as shown
in Figure 4.
Moreover the load is not equally distributed between the contacting faces of the thread of the bolt and the nut. In
most situations the load transfer is concentrated at the first engagement of the thread faces and can be 2 to 4 times the
mean value [1]. However this depends on the thread form, pitch difference, difference in Young's modulus where
different materials are used etc. The load transfer distribution can become more uniform, by plastic deformation of the nut.
2.2 Influence of Mean Stress and Material
The fatigue behaviour of the thread of a bolt is more or less comparable to the fatigue behaviour of a weld. In both cases
there is a notch where a fatigue crack initiates. For the weld it is the weld toe and for the bolt it is the thread root.

Due to the presence of the notch and the resulting high stress concentration factor, the fatigue behaviour is in most cases
hardly affected by:
● The mean stress level

● The material quality.
The negligible influence of the mean stress level is caused by the high stress concentration. At the first occurrence of
the maximum load level of a cycle, yielding at the notch occurs. The following cycles then cause a stress variation at the
notch which has a maximum equal to the yield strength independent of the mean stress level of the load itself. An exception
to this is the situation where the bolt thread is made by rolling after the heat treatment of the bolts which results in
residual compressive stresses at the thread roots. In that case the fatigue performance is better at low mean load level.
The phenomenon that the material has a negligible effect is explained by the fact that as material strength improves
the sensitivity to notches increases. This effect is illustrated in Figure 5 [5] where the influence of the ultimate tensile
strength on the fatigue strength for different notch cases is given [5].

2.3 The Fatigue Design Curve for Bolts in Tension

Although the notch at a weld (with its undercuts and slag inclusions) is possibly more severe than the machined or rolled
notch at the thread root, the concentrated load transfer between bolt thread and nut on top of the inherent stress
concentration can cause a relatively poor fatigue performance.
Therefore, in the Eurocode 3 classification [4], axially loaded threads and bolts fall in the category equal to the lowest
category for weld details, being class 36. The relevant design line for this category is given in Figure 6. The stress range
given on the vertical axis should be based on tensile stress area of the bolt.

It is only mentioned here that according to Clause 9.7.3 of Eurocode 3 a modified design curve may be used for threads
and bolts.
As can be seen from the design curve in Figure 6, the constant amplitude fatigue limit for the bolts is 26MPa. This means
that, for a constant amplitude loading, there is no fatigue damage where the stress range is less than 26MPa. For a
variable amplitude the fatigue limit is 15MPa.
2.4 Comparison Between Ultimate and Fatigue Load Resistance of a Bolt
The following example illustrates that the fatigue load bearing resistance is very low compared to the static strength of a
bolt. For a bolt under static loading the tension resistance Ft.Rd according to Clause 6.5.5 of Eurocode 3 is given by:
Ft.Rd = 0,9fub As /γMb
Substituting the appropriate values for a bolt M24 grade 10.9 gives the following result:
Ft.Rb = = 254 kN
For a constant amplitude fatigue loading at zero mean level containing more than 107 cycles, the allowable maximum force
on the bolt will be:
Fmax = ∆F/2 = ∆σDAs /2 = 0,5 x 26 x 353 = 4,6 kN
In other words, a bolt designed to transfer a tension force of 254kN may not be fatigue loaded with a maximum force
higher than 4,6kN (under the circumstance of zero mean level and more than 107 cycles). This example illustrates the
relatively weak fatigue performance of an axially loaded bolt.
3. FATIGUE BEHAVIOUR OF BOLTED CONNECTIONS LOADED IN TENSION

Although the fatigue performance of the axially loaded bolt itself is poor, that is not necessarily the case for axially
loaded connections. For these connections, the fatigue performance depends on the structural detailing and the applied
preload in the bolt.
3.1 The Principle of the Effect of Preloading
The effect of preloading, where there is a tensile loading on a bolted connection is illustrated for a flange connection, in
Figures 7 and 8. For example, the connection can be a flange connection in a tubular section (chimney or tower).
The distribution of the forces is compared for the situation with and without preloading of the bolts. The thickness of the
flange is assumed to be large enough to neglect bending flexibility and possible prying forces.

Without Preload
Where there is no preload (Figure 7) and thus no contact force Fc on the facing surfaces of the flanges, the external tensile
force Ft applied on the connection will be transferred by the force in the bolts Fb. Therefore the variation of the tensile force
Ft will result in a variation of the force in the bolts and at the same time a displacement of the flanges. The connection can
be considered as a two spring system as indicated.
With Preload
In case of preload with a force Fv, this force will initially be in equilibrium with a contact force Fc on the contact area of
the flanges, Figure 8. The two flanges now act as one piece as long as the external load Ft is less than the preload Fv.

As a result, when the external load is applied the forces in the bolts will change little. Only the elastic deformation
(mainly change in thickness) of the two flanges will cause a change in bolt load. The flanges however are relatively stiff due
to their much larger area compared with the bolt area.
However, the load in the bolts will increase rapidly as soon as the contact surfaces separate due to the external force
surpassing the preload force Fv. At that moment the situation is equivalent to the non preload case.
As long as the external load Ft is below the preload force Fv the situation can be considered as a three spring system. Two
small springs being the bolts and one stiff spring being the two flanges, Figure 8.
The diagram at the right-hand side of Figure 8 gives the relation between the different forces. At no external load (Ft = 0)
the elongation due to the preload of the bolts is at point A in this diagram. When an external load Ft is applied, the
connection will stretch, resulting in an elongation of the bolts and flange thickness thus resulting in an increased Fb and at
the same time a reduction of the compressive force Fc in the flanges as indicated. At each stage the following relation yields:
Fb = Fc + Ft
It follows from the diagram that the increase in the external force is compensated for the larger part by a decrease of the
contact force Fc and a small increase in the forces in the bolts Fb.
The amount of variation of forces in the bolts due to the variation in the external forces is dependent on the stiffness ratio of
the flanges and the bolts. Therefore, the more flexible the bolts the less force variation they will undergo. Increasing the
length of the bolts by inserting washers or using spring washers will be beneficial because it means that the two springs in
the diagram (being the bolts and possible washer etc.) are more flexible. Inserting gaskets between the flanges will make
the flange assembly more flexible and would have a detrimental effect. The flanges must be thick to reduce the
bending flexibility, otherwise the location of the contact area becomes critical.
3.2 The Effect of the Location of the Contact Area
In the previous section it was shown that preloading the bolts in a tensile loaded connection reduces the force variation in
the bolts and therefore can avoid fatigue failure of the bolts. The preload in the bolts must be greater than the external load.
However, preload alone is not always a guarantee for a reduced force variation in the bolts. The contact force of the
connection, which is developed by tightening of the bolts to its preload, must also be located in a favourable position as well.
This is illustrated in Figure 9 by a flange connection, where the thickness of the flange is much smaller than in the
previous example and is therefore flexible in bending. In the flange connection of two T-sections the location of the
contact forces has been established by introducing loose shims in two different ways. The location of the shims defines
the location of the contact forces. In both cases the bolts are tightened to the same preload.

The schematic models of the relevant spring system are also shown in Figure 9.
Contact Area at the Centre
Where the shims and thus the contact force are in the centre, Figure 9a, there is effectively a very stiff spring in the
middle compared to the two flexible springs representing the flexibility of the bolt and the bending flexibility of the
flanges (the latter in this case being the most important part of the total flexibility). This case is similar to the situation in
the previous section with a much larger difference in the stiffness between the contact area and bolts + flanges due to
the bending of the flanges.
Contact Area at the End of Flanges
Where the contact area is at the end of the flanges, Figure 9b, the springs representing the contact area and the
bending flexibility of the total flanges, are very flexible. Therefore the springs, representing the bolts plus a part of the
flanges, have a relatively much higher stiffness. As a result the variation of the external force Ft will result in a variation in
the bolt forces of nearly equal magnitude.
Results of Measurements
For the examples above actual measurements of the bolt forces have been carried out [2]. The measured bolt forces in these
two situations are given in Figure 10. In each case the bolts were tightened to a preload Fv of 100kN each. In Figure 10
the force in the bolt Fb is plotted by the thick line as a function of the external load Ft. At an Ft of zero, Fb starts at the
preload of 100kN. The external force Ft is also given by the dashed line under an angle of 45° . From the equilibrium of
the forces it follows that the vertical distance between this line and the thick line of the measured bolt force is equal to
the contact force Fc.

In the situation with the contact in the centre, Figure 10a, the forces in the bolts are almost constant until the external
force surpasses the preload Fv. This means that the part of the connection including the contact area (the middle spring in
the spring model) is extremely stiff compared to the flexibility of the bolts plus bending of the flanges (side springs in
the spring model). As a result the variation in the forces in the bolt is negligible as long as the preload is greater than
the external load. Fatigue failure in this case is not to be expected.
This is in contrast to the situation with the contact forces at the end of the flanges, Figure 10b. In this situation the stiffness
of the flanges is negligible compared to the stiffness of the bolts. All external load is now transferred by the bolts. Where
the external load is a cyclic loading the load variation must be very small, otherwise fatigue failure of the bolts occurs
very soon.
In general the most favourable situation with respect to fatigue resistance is obtained when the contact area is as close
as possible to the components in which the tensile force is acting.
In Figure 11 some examples of favourable and less favourable situations are given. More examples are given in [2] and [3].

4. FATIGUE OF BOLTED CONNECTIONS LOADED IN SHEAR

A simplified example of a bolted connection loaded in shear is shown in Figure 2. The load is transferred from one strip to
the other by the coverplates. The connection can be assembled by bolts which are not preloaded and by bolts which
are preloaded. Both situations have their own way of load transfer and failure mechanism.
4.1 The Principle of Load Transfer
Non Preloaded Bolts
In case of non preloaded bolts the forces are transferred by bearing of the plates against the shank of the bolt and
consequently shear in the bolt shank as indicated in Figure 2a. This type of joint can not be used where the variable
load changes sign since the clearance between the holes and shank allows large displacements to occur repeatedly.
The load transfer in this type of joint is very concentrated at the location where the shank bears against the holes as indicated
in Figures 2a and 12a.


Preloaded Bolts
Where the bolts are preloaded, the forces are transferred by friction of the plate surfaces. The bolts which transfer the load
by friction are known as High Strength Friction Grip Bolts (HSFG), Figure 12b. High strength bolts and controlled
tightening are necessary to obtain sufficient compressive stresses to enable the load to be transferred by friction.
The load transfer by friction takes place over the whole area where compressive stresses are present due to the bolt
preloading as indicated in Figures 2b and 12b. Therefore, the load transfer is not as concentrated as with non preloaded
bolts. Connections with HSFG bolts can also be used where the variable load changes sign.
4.2 Stress Concentration Around the Holes
Non Preloaded Bolts
For non preloaded bolts there will be a stress concentration at the holes as indicated in Figure 12a.
The stress concentration results from the fact that there is a hole in a stressed plate. Moreover the load is introduced by the
bolt shank in a very concentrated way.
Preloaded Bolts
In case of preloaded bolts there is no stress concentration at the holes. The stresses may even be lower than the nominal
stress as indicated in Figure 12b.
This is due to the fact that at the hole a part of the load has already been transferred. Moreover the bolt head and nut will
reduce the deformation of the hole.

Non Preloaded Bolts
Due to the stress concentration at the hole a fatigue crack can occur there (see Figure 12a). Another possibility is the failure
of the bolt as a result of the variable shear load in the shank at the shear plane. The threaded part of the bolt should not be in
the shear plane because the notch effect of the thread would reduce the fatigue resistance drastically.
Preloaded Bolts
For preloaded bolts the stresses at the holes are low. Fatigue cracks do not, therefore, occur at the holes. The fatigue
crack normally occurs in the gross section of the plates, see Figure 12b.
The contact pressure applied by the preload of the bolt gradually decreases around the hole. The crack initiates where
the contact pressure is not high enough to prevent slip between the plate, resulting in crack initiation by fretting.
5. FATIGUE DESIGN CURVES FOR CONNECTIONS LOADED IN SHEAR
5.1 Non Preloaded Bolts
In this case there are two possible failures - the shank of the bolts and the plates. Both should be verified against the
relevant design curves.
For the bolt shank loaded in shear, the design strength according to Eurocode 3 [4] is given in Figure 13. No thread is
allowed in the shear plane.

For the plates, the stresses should be calculated for the net section and the detail category 112, according to the Eurocode
3 classification, should be used [4].
5.2 Preloaded Bolts
In the case of preloaded bolts, the bolts themselves will not fail provided that the preload in the bolts prevents total slip.
The plates fall into the same category as in the non preloaded case. However, since failure does not occur in the net section,
the gross section of the plate can be used for calculating the fatigue stresses.
6. REMARKS CONCERNING THE MAGNITUDE OF THE PRELOAD

The magnitude of the total preload must be large enough to prevent slip (shear connection) or disappearance of the
contact forces (connection loaded in tension) at the maximum possible load on the connection.
Where the connection is loaded in shear, any slip of the connection due to an extreme load can reduce the friction
coefficient by an unknown factor. Thus the preload has to be designed on the basis of the maximum extreme load case.
The calculation procedure to prevent this is given in ESDEP Lecture 11.3.2. Another way of preventing the slip due
to accidental extreme load cases is to use injection bolts [6].
Where the connection is loaded in tension, an "overload" cancelling the contact forces will result in a force variation in the
bolt. This in itself will not cause fatigue failure since the number of cycles is limited. However, after this loading, the preload
in the bolt can be reduced due to local yielding and resulting plastic deformation of the bolt or contact areas between bolts
and flanges.
7. FATIGUE STRENGTH OF ANCHOR BOLTS

The dimensioning of holding down bolts under static loading and their anchorage into the foundation are described in
Lecture 11.3.2.
Concerning fatigue strength, anchor bolts do not behave in the same way as normal bolts; some parameters are different:
the thread size, the diameter and the method of forming the thread.
Test results have shown [7] that the bolt diameter and the thread size do not influence fatigue behaviour; the fatigue lives
were almost identical for tested specimens as for normal bolts.
On the other hand, the method of forming the thread influences the fatigue strength. Tests were carried out on anchor bolts
with rolled threads or with cut threads. The specimens with rolled threads provided the longer fatigue life. This
better performance may be due to the compressive residual stresses at the thread root generated by the thread-rolling operation.
When the threads are cut automatically, this operation leaves a transition at their termination. It is a sharp notch adjacent to
a region of smooth bar. It has been shown that there is an important stress concentration at the notch which induces
fatigue cracks.
Consequently rolled threads appear to improve the fatigue performance of the bolt and are recommended for use
when available. Note that the fatigue life of a bolt is a function not only of the bolt thread, but also of the nut.
As already mentioned for common bolts, the use of a double nut increases fatigue resistance and its influence seems to
be larger for anchor bolts.
All considerations described in Section 5 concerning the influence of the prying effect are applicable for connections
made with holding down bolts. For instance, tests on site have shown that the designs in Figures 14b and d give better
fatigue behaviour than the solutions in Figures 14a and c.

● A bolt loaded in tension has a low fatigue performance.
● In a bolted connection loaded in tension, fatigue of the bolts can be prevented by preloading the bolts and taking care that
the contact area is favourably located.
● In general a favourable position of the contact area with respect to the fatigue of the bolts is obtained when it is located as
close as possible to the components in which the tensile force is acting.
● For a bolted connection fatigue loaded in shear, preloading the bolts leads to the following advantages over the non
preloaded case:
⋅ The variable load may change sign.
⋅ The thread of the bolt is allowed in the shear plane.
⋅ The fatigue strength of the connection is enhanced, since the stresses are based on the gross section instead of the net section.
9. REFERENCES
[1] Frost, N.E., March, K.J., Pook, L.P., Metal fatigue, Oxford
University Press 1974, ISBN 0198561148
[2] Bouwman, L.P., Bolted connections dynamically loaded in tension, ASCE, J. of the Structural Division, Vol. 108, No.
ST, September 1982.
[3] European recommendations for bolted connections in structural steelwork, No. 38, March 1985.
[4] Eurocode 3: "Design of steel structures": ENV 1993-1-1: Part 1.1, General rules and rules for buildings, CEN, 1992.
[5] Gurney, T.R., Fatigue of welded structures, Cambridge 1968.

[6] Bouwman, L.P., Gresnigt, A.M., Dubois, G.A., European Recommendations for Bolted Connections with Injection
Bolts, ECCS-TC10 draft.
[7] Frank, K.H., Fatigue Strength of Anchor Bolts, ASCE, Journal of the Structural Division, vol. 106, ST 6, June 1980.

ESDEP WG 12
FATIGUE
Lecture 12.7: Reliability Analysis and

Safety Factors Applied to Fatigue
Design
OBJECTIVE
To introduce the main concepts and derivation regarding both the statistical evaluation of the fatigue strength of
structural details and the determination of partial safety coefficients on which are founded the fatigue assessment rules
in Eurocode 3 [1].
PREREQUISITES
None.
RELATED LECTURES:
Lecture 12.8: Basic Fatigue Design Concepts in Eurocode 3
SUMMARY
This lecture presents an overview of the statistical analysis procedure applied to fatigue test data of a particular detail in
order to derive the most appropriate S-N curve. Special attention is given to the definition of the partial safety factors which
are in Eurocode 3 for fatigue design assessment [1]. The use of a proper fatigue damage-tolerant level is discussed which
is based on sufficient residual strength and stiffness in remaining members between inspection intervals until the fatigue
crack can be detected and repaired.

1. INTRODUCTION
Fatigue failure may arise in many engineering structures submitted to repeated loadings. Many failures occurring in
structures are due to the process of fatigue crack propagation. Fracture may be in encountered in many civil
engineering structures such as bridges, cranes, gantry girders, offshore or marine structures, transmission towers, chimneys,
ski lifts, etc. The safe-life prediction of structures subjected to fatigue loading is recognised as being a very difficult
problem. The stresses in any civil engineering structure are often caused by random loading; the properties of the materials,
and the fabrication conditions for the structure may also vary in a random manner. The integrated influence of all
these variables yields a wide scatter in life prediction.
As a result, in spite of the progress made in the understanding of the fatigue mechanism, and of the conservatism introduced
in design against fatigue failure, design rules are still based on a "damage-tolerant approach" which is more or
less substantiated by reliability analyses.
2. STATISTICAL ANALYSIS OF S-N CURVES

The S-N curves are evaluated from a series of fatigue tests performed on specimens which comprise the structural detail
for which assessment of the fatigue strength is required. When the fatigue test results are plotted on a log-log scale, i.e.
log (stress range, ∆σ ) versus log (number of cycles to failure) a considerable statistical scatter exists in the fatigue data
as illustrated in Figure 1.

Instead of taking a lower bound limit approach, a statistical evaluation of the fatigue test results is performed. Assuming
a linear relationship between log ∆σ and log N the following equation may be written:

log N = log A - m . log ∆σ (1.1)
Let
y = log N; x = log ∆σ ; a = log A; b = - m (1.2)
where log is the logarithm to base 10.
The first step of the statistical analysis is to apply a technique of standard linear regression analysis of the data to find
estimates of a and b, denoted and respectively. Each pair of fatigue data, yi = log Ni and xi = log ∆σi, should satisfy
the relation:
yi = + . xi + ei (1.3)
where ei is called the residual.
The estimates and are determined so that the sum of the squares of the residuals is a minimum. This condition leads to
the following estimates [2].
= (1.4)
and
= = . (1.5)
where and are respectively the means of yi and xi, i.e.

= , = where n is the number of data points (sample size).
The second step is to find the variance of the distribution φ(yi) at a given xi. The variance of yi, written Var(yi), is assumed
to be constant for all values of xi=log∆σi. The constant variance assumption is sometimes questionable, but holds true for
a majority of fatigue test data. It is also usually assumed that, for any fixed value of xi, the corresponding value of yi forms
a normal distribution.
One of the main comparison indicators which is used in relation to the classification system adopted in Eurocode 3 [1] is
the characteristic strength at two million cycles, written xc = log ∆σc. Let yc = log Nc be the random variable corresponding
to a given value xc.
The sampling distribution of yc may be obtained from the following estimation [2]:
c = + .xc (1.6)
and
(1.7)
where Var (yc/xc) is the variance of yc given that x is equal to xc.
(1.8)
where
(1.9)

A 95% confidence interval estimate for yc is given by:
(10)
where t95 is the 95% percentile of the Student's distribution with n-2 degrees of freedom [2]. Thus there is confidence that
95% of the yc Student's t population will have values above yck.
Very often in fatigue test analysis the sample size is small (n≤ 30) and the value of the estimation of the variance of yc
as defined by Equation (1.7) fluctuates considerably from sample to sample. To take this fact into account, the distribution of
φ(yi) for sample size n ≤ 30 has been assumed to follow a Student's t distribution.
Knowing yck from Equation (1.10), the characteristic strength at two million cycles may be calculated from Equation
(1.1). Finally the "one-sided" confidence estimate is performed for a particular point referred to as the characteristic strength
at two million cycles.
The characteristic S-N curve is given by the following equation:
log Nk = (log A - t95σycxc) - m.log ∆σk (1.11)
and the characteristic strength at two million cycles may be calculated from:
log ∆σkc = [(log A - t95σycxc) - log (2 × 106)]/m (1.12)
Therefore
∆σ
∆σkc =10log kc (1.13)
Numerical Example
Assume a given detail has been tested under constant amplitude fatigue loading. The fatigue test data is reported in
the following Table. No failure was observed for the first five specimens for a number of cycles over two million.
The characteristic fatigue strength curve corresponding to the given detail is determined as follows:

Stress Range Number of Failure

∆σ Cycles N Identification
(N/mm²) (x 1000)
74 Over 2000 not failed
74 id not failed
108 id not failed
108 id not failed
108 id not failed
108 1077 failed
108 800 id
139 597 id
139 537 id
202 204 id
202 188 id
202 107 id
265 79 id
265 70 id
265 42 id
Table Fatigue Test Data
First Step: Perform the linear regression analysis:

The evaluation of a and b according to Equations (1.4) and (1.5) may be obtained from the following numerical Table
which includes only the tests that have resulted in a fatigue failure.
No ∆ σ ι (N/ xi=log ∆ yi=log x21 y21 x1.y1

mm²)
σι Ni
1 108 2,03 6,032 4,135 36,388 12,266
2 108 2,03 5,903 4,135 34,846 12,003
3 139 2,14 5,776 4,593 33,362 12,378
4 139 2,14 5,730 4,593 32,833 12,279
5 202 2,31 5,310 5,315 28,192 12,241
6 202 2,31 5,274 5,315 27,817 12,159
7 202 2,31 5,029 5,315 25,295 11,594
8 265 2,42 4,898 5,872 23,987 11,868
9 265 2,42 4,845 5,872 23,475 11,741
10 265 2,42 4,623 5,872 21,374 11,203
Σ 22,5387 53,4204 51,0149 287,568 119,733
b=
a=

therefore, the linear regression equation is given by:
log N = 12,334 - 3,102 log ∆σ (1.11)
for Nc = 2000 000 cycles, from (1.11):
log ∆σc = 1,945 and ∆σc = 88,05 N/mm2
Second Step: To find the variance of y = log N
from the calculation table above.
and the variance:
The standard deviation is then
σyc/xc = 0,151

The Student's t95 value with n - 2 = 8 degrees of freedom can be obtained from a statistical table of the t distribution [3]:
t95 = 1,860
The characteristic strength at two million cycles is then:
log ∆σkc =
Therefore:
∆σkc = 101,854 = 71,5
In conclusion, referring to the basic S-N curves in Eurocode 3 (Fig. 9.6.1 in Eurocode 3), the detail analysed under
the preceding statistical evaluation may be classified under category 71, Figure 2.

The standard deviations vary from test to test and from the type of detail studied. In general, the higher the stress
concentration factor, the lower the standard deviation of the fatigue test results. The following table gives some indication
of the standard deviations which were obtained when performing the statistical analysis of various types of detail
category. When mixing fatigue test results from various sources, the standard deviation tends to increase and care
should always be exercised to minimise problems arising from inhomogeneity of data, Figure 3. These values of the
standard deviation of the number of cycles given in the table are somewhat different to the values appearing in Annex C
of reference [4] due to the fact that more complete sources of fatigue data where analysed when reviewing the classification
for Eurocode 3 [5].

Type of Range of
detail standard
deviation
σyc/xc
Rolled beam 0,125 -

0,315
Welded
beam 0,150 -
0,230
Vertical
stiffener 0,115 -
0,170
Transverse
attachment 0,115 -
0,190
Longitudinal
attachment 0,110 -
0,140
Cover plate
on flange 0,070 -
0,140
Bolted
connection 0,230
in shear
3. SAFETY CONCEPT AND PARTIAL SAFETY COEFFICIENTS

A structural element submitted to fatigue loading is subjected to several uncertainties. The variability of the
parameters governing the fatigue life of a structural element, i.e. fatigue loading and fatigue resistance are largely unknown.
A level II reliability model has been implemented for the derivation of recommended partial safety factors in relation to
the following fatigue strength assessment equation:
γf ∆σs = ∆σR/γM (3.1)

where
∆σs is the equivalent constant applied stress range which, for the given number of cycles, leads to the same cumulative
damage as the design spectrum.
∆σR is the fatigue strength as given by the S-N curve of the relevant detail category.
γf and γM are the partial safety factors applied respectively to the spectrum loading and to the resistance.
3.1 Derivation of Partial Safety Factors
It will be assumed that log ∆σs and log ∆σR are both random variables following a normal distribution law. Therefore
the random variables ∆σs and ∆σR are said to follow a log-normal distribution.
The fatigue limit state function may be written as:
g = log ∆σR - log ∆σs (3.2)
Introducing the normalised basic variables u and v as:
u = {log ∆σR - } / Slog R (3.3)

∆σ
v = {log ∆σS - } / Slog S

∆σ
is the mean value and Slog R is the standard deviation of the variable log ∆σR.
∆σ
The limit state function, Equation (3.2), re-written with the normalised basic variables becomes:

g(u,v) = Slog R.u - Slog S.v + - (3.4)

∆σ ∆σ
Having assumed that the random variables log ∆σS and log ∆σR are normally distributed, then the safety index β is related
to the probability of failure Π as:
Π = Φ(-β) (3.5)
in which Φ(-β) is the standardised normal distribution function and β is given by (it is assumed for the sake of simplicity
that the variables u and v are uncorrelated):
β={ - } / √(S2log R + S2log S) (3.6)

∆σ ∆σ
It is recalled that β can be geometrically interpreted as the shortest distance from the origin to the failure surface in the
standard normal space, Figure 4.

The coordinates of the design point D represent the values of u and v with the highest probability of failure. These
coordinates are expressed by:
αu = -βSlog R / √(S2log R + S2log S) (3.7)

∆σ ∆σ ∆σ
αv = β Slog S / √(S2log R + S2log S)

∆σ ∆σ ∆σ
Rearranging Equation (3.7) in terms of the basic variables log ∆σS and log ∆σR gives:

αR = - βS2log R / √( S2log R + S2log S) (3.8)

∆σ ∆σ ∆σ
αs = + β S2log S / √( S2log R + S2log S)

∆σ ∆σ ∆σ
The characteristic values of the random variables (log ∆σRk and log ∆σsk) are then expressed by:
log ∆σRk = (log ∆σR)k = (1 - kR CR) (3.9)
log ∆σsk = (log ∆σs)k = (1 + ks Cs)
where Cs and CR are respectively the coefficients of variation of log ∆σs and log ∆σR (i.e. the ratio of standard deviation
over the mean value).
To determine the partial safety factors in a semi-probabilistic format (level I reliability format), which corresponds to the
same degree of safety (represented by the safety index β) as a level II reliability format, one has to utilize the Equations
(3.8) and (3.9). Assuming:
µ = Slog /Slog
∆σR ∆σR
then the partial factors can be obtained from the following relations:
log γM = Slog β /[√(1+ µ2)] - kR (3.10)

∆σR
log γf = µSlog βµ /[√(1+ µ2)] - ks

∆σs
For a defined safety index β the partial safety coefficients may be calculated from Equations (3.10), knowing the
standard deviations of the resistance and the loading (Slog R and Slog s) and the coefficients kR and kS related to
∆σ ∆σ
the definition of the characteristic values adopted for (log ∆σR)k and (log ∆σs)k.
Remarks
● As shown in Section 2, there is sufficient experimental data to determine adequate values of the standard deviation of
the resistance Slog R.
∆σ
● On the other hand there is little information concerning the variation of the fatigue loading. The standard deviation of
the fatigue loading, (Slog s), must be evaluated or estimated and depends very much upon the type of traffic load
∆σ
(railways, roadway or highway). Since the distribution of ∆σs is lognormal, then the standard deviation of log ∆σs may
be expressed in terms of the coefficient of variation of the loading as:
Slog = log e √[ln(1 + Vs2)] (3.11)

∆σs
with by definition:
Vs = S s /
∆σ
where e is the Euler's number and ln is the Naperian logarithm.
● The formal difference in the ECCS Fatigue Recommendations is due to the fact that the characteristic value of the loading
has been introduced in a probabilistic format, which is not the case in the ECCS Recommendations where the fatigue loading
is defined by its mean value.
● The partial safety coefficients depend upon the required safety index. From the viewpoint of the fatigue reliability
assessment, there are many "critical" structural components or structural details which must be considered in any
civil engineering structure. However, it must be recognised that failure of a particular structural component in a structure
does not necessarily imply a complete failure of the structure. A distinction must be made between the notion of "fail-safe"
and "non fail-safe" structural components. This notional concept is exemplified in Figure 5: It has to be understood that in
a "fail-safe" assembly, the result of a normal failure is a loss of rigidity, but the structure retains its integrity. Nevertheless, it
is necessary to assess a safe life capability of structural components whose fracture may potentially give rise to a
catastrophic failure. Safe-life design should be required especially for structural components or details for which inspection
is difficult, or cannot be properly carried out.
● The periodic inspection and maintenance of the construction in conjunction with the variations in accessibility of the
structural detail for inspection or repair must be taken into consideration when evaluating the risk and assessing the
proper safety indices.
● In the same structure, there are components which may be classified as "fail-safe" and others as "non fail-safe" from
the viewpoint of failure consequences.
It must be understood that the safety indices which were proposed (see Table 1) in Eurocode 3 (Chapter 9) are mainly based
on an engineering judgement of what may be called a potential risk of acceptance of losses and damages. It is the
responsibility of each concerned authority to make the decision on the proper choice of these values on the basis of a
realistic risk assessment.

"Fail- "Non
Safe" fail-
structural safe"
detail structural
detail
Periodic β=2 β=3
inspection and
maintenance.
Accessible joint
detail.
Periodic β = 2,5 β = 3,5
inspection and
maintenance. Poor
accessibility.
Table 1 Recommended values of safety indices
Figure 6 gives the partial safety coefficient γR in terms of β and µ. These curves have been drawn for kR=2 and kS=1,645
and for slog R=0,07 (which corresponds to slogN=0,210.
∆σ

In Chapter 9 of Eurocode 3 [1] values of the product γf.γM have been proposed (Table 2) based on the values of safety
indices given in Table 1. There is little information concerning fatigue loadings and if the partial safety factor γf is known,
then the partial safety factor γM related to the strength must be adjusted.

"Fail- "Non
safe" fail-
structural safe"
detail structural
detail
Periodic inspection γ = 1,00 γ = 1,25
and maintenance.
Accessible joint
detail.
Periodic inspection γ = 1,15 γ = 1,35
and maintenance.
Poor accessibility.
Table 2 Recommended values of the product g = gf.gM
Remarks
Discontinuities play a major role in the fatigue strength, particularly for welded details. Careful consideration must be given
to the weld quality since it significantly affects fatigue strength variation. Moreover, the measures that can be taken to
achieve the required degree of structural reliability include not only the justification of relevant design rules and the choice
of associated partial safety factors, but also an appropriate level of execution quality and proper standards for
workmanship which are developed in pr EN 1090-1 [6].
● Opinions regarding the fatigue resistance of a structure vary from the extreme that the structure should be safe during
the design life under any circumstances (or during damage that may be inflicted) to the view that safe-life cannot be
predicted, or a reasonably economic life goal cannot be assured.
● The purpose of a code is to set a set of partial safety factors which minimise the rate of fatigue damage in service, and to
take advantage of suitable inspection and proper maintenance procedures.
● In structures designed to Eurocode 3, since a completely fatigue-resistant structure is unlikely to be economically
feasible, some fatigue cracks during service should be expected.
● "Fail-safe design" can best serve a useful purpose when supplemented by suitable inspection and maintenance. The
design concept in Eurocode 3 may be described as follows:
(i) The structure must have an adequate life either crack-free or during which the growth rate of cracks is sufficiently low
to allow detection during an inspection period.
(ii) Visual inspection of all critical areas is possible in service.
5. REFERENCES
[1] Eurocode 3: "Design of Steel Structures": ENV 1993-1-1: Part 1.1, General Rules and Rules for Buildings, CEN, 1992.
[2] Walpole E.R. and Myers R.H., Probability and statistics for engineers and scientists, MacMillan Publishing Co. Inc.,
New York, 2nd Ed., 1978
[3] Natrella M.G., Experimental Statistics, National Bureau of Standards Handbook 91, Issued August 1 1963.
Reprinted October 1966 with corrections.
[4] Recommendations pour la vrification la fatigue des structures en acier. CECM - Comit Technique no. 6: "Fatigue".
CECM no. 43, 1987, Premire dition.
[5] Background Documentation to Eurocode 3: Chapter 9 - Fatigue, Background information on fatigue design rules:
Statistical Evaluation, December 1989.
[6] prEN 1090-1:1993 Execution of steel structures, Part 1: General rules and rules for buildings.

L1208
ESDEP WG 12
FATIGUE
Lecture 12.8: Basic Fatigue Design

Concepts in Eurocode 3
OBJECTIVE/SCOPE:
This lecture contains the background information of the basis of the Eurocode 3 rules concerning the fatigue design
of structural elements.
PREREQUISITES
None.
RELATED LECTURES
SUMMARY
The lecture discusses the main fatigue design rules contained in Eurocode 3 [1]. These fatigue design rules are based on
fatigue test results obtained mainly under constant amplitude loading. The classification of a given detail, either welded
or bolted, results from a statistical evaluation of the fatigue test data with a 95% probability of survival for a 75%
confidence interval. The evaluation is compared with a set of equally spaced S-N curves with a slope constant of m = 3.
Explanation is given on the choice of a normalised double-slopes S-N curve. Then several factors, introduced in Eurocode
L1208
3 [1], affecting the fatigue strength are also discussed.
1. INTRODUCTION
The principal objective of this lecture is to review the main rules which are the basis for Chapter 9 of Eurocode 3
[1] concerning the fatigue strength assessment of steel structural details.
The main provisions of Eurocode 3 [1] rely upon a set of fatigue resistance curves, equally spaced, upon which are classified
a set of constructional details. The concept for fatigue strength design follows the Recommendations of the
European Convention for Constructional Steelwork (ECCS). The Recommendations [2] define a set of equally spaced
fatigue strength curves with a constant slope of m = 3 (for normal stress), or m = 5 (for shear stress, hollow section joints,
and some particular details).
In addition to this approach another concept supported mainly by recent developments and research in the field of fatigue
for "offshore" structures is referred to in Eurocode 3 as the geometrical stress concentration concept (also called the "hot
spot stress" method).
To determine the fatigue strength provisions given in Eurocode 3, a compilation of fatigue data of various sources was
carried out. This work has provided an opportunity to re-evaluate existing fatigue test data and allowed for a more
consistent approach to the classification of detail categories.
2. PRACTICAL IMPLICATION OF DESIGN CRITERIA
2.1 Main Factors Affecting the Fatigue Strength
Fatigue of steel structural components, especially welded steel details, is a particularly complex problem, and many
factors may exert an influence on the fatigue life. Table 1 lists a non-exhaustive inventory of these various factors and
those which are taken into account either explicitly or implicitly in Chapter 9 of Eurocode 3 are indicated.
Whilst some factors are dealt with in Chapter 9 of Eurocode 3, other factors, particularly those related to fabrication
are considered in an implicit manner through defined discontinuities or weld defects acceptance criteria and quality
control requirements. These general requirements will be defined in a standard concerning the "Execution of steel structures".
Table 1 The main factors affecting fatigue strength

L1208
Designation of the factors affecting the fatigue strength Taken into

account in
Eurocode 3
Stress
⋅ Stress or strain range *
⋅ Stress sequence
⋅ Frequency (no significant effect when < 40 Hz in a non
corrosive environment)
⋅ Mean stress (no effect in heat affected zone due to *
residual stresses) *
⋅ Residual stresses
Geometry
⋅ Nominal or geometrical stress
⋅ Local stress concentration *
⋅ Small discontinues *
- scratches *(implicit)
- grinding marks
- surface pittings
- weld defects or misalignments
⋅ Size effect (or scale effect)
*
Material Properties and Fabrication
⋅ Stress-strain behaviour of materials
⋅ Hardness
⋅ Chemical composition of steels
⋅ Metallurgical homogeneity
⋅ Electrical potential
⋅ Micro structural discontinuities (grain size, grain
boundaries)
⋅ Welding process
⋅ Weld heat treatment
⋅ Weld surface treatment

L1208
Environment
⋅ Corrosive atmosphere *(implicit)
⋅ Temperature *(implicit)
⋅ Humidity (hydrogen embrittlement)
⋅ Irradiation
2.2 Fatigue Failure Criteria
In the preparation of Eurocode 3, classification into detail categories was established from a statistical analysis of fatigue
test data obtained from various laboratory sources. To obtain more homogeneous samples of the test results, particular
attention was paid to failure criteria considered in these tests.
Several failure criteria may be adopted to characterize the experimental failure condition at the end of a fatigue test in
the laboratory. Three criteria are generally considered:
● First appearance of a crack either detected visually or detected by means of a physical measure, e.g. by the record of a
change in the local strain condition.
● Through-thickness crack: the fatigue crack starts from the front surface and grows through the thickness of the test piece
and reaches the back surface.
● Complete fracture of the tested specimen or large displacement of the tested structural element such that the
displacement becomes so important that the applied "jack load" cannot be maintained. When performing a fatigue test on
a beam, the failure may be conventionally defined as the point when the mid-span deflection reaches a certain limit.
Generally for small scale specimens, the difference between the fatigue life at complete fracture and at a more
realistic tolerable fatigue crack size is negligible. However, in a large scale structural element tested in fatigue the
difference may be highly significant.
In Eurocode 3, the fatigue strength refers to the complete failure of the structural element. This condition corresponds,
usually, to the criterion generally adopted by structural laboratories or reported in literature.
2.3 Design Stresses for Fatigue Assessment
Different stresses may affect the fatigue strength classification of a structural detail. For a particular detail, the various

L1208
origins of stresses have to be identified in order to define more precisely the design stresses for the fatigue assessment
concepts involved in Chapter 9 of Eurocode 3.
a. Nominal Stress
Consider a uniform structural member subjected to a simple axial force or to a bending moment. The nominal stress is
the stress resultant calculated according to the basic strength of material (Figure 1).

L1208
The nominal stress of a member under uni-axial stress is:
σN = (2.1)
where N is the normal force and A the gross section area.
For a prismatic member section under a bending moment, the stress resultant is:
σM = (2.2)
where:
M is the applied bending moment
I is the moment of inertia of the section
v is the distance from the neutral axis to the outmost fibre.
b. Stress concentration effect due to geometrical discontinuities
There are three main sources which can create a state of stress concentration in a structural detail:
⋅ The global geometry of the structural element which contains the structural detail, e.g. attachments on a beam web or
gusset plates on a beam flange.
⋅ The local stress concentration due to local disturbance of the weld geometry, bolt holes, local variation in stiffness, etc...
For example, if a hole is drilled in a plate, the stress distribution across the section containing the hole will be different from
the nominal stress distribution existing in the plain plate cross-section. An important stress gradient will occur in the vicinity
of the hole. This geometrical stress concentration is due to both the decrease from the gross section to the net section and to
the stress "raiser" (concentrator) caused by the presence of the hole (Figure 1).

L1208
⋅ The local stress concentration due to local discontinuities occurring during fabrication (misalignment, surface scratch,
pitting, weld defect, etc).
In many cases, and by simplification, the geometric stress concentration is usually calculated on the basis of the nominal
stress applied to the gross section area and the stress concentration factor kG, as:
σG = kG . σnom (2.3)
This structural geometrical stress concentration, which is defined as the maximum principal stress existing in the vicinity of
the detail, may be evaluated from experimental tests or from finite element methods.
The local stress concentration is present in addition to the structural geometric stress concentration and may be due to
local disturbances of the local geometry of the detail such as:
⋅ local cross-section change (geometry of welds for example).
⋅ local geometrical imperfections such as misalignment.
⋅ small local discontinuities inherent to the action of the environment or of the fabrication process such corrosion pits,
surface scratches, drag lines due to flame cutting, grinding marks, welding process defects such as undercut, lack
of penetration, lack of fusion, slag inclusions, porosities, hydrogen-induced cracking, etc. These very small discontinuities
are present in every element of engineering structures. Their presence determines a potential location for initiation of a
fatigue crack.
Local stress concentrations are taken into account in an implicit manner in the derivation of the S-N curve from fatigue
test results. Great care must be taken when assessing fatigue strength from tests on small scale specimens instead of large
scale specimens. The scale effect due to weld geometry may have a greater influence on the fatigue strength in small
test specimens than in large test specimens.
Usually, fatigue specimens have been tested with inherent discontinuities, and fatigue strength curves, so derived,
make allowance for tolerable defects. The acceptance criteria for weld discontinuities which will be proposed in the
"Execution of steel structures" standard would guarantee the fitness for purpose of the fatigue strength design rules of
Eurocode 3. In other words, the quality assurance system which covers the fabrication process should ensure that the
fabricated constructional detail complies with the relevant quality requirement specified in the standard for the "Execution
of steel structures".
L1208
When assessing the fatigue strength by the so-called geometric stress range method, according to Clause 9.5.3 of Eurocode
3, the geometric stress concentration as defined by Equation (2.3) must be properly evaluated. The local geometry of the
weld must not be taken into account in the calculation procedure of the design stress range, since the local discontinuity
effect is already introduced in the derivation of the S-N curves. However, when determining the design stress,
secondary stresses arising from joint eccentricity or due to joint stiffness, stress redistribution due to buckling or shear lag,
and effects such as prying action, should be taken into account.
3. DESIGN STRESS SPECTRUM
3.1 Stress History
A fluctuating stress to which a structural detail is subjected may have a stress history of constant amplitude or of
variable amplitude (Figures 2 and 3).

L1208

L1208
For cumulative damage analysis, the stress history is split up into individual cycles and related stress ranges which are
summed up to a distribution of stress ranges. This distribution of stress ranges is called a stress spectrum, see Lecture 12.2.
For a variable amplitude stress history, there is a need to define such a stress cycle associated with a particular stress
range. There are several procedures for cycle counting methods. Eurocode 3 refers to the "reservoir method" which gives
a sound representation of the stress variation characteristic by allowing a proper contribution of each stress range to the
fatigue damage process. This stress range counting method is the most commonly accepted. This counting method is
somewhat similar to the well known "rainflow counting method". The "rainflow" and the "reservoir" counting methods do
not lead to exactly the same result. However, in terms of fatigue damage both counting procedures give very close results,
and for "long" stress histories they give nearly the same result.
3.2 Stress Histogram

L1208
The most common way of representing irregular stress histories for fatigue analysis is to sum up the stress ranges of
equal amplitude, and to obtain a distribution of stress range blocks which is called a stress histogram (or a stress
spectrum) consisting of a number of constant stress range blocks. Each block is characterized by its number of cycles ni
and stress range ∆σi (Figure 4). The ordering of the different blocks does not make any difference since the damage
calculation rules specified in Eurocode 3 refers to the linear cumulative damage rule of Palmgren-Miner. However
for convenience the stress histogram is commonly presented with stress blocks ranked in decreasing order (Figure 5)
which often can be approximated by a two-parameters Weibull distribution such as:

L1208
∆σ = ∆σ0 (2.4)
4. FATIGUE DESIGN CURVES CLASSIFICATION CONCEPT

The classified fatigue design curves adopted in Eurocode 3, are the same as proposed in the "European Convention
L1208
for Construction Steelwork Fatigue Recommendations" [2]. The ECCS Fatigue Recommendations were one of the
first attempts to provide uniformity to the determination of the fatigue strength design curves.
The ECCS Recommendations define a set of equally spaced S-N curves plotted on a log-log scale. Reference to these
curves allows a detail category to be classified (representative) of a particular structural detail which corresponds to a
notch effect or a characteristic geometrical discontinuity). This classification has been determined by a series of fatigue
test results, from which a statistical and a probabilistic evaluation is performed, see Lecture 12.7.
Each individual fatigue strength curve is defined in a conventional way (Figure 6) by a slope constant of m = 3 (slope = -
1/3). The constant amplitude limit is set at 5 million cycles. The slope constant m = 3 was a best fit for a large number
of different structural details tested in fatigue. The figure of 5 million cycles for the constant amplitude fatigue limit is
a compromise between 2 million cycles for "good" details and 10 million cycles for details which create a severe notch
effect. For any stress range of constant amplitude below this limit, no fatigue damage is expected to occur.

L1208
When a detail is subjected to variable stress ranges, which is generally the case in reality, several options may occur:
● If no stress range of variable amplitude exceeds the fatigue limit, no fatigue damage assessment has to be carried out.
● If at least one stress range block exceeds this fatigue limit, a damage calculation has to be performed on the basis of the
linear cumulative damage rule, referred as the Palmgren-Miner's rule.
In this last option, two cases have to be considered for the cumulative damage calculation when some stress ranges are
below the constant amplitude fatigue limit:
● Either the damage calculation is made simply assuming that the S-N curve of slope constant m = 3 is extended beyond
the constant amplitude fatigue limit.
● Or the damage calculation is made assuming that beyond the constant amplitude fatigue limit, the S-N curve of slope
L1208
constant m = 3 is extended by a straight line of slope constant m = 5. The intercept of this straight line with the vertical line
at 10 million cycles provides a cut-off limit. The reason for using an S-N curve with two slopes to cumulative
damage calculations is that it is an approximate way to take into account the progressive reduction of the constant
amplitude fatigue limit as a result of the damage caused by the stress ranges above that limit. In this way, eventually all
stress ranges in the spectrum become damaging. Fracture mechanics confirm this decrease of the slope of the S-N curve in
the long fatigue life range.
In both cases, all cycles below cut-off limit can be ignored when evaluating the fatigue damage. It should be noted
that Eurocode 3 leaves the design engineer free to use either the single-slope S-N curve or the double-slope S-N curve.
Experimental results have indicated that within the range of high numbers of cycles, a change in the slope of the
fatigue strength occur due to a decrease of the crack growth rate. The introduction of a double-slope concept and a
constant amplitude fatigue limit at 5 million cycles is still a matter of controversy. Despite a number of criticisms,
particularly concerning the increase in complexity of the analysis, Eurocode 3 has kept the double-slope curve because this
rule may, for some detail categories, improve the accuracy of the fatigue check. However, this improvement can not
expected for all types of structural detail, and all stress spectra. In some cases, especially for those details with a very
severe notch effect, the double-slope curve may not lead to a conservative result.
Some details, for example, cover-plated beams, have shown a constant amplitude fatigue limit of almost 10 million cycles.
To avoid non-conservative conditions, some details (which generally have severe notch effect) have been classified
in categories slightly lower than their fatigue strength at 2 million cycles would have required. The concept of the
specified ECCS fatigue design curves, which consists of 14 equally spaced curves, a new design fatigue strength curve is
not required for each new structural detail.
The "grid system" of S-N curves has been established as follows. The vertical distance of the ordinate log-scale between
each fatigue strength curves has been obtained by dividing the difference between one order of magnitude into 20 equal
spaces (Figure 7). For example, taking two reference values as ∆σc=100MPa and ∆σc = 1000 MPa at 2 million cycles,
the calculation of the spacing is determined from the following:

L1208
The general S-N curve equation may be written as:
log N = log a - 3 log ∆σ (4.1)
so with ∆σc = 100 MPa (log 2 000 000 = 6,30103)
log a = 6,30103 + 3 log 100 = 12,301 (4.2)
and for ∆σc = 1000 MPa
log a = 6,30103 + 3 log 1000 = 15,301 (4.3)

L1208
The spacing between two contiguous curves represents
∆ log a = (15,301 - 12,301)/20 = 0,15 (4.4)
So starting from the reference values of ∆σc = 100 MPa, with log a = 12,301, the subsequent values of ∆σc may be
obtained from Equation (4.1) as given in Table 2.
Table 2 Characteristic fatigue strength at 2 million cycles
log a ∆σ c (rounded value)
... ...
12,601 125
12,451 112
12,301 100
12,151 90
12,001 80
... ...
Table 2 shows that the number defining the characteristic fatigue strength at 2 million cycles, used as a detail
category identification, is a rounded value.
5. FATIGUE TEST RESULTS

Generally fatigue strength curves are evaluated from series of fatigue tests performed on specimens which typically
reproduce the detail to be studied. The fatigue strength curves (S-N curves) can be most accurately determined when a group
of fatigue specimens are tested at different stress range levels. However, there is no recognized standard method for
fatigue testing and design experiments. As a result, the fatigue test data found in the literature are somewhat non-homogeneous.
L1208
It is clear that, under such circumstances, a review of existing fatigue data and their statistical evaluation, even when limited
to the same detail category, may lead to large discrepancies in the results. Such differences may be attributed, not only to
the fatigue testing practice in each laboratory, but also to the detailed fabrication procedure and quality achieved in
the preparation of the specimens. Discontinuities play a major role in fatigue strength, particularly for welded details
and careful consideration must be given to the weld quality which may considerably affect the variation in fatigue strength.
Fatigue specimens are fabricated with certain inherent discontinuities which are not fully known or may not be
properly evaluated in laboratory reports. In such cases, it is generally rather difficult to appreciate if the fabrication quality
of specimens is representative of current workshop practice. Moreover, when performing a statistical analysis on fatigue
test data from different origins, a rather large variation of fatigue strength may result. Careful attention must be paid to
the homogeneity of the fatigue resistance.
These considerations were borne in mind during the preparation of Eurocode 3. The fatigue test results which were
statistically analyzed and then classified according to the procedure described fulfil certain requirements:
● Priority was given to test results from full size specimens compared to small scale specimens simulating the same
structural detail. For a comparable quality of weldments, smaller welded test specimens exhibit a higher fatigue strength (and
a higher constant slope) than full size test specimens. This difference in fatigue behaviour is mainly due to the fact that full
size specimens lock in more residual welding stresses than small size specimens do. This difference is residual
stress magnitude is the result of variations in mechanical constraints during welding.
● In welded specimens the stress range (∆σ) and the number of cycles to failure (N) were considered as the main
parameter controlling the fatigue strength curve.
● A minimum of 12 fatigue test results were required to reach a certain significance level and to lead statistically to a
confident interpretation of the test results.
6. CUMULATIVE DAMAGE RULE, EQUIVALENT STRESS RANGE CONCEPT
6.1 Palmgren-Miner Summation
In real life, structural elements are subjected to varying fatigue loads, and not to constant amplitude fatigue loadings.
Eurocode 3 refers to the Palmgren-Miner summation to evaluate the cumulative damage (Figure 8). This rule is based on
the assumption that the total damage accumulated by a structural element under varying stress ranges, is obtained by the
linear summation of the damage of each individual stress range, i.e:

L1208
D= (6.1)
where:
ni is the number of cycles of constant amplitude stress ranges ∆σi
Ni is the total number of cycles to failure under constant amplitude stress range ∆σi.

L1208
The structural element is designed safely against fatigue if:
D ≤ 1 (6.2)
No account of the damage is taken for any varying stress ranges falling below the cut-off limit.
6.2 Equivalent Stress Range
The concept of equivalent stress range has been introduced in the ECCS Recommendations [2] and is also referred to
in Eurocode 3. The definition of the equivalent stress range is conventional. It can be said that the equivalent stress
range concept is simpler than a direct Palmgren-Miner summation when the S-N curve is of unique slope (-1/m).
The expression is, in this case, quite simple and the recalculation of the damage for each S-N curve is therefore avoided:
∆σequ = (6.3)
with m = 3 or m = 5 as appropriate.
The equivalent stress range ∆σequ depends only on the fatigue load spectrum and the slope constant m. In such a case,
knowing ∆σequ evaluated according to Equation (6.3), it is easy to choose directly a detail category which will have
an adequate fatigue resistance.
6.3 Equivalent Stress Range for an S-N Curve with a double Slopes Constant
When the basic S-N curve is of double slope, the expression of the equivalent stress range becomes more unwieldy.
The practicability of its application is questionable, except if using the limit state function as defined by the following equation:
γf . ∆σequ ≤ ∆σRd / γf (6.3)
The derivation of ∆σequ when the S-N curve has a double slope is given below:
a. Damage calculation for a double slope S-N curve when the stress range is below and above DsD
L1208
Suppose there are some stress range blocks where the range is below the value of ∆σD and some above ∆σD (Figure 9); it
is assumed that the proper partial safety coefficients have introduced in ∆σi and ∆σj.
⋅ block i when ∆σi > ∆σD
⋅ block j when ∆σj > ∆σD
From the definition the damage is given by:

L1208
D= (6.5)
taking into account the S-N curve slope for each set of stress range blocks:
D= (6.6)
Equation (6.6) may be written as:
D= (6.7)
From Figure 9:
ND = a ∆σD-3 = b ∆σD-5
ND corresponds to the fatigue limit of the S-N curve at 5 million cycles.
a/b = 1/∆σD2 (6.8)
Hence:
D= (6.9)
where:
Q = Σ ni ∆σi3 + Σ nj ∆σj3 (∆σj /∆σD)2

L1208
The damage may be calculated using either Equation (6.5) or Equation (6.9) directly.
b. Calculation of the equivalent stress range Dsequ for a double slope S-N curve
In this particular case, a decision must be made as to which slope the definition of ∆σequ refers. The choice of a slope
constant of 3 or 5 makes absolutely no difference to the final result of the calculation of ∆σequ when the load
spectrum straddles both parts of the double slope S-N curve. The calculation of the equivalent stress range ∆σequ is
derived below from a slope constant of m = 3 of the double slope S-N curve (noted as ∆σequ.3). The same demonstration
holds for a slope constant of m = 5. By definition:
D= (6.10)
where:
Nequ is the equivalent number of cycles at failure under the equivalent stress range ∆σequ
N is equal to Σ ni + Σ nj
Evaluating Nequ on the basis of the S-N curve of slope constant m=3:
D= (6.11)
by equating Equations (6.6) and (6.11), the damage is:
D= (6.12)

L1208
then Equations (6.11) and (6.12) give:
∆σequ3 = (6.13)
therefore:
∆σequ.3 = (6.14)
∆σRd.3 is defined as the fatigue resistance corresponding to ∆σequ.3 on the S-N curve of constant slope m = 3.
∆σRd.3 = ∆σD (ND / N)1/3 (6.15)
From Equations (6.14) and (6.15):
= = (6.16)
This expression is equal to the damage as given by Equation (6.9):
= (6.17)
Remarks:
1. Both fatigue assessment formats, the Palmgren-Miner summation, and the equivalent stress range concept, are
rigorously equivalent in terms of damage.
2. Reference in the above demonstration is made to DsD and ND corresponding to the "knee" point of the double slope S-N
L1208
curve. Since the S-N curve is written as:
N (DsRd)m = a = constant
another reference value may be taken, for example:
DsD3 ND = DsC3 NC = constant
DsC, being the stress range at NC = 2 million cycles.
3. Special care must be taken when calculating Dsequ.3 and DsRd.3: both expressions must be evaluated with the same
slope constant.
4. The values of Dsequ.3 and DsRd.3 are clearly different and may not be used indiscriminately when plotting fatigue test results
on a log Ds versus log N diagram. Generally when fatigue tests have been performed under variable stress range
amplitude, the equivalent stress range as given by Equation (6.3) has been used to plot the experimental results.
7. RESIDUAL STRESS EFFECT

Welded joints in structural details contain tensile residual stresses in the vicinity of the weld bead. Figure 10 shows that
their magnitude may be as high as the yield stress of the weldment metal. Figure 10 also shows high tensile residual
stresses near the edges which were flame-cut.

L1208
It is well established that the presence of residual stresses of such magnitude makes the fatigue strength of a welded
joint independent of the applied load ratio, and dependent only on the applied stress range. The full significance of the
tensile residual stresses due to welding was not appreciated originally, since many fatigue test results were obtained
from welded specimens which were too small to retain the major part of the welding residual stresses such as would occur
in large structural components.
It is evident that tensile stresses play a significant role in the propagation of a crack, since they tend to act as a opening
mode due to tensile stresses applied at the crack lips. The crack propagation rate is likely to be reduced, when the crack
grows into a zone of compression residual stress.
L1208
It is in recognition of this physical crack propagation behaviour that the R ratio (R = σmin/σmax) has been considered
in Eurocode 3 Chapter 9 for non-welded or stress relieved details. Figure 11 shows the comparison between fatigue test
results and two "bonus factor" rules which were studied when drafting Chapter 9. The rule which was finally selected takes
into account of the effect of compressive stress ranges by multiplying the part of the stress range in compression by a factor
of 0,6. The validity of this rule has been compared with fatigue test results performed on non-load carrying weld
cruciform joints for various R ratios ranging from -3,0 to 0,8. These fatigue tests were carried out on small specimens.

L1208
● Fatigue behaviour of structural details is governed by many factors which are by nature random.
● The present state of knowledge provides sufficient information for reasonably comprehensive and safe fatigue design rules. It
is recognized that the extreme life region of the fatigue strength curve is not well established. The current availability test
data in this region are very sparse.
● The quality of fatigue design is closely related to the attention given to structural details, i.e. not only to the geometrical
shape and the dimensions, but also to the quality of fabrication and the acceptable defects, etc.
● In carrying out the fatigue assessment of structures, the designer must, first, carry out a proper fatigue load analysis in order
to evaluate correctly the stress resultants acting on details.
● The designer must then select the proper fatigue strength curve related to each of these details.
● Both the analysis and curve selection require skill in recognition and interpretation of the main design factors affecting
fatigue resistance.
9. REFERENCES
[1] Eurocode 3: "Design of Steel Structures": ENV1993-1-1: Part 1.1, General rules and rules for buildings, CEN, 1993.
[2] European Convention for Constructional Steelwork: Recommendations for the Fatigue Design of Steel Structures.
ECCS Publication 43, 1985.

ESDEP WG 12
FATIGUE
Lecture 12.9: Eurocode 3 Classification of Constructional Details

OBJECTIVE/SCOPE:
To assist with an understanding of the proper detail category and of the importance of detail execution. To present an
insight into the significance of details from the study of individual cases.
PREREQUISITES
None.
RELATED LECTURES
Lecture 12.8 Basic Fatigue Design Concepts in Eurocode 3
SUMMARY
Based on Chapter 9 of Eurocode 3, Part 1, this Lecture presents an examination of typical structural details in an
imaginary bridge structure. This enables a designer to compare various details when designing a structure, and to be aware
of specific fabrication requirements. It also enables the designer to decide the proper category of details for calculations
of fatigue strength.
1. INTRODUCTION
In Lecture 12.1 the basic concept of classifying structural details into categories depending on their fatigue resistance

is introduced. Each category is defined by the design constant stress range which can be endured with adequate reliability for
2 × 106 cycles (e.g. a category 112 detail would endure 2 × 106 cycles of 112 N/mm² with an adequate degree of
reliability). For each such category, fatigue strength curves (commonly referred to as "S-N" curves) are presented in Figs.
9.6.1, 9.6.2, 9.6.3 and 9.7.1 of Eurocode 3 Part 1. These curves provide a complete relationship between the stress range
and endurance for each category.
A large (but necessarily limited) selection of structural details is illustrated in Chapter 9 (Section 9.8, Tables 9.8.1 to 9.8.7)
of Eurocode 3 Part 1, together with the categories (determined from a large number of test results ) into which the details
fit. The first task facing a designer checking a structure for fatigue is therefore the determination of the appropriate
categories for the details of the structure. This may appear a comparatively trivial task, but in practice a civil
engineering structure will contain a large number of structural details which may be prone to fatigue cracking; problems
in allocating appropriate categories can arise from several sources, the most important of which are:
a. The actual details may not correspond exactly to any of those described in Eurocode 3 Part 1.
b. The detailed geometry, stress distribution and direction, workmanship, etc. may alter the basic category.
In order to assist a designer in selecting the correct detail category, this lecture presents a case study of a particular
civil engineering structure, and shows how the details can be classified.
2. GENERAL PRESENTATION OF THE CASE STUDY

The case study comprises an imaginary steel bridge, as shown in an exploded isometric view in Figure 1. In order to
illustrate as many different details as possible, two forms of construction are shown with a box girder on the left hand side
and a braced plate girder on the right hand side. Furthermore, there are differences between the two sides in
bearing arrangement, connection of cross girders, etc. It is not suggested that these arrangements, nor even some of the
details, are necessarily representative of good design practice; they are presented for the purpose of illustrating a point
of discussion.


This imaginary structure is then subdivided as shown in Figure 1 into several close-up details in Figures 2 - 7, which in
some cases are further subdivided where necessary for clarity. The detailed figures indicate the direction of principal stress,
and the potential crack location and direction; the category into which the detail should be classified is shown as a number in
a circle beside the detail. Occasionally the slope of the S-N curve departs from the "standard" value of 3; this is indicated
where "m=.." is noted beside the detail category.
In a number of instances, where indicated by a small letter inside a square, additional notes are required to enlarge on
some important factors which may affect the classification. This may happen where some guidance is needed in respect of
the calculation of the design stress or of the fabrication procedure or requirements. Sometimes more than one form of
cracking may occur at a single site, or more than one factor may contribute to cracking. Such matters are also covered,
where relevant, by notes.
Where a detail in the case study does not correspond closely to a specified detail in Chapter 9 of Eurocode 3 Part 1,
the category quoted is based on that specified in other codes or derived from tests known to the authors of this lecture;
when this knowledge has been used it is described in a note. It is also expected that the Tables of details will be extended
or modified for steel bridges when Eurocode 3 Part 2 is published in due course, and in a few cases reference is made to
what may appear there. Furthermore, even when a detail is ostensibly covered by Chapter 9, it is sometimes necessary to
take into account particular design aspects or fabrication procedures when determining the category. Such
considerations (many of which are outside the scope of this lecture, but are covered in other lectures) are:
a. Design Stress Evaluation
The importance of knowing the direction of the principal stress fluctuation cannot be over-emphasised; in most cases this
is straightforward, but sometimes it is made more difficult by the uncertainty of prediction of exactly where the crack
will occur and in what direction it may propagate. Since the stresses to be used must be based on elastic calculations,
account must be taken of secondary stresses which in complex details may be difficult to quantify.
b. The Quality of the Preparation of a Joint
The fit-up of a joint, and the method of terminating a butt weld (extensions or run-off plates) can all affect the
category, especially for site welds.
c. The Accessibility of a Location for Welding
Welds with difficult access are frequently of lesser quality and are more prone to defects and hence fatigue than those
which are easily accessible.
d. Proper specification of parent metal and welding consumables.
e. Operating Procedure
For example, butt welds without backing flats are of a better category than those with, provided that full penetration can
be obtained. There are differences between permanent and temporary backing flats.
f. The Profile and Surface Finish of the Weld
Welds with excessive "reinforcement" or rough surface generally perform less well in fatigue than if they are ground level
and smooth.
g. The Acceptance Criteria for Weld Quality
In order to achieve the category in Chapter 9 of Eurocode 3 Part 1 certain minimum standards of quality in regard to
defect shape, location, type and size must be attained.
h. Improvement Techniques for Welded Joints
These include grinding, peening, gas tungsten arc remelting, etc. They are intended to improve the category above that
shown in Chapter 9, and are described in detail in Lecture 12.5.
j. Weld Defect Assessment and Repair
If the defects in a weld are greater than are permitted for a particular category, the weld may, rather than being rejected,
either be downgraded (if the fluctuations in stresses are low) or repaired. Repair requires special care in specification
and execution; not infrequently a repaired weld is worse than the original weld. Whatever repair procedure is used, the
final category should be determined with caution.
3. NOTES ON DETAILED FIGURES 2 - 7 OF THE CASE STUDY

FIGURE 2


a. This detail is not given explicitly in Chapter 9; it should generally be avoided (it is usually better, and probably easier,
to detail the longitudinal stiffeners passing through "mouseholes" in the transverse stiffeners). The nearest detail in Chapter 9
is shown under cruciform joints, where root cracking of the weld should be checked as category 36*, and of the plate from
the weld toe as shown as category 71. The category shown of 50* results from other work.
b. The category of 112 shown is the "standard" one for automatic fillet welding carried out from both sides, but containing
stop-start positions (Table 9.8.2 (3) or (4)). If it contained no stop-start positions it could be upgraded to category 125, or
even 140 if a specialist inspection shows that the welds are free from significant flaws; conversely, if the fillet were
placed manually, it would be downgraded to category 100. It is likely that Eurocode 3 Part 2 will exclude the higher
categories of 125 and 140 for this detail since the necessary quality of workmanship is impractical for bridge structures.
c. Stresses should be calculated using the gross section for slip resistant connections, or the net section for all other
connections (Table 9.8.1 (6) or (7)). The effects of eccentricity in the connection should be taken into account when
calculating the stresses in a single-sided connection.
d. This detail (at the termination of a longitudinal stiffener) may be treated for cracking in the main plate as a long
(>100m) longitudinal attachment within the width of a plate with a non-load carrying weld (Table 9.8.4 (1)). Eurocode 3 Part
2 will probably add the requirement that the weld should be carried round the end of the stiffener. Note that the weld may
also require checking in shear, with the stress range calculated from the weld throat area.
e. The gusset plate attached as shown to the leg of the angle may be treated as a cover plate wider than the flange (with the
leg of the angle representing the flange) (Table 9.8.5 (5)). Provided all plate thicknesses are 20mm or less, this is category
50* for cracking in the angle; this reduces to 36* if thicknesses exceed 20mm. The weld should be continued down the leg
of the angle, and ground to remove undercut if necessary.
FIGURE 2a

a & b These details show how cracks may grow in different directions in an area of complex geometry and stress
distribution. Considerations are similar to Figure 2, note e, but the bearing plate > 20mm thick and so the category for
plate cracking is reduced to 36* (Table 9.8.5 (5)).
c. See Figure 2, note b; as the weld to the bearing plate will almost certainly be placed manually, the lower category of 100
is used (Table 9.8.2 (5) or (6).
d. The category of the plate edge depends on the method of production; if it is a rolled flat the category could be increased
to 160, or if machine flame cut with subsequent machining to 140. The indicated category of 125 is for a machine flame
cut edge without subsequent machining, although Eurocode 3 Part 2 will probably specify the quality of the cut edges
(Table 9.8.1 (5)). It should contain no repairs by weld infill.
e. As for Figure 2, note b.
f. As for Figure 2, note c.
g. The category of this weld has been reduced from the 71 or 80 shown for web stiffeners (Table 9.8.4 (4)) since the stiffener

is shown flush with the edge of the plate.
FIGURE 3

a. This is a rather poor detail, since because of the taper in the flange a good fit cannot be guaranteed above the backing
flat; hence the low category of 50 (Table 9.8.3 (11)).
b. At the top of the butt weld, provided the "reinforcement" does not exceed 0.1 times the width of the weld bead, the
category is 90 (Table 9.8.3 (4)); up to 0.2 it would be 80 (Table 9.8.3 (7)). Run off pieces should also be used. (If the weld
is ground flush the category could be 125 or higher). Normally there would be little point in making the category of the
top surface much higher than that of the bottom, unless the eccentricity arising from the change of plate thickness results in
a higher stress range at the top.
c. The comparatively high category of this weld is only true for a gusset plate with a generous radius as drawn ( > 150mm,
and also > (width of main plate)/3) (Table 9.8.4 (2)). The radius has to be formed by initial machining or gas cutting,
with subsequent grinding of the weld area parallel to the direction of stress. If the radius < (width of main plate)/6 the
category falls to 45*, and between the two limits above to 71.
d. This is a straightforward application of the detail of Table 9.8.5 (4). It should be noted that the weld should be held
back 10mm from the end of the gusset. As it is a single sided connection, the effects of eccentricity should be considered.
e. This is again a straightforward application, this time of Table 9.8.5 (3). The calculation of the stress in the main
plate requires care, and in a single sided application as shown may have to allow for eccentricity.
f. This is a standard "bad" detail for increasing the area of a plate and the category is given in Table 9.8.5 (5). The plates in
the example are not thicker than 20mm so the category is 50*; above this thickness the category is reduced to 36*. Contrary
to what may be thought, tapering the cover plate as shown, or rounding its end, does not, in itself, improve the detail;
however, a special detail with tapering welds and chamfered cover plates, being developed by German Railways, may raise
the category to 80. This may appear in Eurocode 3 Part 2.
g. This is a two sided butt weld, with the surface ground flush (Table 9.8.3 (1)). Significant quality control and inspection
is required to permit the use of this high category.
h. As for Figure 2, note d.
FIGURE 4

a. This is a butt weld, without backing flat and ground flush, between plates of different thickness (Table 9.8.3 (3)).
Provided the difference in thickness is taken up by tapering the thicker member with a slope of not greater than 1:4, this
still qualifies as a category 112 weld.
b. As Figure 3, note g.
c. As Figure 3, note g, but it is a single sided weld without backing flat and because very high quality of execution
and inspection is specified, the category can be raised to 125 (Table 9.8.3 (1)).
d. As for Figure 2, note c, but as the connection is double sided no eccentricity occurs.

FIGURE 4a

a. This is the standard detail for fillet welds in shear (Table 9.8.5 (6)). The stress range should be calculated from the
weld throat area.
b. As for Figure 2, note c, but as the connection is double sided no eccentricity occurs. Note that crack begins from edge
of washer.
c. As for Figure 2, note c, but as the connection is double sided no eccentricity occurs. Note carefully that direction of crack
is related to direction of stress.
FIGURE 4b

a & b Are both as for Figure 2, note c, but note that the direction of stress, and hence the direction of cracking, may differ
from hole to hole.
c. As for Figure 4a, note a.
d. This is the standard detail of Table 9.8.4 (4) (left hand diagram), provided the thickness of the stiffener does not
exceed 12mm. (If it does exceed 12mm, the category is reduced to 71). Note that the stiffener should terminate at least
10mm above the flange, and the weld should be returned round the bottom of the stiffener. Some recent evidence suggests
that out-of-plane flexure of the web plate at the termination of the stiffener could degrade this detail, but research continues
on it.
FIGURE 5

a. As for Figure 4a, note a. Note crack propagating across direction of principal tensile stress.
b. This is the standard detail for the welding of diaphragms in box girders to the webs and flanges, where the
diaphragm thickness is not greater than 12 mm (Table 9.8.4 (5)). If the thickness were greater the category would be reduced
to 71.
c. This is the standard detail for corner welds of box girders (Table 9.8.2(6)). Note that a good fit between flange and web
is essential, so that a one sided weld can be placed without blow through. In certain forms of construction and loading this
weld is also prone to bending about its longitudinal axis due either to local traffic loading or distortional effects in the
box girder. It is virtually impossible to give a category for such effects, and considerable experience is necessary.
d. As for Figure 2a, note d.
e. See Figure 2, note b. As the weld will be placed manually, it is category 100 (Table 9.8.2 (5)).
FIGURE 5a


a. This weld is being stressed by flexure of the web plate and is not readily classifiable from the details in Eurocode 3 Part 1.
It is similar, however, to the long attachment, Table 9.8.4 (1), and it is probably safe to use that category (50*).
b. As for Figure 2, note c.
c. See Figure 3, note c. Because the main plate (the flange of the box girder) is wide, the radius of the gusset plate is
more severe than it appears and hence the weld falls into the lowest category, for this detail, of 45*.
d, e & f These welds are very difficult to categorise and are not covered explicitly in Eurocode 3 Part 1. Furthermore,
although the direction of stress is shown by arrows on the detail, the welds may also be subjected to flexural effects in the
web and flange. Considerable caution should therefore be used in attempting to classify them.
Detail d can be thought of as an incomplete penetration butt weld placed from one side only (Table 9.8.3(8)), and
hence classified as category 36*.
Details e and f are analogous to the cruciform detail, Table 9.8.5 (2), and so are category 36* as far as cracking from the root
is concerned. Cracking in the parent plate from the toe of the weld may be checked at the higher category of 71 in the
gusset plate (detail e, Table 9.8.5 (1)) or 90 in the flange (detail f, Table 9.8.3 (4), provided the special requirements in the
table are met).
FIGURE 5b


a. As this will be a machined plate, the high category of 140 may be used (Table 9.8.1 (4)). However, as there is a re-
entrant corner, stress concentrations will occur and the magnified stresses should be used in making the check.
b. This is similar to the category at the end of lengths of intermittent fillet weld where the gap is less than 2.5 times the
weld length (Table 9.8.2(8)). Hence the category may be taken as 80.
c. As for Figure 5, note b.
d. As for Figure 4a, note a. Note crack propagating across direction of principal tensile stress.
FIGURE 6


a. This detail is not classified in Eurocode 3 Part 1. It is clearly of a very low category and should not be used if the stress
range is significant. It would appear appropriate to classify it as the lowest category available, 36*.
b. The effect of the shear connectors on the base plate is to cause a category 80 detail (Table 9,8.4 (6)).
c. The weld connecting the shear studs is classified in Table 9.8.5 (8) with the shear stress calculated on the nominal
cross section of the stud. Further information on fatigue of studs is available in Eurocode 4.
d. As for Figure 4a, note a.
FIGURE 7

a. This detail represents a butt weld on a permanent backing flat, where the backing flat fillet weld terminates closer
than 10mm from the plate edge (Table 9.8.3 (11)).
b. As for Figure 2, note b.
c. As for Figure 2, note c.
d. This connection is effectively a welded transverse attachment with a non-load carrying weld (Table 9.8.4(3)). However,
the weld terminates at the plate edge, and so the detail is a worse category than in the table. Category 50 appears appropriate.
It should be pointed out from this how an apparently minor, non-structural, detail can seriously degrade the fatigue capacity
of the structure. If it has to be used, it should be positioned in an area of low stress fluctuation.
FIGURE 7a

a. These welds are similar to those shown on Table 9.8.5 (1) for cracking in the parent plate from the toe of the weld
in cruciform joints.
b. This detail is effectively a gusset with zero plan radius (Table 9.8.4 (2)) and so falls into category 45*.
FIGURE 7b


a. This is a detail which is not explicitly classified in Eurocode 3 Part 1. It is close to the cruciform detail (Table 9.8.5 (2))
but probably rather less severe. An appropriate category is 50*.
b. These welds are all effectively the worst possible cruciform details (Table 9.8.3 (2)). Note that if the welds are made
of sufficiently large section to avoid root cracking there are other mechanisms which may govern.
FIGURE 7c

a. As for Figure 4a, note a. Note crack propagating across direction of principal tensile stress.
b. These welds are similar to those shown on Table 9.8.5 (1) for cracking in the parent plate from the toe of the weld
in cruciform joints.
c. This weld is likely to be placed manually - see comments at note b for Figure 2.
d. As for Figure 2a, note d.
e. This detail is intended to represent what happens with a bolt in tension (Table 9.8.1 (8)) through an endplate. The
category for the bolt itself is the low one of 36*, and the stress in tension in it should be calculated using its stress
area. Account should also be taken of any prying action resulting from flexing of the endplate; it should be noted, however,
that the stress range in the bolt may be reduced substantially by appropriate preloading. The crack position in the
endplate shown on Figure 7c should also be checked under the flexural stresses resulting from prying action.
FIGURE 7d

a. This is a straightforward instance of the detail for the ends of a continuous weld at a cope hole (Table 9.8.2 (9)).
b. This detail is a straightforward instance of the end of an intermittent fillet weld. Note that where it occurs close to (but
not actually at) a cope hole, it permits use of the higher category of 80, compared with detail a above where terminating
the weld actually at the cope hole requires use of category 71.
c. This detail is not explicitly covered in Eurocode 3 Part 1. The weld is non-load carrying, and hence there are
some similarities with the detail shown in Table 9.8.4 (3). However, the "transverse attachment" is a load carrying plate,
hence the detail is not fully appropriate. Tests have indicated a somewhat lower category (50) is reasonable.
d. This detail is equivalent to the standard one for cracking in the main plate at the end of a fillet welded lap joint (Table
9.8.5 (3)). Note the specified rule for the calculation of the stress in the main plate.
e. This detail is equivalent to the standard one for cracking in the lap plates in a fillet welded lap joint (Table 9.8.5 (4)).
Note that the weld termination should be held back at least 10mm from the plate edge, and that shear cracking in the
weld should also be checked according to Table 9.8.5 (7).
f. As for Figure 3, detail g.
g. Whilst this detail belongs in the relatively high category of 140 for a machine gas cut edge with all edge
discontinuities removed (Table 9.8.1(4)), the stresses should be calculated using the appropriate stress concentration factor
for the radius which is used.
h. This is the standard category for web stiffeners where the thickness of the stiffener does not exceed 12mm and the welds
do not come within 10mm of a plate edge (Table 9.8.4 (4) and (5)).

i. Whilst this detail is not explicitly covered in Eurocode 3 Part 1, it shows a number of similarities to the "wide cover
plate" detail of Table 9.8.5(5)). It is clear that a low category is appropriate, and 45* is proposed.
● The classification for fatigue of all the details of a practical structure can cause considerable problems, even to an
experienced designer. It is hoped that the typical case study presented in this lecture will help designers in this task,
particularly in cases where it is not immediately obvious into which category a particular detail falls, or where
specific requirements are necessary to ensure compliance with a category.
● It is not suggested that all critical details need a full fatigue calculation; frequently low category details are very lowly
stressed and hence of no importance. However, the classification gives a designer some insight into which details should
be avoided if stress ranges are high or, if unavoidable, gives a means of calculating the endurance.
● Finally, it is worth pointing out that work on classifying details is far from complete. Some of those given in Eurocode 3 Part
1 may well be reclassified (although probably not by more than one category up or down) and some may be deleted,
or additional details added, when Eurocode 3 Part 2 is published. A designer must, therefore, keep abreast of
latest developments.
1. Eurocode 3: "Design of Steel Structures" ENV 1993-1-1: Part 1.1, General Rules and Rules for Buildings, CEN, 1992.

ESDEP WG 12
FATIGUE
Lecture 12.10: Basics of Fracture

Mechanics
OBJECTIVE/SCOPE:
To introduce the basic concepts of linear elastic fracture mechanics.
PREREQUISITES
None.
RELATED LECTURES
Lecture 12.11: Stress Analysis of Cracked Bodies
Lecture 12.15: Fracture Mechanics Applied to Fitness for Purpose
SUMMARY
The lecture describes the origins of fracture mechanics treatments based on strain energy concepts and the link to
modern treatments based on crack tip stress analysis and the stress intensity factor. The effects of finite crack and
component geometry are described together with the effects of small scale yielding and plasticity. The lecture concludes with
a brief statement of the significance of the stress intensity factor.
1. INTRODUCTION
Standard design methods for engineering structures and components under static loading are usually based on avoiding
failure by yielding/plastic collapse or buckling. The derivation of loading resistance is based on conventional solid
mechanics theories of stress analysis. Conventional design procedures against fatigue failure are based on experimental
results for particular geometric details and materials. None of these procedures are capable of allowing for the effects of
severe stress concentrations or crack-like flaws. The presence of such flaws is more or less inevitable to some extent
in practical fabrications.
The modes of failure which are most affected by the presence of crack-like flaws are fracture and fatigue. The study of
the effects of cracks on local stress and strain fields in the neighbourhood of the crack tip and the consequent effect on failure
is the subject of fracture mechanics. The application of fracture mechanics methods allows analyses to be carried out to
predict the effects of flaws on failure in a wide range of geometries to give complementary information to that obtained
from experimental testing. For fatigue of welded structures the performance is significantly affected by the tiny flaws
inherent to welding. Fracture mechanics analyses can be very helpful in predicting the effects of geometrical variations
on basic fatigue behaviour.
Fracture mechanics methods are particularly useful in making fitness for purpose assessments of the effects of flaws, and
for helping to decide on inspection procedures for fabricated structures and acceptance levels for any flaws which may
be found during such inspections.

2. BACKGROUND TO MODERN FRACTURE MECHANICS

The origins of modern fracture mechanics go back to the work of A A Griffith [1] in 1920 investigating the strength of
glass. Griffith used the linear elastic stress analysis solution for the stresses around an elliptical hole in a plate subject
to uniform tension. He allowed the ellipse to degenerate to a crack and derived an expression for the energy released when
an element of material at the end of the crack fractured to give incremental extension of the crack. He then suggested that, if
the energy released was greater than the surface tension or cohesive force energy which had been holding the element
together, then the situation was unstable, and continued unstable crack extension (i.e. fracture) would occur.
Griffith's expression for the change in strain energy from a plate with no crack to a plate with a crack length of 2a was:
U = -σ2π2a2/E (1)
His expression for the strain energy release rate (now known as crack extension force), for a crack of length 2a in an
infinite plate of unit thickness under uniform tension was given by:
(2)
Griffith suggested that an existing crack would propagate unstably if the strain energy release rate, G, exceeded the
energy required to create new fracture surfaces, 2γ da, for crack growth da at each end of the crack, where γ is the
surface tension for glass. Hence he suggested that fracture would occur when:
σ2πa/E ≥ 2γ (3)
i.e. at a critical value of the strain energy release rate Gc. Using this approach Griffith was able to explain that the reason
that the observed strength of glass was much lower than theoretical estimates linked to the modulus was due to the presence
of inherent tiny crack-like flaws in the material.
Irwin [2], and Orowan [3,4], extended original concepts of energy to create new surfaces, to include work of
plastic deformation prior to fracture, provided the disturbance to the overall elastic stress field was small.

Irwin, used classical stress analysis methods (see Lecture 12.12) to investigate the detailed stress distributions near to the
crack tip. Based on the complex stress function approach of Westergaard, Irwin showed that the elastic stress field in
the neighbourhood of the crack tip (see Figure 1) was given by:
σx = (4)
σy = (5)
τxy = (6)
It should be noted that these stress distributions are inversely proportional to the square root of distance from the crack tip.
At the crack tip itself, (r = 0), the stress distributions predict infinite stresses, but this is an idealised situation, known as a
stress singularity, resulting from the assumption of elastic behaviour without any limiting failure criterion. On the plane of
the crack, (θ = 0, y = 0) the shear stress is zero and the direct stress components are given by:
σx = σy = (7)
The term σ is dependent only on the applied stress and crack size, and defines the gradient of stress with inverse
square root of distance away from the singularity at the crack tip. The term σ was defined by Irwin as the stress
intensity factor and given the symbol K. It should be noted that K is not a stress concentration factor, and that K
has dimensions and units of stress x . Although the definition of stress intensity factor as K=σ is the
one generally used for the case of a central crack in an infinite plate subject to remote tension, there are some papers in
the literature where an alternative definition has been adopted without the π, namely K=σ , and care must be taken
to check which definition is being used in any particular case. In these notes the Irwin definition of K = σ is
used throughout.
It is very important to recognise that the stress singularity and stress intensity factor which dominate the stress field at the
crack tip are features of tension loading which arise because tension forces cannot be transferred across the free surfaces of
the crack and are redistributed around the ends of the crack in a non-uniform manner. When compression loading is applied
to the cracked plate, if the crack surfaces are in contact, forces can be transmitted directly through the crack so that there is
no requirement for redistribution and hence no stress singularity and the stress intensity factor is zero. This has
important consequences when fatigue loading is applied to a cracked component.
Irwin showed that the stress intensity factor K was directly related to Griffith's crack extension force (or strain energy
release rate) by the following expressions:
K2 = EG (plane stress) (8)
K2 = EG/(1 - ν2) (plane strain) (9)
3. EFFECTS OF MODE OF LOADING

The description of the stress intensity factor given above is based on the simple case of an infinite plate with a central crack
of length 2a subject to remote tension stress. This mode of loading is known as Mode 1 and the stress intensity factor
resulting from this loading is strictly K1. There are two other forms of loading which produce a similar effect of a
stress singularity because forces cannot be transmitted across the free surfaces of a crack. These forms are shear

loadings parallel to the crack surfaces either in the plane of the plate, also known as edge sliding, (Mode II stress
intensity factor KII), or perpendicular to the plane of the plate, also known as skew sliding or antiplane strain, (Mode III
stress intensity factor KIII). These three different forms of loading are shown in Figure 2. In practice in structural
components there may be combinations of the different modes to consider.
Another important case is that of a crack subject to internal pressure loading within the crack. For the notional case of
a through-thickness crack in an infinite plate subject to internal pressure p, the stress intensity factor is given by:
K=p (10)
4. EFFECTS OF CRACK GEOMETRY

In the above considerations the crack has been a complete separation throughout the thickness of the plate and its geometry
has been defined by the crack length 2a. In practice cracks in structural components may occur in a number of different
forms. These forms are conveniently summarised for fracture mechanics analysis purposes in three categories, namely,
through-thickness, part-thickness surface breaking, and part-thickness embedded cracks. A case of special importance is that
of an elliptical crack embedded in an infinite body and subject to remote tension stress σ as shown in Figure 3.

Irwin obtained an analytical solution for the stress distribution in the neighbourhood of the crack and found that a
stress singularity occurred all round the perimeter of the crack front characterised by the stress intensity factor, but
the magnitude of the stress intensity factor varied around the crack front. Irwin's solution for the variation of K around
the crack was as follows:
(11)
where a, c, φ, are as shown in Figure 3, and E(φ) is the elliptical integral:
E(φ) = (12)
The maximum value of the stress intensity factor occurs at the ends of the minor axis for this solution under uniform
tension loading. The ratio of the height of the crack (2a) to the length of the crack (2c) is known as the aspect ratio. As this
ratio decreases the solution for the elliptical embedded crack tends to a value K=σ , i.e. the same expression as for
the central through-thickness crack of length 2a but with the elliptical crack having a height of 2a. Thus, for an embedded
crack of this shape under tension loading, the dimension of the crack which has the greatest effect on the stress intensity
factor in the height. Once the length is greater than about ten times the height, further increases in length make little or
no difference to the K value unless they affect the cross-section area. For an embedded circular crack, the Irwin solution for
the elliptical crack reduces to the same as the "penny shaped crack" case of Sneddon, i.e.
K= (13)
Irwin applied similar arguments to derive the stress intensity factor for semi-elliptical surface cracks in a semi-infinite

body with remote tension stress σ as shown in Figure 4.
He suggested that this must be effectively one half of the elliptical embedded crack case divided on a plane of symmetry,
but with a free surface correction factor. The result for the semi-elliptical surface crack is therefore:
(14)
Again, as for the embedded elliptical crack case, it is the crack height which has the major effect on the maximum
stress intensity factor. This maximum occurs at the end of the minor axis, i.e. the deepest point, for tension loading.
It should be noted that under applied bending stresses the variation of the stress intensity factor around the perimeter of
the crack is different from the tension loading case. The maximum value can then occur at the ends of the crack depending
on the aspect ratio.
5. EFFECTS OF FINITE COMPONENT GEOMETRY

The results described above for effects of crack shape are for the case of a body of infinite size. In practice there are also
effects of finite size brought about by the proximity of boundaries or free surfaces. The effect has already been seen for
the case of a semi-elliptical surface crack compared to the embedded elliptical crack where a free surface correction factor
was included in Equation (14).
An important effect arises when the crack affects the net cross-section area either in the case of a through-thickness crack in
a plate of finite width, or in the case of remaining ligaments between the crack front and a free surface for part-
thickness cracks. The free surface and finite width corrections apply to all bodies of finite geometry. In general these
correction factors can only be determined by numerical methods or experimental techniques as discussed in later
lectures. There is also an effect of yielding in real materials leading to a further correction factor for small amounts of
plasticity as discussed in the next section of this lecture.
The general form of the stress intensity factor for remote tension stresses σ applied to part-thickness elliptical or semi-
elliptical cracks can be written as:
K= (15)
where:

MD is the finite width and thickness correction factors
MS is the free surface correction factor
MP is a correction for local plasticity at the crack tip (discussed in Lecture 12.12)
MG is a correction for local stress concentration
E (φ) is the elliptic integral dependant on crack shape aspect ratio.
The overall correction factors for finite geometry are dependent on the type of stressing. Solutions have been obtained
by numerical methods for a range of part thickness elliptical crack shapes, subject to tension stresses σm and to
bending stresses σb. It is usually possible to approximate actual stress fields by a combination of direct and bending
stress components. The results can be presented as parametric equations or families of curves for coefficients Mm and
Mb against a/t for different aspect ratios a/c or a/2c, where the expression for the stress intensity factor K value is given by:
K = (Mm σm - Mb σb) (16)
where Q is a crack shape parameter based on the elliptical integral E(φ).
It should be noted that the Mm and Mb values vary around the perimeter of the crack, and the parametric equations include
a term for position around the crack front. The most accurate results published openly at present appear to be those due
to Newman and Raju in a series of papers, although there a number of stress intensity factor handbooks now available.
A further important effect is that of stress concentration regions at which a crack may lie. For example, fatigue cracks
often develop from initial stress concentration regions and grow through a changing stress field. Two important examples
of this kind are cracks at the edge of holes and cracks at the toe of welded joints. The case of cracks at the edge of a hole
was solved by Bowie and is shown in Figure 5. For cracks which are small compared to the radius of the hole, the
cracks behave as if they are surface cracks in a uniform stress field equal to three times the remote tension stress since
the stress concentration factor at the edge of the hole in the absence of the crack is three. For cracks which are large
compared to the radius of the hole, the two cracks behave as a single crack of total length equal to the sum of the two
individual cracks plus the diameter of the hole.

In the case of cracks at the toe of welded joints, the stress intensity factor can be expressed by the use of a magnification
factor Mx times the result which would be obtained for a crack of the same geometry subject to the same loading but
without the stress concentration effect of the weld present. This case is discussed further in Lectures 12.13.
A convenient way to express the effects of all the coefficients/correction factors which can affect the stress intensity factor is
to combine them all together into a single term generally know as the Y factor. This leads to the following overall
expression for the stress intensity factor:
K=Yσ (17)
6. LOCAL YIELDING EFFECTS AT A CRACK TIP

In real materials used for structural purposes, such as structural steels, the infinite stresses predicted by elastic theory at a
crack tip are relieved by the occurrence of yielding. A first approximation to the size of the plastic zone at a crack tip is
given by finding the distance ry from the crack tip at which the elastic stress level is equal to the yield strength. This distance
is given by:
ry = (18)
Limiting the stress at the crack tip to the yield strength means that the load bearing capacity on the crack plane is changed.
This change leads to a redistribution of stresses locally. The effect of the redistribution is that for limited plasticity, (ry<<a),
the real crack with plastic zone is equivalent to a crack in an elastic material of length 2(a + ry), as shown in Figure 6.
The concept of 'plastic zone corrections' to elastic stress fields at cracks is useful as a limited extension to linear elastic
fracture mechanics, but the effects of any more extensive plasticity have to be taken into account by different types of
analysis such as crack tip opening displacement (CTOD) or J contour integral methods.

For the small scale yielding situation, substituting the modified equivalent crack length 2(a + ry) for 2a in the stress
intensity factor formula for a central crack in an infinite plate gives the following plastic zone correction formula:
K= (19)

7. SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STRESS INTENSITY FACTOR

It has been seen that, for components stressed in tension or bending, the stress field near to a crack tip under elastic
conditions is predicted to be a singularity following an inverse square root relationship with distance from the crack tip,
with the strength of this singularity described by the stress intensity factor. Furthermore in real materials the singularity
is relieved by local yielding and the size of the plastic zone is directly related to the stress intensity factor. Since the whole
of the stress and displacement field near to the crack tip is controlled by the stress intensity factor it would be reasonable
to expect that any modes of failure which depend on reaching some critical stress, strain or displacement condition at the
crack tip will be described by a critical level of the stress intensity factor. The two modes of failure most affected by
the presence of cracks are fracture and fatigue. It will be seen in later lectures that the stress intensity factor is a most
useful parameter for determining the effects of cracks on these modes of failure.
● Crack-like flaws are present to some extent in practical fabrications. They have the greatest effects on fracture and
fatigue performance.
● Fracture mechanics treatments based on strain energy originated from the work of A A Griffith on the strength of glass.
They are particularly useful for assessing the effects of flaws.
● Modern treatments use crack tip stress analysis and the stress intensity factor. The effects of mode of loading, crack
geometry and component geometry are taken into account. Local yielding at the crack tip also affects performance and
its effects can be included in the assessment.
● The stress intensity factor is a most useful parameter for determining the effects of cracks on fracture and fatigue.
9. REFERENCES
[1] Griffith, A.A. 'The phenomena of rupture and flow in solids', Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. 1921 A221, 163.
[2] Irwin, G.R. 'Fracture dynamics', in Fracturing of metals ASM Cleveland, 1948.
[3] Orowan, E. 'Fracture and strength of solids', Rep. Prog. Phys. 1949 12, 185.
[4] Orowan, E. 'Energy criteria of fracture', Weld. J. Res. Suppl. 1955 20, 157s.

1. Simpson, R. 'Brittle Fracture, Chap. 8 - Steel Designers' Manual', Oxford, Blackwell Scientific Publications, 1992.
2. Meguid, S.A. 'Engineering Fracture Mechanics', Elsevier Applied Science, 1989.
3. Barsom, J.M. 'Fracture Design, Chap. 5.5 Constructional Steel Design: An International Guide', London, Elsevier
Applied Science, 1992.
4. Knott, J.F. 'Fundamentals of Fracture Mechanics', Butterworths, 1973.

ESDEP WG 12
FATIGUE
Lecture 12.11: Stress Analysis of Cracked

Bodies
OBJECTIVE/SCOPE:
This lecture gives an introduction to the methods of analysis of cracked bodies and reviews the main concepts of
fracture mechanics. These concepts are necessary to understand the design considerations for fracture assessment under
static loading and fatigue under repeated loading as specified in Annex C and Chapter 9 of Eurocode 3, [1].
PREREQUISITES:
An understanding of plasticity [2,3].
RELATED LECTURES:
Lecture 12.10: Basics of Fracture Mechanics
Lecture 12.14: Fracture Mechanics Structural Engineering Applications
SUMMARY:
The lecture begins by outlining the primary basis, within the framework of linear-elastic fracture mechanics, for
determining the stress field in the local region ahead of a crack tip embedded in a solid body. Then, it briefly discusses
models used to assess the local plastic zone existing in front of the crack tip.
1. INTRODUCTION
All structural elements have discontinuities, either created unintentionally during fabrication or developed during
service conditions under repeated load to which the structure is subjected. Discontinuities will affect the strength of a
structural element and may lead to fracture under a particular state of stress induced by static or fatigue loading.
Various fracture mechanic quantities have been introduced to give a measure of the severity of an existing crack in a body, e.
g. the stress intensity factor K, the Rice's J integral, the energy release rate G (which is the amount of energy released during
an incremental increase of the crack area) the crack opening displacement COD. All these quantities are related to one
another under specific assumptions. The most used of these quantities, which characterize the local stress and strain field in
the vicinity of a crack is the stress intensity factor K. This parameter, fundamentally derived from linear elastic
fracture mechanics, is a function of the applied stress and the geometrical configuration and dimensions of both the crack
and the body which contains the crack.
This lecture is an introductory lecture to the two main applications of fracture mechanics, which will be developed
in subsequent lectures. The first application is the design against fracture of cracked elements subjected to
particular temperature and loading conditions. The safe design is achieved when the stress intensity factor K is less than
a critical value Kc known as the fracture toughness. The second and more common application is related to fatigue
crack growth conditions under repeated loading cycles. It is proved experimentally that, for steel structural material, the rate
of crack propagation is a function of the range of stress intensity factor. Slow stable crack propagation which mainly
governs the fatigue life of welded structural elements takes place for values of K smaller than a critical value Kd
somewhat different from the previously defined fracture toughness Kc.

Having in mind these two applications this lecture is mainly concerned with linear fracture mechanic concepts. The
analytical basis in assessing local stress field near the flaw is described, and then some considerations concerning plasticity
at the crack tip are introduced. Finally, approximate methods for the evaluation of stress intensity factors in more general
cases are given.
2. BASIC SOLUTION FOR A STRESS FIELD IN A PROBLEM OF

PLANE ELASTICITY
The stresses and strains at any point near a crack tip (Figure 1) can be derived from the theory of elasticity. Stresses and
strains within the interior of a solid body subjected to external load and/or displacement conditions are known to satisfy a set
of fundamental differential equations resulting from equilibrium, compatibility conditions and physical properties of
the material which constitutes the solid body.
The process of solution of a problem of plane elasticity consists of finding a particular mathematical function of the
distribution of stresses (or strains) which fulfils not only these differential equations, but also satisfies the boundary
conditions expressed in term of forces or displacements specified over the surface of the body. In plane stress problems (i.e.
σzz = σzx = σzy = 0; which is the case of thin plates) or plane strain problems (i.e. εxz = εyz = εzz = 0; which corresponds to
the condition of strains existing at mid-thickness of a thick plate) the usual method of solving the set of differential equations
is to introduce the so-called Airy stress function.
The solution of a plane elasticity problem is reduced to finding a biharmonic function F satisfying the conditions
expressed previously. It can be demonstrated [4] that, for zero body forces, the stresses may be derived in the plane
elasticity problem from the following relations:
σxx = ∂2F/∂y2
σyy = ∂2F/∂x2 (2.1)
σxy = ∂2F/∂x∂y
For discontinuous boundary conditions, the classical polynomial method is not suitable if boundary conditions are to
be precisely satisfied. Westergaard and Mushkelishvili have developed independently general methods for stress
function solutions which are well suited to solve plane problem of elasticity for cracked body. The Westergaard method is

more particularly applicable to crack problems in infinite plate.
2.1 Method of Westergaard
The method proposed by Westergaard [5] systematically expresses the Airy stress function F in terms of general
harmonic functions to a desirable form:
F = f1 + x.f2 + y.f3 (2.2)
where
F is biharmonic when f1, f2, and f3 are harmonic functions.
Westergaard chooses the functions f1, f2, or f3 as the real and imaginary parts of an analytical function and its
derivatives (named the Z functions). Taking into account the particularity of the problem, such as the symmetry of the
stress field, F can be simplified by taking f2 or f3 = 0. Assuming Z as the analytical function, its derivatives are:
Z′ = dZ/dz; Z″ = dZ′ /dz; Z'" = dZ″ /dz (2.3)
If there is a displacement continuity in the y axis direction (Figure 2) and a crack parallel to the x direction, due to symmetry
of the stress field, the Airy stress function as expressed by Equation (2.2) may be written:
F = Re Z + y . Im Z′ (2.4)
Re and Im are respectively the real and imaginary parts of the Z functions. The polar coordinate r and θ (Figure 2) are used
to locate any point in the local region ahead of the crack tip, therefore
θ
z = iei = x + iy

From Equation (2.4) following expressions are derived:
∂2F/∂x2 = Re Z" + y . Im Z'"
∂2F/∂y2 = Re Z" - y . Im Z'" (2.5)
∂2F/∂x∂y = y . Re Z"
Therefore, taking into account Equations (2.5), the stresses as given by Equation (2.1) are expressed by:
σxx = Re Z" - y . Im Z'"
σyy = Re Z" + y . Im Z'" (2.6)
σxy = - y . Re Z"
It can be seen, that this type of Airy stress function satisfies certain problems for which symmetry conditions hold, e.g. for y
= 0; σxx = σyy and σxy = 0.
2.2 Definition of z (or its derivatives) for the Case of a Through-Thickness Crack of Length 2a in
an Infinite Plate (Figure 2)
The Z functions, must fulfil the boundary conditions of the problem. The boundary conditions to be met at the crack tip are:
for y = 0 and - a ≤ x ≤ a ; σyy = σxy = 0
Assuming that Z" takes the following form:
(2.7)
In the previous equation, let ao, a real constant, be assumed as:
(2.8)
then, from Equation (2.7)
lim Z″z→0 √z.ao = ΚΙ / √(2π) (2.9)
Therefore, from Equation (2.3)
Z″ ≈ ΚΙ / √(2πz)
Z′ ≈ ΚΙ 2/ √π . √z (2.10)
Z'" ≈ -½ΚΙ / √(2πz).1/z
And from Equation (2.6)

(2.11)
Hence, if the Z function is known (or its derivative Z"), the stress field near the crack tip is given by Equations (2.11)
where ΚΙ → √(2π)lim Z″z→0 √z
2.3 Determination of z in the Case of the Griffith Problem
The Griffith problem (1920) is defined as the case of a sharp centred through-thickness crack in a plate subjected to plane
stress perpendicular to the crack at the infinity (Figure 2). In addition to the boundary conditions previously stated, the
Z" function should also verify the following particular boundary condition at the infinity.
σyy = σ and σxy = 0 when z → ± ∞
Translating the Cartesian coordinate system at the centre of the straight front crack, the function as given by Equation
(2.7) takes the following form:
(2.12)
for z → ∞ Z" ≈ a1 + a...
taking a1 = σ and a2 = a3 = ... = 0
the unknown coefficients a1, a2, a3, ... are determined by matching the specified boundary conditions.
Then σyy = σxx = ReZ" = a1 = σ since Im Z'" = 0 (2.13)
and σyy = - y Re Z'" = 0
Therefore, from Equation (2.12) and (2.13)
(2.14)
If Z" is developed at the vicinity of z = ± a, then from Equation (2.9)
ΚΙ /√(2π) = limz→a σ /√(z2 - a2) σ√(πa) /√(2π)
Hence ΚΙ = σ√(πa) (2.15)
Equation (2.15) is known as the Griffith reference solution to the straight front crack in-plane problem. This solution was
first established by Irwin (1954).
3 CRACK TIP ELASTIC STRESS FIELD FOR GENERAL

CRACKING CONDITIONS
In general, three modes of cracking (mode I, mode II and mode III) exist due to different basic stress conditions exerted at
the crack tip (Figure 3). Within the framework of the linear elastic fracture mechanic assumption, the general
cracking conditions are governed by the superposition of these three different modes.

However, the predominant and most influential mode of cracking refers to mode I named the opening mode. This mode
of cracking governs most of the fatigue crack behaviour encountered in practice for steel structures.
Applying the same methods developed earlier, similar expressions for the stress field derived for mode I, may be obtained
for mode II and mode III. These expressions are given in a schematic format below; KII and KIII are respectively the
stress intensity factors for mode II and mode III. These stress intensity factors depend only upon loading and
geometric configuration. Relations for the displacement and the strain fields are not given, but they are easily obtained from
the equations of the theory of elasticity in terms of the stresses.

Mode II
(3.1)
for plane strain σzz = υ (σxx + σyy) ; σxz = σyz = 0
for plane stress σzz = σxz = σyz = 0
Mode III
(3.2)
σxx = σyy = σzz = σxy = 0
4. PLASTICITY
The solutions which were derived, for determining the stress field at the crack tip, are based on linear-elastic theory.
Equation (2.11) shows that, when r → 0, the stress at the crack tip becomes infinite; this has no physical meaning. Therefore,
at the front of the crack tip there will always be a localized plastic deformation which will affect the crack behaviour, i.e.
the crack growth rate. The size of this plastic deformation at the front of the crack is discussed below.
4.1 Irwin's Model
At the crack front there is always a localized plastic deformation which will affect the growth of the crack. The first
attempt which was made to predict the size of the plastic zone in the front of a crack was reported by Irwin. He proposed a
very simple model. Referring to the same Griffith reference case, the elastic stress σyy along the x axis at the front of the
crack (Figure 4a) using plane stress theory is given by (see Equation (2.11)):
(4.1)
where σ is the stress in the y direction at infinity.

Let fy be the elastic limit of the steel plate material; the elastic stresses are, therefore, limited by:
(4.2)
from which the size of the plastic zone can be predicted
ry = 1/2π (KI/fy)2 (4.3)
For plane strain theory, ry becomes:
ry = 1/2π [KI (1 - 2 υ)/fy]2
However, this reasoning is very simple, and is not representative of reality. In setting up the inequality (Equation (4.2)) it
was considered that no stress redistribution due to plastic deformation takes place within the plate. Consequently the
plastic deformation size along the x axis cannot be the one represented on Figure 4a. The size of the plastic deformation
zone, allowing for stress redistribution, must be greater. Suppose that the elastic stress curve has been shifted to the right by
a quantity 00′ (the stress curve being translated by the vector (00′ ) (Figure 4b). The stress distribution σyy along the x axis
is expressed by:
σyy = fy for x ≤ rp

and (4.4)
for x > rp
In order to estimate the plastic deformation zone allowing for stresses redistribution, Irwin made the assumption that the
total elastic area GBE, in other words the elastic energy, is equal to the elasto-plastic energy represented by the area ACF.
From consideration of the geometry the following equality may be written:
(4.5)
Therefore
Hence
(4.6)
Taking into account Equation (4.3), Equation (4.6) becomes:
Figure 4c gives a schematic representation of the plastic zone, and the associated effective crack length (a + ry), the size of
the plastic zone being equal to 2 ry.
4.2 Plastic Zone Contour from Von Mises and Tresca Criteria (Figure 5)

If the simple model of Irwin empirically takes into account the stress redistribution, it ignores completely the presence of
the other stresses σxx and σyy.
4.2.1 Von Mises Criterion
Designating σ1, σ2 and σ3 the principal stresses, the von Mises criterion is
(σ1-σ2)2 + (σ2-σ3)2 + (σ3-σ1)2 = 2 fy2 (4.7)
in which
σ1 = 1/2 (σxx + σyy) + 1/2
σ2 = 1/2 (σxx + σyy) + 1/2 (4.8)
and σ3 = 0 (plane stress)
σ3 = υ (σ1 + σ2) (plane stress)
Substituting Equation (2.11) for mode I in Equation (4.8) and in Equation (4.7) gives:
● for plane stress
rp = (1/2π) (KI/fy)2 cos2 θ/2 (1+3 sin2 θ/2) (4.9)
● for plane strain
rp = (1/2π) (KI/fy)2 [(1-2υ)2 + 3 sin2 θ/2] (4.10)
4.2.2 Tresca Criterion
The Tresca criterion is based on the maximum shear τmax and is written as:
τmax = 1/2 fy (4.11)
where
● for plane stress τmax = 1/2 σ1
● for plane strain τmax = 1/2 |(σ1-σ3)/2 ; (σ1-σ2)/2| (4.12)
A similar derivation to that above leads to the following equations:
● for plane stress
rp = (1/2π) (KI/fy)2 cos2 θ/2 (1+ sin θ/2)2 (4.13)

● for plane strain
rp = (1/2π) (KI/fy)2 cos2 θ/2 max [1, (1-2υ +sin θ/2)2] (4.14)
5. FRONT CRACK YIELDING MODEL OF D S DUGDALE (1960) AND

BAREN BLATT (1962)
5.1 Plastic Zone Dimension
This yielding model ahead of a front crack due to D S Dugdale (1960) deserves to be presented since it introduces the
crack opening displacement concept (COD). Consider again the Griffith problem, and suppose that the yielding spreads at
both crack lips on a distance w (Figure 6a). This short yielded distance w may be easily determined, considering the
following superposition of stress fields.

Support that the crack of length 2(a + w) is subjected to a tensile stress σ applied at the infinity. This is referred in Figure 6
as stress condition 1. A second stress condition may be considered where two distributed compressive field stresses are
opening both crack lips over the distance w, referred in Figure 6c as stress condition 2. Superposing the stress condition 2
with the stress condition shown in Figure 6a, gives stress condition 1. The stress intensity factor of a through-crack length 2(a
+ w) in an infinite body is:
(5.1)
In the case of stress condition 2, the stress intensity factor may be easily obtained from the Green function of the
solution relative to a pair of concentrated opening forces acting symmetrically on the two lips of a crack (cf. Lecture
12.12). Therefore, the solution is:
(5.2)
The sum of the stress intensity factors KI1 and KI2 must be equal to zero. Then the plastic zone dimension w is:
w = -a + a / cos |σπ/2fy| (5.3)
By developing cos |σπ/2fy| in series when σ << fy, and taking the first term of the series gives:
cos |σπ/2fy| ≈ {1 - |σ/fy|2.π/8} (5.4)
5.2 Crack Tip Opening Displacement
The dimension of the plastic zone may be obtained from Equation (5.2) taking into account Equations (5.3) and (5.4), then
w = π/8 |K1/fy|2 w = π/8 {K1/fy}2 (5.5)
This value is very near to the solution obtained by Irwin (see Equation (4.3)). When the ratio (σ /fy) becomes greater
the difference between the two solutions increases.
Burdekin and Stone [6], according to the approach outlined in paragraph 2.1, calculated the displacement δ at the end of
the real crack (i.e. for x = ± a) and found:
(5.6)
In the concept of the crack opening displacement approach, the crack propagates when δ reaches its critical
opening displacement δc which is a characteristic of the material.
From Equation (5.6) the critical stress corresponding to the Griffith problem is obtained knowing the critical
opening displacement. Developing cos {σπ/2fy} in series, and keeping the first term Equation, (5.6) reduces to
(5.7)
The COD definition, being the crack opening displacement at the interface of the elastic and plastic zones, is convenient

for calculation purpose. However, it is not very easy to measure experimentally the value of the crack opening displacement.
For a stress field in a problem of plane elasticity:-
● Stresses near the crack tip may be calculated in first approximation from:
ΚΙ ≈ √(2π) lim Sz−0 Z''√z
A proper Z function must be selected, which satisfies the boundary conditions.
● The stress field of the Griffith reference problem is expressed by:-
ΚΙ 2 = σ√(πa)
● The elastic stresses distribution in the vicinity of the crack tip depends only on r and ø, while their magnitude at any given
point defined by (r, ø) depends only on KI.
Therefore, the distribution of stresses in a cracked body is an invariant with respect to the loading and geometries of the
crack and the body. However, the magnitude of these stresses depends upon these two parameters which are taken globally
in the KI value called the stress intensity factor in mode I. KI depends on the external loading, the overall geometry of the
crack body, and on the crack geometry (dimensions and shape).
● The stress intensity factor KI is a basic concept of fracture mechanics.
This factor should not be confused with the geometric stress concentration factor Kt which is, for a particular notch, the ratio
of the maximum stress to the nominal stress. Kt is, therefore, a purely conventional coefficient, giving an indication of
the stress concentration at a notch for particular conditions of geometry and loading.
In reality there will always be localised plastic deformation at the front of the crack tip which affects crack behaviour:
● In general plastic zone size at crack tips can be assessed and its effect can be taken into account through a correction term
of the crack length (ry) as suggested by Irwin (Figure 4c).
● The crack tip plastic zones are smaller in-plane strain than in-plane stress hypothesis, and the Tresca criterion gives
larger plastic zone than Von Mises criterion. These remarks justify the recommendations concerning the size of the
specimen for the determination of KIC.
● Figure 7 represents in thick plates the plastic zone configuration which can be expected from the previous finding since
the surface is in a plane stress condition and the mid-thickness is in a plane strain condition.
● However the plastic zone, for normal constructional steel, is rather small compared to the dimensions of the structural part
and of the crack size. In practical high cycle fatigue problems, this plastic zone is expected to be small due to triaxiality of
the crack tip stress field and cracking occurring under quasi-elastic stress range conditions.

The dimensions of the plastic zone ahead of a crack may be found using the yielding model of D S Dugdale:
● When the tensile stress is small compared to the yield stress of the material (σ << fy), the plastic zone dimension found by
the Dugdale model is very close to the Irwn solution, the difference being a factor 4/π.
● The Dugdale model of the plastic zone leads to the concept of crack opening displacement which may be
theoretically calculated if the crack size and the tensile stress away from the crack are known. However, experimental
measures of the crack opening displacement are rather difficult to obtain accurately since they depend on the precise
location where the measurements are made.
● The relationships between COD, strains and crack size are not readily known for most geometries; the COD method has
the advantage that it takes into account the assessment of plasticity at the crack tip. However the COD method has not
yet reached the same level of recognition in engineering practice as the K based method.
7. REFERENCES
[1] Eurocode 3: "Design of Steel Structures": ENV 1993-1-1: Part 1.1, General principles and rules for buildings, CEN, 1992.
[2] Timoshenko S, Goodier N.J., "Theory of Plasticity", McGraw Hill Book
Company, 2nd Edition, New York 1951
[3] Germain P, "Mcanique des Milieux Continus", Masson et Cie, Paris, 1962.
[4] Westergaard H.M., "Theory of Elasticity and Plasticity", Dover Publications, inc. New York, 1964
[5] Francois D., Joly L. (Ed.), La rupture des métaux, Masson et Cie, 1972
[6] Burdekin E.M., Stone D.E.W., The crack opening displacement approach to fracture mechanics in yielding
materials Journal of Strain Analysis, vol. 1, no 2, 1966.

ESDEP WG 12
FATIGUE
Lecture 12.12: Determination of Stress

Intensity Factors
OBJECTIVE/SCOPE:
To describe the basic principles of the different methods of determining stress intensity factors for different geometries
of component.
PRE-REQUISITES
RELATED LECTURES
Lecture 12.14 : Fracture Mechanics Structural Engineering Applications
Lecture 12.15 : Fracture Mechanics Applied to Fitness for Purpose
SUMMARY
The lecture starts with a reminder of the basic definition of the stress intensity factor as the parameter controlling crack
tip stress, displacement and energy conditions for linear elastic materials. Some classical cases for which analytical
solutions for the stress intensity factor are available are described together with the basis for combining solutions
by superposition. The two main numerical analysis methods for determining stress intensity factors are then described,
namely weight function methods and finite element methods including some details of the way in which the stress
intensity factor is derived from the basic analysis results. Treatments for stress concentration regions are also described
with particular reference to welded joints.
1. INTRODUCTION
In Lecture 12.10: Basics of Fracture Mechanics, the concept of the stress intensity factor (K) was introduced as the
parameter which defines the stress and strain fields at the tip of a crack, i.e. on the plane of the crack ahead of the crack tip
the stress normal to the crack is given by:
σy = K / √(2πr) (1)
where r is a small distance ahead of the crack tip on the crack plane.
The stress intensity factor K also controls the opening displacements of the crack faces within the crack close to the tip
for elastic conditions as follows:
σd = (4/πE) K√(2πr) (2)
where r is a small distance back from the crack tip within the crack.
In addition, the stress intensity factor K is linked to the Griffith strain energy release rate G (crack extension force) by
the relationship:
K2 = E'G (3)
where E' = E for plane stress
and E' = E/(1-υ2) for plane strain
For non-linear materials a further important crack tip parameter is the J contour integral, J. As originally defined by
Eshelby and by Rice, J was shown to be a path independent integral of strain energy density terms taken around the crack
tip, with the path starting on the lower face of the crack and finishing on the upper face as shown in Figure 1.

The definition of J in these terms is as follows:
(4a)
where
W(ε) = ∫ 0 Jεij dεij

where W is the strain energy density,
Ti are components of surface tractions moving through displacements dui,. The integration is carried out around any
contour path anti-clockwise from one surface to the other enclosing the crack tip.
In addition to demonstrating path independence for this integral for two dimensional geometries with externally
applied loading, Rice also showed that J was related to the change in potential energy with incremental increase in crack
length, i.e. J can be thought of as a non-linear version of G and reduced to G for linear elastic materials. For a linear
elastic material:
(4b)
The importance of all of the above observations is that, if methods are available to determine stress fields ahead of the
crack tip, displacement fields within the crack, or strain energy fields related to G or J, then the stress intensity factor K can
be determined from these results.
2. ANALYTICAL SOLUTIONS
A number of classical cases where the stress intensity factor can be determined analytically were described in Lecture 12.10
on Basics of Fracture Mechanics. These cases included solutions for a central through-thickness crack, an embedded
elliptical crack and a semi-elliptical surface crack all located in infinite plates and subject to remote tension loading.
Reference was also made to the general form of expressions for the stress intensity factor for cases subject to remote stresses
as either:
(5)
where
MD is the finite width and thickness correction factors (Dimensions correction factor)
MS is the free surface correction factor
MP is the local plasticity at crack tip correction factor
MG is the stress gradient correction factor for local effect

E(Φ) is the crack shape correction factor
An example of using this expression for a stress concentration region at the end of a welded cover plate is given in
the Appendix to this lecture.
or (6)
where
Mm and Mb are as defined in Section 5.
Two other cases where the results of classical analytical solutions are relevant to practical applications are the cases of
a multiple array of co-linear cracks subject to remote loading and of a single crack subject to a pair of splitting forces applied
to the crack faces. The multiple array case is shown in Figure 2, where the cracks are each of length 2a, and the
spacing between their mid-length positions is W. The solution for the stress field for this case, where the cracks are subject
to remote tension stress σ in an infinite plate, can be obtained from the complex stress function approach of Westergaard
used by Irwin to give the stress intensity factor as follows:

(7)
This case of multiple cracks can be used to investigate the effects of interactions between adjacent cracks and of finite width
of plates. It can be seen that when the ratio of a/W is small, this expression reduces to the same result as that for a single
crack in an infinite plate, i.e. there is no interaction between the cracks. As a/W increases so the stress intensity factors
increase above the corresponding value for single cracks of the same size. It will be left to the student to check that when
the spacing between the tips of the adjacent cracks is equal to the crack length, i.e. W-2a = 2a, the stress intensity factor
is increased by about 13% compared to the case of the single crack of the same length. This result is the basis for
the recommendation in a number of defect acceptance codes that cracks may be treated as separate provided the
ligament between them is at least equal to the adjacent crack size. The spacing W may also be considered as equivalent to
the width of a series of finite plates each containing a single crack. Hence as the ratio a/W increases, the increase in
K represents the effect of net section stresses and of the approaching edge of the plate. This interpretation is not strictly
valid, however, as the stress distribution on the line of symmetry between the cracks does not reproduce fully the free
edge condition. It does give reasonably good answers for ratios of a/W up to about 0,6.

The case of a single crack subject to a pair of splitting forces on the crack line is shown in Figure 3.
Again the solution can be obtained by use of the Westergaard complex stress functions and the resulting stress intensity
factor is as follows:
(8)
This result can be used to represent the effects of internal pressure inside a crack by integrating the splitting forces p applied
at positions of b from 0 to a. As indicated in Lecture 12.10 the stress intensity factor for the internal pressure case is K
= , i.e. the same as for the case of remotely applied tension.
This is one example of a more general result which forms the basis of the weight function approach for determination of
stress intensity factors.

3. BUECKNER'S PRINCIPLE AND WEIGHT FUNCTIONS

If a cracked body subject to external loading or prescribed displacements at the boundary has forces applied to the
crack surfaces to close the crack together, these forces must be equivalent to the stress distribution in an uncracked body of
the same geometry subject to the same external loading. In the condition when the crack is closed together there is
effectively no crack present and the stress intensity factor is zero. This can be regarded as equivalent to superposing the case
of the cracked body with external loading minus the case of the same geometry of cracked body subject to the reverse of
the crack surface loading necessary to close the crack together again. Since the total resultant stress intensity factor is zero,
the stress intensity factor for the crack body subject to external loading must be the same as that for the same body subject
to crack surface loading of the same distribution as would be present in the uncracked body over the region of the
crack position. For many cases the cracked body with remote loading can be replaced by the same geometry with crack
surface loading only to determine the stress intensity factor. This principle was first expounded by H F Bueckner and is
known as Bueckner's principle.
When a pair of point forces P are applied to the opposite surfaces of a crack, they produce a stress intensity factor K at
the crack tip as described for the case of two balanced pairs of splitting forces on a crack in an infinite plate in Equation (8).
A further example is the case of an edge crack in a semi-infinite plate subject to concentrated forces P as shown in Figure 4.
The stress intensity factor for this case is given by:

(9)
where F(x/a) is a tabulated function given by Hartranft and Sih [1].
A weight function is a function which gives the ratio of (the stress intensity factor at a crack tip due to the application of
a stress σ to an element of area dA on the crack surface) to (the stress itself).
Equation (9) may be used as a fundamental Green's function for generating solutions for stress intensity factors in
crack problems involving an arbitrary distribution of tractions on the crack surfaces as shown in Figure 4b.
Integrating Equation (9) from x=0 to x=a, the stress intensity factor for the edge crack subject to an arbitrary stress
distribution p on the crack surfaces gives:
(10)
This can be turned into a general summation for a two dimensional weight function expression in the form developed
by Albrecht [2] as follows:
A more general weight function expression is given by the 'O' integral weight function developed by Core and Burns [3],
as follows:
(12)
where
σ is the stress applied to an element of crack surface area dA
I is the distance from this point to the position where the K value is required
{} represents the sum around the crack perimeter s of elemental lengths divided by distance to the point of stress
application squared as shown in Figure 5.

Evaluation of the 'O' integral is carried out by summing up the effects of different stress levels according to the
uncracked stress distribution applied over the whole crack surface divided up into a network of elements.
It will be seen that the expression given by Equation (12) involves two singularities, namely when 1=0 and when p=0.
The evaluation of the numerical integration is carried out by dividing the crack area into three zones as shown in Figure
6. Zone A is a single element immediately at the position on the crack front where K is to be determined. Zone B is a series
of elements around the remainder of the crack front perimeter. Zone C covers the remainder of the interior of the crack
surface area. Careful attention is required to element sizes and aspect ratios to achieve accurate results. The 'O'
integral formulation applies strictly to an embedded crack of arbitrary shape in an infinite body, but it is possible to
apply correction factors for the effects of free surface and finite geometry effects.

Thus, one general method for determining stress intensity factors is to determine firstly the stress distribution in an
uncracked body over the region where a crack is to be considered, e.g. by finite element analysis, and to use weight
function approaches to determine the K value for any required crack geometry. Although the approach requires repeated use
of the numerical integration of the weight function for a series of cracks as would be required to be considered during
fatigue crack growth, it only requires one finite element analysis for the uncracked body and is generally an efficient
overall process.
4. FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS OF CRACKED BODIES

When finite element analysis is carried out, the first steps are to decide on the type of element to be used and on the mesh to
be used to discretise the volume of the body concerned. Different types of element use different interpolating functions
for displacements throughout each element. Each type has an inherent ability to deal with stress gradients within the
element. For example, the simplest types of element are the constant stress or constant strain triangular elements. If an
attempt is made to use these elements to analyse a body with steep stress gradients, a very fine mesh consisting of
many elements must be used. This will be very inefficient on computing time. This problem can be reduced by using
higher order elements which have the ability to represent linear or parabolic stress distributions within them. For example,
8 noded or 12 noded solid elements are often used when accurate stress analysis results are required from two
dimensional complex geometries.
For example, 8 noded or 20 noded solid elements are often used when accurate stress analysis results are required from
three dimensional complex geometries.

As indicated previously, the stress distribution at a crack tip subject to tension loading in elastic material, shows a
singularity with infinite stresses. The stress intensity factor describes the way in which the stress declines from the
singularity and clearly involves very steep stress gradients. For normal finite element analysis, it would appear at first sight
that it would be very difficult to obtain anything like a realistic representation of elastic crack tip stress fields unless
an inordinately fine mesh is used involving a very large number of elements and associated costs.
This problem can be overcome by use of special crack tip elements [4]. For two dimensional analyses (plane stress or
plane strain) there are elements of degenerated triangular 20 moded type or 52 moded type based on a 12
isoparametric quadrilateral finite element. These elements are arranged into a fan focused at the crack tip by degenerating
them into triangular elements by bringing two corners together at the same co-ordinates. In addition, the analysis moves
the mid-points of the sides of the elements adjacent to the crack tip to the quarter points, as shown in Figure 7. The effect is
to create an inverse square root singularity of stress ahead of the crack tip without having to go to a very fine mesh. It
then remains to determine the value of the stress intensity factor from the results of this arrangement.
It has been pointed out that the stress intensity factor controls the stress ahead of the crack tip, the displacement with the
crack just behind the tip and the strain energy fields around the crack tip. Because the stress gradients are so steep away
from the singularity, the determination of K from stresses ahead of the crack is not very accurate. The displacement field
within the crack has much more gradual variations and can be used to determine K quite accurately. The usual method is
to determine the displacements at the first and second nodes back from the crack tip and use the formula of Equation (2)
to derive K. A number of standard computer programs have been written which include special crack tip elements and
the facility to carry out a J contour integral determination using any chosen contour around the crack tip. The normal
procedure is to determine J on three paths around the crack, to check path independence, and to determine K from J
using Equation (3). A variation on this procedure is the Virtual Crack Extension method developed by Parks. In this case
the energy change associated with a small (virtual) increase in length of the crack is determined and this is equivalent to J (or
G for linear elastic materials). The advantage of the strain energy or contour integral approaches is that they are evaluated
at some distance from the crack tip itself and hence in regions where the stress and strain gradients are less severe.
The disadvantage of using finite element analysis of the crack body is that a new analysis of the whole body is required
for each crack geometry to be considered. Hence, when one is considering fatigue crack growth, a series of results
for progressively increasing crack sizes is required. Nevertheless, with modern computing power and facilities, there are
many results for stress intensity factors obtained by finite element analysis of the complete cracked body.
5. REFERENCE SOLUTIONS FROM PARAMETRIC EQUATIONS

A number of handbooks have been published which give solutions for stress intensity factors for a range of practical
problems in the form of parametric equations or analytical expressions. Some of these stress intensity factors are given in
Table 1 and others are listed in [1-10].
An extremely useful set of parametric equations has been developed by Raju and Newman [9] for the case of semi-
elliptical surface cracks in flat plates of finite thickness and width, subject to either tension or bending stresses. These
results were derived primarily by an extensive set of finite element analyses of different crack geometries followed by
curve fitting to obtain the parametric equations. These equations enable the stress intensity factor to be obtained at any
position around the crack front. This is particularly important when it is necessary to know the K value at the deepest point
and at the ends of the crack at the surface to determine crack growth rates in fatigue analysis and allow for crack
shape changes. The results are also very useful when the overall stress distribution can be divided into membrane and
bending components since the K values due to the separate components can be determined and then added together to give
the total K. The following general expression for the stress intensity factor is obtained:
(13)
where Mm, Mb are coefficients determined from the Raju and Newman equations dependent on a/T and a/2c, σm, σb
are membrane and bending components of stress, a is the crack height or depth, and Q is a crack shape parameter, given
to sufficient accuracy by the expressions:
(14)
(15)

When the crack is located in a region of stress concentration there will be an increase in the stress intensity factor compared
to regions away from the stress concentration. The overall effect depends on the relative size of the crack and the zone of
stress concentration. Where the crack is small compared to the stress concentration zone, it will behave almost as if it is
located in a region of uniform stress of magnitude equal to the stress concentration value. Where the crack is larger than
the zone of stress concentration, it passes through a region of stress gradient and the final stress intensity factor is less than
the result for treating the stress as uniform and equal to the SCF value. One important example of this which is
particularly important in fatigue of welded structures is the stress intensity factor for cracks at the toes of fillet and T-butt
welds as shown in Figure 8. For this case, a stress intensity magnification factor Mt is introduced to represent the
multiplication necessary compared to the result for a crack of the same geometry subject to the same remote stresses in a
flat plate without the weld being present.
A significant amount of work has been carried out at the Welding Institute (TWI) and at UMIST to derive parametric
equations for Mt. The TWI results which are included also in PD 6493:1991 [10], have the following form:

(16)
where p and q are constants for a particular geometry but depend on the ratio of weld attachment length on the surface to
the main plate thickness T.
The UMIST results allow also for the effect of weld angle and weld toe radius and take the general form:
(17)
where the coefficients Ci are given in parametric equations for tension or bending, involving the attachment length to
thickness ratio, the weld angle and the toe radius.
Another important case for analysis of welded joints is the case of the stress intensity factor for the root of the
unpenetrated land of a fillet weld subject to tension loading. The only work which seems to have been done on this is by
Frank and Fisher whose results are included in PD 6493 1991, and by Saket at UMIST. Saket's results are as follows:
K = (2,8817 a/W - 0,074)Ktm for 0,25<a/W<0,45 (18)
where W = tp + 2tw, with tp being the attachment plate thickness, and tw the fillet throat thickness on one side of the plate,
(two welds being assumed), and Ktm is given by:
(19)
where σp is the remote tension stress in the attachment plate.
A summary of some cases of stress concentration and gradient factors for cracks at welded details is given in Table 2.
6. PLASTICITY EFFECTS
As indicated in Lecture 12.10, the effect of plasticity is to cause a real crack to have a stress intensity factor equivalent to
a slightly longer notional crack in elastic material. The effect depends on the size of the plastic zone at the tip of the real
crack. Under plane stress conditions the plastic zone is larger than under plane strain conditions where constraint effects
inhibit yielding until higher stresses are reached.
Under compression loading, if the crack faces are forced into contact, the singularity effect is lost and the stress intensity
factor is zero, since forces can be transmitted in bearing and there is no need for them to be diverted around the end of
the crack. One of the significant effects of plasticity in fatigue is on the occurrence of crack closure behaviour when the
crack faces come into contact and compression stress is then transmitted in bearing. Plasticity allows the crack tip to
be stretched open so that on unloading the original crack surfaces would remain apart. As the crack propagates through
the plastic zone under fatigue loading, however, the stretched material of the plastic zone forms a wake down the faces of
the crack. These regions fill the gap on unloading despite the stretching at the tip. The net result is that the crack closes on
itself at some stage during the unloading part of a fatigue cycle and does not re-open until the same load is reached on
re-loading. Since there is no stress intensity factor when the crack is closed, fatigue damage only occurs when the crack
faces separate again. This leads to the concept of an effective stress intensity factor given by:
∆Keff = U.∆K (20)
where U is a factor dependant on the stress ratio R and the yield strength through crack closure effects.
● In many cases, stress intensity factors can be estimated from known solutions, or parametric equations in published
handbooks with adjustment or correction factors as required.
● Where it is necessary to determine stress intensity factors without prior information this can be done either using
weight function methods or using finite element analysis of the cracked body.
● For the weight function method it is necessary to have available the results of stress analysis of the uncracked body and
to apply the stress distribution for this case as tractions on the crack surfaces, summing up their effects using the
appropriate weight function to give the stress intensity factor at any required position.
● For the finite element analysis of the cracked body, it is preferable to use special crack tip elements to deal with the
stress singularity at the tip and to use methods for estimating the stress intensity factor based on remote strain energy
density estimates, or on displacements within the crack rather than the steep stress gradients ahead of the crack.
● The Mt method for dealing with stress intensity factors at weld toes has been described and attention drawn to the need to
have available solutions for at least the deepest point and the ends of the crack when fatigue crack propagation studies
are undertaken to enable account to be taken of changes in the shape of the crack as it grows.
8. REFERENCES
[1] Sih G.C. Handbook of stress intensity factors, Lehigh University, Bethlehem, Pennsylvania, USA, 1973.
[2] Albrecht P. and Yamada K. Rapid calculation of stress intensity factors, Journal of the Struct. Div., ASCE, Proc.
12742, Vol 103, No. St.2, 1977.
[3] Core M. and Burns D.J. Estimation of stress intensity factors for irregular cracks subject to arbitrary normal stress
fields, Proc. 4th International Conference on Pressure Vessel Technology, I.Mech.E., London, Vol. 1, pp 139-147, 1980.
[4] Gifford L.N., Hilton P.D. Stress Intensity Factors by Enriched Finite Elements Engineering Fracture Mechanics, Vol. 10,
pp 485-496, 1978.
[5] Tada H, Paris P and Irwin G.R. The stress analysis of cracks handbook, Del Research Corporation, Hellertown, Pa.,

USA, 1973.
[6] Rooke D.P. and Cartwright D.J. Compendium of stress intensity factors, HMSO, London, 1976.
[7] Rooke D.P., Baratte F.I. and Cartwright D.J. Simple methods of determining stress intensity factors, Engineering
Fracture Mechanics, Vol. 14, 1981.
[8] Labbens R., Pellisier-Tanon A. and Heliot J. Practical methods for calculating stress intensity factors through
weight functions. Mechanics of crack growth, ASTM STP 590, 1976.
[9] Raju I.S. and Newman J.C. Stress intensity factors for a wide range of semi-elliptical surface cracks in finite
thickness plates. Eng. Fract. Mech. Vol. 11, pp 817-829, 1979.
[10] PD 6493, Guidance on methods for assessing the acceptability of flaws in fusion welded structures. BSI London,
2nd edition, 1991.
APPENDIX
NUMERICAL EXAMPLE
Estimate the stress intensity factor related to a semi-elliptical crack shape at the toe of a cover plate end weld (Figure 9)


Numerical Data crack depth, a = 3mm
crack width, c = 8mm
weld flank angle θ = 45°
weld leg = 15mm
flange thickness = 40mm
flange width = 600mm
cover plate thickness = 25mm
nominal tension stress σmax = 300 N/mm2
Calculation
(a) Stress Gradient
kt =
(See Table 2)
(b) Stress Gradient Correction Factor
FG = (See Table 2)
(c) Free Surface Correction Factor
Fs =
(d) Finite Dimension Correction Factor
FD = 1

(e) Free Surface Correction Factor
Fs =
(f) Local Plasticity at Crack Tip
Fp = ^ (no correction for local plasticity considered)
Ki =
Table 1 - Some Solutions of Stress Intensity Factors
TWO DIMENSIONAL EDGE CRACK PROBLEMS TWO DIMENSIONAL CENTRE CRACK PROBLEMS
Uniformly distributed stress K = Ko
See Fig 2-1 K = 1,122 Ko See Fig 2-4
Linearly varying stress
See Fig 2-2 K = 0,439 Ko See Fig 2-5

Concentrated splitting force
See Fig 2-3 See Fig 2-6
Fig T1-1

Fig T1-2

Fig T1-3

Fig T1-4

Fig T1-5

Fig T1-6
Table 2 - Stress concentration and stress gradient correction factors
CASE STRESS CONCENTRATION FACTOR kt FG STRESS GRADIENT FACTOR REFERENCES
1 Transverse butt weld Conditions: σ =180° -θ 135° ≤ φ <180° Gurney T.R.
circular arc overfill Fatigue of welded structures
See Fig T2-1 2nd ed., Cambridge Univ. Press 1979
where q = log (11,584 - 0,0588 φ )/2,301

2 Transverse stiffener Zettlemayer N. and Fisher J.W.

weld
Stress gradient and Crack shape
(non-load-carrying fillet effects on stress intensity at welded
welds) details
where a = a/t d = 0,3602 q = 0,2487

Welding Research Supplement, Vol.
56, no. 12, 1977, pp. 393s-398s
See Fig T2-2
3 Gusset plate Zettlemayer N. and Fisher J.W.
Stress gradient correction factor for

stress intensity at welded gusset plates
See Fig T2-3

where a = a/t d = 1,158 q = 0,6051
57, no. 2, 1978, pp. 57s-62s
4 Cover plate Zettlemayer N. and Fisher J.W.
Stress gradient and crack shape effects

on stress intensity at welded details
See Fig T2-4

where a = a/t d = 0,1473 q = 0,4398
56, no. 12, pp. 393s-398s
5 Transverse load- Frank K.H. and Fisher J.W.

carrying fillet welds Conditions:
Fatigue strength of fillet welded
crack at the weld root cruciform joints
See Fig T2-5 Journal of the Structural Division,

Vol. 105, no. St 9, 1979, PP. 1727-
1740
Note: for crack at weld toe, see case 2

Fig T2-1
Fig T2-2

Fig T2-3

Fig T2-4
Fig T2-5


ESDEP WG 12
FATIGUE
Lecture 12.13: Fracture Mechanics

Applied to Fatigue
OBJECTIVE/SCOPE:
To summarize the main factors affecting the fatigue strength, as opposed to the static strength, of welded joints and to illustrate
the method of carrying out a fatigue check.
PREREQUISITES
RELATED LECTURES
Lecture 12.14: Fracture Mechanics: Structural Engineering Applications
SUMMARY
After separating out initiation and propagation aspects of fatigue behaviour the lecture introduces the Paris law which describes
the rate of fatigue crack propagation in terms of stress intensity factor range. Integration of the Paris law to give life for crack
growth from initial to final sizes is described for constant amplitude loading and then extended to variable amplitude loading to
show consistency with Miners law. The effects of threshold behaviour, residual stresses and effective stress intensity factor in
crack closure behaviour are described.
1. INTRODUCTION
When a component or structural member is subject to fluctuations in stress, it may lead to the development of fatigue cracks.
Fatigue cracks extend slowly, generally with a very small increment of crack growth occurring with each cycle, and with little
or no evidence of plastic deformation. The cracks can continue to grow until they cause complete failure of the component,
member or structure by fast fracture, plastic collapse or other mode which prevents service duties being performed.
In laboratory tests on smooth polished specimens, each stress fluctuations causes a movement of dislocations until some slip
planes lock and microscopic slip protrusions occur. Some authorities describe the formation of persistent slip bands as Stage 1,
and the development of protrusions and minute fissures as Stage 2. The further development of these fissures into a
macroscopic crack and its subsequent propagation is Stage 3.
The stages prior to the formation of a macroscopic crack represent the initiation life of the component whilst the remaining life
after formation of such a crack is the propagation life. Thus the overall fatigue life of a component in general is as follows:

Total life = Initiation life + Propagation life
For cases where initial cracks are present the initiation life disappears and the whole life is occupied by the propagation of the
crack from the initial size to a final size which is determined either by instantaneous fracture or by plastic collapse of the
remaining cross-section. In some applications the presence of initial crack-like flaws is inherent to the manufacturing process.
A particularly important case where this applies is in welded structures where tiny slag intrusions of the order of 0,1 to 0,4 mm
depth occur in the partially melted region at the weld toe. The fatigue behaviour of welded joints is therefore dominated by the
propagation life.
As indicated in Lecture 12.11 the topic of fracture mechanics is concerned with analysis of crack tip stress fields and their
effects on failure mechanisms. The application of fracture mechanics to fatigue behaviour is concerned with the propagation
life since it is only during this stage that a macroscopic crack is present. Thus for situations where no initial flaw is present,
fracture mechanics analyses can be used to estimate the propagation part of the total life from assumed initial to final flaw size.
It is then necessary also to estimate the initiation life and add this to the propagation life to get an estimate of the total life. For
welded structures however the propagation life gives a good estimate of the total life provided realistic assumptions are made
about initial and final crack sizes.
2. FRACTURE MECHANICS CRACK PROPAGATION BEHAVIOUR

The proposal that the rate of crack propagation per cycle should be controlled by the range of the stress intensity factor for the
cycle was first made by P C Paris as part of his research work. The general relationship now known universally as the Paris
Law is as follows:
= C(∆K)m (1)
where:
da/dN is the rate of crack growth per cycle
∆K is the range of stress intensity factor at the crack tip
C and m are material constants (although not necessarily truly constant)
Experimental work to investigate the relationship between fatigue crack growth rate and range of stress intensity factor can be
presented on a graph of da/dN against ∆K. In general, such a graph on log-log scales shows three regions. At the bottom end
there is a threshold region of ∆K below which cracks do not propagate. This threshold value, ∆Km, is dependent on both mean
stress and environmental conditions. At the top end of the graph the rate of fatigue crack propagation may be increased if the
upper end of the applied stress intensity factor range approaches the material fracture toughness. In between these regions the
graph is generally linear on logarithmic scales. By taking logarithms of both sides of Equation (1) it can be seen that it predicts
that log da/dN should be proportional to log ∆K, so that the slope of the straight line is the constant m, and the position of the
line is determined by the constant C. Thus the predictions of the Paris law are confirmed by experiment for the central region
of behaviour as shown in Figure 1.

There have been various attempts to extend the validity of the Paris law to cover the whole range of behaviour. Some of these
attempts will be discussed later. Many valuable results can be derived using the simple Paris law without the complications of
the other proposals. These aspects will be examined first.
The value of the crack propagation law exponent m is found to lie between about 2,6 and 3,6 for different materials and
conditions. A typical value often taken for structural steels is m = 3,0. The corresponding value of C for crack propagation of
steels in air is about 2,0 × 10-13 in N/mm-3/2 units giving crack propagation rate in mm/cycle. (The equivalent value of C in
MPa units is 6,32 × 10-15 for ∆K in the same units, giving da/dN in m/cycle).
3. DETERMINATION OF LIFE UNDER CONSTANT AMPLITUDE

For the simple case of a central crack of length 2a in an infinite plate subject to remote fluctuating tension stress range ∆σ, the
stress intensity factor range is given by:
∆K = ∆σ (2)
Putting this value into the expression of the Paris law, the following result is obtained:
= C (∆σ )m (3)

This can be re-arranged as a simple differential equation as follows:
= ∆σ (S )m dN (4)
This expression can be integrated directly, and for the case of m = 3 for example, this gives:
= ∆σ (S )3 N (5)
For given initial and final crack sizes and material properties this is equivalent to:
S3 N = Constant (6)
Use of this approach is shown in Example 1 below.
Example 1
Problem A thick plate has an extended length surface crack of height 2 mm perpendicular to the surface and to fluctuating
applied stresses with a range of 100 N/mm2. Assuming that the Paris law is valid with C = 2 × 10-13 and m=3, determine the
life for the crack to grow to a height of 10 mm.
Solution Integration of the Paris law as in Equation (5) gives:
= 2 × 10-13 (1,12 × 100 × )3 × N (7)
therefore:
N = 0,782 / [2 ×10-13 × 198,53] = 500,000 cycles (8)
It should be noted that the above analysis is only strictly valid for the case of the surface crack in an infinite plate. In real finite
geometries the expression for the stress intensity factor includes the Y coefficient which may itself be a function of the crack
size dimension a. This effects the integration of the left hand side of Equation (4) which then becomes:
= C (∆σ )m dN (9)
S-N design curves for welded details are effectively of the form of Equation (6), the constant being different for different
geometries (equivalent to different Y values).
For weld toe geometries the magnification of the stress intensity factor which occurs over crack depths up to 20% of the
thickness can be represented by the term Mk, where:
∆K = Mk ∆σ Yu (10)
and Yu is the appropriate Y value for a crack of the same shape in a plate without stress concentration effects.

Research at the Welding Institute and at UMIST in the United Kingdom has produced parametric equations for Mk in terms of
weld attachment length-to-thickness ratio, weld angle and weld toe radius for geometries of the form shown in Figure 2. An
approximate expression for Mk is as follows:
Mk = p (11)
where p and q are constants dependent on the detailed weld geometry. More complex expressions for Mk have been derived in
the UMIST work which allow for all three of the weld toe geometric parameters. This work has also shown the need for a
further coefficient/correction factor to allow for the crack shape aspect ratio and for the 'undershoot' effect of the stress
distribution across the thickness which is necessary to compensate for the stress concentration at the surface as shown in Figure
2.
Provided the overall effect of geometry can be expressed in the form of parametric equations, the crack propagation integral of
Equation (9) can be evaluated numerically in incremental steps. Furthermore since the stress intensity factor varies around the
perimeter of the crack front of a semi-elliptical surface crack, and the crack growth rate depends on (∆K)m, it can be seen that
the crack will grow at different rates at different positions on its perimeter. Thus the crack will change its shape as it grows.
Therefore the stress intensity factor has to be re-evaluated incrementally due to both crack growth and change of shape. A
number of researchers have developed computer programs to evaluate the crack propagation integral progressively for different
geometric applications and have found good agreement with experimental data. The power of the approach is its ability to
evaluate a wide range of geometric effects and to predict the significance of imperfections and defects on fatigue performance.
4. VARIABLE AMPLITUDE LOADING

Sequential block loading
Consider the propagation of a fatigue crack under a sequence of blocks of different levels of constant amplitude loading as
shown in Figure 3.
The crack grows from size a0 to a1 under n1 cycles of stress range ∆σ1, from a1 to a2 under n2 cycles of stress range ∆σ2, from
a2 to a3 under n3 cycles of stress range ∆σ3, etc., up to the final block of cycles mf at stress range ∆σf taking the crack up to its
final size af. Crack growth for each stage will be described by the following equation:
(12)
(13)
(14)

(15)
etc.
Examination of these equations shows that in the terms on the left hand side the top limit for one integral is the same as the
bottom limit for the next integral as they represent the crack size at the change from one block of loading to the next. If all the
equations are added together then the intermediate limits on the left hand side all cancel out, and the following equation results:
(16)
If each of the different stress range blocks had been applied as constant amplitude loading to grow the crack completely from
its initial size a0 to its final size af, with lives Ni corresponding to stress ranges ∆σi the crack growth equations would be:
= C( )3(∆σ13N1 = C( )3∆σ23N2 = C( )3∆σ33N3 =... = C( )3 ∆σf3 Nf (16)
If Equation (14) is divided by Equation (15), using the appropriate term on the right hand side of Equation (15) containing the
same ∆σi as the successive terms in Equation (14), the result is the well known linear damage relationship, Miner's Law:
=1
It should be noted that this fracture mechanics version of Miner's Law has been derived on the assumption that there is no
interaction between successive blocks of loading at different stress ranges and without taking any account of effects of mean
stress or stress ratio on the crack propagation constants for each block of loading. However, in principle, the length of each
block could be reduced to a single cycle, so that the analysis predicts that Miner's Law should hold for random variable
amplitude loading. The fact that in practice significant retardation effects are observed for occasional overloads and
acceleration effects for underloads, and that Miner's Law damage summation figures differing significantly from 1 are often
obtained for different loading spectra, suggests that some of the underlying assumptions of the fracture mechanics analysis are
not valid. In fact these effects can be taken into account in more sophisticated fracture mechanics analyses by considering
crack closure and plasticity effects.
Example 2
Problem The plate of example 1 with initial extended length crack of height
2 mm is subject to the following combination of stress ranges and cycles under variable amplitude loading for a period of five
years. Assuming that the Paris Law is valid, with constants C = 2 × 10-13 and m = 3, determine the final crack height when all
cycles have been applied.
Stress range Number of cycles per year
N/mm2

120 102
100 103
80 104
60 105
40
106
20
107
Solution Integration of Equation (16) gives the following results:
= 1,114 × 10-12 (1203 × 102 + 1003 × 103 + 803 × 104 - 603 × 105 + 403 × 106 + 203 × 107) × 5 (19)
therefore:
= 2 × 10-13 × 5,568 × 1,7189 × 10" = 0,957 (20)
therefore af = 19,16 mm.
5. THRESHOLD EFFECTS
For constant amplitude loading, threshold effects are straightforward; if the applied stress intensity factor range is less than the
threshold value, the rate of fatigue crack propagation is zero. When the inherent size of initial flaw or imperfection associated
with a particular material and fabricated geometry is considered, it can be seen that the threshold stress intensity factor will
correspond to a fatigue limit stress level below which cracks will not develop. Thus fracture mechanics and conventional S-N
approaches are again matched.
For variable amplitude loading, the effects of the threshold are more complex. At short crack lengths the lower stress ranges
may be insufficient to make the stress intensity factor exceed the threshold but the higher stress ranges may be sufficient to
cause crack propagation to occur. As the crack grows longer under the action of the higher stress ranges, so the stress intensity
factor due to the lower stress ranges increases. These lower stress ranges will 'clip in' progressively to start driving the crack. It
is then necessary to calculate the crack length at which each of the stress ranges 'clips in' and to carry out the integration of
crack growth between limits for each of the these stages with the appropriate set of stress ranges active as shown in Example 3.
Example 3
Problem For the plate and loading of Example 2 the threshold stress intensity factor is 100 N/mm-3/2 and the loading is applied
for eight years. Determine the crack sizes at which different stress levels 'clip in', and the resulting final crack size allowing for
threshold effects.
Solution To determine the crack sizes at which the different stress levels 'clip in', it is necessary to use the equation:
∆Kth = (21)

This equation gives the following results for the stress ranges concerned, with a threshold value of 100 N/mm-3/2.
Stress range Threshold crack size mm
N/mm2
120 0,18
100 0,25
80 0,40
60 0,70
40 1,58
20 6,34
From the above table it can be seen that for an initial crack size of 2 mm, all the stress ranges of 40 N/mm2 and above exceed
the threshold from the start, but the stress range of 20 N/mm2 does not become effective until the crack has grown to a size of
6,34 mm. The crack propagation integration now has to be divided into two stages, from 2 mm to 6,34 mm, and from 6,34 mm
to the final size as follows:
= 1,114×10-12 (1203×102 + 1003×103 + 803×104 + 603×105
+ 403×106)xy (22)
where y is the number of years for the crack to grow to 6,34 mm under the stress ranges from 40 N/mm2 upwards. Solution of
this equation leads to y = 6,05 years. For the total life of 8 years, the remaining life for the second stage with all stress ranges
driving is 1,95 years. The integrated crack growth behaviour then becomes:
= 1,114 × 10-12 (1203×102 + 1003×103 + 803×104 + 603×105
+ 403×106 + 203×107) 1,95 (23)
This leads to a final crack size of 22,5 mm. The effect of the threshold has been
to remove the damage caused by the lowest stress range until the crack has grown to 6,34 mm, and hence to extend the life for
the crack to grow to the order of 20 mm from 5 to 8 years.
6. EFFECTS OF RESIDUAL STRESSES

Residual stresses are an inevitable consequence of a number of fabrication processes and procedures, and are particularly
important in welded steel structures. They have significant effects on fracture and fatigue. The effect on fatigue is to change
the mean stress and stress ratio locally at the weld compared to the applied loading conditions. Thus at a welded joint where
residual stresses are often at yield level in tension, constant amplitude fatigue loading leads to actual stresses at the weld which
cycle from the yield strength downwards by the magnitude of the applied stress range. If the applied loading included stresses
in the compressive region or which would cause crack closure so that part of the stress range is non-damaging, the effect of the
residual stresses is to hold the crack open so that the whole of the stress range becomes damaging. As the crack grows away
from the weld however it may run out of the tensile residual stress zone and into a compressive region. In these circumstances

part of the applied stress range will become non-effective. To deal with these types of situation it is useful to use the fracture
mechanics crack propagation equations with an 'effective' stress intensity factor range allowing for crack closure effects, and to
divide the crack growth into stages defined by crack sizes at which the effective stress intensity factor range changes due to the
crack tip moving into different residual stress regions.
● The total fatigue life of a component is in general made up of an initiation life for the formation of a crack and a
propagation life to the final size determined by instantaneous fracture, or by plastic collapse of the remaining cross-
section.
● The Paris Law describes the rate of fatigue crack propagation in terms of stress intensity factor range.
● Using the Paris Law, the life for crack growth from initial to final sizes can be calculated for constant amplitude loading
and also for variable amplitude loading. The Paris Law is consistent with Miner's Law.
● The fatigue behaviour is influenced by threshold effects, residual stresses and the effective stress intensity factor.

ESDEP LECTURE NOTES [WG12]
ESDEP WG 12
FATIGUE
Lecture 12.14: Fracture Mechanics:

Structural Engineering Applications
OBJECTIVE/SCOPE
Introduction to design concepts in the presence of structural damage, and to life prediction methodologies.
PRE-REQUISITES
None
RELATED LECTURES
Lecture 12.7: Reliability Analysis and Safety Factors Applied to Fatigue
SUMMARY
The basic concepts of safety, durability and reliability are briefly introduced and discussed with reference to
structural engineering applications. The basic principles for fail-safe and safe-life design are presented. The main parameters
to be accounted for in a fatigue life prediction are briefly presented and discussed.
1. SAFETY, DURABILITY AND RELIABILITY
1.1 Introduction to Safety and Durability Concepts
If a structural member or connection is subjected to a cyclically varying load, it may fail after a certain number of
load applications even if the maximum nominal stress in a single cycle is much less than the yield stress of either the
material or the weld metal or the fastener.
A crack may in fact be initiated at some mechanical or metallurgical discontinuity (stress concentration) and be
propagated through the material with successive load repetitions until the affected part loses its ability to carry the load.
This failure mechanism is known as "fatigue".
Many failures of engineering structures are attributed to the consequences of pre-existing cracks or crack-like
discontinuities. Unfortunately, standard design models for beams, columns and trusses which use conventional stress
analyses and strength of materials methods, cannot evaluate the effects of cracks in structural elements. Fracture
mechanics principles enable a more rational assessment of structures containing cracks to be carried out.
Originally, most structural engineering applications of fracture mechanics were limited to in-service assessment of
structures, mainly aircraft. Recently, the size and shape of discontinuities have been correlated to fabrication quality levels
[1]. As a result, code-drafting committees are beginning to employ fracture mechanics calculations in order to
evaluate specifications for quality assurance. Furthermore, when no specifications are applicable, fracture mechanics can
be used directly by the engineer for evaluating non-destructive inspection results.
The concept of damage-tolerant design is perhaps the major justification for the use of fracture mechanics. This
concept accepts the possibility that an element remains useful when it has been subject to damage upon
fabrication, transportation or even after several years in service. Such damage, is often manifested by cracking.

Damage tolerance has now become a standard design concept in some engineering fields; acceptance of certain aspects
is apparent in structural engineering, where new concepts are becoming more and more common.
Of particular importance, when adopting a damage-tolerant-design approach are the concepts of safety and durability.
Both safety and durability requirements can be satisfied by considering initial damage in the structure (or in the
structural element) and assuring that such damage does not grow and reach specific limits in prescribed time intervals.
Safety is associated with the extreme (i.e. the worst case) damage that may be missed during manufacturing inspection.
This damage must not grow and degrade the strength of the structure (or of the member) below specified limits throughout
the service life. Durability limits are associated with the economics of in-service repair, i.e. initial damage typical of
common manufacturing procedures is not allowed to grow to a size sufficient to require extensive rework or repair in less
than one design service lifetime.
Current practice involves the use of deterministic methods and fracture mechanics concepts to predict the accumulation
of crack growth damage. Engineering experience with the use of these methods has allowed the proper emphasis to be
placed on design decisions affecting such factors as allowable stress. Most of the input data for the deterministic methods
are available in statistical format (e.g. initial flaw sizes, material properties...) and thus it is possible to make estimates of
the probability of damage growth exceeding a specified level. Both the deterministic and probabilistic approaches require
a model of the damage accumulation process. Lack of essential data for important variables and inexperience of the use
of fracture mechanics and reliability methods for making conventional design decisions have been the main reasons for
these techniques not being used in current practice.
When dealing with structural damage, two major concepts must be taken into consideration: damage growth and
damage containment. These concepts give the two criteria for:
a) Safety - the assurance that safety (that is the strength) of the structure will achieve and maintain a specified residual level
(in the presence of undetected damage) through the anticipated service life.
b) Durability - the assurance that the structure can operate effectively with a minimum of structural maintenance,
inspection, costly retrofit, repair and replacement of major parts due to the degrading influence of general cracking,
corrosion, wear, etc.
Safety and durability limits are specified, designs chosen to comply, tests conducted to verify and management
procedures established to maintain and/or adjust the limits in service. Each structure must meet both the safety and
durability requirements.
1.2 Damage Growth Concepts
Past experience with testing of structural members under simulated service loading conditions indicated that time to
initiation of cracks from most structural details, such as sharp corners or holes, is relatively short and that the majority of
the life (i.e. as much as 95%) is spent growing the resultant cracks to failure [2]. Likewise, analyses of in-service
fracture, cracking instances, etc. have indicated that a major source of cracks is the occurrence of initial manufacturing
defects such as sharp corners, tool marks, weld inclusions and the like [3]. Thus it is now common practice to consider
the damage accumulation process as entirely crack growth with zero time to initiate the crack. Although this assumption
may seem unduly severe, the consideration of initial damage in the form of cracks or equivalent damage is absolutely
necessary to ensure structural safety.
Figure 1 (from [4]) includes a schematic of the damage model associated with structural safety.

Safety is ensured by designing to specific requirements of damage tolerance in which initial damage is never allowed to
grow and reduce the residual static strength of the structure below a prescribed level, Pxx, throughout the life of the
structure (or of the structural element). As indicated in Figure 1, Pxx is the greater of the design limit load or the maximum
load that might be encountered during the specified minimum period of unrepaired service usage. If in-service inspections
are required to ensure safety (e.g. for fail-safe designs) then the residual strength level, Pxx, is the maximum load likely
to occur during the inspection lifetime. The assumed initial damage, ai, is that associated with the capability of
manufacturing inspection.
When the concept of structural durability is considered, it includes "fatigue" procedures. In addition it includes also
the requirements for protection against such degrading factors as corrosion, stress corrosion, wear, fretting, etc.
To prevent widespread cracking, a flow growth model can be considered such as that shown in Figure 2 (from [4]).

In Figure 2 the limit, ae, is not failure as in the safety requirement but is associated with a size of crack that can be
repaired. The economic life, Ne, is defined as that time when the population of such cracks in each structure (or
structural element) just reaches sufficient size that rework or repair is no longer cost-effective. The durability
specification requires that the "economic life" be in excess of the design service life. In the example shown in Figure 2,
the initial population of flaws represents "apparent initial quality", or the conditions of structural details following
typical manufacturing operations such as hole drilling, shop or field welding, etc.
Since the limit for economic rework is strictly related to the manufacturing procedures (for example, for fastener holes, it is
of the order of the next minimal hole size), it is clear that the limit of growth for durability requirements is significantly
smaller than for safety.
Durability is associated with total flaw population, or total number of flaws in excess of the economic rework limit for
each member (or joint) in the structure. Safety is concerned with the "worst case" of flaw size likely to be missed during
an inspection.
In general it is not possible to anticipate the extent of usage of a structure (or structural detail). Design is accomplished with
the best estimate of typical usage and variance in expected usage. Thus safety and durability limits of some
individual structural detail may be shorter than estimated in design. This condition places a tremendous emphasis on
life management and in-service inspection of individual structures. In practice, design estimates of safety and durability
limits, as well as of remaining fatigue life, are adjusted to reflect usage severity based on analyses of the accumulation of
crack growth damage performed on individual structures.
1.3 Design Concepts Accounting for Damage
In the design of a structure which is to be subjected only to static loading, the design process consists essentially of
choosing the structural dimensions so as to satisfy at all points the condition:
(1)
where the function of the cross-section size may be represented by an area, a section modulus, etc., corresponding to
functions of the applied loading such as axial load, bending moment, etc., and the design stress is exclusively a function of
the mechanical property of the material, such as yield strength or ultimate tensile strength. Equation (1) is quite independent
of the detailed shape of the structure at any particular point, and its solution requires only the application of
simple mathematics.
The design of a structure which may suffer fatigue failures is, on the contrary, a somewhat more complex process. In fact
the fatigue strength depends on many more variables than the static strength of the material, and particularly on the

detailed design of the joints in the structure. Thus, although the equation which has to be satisfied is still the same, there is
the additional problem of selecting a suitable value for the design stress. This selection becomes the main issue when
designing a structure against fatigue.
The first difficulty is to decide what one is trying to achieve in terms of life, i.e. how long should the structure last. In the
past, even though detailed design to prevent fatigue damage was not common, infinite life was often achieved (it is sufficient
to think as an example of Roman bridges, some of which are still standing at present because the static design of
structures involved the application of large safety factors and the use of approximate design methods, which resulted both
in the use of pessimistic estimates of design resistance and in the overestimation of the service loads.
However, design stresses have steadily increased and the use of more sophisticated design methods means that,
nowadays, design stresses tend actually to be present in structures in service. This level of stressing is the reason why
fatigue has become a problem. The only way that a designer can ensure infinite life is to use working stresses below the
fatigue limit of the joints in the structure. This approach implies the use of very low working stresses. However, if any
stress cycle has an amplitude greater than the fatigue limit, then it must be accepted that failure will eventually occur and
the life be finite.
The designer is therefore in a dilemma. Is he to keep the stresses very low, inevitably at the expense of a heavy structure,
and try to obtain infinite life, or is he to accept a finite life? And if he does accept a finite life, on what basis is he then
to choose the design stresses?
Much of the thinking on this subject has originated in the aircraft industry (where weight saving is of particular importance).
It is of particular interest to consider the two design philosophies which were developed by aircraft engineers, which are
known as the "safe-life" and the "fail-safe" concepts of structural design.
In the "safe-life" method the designer starts by making an estimate of the load spectrum to which the critical
structural components are likely to be subjected in service. These components are then analysed or tested under that
load spectrum, so as to obtain its expected life. Finally a factor of safety is applied so as to give a safe life during which
the possibility of fatigue failure is considered to be sufficiently remote. At the end of that period, the structural
components concerned are automatically replaced. It is important to realize that, even though the estimate of the laboratory
life can be made by practical tests, the safe-life method is ultimately theoretical in nature. The critical step is to derive from
the expected life the safe life. The factor of safety introduced at this stage has to allow for a large number of unknowns, such
as scatter obtained in fatigue test results, errors in the estimate of the load spectrum and the effect of extraneous variables
such as environmental conditions, corrosion, etc. It is clear that by making the factor of safety sufficiently large, the
designer can govern the probability of failure associated with his design. On the other hand, if a fatigue crack does occur,
it may well be catastrophic, and safety depends on achieving a specified life without a fatigue crack developing. With
this design method, the emphasis is on prevention of crack initiation.
With the "fail-safe" concept the basis of design is that, even if failure of part of the main structure does occur, there will
always be sufficient strength and stiffness in the remaining part to enable the structure to be used safely until the crack
is discovered. This concept implies that periodic in-service inspection is a necessity, and that the methods used must be such
as to ensure that cracked members will be discovered, so that repairs or replacements can be made.
It is clear that with this method of design the probability of partial failure is much greater than with the "safe-life" design.
In developing a fail-safe structure, the safe-life should also be evaluated, in order to make sure that it is of the right order
of magnitude. However, the emphasis, instead of being on the prevention of crack initiation, is on producing a structure
in which a crack will propagate slowly, and which is capable of supporting the full design load after partial failure. The
basic principle of fail-safe design is therefore to produce a multiple load-path structure, and preferably a structure
containing crack arresters. In addition, the structural elements must be arranged so as to make inspection as easy as possible.
In areas where that is not possible, the elements must be oversized so that either fatigue cracking does not occur in them,
or fatigue crack growth is so slow that there is no risk of failure.
It must be emphasized that the objective of both philosophies is the same, namely to reduce to a negligible level the risk
of catastrophic failure. It is now generally accepted that neither method is satisfactory when applied in isolation [5]. Both
are necessary and they are not mutually exclusive. In fact, a safe-life design would produce a structure with a high level
of freedom from fatigue cracking; however, the same structure should possess fail-safe characteristics.
As a consequence, even in as critical and expensive a structure as an aircraft, designers are prepared to accept a
philosophy which results not only in a finite life from the point of view of fatigue cracking, but also, with sufficient
safeguards, in a structure which may contain fatigue cracks during part of its working life.
Once the idea is accepted that it is reasonable to design a structure on a finite life basis, it is clear that the exact
design philosophy to be adopted depends on the consequences of failure. Sometimes, a satisfactory design method is
provided by a modified safe-life philosophy, the so called "working-life" method [5].

The objective is not to reduce the risk of catastrophic failure to a negligible level, but to produce a structure which will
usually (but not necessarily always) be free from fatigue cracks for a specified life. As compared with the true "safe-
life" philosophy, less importance is placed on making an accurate estimate of the safe life. In formal terms, this means that
two important changes are made in that philosophy: (a) that the structure is not automatically replaced at the end of its
"safe working life", and (b) that it is accepted that some cracking may develop before the "safe life" is reached. It
therefore becomes reasonable, instead of estimating the safe life accurately by carrying out programmed fatigue tests
on specimens representing the particular structure, to estimate it analytically by using fatigue test results obtained on
laboratory specimens representing standard details typical of those used in the structure.
It is important to notice that each of the previously described methodologies essentially imply a different probability of
failure. In fact, for a safe-life design, it might be decided to use an S-N curve relating to the mean minus 2 standard
deviations of Log N (corresponding to the 97,7% probability of survival), while for fail-safe design the S-N
curve corresponding to the mean minus 1 standard deviation (representing the 84,1% probability of survival) might
be considered to be sufficiently conservative.
1.4 Reliability and Risk Analyses
In current practice, designs are chosen to satisfy specific safety and durability life and strength requirements by
deterministic analyses of damage growth and residual strength. Decisions on materials, structural configurations,
allowable stresses, etc., are based upon the results of these analyses.
Durability of metallic structures is influenced by the local details of joints, splices, welds, fasteners, eccentricities, etc. For
a given design, the lower the gross stress, the more durable the design.
Analyses of crack growth damage, while generally deterministic, rely on input data such as initial flaw sizes, material
and usage variability, etc., which are available in a statistical format. Thus, in addition to predicting mean values of
damage accumulation, the methods can be used to predict the distribution of damage with time. For example, under
specific usage and assumed distributions of the other variables, it is possible to estimate the distribution of lives, growth
rates, final flaw sizes, etc. and thus the probability of equalling or exceeding a certain requirement. If only one variable
is considered, the estimation can be straightforward. When joint probabilities are involved, the procedures become
more complex. The results of the probabilistic analyses are extremely sensitive to the initial distributions of the variables
and the functions used to approximate them. Among the major variables to be considered are:
● material strength
● crack growth rate
● critical crack size
● usage and maximum operational loads
● crack detection capability
● inspection techniques
● frequency of inspection
Although published reliability methods can be found in the literature, current practice does not in general reflect their use.
In fact, the sparsity of data associated with the major variables listed above, and the extreme sensitivity of the results to
the distribution functions has limited the effectiveness of, and the confidence in, the results. Furthermore, the design to
a specified reliability level requires that the acceptable failure rate be established in advance, and that relationships
be established between reliability and normal design decision factors (i.e. allowable stress, structural configuration, etc.).
Since overall structural reliability can be significantly altered by factors other than those normally considered in design (e.
g. inspection frequency), it is rather difficult to assign the proper weighting function to any particular variable.
Actually, reliability techniques have been more successful in assessing older structures (i.e. in assessing remaining fatigue
life) where extensive test and service failure data are available to establish the mean time to failure with some degree
of confidence [6].
For the concept of durability described in the previous paragraphs, probabilistic techniques may have the most direct
impact, since the ultimate decision on the economic life is connected to the global population of cracks just below the
rework limit. Safety requirements, on the other hand, account for growth of the extremes of the initial flaw population
and other variables (i.e. the worst case). It is anticipated that the requirements will continue to be satisfied with
conventional practices based on deterministic methods.
In summary, methods for calculating the accumulation of crack growth damage are required for both deterministic
and probabilistic analyses. Lack of essential data for important variables and inexperience with the use of reliability
methods for making conventional design decisions have been the main reasons for the nearly complete absence of
these techniques in current design practice.

2. LIFE PREDICTION METHODOLOGY
2.1 Introduction
Currently, life prediction for a structure subject to variable loading is generally based on crack growth damage
integration models which use a data base and analysis to interrelate the following elements:
(a) initial flaw size and distribution
(b) loading conditions
(c) basic crack growth material properties
(d) crack and structural properties
(e) damage model
(f) fracture or life limiting criteria.
These models are always calibrated on the basis of test results, and the confidence normally associated with life predictions
is usually derived from the ability of the model to predict the laboratory generated crack growth behaviour.
The only quantifiable measure of fatigue damage is a crack. Cracks impair the load-carrying characteristics of a structure.
A crack can be characterized for length and configuration using the stress intensity factor K, a structural parameter
interrelating the local stresses in the region of the crack tip with (a) crack geometry, (b) structural geometry, and (c) level
of load on the structure.
The crack grows in response to the cyclic loading applied to the structure. Any crack (a) will grow a given increment
(∆a) when subjected to a given number of cycles (∆N), the rate being measured by . When the crack length reaches
a critical value (acr), the growth becomes unstable, thereby inducing failure. The life (NF) is the measure of accumulated
cycles required to drive the crack from its initial length ai to the critical length acr. The interrelationship between crack
length, loading and residual strength of a structure is illustrated in Figure 3 (from [4]).

As shown in Figure 3, the monotonic increase in crack length is induced by a continuous sequence of cyclic loads. The
residual strength (σres), that is the load carrying capacity of the cracked structure, is shown to monotonically decrease
with increasing crack length following an expression of the type:
σres = Kc/f(a) (2)
where:
Kc is a material property, termed fracture toughness, which is a constant for a specific geometry
f(a) = Y(a) is a structural property (the stress intensity factor).
When the residual strength decays to the level of the maximum stress in the service load history, fracture occurs. The
crack length associated with fracture (i.e. acr) is determined by solving Equation (2) for crack length, assuming that the
residual strength equals the maximum stress level in the spectrum, or that it equals the design limit load stress level
(whichever is greater). It is interesting to notice that the crack growth rate is directly related to the rate of loss of
residual strength through Equation (2), thus justifying the selection of crack length as the main parameter to quantify
structural fatigue damage.
2.2 Crack Growth Behaviour Effects
A crack of length ai will grow to acr in some service life, NF. Experiments have shown that several parameters affect NF;
the most important of these are:
● initial crack size, ai

● loading history and conditions
● material properties
● structural properties
● critical crack size, acr.
2.2.1 Initial Crack Size
The role of initial crack size on fatigue crack growth is of paramount importance; in fact, as illustrated in Figure 4, given
a configuration and loading, the smaller the initial crack size, the longer the fatigue life. Furthermore, the shape of the a-
N curve for a given configuration and loading remains essentially constant for any given crack growth increment. Thus,
given the crack growth curve from ai1 in Figure 5 (from [4]), it is possible to determine the crack growth curve from ai2>ai1
by simply shifting the previous curve on the left, as shown in the figure, where Ni represents the number of cycles required
to grow the crack from ai1 to ai2. It follows that NF2 = NF1 - Ni.

2.2.2 Loading
The stress history experienced at each location of the structure will differ due to changes in bending and twisting

moments, shear, etc. It follows that similar structural details placed in different locations within the structure will
experience different loading histories. Given a particular joint and initial crack configuration, it is clear that, when subjected
to a more severe loading spectrum, a shorter life (NF1) will result than under a less severe spectrum (resulting in a
longer fatigue life NF2).
Experimentally, it has been shown that for the same loading condition (i.e. the same number and amplitude of stress
cycles) cracks will grow faster in certain materials (or alloys) than in others. The crack growth rate (∆a/∆N) can be
derived experimentally for each material. Given the same load and geometric conditions, the material (or alloy) having
the slower growth rate characteristics will have a longer life (NF), as shown in Figure 6 (from [4]).
2.2.4 Structural Properties
The most complex of the parameters affecting crack growth behaviour are the structural properties. The structural
properties involve such things as crack configuration, load transfer mechanisms, fastener hole size, dimensions and extent
of weldments, part thickness, stress concentrations due to geometric effects, etc. A substantial amount of both experimental
and numerical work has been performed to characterize the geometrical effects on fatigue life see, for example [2, 3, 5-15].
2.2.5 Critical Crack Length
The critical crack length (acr) is a function of material, structural geometry and loading. As shown in Figure 7 (from [4]),
for acr/ai sufficiently large (e.g. >5), the relative effect of acr on NF is typically small. The primary advantage of designing for
a large critical crack length is the increased inspectability that it provides. A large critical crack length increases the
probability of locating the crack before it becomes critical, thereby enhancing structural safety.

2.3 Fatigue Crack Growth Prediction Models
Life predictions are usually performed by means of crack growth damage integration models, which interrelate the
following elements:
a) the initial flaw distribution, which accounts for size variations and location of cracks in a given structure;
b) the usage of the structure, describing the load spectra data base;
c) material properties concerning constant amplitude crack growth rate material properties, accounting for stress ratio
and environmental effects;
d) crack tip stress intensity factor analyses which account for crack size, shape and structural interactions;
e) damage integrator model which assigns a level of crack growth for each applied stress application and accounts for
load history interactions;
f) the fracture or life limiting criterion, which establishes the end point of the life calculation.
As expressed in a numerical form, the damage integrating equation is:
acr = ai + Σj = 1,Nf ∆aj (3)
where ∆aj is the growth increment associated with the j-th applied load cycle.
The purpose of Equation (3) is to determine the fatigue life (NF).
The results obtainable from Equation (3) depend on the interaction among the various elements (a)-(f); such interaction
takes place as follows:
1) acr is determined by interrelating (b), (d), and (f)
2) ∆aj is a function of the interaction between (b), (c), (d) and (e).

2.3.1 Initial Flaw Distribution
A measure of initial quality in a structural component is given by the distribution of initial crack sizes, Figure 8 (from [4]).
For predictions of safety limits, the initial cracks larger than the non destructive inspection (NDI) detectability limit are of
main concern.
Presently, many specifications, in particular in the aeronautics field [4,7], detail NDI limits and require verification
and certification of the capability of the contractor to detect cracks smaller than the specified NDI limits.
2.3.2 Usage
The sum of the load levels that a structure is expected to experience is determined by a projection of the amount of
usage expected over its service life, in the various possible service conditions. The specific sequence of loads that is applied
to the structure must be known for a precise crack growth damage analysis. Each loading event in the design, analyses or
test load spectrum consists of a series of cycles that combine the deterministic and the probabilistic events describing the
type of loading. The deterministic events include usual loading conditions (e.g. for a bridge structure, usual traffic loads, or
for an aircraft takeoff, landing and some basic manoeuvre loads during each flight). Probabilistic events such as oversized
loads (legal or illegal) for bridges, or rough field taxiing for aircraft, may occur periodically. Although it is possible to
estimate, at least roughly, the number of times these events occur, their position in the load sequences may be determined
only by means of probabilistic considerations.
In developing the load spectrum for crack growth damage analysis, it is necessary to determine the stress history for
each critical area in the structure. This is accomplished by determining, by means of stress analysis, the relationship
between the load history and the local stress response, as illustrated in Figure 9 (from [4]).

The material properties enter the damage integration procedure in the form of constant amplitude crack growth rate data.
Crack growth data are generated in tests in the laboratory under constant amplitude loading cycles, on simple specimens
with accepted characterizing stress intensity factors. Crack growth rate data are developed and correlated on the basis of
growth rate (da/dN) as a function of the stress intensity factor range ∆K, (∆K = Kmax - Kmin).
For a given ∆K, the crack growth rate increases with increasing stress ratio (R=σmin/σmax). Hence, the constant
amplitude crack growth rate properties for a given material or alloy consist of a set of curves, as shown in Figure 10 (from
[4]). It is important to notice that, for the fracture mechanics approach, given a ∆K:R combination, there is a unique value
of the crack growth rate (da/dN), which is independent of geometry. When necessary, thermal or environmental effects can
also be included in the crack growth rate data generated by laboratory testing.

2.3.4 Crack Tip Stress Intensity Factor Analysis
The crack tip stress intensity factor (K) interrelates the crack geometry, the structural geometry and the load on the
structure with the local stresses in the region of the crack tip. The stress intensity factor takes the form:
(4)
where:
● Y(a) is a correction factor which is a function of the crack length and accounts for the structural configuration and
loading conditions
● σ is the applied stress
● a is the crack length.
It can be seen that any number of combinations of the parameters Y(a), σ and a can give rise to the same K. The crack
growth analysis rests on the experimentally verified proposition that a given K gives rise to a certain crack growth
rate, regardless of the way in which the parameters were combined to generate that K.
Considerable references are available which define experimental and mathematical solutions for stress intensity factors,
for various structural configurations, both in closed or approximate form, e.g. [8].
2.3.5 Damage Integration Models
Rewriting Equation (3) such that the integration is conducted between the initial crack length (ai) and any intermediate
crack length (an) between ai and acr, the following expression is obtained:
an = ai + Σj = 1,N ∆aj (5)
where N is the number of cycles corresponding to the intermediate crack length an. The next cycle of the spectrum
stress induces a crack length increment ∆aN+1. The damage integration model provides the analysis capability to determine
this crack length increment. The growth increment ∆aN+1 is set equal to the constant amplitude crack growth rate, which in
turn is expressed as a function of stress intensity factor range (∆K) and stress ratio (R). These functions are determined
by using the maximum and minimum stresses in the N+1 cycle of the given spectrum, and evaluating the correction factor
Y(a), in Equation (4), associated with the given structural geometry at crack length an. After calculating the two crack
tip parameters ∆K and R, they can be modified to account for the effect of prior loading history, using retardation models (e.
g. [9]). Retardation models account for high-to-low load interaction effects, i.e. the phenomena whereby the growth of a
crack is slowed by application of a high load in the spectrum. Failure to account for high-to-low load interaction via
retardation models leads to conservative crack life predictions.
2.3.6 Final Crack Length
The final crack length, while estimating safety limits, may ordinarily be chosen as acr. However, durability considerations
often dictate that the final crack size, aF, be chosen smaller than acr to represent re-work or repair limits. A choice of aF
along these lines is shown in Figure 11 (from [4]).

❍ Many failures of engineering structures are attributed to the consequences of pre-existing cracks or crack-like discontinuities.
❍ Standard design models for beams, columns and trusses using conventional stress analyses and strength of materials
methods, cannot evaluate the effect of cracks in structural elements. Fracture mechanics principles enable a more
rational assessment of structures containing cracks.
❍ Damage tolerance has now become a standard design concept in some engineering fields. The concepts of safety and
durability are particularly important in this approach.
❍ Safety is associated with the extremes damage that may be missed during manufacturing inspection. Durability limits
are associated with the economics of in-service repair.
❍ In current practice, designs are chosen to satisfy specific safety and durability life and strength requirements by
deterministic analyses of damage growth and residual strength.
❍ Currently, life prediction for a structure subject to variable loading is generally based on integration models of crack
growth damage. The models are calibrated on the basis of test results. They interrelate initial flaw size and distribution,
loading conditions, crack growth material properties, crack and structural properties, the damage model and the fracture or
life limiting criteria.
4. REFERENCES
[1] Guidance on Some Methods for the Derivation of Acceptance Levels for Defects in Fusion Welded Joints,
British Standards Institution PD 6493, 1980.
[2] Rolfe and Barsom "Fatigue and Fracture Control in Structures", Prentice Hall Inc., Englewood Cliffs, N.J., 1977.
[3] Fisher J.W. "Fatigue and Fracture in Steel Bridges: Case Studies", J Wiley & Sons, New York 1984.
[4] Wood H.A., Engle R.M., Gallagher J. and Potter J.M. "Current Practice on Estimating Crack Growth
Damage Accumulation with Specific Application to Structural Safety, Durability and Reliability", AFFDL-TR-75-32,
March 1975.
[5] Gurney T.R., "Fatigue of Welded Structures", Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, 1979.
[6] Madsen H.O., Tallin A.G., "Fatigue Reliability Updating Based on Inspection and Monitoring Results",
Proceedings, IABSE Workshop on "Remaining Fatigue Life", Lausanne, 1990.
[7] ESACRACK User's Manual, ESA PSS-03-209, European Space Agency, Mechanical Systems Department, Structures
and Mechanisms Division, Structural Design Section, Noordwijk, The Netherlands, 1989.
[8] Tada H., Irwin G.R., Paris P.C., "The Stress Analysis of Crack Handbook", Del. Research Corp., Hellertown, PA, 1973.

[9] Willemborg J., Engle R.M., and Wood H.A., "A Crack Growth Retardation Model using an Effective Stress
Concept", AFFDL-TM-71-1-FBR, 1971.
1. Fisher J.W. "Bridge Fatigue Guide: Design and Details", American Institute of Steel Construction, New York, 1977.
2. Fisher J.W., Hirt M.A. and McNamee B.M., "Effect of Weldments on the Fatigue Strength of Steel Beams", NCHRP
Rept. 102, 1970.
3. Fisher J.W., Yen B.T., Klingerman D.J., McNamee B.M., "Fatigue Strength of Steel Beams with Welded Stiffeners
and Attachments", NCHRP Rept. 147, 1974.
4. Schilling C.G., Klippstein K.H., Barson J.M., Blake G.T., "Fatigue of Welded Steel Bridge Members under
Variable Amplitude Loading", NCHRP Rept. 188, 1978.
5. Fisher J.W., Barthelemy B.M., Mertz D.R., Edinger J.A., "Fatigue Behaviour of Full-Scale welded Bridge
Attachments", NCHRP Rept. 227, 1980.
6. Fisher J.W., Hausamann H., Sullivan M.D., Pense A.W., "Detection and Repair of Fatigue Damage in Welded
Highway Bridges", NCHRP Rept. 206, 1979.
7. Fisher J.W., Yen B.T., Wang D., Mann J.E., "Fatigue and Fracture evaluation for Rating Riveted Bridges", NCHRP Rept. 303.
8. Castiglioni C.A., Bremen U., "Influence of some geometrical parameters on stress concentration in longitudinal
attachments", Costruzioni Metalliche, n.4, 1989, Milano, Italy.
9. Smith I.F.C., Gurney T.R., "Changes in the fatigue life of plates with attachments due to geometrical effects",
Welding Research Supplement, AWS, vol 65 no.9.

ESDEP WG 12
FATIGUE
Lecture 12.15: Fracture Mechanics

Applied to Fitness for Purpose
OBJECTIVE/SCOPE:
To show methods for the practical application of fracture mechanics for predictions of fatigue crack growth through to
final failure including estimates of the significance of flaws.
PREREQUISITES
RELATED LECTURES
Lecture 12.8: Basic Design Concepts in Eurocode 3
SUMMARY
The lecture describes the application of fracture mechanics procedures for estimating crack shape development and
fatigue lives by considering incremental crack growth at the deepest point and surface points of a crack. The effect of
multiple initiation sites and the subsequent coalescence is described. The failure assessment diagram method for
determining final failure by fracture or plastic collapse is explained. The extension of the fatigue treatments to
variable amplitude loading and to include residual stress, threshold, and crack closure effects is described.
1. INTRODUCTION
The general background to the use of fracture mechanics for fatigue applications is described in Lecture 12.13.
This background showed that the Paris Law for instantaneous growth rate of fatigue crack propagation could be integrated
to determine the fatigue life between given initial and final crack sizes. It was also shown that this approach is
entirely consistent with the S-N approach for welded details, and leads to relationships of the form SmN = constant, where m
is the crack growth exponent in the Paris Law, which typically has a value of about 3. For variable amplitude loading it
was also shown that the fracture mechanics approach gave the same answers as Miner's Law for variable amplitude loading
on the assumption that there is no interaction between cycles of different stress levels.
2. CRACK SHAPE DEVELOPMENT

Cracks can be categorised in geometrical terms as:
(i) through-thickness cracks
(ii) embedded cracks
(iii) surface cracks
For the purpose of modelling the fracture mechanics, the part-thickness embedded or surface cracks are idealised as elliptical
or semi-elliptical in shape. Most fatigue cracks in welded structures start either from surface stress concentrations such as
weld toes, or from weld discontinuities or internal flaws. Thus fatigue cracks grow from an initial part-thickness condition
to through-thickness and then grow on as through-thickness cracks if they have not reached final failure.
During the stages at which a fatigue crack is part-thickness, the stress intensity factor varies around the perimeter of the
crack front, as described in Lectures 12.10 and 12.11. Since the crack growth rate depends on the stress intensity factor
raised to the power m, it follows that the crack grows at different rates at different positions around the crack front and
may therefore change its shape progressively. The Y factor in the general expression for the stress intensity factor, K =
Y , is itself a function of both a/T, the crack depth to thickness ratio, and a/2c, the crack depth to crack length
or aspect ratio for part thickness cracks. It is therefore no longer possible to integrate the Paris Law equation directly as
an analytical expression because of the changes in Y as the crack grows and changes the a/T and a/2c ratios.
The procedure adopted to deal with this situation is to use incremental numerical methods. Starting with the required
initial crack depth and aspect ratio, the stress intensity factor is calculated at the deepest point of the crack and at the ends
of the crack for the stressing conditions applied. This can be done using the parametric equations of Raju and
Newman, included for example also in BSI Document PD 6493 [1], for either pure tension or pure bending stress conditions
in a flat plate. It can be shown that conservative (high) estimates of the stress intensity factor are always obtained if the
applied stress field is represented by a linear gradient of tension and bending stress over the region of the crack.
The Raju and Newman equations enable stress intensity factors to be calculated for unit stresses in tension or bending at
any position around the crack front, and the total stress intensity factor can be calculated by adding together the
separate tension and bending components corresponding to the stress field considered. To determine the progressive change
in crack shape, the procedure is firstly to calculate the stress intensity factor for the deepest and surface (end) positions on
the crack front. The crack growth rate is then calculated at the deepest and incremental distance in the deepest direction.
This distance should be chosen as a small proportion of the remaining ligament such that the crack growth rate can
be considered sensibly constant, and the number of cycles is the distance divided by the growth rate. This same number
of cycles is then applied to the growth rate at the ends of the crack to calculate the increment of crack growth in this
direction. Adding the increments of crack growth in each direction to the original crack dimensions gives the new
dimensions which determine the new shape.
The stress intensity factors at the deepest and end positions are then recalculated for the new crack dimensions and
the procedure repeated for a new increment of crack growth in the depth direction. This calculation is repeated again and
again until the crack reaches a pre-determined final size or reaches a size to cause failure. The choice of size of increments
of crack growth in the depth direction is important in determining both accuracy and time/cost of carrying out the analysis.
The analysis is usually put into effect by writing a computer program to implement the step by step calculations. The
smaller the increments the more accurate the results but the more steps are required to reach a given final crack size. The
most efficient procedure is generally found to be to use small increments from the initial crack size and increase these in
steps on a logarithmic basis over the remaining ligament of the thickness. The reason for this procedure is that, as the
crack grows larger, the growth rate increases substantially because the stress intensity factor is raised to a power in the
crack growth law. Thus most of the fatigue life is spent whilst the crack is small and the crack growth rate accelerates to
failure rapidly.
Because tension and bending stresses produce different ratios of the stress intensity factor at the deepest and end positions
of the crack, different crack shapes are produced for these conditions. The fatigue crack tends to grow to a shape in which
the stress intensity factor is uniform around the crack front. For tension loading the stable crack shape tends towards
semi-circular, whilst for pure bending applied loads the stable shape is semi-elliptical. This is shown in Figure 1 where
results of fracture mechanics analyses are compared with experiment in some work at UMIST by Chu [2]. There can be
some effects of variable amplitude loading and threshold on crack shape development. These effects are discussed later.

The initial crack dimensions to be used in a fatigue fracture mechanics analysis depend on the level of detailed accuracy
of model used. Where assessment is being carried out of a known detected flaw, clearly the dimensions of that flaw should
be used. If an attempt is being made to model the behaviour of notionally sound welds then consideration has to be given to
the imperfections and stress fields inherent to welded joints. The assumptions made in this respect can make

significant differences to the predicted results obtained. It is now well established that virtually the whole of the fatigue life
of as-welded joints is taken up with propagation of initial tiny flaws to a final crack size for failure. It is necessary for
the fracture mechanics models to represent observed experimental behaviour both in respect of fatigue life to failure and
crack shape development. The models which do this best involve multiple crack initiation and coalescence as discussed below.
3. MULTIPLE CRACK INITIATION

In welded structures it is commonly found that fatigue cracks initiate from tiny slag intrusions in the partially melted region
at the weld toe alongside the fusion line. These intrusions are distributed randomly along the weld toe region. This
distribution leads to multiple independent initiation of a series of small fatigue cracks at the weld toe. The precise positions
at which these cracks are initiated depends both on the occurrence of these intrusions and on the detail of weld toe
geometry such as weld toe radius, weld size and weld angle. The cracks grow independently until they interact with
adjacent similar cracks. At this stage they coalesce to form a single crack of the same depth as the individual single cracks
but with a length covering the combined length of all the cracks which have come together as shown in Figure 2. The effect
is that the crack shape development curve shows a discontinuity when coalescence occurs. This discontinuity is shown
in Figure 3 for the case of a fracture mechanics analysis of crack shape development in the stress fields typical of
offshore tubular joints. A comparison is also made in Figure 3 with the case of a single crack of the same initial shape. A
study of these effects by Thurlbeck [3] at UMIST showed that the coalescence stage depended on the size, aspect ratio
and pitch of the initial weld toe intrusions, and that the fracture mechanics analysis could give a good prediction of
observed experimental behaviour provided the weld toe geometry, and variable amplitude loading/threshold effects are
taken into account.

The sizes of weld toe intrusions to be taken as initial cracks in the fracture mechanics analyses of fatigue in welded joints are
of the order of 0,1 to 0,4mm depth. For the multiple crack growth case, the initial aspect ratio is taken as a typical a/2c ratio
of 1, i.e. semi-circular. The initial spacing of these intrusions depends on welding procedure, plate thickness and stress
level, but is typically of the order of 10 to 20mm.
In variable amplitude loading it is possible for the stress intensity factor at, say, the surface (end) position of the crack to
be above the threshold, whilst at the deepest position the stress intensity factor may be below the threshold, particularly
under bending stress conditions applied to a weld toe region. If this situation occurs, crack growth can take place at the ends
of the crack but not at the deepest point for this load level. The fracture mechanics crack growth procedure must take
account of this behaviour. Thus the crack will change its shape in a different way from that which would occur
without threshold effects intervening. This effect tends sometimes to drive cracks along the surface to give them a longer
aspect ratio under variable amplitude than for constant amplitude, but the effects can be predicted by a carefully set up
fracture mechanics model.
4. FINAL FAILURE CRITERIA

The final crack size to be used as the upper limit for the fracture mechanics analysis is usually taken as either equal to the
plate thickness or to the crack size which would cause an unacceptable risk of failure. The failure modes usually considered
are fracture or plastic collapse. Fracture mechanics analyses are also used to determine these conditions and can be built into
an overall computer program calculating both fatigue and final failure behaviour. In components containing liquids or
gases, the development of through-thickness cracking clearly represents failure by leakage, and this crack size represents
a natural upper limit for such cases.
In the introductory Lecture 12.10 on fracture mechanics, the basis of the stress intensity factor as the parameter
controlling stress, strain, and energy fields in the neighbourhood of a crack tip was explained, and methods of determining
it were described in Lecture 12.12. It was also explained that in materials which fail by fracture under linear elastic

conditions the failure occurs at a critical value of the stress intensity factor. This critical value is known as the
fracture toughness and given the symbol Kc. It is found that this fracture toughness depends on the material, temperature,
strain rate, and triaxiality of stress. This latter effect is usually manifested by effects of geometry and thickness on
the toughness values measured experimentally. The toughness is found to be lower for thicker material. In standard bend
or compact tension specimens a minimum thickness requirement is given to ensure that plane strain conditions are
maintained throughout to obtain a minimum toughness level known as the plane strain fracture toughness and given the
symbol Klc. It was also explained in Lecture 12.10 that local yielding at the crack tip had the same effect as a slight increase
in crack length for elastic cases and the concept of a plastic zone correction for the stress intensity factor was introduced.
This effect of plasticity in increasing the severity of crack tip conditions becomes more important as applied stress
conditions approach general yielding. The stress intensity factor loses its validity as a linear elastic parameter, at least in
small scale laboratory specimens, although in full scale structures it is still possible to have a large absolute size of
plastic region contained by surrounding elastic material. To analyse such situations properly it is necessary to carry out
elastic-plastic stress analyses of cracked bodies and to use alternative parameters to measure the severity of crack
tip conditions. Two such parameters are the crack (tip) opening displacement δ, and the J contour integral. A full discussion
of these parameters is beyond the scope of the present lecture, but it is sufficient to know that both of these parameters
are commonly turned into equivalent notional stress intensity factor or fracture toughness values in terms of K through
the following relationships:
K2 = Ef J = Ef mσyδ (1)
where Ef = E for plane stress, and Ef = E/(1- ν2) for plane strain, and m is a constraint factor lying between 1 and 2.
As well as failure by fracture including the effects of yielding on severity of crack tip conditions, the effect of cracks on
failure by plastic collapse on the remaining net cross-section has to be considered. One of the best methods of
combining together consideration of fracture and plastic collapse is the use of failure assessment diagrams of the
type developed originally in the UK by the CEGB as their R6 approach, and now also included in PD 6493 [1] which
describes assessment of the significance of weld defects. An example of a level 2 assessment diagram is shown in Figure
4. The vertical axis can be thought of as the fracture axis, and is the ratio of the applied elastic stress intensity factor to
the plane strain fracture toughness, Kr. Clearly, if this ratio reaches 1, then failure occurs by fracture. The horizontal axis can
be thought of as the plasticity axis, and is the ratio of the applied load to the plastic collapse load, Sr (based on collapse at
the flow strength, the average of yield and ultimate strengths). Again, if this ratio reaches 1, failure is predicted, this time
by plastic collapse. As the Sr ratio increases so does the amount of plasticity at the crack tip, which in turn increases
the severity of crack tip conditions from a fracture point of view. If the equivalent stress intensity factor of Equation (1)
is thought of as consisting of elastic and plastic parts, as the amount of plasticity increases so the plastic part of the
equivalent stress intensity factor must increase and the elastic proportion must reduce. Since the Kr axis uses only the
elastic stress intensity factor, the effect of plasticity has to be taken into account by a reducing value of Kr as Sr
increases. Thus, in Figure 4, the height of the assessment diagram curve at any value of Sr represents the permitted value of
Kr based on elastic stress intensity factor, whilst the shaded area above the curve represents the additional contribution to
the equivalent stress intensity factor due to plasticity.

The procedure for assessing the acceptability of any given crack size is to calculate the parameters Kr and Sr (or Lr for the
level 3 assessment diagram based on yield and strain hardening behaviour). In the 1991 edition of the BSI document PD
6493 [1] there are three levels of assessment diagram as shown in Figure 5 and detailed procedures are given for calculating
the different parameters. The point representing the coordinates Kr Sr (or Lr) is plotted on the appropriate assessment
diagram. If this point lies inside the assessment diagram as shown at A on Figure 4 the crack is considered safe, whereas if
it lies outside the curve as shown at B the crack is considered unsafe.

It should be noted that, for fracture assessment purposes, the stress intensity factor must be calculated based on the
maximum value of the applied stress and must also include the effect of any residual, thermal, or other secondary stresses.
For fatigue crack growth calculations, it is the range of stress intensity factor which must be used in Paris Law
relationships and welding residual stresses do not come into this directly although they may have indirect effects as
discussed below.
When computer programs are used to calculate fatigue crack growth behaviour, the same program can be used to calculate
the parameters Kr and Sr (or Lr) at the end of each increment of crack growth and check whether the values are acceptable
for the assessment diagram concerned.
5. ADVANCED TREATMENTS
Mention has been made in other lectures of crack closure, threshold and effective stress intensity factors. There is
considerable evidence to show that two of the effects of plasticity are to make the crack tip propagate through
stretched material and to create a wake of unloaded plastic material behind the advancing crack tip. The effect of this
behaviour is that the crack faces may close together, and only that part of the stress intensity factor range that is damaging
for fatigue crack propagation is that due to stresses above the level at which the crack faces separate again. A number
of research workers have developed computer programs for fatigue crack propagation based on use of effective stress
intensity factor ranges, taking into account the effects of stress ratio and residual stresses on crack closure behaviour,
including stress cycle interaction effects in variable amplitude loading. These treatments show considerable promise
in predicting the effects of these different variables on fatigue crack behaviour but detailed consideration is beyond the scope
of these lectures.
● Fracture mechanics procedures may be used to estimate the development of crack shape and fatigue life by considering
incremental crack growth at the deepest point and surface points of a crack.
● The effects of multiple initiation sites and the subsequent coalescence can be taken into account.
● The failure assessment diagram methods may be used to determine final failure by fracture or plastic collapse.
● The fatigue treatments may be extended to variable amplitude loading and to include residual stress, threshold and crack

closure effects.
7. REFERENCES
[1] PD6493: Guidance on Methods for Assessing the Acceptability of Flaws in Fusion Welded Structures, British
Standards Institution, 1991.
[2] Chu, W. H., The Influence of Plate Thickness Geometry Variations on Fatigue Strength of Fillet Welded Joints,
MSc Thesis, UMIST, 1984.
[3] Thurlbeck, S. D., A Methodology for the Assessment of Weld Toe Cracks in Tubular Offshore Joints, PhD Thesis,
UMIST, 1991.

L1301
ESDEP WG 13
TUBULAR STRUCTURES
Lecture 13.1: Application of Hollow

Sections in Steel Structures
OBJECTIVE/SCOPE
To gain an understanding of the structural application of steel hollow sections. To describe where and how to use them.
PRE-REQUISITES
RELATED LECTURES
Lectures 12.4: Fatigue Behaviour of Hollow Section Joints
Lecture 13.2: The Behaviour and Design of Welded Connections between Circular Hollow Sections under
L1301
Lecture 13.3: The Behaviour and Design of Welded Connections between Rectangular Hollow Sections under
SUMMARY
Structural hollow sections, circular (CHS) and rectangular (RHS), have excellent properties for resisting static loads, not
only with regard to buckling, bi-axial bending and torsion, but also in the overall design of members. They can offer
economic advantages in comparison with other sections. Good design of structures using hollow sections makes use of
their specific properties right from the beginning.
NOTATION
The notation in Eurocode 3, Annex K [1], has been adopted.
1. INTRODUCTION
Mankind has learnt the application of hollow tubular members as structural elements from nature. Many examples in
nature show not only the use of a hollow cylinder to transmit a fluid, but also the excellent properties of the tubular shape
with regard to loading in compression, torsion and bending in all directions. These advantages were quickly understood by
our ancestors, when in their hands the bamboo pole became a light building component as well as a pipe for the supply
of drinking water or for irrigation.
During the development of steel production and the manufacture of classical hot-rolled open sections such as I-, L- and
U-profiles, the first methods for the fabrication of tubes or circular hollow sections were developed in the nineteenth
century. The production of rectangular hollow sections was not started, however, until 1952 (by Stewarts & Lloyds in
the United Kingdom).
Circular shaped tubes are made either from a solid lump of steel, producing seamless tubes, or from a flat strip, giving
welded tubes. There is no fundamental difference between the production process for a circular section tube intended for use
as a pipe and that for a similar hollow section intended for a structural use.
The so-called "form" tubes - square, rectangular, hexagonal or octagonal - are obtained by deforming, either hot or cold,
a round tube as a blank. The circular blank tube is passed through forming roll cages working continuously and outwards
only. This process gives the blank, usually after passing over several sets of rolls, the required shape, which is normally
L1301
square and rectangular.
The selection of a particular profile in a steel structure is governed by many factors. It involves a comparison of the pros
and cons with regard to mechanical properties, unit material costs and the costs of fabrication, erection and maintenance.
The experiences of architects, designers and fabricators also affect the choice. It is therefore very important that those
involved should understand the behaviour of hollow sections and their connections.
2. MECHANICAL AND GEOMETRICAL PROPERTIES OF HOLLOW SECTIONS

Hollow sections as steel profiles are not only in competition with concrete, but also they may substitute for other steel
profiles due to their superiority with regard to strength and stability. The mechanical and geometrical properties of the
hollow section indicates under which loadings a saving in material can be obtained.
2.1 Mechanical Properties
The material grades in which structural hollow sections are delivered according to Eurocode 3 [1] are given in Table 1.
In cold-finished sections, the increase in yield stress due to cold forming can be taken into account. Table 2 shows
the recommendations and formulae for applying this increment.
To allow welding in the region of the corners of cold finished rectangular hollow sections, the requirements given in Table
3 should be met.
2.2 Geometrical Properties
The selection of hollow sections depends on their geometrical properties and thus on the member resistances for
particular loading cases. Tolerances are in general lower than for open sections.
2.3 Tension Loading
The design strength of a member under a tensile loading depends on the cross-sectional area and the design yield stress, and
is independent of the sectional shape. In principle, there is no advantage or disadvantage in using hollow sections from
the point of view of the amount of material required.
L1301
2.4 Compression Loading
For centrally loaded members in compression, the critical buckling load depends on the slenderness λ and the section shape.
The slenderness λ depends on the buckling length l and the radius of gyration r.
λ = l/r
The radius of gyration of hollow sections, (in relation to the member mass) is generally much higher than for that about
the weak axis of open sections. For a given load this difference results in a lower slenderness for hollow sections and thus
a lower mass when compared with open sections.
The buckling behaviour is influenced by initial eccentricities, straightness and geometrical tolerances, residual
stresses, inhomogeneity of the steel and the stress-strain relationship.
Based on an extensive investigation by the European Convention for Construction Steelwork, "European
buckling curves" (Figure 1) are established for various steel sections including hollow sections. They are incorporated
in Eurocode 3 [1].

L1301
The reduction factor χ shown in Figure 1 is the ratio of the design buckling resistance Nb,Rd to the axial plastic resistance
Npl,Rd:

L1301
χ=
where
fb,Rd = (the design buckling stress)
fyd = fy / γM (the design yield strength)
γM is the partial safety factor
The non-dimensional slenderness is determined by = λ / λE
where λE = π (Euler slenderness).
The buckling curves for the hollow sections are classified according to Table 4.
Most open sections fall under curves "b" and "c". Consequently, for the case of buckling, the use of hot-formed hollow
sections generally provides a considerable saving in mass.
Figure 2 shows a comparison between the required mass of open and hollow sections for a given load.

L1301
The overall buckling behaviour of hollow sections improves with increasing diameter or width-to-wall thickness
ratio. However, this improvement is limited by local buckling. To prevent local buckling, d/t, or b/t limits are given
L1301
in Eurocode 3 for plastic as well as elastic design (Table 7).
In the case of thin-walled sections, interaction between buckling and local buckling should be considered.
In addition to the improved buckling behaviour due to high radius of gyration and the enhanced design buckling curve,
hollow sections can offer other advantages in lattice girders. Due to the torsional and bending stiffness of the members
in combination with certain joint fixity, the effective buckling length of compression members can be reduced. Eurocode 3
[1] recommends the effective buckling lengths for hollow sections in lattice girders as shown in Table 5.
Laterally unsupported bottom chords of lattice girders have a reduced buckling length due to the improved torsional
and bending stiffness of the tubular members. These factors make the use of hollow sections in girders even more favourable.
2.5 Torsion
Hollow sections, especially CHS have the most effective cross-section for resisting torsional moments, because the material
is uniformly distributed about the polar axis. A comparison of open and hollow sections of nearly identical mass in Table
6 shows that the torsional constant of hollow sections is 200 to 300 times larger than that of open sections.
2.6 Bending
In general, the UB and UC sections are more economical under bending (Imax larger than for hollow sections). Only in
those cases in which the design stress in open sections is largely reduced by lateral buckling, can hollow sections offer
an advantage. It can be shown by calculations that for circular hollow sections and for rectangular hollow sections with b/
h >0,25, which are normally used, lateral instability is not critical.
Hollow sections used for elements subjected to bending can be more economically calculated using plastic design. For the
use of compact sections in plastic design, the limiting d/t or b/t values are given in Eurocode 3 (see Table 7).
2.7 Fatigue (see also Lectures 12.4.1 and 12.4.2)
The fatigue behaviour of hollow section joints is influenced largely by the geometrical stress or strain concentration
factor (SCF or SNCF).
A structure made of hollow sections should be designed and detailed so that the SCF or SNCF is low. In this way,
L1301
economical design of hollow section joints is possible even under fatigue conditions, particularly when assessed in terms
of low load coefficients for wind and wave, reduced mass and corrosion protection.
3. OTHER ASPECTS OF APPLICATION OF HOLLOW SECTIONS
3.1 Drag Coefficients
Hollow sections present a striking advantage for use in building structures exposed to fluid currents, i.e. air or water.
Their drag coefficients are much lower than those of ordinary sections with sharp edges (see Figure 3). The drag
coefficients for wind loading on circular and rectangular hollow sections have been determined in the last twenty years by
a series of tests [2].
Based on these tests, the following conclusions can be derived:

L1301
1. For all sharp edged profiles, open or closed (R/D<0,025), the drag coefficient Cw is independent of Reynold's number
Re = V.D/υ
where
V is the wind velocity;
D is the width of the cross section;
υ is the kinematic viscosity.
The values are higher than those for hollow sections with rounded corners.
2. Drag coefficient Cw for rectangular hollow sections with rounded corners, especially for circular hollow sections, is
strongly dependent on Re. For Re lower than a certain number (sub-critical), Cw remains constant and is quite large.
After exceeding this Re-value, Cw drops steeply. With increasing Re, Cw then rises slowly, but it never attains the initial
value (see Figure 4).

L1301
Further, Cw is governed by corner radius r, surface roughness k and wind direction angle α [2]. R/D for a circular cylinder
is equal to 0,5.

L1301
Table 8 shows the drag coefficients of I-profiles and circular and rectangular hollow sections for simple calculations.
Structures made of hollow sections offer advantages with regard to corrosion protection. Hollow sections have rounded
corners (Figure 5) which result in a better protection than open sections with sharp corners. This is especially true at joints
in circular hollow sections where there is a smooth transition from one section to another. This better protection increases
the protection period of coatings against corrosion.

L1301
Structures designed in hollow sections have a 20 to 50% smaller surface to be protected than comparable structures made
using open sections. Many investigations have been carried out to assess the likelihood of internal corrosion.
These investigations, carried out in various countries, show that internal corrosion does not occur in sealed hollow sections.
Even in hollow sections which are not perfectly sealed, internal corrosion is limited. If there is concern about condensation
in an imperfectly sealed hollow section, a drainage hole can be made at a point where water cannot enter by gravity.
3.3 Use of Internal Void
The internal void in hollow sections can be used to advantage in various ways, e.g. to increase the bearing resistance by
filling with concrete, or to provide fire protection. In addition, the heating or ventilation system is sometimes incorporated
into hollow section columns. The possibilities of using the internal space are briefly described below.
3.3.1 Concrete filling
If the commonly available wall thicknesses are not sufficient to meet the required load-bearing resistance, the hollow
section can be filled with concrete. For example, it may be preferable in buildings to have the same external dimensions for
the columns on every floor. At the top floor, the smallest wall thickness can be chosen, and the wall thickness can be
increased with increasing load for lower floors. If the hollow section with the largest available wall thickness is not
sufficient for the ground floor, the hollow section can be filled with concrete to increase the load bearing resistance. A
very important reason for using concrete-filled hollow sections is that the columns can be relatively slender. Design rules
are given in Eurocode 4 [3].

L1301
3.3.2 Fire protection by water circulation and concrete-filling
One of the modern methods for fire protection of buildings is to use water-filled hollow section columns. The columns
are interconnected with a water storage tank. Under fire conditions, the water circulates by convection, keeping the
steel temperature below the critical value of 450°C. This system has economical advantage when applied to buildings
with more than 8 storeys. If the water flow is adequate, the resulting fire resistance time is virtually unlimited.
In order to prevent freezing, potassium carbonate (K2CO3) is added to the water. Potassium nitrate is used as an
inhibitor against corrosion.
Concrete filling of hollow sections contributes not only to an increase in load- bearing resistance, but it also improves
fire resistance duration. The extensive test projects carried out by CIDECT and ECSC have shown that reinforced
concrete-filled hollow section columns without any external fire protection like plaster, asbestos and Vermiculite panels
or intumescent paint, can attain a fire life of even 2 hours depending on the cross-section ratio of the steel and
concrete, reinforcement percentage of the concrete and the applied load. Related calculation diagrams are available. Figure
6 shows an example.

L1301
3.3.3 Heating and ventilation
The inner voids of hollow sections are sometimes used for air and water circulation for heating and ventilation of
buildings. Many examples in offices and schools show the excellent combination of the strength function of hollow
L1301
section columns with the integration of the heating or ventilation system. This system offers maximization of floor area
through elimination of heat exchangers, a uniform provision of warmth and a combined protection against fire.
3.3.4 Other possibilities
Sometimes hollow section chords of lattice girder bridges are used for conveying fluids (pipe bridge). The internal space
can also be used for prestressing a hollow section. Sometimes in buildings the rain water downpipes go through the
hollow section columns or in other cases electrical wiring is located in the columns.
3.3.5 Aesthetics
A rational use of hollow sections leads in general to structures which are cleaner and more spacious. Hollow sections
can provide slender aesthetic columns, with variable section properties but flush external dimensions. Due to their
torsional rigidity, hollow sections have specific advantages in folded structures, V-type girders, etc.
The latticed construction, which is often made of hollow sections directly connected to one another without any stiffener
or gusset plate, is often preferred by architects for structures with visible steel elements. However, it is difficult to
express aesthetic features in economic comparisons. Sometimes hollow sections are used only because of aesthetic
appeal, whilst at other times appearance is less important.
4.1 Aspects of Fabrication
After the Second World War, riveted tubular structures had many joints with gusset plates. In the last thirty years the ratio
of labour to material costs has increased rapidly in industrialized countries. For this reason, more attention should be paid
to detailing simple joints.
As far as possible, joints should be designed without stiffeners or gusset plates. This, however, means that the designer
should consider the joint strength of non-reinforced joints at the preliminary design stage.
4.2 Welding
Welding is the most important jointing technique for hollow section structures.
L1301
In general, the same welding procedures can be used as for open steel sections. Circular hollow sections can be joined
with fillet welds if the diameter ratio between the sections to be connected does not exceed 0,33 and the weld gap does
not exceed 3 mm. For larger ratios the weld can change smoothly from a fillet weld at the crown to a butt weld at the saddle,
or a full butt weld over the entire perimeter can be used, see Figure 7.

L1301
Rectangular hollow sections can generally be joined with fillet welds. In the case of equal or near-equal widths, the side
walls should be bevelled for a butt weld. When the angles at the toe are smaller than 60° , bevelling is required to obtain a
good connection, see Figure 8.

L1301

L1301
To obtain sufficient deformation capacity, the welds should normally be designed on the basis of member strength,
which generally results in throat thicknesses about equal to the thickness of the connected member.
According to Eurocode 3, Annex K [1], the throat thickness (a) of a fillet should normally satisfy the following
conditions (lower values are currently the subject of discussion):
For S235, a ≥ 0,92 t1
For S275, a ≥ 0,96 t1
For S355, a ≥ 1,11 t1
4.3 End Preparation
The end preparation should be as simple as possible. For example a gap joint or a 100% overlap joint is preferable compared
to a joint with partially overlapping bracings (Figure 9).

L1301

L1301
In the case of gap or 100% overlap joints, only one cut for each bracing end is necessary. For partial overlap joints one
bracing has to be provided with a double or mitred cut. As far as possible, a square or rectangular hollow section should
be used; in this way the ends can be made in a similar way as for open sections (plain cut).
Circular hollow sections may be chosen, especially when aerodynamic or fluid flow criteria are decisive in design. The ends
of such sections must be shaped as 'saddles' to provide proper jointing. Shaping can be done by notching, milling, double
end cutting, manual flame cutting or automatic flame cutting. Each of these methods has its advantages and disadvantages.
The method selected depends on the equipment available to the fabricator, the type of structure and the specification.
For small sizes, the end can be prepared in many cases with some plane cuts, e.g. three cuts. This is a simple and
economical method. For large sections an automatic flame cutting machine is preferable.
To avoid saddle profiling, the ends can be cropped or flattened. End cropping can be achieved in a guillotine cutter or for
small sections with a notcher fitted with shearing tools. End cropping produces a linear contact at the ends (Figure 10). It is
also possible to partly crop the ends in such a way that the distance between chord and bracing is smaller than about 3
mm which can be bridged by welding.

L1301
Full flattening (Figure 11) may be used for bolted connections. Experimental investigations show that hot finished
hollow sections (up to 114 mm) can be cold flattened. The flattening can be symmetrical or non-symmetrical depending on
the dye used.

L1301
4.4 Bending
Bending operations for hollow sections are carried out in the hot or cold condition. It should be considered that the
wall thickness of the hollow section at the external radius of curvature can be decreased, whereas at the inner side of
the curvature wall crippling may occur. Further, care should be taken that the ovality of a tube which can occur, is kept as
L1301
small as possible.
The minimum inside radii recommended in the U.K. for rectangular hollow sections are given in Table 9. The bending radii
for circular hollow sections of up to 159 mm external diameter are recommended by DIN 2916 [4]. The bending operation
is commonly carried out by roller benders with three rollers.
4.5 Bolting
The internal faces of hollow sections are, in principle, inaccessible, unless special measures are taken, such as the provision
of hand holes, or unless the situation is a special one, i.e. when a connection is made at the open end. Usually, therefore, it
is not possible to make direct bolted connections between hollow sections or between hollow sections and open ones, in
the way normally done in steel construction.
Usually, drilled fittings, such as plates or angles, are welded to one or more hollow sections. The holes are used for bolts
with or without prestressing. Bolted connections are preferred for assembly on site.
Examples are shown by the following constructions:
● Beam-to-column connection (Figure 12a)

● Truss-to-column connection (Figure 12b)
● Knee joints (Figure 13)
● Joints with bolted inner sleeves (Figure 14)
● Flange connections (Figure 15)
● Joints with flattened ends (Figure 16)
● Column bases (Figure 17)
● Joints for space structures (Figure 18)
● Purlin attachment (Figure 19)

L1301

L1301

L1301

L1301

L1301

L1301

L1301

L1301

L1301
However, direct bolted connections can also be made using special blind bolts, screws and rivets, which can be secured
from one side only of the parts being joined.
5. DESIGN APPLICATIONS
5.1 Columns
The magnitude of the end moment determines the structural arrangement that is called for. It is always worthwhile to
examine first the simplest solution with a single end plate without any stiffener, even if a fairly thick plate is required.
If this simple solution is not appropriate, more complex arrangements with stiffeners can be envisaged. Figure 20 shows
the base of a single plate lattice column. Figure 21 shows an arrangement for connecting an internal rain water down pipe at
the foot of a hollow section column. Precautions should be taken to protect the inside of the column against corrosion.
The hollow section can be galvanised or a seal can be made at the head and the foot of the column.

L1301

L1301
5.2 Uniplanar Trusses
Lattice girders are light and economical and they are fairly simple to design. Usually they comprise of an upper and a
lower chord and a lattice consisting of bracing members (Figure 22). The chords may or may not be parallel.

L1301
Lattice girders are characterised by the span "l", the depth "h", the lattice geometry, and the distance between the joints.
The depth "h" is determined in relation to the span, loads, maximum deflection, etc. An increase in "h" reduces the loads in
the chords, but increases the effective lengths of the bracings. The value of "h" is usually between l/10 and l/16. The joints
are preferentially located at the load application points.

L1301
A lattice structure is usually designed so as to transmit the applied loads purely through axial loadings in the members.
In hollow section girders, however, the chords are usually continuous and the bracings are welded onto the chords.
Secondary bending moments are produced in both the members and the joints. It is nevertheless well accepted that, if
the members and the joints are capable of redistributing these secondary moments in a plastic manner, the load analysis can
be based on the pinned framework assumption that the framework is pinned.
Bending moments, on the other hand, must be considered when the axes of the members do not converge at a point of
junction producing positive or negative eccentricity (see Figure 23).

L1301
Figure 24 shows a vierendeel type girder where the sloping bracings are excluded. The design of the joints is based on
the strength in bending of the components. Vierendeel joints with and without reinforcements are shown in Figure 25. They
can be considered as T joints and design calculations are made accordingly.

L1301

L1301
5.3 Multiplanar Trusses
Multiplanar trusses are, in general, represented by triangular and quadrangular girders. They are inherently stable, i.e.
they require no external bracing of any kind and constitute autonomous load-bearing elements. These girders offer a
spatial type of strength, which means they can withstand loads and bending moments from all directions. The depth of a
girder is usually between l/18 and l/15 of the distance l between the supports.

L1301
The joint arrangement depends on the nature of the chord (circular, square, rectangular sections), the type of connection
(bolted to gusset plates or welded, with or without flattening of bracing ends).
5.4 Space Structures
Space structures consist of identical elements, designated as modules, joined together to make a load-bearing framework.
The module can be linear, plane or three dimensional (Figure 26). The members of a space structure are often in an
isotropic state as regards buckling and bearing loads which are either tension or compression. Hollow sections,
especially circular ones, are extremely well adapted as space frame members.

L1301
Due to the special end shaping needed for the direct connection of the hollow sections, special connectors have
been developed. Examples are given in Figure 18. The development of space structures was stimulated by the availability
of these prefabricated connectors and later by the development of computers and matrix calculation methods.
Although space frames with connectors are characterized by their economy due to manufacture of the structural parts on a
mass production basis and simplified assembly through repeated similar operations, they are still relatively
expensive. Therefore, they are applied mostly when an architect prefers them for aesthetic appearance or some
special requirements, such as very large span.
5.5 Composite structures
Connections for concrete filled hollow sections are in general similar to those for ordinary hollow sections. The
L1301
transverse force at the connection is carried only through the steel mantle. Further transmission into concrete is only
possible through the clamping effect. The determination of this load by calculation is hardly possible.
The connections transmitting the load through the steel mantle are, of course, to be applied only for relatively lower
load, unless a composite medium, such as a dowel or plate, can be arranged on the inside of the cross-section.
Figure 27 shows a solution to this problem. In this case, a dowel connected to the connection plate or profile is
introduced through a drilled hole into the hollow section wall and the column is filled with concrete later. A horizontal
tensile force can be transmitted here.

L1301
The load transfer through concrete-filled columns of multi-storey buildings (Figure 28) does not, in general, present
L1301
any problem, as head plates can be used. A head plate acts as a dowel performing load transmission.

L1301
The connecting plate shown in Figure 29 can pass through the steel hollow section to provide an inner connection with
a continuous column. Tests have shown that a very high load can be transmitted to the concrete using this form of construction.

L1301
6. DESIGN PHILOSOPHY
Connections between open and hollow sections made by bolting using gusset plates enable the designer to select member
sizes suitable to transfer the applied loads quite independently of the detail design requirements of the connection.
Detail design is generally left to the fabricator.
In welded hollow section construction, where gusset plates are completely dispensed with, members are connected
together directly by welding. The strength of the connection is no longer independent of the geometry and strength of
the members. Joint performance needs to be considered therefore at the time member sizes are being determined. Hence,
in designing hollow section structures, it is important that the designer considers the joint behaviour right from the
beginning. Designing members of, for example, a girder based on member loads only may result in the use of
undesirable stiffening of joints afterwards. This does not mean that the joints have to be designed in detail at the
conceptual phase. It only means that chord and bracing members have to be chosen in such a way that the main governing
joint parameters (such as diameter or width ratio, thickness ratio, chord diameter or width-to-thickness ratio, gap
between bracings, overlap of bracings, and angle between bracing and chord) provide an adequate joint strength [5 - 10],
and economical fabrication, see Lecture 13.2 and Lecture 13.3.
Since the design is always a compromise between various requirements, such as static strength, stability, economy
in fabrication and maintenance, which are sometimes in conflict with one another, the designer should be aware of
the implications of a particular choice.
The following guidance is given in relation to optimum design:
● Lattice structures can usually be designed assuming pin jointed members. Secondary bending moments due to actual
joint stiffness can be neglected for static design if the joints have sufficient rotation capacity. This capacity can be achieved
by limiting the wall slenderness of certain members, particularly the compression bracing members. Some of the
geometric limits of validity in Eurocode 3, Annex K are based on this requirement [1].
● It is common practice to design the members with centre lines noding, i.e. meeting at a point. However, for ease of
fabrication it is sometimes required to have a certain noding eccentricity (see Figure 23). If the eccentricity is kept within
the limits -0,55 ≤ e/do or e/ho ≤ 0,25, the resulting bending moments can be neglected for joint design and for chord
members loaded in tension.
L1301
Chord members loaded in compression, however, always have to be checked for the bending effects of noding eccentricity, i.
e. designed as beam-columns, with all the moment due to noding eccentricity distributed to the chord sections.
Full overlapping results in an eccentricity e ≈ 0,55do or ho, but provides a more straightforward fabrication than partial
overlap joints and a better strength behaviour than gap joints.
● Gap joints are preferred to partial overlap joints (Figure 9) since the fabrication is easier with regard to end cutting, fitting
and welding. However, fully overlapped joints (Figure 9) provide better static joint strength. For rectangular
sections fabrication of fully overlapped joints is similar to gap joints.
In a good design, a minimum gap should be provided such that the gap g ≥ t1+t2, so that the welds do not overlap each
other. On the other hand, the overlap should be at least 25% in overlap joints.
● In a tubular joint, fillet welds, full penetration butt welds or fillet/butt welds are applied depending on the geometry as shown
in Figure 7. When welds are used, they have to be designed on the basis of the yield strength of the member to be
connected. They have to be considered as automatically prequalified for any member load.
● The weld at the toe of the bracing is most important. If the bracing angle is less than 60°, the toe should always be bevelled
and a butt weld used as shown in Figure 8-C2.
● To allow proper welding at the heel of the bracing, the bracing angle should not be less than 30°.
● Since the welding volume is proportional to t2, thin-walled bracings can generally be welded more economically than
thick-walled bracings.
● Taking account of the standard mill lengths in design may reduce the end to end connections of chords. For large projects
it may be agreed that special lengths are delivered.
● In common lattice structures, e.g. trusses, about 50% of the material weight is used for the chords in compression, roughly
30% for the chords in tension and about 20% for the web members or bracings. This distribution means that, with respect
to material weight, the chords in compression should best be optimised to result in thin-walled sections. However, for
corrosion protection (painting) the outer surface area should be minimized. Furthermore, joint strength increases
with decreasing chord diameter or width to thickness ratio do/to or bo/to and increasing chord thickness to bracing
thickness ratio to/t1. As a result, the final diameter or width to thickness ratio do/to or bo/to for the chord in compression will
be a compromise between joint strength and buckling strength of the member. Relatively stocky sections will usually
be chosen. For the chord in tension, the diameter to thickness ratio do/to should be chosen to be as small as possible.
● Since the joint strength efficiency, i.e. joint strength divided by the bracing yield load Ai ⋅ fyi, increases with increasing
L1301
chord to bracing thickness to/ti, this ratio should be chosen to be as high as possible.
● Since the joint strength also depends on the yield stress of the chord, the use of higher strength steel for chords (when
available and practical) may offer economical possibilities.
7. DESIGN PROCEDURE FOR A HOLLOW SECTION (CHS OR RHS) TRUSS

The design of hollow section trusses should be approached in the following way to obtain efficient and economical structures:
1. Determine the truss layout, span, depth, panel lengths, truss spacing and lateral bracing by the usual methods, keeping
the number of joints to a minimum.
2. Determine loads at connections and on members. Simplify these load to equivalent loads at the panel points.
3. Determine member forces assuming pinned joints and noding centre lines of the members.
4. Determine the sizes of chord member by considering axial loading, corrosion protection and wall slenderness (usual do/to
ratios are 20 to 30 for CHS; usual bo/to ratios are 15 to 25 for RHS). An effective buckling length of 0,9 times the
system length is assumed for the compression chord if supports out-of-plane are available at the joints [1].
5. The use of high strength steel (fy = 355 N/mm2) for the chords should be considered. The delivery time of the required
sections should be checked.
6. Determine bracing member sizes by considering axial loading, preferably with wall thicknesses smaller than the
chord thickness.
The effective length for the bracings can be assumed conservatively to be 0,75 times the system length. A more
precise calculation method for the effective length is given in Eurocode 3, Annex K [1].
7. Standardize the bracing members to a few selected dimensions (perhaps even two) to minimize the number of the section
sizes for the structure. For aesthetic reasons a constant outside member width may be preferred for all bracing members,
with wall thicknesses varying.
8. Layout the connections, trying gap joints first. Check that the connection geometry and member dimensions satisfy the
validity ranges for the dimensional parameters given in Lectures 13.2 (CHS joints) or Lecture 13.3 (RHS joints) with
particular attention to the eccentricity limits. Consider the fabrication procedure when deciding on a connection layout.
9. Check joint efficiency with diagrams given in Lectures 13.2 (CHS joints) or Lecture 13.3 (RHS joints).
10. If the connection resistances (efficiencies) are not adequate, change the bracing or chord dimensions or modify the
connection layout (for example, overlap rather than gap). Only a few joints will normally require to be checked.
11. Check the effects of eccentricity noding moments (if any) on the chord members by checking the moment - axial
L1301
force interaction [8, 9].

12. If required, check truss deflections at the unfactored load level by analyzing the truss as a pin-connected frame, if it has
non-overlapped joints. If joints are overlapped throughout, check the truss deflection by assuming continuous chord
members and pin-ended bracing members taking account of the eccentricity.
13. Design welds, see [1].
If welds are proportioned on the basis of particular loads in the bracing members, the designer must recognize that the
entire length of the weld may not be effective, and the model for the weld resistance must be justified in terms of strength
and deformation capacity [9].
8. REASONS FOR USING HOLLOW SECTIONS

Structural hollow sections have excellent static properties, not only with regard to buckling and torsion, but also in the
overall design of members. They can offer economic advantages compared to open sections.
The closed shape and the smooth changeover from one section to another at joints reduces the costs of corrosion protection.
It is possible to change the strength by varying the wall thickness or by filling the section with concrete without changing
the outside dimensions.
The inner space gives possibilities for the combination of the strength function with others, e.g. fire protection,
heating, ventilation, etc. The rational application of hollow sections will, in general, lead to clean, spacious,
functional structures which appeal to architects. Circular hollow sections often offer a decisive advantage with regard
to structures exposed to air or water flow. In other situations, square and rectangular hollow sections are favoured because
they use simple connections with straight end cuts of the connecting members. To reduce the number of joints and to obtain
a better joint strength, a Warren-type truss is preferred to a Pratt type.
Although the unit material cost of hollow sections is higher than for open sections, a proper use will lead to
economical designs. Good design in hollow sections does not mean "change the members of an open section design to
hollow sections", but means making use of their specific properties right from the beginning.
For long span trusses, a double chord may have advantages. The length of the bracings and the end cut are not critical
regarding fitting and welding. If possible, beam-to-beam connections should be designed as simple shear connections
omitting large plates.

L1301
The most important point is simplicity; gussets and stiffening plates should be avoided as far as possible, i.e. the
direct connection of the members to one another should be used for preference. Consequently, the joint strength has to
be considered at the commencement of the design and not later.
Thanks to the extensive research work on nearly all aspects of the structural applications in the last twenty five years,
the hollow section is now in a position that it can really compete with other steel sections.
The communications of international committees, such as the Comité International pour le Développement et l'Etude de
la Construction Tubulaire CIDECT (International Committee for the Development and Study of Tubular Structures) and
the International Institute of Welding made a better exchange of knowledge possible. Due to the extensive coordinating
efforts of these organizations, identical design rules and joint strength formulae are now used in most countries of the world,
e.g. EC-countries, Canada, Japan, U.S.A. (partly), Scandinavian countries, Australia, etc.
● Hollow sections offer economical use especially for members loaded in compression or torsion.
● The protection against corrosion is 20 to 50% cheaper with hollow sections than with open sections and it is much
more uniform.
● The internal void of hollow sections can be used in various ways.
● Lattice girders should be designed considering the joints right from the beginning.
● Connections should be designed in such a way that the welds are not critical.
10. REFERENCES
[1] Eurocode 3: "Design of Steel Structures" - Annex K: Hollow Section Lattice Girder Connections, ENV 1993-1-1,
CEN, 1992
[2] Richter, A.: Wind forces on square sections with various corner radii, Investigations and evaluations, CIDECT
Report 9D/84-21.
[3] Eurocode 4: "Design of Composite Steel and Concrete Structures" ENV 1994-1-1: Part 1.1: General Rules and Rules
for Buildings, CEN (in press).
[4] DIN 2916: 19875 - Bending Radii for Beams and Welded Structures; Design Sheet.
L1301
[5] ECSC-CIDECT: Construction with hollow steel sections, ISBN 0-9510062-0-7, first edition, December 1984.
[6] Wardenier, J.: Hollow section joints, Delft University Press, Delft, The Netherlands, 1982.
[7] Packer, J. A, and Henderson, J. E.: Design guide for hollow structural section connections, 1992.
[8] Wardenier, J., Kurobane, Y., Packer, J.A., Dutta, D., Yeomans, N.: Design guide for circular hollow section (CHS)
joints under predominantly static loading, Ed. by CIDECT, Verlag TÜV Rheinland, Cologne, 1991.
[9] Packer, J.A., Wardenier, J., Kurobane, Y., Dutta, D., Yeomans, N., Hendersen, J.E.: Design guide for rectangular
hollow, section (RHS) joints under predominantly static loading, Ed. .by CIDECT, Verlag TÜV Rheinland, Cologne, 1992.
[10] Wardenier, J., Giddings, T.W.: The strength and behaviour of statically loaded welded connections in structural
hollow sections, CIDECT, Monograph No. 6, 1986.
[11] EN 10210, Part 1 pr EN 10210-1 Hot Finished Steel Hollow Sections Technical Delivery Requirements (Draft).
[12] Rondal, J., W_rker, K.G., Dutta, D., Wardenier, J., Yeomans, N.: Structural stability of hollow sections, Ed. by
CIDECT, Verlag TÜV Rheinland, Cologne, 1992 (in press).
Table 1 Steel grades for structural steels
Steel grade Minimum yield Tensile strength Minimum percentage elongation

strength
fu (N/mm2)
fy (N/mm2)
Longitudinal Transverse

L1301
S235 235 340-470 26 24
S275 275 370-540 24 22
S355 355 470-630 22 20
Fe 460* 460 550-720 17 15
* from EN 10210, Part 1 [11]
Table 2 Increase of yield strength due to cold forming of hollow sections
Average yield strength:
The average yield strength fya may be determined from full size section tests or as follows:
fya = fyb + (k⋅ n⋅ t2/A) ⋅ (fu-fyb)
where
fyb, fu is the specified tensile yield strength and ultimate tensile strength of the basic material (N/mm2)
t is the material thickness (mm)
A is the gross cross-section area (mm2)
k is the coefficient depending on the type of forming (k = 7 for cold rolling)
n is the number of 90° bends in the section with an internal radius <5t (fractions of 90° bends should be counted as fractions
L1301
of n)
fya should not exceed fu or 1,2 fyb
The increase in yield strength due to cold working should not be utilised for members which are annealed* or subject to
heating over a long length with a high heat input after forming, which may produce softening.
Basic material:
Basic material is the flat hot rolled sheet material out of which sections are made by cold forming.
* Stress relief annealing at more than 580° or for over one hour may lead to deterioration of the mechanical properties.
Table 3 Minimum corner radii of cold finished RHS
Steel grade Wall thickness
t (mm) minimum
S235 12 < t ≤ 16 3,0
S275 8 < t ≤ 12 2,0
S355 6<t≤8 1,5
t≤6 1,0

L1301
Table 4 European buckling curves according to manufacturing processes
Cross-section Manufacturing process Buckling curves
Hot forming a
Fig T4 1 Cold forming b
(fyb* used)
Cold forming c
(fya** used)
* fyb = yield strength of the basic material
** fya = yield strength of the material after cold forming

L1301
Fig T4-1

L1301
Table 5 Buckling length of a bracing member in a lattice girder
d0 outer diameter of a circular chord See Fig T5-1

member
d1 outer diameter of a circular bracing

member
b=
b0 external width of a square chord
member
b1 external width of a square bracing

member
for all b : lb /l £ 0,75
calculate width:

L1301
Fig T5-1
Table 6 Torsional strength of various sections
Section Mass, kg/m Torsion constant J

L1301
150 UC 23 23,4 48,7
200 UB 25 25,4 61,2
L 127 x 127 x 13 24,0 166
¨ 127 x 127 x 6,3 23,9 11200
φ 168 x 6,3 25,3 21200
Table 7 Local buckling limits for hollow sections
Section ¡ ¨
Plastic design sections
Compact sections
Elastic design sections
Local buckling check for sections with larger d/t or b/t ratios
ε=
Table 8 Drag coefficients for I-profile and hollow sections

L1301
Section Drag coefficient
Circular Hollow Section See 0,5 - 1,2

Fig T8-1
Rectangular Hollow Section 0,6 - 2,0

See Fig T8-2
Open Rolled Sections See Fig 2,0

T8-3
Fig T8-1

L1301
Fig T8-2
Fig T8-3
Table 9 Minimum bending radii for RHS

L1301
D t ri
mm mm mm
20 2,6 5D
30 2,6
40 2,6
50 3,2
60 4,0
70 5,0 6D
80 5,0
90 6,3
100 6,3
120 6,3
150 10,0

L1301
180 10,0 7D
200 10,0
250 12,5
300 16,0
350 16,0 8D
400 16,0
450 16,0

L1302
ESDEP WG 13
TUBULAR STRUCTURES
Lecture 13.2: The Behaviour and Design

of Welded Connections between Circular
Hollow Sections under Predominantly
Static Loading
OBJECTIVE/SCOPE
To gain an understanding of the fundamental behaviour of connections between circular hollow sections.
PREREQUISITES
RELATED LECTURES
L1302
Lecture 13.3: The Behaviour and Design of Welded Connections between Rectangular Hollow Sections (RHS)
under Predominantly Static Loading
SUMMARY
Circular hollow sections (CHS) have been used in steel structures for many years. The most common form of connection
in CHS construction is that in which the bracings are shaped to fit the circular profile of the chord and then welded to it.
The behaviour of welded, unstiffened CHS joints under static loading is discussed in this lecture, with emphasis on
the connection behaviour and the governing connection parameters. Based on simplified theoretical models and test
results, semi-empirical strength formulae for connections are given, which have been adopted in Eurocode 3 [1].
NOTATION
1. INTRODUCTION
The advantages of using circular hollow sections in steel structures are described in Lecture 13.1. Although bolting is used
for connections in prefabricated substructures and in the assembly of proprietary types of space frames, it is much
more common to use welded connections, particularly for lattice type constructions.
This lecture deals mainly with unstiffened welded connections between circular hollow sections. The behaviour of
the connection is explained based on the assumption that the strength of the weld is adequate.
The design philosophy to execute hollow section joints is given in Lecture 13.1, whilst Lecture 13.3 deals with the design
of welded, unstiffened joints between rectangular hollow sections.
For jointing circular chords with circular bracings in a lattice structure, the ends of circular bracings are usually cut
as "saddles" (saddle profiling) by manual or automatic flame cutting. They are then welded together.

L1302
The complex load transfer and non-linear local stiffness distribution in CHS joints made it necessary to carry out
extensive investigations into the joint behaviour. Theoretical model analysis and experimental results have led to design
rules and semi-empirical design formulae for the basic types of CHS joints [3-6]. They are incorporated in Eurocode 3,
Annex K [2].

The load-bearing behaviour of hollow section joints is governed, on the one hand, by the joint geometry and, on the other
hand, by the resulting locally effective loads longitudinal and transverse to the axis of the members. The behaviour of
CHS joints has been examined in both the elastic and the post-elastic range up to their ultimate resistance. As the diagram
of load against deformation (Figure 1) shows, the static strength of a hollow section joint can be characterized by the
following criteria:
● Ultimate load-bearing resistance (5)

● Deformation criteria (2) or (3)
● Visually observed crack initiation (4)

L1302

L1302
When large compression forces are present in combination with thin-walled sections, instability failures can occur
(low deformation capacity). In other circumstances, it is usual for the joint to show considerable post-elastic resistance.
Failure occurs when sufficient area of the joint has reached the yield stress or stresses up to ultimate stress, such that
further increases in load cannot be resisted.
Internationally, it has become common practice to base the design resistances for joints of circular hollow sections on the
limit state criteria based on the failure modes given in Figure 2. They depend on specific geometrical parameters and
loading conditions.

L1302
Based on theoretical investigations with analytical models, which are described later in this lecture, and the results of
the strength tests on experimental joints, the following general equation to describe the ultimate joint strength Nu has
been derived:
Nu = fyo . to2 f1 (β) . f2 (γ) . f3 (θ) . f4 (kg) . f (kp)
For the explanation of the symbols, see Eurocode 3, Annex K [2].
Three models for the determination of the influencing parameters are currently used. The models are:
1. Ring model
2. Punching shear model
3. Chord shear model

L1302
3.1 Ring Model (Figure 3a)

L1302
The design of CHS joints was initially based on the strength obtained from a rigid plastic analysis of a two-dimensional
ring, used to represent a CHS cross joint assuming point loads at the brace faces. The joint is schematized to a ring with
an effective length Be and the same geometrical and mechanical properties as the chord (Figure 3a).
Figure 3b shows the non-uniform stress distribution at the intersection of bracing and chord for T-, Y- and X-joints. Two
line loads equal to half the bracing loads represent the loading system for a cross joint.
Neglecting the influence of axial and shear stresses, the plastic moment mp can be calculated by the following equation:
(1)
where
N1y is the load based on the yield strength of the ring.

L1302
θ1 is the angle between the chord and the brace.
Taking account of the effective length Be of the ring, the plastic moment is given by:
(2)
Substituting Equation (2) in Equation (1) and assuming sin ψ ≈ β and gives:
(3)
where
β is the ratio brace to chord diameter
The effective length Be for different types of connections is determined experimentally. Furthermore, the term (1 - β) has to
be corrected to avoid an infinitive strength for β = 1,0. Consequently, Equation (3) changes to:
(3a)
where
Co and C1 are constants.
For T-, Y- and X-joints reasonable agreement between test results and the semi-analytical ring model can be obtained. In
more complicated joints, such as K- and N-types, other influencing parameters, i.e. gap between bracings and the presence
L1302
of membrane forces have to be considered.
This model is illustrated in Figure 4 for the case where a Y-joint is loaded in tension. It is assumed that the shear stress in
the chord face around the perimeter of the bracing is uniform on the plan area of the connection, i.e. the effect on the
bracing perimeter on the curvature of the chord is not taken into account.

L1302
For joints with θ2 = 90° , the theoretical uniformly distributed punching shear stress at its limiting value can
be calculated as follows:
(4)
For joints with bracings with θ2 < 90° , the punching shear area is increased by a factor . Furthermore,
punching shear is only caused by the load component perpendicular to the chord, i.e. N2 . sin θ2, which leads to the
following equation:
(5)
In general, this criterion is only applicable for joints with small β values, since, as the value of β increases, the applied load
will be transferred by hoop stress to the chord.
The presentation of design rules in terms of punching shear is widely used in offshore recommendations.
3.3 Shear Model
As shown in Figure 5, in K- or N-type joints with a gap, the chord cross-section at the gap location can fail due to shear or
a combination of shear, axial load and moment. When the chord section is compact, the following formulae for the
plastic design can be applied:
L1302
Ni sin θi ≤ 2 . (do - to) . to (6)
No gap ≤ π . (do - to) . to . fyo (7)
Mo gap ≤ (do - to)2 . to . fyo (8)

L1302
Generally, the moments are small and only the interaction between axial load and shear load has to be considered:
(9)
In joints with small gaps, the cross-section of the chord is stiffened by the connected bracings which increases the shear
load resistance considerably.
4. TEST EVIDENCE
Virtually all of the available test evidence on connections between circular hollow sections has been obtained from
isolated joint specimens of the form shown in Figure 6. A few tests are known where the joints have been tested in
complete frames. The majority of tests has been carried out in Japan, the U.S.A., the Netherlands, the United Kingdom
and Germany.

L1302
The range of the chord diameters tested varied from 50 to 508 mm with different geometrical parameters (β, γ, θ, kg, kp, etc.)
of the joint and mechanical properties.
5. STRENGTH FORMULAE FOR AXIALLY LOADED JOINTS

The experimental evidence generated by many investigators has been used in combination with the analytical models
described in Section 3 to derive joint resistance equations for the mean joint strength. Characteristic joint strength
formulae have been determined based on a statistical analysis taking account of the scatter in test results, the tolerances
in dimensions and the variation in mechanical properties. The characteristic joint strength formulae divided by a partial
L1302
factor γm gives the design resistance formulae. The validity of the resulting semi-empirical design resistance formulae
is restricted to the parametrical ranges of the experimental evidence.
The most recent design recommendations for uni-planar axially loaded T-, Y-, X- and K-joints of circular hollow sections
have been derived from the research by IIW and CIDECT. The semi-empirical formulae for design resistance for
uniplanar CHS joints have been adopted by Eurocode 3, Annex K [2], and are given in Tables 1a and 1b.
The design resistance formulae for T-, Y-, X- and K-joints have been based on the joint resistance under compression
loading, but can also be used for tensile loading. The ultimate resistance under tensile loading is higher than that
under compressive loading (see Figure 1). However, it is not always possible to take advantage of this joint resistance due
to the reduced deformation capacity.
The design resistance is generally governed by two criteria, i.e. plastification of the chord cross-section and chord
punching shear. Both criteria have to be checked using the formulae in Table 1.
For the factor Kp expressing the effect of prestress on the joint resistance, only the prestress of the chord has to be
considered. Thus the horizontal bracings load components have to be extracted, see Figure 7.

L1302

L1302
6.1 Special Types of Welded CHS Joints
Tubular joints can have various configurations and loading conditions, in addition to the basic types of joints described
above. However, the design strength of these joints (see Table 2) can generally be related to that of the basic types.
6.2 Plate or I-Section Connected to CHS Chords
The joints can be divided into two basic groups, those with gusset plates symmetrically welded to the opposite sides of
the chord (XP-joints) and those with gusset plates only welded to one side of the chord (TP-joints).
The XP-joints show a behaviour comparable to that of X-joints, whereas the TP-joints can be related to T-joints.
Joints with a plate in the longitudinal direction show very high deformations at the maximal load resistance. The
load deformation diagrams of these joints show a more pronounced yield load resistance than tubular joints. Although
the deformations at this "yield load resistance" can still be considerable, the yield load resistance is used in the analysis.
Table 3 gives the design resistances of various joints under axial load, in-plane bending moment and out-of-plane
bending moment.
6.3 CHS Joints Loaded by Bending Moments
The design resistance formulae for CHS joints loaded by bending moments are derived in a similar way to those for
axially loaded joints (see Table 4). When the members are not critical and the welds are strong enough, two main modes
of failure exist in principle: (a) plastic failure of the chord face or chord cross-section, and (b) cracking leading to rupture of
the bracing from the chord.
6.4 Multiplanar CHS Joints (KK- and TT-Connections)
Finite element calculations have shown that multi-planar members and multiplanar loading show substantial differences in
the resistance and stiffness compared to a uniplanar X-joint. Various tests on K-joints in triangular girders led to an
interaction equation, which can easily be replaced by a constant of 0,9, to be applied to the resistance of uniplanar joints.
For T-joints, tests carried out on double T-joints (V-joints) with a 90° included angle between bracings and both
bracings loaded in compression, showed that the resistance of the multi-planar joint did not vary substantially from
L1302
the uniplanar joint resistance. Table 5 gives simplified design recommendations for CHS multi-planar joints using the
strength formulae for uniplanar joints with correction factors.
7. DESIGN CHARTS
To judge whether the joint resistance is sufficient for the selected members, a designer often requires a checking 'tool'.
This tool is provided by the design charts given in Figures 8-12, where the design resistances are presented graphically in
terms of bracing efficiency Ce, i.e the design resistance N1Rd of the joint divided by the yield load Α1 fy1 of the
⋅
connected bracing [7].

L1302

L1302

L1302

L1302

L1302

L1302
The following formula is obtained for the efficiency:

L1302
(10)
The efficiency parameter Ce (CT for T- and Y-joints, CX for X-joints and CK for K- and N-joints) gives the efficiency for
a joint with Kp = 1,0, a bracing inclination θ1 = 90°, and an identical wall thickness and design yield stress for the chord
and bracing members.
The design charts also show the factor Kp depending on np = σop/fyo
For lattice girders simply supported at the ends of a span, the prestressing is small at the girder ends, where bracing loads
are highest. The prestressing is high where the bracing loads are low (in the centre). For continuous lattice girders, Kp
needs special attention at the supports.

The design procedure for the design of lattice girders is given in Lecture 13.1.
● The resistance of joints made between circular hollow sections is governed by various failure mechanisms.
● The local stiffness around the connection perimeter determines the elastic stress distribution in both the chord and bracing
at the intersection.
● The chord diameter to wall thickness ratio do /to and the wall thickness ratio between chord and bracing to /t1 largely
influence the efficiency of the joint.
● It is possible to avoid stiffeners if the designer selects the members and the joint configuration in such a manner that the
joint resistance is sufficient.
● The effects of secondary bending moments can be neglected, provided the joint satisfies the ranges of validity given
in Eurocode 3 (sufficient rotation capacity).
● The connecting welds have to be stronger than the bracings.
● The ring model is not applicable to complicated joints, i.e. K and N types.
● The shear model may only be applicable for K and N joints with low do/to ratios.
L1302
● Longitudinal plates induce large deformations.
10. REFERENCES
[1] Eurocode 3: "Design of Steel Structures": ENV 993-1-1: Part 1.1: General Rules and Rules for Buildings, CEN, 1992.
[2] Eurocode 3: ENV 993-1-1: Annex K: Hollow Section Lattice Girder Connections, CEN, 1992.
[3] Wardenier, J.: Hollow section joints, ISBN 90-6275-084-2, Delft University Press, Delft 1982.
hollow sections, CIDECT Monograph No.6, 1986.
[5] Wardenier, J., Stark, J.W.B.: The static strength of welded lattice girder joints in structural, hollow sections, ECSC
Report EUR 6428C MF 1980.
[6] Packer, J. A. and Henderson, J. E.: Design guide for hollow structural section connections, Canadian Institute of
[7] Wardenier, J., Kurobane, Y., Packer, J.A., Dutta, D., Yeomans, N.: Design guide for circular hollow section (CHS)
joints under predominantly static loading, CIDECT publication, Verlag TÜV Rheinland, 1991, ISBN 3-88585-975-0.
[8] Design recommendation for hollow section joints - predominantly statically loaded. 2nd Ed., IIW Doc. XV-701-
89, September 1989, International Institute of Welding.
TYPE OF JOINT DESIGN RESISTANCE (i = 1,2)
T- and Y-joints CHORD PLASTIFICATION
See Fig T1-1

L1302
X-joints CHORD PLASTIFICATION
See Fig T1-2
K- and N-gap or overlap joints CHORD PLASTIFICATION
See Fig T1-3
PUNCHING SHEAR
T-, Y- and X-joints
K-, N- and KT-joints with a gap
If: d1 ≤ d0 - 2to
FUNCTIONS
kp = 1,0 for np ≥ 0 (tension)
kp = 1 + 0,3 (nP - nP2 ) for np < 0 (compression)
but kp ≤ 1,0

L1302
Table 1a Design resistance of welded joints between circular hollow sections

L1302
Fig T1-1

L1302
Fig T1-2

L1302
Fig T1-3
but

L1302
for X - joints
g ³ t1 + t2 l ov ³ 25%
q 1 ³ 30°
Table 1b Range of validity for welded joints between circular hollow sections
TYPE OF JOINT CHECK OF THE JOINT DESIGN RESISTANCE (i =

1,2)
See Fig T2-1 Ni.Sd ≤ Ni.Rd Ni.Rd from X joint
N1.Sd sin θ 1 + N3.Sd sin θ 3 ≤ N1.Rd sin θ 1
See Fig T2-2

N2.Sd sin θ 2 ≤ N1.Rd sin θ 1
N1.Rd from K-joint
replace in K-joint design resistance

L1302
N1.Sd sin θ 1 + N2.Sd sin θ 2 ≤ N1.Rd sin θ i
See Fig T2-3

N1.Rd from X-joint
where N1.Rd sin θ 1 is the larger of
N1.Rd sin θ i and N2.Rd sin θ 2
Ni.Sd ≤ N1.Rd N1.Rd from K-joint
See Fig T2-4

in addition:
check design resistance of cross-section in 1-1 (gap

joints only)
Table 2 Design resistance of special types of welded joints between circular hollow sections

L1302
Fig T2-1

L1302
Fig T2-2

L1302
Fig T2-3

L1302
Fig T2-4
TYPE OF JOINT DESIGN AXIAL RESISTANCE N1.Rd DESIGN IN PLANE DESIGN OUT OF PLANE
MOMENT RESISTANCE MOMENT RESISTANCE
Mip.1Rd Mop.I.Rd
XP1
8 - 0,5 b1 N1.Rd:
NiRD from (XP1 or TP1)

L1302
TP1
B = ti /bo but B ≤ 0,2 XP2
h1 N.Rd: -
9 NiRD from (XP2 or TP2)
TP2
XP4
10 h1 N1.Rd: 0,5 b1 N1.Rd:
NiRD from (XP1 or TP1) NiRD from (XP4 or TP4)
TP4
XP5
11 h1 N1.Rd: 0,5 b1 N1.Rd:
NiRD from (XP5 or TP5) NiRD from (XP5 or TP5)

L1302
TP5
General: Range of validity see Table 1b except β ≥ 0,4 and η ≤ 4
Punching shear check: Special functions see Table 1a
For TP5/XP5 (σ a + σ b ) t1 ≤ 0,58 fyo to [1,1/γmj]
η=
For other joints (σ a + σ b ) t1 ≤ 1,16 fyo to [1,1/γmj]
β=
Table 3: Design resistances of welded CHS joints with gusset plates or sections

L1302
Fig T3-1

L1302
Fig T3-2

L1302
Fig T3-3

L1302
Fig T3-4

L1302
T-, Y- and X-joints CHORD PLASTIFICATION
See Fig T4-1
T-, Y-, X-, K- and N-joints CHORD PLASTIFICATION
See Fig T4-2
T-, Y- and X-joints PUNCHING SHEAR
K- and N- joints with a gap
If: d1 ≤ d0 - 2to
Range of validity see Table 1b
Special functions see Table 1a
Table 4: Design resistance of welded joints between circular hollow sections loaded by bending moments

L1302
Fig T4-1

L1302
Fig T4-2
TYPE OF JOINT CORRECTION FACTOR TO

UNIPLANAR JOINTS
60° ≤ _ ≤ 90° TT-Joint 1,0
See Fig T5-1

L1302
XX-Joint
1 + 0,33
See Fig T5-2 take into account of the sign of N1.Sd

and N2.Sd
 N2.Sd ≤  N1.Sd
 
60° ≤ _ ≤ 90° KK-Joint 0,9
in addition:
See Fig T5-3 check design resistance

of cross section in 1-1
(gap joints only)
Range of validity see Table 1b
Table 5: Correction factors for the determination of multi-planar CHS joint strength

L1302
Fig T5-1

L1302
Fig T5-2

L1302
Fig T5-3

ESDEP WG 13
TUBULAR STRUCTURES
Lecture 13.3: The Behaviour and Design of

Welded Connections between Rectangular
Hollow Sections Under Predominantly
Static Loading
OBJECTIVE/SCOPE
To gain an understanding of the fundamental behaviour of rectangular hollow section joints.
PRE-REQUISITES
Lecture 13.2: The Behaviour and Design of Welded Connections between Circular Hollow Sections (CHS) under
RELATED LECTURES (covering specific items in greater detail)
SUMMARY
The economy of hollow section structures is not only governed by the geometrical properties of the hollow section
members, but to a large extent by the connections. To avoid stiffening of connections, a designer needs to consider the
connections in the conceptual phase.
In this lecture, the static strength criteria for various unstiffened truss-type connections of rectangular hollow sections
are discussed. Emphasis is given to the connection behaviour and governing connection parameters determined with
simple analytical models, which relate to the particular failure modes. Based on these simplified models and
experimental evidence, semi-empirical limit state design formulae have been developed, which have been adopted by
Eurocode 3 [1].

NOTATION
1. INTRODUCTION
Hollow sections are mainly used in truss or lattice type structures, where they are welded to one another directly without
gusset or stiffening plates. The connection strength largely governs the selection of the members in this form of
construction. Consequently, the designer should have a good insight into the behaviour of hollow section connections
and the parameters which influence the strength of these connections.
The general philosophy of the design of hollow section structures has been described in Lecture 13.1, while Lecture
13.2 discusses the design of circular hollow section joints. In principle, these lectures both apply also to joints between
rectangular hollow sections. The advantage of rectangular hollow sections over circular hollow sections is, however, the
easier and more economical fabrication of joints (flat cuts).
Figure 1 shows the most common types of joints. The geometry of the joints is described by the main parameters shown
in Figure 2.

Due to the various geometrical parameters of rectangular hollow sections (rectangularity) and the variety in combination
of sections, more failure modes have to be considered.

Due to the complex load transfer and deformation distribution (Figure 3), research programmes have been carried out to
investigate the joint behaviour. Based on analytical models and experimental results, design rules and formulae have
been established for the basic types of joints [3-6].

In general, the static strength can be characterized by the criteria shown in Figure 4, i.e.:

● Ultimate load resistance (5)

● Deformation criteria (2) or (3)
● Visually observed crack initiation (4)
However, the ultimate load resistance is well defined for joints loaded in compression and chosen as the basis for the
determination of the static strength. Because of the non-linear load deformation behaviour, there is no international
agreement regarding the deformation criterion or the determination of the yield load for joints made of hollow sections.
However, in those cases where the ultimate load is reached after excessive deformation (e.g. T, Y and X joints), the
expressions for the joint strength take account indirectly of a deformation limit (about 0,01 bo at service load condition).
This procedure is to avoid two checks, i.e. one for joint resistance and one for stiffness. To avoid too high deformations
or, on the other hand, to include additional safety with a lower deformation capacity for joints loaded in tension, the
same strength as for joints loaded in compression has been adopted.
Depending on the type of joint, the joint parameters and the loading conditions, several modes of failure can occur, as

illustrated in Figure 5.

A. Plastic failure of the chord face or chord cross-section
B. Tearing in the chord by the rupture of the tension bracing from the chord (punching shear)
C. Rupture of the welds or in the tension bracing itself (termed as "effective width" failure)
D. Local buckling of the compression bracing (also termed as "effective width" failure)
E. Overall (entire chord section) shear failure of the chord
F. Chord wall bearing failure or local buckling of the chord under the compression bracing
G. Local buckling of the chord face behind the heel of the tension bracing
On many occasions, failure occurs by combinations of the basic types mentioned above. Plastic failure of the chord face
is the most common failure mode (modeA) for gap joints with small to medium width ratios β between the bracing and
chord members. For medium width ratios (β = 0,6 - 0,8), the failure generally occurs together with tearing in the chord
(mode B) or in the tension bracing (mode C), although the latter only occurs in connections with relatively thin walled
bracing members. The mode involving local buckling of the compression bracing (mode D) is the most common failure
mode for overlap connections. Shear failure of the entire chord section (mode E) is observed in gap connections with β
close to 1,0 or chords with low depth-to-width ratios ho/bo. Local buckling failures (modes F and G) occur occasionally
for connections with high slenderness bo/to. Weld failures are avoided by making the welds stronger than the connected
bracings.
Lamellar tearing (more probable for heavy wall thicknesses) can be avoided by choosing suitable material qualities (low
sulphur content) and suitable welding procedures (restraint).
Analytical models serve to describe the joint behaviour and give information on the influencing parameters. Models
which take account of all influencing parameters are, in general, too complicated. More simplified models are used to
determine the governing joint parameters for the ultimate strength and to give insight into the joint behaviour. The
results of this analysis in combination with experimental evidence lead to semi-empirical formulae for joint strength.
3.1 Yield Line Model
The yield line model is much more widely used for joints between square or rectangular hollow sections than for joints
between circular hollow sections. For joints with a low to medium bracing-to-chord width ratio β, the joint strength can
be conservatively estimated on the basis of a simplified yield line method. This method gives an upper bound of the
yield strength; therefore, various yield line patterns have to be examined in order to find the lowest value acceptable as
the failure load. Many studies, however, show that the simplified yield line pattern for estimation of the yield strength of
a T-, Y- or X-joint with a width ratio β < 0,8, as shown in Figure 6, gives only a marginally higher strength than that
using more complicated patterns. Due to the fact that the effects of membrane action and strain hardening are ignored in
the simplified yield line models, these generally underestimate the actual ultimate strength. For, T-, Y- and X-joints, the
yield strength is used to avoid large deformations in actual design. For K- and N-joints, the membrane action is included
in a semi-empirical way [4,5,6].

The general principle of the yield line method illustrated in Figure 6 for a Y-joint consists of equating the work of the
external force N1 over a deflection δ and the internal work by the plastic hinge system (length li and angle of rotation ψ
i).
N1 . sin θ1 . δ = Σ li . ψi . mpl
where mpl =
θ1 is the angle between the chord and the brace member

The minimum for the load N1 can be achieved by differentiation of the above equation, resulting in:
N1 =
When the bracing is pulled away from the chord, failure can occur by cracking and possibly by rupture of the chord face
as illustrated for a Y-joint in Figure 7.

The associated punching shear strength for T-, Y- and X-joints can be expressed as:
N1 =
Due to the non-uniform stiffness along the section perimeter, the full perimeter cannot be fully effective. The value of
the effective punching shear width bep is determined experimentally.
3.3 Effective Bracing Width Model
The previously described punching shear model may be governing for joints with relatively thick-walled bracings; for
joints with thin-walled bracings, however, the effective width of the bracings may become critical. The strength can be
expressed in a similar way to that for punching shear, but it is related to the bracing dimensions and bracing material
properties.
For example, for a T-, Y- and X-joint:
N1 = fy1 . t1 (2h1 - 4t1 + 2beff)
The effective width beff (see Figure 8) is determined experimentally and becomes larger when bo/to and t1/to decrease,
or when sufficient deformation can occur by yielding at the stiff parts of the intersection.

3.4 Shear Failure Model of The Chord
The chord shear strength of the joint can be analytically predicted using the basic formula for plastic design. The basic
shear load resistance is given by:
Vp = . Av, (Figure 9).

Although the chord webs would give Av = 2 ho to, it has been confirmed by tests that for small gaps, a part of the top
⋅
flange (Figure 9) is effective for shear transfer, resulting in:
Av = (2 ho + α.boto) to
where α is a function of g/to
The remaining chord cross-section area has to transmit the axial force. In general, the Hubert Hencky-von Mises
criterion can be used resulting in the following interaction formula:
N0,gap.Sd ≤ (Ao - Av) fyo + Av . fyo
3.5 Chord Wall Bearing or Local Buckling Model
T-, Y- and X-joints with a high β ratio may fail by yielding or buckling of the chord side walls, as shown in Figure 10.
In principle, the same method is used as for beam-to-column connections between I-shaped sections (see Lecture 11.6)

For equal width joints, the strength follows directly from the model shown in Figure 10:
N1 = 2 fyo . to
For slender walls and compression loads, fyo is replaced by a critical buckling stress fk, which is a function of the chord
web slenderness ho/to.
4. TEST EVIDENCE
Extensive test programmes [4] have been carried out since the late 1950's to determine the ultimate strength of joints
with varying parameters. The tests have been used especially to investigate the effects which cannot be determined
analytically, e.g. the effective width, the influence of chord preloading, and to check the formulae derived by theoretical
analysis. In those cases where the models do not predict the joint strength adequately due to, for example, membrane
and strain hardening effects, the experiments are used in combination with theoretical analysis to establish semi-
empirical formulae for joint strength. This procedure has been used, for example, for K-joints with gap. The effective
width, shown in Figure 8, has been determined experimentally. First tests were carried out on plate to RHS chord
connections (Figure 11), the results of which were used as a basis for T- X-, K-gap and K-overlap joints. The influence

of prestressing of the chord (function kn) has also been determined experimentally, since the analytical expressions are
too complicated to be used in practice. However, the functions obtained by experiments have been compared with
analytical expressions and set so that they do not deviate too much from the analytical results.

5. JOINT STRENGTH FORMULAE FOR AXIALLY LOADED JOINTS

The best available design formulae are semi-empirical (see Tables 1-4). This means that the influencing parameters have
been determined with simplified analytical models, whereas the final formulae have been obtained by modification
using a statistical analysis of the test results. Care has been taken that the available test evidence represents joints with
various possible parameters. In order to avoid an additional check for joint deflection, the yield line model was adopted
for joint geometries which show excessive deformations at ultimate loading, i.e. T-, Y- and X-joints.

Other types of joints are treated in a similar way to those discussed above.
6.1 Joints Between Circular Bracings and a Rectangular Chord
These joints have nearly the same joint efficiency as joints of square bracings, where the joint efficiency is defined as
the ratio of joint strength to the squash load Ai fyi of the connected bracing. This implies that the same strength
⋅
functions can be used as for square hollow section joints, but multiplied by (see Table 3-4).
6.2 Plate or I-Section Connected to RHS Chords
The strength of plate-to-RHS chord connections (see Table 5) is governed by the same failure criteria as described
above. However, a comparison of the various failure criteria shows that the effective width, the punching shear and wall
bearing are the prevailing failure modes. The strength of an I-section loaded in bending and connected to an RHS chord
can be directly related to that for a plate-to-RHS chord connection.
6.3 RHS Joints Loaded by Bending Moments
The design resistance formulae for RHS joints loaded by bending moments are derived in a similar way as for axially
loaded joints (see Table 6). In order to avoid checking all failure modes, the validity have been limited to ranges where
the joint strength is governed by one or two failure criteria.
6.4 Multiplanar RHS Joints (KK- and TT-Connections)
Based on analytical and experimental work on KK-connections with low to medium width ratios β between the bracing
members and chord, following has been suggested: where the angle between bracing member planes ψ is less than 90°
leading to an increase in the effective value of β at the chord face, and when the bracing members are attached to the
chord face off-centre (see Figure 12), the yield strength of a triangular truss tension chord face will be greater than that
of a planar truss chord face with the same size members. As further failure modes may exist over a wider range of
connection parameters than those studied, and as uniplanar, K-gap connection strength is assessed on the basis of
ultimate strength rather than predicted by the yield strength, a reduction factor of 0,9 is currently used in the uniplanar K-
connection design formulae. Additionally, a check of chord shear has always to be performed for gap KK-connections,
even for square RHS members.

For RHS 90° TT-connections, it has been found theoretically that little difference exists between the design strengths of
uniplanar and multiplanar connections.
7. DESIGN CHARTS
In practice, a designer needs a quick evaluation of the joint strength in order to judge whether the joint strength is
sufficient for the selected members. This evaluation can be made by means of a set of consistent design charts for the
preliminary design of K, N, T, Y and X connections which are based on Eurocode 3 recommendations [1]. In these
design charts, the joint resistance is described in terms of an efficiency coefficient Ce, which is defined as the joint
factored resistance divided by the yield load of the full section of the particular bracing member Ai fyi for a joint with
⋅
wall thickness ratio = 1, angle of bracing inclination θ = 90° and the function for prestress in chord kn = 1.
In general, the joint efficiency can be calculated using the following equation:
As an example, Figure 13 shows the efficiency diagram for K-joints with gap of square hollow sections, while Figure 14
describes the prestress function kn.


These diagrams show that a designer should try to attain the following design parameters:
≥ 2,0 for θ ≈ 45°
In this manner, a joint efficiency close to 1,0 can be obtained.
For 100% overlap joints of square hollow sections, the total efficiency is given by the curves in Figure 15. This
efficiency can be achieved since the joint resistance is only dependent on the effective width failure criterion of the
bracing.

For joints of rectangular hollow sections, however, too many failure criteria have to be checked in order to establish
simple design charts. For designing these joints, it is possible to use the design charts for square hollow section joints to
get the first indications.
A series of design charts for T, Y, X, K-gap, N-gap, K-partial overlap, N-partial overlap, K-100% overlap and N-100%
overlap joints of square hollow sections is shown in [8].

The design procedure for the design of lattice girders is given in Lecture 13.1.
● Various failure mechanisms are possible. In principle it is necessary to check all of them. However, for
connections of square hollow sections (ho=bo) the number of actual failure modes is limited.
● It is possible to avoid stiffeners if the members and the configuration of the joint are selected in the right way.
● The effects of secondary bending moments can be neglected, provided the joint satisfies the ranges of validity
given in Eurocode 3 (sufficient rotation capacity).
● The connecting welds have to be stronger than the bracings.
● The strength formulae are semi-empirical. They are based on tests and analytical models.
● Understanding of the failure modes and associated strength criteria requires insight into the material behaviour in
combination with the effect of the local distribution of stiffness at the intersection perimeter.
10. REFERENCES

[1] Eurocode 3: "Design of Steel Structures": ENV 1993-1-1: Part 1.1: General Rules and Rules for Buildings, CEN,
1992.
[2] Eurocode 3: ENV 1993-1-1: Annex K: Hollow Section Lattice Girder Connections, CEN, 1992.
[3] Wardenier, J.: Hollow section joints, ISBN 90-6275-084-2, Delft University Press, Delft, 1982.
hollow sections, CIDECT Monograph No.6, 1986
[5] Wardenier, J., Stark, J.W.B.: The static strength of welded lattice girder joints in structural, hollow sections, ECSC
Report EUR 6428C MF 1980.
[6] Packer, J. A. and Henderson, J. E.: Design guide for hollow structural section connections, Canadian Institute of
[7] Packer, J. A.: Theoretical behaviour and analysis of welded steel joints with RHS chords, CIDECT, Final Report 5U-
78/19.
[8] Packer, J.A., Wardenier, J., Kurobane, Y., Dutta, D., Yeomans, N.: Design guide for rectangular hollow section
(RHS) joints under predominantly static loading, edited by CIDECT, Verlag TÜV Rheinland.
T-, Y- and X- joints CHORD FACE YIELDING β ≤ 0,85
See Fig T1-1
K- and N- gap joints CHORD FACE YIELDING β ≤ 1,00
See Fig T1-2
Table 1 Design resistance of welded joints between square or circular bracing members and a square chord
section

Fig T1-1
Fig T1-2
K- and N- overlap joints*) EFFECTIVE WIDTH 25% ≤ λ ov ≤ 50%
See Fig T1-3
EFFECTIVE WIDTH 50% < λ ov < 80%

EFFECTIVE WIDTH λ ov ≥ 80%
Circular bracings multiply given formulae by π /4 and replace bi and

hi by di
Table 1 Continued
Fig T1-3
FUNCTIONS
kn = 1,0 for n ≥ 0 (tension)
kn = 1,3 + for n < 0 (compression)
but kn ≤ 1,0 n = σ o /fyo

beff = be,ov =
but beff ≤ bi but be.ov ≤ bi
*)Only the overlapping bracing is to be checked. The bracing member efficiency (i.e. the design resistance of the
joint divided by the plastic design resistance of the cross-section of the bracing member) for the overlapped brace is
not to be taken higher than that of the overlapping bracing.
Table 1 Continued
Type of Joint parameters [i = 1 or 2; j = overlapped brace]

joint
bi/bo bi/ti bo/to (b1 + b2)/2bi Gap or overlap
di/bo di/ti bi/bj
ti/tj
Compression Tension
T-, Y- or X- bi/bo ≥ 0,25 bi/ti ≤ 1,25√E/fyi bi/ti ≤ bo/to ≥

35 10
but ≤ 0,85 and
but ≤ 35
bi/ti ≤ 35
K - gap bi/bo ≥ 0,35 bo/to ≥ (b1+b2)/2b1 ≥ 0,6 g/bo ≥ 0,5 (1-β )

15
N - gap
and but ≤ 1,3 but ≤ 1,5 (1-β )
but ≤ 35
≥ 0,1 + 0,01bo/ g ≥ t1 + t2
to
K - overlap bi/bo ≥ 0,25 bi/ti ≤ 1,10√E/fyi bo/to ≤ ti/tj ≤ 1,0 λ ov ≥ 25%

40
N - overlap
bi/bj ≥ 0,75 but ≤ 100%
Circular di/bo ≥ 0,40 di/ti ≤ 1,50 √E/fyi di/ti ≤ As above but with di replacing bi
bracing
50
member
but ≤ 0,8

θ ≥ 30°
*)Outside these parameter ranges the resistance of the joint may be determined as for a joint with a rectangular
chord section
Table 2 Range of validity for Table 1
CHORD FACE YIELDING β ≤ 0,85
See Fig T3-1
CHORD SIDE WALL BUCKLING1) 0,85 ≤ β ≤ 1,0

β = 1,0
linear interpolation of chord
face yielding and chord side
wall criteria
EFFECTIVE WIDTH β ≥ 0,85
PUNCHING SHEAR 0,85 ≤ β ≤ 1 - 1/γ
Table 3 Design resistance of welded joints of rectangular, square or circular bracing members and a rectangular
or square chord section

Fig T3-1
K- and N- gap joints CHORD FACE YIELDING
See Fig T1-2
CHORD SHEAR
Also:
general interaction between V = Ni sin θ i and No,Rd
EFFECTIVE WIDTH
PUNCHING SHEAR β ≤ 1 - 1/γ

K- and N- overlap joints SIMILAR TO JOINTS OF SQUARE HOLLOW

SECTIONS (TABLE 1)
Circular braces multiply given formulae with π /4 and replace bi and hi

by di
Table 3 Continued
FUNCTIONS
tension: fk = fyo kn = 1,0 for n ≥ 0 (tension)
compression: fk = χ .fyo (T- and Y-joints)
kn = 1,3 + for n < 0 (compression)

fk = 0,8 χ fyo sin θ 1 (X-joints)
but kn ≤ 1,0
χ = f()
Av = (2 ho + α bo) to
use buckling curve a with:
for rectangular brace: α =
for circular brace: α = 0
beff = bep =
but beff ≤ bi but bep ≤ bi
1) For X-joints with angles θ < 90° the chord side walls must be checked for shear
Table 3 Continued
Type of Joint parameters [i = 1 or 2; j = overlapped brace]

joint

bi /bo bi /ti hi/bi bo /to Gap or overlap
hi /bo hi /ti ho /to bi/bj
di /to ti /tj
Compression Tension
T-, Y- or X- ≥ 0,25 ≤ 1,25 ≤ 35 hi /bi ≥ 0,5 ≤ 35
K - gap β ≥ 0,35 ≤ 35 g/bo ≥ 0,5 (1-β )

but ≤ 2,0
N - gap and ≤ 35
but ≤ 1,5 (1-β )
≥ 0,1 + 0,01 bo /to

g ≥ t1 + t2
K - overlap bi /bo ≥ 0,25 ≤ 1,10 ≤ 40 λ ov ≥ 25%
N - overlap
but ≤ 100%
ti /tj ≤ 1,0
bi /bj ≥ 0,75
Circular di /bo ≥ 0,40 ≤ 1,50 ≤ 50 As above but with di replacing bi

bracing
member
but ≤ 0,8
θ ≥ 30°
Table 4 Range of validity for Table 3
TYPE OF JOINT DESIGN AXIAL DESIGN IN PLANE

RESISTANCE Ni.Rd MOMENT
RESISTANCE Mip.Rd
EFFECTIVE WIDTH -
General check
See Fig T5-1
fy1 t1 beff

CHORD SIDE WALL -

BEARING
only when b1 ≥ bo - 2to
fyo to (2 t1 + 10to)
PUNCHING SHEAR -
Only when b1 ≤ bo - 2 to
0,58 fyo to (2t1 + 2bep)
Range of validity see Table 4 except 0,5 ≤ β ≤ 1,0; bo /to ≤ 30
Special functions see Table 3
Table 5 Design resistance of welded joints with gusset plates or sections

Fig T5-1

T- and X- Joints under in-plane CHORD FACE YIELDING β ≤ 0,85
bending
θ = ~ 90°
See Fig T6-1

CHORD SIDE WALL BEARING 0,85 ≤ β ≤ 1,0
f = fyo For T-
k
Joints
fk = 0,8 fyo For X-Joints
EFFECTIVE WIDTH 0,85 ≤ β ≤ 1,00

T- and X- Joints under out-of-plane CHORD SIDE WALL BEARING 0,85 ≤ β ≤ 1,00
bending
θ = 90°
f = fyo
k
For T joints
See Fig T6-2
fk = 0,8 fyo For X-Joints
EFFECTIVE WIDTH 0,85 ≤ β ≤ 1,00
Table 6 Design resistance of welded joints between rectangular hollow sections loaded by bending moments

Fig T6-1
Fig T6-2
TYPE OF JOINT CORRECTION FACTOR

TO UNIPLANAR JOINTS
60° ≤ ψ ≤ 90° TT-Joint 0,9
See Fig T7-1
60° ≤ ψ ≤ 90° 0,9
See Fig T7-2 in addition:
check design resistance of

cross-section 1-1
(gap joints only)
Range of validity see Table 4

Table 7 Correction factors for multi-planar joints
Fig T7-1
Fig T7-2


ESDEP WG 14
STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS: BUILDINGS
Lecture 14.1.1: Single- Storey Buildings: Introduction and

Primary Structure
OBJECTIVE/SCOPE
● To describe the anatomy of single-storey buildings, cladding, secondary elements and main frame structures.
● To clarify how the loads are supported.
● To present the basic principles of design and analysis of a single storey building.
● To give a design example.
PREREQUISITES
Lecture 1B.5.1: Introduction to Design of Industrial Buildings
RELATED LECTURES
Lecture 14.1.2: Single-Storey Buildings: Envelope and Secondary Structure

Lecture 14.5: Space Structure Systems
Lecture 14.6: Special Single-Storey Structures
SUMMARY
Single-storey steel buildings are used to accommodate many functions such as factories, leisure facilities, and
supermarkets. The structure consists of several elements. The lecture examines the function of each element, gives
general indications of the cost as a proportion of the total cost of the building.
The lecture also gives information on loading, on the different factors affecting the concept of the main frame, and
on considerations relating to the construction process of the structure.
1. INTRODUCTION
Steel construction is used for the majority of non-domestic single-storey buildings, the proportion is as high as 90% in the
UK and 70% in France. This large proportion is due to the ability to design relatively light, long span, durable structures
in steel which are easy to erect safely and quickly. The developments in steel cladding and light-gauge purlin and rail
systems in recent years have enabled architects and engineers to create economical, attractive designs for a wide range
of applications and budgets.
The rate of change of any activity is very rapid as technology develops. Clients expect therefore their buildings to have
a lifetime several times longer than the initial layout. A primary requirement is therefore flexibility of planning which results
in a demand for as few columns as possible. The ability to provide spans up to 60m, but more commonly around 30m,
using steel has proved very popular for commercial and leisure buildings. The lightness and flexibility of this kind of
steel structure reduces the sizes and the costs of foundations and makes them less sensitive to the geotechnical characteristics
of the soil.
The brief for the design of the majority of single storey industrial buildings is essentially to provide a structure which
is without, or has a limited number of, internal columns. In principle the requirement is for the construction of four walls and
a roof for a single or multi-bay structure. The walls can be formed of steel columns with cladding which may be of profiled
or plain sheet, precast concrete, or masonry. The designer considers a system of beams or frameworks (latticed or traditional)
in structural steel to support the cladding for the roof. Use is made of hot rolled hollow sections (circular, rectangular)
and traditional sections (I sections, angles, etc.) and also cold formed sections.
Light latticed frameworks for the roof of an industrial building provide a neat, efficient, structure which is simple to
design, economic to execute and frequently satisfies architectural requirements. Whilst the structural envelope and the
design are 'basically' simple, it is essential to ascertain correctly the loads applied to the structure and to predict the load
paths from the sheeting to the purlins and side rails, through the roof girder to the column and finally to the foundation
and supporting soil.
2. ANATOMY AND CONCEPTION OF THE STRUCTURE

The skeleton of a typical single-storey building is shown in the diagram (Figure 1). It consists of three major
elements: cladding for both roof and walls; secondary steel to support the cladding and form framing for doors, windows
and the like; and the main frame of the structure, including all necessary bracing. In addition, the building requires
foundations which have to be designed and built to transmit all the loads to the soil.

2.1 Cladding

The primary functions of the cladding are to provide shade, shelter, and an attractive appearance. The cladding is
therefore arguably the most important element of the structure. It is likely to be some 50% of the total cost even if a fairly
basic specification is used. The frame members, both primary and secondary are there to support the cladding and services.
The requirements for walls and roof are somewhat different although both need to be weather tight, durable and
provide insulation.
The weathertightness of the roof is clearly paramount, particularly for lower pitches.
In the case of walls the appearance will be the highest priority in making the selection. Cladding formed from metal sheets
has emerged as the most popular choice since its introduction in the 1970's. Steel is the most usual substrate with aluminium
as a more expensive second choice. The higher coefficient of expansion of aluminium can lead to difficulties in
some circumstances.
In the normal single-storey building the cladding is supported on secondary members, which transmit the loads back to
main structural steel frames.
An economic solution is provided by the use of cold-formed light gauge sections [1]. These sections are of proprietary
shape and are produced to order on "computer numerically controlled" rolling machines. These processes are
extremely efficient since the components are delivered to site pre-engineered to the exact requirements. As a result
fabrication and erection times are minimised and material wastage is eliminated. With high volume rolling the material
content of purlins and rails is a very significant part of the cost and manufacturers have developed shapes which are
extremely material efficient. The most common are zeds, modified Zeds and sigma shapes as shown in Figure 2. Spans
are commonly 5-8m but longer spans up to 12m can be achieved.

It is also traditional to use hot-rolled sections as I or C shapes, not so sensitive to the effect of local instability. The centre
to centre distance of the portal frames is then reduced, in general, to 5 or 6m.
Generally, the cost breakdown of various elements will be cladding 50%; purlins and rails 10%; mainframe 30%;
and foundations 10%. These figures are indicative, as clearly there is considerable variation in specification and cost of
the cladding which is the largest single element. Cladding can vary from 10 ecu/m2 to over 150 ecu/m2.
The remainder of this lecture discusses the main frame of the structure. Cladding and secondary elements are considered
in Lecture 14.1.2.
2.3 The Main Frame of the Structure
The loads are transferred from the sheeting onto the purlins and rails, which in turn are supported by a primary (or
main) structure. These loads can be obtained from the relevant codes. They will include:
● the self weight of the cladding, of the secondary elements (purlins and rails) and of the frame itself,
● the applied loads from services, etc,
● the vertical and horizontal loads from cranes,

● the snow loads,
● the wind loads,
● the earthquake effects, in some areas.
When the length of the structure is not too great, say 50 to 100m depending on temperature range, it is normal practice not
to consider the effects produced by changes of temperature. It is usual practice, also, not to consider differential settlement
of foundations if they are below 2cm.
Wind can of course cause pressure, suction and drag loads on the cladding. Figure 3 illustrates the various components of
load to consider in the design.

The primary structural frames will normally be spaced from 5 to 8m centres. Although larger spacings are growing
in popularity, an analysis of a purlin manufacturers' sales shows that about 6m remains the most popular spacing. The
most straight forward single-storey structural form consists of a pair of vertical columns supporting a spanning beam. To
be practical, there is a need for a fall in the roof finish to provide adequate drainage. For the small spans for which
this arrangement is suitable, the fall can be achieved in the finishes or by a nominal slope in the beam. This form
of construction, is shown in Figure 4. Stability against wind loading can be provided by the cladding which is fixed from
frame to frame. This simple form of structure is used for small workshops. It is only suitable for spans up to
approximately 12m.
For longer spans this simple solution becomes, in general, uneconomic. Then portal frames and lattice trusses are
more competitive solutions.
Figure 5 shows some options commonly used for portal frames. The more popular solutions are pinned bases if there is
no crane to be supported and the fully rigid version when it is necessary to support crane loads and to obtain smaller
horizontal displacements. Less weight of steel results, in any case, from fixed based frames, but the additional cost of
the foundations of the supports can be higher than the saving of steel.

Figure 6 shows an example of solid column with a typical lattice girder.

Whichever solution is chosen, all loads have to be transferred to the ground in a coherent fashion in even the simplest
of buildings. The provision of bracing is covered in Lecture 14.1.2.
Restraints to the main structure against out-of-plane buckling can be provided by the purlins connected to the top flange of
the rafter and by the rails connected to the outer column flange. Figure 7 shows three typical ways of providing
adequate restraint.


Plastic design of portal frames brings limitations on the spacing of restraints of about 1,8 to 2m. At plastic hinge locations, it
is necessary to provide stays from the rail to the inner flange in order to avoid the lateral buckling of the compressed
flange. The cladding spans between the purlins and commercially available profiles are economic in this range of spacing
to meet the requirements for walkability, strength (corrugation depths), and drainage.
Where lattice structures are used, secondary bending in the top boom is avoided if the purlins are supported at the node
points. Spacings of about 1,8m are often found convenient and economic.
It is also possible to use the cladding as a stressed skin in order to transmit the horizontal forces generated in the roof by
the wind and the tendency of the frame to out-of-plane buckling.
2.3.1 Simplest Frames
The cross-section shown in Figure 4 is undoubtedly the simplest framing solution which can be used to provide
structural integrity to single-storey buildings. Used predominately in spans of up to 10m, where flat roof construction
is acceptable, the frame comprises standard hot-rolled sections having simple or moment-resisting joints.
Flat roofs are notoriously difficult to weatherproof, since deflections of the horizontal cross-beams induce ponding of
rainwater on the roof which tends to penetrate the laps of the traditional cladding profiles and, indeed, any weakness of
the exterior roofing fabric. To counteract this, either the cross-member is cambered to provide the required fall across the
roof, or the cladding itself is laid to a predetermined fall, again facilitating drainage of surface water off the roof.
Due to the need to control excessive deflections, the sections tend to be somewhat heavier than those required for
strength purposes alone, particularly if the cross-beam is designed as simply supported. In its simplest form, the cross-beam
is designed as spanning between columns. For gravity loadings the latter are in direct compression apart from a small
bending moment at the top of the column due to the eccentricity of the beam connection. The cross-beam acts in bending due
to the applied gravity loads, the compression flange being restrained either by purlins, which support the roof sheet, or by
a proprietary roof deck which may span between the main frames and which must be adequately fastened.
Resistance to lateral loads is achieved by the use of a longitudinal wind girder, usually situated within the depth of the
cross-beam. This transmits load from the top of the columns to bracing in the vertical plane, and thence to the foundation.
The bracing is generally designed as a pin-jointed frame, in keeping with the simple joints used in the main frame.
Buildings which employ the use of beam-and-column construction often have brickwork cladding in the vertical plane.
With careful detailing, the brickwork can be designed to provide the vertical sway bracing, acting in a similar manner to
the shear walls of a multi-storey building.
Resistance to lateral loading can also be achieved either by the use of rigid connections at the column/beam joint or
by designing the columns as fixed-base cantilevers.
Rigid connections and rigid column/foundation joints reduce also the deflection of the beam and need less weight of
structural steel for the frame.
2.3.2 Portal frames
As explained above, the two most popular arrangements are the portal frame with pinned bases, if there is no crane to
be supported, and the fully rigid portal frame, which is often used if there is a crane. These forms are both functional
and economic. In- plane stability is derived from the provision of moment-resisting connections at the top and at the beam-
to-column connections for the first situation and also at the base in the second one [2].
The falls required to the roof are naturally provided by the cladding carried on purlins which, in turn, are supported by the
main frame members. Architectural pressures lead to the use of the flattest slopes compatible with weathertightness. The
most common slope is about 6°, but slopes as low as 1° have been used.
The frames are constructed from I-section rafters and columns with haunches at the connections at the eaves as illustrated
in Figure 1. The haunch length is approximately 10% of the span and can be formed from welded plate or more commonly
a cutting from a rolled section. The depth at the column face is typically slightly deeper than the rafter section. The design
of these frames is dealt with in Lecture 14.2 and Lecture 14.3. Portal frames can be also built with tapered rather than
haunched sections. Frames of this type are common in the USA and are being used more frequently in Europe. The sections
are fabricated from plate on automated welding machines. The ability to vary web thickness, flange dimensions and
section depth results in high material efficiency. Deep slender sections are used to maximise economy. Suitable design
methods are described in Lecture 14.3. In addition to material economies there are benefits in reduced deflections
resulting from the high in-plane stiffness of the deep sections.
Portal frames are particularly economic up to 40m spans and, where the internal planning permits, multi-bay configurations
of 20-30m spans are effective. They have been used for frames up to 75m span.
2.3.3 Lattice Trusses
Figure 8 shows a typical frame built with lattice trusses. Lattice structures are lighter than the portal alternatives for
spans greater than 25m but the additional workmanship increases fabrication costs [3]. Figure 9 gives an indication of

the relative material weights. It is not possible to be definitive but based on structural requirements, lattice systems are likely
to be cost effective for spans over 50 m.


Because lattice girders have a much larger second moment of area and section modulus than a corresponding I section of
a similar weight, they have greater stiffness and resistance to load. These enhanced properties are however accompanied
by higher fabrication and erection costs due to the required effort for the connections. Spans up to 80m have been realised
in that way.
When deciding the size of different elements of the lattice girder, the engineer should be aware that stress reversals are
likely due to wind effects.
Frames are normally positioned at 6,0m to 8m centres. These spacings generally provide economic solutions for the
cold-formed purlin and side rail arrangements.
Generally a decision is taken early during the process of conceptual design on the type(s) of member(s) to be used for
the latticed frame. There are many alternatives:
a. Hollow sections - circular or rectangular.
b. Traditional sections - angles, tees, channels, I sections.
c. Combination of (a) and (b).
The selected truss should reflect not only the design aim to produce the lightest frame but also fabrication and
erection requirements.
Examples of composite form are shown in Figure 10 where the booms are I sections and the internal members are RHS. The
I sections enable easy connection of services to the truss and easy connection to columns. Bracing in the plane of the roof
can be provided using simple in-plane members and simple connections, or by using the relative stiffness of an I or H section.

The specific advantages of hollow sections (and tubes) when compared with traditional sections (I sections, channels,
angles, etc.) are the high strength to weight ratio, maximum efficiency in tension, efficiency as struts, good torsional
properties, appearance and maintenance. In considering use of CHS or RHS the designer should remember that
some fabricators are not fully equipped to fabricate circular hollow sections. (Connection costs are considerably reduced
if RHS beams are selected, with CHS or RHS web members). The main disadvantages of CHS and RHS are the higher cost
of connections at some nodes and the relative difficulties of making on-site connections for services (electrical, etc.).
In addition basic costs are higher than traditional sections on a tonnage basis (overall however frames of lighter weight
are produced).
The relative slopes of the internal members should be considered in relation to the detailing and fabrication process. If they
are parallel to each other then the angle of cut at each end is identical for all members.

The final decision on the type(s) of member(s) to be used may be influenced by aesthetics and not cost.
Early industrial buildings were built with saw tooth truss layouts illustrated in Figure 11. The vertical (or nearly
vertical) elements were glazed and north facing to allow the maximum daylight with minimum direct sun light. In
modern times the need for natural lighting has diminished with modern lighting systems and while 10% of area of roof
lighting through translucent panes is common, many take advantage of the more reliable and controllable conditions with
no natural lighting at all.

Generally, the columns to the frame are I or H sections (Figure 12a). The latter have a greater transverse stiffness than
the former and are preferred in cases of biaxial bending. When the building incorporates an overhead travelling crane of
high capacity, a built-up load or battened column may be used (Figure 12b). In some cases the built-up columns are
continued by I sections over the level of the crane supporting structure in order to reduce the costs (Figure 12c).

3. LOADING
3.1 External Gravity Loads
The dominant gravity load is from snow. The general case is the application of a basic uniform load, but with sloping
roofs having multiple spans and parapets, the action of drifting snow has to be considered. The basic loading is
variable according to location. Design information is currently given in national load codes and will be addressed in
Eurocode 1, in due course. The main frame design for portals can be carried out using the uniform load case but the
variable loads caused by drifting are to be applied to cladding and purlins. The effects of drifting are idealized into
triangular loadings with formulae given for the various effects of valleys, parapets, upstands, etc. Early tests carried out in
the UK established that equivalent uniformly distributed loads can be used for the purlins design. In the areas of high
local load, consideration has to be given as to whether to reduce purlin spacing or to increase the gauge. Where practicable
the reduction of spacing is preferable as it prevents the dangers and disruption involved with identification and production
of different thicknesses of purlin supplied to one job.
For portal frames the frame strength will usually be determined by the snow load case, unless the eaves height is large
in relation to span.
3.2 Wind Loads
With lightweight cladding and purlins and rails, wind loads are important. Cladding and its fasteners are designed for the
local pressure coefficient, for example as given in BS6399: Part 3 and other national codes. Purlins and main frames
are designed using the relevant statistical factors, but not additional local coefficients. Care must be taken to include the
total effect of both internal and external pressure coefficients.
3.3 Internal Gravity Loads
Service loads for lighting, etc., are reasonably assumed to be globally 0,6kN/m2. As service requirements have increased, it
has become necessary to consider carefully the provision to be made.
Most purlin manufacturers can provide proprietary clips for hanging limited point loads to give flexibility of layout.
Where services and sprinklers are required, it is normal to design the purlins for a global service load of 0,1 - 0,2kN/m2 with
a reduced value for the main frames to take account of likely spread. Particular items of plant must be treated individually.
The specifying engineer should make a realistic assessment of the need as the elements are sensitive and, while the loads
may seem low, they represent a significant percentage of the total and affect design economy accordingly.
3.4 Cranes
Where moving loads such as cranes and conveyors are present (Figure 13), in addition to the gravity loads, the effects
of acceleration and deceleration have to be taken into account in the design. A quasi-static approach is generally used in
which the moving loads are enhanced and treated as static loads in the design. The enhancement factors to be used depend
on the particular plant and its acceleration and braking capacity. Manufacturers must be consulted where heavy, high speed
or multiple cranes are being used.

To take into account dynamic effects due to cranes, the maximum vertical loads and the horizontal forces are increased
by specific factors which can be found in national guidance.
The repeated movement of a crane gives rise to fatigue conditions. Fatigue effects are restricted to the local areas of
support, the crane beam itself, support bracket and the connection to main columns. It is not normal to design the whole
frame for fatigue as the stress levels due to crane travel are relatively low.
3.5 Other Actions
In certain areas, the effects of earthquakes should be considered. In those countries affected, there are maps which identify
the seismic level of each zone and standards to evaluate structural behaviour. Eurocode 8 [5] deals specifically with
this problem.
In common practice, it is not necessary to take into account differential settlement of less than 2,5cm. If differential
settlement exceeds 2,5cm, its effects must be examined, both from the structural and functional points of view. In less
ductile structures, such as those constructed with sections not in Class 1 or 2, it is always important to evaluate the
sensitivity of the structure in relation to possible differential settlement.
It is also general practice not to take into account the effects of temperature when the maximum dimension of the building
is less than 40 to 50m, or when expansion joints have been used which separate the structure into zones which do not
exceed this dimension. Elsewhere, it is important to evaluate the effects of variations in temperature. It is also necessary
to ensure that the characteristics of the finished structure, both the systems of fastening and the seals in the envelope,
are compatible with the inevitable deformations due to change in climate.
4. FABRICATION
Important factors which must be considered at the conceptual and detailing stages are the questions of workshop facilities
and space and of transport between workshop and site. Whilst large girders and/or large sections may appear to be desirable
in order to reduce the number of site connections, the use of large members can often reduce the number of fabricators who
can tender for a given project.
The lengths of members available from stockists or direct from the mill can vary. When long lengths are deemed desirable it
is necessary to check their availability. Generally standard sections can be obtained in a reasonable time but there are likely
to be delays and additional cost if non-standard sections are required. The use of slightly heavier sections and standardisation
of section size may lead to a cheaper fabricated structure. When large prefabricated trusses are used it may be necessary
to provide lifting points (eyes) which are located to minimise stresses induced during lifting. All parts which are shop
painted need to be handled carefully to avoid damaging the coating.
Latticed girders are made up of long, basically slender members, and may therefore be subject to severe distortion due
to welding unless care is taken during the fabrication process.
It is essential that the design engineer notes that:
i. bulk orders of minimum size variation are cheaper than small orders of many different sizes.
ii. the number of pieces to be handled should be kept to a minimum.
iii. weld distortion and tolerances should be allowed for.
iv. automated fabrication is generally cheaper.
v. careful design can minimise transportation costs.
vi. specifications need to be realistic to reduce costs.
vii. good quality control is essential.
5. TRANSPORTATION
In each country there are specific lengths and widths of structures that may be transported without any problems, e.g. widths
up to approximately 3 m, lengths up to 15m. For larger dimensions a police notification or special permission is required.
It should be noted that the various police authorities specify different periods when abnormal loads are allowed to
move through their districts. If neighbouring "times" are significantly out of phase and general traffic hold-ups cause
disruption to the movement of abnormal loads, it is possible for loads to be delayed by up to 24 hours. If one or more
cranes and associated erection staff are unable to work because of these enforced delays, the additional costs can be
very significant. Some towns and cities place length restrictions on materials which can be moved by road.
Girders can be fabricated and despatched lying flat. The overall height allowed for the load is dependent upon the
route travelled and the clear height of any bridges likely to be encountered. Rail transport can accommodate long pieces,
but width and height are more restricted.
To limit the length of units being transported, trusses may be divided into welded parts (2, 3 or more parts) which may
be bolted together on site. The complete rafter can be then craned into position.

For export where shipment is involved, pieces up to the same dimensions as for road transport may be accommodated. It
should be appreciated, however, that shipping charges are often based on volume rather than weight. There are often
relatively severe restrictions on the length of a piece that can be carried in the hold of a ship. The ship's engineer may refuse
to carry steelwork as deck cargo. It may be found more economical to despatch the steel in pieces for subsequent assembly
on site.
6. ERECTION
In considering the erection of a framework, the designer seeks an economic but safe process. The cost of erection can be
a significant proportion of the cost of a steelwork contract. It is often useful for a designer with little or no experience of
steel erection to discuss possible solutions with a contractor. The latter will know how to build and avoid the possibility
of collapse and how to satisfy the insurer. Potentially steelwork erection is hazardous and good control is required to
ensure safety of the erectors.
Latticed girders can conveniently be assembled on the ground and lifted into place. However, since cranes are likely to be
used, the effect of dynamic lifting loads or stress reversals should not be ignored. All steel structures are likely to
require temporary bracing, which may be part of the permanent system. The temporary systems need to be carefully
designed. The following points summarise the process:
a. Structural steelwork erection is an operation requiring meticulous planning from conception to completion.
b. The operation involves many disciplines and requires co-operation and communication between all those involved.
c. It is an operation which is dependent upon the personal competencies of all those involved to ensure the contract
is completed without accident, on time and within the budget.
● At the most basic level single-storey structures have to provide shade and shelter for designated activity in the building.
● Steel provides the means to obtain economical buildings with large column-free spaces. The structural systems are discussed.
● The structural system is clad to resist the weather. The cladding is supported on secondary cold-formed sections which, in
turn are supported on the main frame.
● The span range is from 6m to 100m. To cover this range, structural systems are available ranging from simple beams
and columns through portal frames to lattice trusses.
● Lateral stability can be achieved either by bracing systems or moment resisting joints in the frames.
● The proportions of costs for a simple shed are approximately: 50% cladding, 10% rails, 30% main frame 10% foundations.
8. REFERENCES
[1] Davis, J. M. and Raven, G. K., 'Design of Cold Formed Steel Purlins', IABSE Thin Walled Metal Structures in
Buildings Colloquium, Stockholm 1986.
[2] Dowling, P. J. et al, 'A Development in the Automated Design and Fabrication of Portal Framed Industrial
Buildings', Institution of Structural Engineers, London, October 1982.
[3] Horridge, J. F. and Morris, L. J., 'Comparative Costs of Single Storey Steel-Framed Structures', Institution of
Structural Engineers, London, July 1986.
9. WIDER READING
[1] Ballio, G. and Mazzolani, F. M., 'Theory and Design of Steel Structures', Chapman and Hall, 1983.
[2] Eurocode 3: "Design of Steel Structures": ENV 1993-1-1: Part 1, General rules and rules for buildings, CEN 1992.
[3] Dowling, P. J., Knowles, P. R., and Owen, S. G. W., "Structural Steel Design", Butterworths, 1988.
[4] Steel Designers' Manual, fifth edition. The Steel Construction Institute, 1992.
[5] Eurocode 8: "Structures in Seismic Regions - Design", CEN (in preparation).

ESDEP WG 14
Lecture 14.1.2: Single Storey Buildings:

Envelope and Secondary Structure
OBJECTIVE/SCOPE
To describe further the functions and characteristics of the cladding and the elements of the secondary structure in single-
storey buildings and to give guidance of purlin/wind designs.
PREREQUISITES
None.
RELATED LECTURES

SUMMARY
The functions and characteristics of the elements of the envelope and secondary structure of single storey buildings
are described. The derivation of the load-carrying resistance of cladding using manufacturers' tables is presented and the
design of purlins using manufacturers information is outlined.
Finally the requirements for main frame bracing are discussed.
1. INTRODUCTION
Lecture 14.1.1 provided a brief outline of the functions of the various elements of single-storey buildings. Design methods
for frames of the various configurations are presented in other lectures and are also described in conventional text books.
The derivation of design and selection of commercially available cladding, purlin and rail systems are not generally
covered elsewhere.
The lecture reviews the available systems and selection criteria. It concludes with a description of bracing systems used
in single-storey buildings.
2. CLADDING SYSTEMS
Steel-based cladding sheets are formed from a substrate with layers of galvanising, primer and colour coating as indicated
in Figure 1. For the weather face the coating will normally be polyvinyl chloride (PVC), polyvinyl fluoride (PVF2) or,
where price is a constraint, the less durable acrylic coatings. PVC and PVF2 can be expected to have a life to first
maintenance of 10 to 25 years depending on environmental conditions. Light colours should be used on roofs to minimise
heat absorption and thermal movement. PVC should not be used in latitudes less than 49° [1].

There are four main categories of cladding system:
● single skin trapezoidal (Figure 2a)

● double skin trapezoidal (Figure 3)
● standing seam/secret fix (Figure 4)
● composite panels (Figure 2b).


Where double skin systems are used the liner sheet, normally as thin as 0,4mm, has a similar coating build-up but with a
light coloured polyester paint to the inner face. In addition to providing weather protection the cladding provides insulation
°
to the building. The thickness varies according to the insulation required with typical values of 0,45 w/m2 C being
obtained from 80mm of fibreglass or mineral wool. The equivalent in composite panels would normally be obtained
from 50mm thickness. Manufacturer's literature should be considered for particular cases.

2.1 Roof Cladding
The characteristics of the various roof systems are:
Single Skin Trapezoidal Roofing
This is the most basic form of cladding construction. The main problem is to prevent condensation since it is difficult
to exclude damp air from the underside of the sheeting. The internal appearance is utilitarian since the insulation usually
takes the form of unrolled thermal quilting supported on wire mesh or rigid boards supported on T Bars.
Double Trapezoidal Shell Roof Construction
This is the most common form of cladding both for walls and roofs, with pitches down to approximately 5°. It consists of
a steel liner sheet fastened to the purlins or rails with an outer weather sheet held apart by Zed spacers. The gap
created contains insulation normally of fibreglass or mineral fibre. Sealing of the liner skin or addition of a vapour barrier
and breather membrane can be employed to improve performance in situations where there is a higher condensation
risk. Manufacturers normally supply a co-ordinated range of accessories and rooflights to match their particular profiles.
A typical construction is shown in Figure 3.
Standing Seam and Concealed Fix Roofs
As steel has replaced asbestos cement in sheeting, lower roof slopes have become possible and the appearance of buildings
has greatly improved, both in form and colour treatment.
It is feasible to disguise the sloping roofs and provide the rectangular appearance recently favoured by planners, engineers
and architects who have become increasingly involved in this type of building. The problems associated with drifted snow
and internal gutters, together with the wasted heated in the space in a sloping roof encouraged the development of
systems which remain weathertight at slopes down to 1°. These developments have been achieved by minimising laps
and through fasteners. The current range of standing seam and concealed fastener systems are provided in long lengths, up
to 32m with special transport arrangements, and use of clips to hold the sheeting down to the purlins. Typical construction
is shown in Figure 4.
The outer sheeting is used to provide the weather skin in both single and double construction, as previously described.
Composite or Sandwich Panels
This is the most recently developed form of cladding and consists of panels where the insulating foam is integral with the
two metal skins [2]. The foam, which during manufacture is pumped into the space between the skins, expands to totally fill
the void and adheres to both liner and outer sheet (Figure 2b). This composite action gives robust stiff panels, with the
further benefit of rapid erection since the whole skin is fastened in one operation.
Composite panels are available with traditional type trapezoidal outer skins and through fasteners, while more
recent developments include standing seam variations allowing slopes down to 1°.
2.2 Wall Cladding
The systems used for walls are similar in construction to those for roofing. Since the sheets will normally be vertical
the weatherproofing requirements are less rigorous. Another important difference compared to roofs is the lower angle
of incidence of the sun allowing the full range of colours to be used without excessive surface temperatures, so giving
the architect the widest possible scope for creative use of colour.
Given appropriate attention to joint detailing, wall cladding can be fixed horizontally, diagonally or in combinations.
The range of construction includes, as for roofs, single skin, double skin and composite systems, with both conventional
and secret fastenings. Appearance is a major consideration in the selection of the particular type to be used.
All reputable manufacturers supply brochures giving details of the systems offered. General advice can be obtained
from literature.
3. RESISTANCE OF CLADDING TO LOADS

Non-composite Systems
Since the sheets are rolled formed, the designer has to select the profiles from the various manufacturers pre-
determined shapes. The sheets must be strong enough to resist the various loads which will be applied in construction
and during service without damage or excessive deflection. For simple profiles, calculation methods are available in
some national codes and European recommendations. Most manufacturers carry out full scale tests to determine the strength
of their various profiles.
The test regimes for steel sheeting are designed to take account of the various limiting criteria. The criteria relate to shear of
the webs combined with bending at internal supports for shorter spans and mid-span bending for longer, simple spans.
Sheets are therefore tested with jacking loads and spreader beams, air bags or vacuum boxes with spans representative of
the shortest and longest support spans anticipated in practice. The maximum allowable shears and moments are
derived together with deflection behaviour and load tables for service conditions drawn up for pressure and suction conditions.
One important facet of a roof sheet is its ability to withstand local point loads both to sustain personnel walking on it
during construction and also in service for maintenance purposes. It is this aspect which governs the minimum
thickness acceptable for a roof sheet. This thickness is between 0,6 and 0,7mm. Current approval regimes include a point
load test. Sheeting which passes this test will be suitably robust for construction loads but care needs to be taken with
walking on PVF2 and painted finishes.
Wall cladding is often 0,5mm thick. To allow selection of the appropriate profile and thickness the majority of
profilers (manufacturers) publish catalogues containing suggested fixing and sealing details together with allowable loads
for the range of span conditions for both pressure and suction actions.
In addition to resisting externally applied loads, conventional cladding with screw fasteners can provide lateral restraint to
the purlins and side rails supporting it. In this application care should be taken in the specification of the fasteners
concerning prevention of corrosion around the connections. Standing seam or concealed fastener systems have clips which
hold the sheets down but allow expansion and contraction of the sheets and so provide a lower restraint value to the
rails. Where these systems are used it is necessary to provide supplementary restraints to the purlins. At present there is
no generally accepted guidance on the amount of restraint provided by these newer forms of cladding. Advice on the
necessary inclusion of additional restraint in the form of sag bars is available from rail manufacturers relating to their
particular products.
Where a metal liner tray is used in conjunction with a cladding system fixed by clips, adequate rail restraint is
normally provided if the tray is fastened in the conventional manner.
Composite Systems
The use of foam filled panels has become more common over the past few years. They are more complicated to evaluate
in design since the properties of the foam and its adhesion to the two metal skins are fundamental to the performance of
the panels. In addition to the normal applied loads, the inherent insulating qualities of the panels leads to
significant temperature gradients which have to be taken into account in the panel design.
Calculation methods for analysis are available but the shapes of practical panels are outside of their current scope. It is
normal therefore for extensive testing to be carried out by manufacturers in order to obtain type approval from the
appropriate national authorities. The tests, in addition to normal load tests, include thermal cycling on full scale panels
and foam evaluation to ensure the essential adhesion to the skins is obtained. Quality assurance regimes are an essential part
of the manufacturing process. The results of the tests are collated and simplified to produce load carrying tables.
4. SHAPES OF PURLINS AND RAILS

Although some long-span cladding systems are available which will span up to 6m, most portal frame structures are
designed with purlins and rails supporting the cladding and spanning between the main frames.
The spans between frames are between 4,5 and 10m with 6 to 7,5m being most popular. Roof decks of larger span are
used primarily in flat roof systems and are supported directly on the trusses.
The purlins can be designed as continuous beams supported by three or more portal frames. Because of the difference in
the value of the support reactions, it is necessary to stagger the joints to obtain equal loads on the main frames.
4.1 Cold-Formed Shapes
The purlins and rails are commonly supplied by specialist manufacturers who deliver pre-cut and punched cold-rolled
items together with the necessary sag bars, cleats or rafter stays. Material economy is vitally important to the
manufacturers whose output is often in excess of 80km/week. They have therefore developed and refined by testing a variety
of shapes. The more common ones are Zeds, modified Zeds and Sigma shapes illustrated in Figure 7.

Depending on the slope, anti-sag bars may be necessary to provide one or two intermediate supports in the direction of
the weak axis of the beam (Figure 8). Generally, the anti-sag bars are connected using diagonal ties to the portal frames
to avoid an increase of the load in the purlins at the top.

Zeds
The Zed section was the first shape to be introduced. It is material efficient but its major disadvantage is that the principal
axes are inclined to the web and so out-of-plane forces are generated. When asbestos covered roofs with slopes of the order
of 10° were normal these forces were advantageous and opposed to the down slope forces.
Modified Zeds
As lower roof pitches have been introduced, modified Zeds have been developed with the inclination of the principal
axis considerably reduced, so enhancing overall performance. Stiffening has also been introduced, improving
material efficiency.
These more complicated shapes have to be produced by rolling rather than by press braking.
Sigma Shape

The first shapes to be employed were the simple Zed and Channel since they could be formed by press brakes. As
described above the Zed shape has been modified to overcome its major disadvantage. The Channel has not achieved
much use, since, although its principal axes are parallel to the major elements, the shear centre lies well outside of the
section. Undue twisting under load results which can be reduced by shaping the web and creating a sigma shape such that
the shear centre is approximately coincident with the load application line. One manufacturer now produces an
economical second generation product of this configuration using rolling techniques.
4.2 Hot-Rolled Shapes
Classical I-beams such as IPE I CDN or HE can also be used as purlins. I-beams and channel shapes can be used as rails.
These shapes are less sensitive than the previous ones to the effect of local instabilities and there is preferences to use them
in some countries. However, cold-formed sections are generally the most economical solution.
5. RESISTANCE OF PURLINS AND RAILS TO LOADS

Cold-formed sections manufactured from thin gauge material are particularly prone to twisting and buckling due to
factors which are directly related to the section's shape. The torsional constant of all thin gauge sections is low due to it being
a function of the cube of the thickness; in the case of lipped channels the shear centre is eccentric to the point of application
of load thus inducing a twist on the section; in the case of zeds the principal axes are inclined to the plane of the web
thus inducing bi-axial bending effects. Clearly the above secondary effects, induced by the primary load application, affect
the load-carrying resistance of the section.
When used in service the support system is subject to downward loading due to dead and live loads arising from the weight
of the cladding, snow, services, etc., and uplift if the design wind pressure is greater than the dead load of the
system. Therefore, for a typical double span system as shown in Figure 9, most of the compression flange is directly
restrained laterally and against rotation by the cladding for downward loading, but it is not so restrained in the case of
load reversal.

In supporting the external fabric of the building, the purlins and side rails gain some degree of restraint against twisting
and rotation from the cladding and the method of its fastening to the supporting members. In addition, the connection of
the support members to the main frame also has a significant effect on the load-carrying resistance of the section.
Economical design, therefore, must take account of the above effects.
Several approaches are used for the design of purlin and rail systems.
a. Design by calculation based on an elastic analysis as detailed in the relevant codes of practice. This approach neglects
any beneficial effect of cladding restraint for the uplift case and in the compression zone adjacent to the central support
in double span arrangements. It is normally confined to "one-off" situations where material savings do not justify
more rigorous solutions.
b. Design by calculation based on a rational analysis which accounts for the stabilising influence of the cladding, plasticity
in the purlin as the ultimate load is approached and the behaviour of the cleat at the internal support. The effects, however,
are difficult to quantify. Although understanding of the restraint of purlins by cladding is improving and methods for
including the cladding/purlin interaction are available, the methods are necessarily conservative. They are included in
Eurocode 3: Part 1.3 [4] but are likely to be used in the short term only by small to medium volume users where
potential material savings do not justify a major test programme.

In some countries, despite the almost traditional nature of these forms of construction, it is not permitted to take account
of cladding restraint to the purlins in the section design if the cladding is to be supplied and fixed by differing suppliers.
This restriction is due more to the apportionment of responsibility should there be failures than due to lack of
technical knowledge. This situation is unusual since a great deal of construction depends on the interaction of
elements supplied and fixed by different contractors.
c. Design on the basis of full-scale testing
Manufacturers differ in the design methods they use. The methods are based on the observed behaviour of the system under test.
For volume production, design by testing is the approach which is normally used. Although this approach is
expensive, maximum economy of material can be achieved and the cost of the testing can be spread over several years
of production.
Design by testing involves the "fine-tuning" of theoretical expressions for the collapse load of the system.
For example, although the sections involved are inevitably slender, the collapse mechanism which occurs with a
well developed two-span system is essentially as represented in Figure 10. The published paper [3] on one
manufacturer's system shows that the collapse load will be:
Wc = f (M1, M2, x, L)
with
x = f (M1, M2, L)
and
θp = f (Wc, M1, L)

The performance of a two-span system is considerably enhanced if some redistribution of bending moment from the
internal support is taken into account. The moment-rotation characteristic at the support depends very much on the cleat
detail and the section shape. The characteristics of the central support can be found by testing a simply supported beam
subject to a central point load applied through a cleat so as to simulate the behaviour of the central support of a double
span system.
From this test, the load-deflection characteristics can be plotted well beyond the deflection at which first yield occurs. A
lower bound empirical expression can then be found for the support moment, M1, based on an upper limit of
rotational capacity. A similar expression can be found for M2, the internal span moment, again on the basis of a test on
a simply supported beam subject to a uniformly distributed load, applied by the use of a vacuum rig, or perhaps sand bags.

The design expressions can then be confirmed by the execution of numerous full-scale tests.
The results of the full-scale tests are then condensed into easy to use load span tables which are detailed in the
purlin manufacturers' design and detail literature.
The tabular format is typical of that contained in purlin manufacturers' technical literature. The table is generally prefaced
by explanatory notes regarding fixing condition and lateral restraint requirements, the latter being particularly relevant
where load reversal occurs. Conditions which arise in practice, and which are not covered in the technical literature are
best dealt with by the manufacturer's Technical Service Department, which should be consulted for all non-standard cases.
Anti-sag bars are used on longer spans to assist erection and improve performance under wind suction.
Side rail design is essentially identical to that for purlins, and load resistances are again arrived at via test procedures.
The practical construction problem of levelling side rails in the field, to remove self weight deflection about the weak axis
of the section, is overcome by the use of a tensioned wire system incorporating the use of tube struts, typically at mid-span
for spans of 6 - 7m, and third-points of the span for spans of 7 - 8m and above. Typical methods are shown in Figure 12.

6. MAIN FRAME BRACING

Returning to the requirements for the main frame which were discussed in Lecture 14.1.1, most frame configurations for
larger spans have moment resisting joints at the column/roof member connections. In addition to assisting with
deflection control and reducing member sizes, this arrangement provides inherent resistance to lateral in-plane loads such
as those from side winds and crane movements.
Bracing, both horizontal and vertical, must be provided to transfer to the foundations the horizontal loads due to wind
possibly earthquake and out-of-plane loads.

It is possible to use the cladding and wall panels instead of braces for this purpose. In that case stressed skin design should
be used (Lecture 9.5).
When masonry is used as all or part of the vertical cladding, it is feasible to use that element as part of the bracing system.
The bracing can be single diagonals or cross members. If the former system is adopted, the members are designed to
support compressive and tensile loads. When cross members are used only the members in tension are assumed to be
effective, those in compression being designed to satisfy the slenderness criteria.
Bracing may be located either at mid-length of the building (Figures 13a, 14a, and 14c) or at its ends (Figures 13b, and
14b). Bracing at the ends helps for erection purposes, since it provides a stable structure at one end of the building when
the erection starts. Its disadvantage is that it prohibits the free movement of the building due to temperature so that stresses
in the members, sometimes of considerable amount, may result. By putting the braces at the mid-length this
disadvantage disappears since the building is able to expand freely. However additional temporary braces should be
provided during the erection stage to stabilise the first part of the building. The horizontal forces have to "travel" from
their point of application in the gable to the brace thus causing compression in the purlins.



● A variety of cladding systems is available manufactured from pre-coated steel.
● These systems are normally supported by light gauge purlins and rails but hot-rolled profiles are also used.
● The theoretical design procedures for these systems are improving although large volume manufacturers still carry out
full-scale testing as a basis for design in order to achieve material economy.
● Many single-storey frame arrangements have inherent in-plane resistance to side loads but bracing systems have to be
provided to transfer longitudinal loads to the foundations.
8. REFERENCES
[1] Colourcoat in Building, British Steel Strip Products, Newport, Wales.
[2] ECCS Recommendations for Sandwich Panels: Part 1 Design, Part 2 Good Practice.
[3] Davies, J. M. and Raven G. K., 'Design of Cold Formed Steel Purlins', IABSE "Thin Walled Metal Structures in
Buildings" Colloquium, Stockholm 1986.
[4] Eurocode 3: "Design of Steel Structures" Part 1.3, Cold Formed Thin Gauge Members and Sheeting, CEN (in preparation).

PANELS
Wind loads in kN/m2 WIND

Deflection limit Span condition Thickness of Span 'L' (in metres)
profile
(mm)
1,6 1,8 2,0 2,2 2,4 2,6 2,8 3,0
L/90 0,5 3,00 2,30 1,66 1,24 0,94 0,73 0,58 0,46
0,55 3,47 2,60 1,88 1,40 1,07 0,83 0,66 0,52
0,6 3,96 2,91 2,11 1,57 1,20 0,93 0,73 0,59
0,7 4,98 3,61 2,61 1,95 1,49 1,16 0,91 0,73
0,8 6,02 4,21 3,05 2,27 1,73 1,35 1,06 0,85
0,5 2,70 2,19 1,81 1,52 1,30 1,12 0,97 0,85

0,55 2,94 2,41 2,01 1,71 1,46 1,27 1,11 0,97
0,6 3,61 2,93 2,43 2,04 1,74 1,50 1,30 1,14
0,7 4,55 3,68 3,05 2,56 2,17 1,87 1,62 1,42
0,8 5,14 4,20 3,49 2,95 2,51 2,17 1,90 1,66
0,5 3,28 2,67 2,22 1,87 1,60 1,39 1,14 0,91
0,55 3,54 2,92 2,45 2,09 1,80 1,56 1,29 1,04
0,6 4,41 3,58 2,97 2,51 2,14 1,81 1,44 1,16
0,7 5,56 4,52 3,74 3,15 2,68 2,25 1,79 1,44
0,8 6,24 5,11 4,26 3,61 3,08 2,62 2,08 1,68
L/150 0,5 1,96 1,36 0,98 0,73 0,55 0,42 0,33 0,26
0,55 2,22 1,54 1,11 0,82 0,62 0,48 0,37 0,29

0,6 2,48 1,73 1,24 0,92 0,70 0,54 0,42 0,33
0,7 3,07 2,14 1,54 1,14 0,87 0,67 0,52 0,41

0,8 3,58 2,49 1,80 1,33 1,01 0,78 0,61 0,48
0,5 2,70 2,18 1,81 1,52 1,30 1,08 0,86 0,69
0,55 2,94 2,41 2,01 1,71 1,46 1,22 0,97 0,78
0,6 3,61 2,94 2,42 2,04 1,74 1,37 1,08 0,87
0,7 4,55 3,68 3,05 2,56 2,18 1,70 1,35 1,08
0,8 5,14 4,20 3,49 2,95 2,51 1,98 1,57 1,26
0,5 3,28 2,62 1,90 1,42 1,08 0,84 0,66 0,53
0,55 3,54 2,92 2,15 1,60 1,22 0,95 0,75 0,60
0,6 4,41 3,32 2,40 1,79 1,37 1,06 0,84 0,67
0,7 5,56 4,11 2,98 2,22 1,70 1,32 1,05 0,84
0,8 6,24 4,79 3,47 2,59 1,98 1,54 1,22 0,98

Figures shown in bolder type are limited by deflection. All other loads are limited by stress.
ROOF PANELS
Maximum loads in kN/m2 deflection limit L/100
PANEL SPAN CONDITION FACING DETAILS SPAN 'L'(m)

THICKNESS
(mm) MATERIAL THICKNESS (mm)
Outer Inner 1,6 1,8 2,0 2,5 3,0
37 STEEL 0,5 0,4 + 2,54 2,16 1,85 1,28 0,76
- 3,02 2,59 2,25 1,63 1,22
0,6 0,4 + 2,80 2,39 2,06 1,42 0,82
- 3,30 2,85 2,48 1,82 1,36
ALUMINIUM 0,7 0,5 + 2,32 1,66 1,21 - -
- 2,70 2,26 1,74 - -
STEEL 0,5 0,4 + 2,54 2,16 1,85 1,30 0,94
-3,02 2,56 2,21 1,63 1,22
0,6 0,4 + 2,80 2,39 2,06 1,46 1,06
- 3,30 2,85 2,48 1,82 1,36
ALUMINIUM 0,7 0,5 + 2,34 1,93 1,62 1,08 0,76
- 2,64 2,25 1,91 1,32 0,96
STEEL 0,5 0,4 + 2,54 2,16 1,85 1,30 0,94
- 3,02 2,59 2,25 1,63 1,22
0,6 0,4 + 2,80 2,39 2,06 1,46 1,06
- 3,30 2,85 2,48 1,82 1,36

ALUMINIUM 0,7 0,5 + 2,34 1,93 1,62 1,08 0,76
- 2,70 2,26 1,91 1,32 0,96
60 STEEL 0,5 0,4 + 3,91 3,40 2,98 2,17 1,59
- 4,55 3,97 3,52 2,63 1,99
0,6 0,4 + 4,01 3,48 3,07 2,38 1,69
- 4,65 4,05 3,58 2,79 2,23
ALUMINIUM 0,7 0,5 + 3,85 3,23 2,51 1,38 0,78
- 4,33 3,75 3,20 2,00 1,20
STEEL 0,5 0,4 + 3,20 2,68 2,29 1,65 1,24
- 3,37 2,86 2,49 1,86 1,47
0,6 0,4 + 3,70 3,10 2,65 1,90 1,44
- 3,88 3,30 2,86 2,13 1,68
ALUMINIUM 0,7 0,5 + 2,91 2,44 2,08 1,48 1,11
- 3,00 2,56 2,23 1,68 1,34
STEEL 0,5 0,4 + 3,62 3,07 2,64 1,93 1,47
- 3,90 3,35 2,93 2,23 1,78
0,6 0,4 + 4,01 3,48 3,04 2,22 1,70
- 4,47 3,84 3,35 2,54 2,02
ALUMINIUM 0,7 0,5 + 3,42 2,89 2,49 1,81 1,36
- 3,68 3,17 2,78 2,11 1,68
WALL PANELS

Maximum loads in kN/m2 deflection limit L/100 L/100
PANEL SPAN CONDITION FACING DETAILS SPAN 'L'(m)

THICKNESS
(mm) MATERIAL THICKNESS (mm)
Outer Inner 1,5 2,0 2,5 3,0 3,5
37 STEEL 0,5 0,4 + 2,78 1,69 0,96 - -
- 2,78 1,97 1,06 - -
STEEL 0,5 0,4 + 2,78 2,09 1,67 1,26 0,90
- 2,78 2,09 1,67 1,39 1,08
STEEL 0,5 0,4 + 2,78 2,09 1,66 1,11 0,78
- 2,78 2,09 1,67 1,38 0,94
60 STEEL 0,5 0,4 + 3,40 2,55 1,81 1,18 0,79
-3,40 2,55 2,04 1,39 0,91
STEEL 0,5 0,4 + 3,40 2,55 2,04 1,70 1,33
- 3,40 2,55 2,04 1,70 1,33
STEEL 0,5 0,4 + 3,40 2,55 2,04 1,70 1,33
- 3,40 2,55 2,04 1,70 1,33
Notes to Load Tables

1. + reload indicate pressure or snow loading - ve load indicates suction loading.
2. Indicates values too low for normal applications.
3. The permissible loads take account of dead and imposed loading, including their long term effects, and differential thermal loading.
4. Values for loads at intermediate spans can be obtained by linear interpolation.
5. The concealed fixing system can be used for all + ve loading conditions. Under suction loading the clip capacity is limited to 4kN wall and 6kN roof. Where the
clip capacity is exceeded, additional through fasteners or reduced purlin rail spacings may be required. If in doubt contact WBC Technical Department. For
concealed fix aluminium panels contact WBC in every case.
6. The roof loadings are based on the standard colour range. For variations to this range consult the Technical Department.
7. When designing roofs with pitches between 1° and 4° a deflection limit of span/200 should be used to prevent ponding.
8. CW 1200 values are for all four wall panels.
ULTIMATE LOAD TABLES
INTRODUCTION
The following load tables have been prepared to assist the designer in specifying cold formed sections.
The tabulated values are only valid for use with the fixing details and recommendations proposed by the manufacturer.
This information has been prepared as a supplement to the main handbook for ease of reference in the design office.
USE OF TABLES
1. The load tables show the ultimate load for double span sections in terms of a UDL per span.
2. Section self weight has not been subtracted in the loads shown.
3. Loadings have also been tabulated that will produce the noted deflection ratio.
4. Loads shown assume lateral restraint to the top flange of the section and that the beams are fixed in accordance with
manufacturers instructions.
5. Ultimate reversal loads may be obtained by multiplying the loads shown by a factor of 0,8.
6. Interpolation of the ultimate loads shown is permissible on a linear basis.
Note: These values are typical and should not be used in design.
LOAD FACTORS
The following load tables have been prepared to assist the designer in specifying cold formed sections.
The tabulated values are only valid for use with the fixing details and recommendations proposed by the manufacturer.
This information has been prepared as a supplement to the main handbook for ease of reference in the design office.
USE OF TABLES
1. The load tables show the ultimate load for double span sections in terms of a UDL per span.
2. Section self weight has not been subtracted in the loads shown.
3. Loadings have also been tabulated that will produce the noted deflection ratio.
4. Loads shown assume lateral restraint to the top flange of the section and that the beams are fixed in accordance with
manufacturers instructions.
5. Ultimate reversal loads may be obtained by multiplying the loads shown by a factor of 0,8.
6. Interpolation of the ultimate loads shown is permissible on a linear basis.
Note: These values are typical and should not be used in design.
LOAD FACTORS
Loading Factor
Dead load 1,4
Dead load restraining uplift or overturning 1,0
Dead load acting with wind and imposed loads combined 1,2
Imposed load 1,6
Imposed load acting with wind load 1,2
Wind load 1,4
Wind load acting with imposed load 1,2
Forces due to temperature 1,2


PURLINS
Span Section UDL Deflection
(m) L/200
4,5 B120/150 11,89 7,77
A140/155 15,35 13,67
A140/165 17,16 14,56
*A140/180 19,85 15,89
A170/160 20,40 20,40
A170/170 22,70 22,70
*A170/180 24,97 24,97
5,0 B120/150 10,79 6,29
A140/155 13,99 11,07
A140/165 15,62 11,79
*A140/180 18,04 12,87
A170/160 18,63 18,02
A170/170 20,71 19,16
*A170/180 22,76 20,30
5,5 A140/155 12,84 9,15

A140/165 14,33 9,75
*A140/180 16,54 10,64
A170/160 17,14 14,89
A170/170 19,03 15,84
*A170/180 20,90 16,78
A200/160 21,27 21,27
A200/180 23,88 23,88
*A200/200 28,10 27,43
6,0 A140/155 11,87 7,69
A140/165 13,23 8,19
*A140/180 15,26 8,94
A170/160 15,87 12,51
A170/170 17,60 13,30
*A170/180 19,32 14,10
A200/160 19,81 18,38
A200/180 22,11 20,72
*A200/200 25,98 23,05

A230/180 26,44 28,92
A230/200 31,11 32,18
*A230/240 40,14 38,68
6,5 A170/160 14,77 10,66
A170/170 16,37 11,34
*A170/180 17,95 12,01
A200/160 18,43 15,66
A200/180 20,58 17,65
*A200/200 24,15 19,64
Figure 11. Ultimate load tables for purlins

ESDEP WG 14
Lecture 14.2: Analysis of Portal Frames:

Introduction and Elastic Analysis
OBJECTIVE/SCOPE
To present the basic principles of design of portal frames using elastic analysis; the scope includes tapered portal frames.
The lecture is illustrated by a design example.
PREREQUISITES
Lectures 6: Applied Stability
Lectures 10: Composite Construction

RELATED LECTURES
Lectures 14.1: Single-Storey Buildings
SUMMARY
Introduction; the economic advantages of using tapered, I-section portal frames with slender webs and Class 2 or 3
flanges; summary of fabrication methods with cross-references to fabrication lectures.
Methods of analysis for uniform and tapered portal frames; the need to consider bending moments envelopes and
non-symmetric uplift conditions. Methods of resistance assessment for cross-sections. Slender webs under combined
bending, shear and compression.
Connection design; requirements for secondary structure including bracing.
1. INTRODUCTION
Portal frames are single storey, single or multi-bay frames with pitched or flat roof (Figure 1). This lecture presents the
elastic analysis and design of portal frames, considering mainly the case of single bay and pitch roof, which is the
most common in practice.

The next lecture presents the design of portal frames using plastic analysis. Where the frame comprises Class 1 rolled
sections and the design is governed by strength, plastic analysis will lead to the greatest economy. As shown in Figure
2a, plastic redistribution is utilised to make maximum use of the frame resistance.


However, there are situations where plastic analysis cannot be used:
i. The frame comprises Class 1 sections but stiffness (deflections) governs design.
ii. The frame comprises Class 2 or higher sections.
Where prismatic sections are used, e.g. rolled sections, the elastic distribution of moments is such that the structure is
relatively inefficient, as shown in Figure 2b. The beam section has to be chosen to satisfy the governing moment at the
eaves; away from there the stresses in the beam are low.
Economy of material is best achieved in an elastically designed frame by the use of tapered, welded sections. As shown
in Figure 2c, the strength envelope can then be made a close fit to the bending moment envelope and stresses are
high throughout the frame. Figure 3 shows a general arrangement of such as structural system [1].

Once the concept of using fabricated, non-prismatic members is accepted, the designer has the freedom to choose the
following independent geometric parameters:
● member depth

● member shape, i.e. variation in depth around frame

● top flange width and thickness (possibly varying around frame)
● bottom flange width and thickness (possibly varying around frame)
● web thickness (possibly varying around frame).
Some form of optimisation has to be used to determine these parameters, taking account of practical restraints. In practice it
is found that greatest economy is generally obtained by using:
Class 2 or 3 flanges
Class 3 or 4 webs, with a maximum depth (d) to thickness (t) ratio up to 200, and without any stiffening.
Within these restrictions considerable weight savings, compared to plastic design, can be achieved, as illustrated in Figure 4.

Of course minimising weight does not necessarily minimise cost. In this instance, overall economy of construction will only
be achieved if automated fabrication is adopted. Recent developments in this context are summarized later in this lecture.
The behaviour of sections with slender elements is inherently more complex than that of stocky Class 1 sections, due to
local buckling and cross-section distortion. Special design procedures are required and more attention has to be devoted
to stabilising the frame by appropriate bracing from the secondary structure. These topics are addressed later in the lecture.
The complexity of these strength checks and the greater complexity of analysis make it essential that computer aided design
is adopted.
Thus, before tapered portal frames can be contemplated, a considerable investment is required in both automatic
fabrication and computer aided design. Given this investment, there are considerable advantages in the use of welded
tapered portal frames, compared to rolled section portal frames:
● They can achieve significant weight and cost economies.

● They are inherently stiffer because the optimised welded sections are considerably deeper than the rolled sections having
the same resistance.
● Automated design and fabrication can readily be incorporated into a fully-computerised manufacturing system, with very
rapid and accurate cost estimation, computerised stock control and waste minimisation, computerised drawings and
computer controlled equipment.
2. ELASTIC ANALYSIS OF PORTAL FRAMES

The elastic analysis of prismatic portal frames may readily be carried out by computer. Manual methods and charts [2,3]
are also used.
The analysis of tapered portal frames is somewhat more complex. The variation of stiffness around the hyper-static
frame influences the distribution of moments and associated shear and axial forces. Procedures for manual analysis do exist
[4] but in practice analysis is usually carried out by computer. Figure 5 shows a typical analytical model; beams and
columns are divided into shear elements; each element is considered as a prismatic member and is assigned the
average properties over its length. The analysis provides a full distribution of moments, shear and axial forces of each element.

With tapered sections, economy dictates that section depth, and therefore resistance, are locally reduced where possible.
For example, location 11 in Figure 5 is at a point of contraflexure under symmetrical vertical loading. These zones of
reduced resistance do not exist in prismatic frames and designers are therefore not accustomed to thinking about the
full envelope of bending moments on such frames. Figure 6 illustrates the bending moment envelopes that exist on a
typical tapered frame. It is clear that, near to regions of minimum depth it may be pattern loading and other non-
symmetrical cases that govern the design.
Under the combinations of actions to be considered for serviceability limit states, Eurocode 3 [5] recommends that
the deflections of portal frames do not exceed the following limiting values:
● Horizontal deflections at the top of the columns

for portal frames without gantry frames : h/150
for other single storey buildings : h/300
where h is the height of the column.
● Total vertical deflections in beams : h/200
where L is the span of the beam
Usually, for portal frames with a pitched roof, the deflection criteria for beams is not a critical one.
All roofs with a slope of less than 5% should be checked to ensure that rain water cannot collect in pools. In this check,
due allowance should be made for possible construction inaccuracies and settlements of foundations, deflections of
roofing materials, deflections of structural members and the effects of precamber, if any.
Where the roof slope is less than 3%, additional calculations should be made to check that collapse cannot occur due to
the weight of water collected in pools which may be formed due to the deflection of structural members and roofing material
or retained by snow.
2.2 Imperfections
For ultimate limit states calculations, the effects of frame imperfections should be allowed for in global frame analysis
by means of an equivalent geometric imperfection in the form of an initial sway (Figure 7a) determined from:

Φ = {0,5 + 11nc}0,5 1200 where nc is the number of columns for single bay portal frames
= 1/200
In practice, it is more convenient and accepted in Eurocode 3 [5], to replace the initial sway imperfection by a system
of equivalent horizontal forces, as shown in Figure 7b.
Member imperfections are taken into account when carrying out the global frame analysis by incorporating the appropriate
bow in the columns, as shown in Figure 8. The value eo,d of the bow depends on the type and dimension of the column
section, and is given in Eurocode 3 [5].

The member imperfections may not be considered in the global frame analysis when < 0,5 {Afy / Nsd}0,5
where Nsd is the design value of the compressive force
is the in-plane non-dimensional slenderness calculated using a buckling length equal to the system length.
2.3 Second Order Global Analysis
Second order global analysis, including frame imperfections (sway or horizontal forces) and member imperfections (bow)
is the most exact and convenient method for portal frames with tapered members. Some existing computer software
will automatically:
● Calculate the section properties at mid-length of each beam and column element, knowing the extreme values of web
and flange dimensions and the numbers of equal length elements in beams and in columns to be taken.
● Calculate the position of each node when the sway at the top of the columns and the bow at mid-length of the columns
are given.
● Perform second order elastic analysis of the plane frame.
After having obtained the results of the computer calculation, there is no need for further hand calculation of effective
length and in-plane buckling of members. The only checks needed are:
● The values of the stresses in the members, which should not exceed the yield stress fy;
● The out-of-plane buckling of columns, unless there are walls, rails or cladding preventing it;
● The lateral-torsional buckling of members.
If the frame comprises Class 4 sections, the reduced effective cross-section must be determined. This does not apply to Class
1, 2 and 3 sections.
As the second order analysis is non-linear, the composite calculations must be carried out for all the load combinations.
There is no possibility of superposing the effects of elementary loads.
2.4 First Order Global Analysis
The so-called 'simplified methods' of analysis can also be adopted, but they present several disadvantages:
● They require more hand calculations

● They are less accurate: approximations are needed
● They are on the safe side compared to second-order methods so they are not economical, as long as the steel weight
is concerned.
In these 'simplified methods' a first order global elastic analysis is performed by computer calculations (or by hand, but only
for prismatic members, single bay portal frames) taking into account frame imperfections (usually horizontal forces).
As single bay portal frames are not very stiff, they must usually be classified as sway frames. For most load cases this
situation occurs when:
Vcr < 10 Vsd
where Vsd is the design value of the total vertical load
After the first order global analysis has been carried out, two possibilities for complementary hand calculations are found
in Eurocode 3:
First Possibility - "Amplified sway moments" method
1. Increase the moments due to horizontal forces by multiplying them by the ratio 1/(1 - Vsd / Vcr).
2. Calculate the in-plane buckling lengths of members, considering the non-sway mode.
3. Check the in-plane buckling resistance of members, using the appropriate buckling formulae given in Eurocode 3.
Second Possibility - "Sway mode buckling lengths" method
1. Increase the moments in the beams and the beam-to-column connections, due to horizontal forces, by multiplying them by 1,2.
2. Calculate the in-plane buckling lengths of members, considering the sway mode.
3. Check the in-plane buckling resistance of members, using the appropriate buckling formulae given in Eurocode 3 [5].
The formulae that have to be applied for points 2 and 3 (buckling lengths and buckling resistance) are given in Eurocode 3
for prismatic members, but they do not apply to tapered members. Approximate conservative solutions may be used for
tapered members.
Finally the complementary checks presented for the second order global analysis must also be done by hand calculation, i.
e. stresses, out-of-plane buckling and lateral-torsional buckling.
If the frame comprises Class 4 sections, the reduced effective cross-section must be determined.
3. SPECIAL FEATURES OF BEHAVIOUR FOR TAPERED PORTAL

FRAMES AND ASSOCIATED DESIGN RULES

● Local Buckling of Web
The web slenderness (d/t) may be as high as 200. The web is therefore subject to local buckling under bending, shear
and compression of the type shown in Figure 9. This form of instability does not often occur in other forms of
building structure.

● Local Flange Buckling
Normally flanges are restricted to Class 2 or 3 and local flange buckling need not be considered.
● Distortional Buckling of the Frame between Points of Restraint
As shown in Figure 10 buckling of a rafter or column between stays is a complex interaction of local web buckling,
lateral-torsional buckling and cross-section distortion. Recent studies [6] have considered these effects directly and resulted
in advanced tentative design approaches. However, a much simpler model that provides good agreement with
experimental results is that based on the reduced effective cross-section shown in Figure 11.


The strength check is then as follows:
i. Determine the stresses on the reduced effective cross-section from the bending and axial compression.
ii. Ensure the compressive resistance of the Tee section is greater than the applied compression, assuming that it has
an effective length equal to the stay spacing.
iii. Check the tension flange to ensure that it is not yielding. Yielding will only govern if the section is highly non-symmetric.
iv. Check the resistance of the web under combined compression, bending and shear, using stress resultants for the first
two actions that are based on i. above.
● Eaves Connection
The behaviour of the eaves connection is best understood by following the development of the connection utilised by a
leading UK fabricator [7]. Originally the diagonal connection plane shown in Figure 12a was considered. In-plane
behaviour was satisfactory but there was a major stability problem at the inside corner. Lack of continuity between the
flanges along the joint, exacerbated by any lack-of-fit from end-plate distortion, led to premature out-of-plane failure at
this point. This problem could be controlled by direct staying to this corner but such a solution is costly in the absence of
any convenient purlin or siderail for that stay.

Stability of the inside corner for this elastic design can be achieved by continuing one or other of the inside
(compression) flanges through to the relevant tensile load path, as shown in Figure 12b.
Generally some stiffening will be required at point X in Figure 12b. In the absence of a diagonal stiffener, because the
corner panel is slender, the high corner shears are resisted by the tension field action shown in Figure 12c. A local reduction
in effective lever arm results which will cause a sharp increase in compression in the immediate vicinity of the inside
corner, causing premature failure. It was decided to provide a substantial diagonal stiffer, as shown in Figure 12d, which
could resist the combined compression of the two flanges by direct triangulation of forces. This stiffener carries out
the multiple functions of maintaining the lever arm around the corner, stiffening the flange so that it may resist the
horizontal compression from the incoming flange and stabilising the slender web.
● Stay Forces
Traditional design criteria for stay forces are empirical. Typical design values are 21/2% of the maximum resulting force in
the compressed area of the braced sections, distributed among the restraints along the length of the element. This approach
has been demonstrated to be satisfactory by experience. However, the deep, slender sections that are a feature of
tapered, fabricated frames, with a high ratio of Ixx to Iyy, are more prone to buckling. Previous work [7, 8] has suggested that
a figure of 2% at each brace might be more appropriate.
4. PRACTICAL DESIGN AND FABRICATION OF TAPERED PORTAL FRAMES

The potential economic advantage of tapered portal frames can only be realised if the structural sophistication is matched
by efficient office procedures and fabrication.
Design, drafting, estimating and stock control need to be computerised. The design procedures need to encompass
analysis, resistance and serviceability checks and optimisation. Drafting should produce full drawings based on
detailing guidelines specified by the workshop. As a by-product data is generated for all numerically controlled
workshop machines. Accurate estimating follows readily from the foregoing data. At tender stage it can be used for
the preparation of precise cost and time information without the preparation of full drawings and numerically controlled
data. Stock control can be utilised to minimise waste; this is particularly important for the efficient cutting of tapered
webs. Figure 13 shows a typical cutting pattern for a web plate. Use of stock materials can be introduced as a constraint on
the design optimisation.

The heart of the semi-automatic fabrication is the efficient welding of the flanges to the web. Welding is usually based on
the single-sided submerged-arc process shown in Figure 14. The essential features of the process are shown in Figure
15. Further details are given in Lecture 3.4 on Fabrication.

However, to achieve overall efficiency this manufacturing process has to be supported by:
● efficient materials handling for the web and flange components.

● numerically controlled cutting for the web - and also for the flanges if they are stripped from plate.
● semi-automatic butt welding for flange and web joints.
● Tapered portal frames fabricated by automatic welding can be utilised to create aesthetic and economical industrial buildings.
● Greatest economy is likely to be achieved with Class 2 or 3 flanges and Class 3a webs, with a shape that gives a
bending strength distribution that is a close fit to the bending moment envelope.
● Such frames must be analysed elastically.
● The behaviour of fabricated sections with slender webs is more complex than that of rolled sections; the resistance checks
must take account of local buckling, cross-section distortion and the interaction between the primary and secondary
structure through the stays.
● This form of construction will be economic if there is a substantial investment in a 'production engineering' approach
to management, design, estimating and fabrication.
6. REFERENCES
[1] Dowling, PJ, Mears, T.F, Owens, G.W, and Raven, G.K. "A development in the automated design and fabrication of
portal framed industrial buildings". The Structural Engineer, London, Vol. 60A. No. 10, October 1982.
[2] Kleinlogel, Mehrstielige Rahmen, Band I and II Berling, Verlag von Withelm, Ernst & Sohn.
[3] Owens, G.W and Knowles, P.R (Ed) "Steel Designers Manual" Blackwells Scientific Press, Oxford 1991.
[4] "Metal building systems manual", Cleveland, Ohio, Metal Building Manufacturers Association 1981.
[5] Eurocode 3: "Design of Steel Structures": ENV 1993-1-1, Part 1.1, General Principles and Rules for Buildings, CEN 1992.
[6] Chung, K.F and Owens, G.W., "Distortional Instability of very Slender Web Beams". Proc. Forth Rail Bridge
Centenary Conference Developments in Structural Engineering Edited by B.H.V Topping, Chapman and Hall London
Volume II, Pg 747-757.
[7] "Reference 1 discussion". The Structural Engineer, London, Volume 61A, Number 10, December 1983.
[8] Owens, G.W and Dowling, P.J., "Full scale testing of tapered portal frames". IStructE/BRE Seminar on
Structural Assessment, BRE, Watford, England 1987.

ESDEP WG 14
Lecture 14.3: Analysis of Portal Frames:

Plastic Analysis
OBJECTIVE/SCOPE
To present the basic principles of portal frame design using the rigid-plastic method of analysis which are then demonstrated
in a design example.
PREREQUISITES
RELATED LECTURES
Lecture 11.6: Rigid Moment Connections for Buildings

Lectures 14.1: Anatomy & Analysis of Single Storey Buildings
Lecture 14.13: Rigid Jointed Frame Design
SUMMARY
The basic principles of rigid-plastic analysis are presented with reference to plastic hinges, effects of combination of bending,
± axial forces and ± shear forces, "free" and "reactant" bending moment diagrams, hinge history and collapse mechanisms,
and settlement of supports.
The principles are developed for a semi-continuous beam and extended to a flat portal and to a pitched portal. Design rules
for a pitched portal frame are discussed followed by a design example.
1. THE MODERN STEEL PORTAL FRAME

Figures 1 and 2 illustrate typical modern steel portal frame buildings.


They may consist of:
● Thermally insulated colour-coated steel cladding system.

● Hot or cold-rolled steel purlins.
● Hot-rolled beam steel sections.
● Steel grade S275.
● Usually a 1 in 10 roof slope for architectural/planning requirements.
In the UK such structures are frequently designed using the simple rigid-plastic method of analysis.

This lecture describes the design of portal frames fabricated from beams and designed using the simple rigid-plastic method
of analysis. References to clauses in Eurocode 3 [1] are given in the text usually in brackets, e.g. (clause 5.3.1).
2. REQUIREMENTS FOR PLASTIC ANALYSIS

The use of the plastic method of analysis in the design of steel structures is possible due to the ability of structural steel
to sustain considerable deformation without fracture. A typical stress/strain curve is shown in Figure 3.

Beams subjected to bending moments must be symmetrical about the axis in the plane of loading, (Clause 5.3.3.(1)),
and comply with certain dimensional properties for a plastic hinge to be developed and maintained, (Clauses 5.3.2 and
5.3.3). A summary of these criteria is shown in Figure 4.


In Figures 5a, 5b and 5c the development of a plastic hinge in an I-section is shown. Any attempt to apply more
bending moment to the section, once the complete section is fully plastic, causes the member to act as if a hinge had
occurred at that point.

This hinge action is called a plastic hinge. At a plastic hinge the steel section maintains the plastic bending moment and
also can undergo considerable joint rotation thus causing any additional bending moments to be transferred to other parts of
the member or structure.
Figure 5 is for the situation where only a bending moment exists and the bending moment resistance at the plastic
hinge condition is called the Plastic Moment of Resistance (PMR) of the section. In Clause 5.4.5.1:
Mpl.Rd = Wpl fy /γM0
= the design plastic resistance moment of the gross section
= PMR.
Fastener holes in the tension flange may reduce the PMR - see Clause5.4.5.3.
The PMR of a section is reduced when a bending moment is co-existent with an axial force or a large shear force.
In Figure 6 the stress distribution for bending and co-existent axial force is shown. It should be noted that an axial force
usually causes only a small reduction to the gross section PMR. Typically an axial force of reduces the PMR by
only 2%.

Formulae for the reduced PMR (MN.Rd) are given in Clause 5.4.8.
MN.Rd = Mpl.Rd [1 - (NSd /Npl.Rd )2]
For the design condition
MSd ≤ MN.Rd

The above equation can be re-arranged to give the following interaction equation:
Modified formulae for bending and coexistent shear are given in Clause 5.4.7. It should be noted that where the shear force
< 50% of Vpl.Rd then the gross PMR is not reduced.
The predominant action effects in portal frame members are bending moments. Axial and shear forces usually have a
negligible effect on the moment of resistance.
However large shear forces do occur in the column head as a result of the eaves haunch connection.
It is very common practice NOT to check the column head for the combined effect of bending moment and shear force
even when the column has a bending moment plastic hinge in the column immediately below the column head.
However, it is common practice to stiffen the column head if the column web shear stress is > fy /√3, i.e. > 0,6 fy.
The verification of this practice requires further clarification because it has been reported that, although post-yield strength
can justify it, excessive deformation may occur due to second order effects on the portal frame [2]. The test reported in [2]
does have a very high shear stress in the column web which is NOT appropriate to a typical portal frame column head.
It is necessary to have certain restrictions on fabrication to ensure that hardened material does not occur within the locality of
a plastic hinge. Clause 7.3 lists restrictions relating to:
● Flame cut or sheared edges*)

● Punched holes
● Hard marking
● Temporary welded attachments
● Surface repair by welding. (This requirement affects the supply conditions for the material.)
It is also specified that "All locations where restrictions on hardening are required should be clearly indicated on the drawings".
Plastic Design is for the ultimate limit state condition and includes structure and member stability checks. Serviceability
limit state conditions also require checking.
3. APPLICATION OF PLASTIC ANALYSIS TO A BEAM

In Figure 7 the beam has an elastic bending moment diagram with the maximum bending moment at Position 2. The
first plastic hinge forms at Position 2 at a load of .

At this stage of loading only one plastic hinge has been formed and the beam has been reduced to two simply supported
beams for any additional loading.
The effect of adding more loading is shown in Figure 8(c). This additional loading has the effect of causing a plastic hinge
to form near the midspan of each beam. The exact position of the sag hinge can be determined and the value of the
collapse load , i.e. .

If compared with an elastic analysis in which the section remains elastic, the additional resistance of adopting a plastic
design for this particular example is:
i.e. 67%
where is the shape factor (approx. 1,15 for an I section).
However, if compared to an elastic analysis in which the full plastic resistance of the section is assumed (which is normally
the case), the increase in strength by adopting a plastic analysis for this example reduces to:

i.e. 45%
The shear force at Position 2 might reduce the PMR and therefore Fp.
In Figure 7(d) the plastic hinge history is shown. It can be seen that, if plastic hinges are not acceptable at working loads
then, in this example the working load must not be more than times the collapse load.
In Figure 8(d) the collapse mechanism is shown from which it should be noted that:
● Pin joints ≈ hinges.

● Adjacent hinges are open/close/open ...
● The number of plastic hinges required to collapse one span is 2, i.e. r+1, where r is the number of redundancies.
The effect of foundation settlement on plastically designed structures is:
● Not to change the collapse load.

● To change the load at which the first hinge forms.
However the serviceability loading conditions should be checked for deflections and to determine whether or not a
plastic hinge has formed. In Figure 8(a) the effect of settlement of the Support 2 is shown from which it can be seen that
the hogging moment at Support 2 is reduced thus:
● Increasing the sagging deflections of the beam.

● Increasing the load at which the first plastic hinge forms.
● Settlement influences the moment distribution for an elastic calculation.
The load at which the first plastic hinge forms at Position 2 is:

F1 = (PMR + PL/2)
where P is the equivalent vertical load due to frame settlement δ .
Theoretically there is a possibility that the first hinge to form could be the sag hinge if there is a large enough settlement
at Position 2.
Shear lag effects are covered in Clause 5.4.2.3 and apply to elastic and plastic analyses. If the length between points of
zero moment is less than 10 times the width of the I beam flange then not all of the flange width is effective.
The above example illustrated in Figure 7 is for a beam that is in one continuous length from Support 1 to Support 3.
If connections are introduced at Support 2, then reference should be made to Eurocode 3, Clause 6.9: "Beam-to-
Column Connections".
Beam-to-column connections are classified by their moment resistance and rotational stiffness characteristics:
Moment resistance Rotational stiffness
(Clause 6.9.6.3) (Clause 6.9.6.2)
Nominally pinned Nominally pinned
Full strength Rigid
Partial strength Semi-rigid
Full strength and partial strength can each be rigid or semi-rigid.
The example in Figure 7 can be classified thus:

Supports 1 & 3 Nominally pinned Nominally pinned
Support 2 Full strength (plastic hinge) Rigid
If at Support 2 the connection was "semi-rigid" then the moment of resistance of the connection might not be equal to
the design plastic moment resistance of the connected beam and would therefore be "partial strength". It can be seen that if
the Mφ characteristics of the connection are too flexible, then the connection itself becomes a plastic hinge because the
collapse mechanism moment has not reached Fp L/11,66. In such circumstances the moments at the other hinge positions
are larger and a larger steel beam is required. The Mφ characteristics also determine the hinge history and the deflections
at serviceability limit state.
This discussion of the behaviour of a continuous beam includes some of the features of plastic design that have to
be considered in the Plastic Design of Portal Frames.
4. APPLICATION OF PLASTIC ANALYSIS TO A FLAT TOP PORTAL FRAME

As an example Figure 9(a) gives the general details a flat top portal frame. It can be seen that vertical and horizontal
reactions are required at the pinned bases for the frame to perform effectively if analysed elastically or plastically. The value
of H determines the position of the "reactant" bending moment on the bending moment diagram.


For elastic analysis the value of H is determined from the relative stiffnesses of the steel members. In contrast, for
plastic analysis it is determined from the relative bending resistances. The analysis of the development of plastic hinges
(the history) has to be checked for its effect on the serviceability performance of the frame.
In Figure 9(b) the beam and column are of the same steel section, whereas in Figure 9(c) the column has been
arbitrarily chosen to have a bending resistance twice that of the beam. On Figure 9(c) it can be seen that the beam has to
be strengthened at its connection to the column for a length of at least 0,09175L. This strengthening can be achieved
by fabricating a haunch as shown in Figure 9(d). For stability reasons, the haunch is usually designed to remain elastic along
its length when the frame is at the required ULS, see Annex A(c) iv.
It is not necessary or desirable to have both hinges PMR1 and PMR2 adjacent to the haunch. The effective length factor in
the haunch stability check is a function of the values of the bending moments at the haunch ends [3]. The design in Figure 9
(c) shows that for a haunch length ≈ 10% of the span then the beam resistance need only be 50% of the column
resistance. Depending on the frame span/height ratio this design can provide cost savings compared with the constant
section solution from Figure 9(b).
The moment at the beam-to-column connection can be reduced by providing a 'weaker', or partial strength connection,
(see Lectures 14.10 and 14.11). This reduction has the effect of increasing the size of beam required, but reduces the
forces which are transferred through the connection. Where the connection has relatively low moment resistance, it may
be possible to alleviate the need for a column web stiffener. Since the fabrication of stiffening elements can be a costly
and labour intensive operation, overall economies may result.

5. THE PRINCIPLE OF VIRTUAL WORK

In Section 4 the required PMRs of the sections are derived by the manipulation of the Bending Moment diagrams.
The Principle of Virtual Work is an alternative method and requires the collapse mechanism to be assumed from which
the steel sections PMRs can be calculated from the knowledge that:
Σ Mθ = Σ Wδ
Internal work done = External work done.
where each Mθ = Plastic hinge PMR x hinge rotation.
and each Wδ = Applied load x distance travelled.
The application to the first flat portal shown in Figures 9a and 9b is thus:
Assume mechanism based on Figure 9b and that the hinge rotation of the column head is θ. Hence:
eaves midspan eaves
Σ Mθ = Mθ + 2Mθ + Mθ = 4Mθ
Σ Wδ =
4Mθ =

M= = required PMR
6. PLASTIC ANALYSIS METHODS

So far only simple structures have been used as examples for the application of plastic analysis. The analysis method used
is called the (simple) rigid-plastic method of analysis.
In Clause 5.2.1.4 three methods of plastic analysis are given. Their differences are summarised in Table 1.
Calibration of the elasto-plastic method has demonstrated that it is not necessary to use this more exact method for many
(but not all) practical structural frames, including portal frames. Simple empirical rules have been developed that can be
used with the rigid-plastic method and produce satisfactory economical designs.
7. APPLICATION OF THE SIMPLE RIGID-PLASTIC METHOD OF

ANALYSIS TO THE DESIGN OF A PITCHED PORTAL FRAME
From the previous Sections it can be seen that the simple rigid-plastic method of analysis is purely the manipulation of
the bending moment resistances of the steel members by superimposing the "Reactant" bending moment on top of the
"Free" bending moment. For portal frames this manipulation can be achieved by graphical means. This procedure was the
sole means of design prior to electronic calculators and computers becoming available. This graphical method can be applied
to virtually any loading combination, including hurricane winds.
As a consequence of the simplicity of the method, other criteria have to be checked as listed below:
a. Plastic hinges should preferably not form at the serviceability limit state because they would have to be taken into
account when checking frame deflections. Frame deflections can be near to maximum acceptable limits and therefore
the occurrence of plastic hinges is not desirable [4]. The occurrence of the first plastic hinge can be determined from an
elastic analysis of the frame.
A Serviceability Limit State (SLS) for portal frames is specified in 4.2.2.(4) but consideration should also be given to the
effect of the SLS deflections on side wall cladding or masonry and also the racking of the roof cladding in bays adjacent to
stiff gable frames. There is no need to check the deflections of portal frames at loadings between SLS and ULS conditions.
b. For some frames and loading combinations it is possible for a plastic hinge to "form" and "unform" and not take part in
any collapse mechanism. This phenomena should show up in computer programs based on the classical stiffness method
where loading is incrementally "applied" to a frame and the plastic hinge history determined. Some computer programs
have been reported to get this aspect wrong [4], and also to give incorrect results because of insufficient accuracy from
the computer processor. An important point about "unformed" hinges is that they should be accounted for in the
member stability checks.
c. The suitability of the simple rigid-plastic method of analysis to the actual portal frame being designed has to be
determined because second order effects caused by the frame deflections might reduce the actual ULS resistance of the
frame by too much.
Clause 5.2.6.3 permits simple rigid-plastic analysis to be used with an indirect allowance for second-order effects providing:
Elastic critical load ratio, VSd/Vcr ≤ 0,20
where VSd = design value of the total vertical load
Vcr = elastic critical value for failure in a sway mode
In the case of portal frames, this only applies to frames in which either:
• no plastic hinges occur in the columns, or
• the columns satisfy limitations on the in-plane slenderness given in 5.2.7.
The indirect allowance for second-order effects involves amplifying all the internal forces and moments by the factor in
5.2.6.2(3):

Application factor =
d. If VSd/Vcr ≤ 0,10, the frame can be classified as non-sway and provided it has adequate resistance to failure in a sway
mode, no further checking for frame stability is required.
e. Most portal frames have elastic critical load ratios between 0,10 and 0,20. They are, therefore, sway frames and can
be analysed by the simple rigid-plastic method provided the internal forces and moments are amplified. Amplification
factors tend to be around 1,1.
f. Member stability has to be checked. The check is usually in the two areas of rafter haunch plus adjacent rafter and
the columns, particularly where the compression flanges are unrestrained.
g. The loads applied to portal frames including wind loads, are usually classed as static loads. There is usually no need to
check for alternating plasticity on building structures, see Clause 5.2.1.4.(11).
Annex A gives some design rules for simple portal frames.
1. Class 1 steel sections allow the use of the rigid-plastic method of analysis giving further increase in the efficient use of steel.
2. The rigid-plastic method of analysis is a simple yet powerful well - proven method for designing the portal frame to
satisfy ULS requirements. SLS requirements can be checked by an elastic analysis.
3. Modern design codes, such as Eurocode 3 [1], use lower ratios for ULS/Working loads than earlier codes. Thus second
order effects need to be proved to be insignificant. This requirement has made it necessary to ensure that the elastic critical
load ratio is satisfactory. There is a need for simple accurate design aids for deriving the elastic critical load ratios.
4. Portal frames fabricated from hot rolled I beams and with tapered eaves haunches can provide economical attractive
structures without the need for substantial investment in production machinery.
5. The tapered eaves haunch provides the means for varying the sizes of the rafter and column sections to suit the
dimensional proportions of the structure.
9. REFERENCES
[1] Eurocode 3: "Design of Steel Structures": European Prestandard ENV1993-1-1: Part 1.1 General rules and rules
[2] Morris, L. J. and Newsome, C. P., "Bolted Corner Connection subject to an out-of-balance moment - The behaviour of
the column web panel". International Conference, Teesside Polytechnic, Middlesborough, Cleveland - 6-9th April
1981. Additional Papers Volume.
[3] Draft Revision Amendment No. 2 to BS 5950: Part 1: 1990.
[4] Davies, J. M., "False Mechanisms in Elastic-Plastic Analysis". The Structural Engineer, page 268, August 1988.
[5] Morris, L. J. and Nakane, K., "Member Stability in Portal Frames", pages 305-336 of "Steel Framed
Structures", Narayanan, R. Elsevier Applied Science Publishers.

1. Baker, J., Horne, M. R. and Heyman, J., "The Steel Skeleton. Vol II. Plastic Behaviour and Design". Cambridge
University Press, 1956 reprinted 1965.
2. Morris, L. J. and Randall, A. L., "Plastic Design". Constrado 1975. The Steel Construction Institute, Ref. SCI-P-026 (plus
SCI-P-027).
ANNEX A SOME DESIGN RULES FOR SIMPLE PORTAL FRAMES

Figure 10 shows the plastic bending moment diagram and collapse mechanism for a simple portal frame from which
the following points are made and expanded into design rules:


(a) The loading combination shown, of Dead + Snow + Equivalent Horizontal Forces (for frame imperfections), is usually
the governing criterion but it does depend upon the intensities of Dead, Snow and Wind loads and the h/L ratio.
(b) Two plastic hinges are required in the actual portal frame to form a collapse mechanism since two other hinges are
already available at the pinned bases.
The 'sag' hinge occurs in the rafter near the apex (MR).
The 'hog' hinge can occur in the rafter at the haunch toe (M1) or in the column (MS). The designer can usually choose
which one by appropriate selection of column and haunch properties.
(c) The haunch is an important member and a number of points need to be considered (see also Figure 11):


i. A haunch length of L/10 is a good first guess at what it should be. A shorter haunch increases the rafter section closer to
the column section size, whilst a longer haunch reduces the rafter size but may cause problems in fabrication or in not
being able to achieve the resistance ME.
ii. The haunch is usually fabricated from a cutting from another hot rolled section and welding it to the rafter and the end plate.
The cutting provides a "3 flange haunch" and is preferred to a "2 flange haunch" achieved from a plate insert because of
its superior stability characteristics [5].
The toe angle should be kept above 7° to minimise distortion due to the effect of residual stresses that are "released"
during fabrication.
iii. A cutting from the rafter section creates a symmetric section. Hence compressive stresses are high and may give rise to
a need for closely spaced restraints to the cutting compression flange.
iv. The shape of the haunch and the bending moment diagram along its length causes it to be fairly constantly stressed and so
a plastic hinge would form along the complete haunch length and may cause instability problems. One way of overcoming
this is for the haunches to remain elastic along their complete lengths when the frame is at its required ULS.
If this approach is adopted, the haunch cutting compression flange is at lower stresses. Hence stability is easier to
ensure without a lot of restraints. In addition, the frame stiffness is increased and SLS deflections are reduced.

v. The flange and end plates of the haunch connection are usually designed using yield line analyses. Other criteria, e.g.
bolt prying loads, and local tensile stresses in the rafter web and welds, and the need for local stiffeners (Lecture 11.6),
also need to be considered.
Grade 8.8 high tensile bolts are commonly used. The top group provide the tensile force which has a lever arm down to
the point of rotation at the cutting compression flange. Other limiting factors on the size of bolts are dimensions for access
for tightening, edge distances and the thickness of column flange and haunch end plate.
vi. All welds in a haunch connection should be fillet welds. Butt welds are more expensive and can create problems due
to shrinkage, e.g. the point of rotation might move up from the required position.
vii. The haunch is designed as a rigid connection. Eurocode 3 [1] requirements for connections are given in Table 5.2.1.
A portal frame being "continuous framing" and "rigid-plastic" global analysis requires a "Full Strength" connection
in accordance with Clause6.4.3.2.
6.4.3.2 Subclause (1) requires the strength of a full-strength connection should be "at least equal to that of the
member connected".
If the rotation capacity of a full-strength connection is limited, the design resistance of the connection must be at least 1,2
times the design plastic resistance of the member (6.4.3.2(2)) to allow for the possibility of the members being
overstrength. However, the rotation capacity of a connection adjacent to a haunch need not be checked provided that
the connection is capable of resisting the maximum moments and forces that would result if one or more of the plastic
hinges located in the members were overstrength, due to the relevant members having an actual yield strength 1,2 times
the specified value. For example, if the eaves hinge forms in the column, the moment resistance of the connection must be
at least 1,2 times the plastic moment resistance of the column section. Member stability based on the new moment
distribution would not have to be checked.
(d) If the 'hog' hinge is in the column (MS) then the stability check will require more restraints than if the column
remained elastic. This can be important if the client requires full bay width doors in the side of a building.
(e) The modelling of the haunch in the frame analysis is shown by the dotted lines 1-2-3-4 for simplicity. An alternative is 1-
5-4.

Criteria Rigid- COMPUTER BASED

Plastic ELASTIC-PLASTIC
Elastic- Elasto-
Perfectly Plastic
Plastic
1. First Order Effects
i) Bending moments. * * *
ii) Effect of axial forces on member bending Optional Optional *
capacity.
iii) Effect of shear forces on member bending - - *
capacity.
2. Plastic Hinge Environment
i) Linear elastic members up to sudden

formation of hinges at fyWpl. * * -
ii) Concentrated at hinge position.
iii) Plasticity spreads across the section and * * -
partially along the member as the bending - - *
moment increases through fyWel to fyWpl.
iv) Hinge history available. - * *

3. Second Order Effects in ULS Analysis
i) Deflections at main nodes due to first order

bending moment effects. - - included
ii) No change in member EI values. in iii
iii) Loss of member stiffness due to combined * *
effect of bending, axial (& shear?) forces - - -
AND member displaced shape. *
iv) Strain hardening at plastic hinge locations.
- -
*
Table 1: Plastic analysis methods

ESDEP WG 14

OBJECTIVE/SCOPE
To present the structural functions of the crane runway girder and to give design guidance on the girder and on its
various components.
PREREQUISITES
Lectures 1B.5: Introduction to Design of Industrial Buildings
Lectures 8.4: Plate Girder Behaviour and Design
Lectures 11: Connection Design: Static Loading
RELATED LECTURES
Lectures 12: Fatigue
Lecture 14.1.1: Single Storey Buildings: Introduction and Primary Structure
SUMMARY
Crane runway girders are usually regarded as a part of the building structure and are designed accordingly.
A more realistic approach is to regard the crane runway girders as a part of the mechanical transport system in which the
dominant component is the crane itself.
There is a very strong interaction between the moving and the stationary parts of the crane system. There can be no
successful design of either the crane itself or the crane runway girders if they are treated as separated structures.
The forces imposed on the girders by the crane are in part caused by the behaviour of the crane itself, especially in
regard to the vertical and lateral stiffness of the girder. The transfer of the crane wheel reactions to the crane runway
girder induces a complex pattern of stresses in the upper part of the girder and leads to early service failures if not taken
into consideration in the design.

1. INTRODUCTION
In designing cranes, rails, runway girders and the supporting structure, the most important parameters are the maximum
and most frequently occurring weights to be lifted, the speed and acceleration and the free height below the crane. The
maximum wheel loads are determined by the net capacity of the crane together with the dead weight of the crane and
dynamic effects.
Handling facilities in simple portal frame buildings are often provided by light overhead travelling cranes carried on
crane runway girders supported on brackets secured to the columns, see Figure 1a.
The maximum capacity of cranes supported in this manner is about 100kN. Above this capacity, it is better to provide a
separate leg or to increase the depth of the column below the crane runway girder to give adequate support.
When an overhead travelling crane is introduced into a building, special care must be taken to ensure that the building is
adequately braced in both directions. It is also worth mentioning that, where heavy cranes are involved, the crane
runway girders may be subjected to severe fatigue conditions.
1.1 The Crane Runway Girder and the Structure
The support method of the crane runway girder depends on the magnitude of the reactions being transmitted, in relation
to the strength of the structural framing of the building.
Some typical arrangements ranging from the lightest to the heaviest are shown in Figure 1. A separate crane column, as

shown in Figures 1b and 1d is attractive for heavy cranes because it permits the effect of the crane to be considered
isolated. However therein lies a danger, since the displacement of the building column could induce overstress in the
connection between the two columns. A correct and more realistic approach is to analyse the columns as one.
Careful consideration should be given to the transfer of the horizontal forces from the top flange of the girder to the
column. This connection should:
● safely resist the horizontal reactions

● allow free rotation at the support of the crane runway girder
● allow lateral adjustment of the crane runway girder after completion of the building.
A very important aspect is the need for adjustment. It is impossible to erect building frames to the tolerance required by
the crane manufacturer and it is therefore essential that the whole crane runway girder can be adjusted up to 10mm with
respect to the building columns. Therefore, slotted holes and shims are required, as shown in Figure 2.

Free rotation at the supports of crane runway girders is important in order to prevent bending and torsional moments in
the columns.
Rotation at the supports of a continuous girder can be realised by appropriate, flexible detailing as shown in Figure 3.

Rotation at the end of a simply supported girder results in a longitudinal movement of the top flange in relation to the
centre line. The member which connects the top flange to the building column must therefore be capable of allowing
free longitudinal movement without becoming overstressed. A simple flexible plate may be satisfactory when the
movements are less than 1mm, but a connection with slotted holes is a safer solution in most cases (see detail B, Figure
2).
Another vital aspect is that the distance between the two columns of a portal frame at the height of the rail changes with
the loading. The change in distance between two load cases can easily amount to 1/180 of the column-height. The wheel
flange clearances must therefore be much larger than immediately expected (often 50 mm or more are recommended).
Longitudinal bracing of the building and crane runway girders can be arranged in several different ways:
● vertical bracing used as building and as crane runway girder bracing.

● vertical bracing bays with direct connection to the brackets and positioned in the plane of the crane runway
girder (for heavy cranes).
● vertical bracing in the planes of both crane runway girder and building columns (for very heavy cranes only).
If the last method is used, there must be an effective restraint to the crane brackets to prevent torsion in the column. This
restraint is normally obtained by a horizontal truss, as shown in Figure 4.

The ideal place for the braced bay is half-way between the expansion joints in the crane runway girder, or in the middle
of the building, see Figure 5. This arrangement prevents the build up of axial compressive forces due to temperature
rise, which could cause buckling of the crane runway girders. Furthermore, it forces the expansion in two directions, and
thereby minimises the total movement. Only the columns below the crane runway girder are deformed. It is the
magnitude of the secondary stresses associated with this deformation which limits the distance between the expansion
joints. The maximum allowable distance between the expansion joints depends on the horizontal longitudinal
displacement capacity of the columns bearing the crane runway girder - see Figure 5.
A method of transferring the axial forces in a simply-supported girder directly across the joint at the support is shown in
Figure 2.3. The detail also shows an effective method of supporting the girders by using load bearing stiffeners.
Attention has to be paid to the local eccentricity of the bearing stiffener with regard to the web of the bracket.
2. TYPE OF CRANES
The most common types of cranes running on elevated runway girders are:
● Top running bridge cranes consisting of a single or a double girder spanning between the end carriages (Figure
6a).
● Underslung bridge crane with special end carriages where the wheels are running on the bottom flange of the
runway girders (Figure 6b).

2.1 Classification of Cranes
Loads from crane wheels have a static and a dynamic component. Both components are functions of time and vary with
crane position and the magnitude of the load. The loads handled by the crane consist of a spectrum of light, medium and
heavy loads. The dynamic forces due to acceleration and braking, hoisting and unevenness of the rails also vary from
installation to installation.
To ensure economical design of cranes, they are normally divided into several classes depending on the frequency of
their use, the average ratio of the loads lifted to the safe load, and the dynamic effects experienced in service. In this

way it is possible to assess the fatigue risk to the crane and its runway girder during its design life.
Classification is based on two factors:
● Frequency of use.
● State of loading (ratio of magnitude of actual or assumed load to the safe working load).
Selection of values for frequency of use and state of loading determines the final classification of a crane.
3. CRANE RAILS
The crane rail and its interaction with the top flange of the girder has a very strong influence on the performance of the
crane. It is, therefore, important to know what type of crane is going to be applied when designing the crane rail and
runway girder. Loading characteristics should be adopted which are in accordance with the crane which will probably be
installed. These characteristics can be obtained from manufacturers manuals. In practice it is sometimes impossible to
prepare the design of the crane and the crane runway girder at the same time because the crane is ordered much later
than the building structure. The result may be a poor design leading to problems such as excessive wear of the crane rail
and crane wheel flanges or fatigue cracking in the upper web of the girder.
The crane rail must meet the requirements for protecting the top flange from wear and for distributing the wheel loads
evenly over the greatest possible length of contact. The crane rail must therefore have:
● an adequate wear resistance.

● a high flexural rigidity.
Two types of crane rail are shown in Figure 2:
● block rail.
● specially rolled rail section.
3.1 Rail Splices
There are two types of splice:
● Splices which join individual lengths.

● Expansion splices.
Longer rail lengths can be obtained rather by welding than by bolting. Welded splices are normally superior to bolted
splices because the welded joint avoids a gap and gives a step-free running surface. Special care is required in the
welding operation if there are high carbon and manganese contents in the steel.
Expansion joints in rails must be provided on long runways when rails are fixed to the girders. They should coincide
with joints in the main girder. A gradual transfer of wheel load from one rail to another is ensured if the ends of the rail
are bevelled as shown in Figure 7.

3.2 Rail Fastenings
Various types of rail fastenings are shown in Figure 8. The traditional approach is to provide a fastening which restrains
the rail in all directions. The fastening of block rails is always by shop welding. The fastening of specially rolled rail
sections is normally obtained by a fully rigid clamp or by welding the rail to the flange of the crane runway girder.

Welding has the advantage that the rail can be accurately located on the girder centreline due to the fact that lateral
adjustment is possible. However the use of welding gives problems in some cases. For example:
● Renewal may be difficult.

● In simply-supported joints crane runway girders occur at each support if shop welded.
● Site welding is necessary if continuous crane runway girders are used. This problem is solved if site welding is
located at positions where the bending moments are minimal, in which case the stress situation in the welds is
less critical.
● The welds can induce fatigue cracks.
● When higher strength steel has been specified, the welding operation is more difficult.
Modern practice tends towards a fastening which gives partial restraint, as shown in Figure 8c. The rail is restrained in
the vertical and lateral direction, but the clamps allow the rail to move in the longitudinal direction.
Figure 9 shows a very economical method, for heavy duty applications, of obtaining lateral restraint by site welding
'steering' plates between the clamps instead of using high strength bolts in the clamps to eliminate the possibility of
movement. This type of fixing has to be checked for its influence on the fatigue of the crane runway girder.

4. LOADS ON THE CRANE RUNWAY GIRDER

The static wheel loads are exceeded during operation of the crane as a result of impact, inertial effects and other
dynamic effects. These effects can also result in lateral forces at the top of the crane rail. The main factors to be
considered are:
● acceleration and deceleration of the crane bridge and the crab.

● degree of control over the hoisting speed.
● off-vertical lifting at the start of hoisting, see Figure 10.
● tendency of the crane to travel obliquely, see Figure 11.
● condition of the rail surface and the width of rail joints.

These dynamic effects can be approximated by multiplying the static wheel loads with an appropriate factor which may
range from 1,0 to 2,0.
Oblique travelling of the crane can also induce lateral loads, as shown in Figure 11. The forces on the rail are acting in
opposite directions on each wheel of the end carriage and depend on the ratio of crane span to wheel base.
The longitudinal forces due to crane acceleration and braking should be verified by calculations, when data on masses of
the moving parts and their accelerations are known.
The end stops placed on the crane runway girder must be designed to take the crane buffer force. The buffer force is
calculated from the kinetic energy of the mass of the crane, but without the lifted load due to the fact that it is suspended

from the ropes. Another approach is to use electronic devices to stop the cranes at the ends, yielding a more beneficial
loading situation for the structure supporting the crane runway girder.
Other loads that need to be considered are:
● Catwalks and ladders attached to the girder.

● Power supply cabling and cable trays.
For more quantitative information on loads to be taken into account in designing a crane runway girder, national codes
or crane manufacturer's documentation should be referred to.
4.1 Transfer of Loads to the Top Flange
The loads transmitted to the rail produce a triaxial stress state in the flange and the upper part of the web. The stress
components are:
● Compressive stress in the longitudinal direction of the flange.

● Compressive stress in the web in the vertical direction.
● Local bending stress in the flange in the longitudinal direction.
● Local bending stress in the web in the transverse direction.
● Shear stresses in the web.
To make a realistic assessment of the stresses, the following design hints could be given:
● Wheel load should be distributed over a length equal to twice the rail depth.
● The stresses in the web should be calculated with an assumption for the eccentricity of the wheel with respect to
the centre of the web, which might occur at the supports or when the crane and/or the rail have seriously suffered
wear. Eccentricity of the rail to the runway girder usually has to be prevented by connecting them together with
very small tolerances (preferably shop welding).
● Welds connecting the flange to the web should be checked for a combination of vertical stresses and bending
stresses due to eccentricity (of the wheel load) in addition to shear.
● To avoid the necessity to move the rail from its location above the web, alignment of the whole crane runway
girder should be possible. Therefore, slotted holes and shims are applied, see Figure 2.
● If welded crane runway girders are used, a full penetration butt weld should be used for the top flange to web
joint to give resistance to fatigue.
5. SELECTION OF THE CRANE RUNWAY GIRDER

During the conceptual stage of the design of the crane runway girder the fundamental questions are:
● Should a simply-supported or a continuous girder be used?

● Should a solid web girder or a latticed girder be used?
● Should a single or double web construction be used?
● Should high strength steel be used?
In some countries, simply-supported girders are preferred; in others continuous girders. When continuous girders are
used, special attention should be paid to:
● differential settlement between adjacent footings. This should be limited to L/600.

● erection, especially when site welding is adopted.
Figure 12 shows some cross-sections used for crane runway girders. For small spans and light-to-medium crane loads, it

is normally possible to use rolled-beam sections. In some cases reinforcement may be necessary to give resistance to
lateral forces (Figure 12a-c).
Single web plate girders are suitable for the majority of heavier cranes. Their insufficient resistance to lateral forces is
normally solved by introducing horizontal bracing, as shown in Figure 12d.
Plate box girders are popular for the crane itself but are seldom used for the crane girder. The rail must be situated
directly over the inner web of the box girder, so that transverse flexural stresses in the top flange plate are avoided, as
shown in Figure 12e.
High strength steel is seldom used in crane runway girders because fatigue considerations limit the permissible stresses

quite severely and thus reduce the economical advantages (the fatigue strengths of mild and high strength steel for
welded structures are the same). Additionally, deflection and lateral-torsional buckling considerations also prevent the
designer from gaining advantage from using high strength steel.
5.1 Optimum Girder Proportions
A general set of rules to assist the choice of optimum depth of crane runway girders cannot be given due to the variety
of load cases and the differences in the cross-sections normally used. As a rough guideline, the usual range of girder
depth-to-span ratios is between 8 and 14. The deflection limitation may dictate a larger depth, especially where spans
are long.
6. DESIGN OF THE CRANE RUNWAY GIRDER

The design of crane runway girders has some special aspects which are not often present in the design consideration of
other types of girder:
● combination of concentrated loads and bending moments.

● combination of lateral loads and lateral-torsional buckling.
● combination of web buckling and plate bending stresses due to torsion induced by the rail eccentricity and lateral
forces.
● design is required against early fatigue failure.
The degree of refinement required in considering these special effects during design, depends very much on the class of
the crane.
One of the most important decisions in connection with the design is to determine how far to go in minimising the mass
of steel. Good design must take into consideration all costs during the design life of the crane installation. A very light
design may promise a low first cost, but could give rise to large maintenance costs resulting from a need for frequent
repairs.
6.1 Crane Runway Girder-to-Column Details
The predominant loading is vertical. The crane runway girder is normally directly supported by its seated connection on
the column or by means of a bracket. The best way to secure a direct flow of stresses from the crane runway girder to
the column or bracket below, with a minimum of eccentricity, is by means of welded brackets, as shown in Figure 2.
The next principal loading is transverse. Figure 13a shows a dangerous detail frequently used on lighter crane girders to
resist lateral forces. Figure 13b illustrates the reversible strain to which the girder web is subjected - an action leading to
the result shown in Figure 13c. The failure could easily be prevented by simply connecting the top flange directly to the
column, as shown in Figure 14. The top flange acts as a horizontal beam delivering its reaction to the column.


Another effect caused by this bad detail is shown in Figure 15. The vertical deflection of the crane girder rotates its ends
on the column seat. If the connection is not designed for that purpose the result is high shear on the upper fasteners, and
local tension in the web, which could lead to failure in that area of the web.

A continuous girder offers a possible solution to the rotation problem when a flexible detail as in Figure 3 is chosen.
6.2 Rigidity Requirements
The following maximum values for the deflection of the crane girder must normally not be exceeded in order to avoid
undesirable dynamic effects and to secure the function of the crane:
● Vertical deflection at midspan, due to maximum wheel reactions without duty features L/700
● Horizontal deflection at midspan due to maximum wheel reactions multiplied by the duty factor L/600
In the absence of more detailed calculations it is acceptable to assume that the top flange resists the whole horizontal
force. The rigidity requirement for horizontal deflection is essential to prevent oblique travelling of the crane.
The vertical deflection is normally limited to a value not greater than 25 mm to prevent excessive vibrations caused by
the crane operation and crane travel.
6.3 Web Stiffeners
It becomes uneconomical to use unstiffened webs when girder depths increase, because a relatively large proportion of
the girder material is in the web. Web stiffeners serve the purpose of:
● preventing buckling in the web.

● adding rotation capacity to the top flange.
Twisting of the top flange caused by lateral forces has to be resisted by the web alone, if no web stiffeners are present.
When the girder is relatively deep and the lateral forces are high, it will not be possible to omit web stiffeners. The
distance between the stiffeners must not be so large that twisting of the top flange becomes too large at the mid-point.
The method of attaching the stiffeners to the web and the flanges must be detailed carefully to prevent fatigue failure.
Fatigue in the tensile flange can be averted by providing a gap of 4t between the end of the stiffener and the bottom
flange, as shown in Figure 16. However there will still be a possibility of fatigue in the web at the termination of the
stiffener.
However, the detail shown in Figure 17 is normally considered to be the best solution. The stiffener should be welded to
the compression flange so that relative movement of the flange in relation to the web due to lateral forces is totally
prevented. The stiffener should be coped a maximum of 200 mm.

6.4 Lateral Forces and Lateral-Torsional Buckling
The simultaneous effects of torsion induced by lateral forces and lateral-torsional buckling can be considered in several
ways. It is often difficult to decide how rigorously the structural calculations should be done. Lateral forces due to off-
vertical lifting, inertial effects and oblique travelling can only be estimated approximately. Values obtained from
relevant codes together with the use of duty factors given in the Codes is the only means at the designer's disposal.
Torsion in the section is caused by:
● lateral force acting at the rail head level.

● eccentricity of the vertical force due to tolerances dependent on the fabrication of the rail to the girder (see
Section 4.1).
The geometry of the top flange should be chosen from those alternatives that offer the best torsional resistance and the
best lateral stiffness.
6.5 Fatigue Considerations
Crane runway girders are subjected to repetitive stressing and unstressing. The number of stress cycles that certain parts
of the crane runway girder is subjected to may be two to four times the number of crane passages because each passage
of the wheels causes stress fluctuations. This effect is one of the reasons why special care must be paid to the detailing
of the top part of the crane runway girder.
The number of the crane passages is not easy to estimate. For design purposes it is assumed that the number of stress
fluctuations corresponds to the class of the crane as specified in the Codes.
The critical details in fatigue design are the stiffener-to-flange, the stiffener-to-web, and the flange-to-web connections
where severe concentrations of stresses exist. The following recommendations are made:
● welds attaching the stiffeners to the girder web should be terminated at a distance from the flanges to reduce the
stress concentration (see Figure 17).

● welds connecting the web to the top flange should be full penetration butt welds, although fillet welds are
sometimes used for light, primarily static cranes.
● flange reinforcement using cover plates leads to poorer fatigue life.
Crane runway girders require a special care in design and detailing. They should be regarded as a mechanical item. The
uncertainties, especially regarding the transverse loads and the transfer of forces to the girders, have to be clearly
recognised. In the following some guidance in obtaining the proper design is given:
● Simplified calculations are adequate for light load cranes, but more rigorous analyses are required for heavy load
cranes. The depth of structural investigations can be decided from the class of the crane.
● Although minimum weight design may provide an economical solution to many design problems, this is not the
case in the design of crane runway girders where the overall costs must include the maintenance costs.
● Attention must be made to detailing which may reduce the fatigue life of the crane runway girder. This
consideration applies especially to the top region of the girder.
● Welded fabrication should be given a more rigorous inspection than the rest of the building structure.
● No further welding attachments should be allowed during the lifetime of an intensively used crane girder.
1. Petersen, C., Stahlbau, Friedr. Vieweg & Sohn, 1988.
2. Dubas, P. and Gehri, E., Stahlhochbau, Springs-Verlag, 1988.
3. Gorene, Crane Runway Girders, Steel Construction, Vol. 10, No 4.
4. Mueller, J. E., Lessons from Crane Runways, Steel Construction, Vol.10, No 4.

ESDEP WG 14

OBJECTIVE/SCOPE
To describe different types of spatial truss systems, and the design parameters to be considered. To give guidance on
initial sizing and on analysis methods. To describe fabrication and erection procedures.
PREREQUISITES
RELATED LECTURES
Lecture 14.6: Special Single Storey Structures
SUMMARY
The lecture provides an historical background and an overview of different types of spatial truss systems: double-layer
grids, barrel vaults and domes. Design parameters are introduced and some rules for initial sizing are described. The
principles of different methods of analysis are given. The lecture concludes by describing aspects of fabrication and
erection particular to these structures.
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 Definitions
For this lecture, trusses are defined as structural systems in which the members are interlinked so that they are only subject
to axial compressive or tensile forces.
This definition assumes that no action is applied directly onto the members. All loads are applied to the joints which are
known as 'nodes'. In case it is impossible to guarantee the coincidence of member axis, the bending effect resulting from
this must be evaluated. It is particularly important to ensure that the axes of the members coincide (Figure 1). Only perfect
pins could completely ensure compliance with this loading condition. The technological construction of assemblies deviates
to some extent from this theoretical situation and, in effect, is one of the main difficulties associated with these
structural systems.
The lecture is concerned mainly with truss systems for roofs, which span in two directions (termed 'space structures').
Other arrangements are possible, such as continuous systems, based on the Vierendeel girder (Figure 2) in which
diagonal bracing members are unnecessary because the bending behaviour is predominant, rather than the axial one;
the resulting voids can be used to accommodate mechanical and electrical services.
Until the 1960s, almost all truss systems were two-dimensional. They had developed from timber roofs, which themselves
had evolved from a basic triangular arrangement to more complex shapes (Figure 3). The need to lighten long tie beams
and reduce bending stresses (Figure 3a) had led to the introduction of a suspender (Figure 3b). A similar concern to
reduce bending of the rafters led to the introduction of diagonal members (Figure 3c). By dividing the suspended member
in two, the familiar arrangement of Figure 3d was obtained.

The use of metal became dominant in the 19th century for all types of structures except domestic buildings. Articulated
systems (Figure 4) commonly used for roofs of railway stations were perfect examples of the two-dimensional
triangulated system. The second half of the 19th century was characterised by some remarkable achievements, for example
the Garabit viaduct in France (Figure 5) and the Maria Pia bridge in Oporto, both designed by Eiffel.


Although spatial systems were proposed early in the 20th century, their use in practice has arisen from the more
recent development of computer methods for analysis, the functional need for spaces free of columns and from demands
of architectural appearance.
1.3 Different Types of System
1.3.1 Introduction
Different types of spatial truss systems are normally classified according to their general shape. The following may therefore
be distinguished [1]:
● two dimensional grids

● cylindrical vaults
● domes.
In each case it is advisable to distinguish between single and double or even triple layer grids. The number of layers depends
on the span. A third characteristic lies in the geometry chosen for the system of members in the layers and possibly in
the composition of the bracing of the layers.
1.3.2 Two dimensional grids
1.3.2.1 Single layer grids
These grids are mentioned only as a reminder that these systems are beam grillages which work in bending and torsion,
rather than under axial compression and tension.
Depending on the directions assigned to the members, grids may be identified in two, or three directions (Figure 6). Grids
in two diagonal directions are more rigid (beams follow the direction of the principal stresses of the equivalent plates) and
are widely used. Utilisation is restricted to about 10m of span.

1.3.2.2 Double layer grids
These grids comprise two systems of members on two parallel levels (upper and bottom layer). Both these systems
are interlinked by bracing members (web members) (Figure 7). Two types of double layer grids may be distinguished
(Figure 8):



● lattice grids where there are always top and bottom chords in the same vertical plane (Figure 8a).
● spatial grids, made up of triangular based pyramids, square or hexagonal (Figure 8b). Two kinds may be identified: one
where the layer geometries are identical though displaced (offset grids), and the other where the layer geometries are
different (differential grids).
These systems are suitable for spans up to 100m. For greater spans, it is necessary to incorporate triple layer grids, to
avoid long members otherwise necessary with the increased depth.
The size of the constituent modules depends on several factors, principally: span, load, cladding system, type of
node, transportation and erection facilities.
For spans of between 30 and 40m, member lengths of about 1,5m to 3m are acceptable.
The advantages of double layer grids are numerous:
● they are three dimensional structures which can withstand loads from any direction.
● they are hyperstatic, and buckling of some compression members does not cause the whole to collapse as has
been demonstrated by mathematical models and experiments.
● their rigidity minimises deflections.
● they have a very good fire resistance.
● their composition allows factory pre-fabrication in modular elements, which are easily transported. Fabrication
precision ensures ease of assembly and erection.
● they allow a wide choice of support positions owing to modular construction.
● the space between the two layers may be used to install electricity, electrical and thermal piping, etc.
● installation is carried out by bolting and may be done whatever the atmospheric conditions.
● they provide indisputable aesthetic qualities.
From an economic point of view, it is important to have a minimum number of nodes. It is therefore necessary to
compromise between this criteria and those determined by the choice of module sizes.
1.3.3 Cylindrical vaults
In the history of construction, cylindrical vaults appear as an evolution of arches. The use of metal has enabled construction
to be carried out with factory prefabricated elements which may be assembled on site. The first example to recall is the
Crystal Palace which was erected by Joseph Paxton for the Great Exhibition in 1851.
This shape has proved to be suitable for roofs of halls, railway stations and sports facilities, e.g. in-door tennis courts.
Maximum efficiency may be attained for shapes with rectangular surfaces and a length/width ratio of between 1 and 2.
The optimum shape (rise/span ratio) is in the region of 0,15 to 0,20 (Figure 9).


Several layer geometries are possible (Figure 10). In practice, three directional systems offer the most advantages. They
may usually be analysed by assuming pin-jointed behaviour for the nodes. This assumption does not hold, however, for
some systems where bending rigidity must be taken into account, e.g. for a vault composed of prefabricated elements
rigidly joined by high strength bolts.

The sensitivity of these systems to asymmetrical actions, in particular to wind, should not be underestimated. Such actions
can even bring about force reversal in the members, which is an additional reason for choosing a three directional geometry
in which the length of all elements is identical.
In the same way, choice of support conditions along the boundaries influences force distribution.
Economical spans for single layer vaults are in the region of 20m. Spans may be increased by inserting diagonal
elements. They reach 60m for double layer systems, in some cases even more. Appropriate weights for double layer
systems vary between 0,13 and 0,25kN/m2 depending on the intended shape, support conditions and on the geometry of
the sheets (for a uniform load of between 0,75 and 1,50kN/m2).
1.3.4 Domes
Domes constitute one of the most ancient forms of construction. However big or small their size, the outline of the
two-dimensional support is normally circular on plan.
Skeletal dome structures can be classified into several categories depending on the orientation and position of
principal members. The four more popular types are: ribbed domes, Schwedler domes, three-way grid domes and
parallel lamella domes (Figure 11).


Domes are of special interest to architects and engineers because they provide the maximum enclosed volume for
minimum surface area. In the last 25 years construction with steel sections has largely replaced reinforced concrete. The
first two examples concern single and double layer systems. These systems permit spans of about 40m and more than
100m respectively. Some double layer solutions have encouraged 'record' spans of more than 200m.
The accurate analysis of domes has only been possible with the introduction of computers which have allowed an
accurate study of elastic behaviour. It is important to note that large span single layer domes subjected to asymmetrical
actions can experience global instability effects. In addition to consideration of local buckling of compression
elements, specific attention should be drawn to possible global 'snap-through' buckling (Figure 12). The action of wind is
not very well known; application of factored actions to a non-critical load case does not necessarily cover the
most unfavourable situation and recognition of an appropriate excess weight does not necessarily bring about the
most unfavourable situation.
From the physical point of view, it is important to stress the difference in behaviour of domes with respect to cylindrical
vaults. The sensitivity to asymmetrical actions and the resistance to global buckling phenomena is strictly connected to
the rigidity of the geometrical shape. For cylindrical vaults, their surface has a single curvature, so it can be developed on
plan. In contrast, domes, having a double curvature, resist any actions by virtue of the shape itself.
Definition of the geometric arrangement of elements, whether for a single or a double layer construction, is a difficult
problem to resolve. Research is aimed at using fewer different lengths for the members. Moreover, it is important to check
that the polygons defined are as similar as possible, in order to facilitate cladding. Fuller designed one of the first
big developments: the dome of the American Pavilion in Montreal (1967) which is composed of two interconnected layers
and constructed with welded tubular sections; the resulting structure is 5/8 of a total sphere, with a diameter of 75m.
2. DESIGN OF SPATIAL TRUSS SYSTEMS
2.1 Conceptual design
At the conceptual design stage it is important to define the geometry of the structure, given that determining support
positions is an important factor in the strength and rigidity of the system.
Geometric design parameters are:
● the overall shape; flat shape or assembly of small flat shapes (so called "polyhedric surfaces"), curved surfaces
(generally positive double curved surfaces; one of the curvatures may be equal to zero, i.e. the case of cylindrical vaults).
For curved surfaces, a rise/span ratio should be fixed to satisfy both mechanical and architectural criteria, e.g. in order to
avoid domes which are too shallow.
● geometry of the cladding supports.
● the number of layers; structural depth/span ratio influences the weight, strength and cost.
● frequency of mesh, i.e. number of geometric elements for a given length.
The choices made directly influence the number of members converging on each node and on the connecting angles
between these members; these two parameters determine the feasibility of the nodes. Too many elements meeting at
different angles and lack of repetition are hindrances to construction efficiency. The choice of spacing of grids should
be related to geometric connections, particularly the connection of the two-dimensional sides of a polyhedric surface.
Choice of support conditions does not pose any specific problems, but it does affect behaviour.
It should be noted that, because of the low weight of these structures, the weight of the equipment supported by the
structure should not be negligible. Similarly, actions resulting from the method of construction should be carefully
examined. The effects of concentrated actions and of partially distributed loads, which are greater when the total loading is
not symmetrically distributed, should be examined. Except in specific cases, dynamic actions can be replaced by

enhanced static actions.
2.2 Design Method
Every project is undoubtedly an individual case. Nevertheless, it is possible to establish sequential steps in the development
of the design. Most importantly it should be noted that, for a shape to be covered in any pre-determined way, two
distinct methods can be used to define the general surface:
● either the overall surface geometry is defined a priori: a geometric division must then be made, e.g. a geodesic division
for domes.
● or the generating module is laid as before and multiplication of this module provides the final geometry.
Once the overall geometry has been established, the designer must decide on the number of layers. This design
depends basically on the free span, and also on the geometric distribution of the members in and between the layers. Choice
of frequency of mesh is important for reasons of resistance and cost, as well as for aesthetic reasons. Choice in the geometry
of the network of members directly influences behaviour of the systems. For example, in the case of double layer grids,
an examination of different geometric arrangements has confirmed the importance of adopting an arrangement where
directions of the members in the two layers are set at 45°.
It is therefore possible to examine the structural behaviour under appropriate combinations of actions. Choice of
support conditions has a big influence on the distribution of internal forces and size of the deflections. The possible use
of multi-point supports is an important advantage of spatial trusses. Definition of the areas of the cross-sections of the
elements may lead to a process of optimisation suitable for the design model.
2.3 Initial Sizing
It is possible to provide further information in the case of double layer two dimensional grids. The curves in Figure 13
illustrate the variation in weight suitable for different structural depths with the slenderness ratio for seven different
geometries (Figures 14-20).











Calculations were made for the case of a square outline with peripheral supports under each node, assuming a
uniformly distributed load. In addition, the following data have been assumed:
● take a depth/span ratio of 1:15 in relation to the free span where there is a working load of 1,50kN/m2;.
● consider a self weight of about 0,15 to 0,20kg/m2 for spans up to 30m.
It is also important to consider the relation between the size of the mesh element and depth of the grid.
2.4 Choice of the Structural System
As soon as the overall shape of the structure is defined, it is necessary to choose the structural system.
A wide variety of structural systems is available, which can fulfil the geometrical requirements of the design. However,
they cannot all provide the load carrying capacity which is required to resist the most unfavourable design loading conditions.
The sizing of the cross-section of members is a task of the designer, whereas the producer of the structural system
must guarantee that the node-member combination should be able to give a joint of full strength type. Only by means
of appropriate qualification procedures can this guarantee be realised.
2.5 Qualification Procedure
The qualification procedure should demonstrate that the system for the space structure is based on a basic node - member
joint which is a full strength type. The demonstration can be done by calculation and by tests.
On the one hand, it is possible to model the node-member joint by means of finite element techniques. However, it is
not prudent to rely solely on these numerical results.
On the other hand, only experimental evidence can fully demonstrate the actual behaviour of the system.
For these reasons, the qualification procedure should be based mainly on laboratory tests, the results validating the
calculations. A suggested procedure could be based on the following phases:
● monoaxial tests on the node;

● monoaxial tests on the member-to-node connection;
● bending and shear tests on full-scale structural units;
● bending tests, monotonic and cyclic, in the elastic range (including temperature effects) up to collapse on full-scale prototypes.

3 ANALYSIS OF SPACE TRUSS SYSTEMS
3.1 Different Analysis Methods
The objective of an analysis of truss systems is to determine the values of the variables necessary for sizing purposes and
for those required to size their supports. The variables generally required may be:
● compressive and tensile forces in the members in the system.

● node displacements.
● values of support reactions.
The study has to be made for several cases of actions and combinations of actions. The most unfavourable cases are used as
the basis for design.
Depending on the type of problem being examined, it is not necessary to determine all unknown quantities. The methods
of analysis available can be classified as follows:
i. Method of joints: applicable to two-dimensional systems which are internally isostatic (Figure 21), for which the
reactions have previously been determined. It is possible to determine the forces in all members. They can be determined
by analytical or graphical methods (see Figures 22 and 23).




ii. Method of sections: in certain cases, this method can give direct access to internal forces in a limited number of
members selected by the designer. It is used, for example, for preliminary design work in order to assess the maximum
forces in a triangulated system (Figure 24).
iii. Displacement method: This is the most general method. It is applicable to two-dimensional and spatial systems, isostatic
or hyperstatic. It gives values for all unknown quantities: internal forces, displacements, reactions.
3.2 Design Assumptions
In addition to use of principles which are common to all structures in respect of actions and their combinations, Eurocode 3
[2] allows a perfectly pin-jointed model for global analysis.
Furthermore, it is considered that all actions are applied at the systems nodes. It is sufficient to assume linear-elastic response.
Calculations in the elasto-plastic range can be done by using simplified models of the members such as is shown in Figure
25. The results show that a reasonably stable response of compression elements (after the ultimate load of a member is
reached) can be achieved and the forces transferred to the adjacent members from that which has reached its ultimate resistance.
The methods described in the following paragraphs are all based on the application of equilibrium to the forces applied by
the members to the nodes. The pin-jointed analysis used for triangulated systems simplifies the formulae for equilibrium:
in general, the three equations relating to translational equilibrium are necessary.
3.3 Limit of Validity of the Methods Described
Attention is drawn to the fact that the methods described do not take account of:
● any non-coincidence of the axes of the members forming a node.

● flexure induced by the application of external actions but along the length of members, rather than at nodes.
● secondary bending moments due to the effective rigidity of the joints which no longer corresponds with the assumption of
pin-jointed behaviour.
● non-linearity due to geometry and/or to material.
It is therefore necessary to evaluate carefully the significance of factors associated with failure to ensure the appropriateness
of the assumed models, either by making additional calculations, or if applicable, by using more detailed calculation models,
e.g. the generalised displacements model which takes account of stiffness in flexure and in torsion, when the given joint is
far from the pin-jointed assumption.
3.4 Displacement Method
This is the most general method applicable in all cases of space structures. The behaviour of the materials is assumed to
be elastic and linear.
The principle of the method lies in resolving a system of linear equilibrium equations as follows:
[K] {D} = {F}
where
[K] is the structure stiffness matrix.
{D} is the unknown displacement vector.
{F} is the vector of known actions.
The components of {D} corresponding to the fixed supports are zero. The corresponding equations, the second components
of which are the reactions, do not therefore appear in the corresponding system of linear equations. Determination of
the displacements enables the internal forces to be calculated. This method is normally implemented by computer software.
4. FABRICATION OF SPACE TRUSSES

4.1 Introduction
The very nature of spatial trusses encourages research into maximum standardisation, linked to individual
component manufacture, and requires particular attention to problems of precision.
It is advantageous to design spatial trusses with a minimum number of different members; the same criteria should be used
for the nodes. It is common to use members with the same section sizes, independent of their different stress state due to
their location in the structure. For tubular sections, it seems reasonable, however, to keep the same external diameter and
to vary the wall thickness.
Installation methods may cause greater deformations and forces during erection than after completion. The designer
should consider the erection phases when sizing the elements.
4.2 The Structural System
The structural system is characterized by the combination of three main components:
● member
● node
● connection
Members
Hollow sections are essential for a number of reasons. In particular, tubular sections are generally used because of their
large and uniform radius of gyration.
Nodes
The dream of a 'universal' node has not yet been realised. Several parameters govern the design of nodes. Nodes can
be connected mainly by welding, bolting or by special fabrication. Except where pretensioned bolts are used,
bolted connections reduce the resistance of net-sections. Some authorities prefer welding for large spans, even if it is
difficult to guarantee the quality of welds in site. One of the determining factors in the choice of nodes is the number
of members to be assembled. Apart from structural influences on the node itself, this problem is linked to the way the
members are connected to the node and to considerations of space and ease of installation. The regularity of geometry
resulting from the node determines the entire geometry of the structure. Significant progress has been made in this area
through computerisation linking design and fabrication. As a result, it is possible to fabricate nodes by varying the angles
of incidence of the members.
Five 'kinds' of nodes may be identified, Figure 26:

● plate nodes (Figure 26a)

● folded nodes (Figure 26b)
● cast nodes (Figure 26c)
● nodes of extruded aluminium section (Figure 26d)
● special connections with spherical nodes (Figure 26e)
Plated and folded nodes are usually connected to the member ends by means of bolted connections, but also welding can
be done.
The node is a critical element when evaluating the cost of spatial structures: one node for 2,5-3,0m2 would seem to be
an economical solution.
Connections
The node-to-member joining system determines how the ends of the members must be treated. Five processes may
be described, for example, (Figure 27):
● Straight cutting (Figure 27b)

● Profiled cutting (Figure 27c)
● Squashed and drilled (Figure 27d)
● Addition of a connection plate (Figure 27e)
● Special fixing: threading, welding, or bolt crushing (Figure 27a)


It is clear that not all these systems give full strength joints.
4.3 Methods of Fabrication and Erection
Methods used may be listed in three categories:
a. Erection of separate members, each one lifted into position and connected to the work already assembled.
b. Erection of sub-assemblies: this is an intermediate stage whereby the members are connected in sub-assemblies, either in
the factory or on site. The sub-assemblies are lifted into final position and connected to the work already assembled.
c. Lifting of the whole space structure, which is assembled on the ground on site. Various methods may be considered
ranging from the use of vertical construction parts as lifting masts to cranes.
The choice of one of these three methods depends on:
● the nature of the project in terms of type of structure and size.

● operational conditions: actual layout of the site, available means of lifting, transport costs, experience, etc.
● safety.
In a) and b) it is essential to predict the need for any temporary supports that may be necessary where the structure
achieves stability only when it is complete. The many phases in erection should be carefully examined so as to
avoid intermediate structural behaviour which is less favourable than that for the final state of the structure.
Lifting the whole space frame has the following advantages:
● the greater part of the work is carried out on the ground, thus aiding control of the operation, especially the making of
welded joints.
● the use of heavy hoisting machinery is required for a shorter period, which may reduce final costs.
● in some cases, the structure with other equipment attached may be lifted together.
Hoisting is a critical stage in erection. Lifting points should be carefully examined. Lifting should be carried out in the
best meteorological conditions and certainly not in wind. Once in position, the structure should be connected to the

work already erected. Precise regulating devices should be planned in advance in order to facilitate connection and fixing.
The lifting stage can be a determining factor in the design of the structure.
A new approach has been used in Barcelona for the erection of the dome of the Olympic Palace. It involves the fabrication
of the dome on the ground in five portions which are temporarily pinned to each other (Figure 28). The central portion is
then lifted and the remaining segments of the dome locked in the final position.
Different methods of execution may be considered depending on the type of structure and place of installation.
For example, it is possible to carry out assembly using a launching method borrowed from bridge construction, etc. There is
no limit to the list of solutions. The erection method chosen depends on the imagination and know-how of the designer within
a particular context.

● The lecture has been concerned with space roof structures in which members are subject to internal axial forces.
● The structures may take the form of:
⋅ two-dimensional grids.
⋅ cylindrical vaults.
⋅ domes.
● Unsymmetrical patterns of loading must be considered, including combinations of actions that may arise during erection.
● The displacement method of analysis, implemented by computer software, is the most convenient approach to
determine internal forces, displacements of nodes and support reactions.
● Repetition of nodes and members permits the use of standard components and reduces the costs associated with
design, detailing and fabrication.
6. REFERENCES
[1] Makowski, Z.S.: "Structures Spatiales en Acier", Centre Belge-Luxembourgeois d'Information de l'Acier, 1964.
1. Mainstone, R. "Developments in Structural Form", MIT Press 1975.
2. Makowski, Z.S. "Space Frames and Trusses" from Constructional Steel Design, Elsevier Applied Science, 1992.
3. Makowski, Z.S. "Analysis, Design and Construction of Braced Domes". Granada, 1984.
4. Fuller, R.B., Marks, R. "The Dymaxion World of R.B Fuller". Anchor Books 1973.
5. Motro, R. "Optimisation de Structures Spatiales et Application à des Grilles à Double Nappe". Revue du Centre
Technique Industriel de la Construction Métallique. No. 2, Juin 1976, pp. 24-36.
6. Livesley, R.K. "Matrix methods of structural analysis". Pergamon Press, 1964.
7. Tsuboi, Y. "Analysis, Design and Realisation of Space Frames, a state-of-art report". Bulletin de l'IASS n 84/85 Avril,
Août 1984, Volume XXV-1/2.

ESDEP WG 14
Lecture 14.6: Special Single Storey

Structures
OBJECTIVE/SCOPE
To describe less known forms of single storey steel structures, including cable and tension structures.
PREREQUISITES
None
RELATED LECTURES
Lecture 15C.4: Guyed Masts
SUMMARY
The lecture examines some less-common structural systems, not described earlier. Variants on standard forms used
for industrial buildings are briefly described. Cable-stayed and tension structures are described in more detail.
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 General

Most single storey structures are portal or trussed frames, Figure 1. These structural forms have been shown to
provide economic and effective solutions for routine construction. However, alongside these commonplace forms a wide
range of single storey structures have been developed for special applications.
Although the number of special structures is relatively small, they encompass a wide range of structural forms. Many of
these structures result from the need to cover large areas, typically for sports, exhibition, industrial or commercial purposes.
As such, they are characterised by large uninterrupted spans and relatively light imposed loading. They are
frequently lightweight, reflecting their designers' intention to maximise structural efficiency. Structural considerations
are, therefore, to the fore in determining their architectural form.
The lightness of these structures requires close attention to be paid to aspects of structural action and response that are
not significant for more conventional structures. Attention has to be given to dynamic and fatigue effects, to load reversal
and to uplift. In this latter regard, elements primarily designed for tension may need to be braced to resist compressive
forces, and elements may require pretensioning to ensure that stiffness is maintained under reversible or dynamic
loading. Members and connections may require detailing for fatigue. Temperature effects and second order effects relating
to cable extension or relaxation may also need to be considered.
It is convenient to categorise these forms in terms of their structural systems. These include direct-force systems and
mixed systems combining flexural elements with major direct-force components, in addition to systems which exploit
the potential of curved or folded forms. In some cases, the foundations play a more complex role than usual in equilibrating
the force system and in limiting deformations.
It is proposed in this lecture to outline some of the more common systems encountered. Additional material on some of
these topics will be found in Lecture 14.5 on Space Frames, and Lecture 15C.4 on Guyed Masts and Towers. The slides
on special single-storey structures provide a wide range of examples of the application of the principles outlined in this Lecture.
The Lecture commenced with a brief review of some non standard approaches which have been used for industrial buildings
in the past - the saw tooth roof, the umbrella and butterfly roof and the arch roof. The dome is also reviewed.
1.2 Safety
With large-span structures, the consequences of failure are more likely to be catastrophic than is the case for normal
structures and safety therefore merits particularly careful consideration at all stages of the life of the structure. The more
severe consequences of failure can be attributed partly to the large scale and partly to the lack of structural
redundancy encountered in many of the systems adopted for large-span structures. Increased redundancy offers the prospect
of greater stiffness and strength, and the alternative load paths associated with redundancy offer a reduced likelihood of
total collapse. Against this must be balanced the capacity of statically determinate structures to accommodate secondary
effects (shrinkage, creep, relaxation, temperature changes, settlement, lack of fit, etc.) without distress.
Special structures require critical assessment of the applicability of standard loading codes, particularly in regard to
wind. Construction techniques, materials and detailing may be non-conventional and introduce additional uncertainties.
Non-linear effects - relating to material or geometrical factors - may have a bearing on the behaviour and detailing of
the structure. Inspection during construction, and periodic inspection and maintenance of the structure in service, assume
added importance.
2. AN OUTLINE OF OLDER TYPES OF SPECIAL SINGLE

STOREY STRUCTURES
Some of the more interesting types of older, single-storey steel structures are briefly described below. These types have
been used extensively in the past, and although their use today is rather limited because of the development of other
systems, they still have a significant interest for the designer. In certain cases they can still provide satisfactory solutions
from the viewpoints of functionality, economy and aesthetics.
2.1 The Saw-tooth Roof

This structural system (Figure 2) was frequently used in the past, mainly for industrial buildings. Its use is now rather
limited because its main advantage of uniform daylighting into the building, is achieved by new roofing products that
can provide daylighting efficiently through flat roofs, or by artificial lighting. The saw-tooth roof is costly to
construct, wasteful of heat, and requires many internal gutters.

2.2 The Umbrella and Butterfly Roofs
These two structural systems (Figure 3) are conceptually very similar to the saw-tooth roof, and they are used to cover
large floor areas with a minimum of internal columns. It is still common to use this construction in portal frames with,
for example, alternate valley columns omitted (Figure 4).



2.3 Arched Roofs
Arches have long been recognized as being highly efficient and economic structural systems for covering large spans
in buildings (Figure 5).

The main problem of an arch is the thrust developed at its supports. The thrust can be of considerable magnitude for long
spans. It increases as the ratio of rise to span becomes smaller and can be resisted only by appropriate foundations, or by
an arch tie.
Portal frames benefit from arching action, which has led to the use of tied frames (Figure 6). Care has to be taken to design
the rafter against the considerable compressive force that arises. Also the tie member must not buckle if wind uplift
causes reversal of force in this member.
2.4 Prestressed Frames

Prestressing provides an option, if uncommon, for creating a more favourable regime of bending moments in large span
frames, as well as for deflection control (Figure 7).

The additional compressive forces must obviously be taken into consideration in determining the bracing requirements
of members.
2.5 Domes
Domes are three-dimensional structures used to cover buildings with a circular floor plan. Their cross-section may be
spherical, elliptical, parabolic, etc.
Steel framed domes have been extensively used for public assembly buildings such as auditoria, arenas, gymnasia,
exhibition halls, etc.
There are many types of dome (Figure 8). A common type is the ribbed spherical dome which consists of main meridional
ribs and horizontal (parallel) rings. The rings decrease in diameter going from the base to the top of the dome, concluding
with the compression ring at the top. This arrangement, whereby the ribs are stopped at the compression ring instead of
being continuous over the pole, is used practically in all dome designs. It has three advantages. Firstly, it makes possible
the connection of all ribs converging to the same point. Secondly, a large opening is formed which can be used for lighting
and ventilation. Thirdly, the structure becomes statically determinate.

Apart from the compression ring at the top, the primary system of ribs and rings, may be subjected to further modifications.
For example, auxiliary members, such as purlins and diagonal bracings may be added in the plane of the roof surface.
The bracings are usually placed in alternate bays. They are an important aid during erection, which is usually done by
using only one scaffold tower at the centre of the dome.
Another modification concerns the connections between the ribs and rings. Theoretically they should be pinned but in
practice they are moment resisting. Finally, the geometry of the dome is usually modified, so that only the panel points lie
on the true spherical surface. All members between these points are made straight, resulting in considerable fabrication savings.
This type of dome is essentially a direct force structure, its individual members being subjected primarily to axial tension
or compression (membrane action).
For symmetrical loading, the global analysis can be made by simple statics (Figure 9). However this method is invalid
for analysis under unsymmetrical loading. The most important unsymmetrical loading is wind pressure.

Economy depends primarily upon the rise-to-span ratio of the dome, and the number of ribs and rings to be used. A rise-to-
span ratio around 0,13, i.e. when the spherical radius is equal to the dome diameter, provides the maximum structural
economy according to some authors.
3. CABLE AND TENSION STRUCTURES

These structural systems play an interesting role in modern construction and are examined in detail below.
3.1 General
High strength steel cables have been used extensively over the past twenty five years for space roof structures.
There are two different possibilities when using steel cables in roof structures.
The first possibility, consists of using the cables only for suspension of the main roof structure, which can be
either conventional, e.g. beams, cantilevers, etc., or a space frame. In this case, the main roof structure, instead of
being supported, is actually suspended from steel cables above the roof, which transmit the tensile forces to
appropriate anchorages (Figure 10). They are cable-stayed roofs.

There are many examples of this type of construction used as industrial buildings where the roof structure, either as a single
or as a double cantilever, is suspended from cables, which in turn are anchored on robust pylons above the roof level.
In this type of construction, the cables behave as simple suspension elements, while the roof structure itself behaves like
a normal load resisting unit, subject to moments, shears, and other kinds of action effect. It is expected that the
suspending elements remain in tension, even under wind uplift, due to the dead weight of the roof.
The second possibility is represented by those roof structures where the steel cables are effective members of the roof
structure itself, and not just conveyors of forces from the structure to the anchorages. In this type of construction
(tension structures), the cables themselves resist the various external loads. Their particular behaviour has deeply influenced
the structural forms used and has imposed new methods of execution.
Tension structures may be categorised as:
(a) Single-layer cable systems (Figure 11a)

(b) Double-layer prestressed cable truss systems (Figure 11b)
(c) Prestressed tensile membrane systems (Figure 12)

Tension structures are used to cover stadia, arenas, swimming pools, recreation halls and other buildings where a large area
for public assembly and exceptional aesthetic effect are required simultaneously.
There are some particular problems associated with these cable-stayed and tension roof structures.
A first problem derives from the fact that the cable is flexible. It assumes a shape compatible with the applied loads
whilst architectural and building requirements demand that the structure has a definite form. Any deviations from that form
due to the action of the applied loads, must be kept to a minimum. To meet this requirement, a pretension must be
introduced into the structure, which must be compatible with the desired shape, and when combined with the applied
loads, must maintain the deformation between specified limits. Design may therefore involve use of mathematical
'form-finding' procedures, implemented by appropriate software.
Another feature of these structures is their geometrically non-linear behaviour. Deformations play an essential role in
the analysis and the principle of superposition of effects is not valid.
Finally, an important problem associated with these structures is their sensitivity to aerodynamic instability, e.g. flutter.
This sensitivity imposes special requirements on the design and the constructional details of these systems, particularly
those which use membranes made of lightweight fabric as cladding.
The requirements of stiffness under transverse loading and anchorage are major form determinants for cable structures,
and these are examined in the following sections.
3.2 Stiffness Under Transverse Loading
Single cable structures are characterised by their flexibility, Figure 13. They require stiffening to prevent a change of
shape with each variation in load and to make them capable of resisting uplift due to wind, Figure 14. Gusty winds can
produce oscillations, unless damping is provided to the structure.


The principal methods of providing stability are the following:
(i) Additional permanent load supported on, or suspended from, the roof, sufficient to neutralise the effects of
asymmetrical variable actions or uplift Figure 14a).
This arrangement has the drawback that it eliminates the lightweight nature of the structure, adding significant cost to the
entire structure.
(ii) Rigid members acting as beams, where permanent load may not be adequate to counteract uplift forces completely,
but where there is sufficient flexural rigidity to deal with the nett uplift forces, whilst availing of cables to help resist effects
of gravity loading (Figure 14b).

(iii) Rigid surfaces behaving as inverted shells or vaults, where uplift forces are countered by the in-plane compressive
rigidity of the structure (Figure 14c).
(iv) Secondary cables prestressing the main cables so that these remain in tension under all conditions of load.
Such prestressing can take a variety of forms:
⋅ a stayed (guyed) arrangement, wherein the main cable is stayed to other elements or to the ground, as in the case of
guyed trusses (Figure 14d).
⋅ A planar arrangement of suspension and stabilising cables, with opposite curvatures cables, Figure 14e. This structure
reacts elastically to all changes of shape provoked by the externally applied loads. This principle can be extended to
permit creation of space trusses, or structures of revolution.
⋅ An orthogonal or diagonal arrangement of suspension and stabilising cables, with opposite curvatures, forming an
anticlastic (saddle-shaped) surface, Figure 14f and 15.


Figures 14 and 15 show the application of these general principles to cable and cable-stayed systems, whilst Figure 16
details the structural actions of prestressed cable truss systems. Accurately defined, a cable truss system has a
triangulated structural form which increases stiffness, particularly under non-symmetric loading. However, the term is
also frequently applied to the cables with opposite curvature shown in Figure 14e.

The orthogonal or diagonal arrangement of anticlastic cables shown in Figure 15 can also be extended to the conical
form shown in Figure 17. The increasing use of horizontal ring cables, from Figure 17a to 17c enhances stiffness
against asymmetric loading. Because of the difficulty of anchoring a large number of cables at a point, the top is
usually flattened as shown in Figure 17d.

The use of anticlastic cable nets is further enhanced by the use of internal arches, Figure 18. The use of conical forms can
be extended to create exciting doubly curved surfaces by the use of multiple high points and/or interior anchorages, Figure
19. The Pavilion of the Federal Republic of Germany, Expo 1967, Montreal by Frei Alto and Rolf Gutbred was an
outstanding example of the former.


3.3 Anchorage
Cable stayed structures generate a requirement for the anchoring of tension forces. Some of the commoner solutions are:

(i) Vertical and horizontal reactions provided by axially loaded elements - stayed columns used with ground anchors
(Figure 20a).

(ii) Vertical and horizontal reactions provided by flexural elements i.e. cantilever columns (Figure 20b) or legged
columns (Figure 20c).
(iii) Vertical columns acting with horizontally loaded edge beams which transfer horizontal reactions to rigid
diaphragms (Figure 20d).
(iv) Inclined walls, or vertical cylindrically curved walls (Figure 21a).

(v) Form-related boundary shapes, creating, in some cases, a closed self-equilibrating system of tension and compressive
forces and requiring no tension ground anchors (Figure 21b).
The magnitude of forces in stayed columns and in diagonal stay restraining cables is reduced by inclining the columns. In
some symmetrical structures lateral thrust is balanced by means of struts at foundation level.
Some tension anchorage possibilities are illustrated in Figure 22.


4. ADDITIONAL SPECIAL STRUCTURE CATEGORIES
4.1 Hangars
Cantilever construction is used extensively for large hangars, the column free interior and facade permitting the required
ease of access and flexibility of use. Sliding doors around the perimeter are vertically supported on rollers at ground level
and laterally supported by the roof structure. The deflection of the cantilever roof structure must be allowed for on the design
of the doors.
Single or double cantilever systems may be used. In the single cantilever system, substantial foundations must be provided
to counteract the overturning moment. With symmetrical double cantilever systems, the permanent loads on either side of
the central block balance each other. The central block which frequently contains offices and circulation areas, may be used
to counteract the effects of unsymmetrical loading.
In regard to the composition of the cantilever, roof structures may be categorised as follows:
(a) Pure cantilever systems, formed of varying-depth trusses, girders, folded plates and shells (Figure 23a).


(b) Cable supported structures, supporting any of the above structures types (Figure 23b).
In addition to gravity loading and temperature effects, the roof structure is exposed to wind loading on its upper and
lower surfaces. In the case of cable-stayed structures, particular attention must be paid to uplift.
● Standard industrial forms can be varied to provide structures capable of spanning considerable distances.
● Curved forms, arches or domes, provide further possibilities.
● Cable staying extends the spanning possibilities of conventional trusses or truss frames.
● Tensile structures open up a large repertoire of dynamic structural possibilities for medium to large-span structures.
● Tensile structures may be planar or anticlastic, membrane or cable net structures.
1. Duncan, I., "Other Structural Applications of Steel", Chapter 5 - Steel Designers Manual, 5th ed., Blackwell
Scientific Publications, Oxford, 1992.
2. Schlaich, J., "Cable and Membrane Structures for Buildings", Paper presented at Conference on Tension Structures,
IStructE, London, 1988.
3. Bergermann, R., "Cable Membrane Roof for the Arena in Zaragoza, Spain", Structural Engineering International, Vol 2 No
4, pp 238-241, IABSE, Zurich, 1992.
4. Krijgsman, A., "Design of Economical Large Spans": The Heerenveen Skating Rink and the Arnhem Burgers Bush,
Delft University of Technology, Netherlands.
5. Bascialla, E., "New Roof for the G Meazze Football Stadium, Italy, Construzioni Metalliche, February 1991, pp 8-21.
6. Morley, S., "A Stadium for the Nineties, Steel Construction Today, Vol 5, No. 4, July 1991.
7. Lau, J. M., "Design and Construction of a Cable-Stayed Steel Roof Structure for Yishin Indoor Stadium and Sports
Complex", Paper presented at International Conference on Steel and Aluminium Structures, ICSAS, Singapore, May 1991.
8. Finzi, L., "Football Stadiums in Italy", IABSE Structures, Zurich, 1990.
9. "Olympics, Barcelona 1992: Barcelona - A City Regenerated", The Architectural Review Feature, August 1992, London.
10. Lan, T. T., "Space Structures for Sports Buildings", Proceedings of the International Colloquium, Beijing, China,
October 1987, London, Elsevier Applied Science.

ESDEP WG 14
Lecture 14.7: Anatomy of Multi-Storey

Buildings
OBJECTIVE/SCOPE
To describe the different functions accommodated by multi-storey buildings and to present the various building elements.
PRE-REQUISITES
Lecture 4A.3: Practical Corrosion Protection for Buildings
RELATED LECTURES
Lecture 14.11: Influence of Connections on Behaviour of Frames

Lecture 14.12: Simplified Method for Low-Rise Frames
Lectures 14.15: Tall Building Design
SUMMARY
This lecture describes the anatomy of multi-storey buildings.
The range of building types in this category is described.
The anatomy of a typical building is described by considering the individual elements of structure, finishes and services.
1. INTRODUCTION
Multi-storey steel-framed buildings can accommodate a wide range of functions and architectural treatment.
The term multi-storey refers to structures with more than one storey and covers building used for many different
purposes including:
● Apartments
● Office developments
● Shopping centres
● Car parks
● Schools and universities
● Hospitals
Although the basic anatomy of each building is similar, they may have different requirements for column grid, services,
and internal/external finishes.
For example, a car park may be designed with floors of moderate spans and will have minimal requirements for
cladding, finishes and services, whereas a prestige office development may need large column free areas with air
conditioning and under-floor cabling for computers.

The structure will generally be more economic if large-spans are avoided, hence providing a shorter path between the point
of application of loads and the ground.
The speed and economy of construction can also be increased by the large degree of vertical and/or horizontal
repetition common in the structural systems of multi-storey buildings.
The individual contributions of major components to the overall building cost can vary significantly with building
function, size and architectural treatment. However they are generally within the indicative ranges given below:
Foundations 5% to 10%
Steel Skeleton 10% to 20%
Floor Structure 5% to 10%
Cladding/Finishes 15% to 40%
Services 15% to 40%
2. PRIMARY STRUCTURE
The structural frame is provided to transmit vertical and horizontal loads from their point of application to the foundations
by the most efficient path with the minimum impact on the economy and function of the other elements of the building.
2.1 Vertical Load-Bearing Elements
Figure 1 illustrates the principal structural elements of a typical multi-storey building.


2.1.1 Floors
The floor slab usually spans one way and is, either simply supported or continuous. It is supported by 'secondary' steel
beams, typically at 2,5m to 3,5m centres. Several different types of slab can be used, most of which can be designed to
act compositely with the supporting beams if adequate shear connection is provided.
The system illustrated in Figure 2 is commonly used, where a concrete topping (lightweight or dense) is cast in-situ on
profiled steel decking acting as permanent formwork and reinforcement to the concrete. Steel bars are included in the slab
to prevent cracking and to provide reinforcement in the event of degradation of the decking in a fire.

This form of slab construction is particularly popular for multi-storey buildings where rapid construction is required.
The demands on cranage are low as many sheets of steel decking may be lifted at a time and the concrete topping may
be placed by pump. For spans up to about 3,5m temporary propping may not be required.
The steel decking is available in a number of different profiles, many of which include systems for supporting services below.
The overall weight of this system is low leading to possible economies in the supporting frame and foundations, particularly
if lightweight concrete topping is used. It is however relatively expensive and not suitable for situations where a ceiling is
not required.
Other types of floor slab construction can offer advantages in certain circumstances where, for example, speed of
construction and cranage are not problems, or a larger span is required.
In-situ concrete, cast on temporary formwork, either reinforced or pre-tensioned is suitable for larger two-way spans and
where a smooth soffit finish is needed.
Precast concrete units also provide a smooth soffit and some of the different types available are illustrated in Figure 3.
These systems require more cranage and on-site storage space than profiled steel sheet, but they can be used for larger spans.

Timber floors are not common in steel buildings.
A new floor system, so-called 'Slim Floor', has been developed during the 1980's and early 1990's. It is used for long
span slabs, allowing for the elimination of secondary beams (Figure 4). The primary beam has a typical built-up cross-
section, which is designed in order to directly support the floor slab on the bottom flange (see Figure 5a). According to
the different systems produced in Europe, distribution can be made between open and closed sections (Figure 5b); in
particular types 1, 2, 3, 4 are open, single-symmetric I beams, types 5, 6, 7 are closed top-hat beams, type 8 is open top-
hat beams.


Steel beams are integrated with in-situ concrete, providing composite action.
Typical dimensions for 'Slim Floor' are the following:
Floor Beam Slab

(Beam) Span Span
Depth
200 5m 7m
mm
260 7m 9m
mm
2.1.2 Structural frame
The floor slab is normally supported by 'secondary' steel beams, spanning between 'primary' beams which are in turn
supported by the columns. Bays of the frame are normally rectangular with the secondary beams spanning the
greater dimension. For long-span slab systems the secondary beams are sometimes omitted, as for example in the 'Slim
Floor' system illustrated in Figure 4.
Shear studs are welded to the top flange of both primary and secondary beams to provide composite action between the
beams and the concrete slab. The slab then acts as the compression flange to the beams for loading applied after the slab
has matured. When profiled steel decking is used, the studs are often welded through the decking after it has been placed.
Column spacing depends on building function, but is usually between 5m and 10m. Closer centred columns may be used in
an external 'tube' stability system for a tall building as described later (see Section 2.2.3).
The simplest and hence normally most economic system, is for both primary and secondary beams to be rolled I-sections in
the same horizontal plane, designed as simply-supported, and with simple bolted connections between them and to the columns.
The steel skeleton must be protected against fire. Typical solutions of protection are shown in Figure 6. Columns filled
with cast concrete can be designed for composite action (Figure 6a). Beams can be protected in different ways (Figure 6b):
by sprayed vermiculite, by concrete encasement, by filled concrete or by box-shaped cladding.

In most buildings, the need to accommodate services has a major effect on the design of the floor system. In an office
building, the office floor areas may have air-conditioning ducting, pipes for fire sprinklers, and cabling for electrics,
telephones and computers distributed horizontally above and/or below the floor from risers in service cores. The major
services are normally under-floor in zones up to 500mm deep, with electric and communication services above within
raised floor zones up to 200mm deep. The cores may also house toilets, lifts and stairs, with their requirements for
water, sewerage and ventilation.
In most cases it is possible to provide separate service zones below and/or above the floor structure. Buildings with large
spans and/or restrictions on storey height will require a different design approach.

Holes may have to be cut in webs of the beams to accommodate services, a costly operation, or one of the systems illustrated
in Figure 7 may be adopted:

● A dual-plane grillage system, where the secondary beams run over the primaries, allows two-way service distribution with
the structural zone. This system provides continuous construction in both directions if twin primaries are supported by
brackets on each side of the columns. Composite action can normally only be between the secondary beams and the slab, but
if 'stub-girders' are welded to the top flange of the primaries, it is provided in both directions.
● Services may be accommodated near the supports whilst maintaining mid-span bending resistance for simply-
supported primary or secondary beams if they are notched at their ends, or tapered in depth. As tapered beams are
fabricated from plate, they can have smaller top flanges for composite action, and can also be tapered in plan.
● Haunched beams can provide a service zone at mid-span and may be appropriate in situations where sway frames are used.
● Trusses and castellated beams naturally allow the passage of services, larger services being accommodated in trusses if
the bracing is omitted at mid-span.
It may not be possible to maintain uniform column spacing at all levels of the building. For example, column-free space may
be required at ground floor for a conference area. 'Transfer' beams or trusses can be provided to transmit the loads from
above to adjacent columns. They may alternatively be at a higher level, with floors below suspended from hangers (Figure 8).


The columns are supported at their base by foundations. Several different foundation types can be used to support multi-
storey buildings, the selection for a particular case being dependent on column load, soil resistance and settlement limitations.
The most common types of foundations, illustrated in Figure 9, are:
● 'Pad Footings', where an individual base of mass or reinforced concrete is provided under each column is the simplest
option, where the supporting ground is good.
● For greater loads, or poor ground, the individual pads may be connected to form a continuous 'Raft'. This system may
also provide improved resistance to water.
● Alternatively, where ground conditions are poor the load carrying capacity of the individual pads or raft may be increased
by installing piles to create individual 'Pile Caps' or a 'Piled Raft'.

2.2 Horizontal Load-Bearing Elements
Although the primary function of the structure is to support vertical loads, it must incorporate a lateral stability system to
resist horizontal forces, which commonly are wind loads and, in some countries, earthquakes.
Some typical systems are illustrated in Figures 10 and 11, where steel bracings and reinforced concrete cores are used
as stabilizing elements, respectively.



2.2.1 Braced systems
Staircases and lifts (provided for access and escape), toilets, plant rooms and risers for heating, air-conditioning, electrical
and public health services, each require penetrations through, and support from, the floor structure of the building. They
are usually located together to form one or more 'service cores'.
The resulting walls, required for compartmentation and fire separation, may be used to as the lateral stability elements of
the structure. Possible forms of construction include:
● Conventional in-situ reinforced concrete shear-walls or cores

● Slip-formed or jump-formed reinforced concrete shear walls or cores
● Braced steel frame
● Stiffened steel plate walls.
Concrete walls can lead to longer construction periods, unless systems such as slip-forming are adopted which allow the
core construction to proceed in advance of the erection of the steel frame. Steel to concrete connections can lead to problems
if cast-in fixings are out of tolerance.
Braced steel frames which are erected at the same time as the other elements of the frame, are most commonly used.
Bracing geometry is normally concentric (see Figure 12), allowing the use of simple connections. Eccentric bracing
requiring bending resistance in the sections and joints may sometimes be used, however, to allow for increased openings.
They can also provide major ductility, when required for seismic resistant structures.

All stability systems use the floor plate as a diaphragm to transfer lateral loads from their point of application to the
bracing elements, as illustrated in Figure 13. The designer should ensure that the floor is capable of performing this function.
The bracing system must ensure lateral stability in two main directions and also torsional stability. The correct location of
such elements is a fundamental pre-requisite in the bracing system design (see Figure 14).


For long floors without expansion joints, the designer should avoid longitudinal walls at both ends of the building, as they
will restrict thermal movements, and hence attract large forces.
Bracing systems provide the most economical solution for medium rise multi-storey buildings (see Section 2.2.2).
2.2.2 Frame systems
Alternatively, stability can be provided by moment resisting frames formed by some or all of the columns and intersecting
floor beams, as illustrated in Figure 15.

These systems, which may be designed as either 'Rigid' or 'Semi-rigid' frames, which can sometimes offer advantages in
terms of increased flexibility of internal layout, are described in detail in Lectures 14.13 and 14.14.
2.2.3 Tall buildings
Some examples of stability systems used for tall buildings are illustrated in Figure 16.


A combination of core and frame systems is common. Advantage can be taken of closely-spaced external mullions framed
by relatively deep spandrels between windows acting together to form a 'Perforated Tube'.
'Outrigger Frames', where the central core is connected at one or more levels to the external columns with deep trusses
may also be used. The diagram of Figure 16 illustrates how the bending moment in the core is reduced when this system
is adopted. Further discussion on tall building design is included in Lecture 14.15.
3. SECONDARY ELEMENTS AND FINISHES

Figure 17 shows a section through a typical floor deck. The surface treatment applied to the concrete slab will depend on
the flooring system required.

Power floating provides a smooth finish ready for carpets or tiles. A trowelled finish is suitable if a raised floor is to
be installed to accommodate electrical and computer services. The surface is tamped to provide a key if a concrete screed is
to be applied.
A false ceiling can conceal air-conditioning duct-work and other services suspended from the floor.
Staircase flights and half landings are normally prefabricated in steel or precast concrete for economy and ease of
construction, but they may also be constructed of reinforced concrete.
Toilet modules may also be prefabricated and supplied to site in an enclosure complete with all fixtures, fittings, services
and finishes.
A variety of external finishes may be used. Common facade treatments which may be supported by the steel frame include:
● Masonry panels.
● Precast concrete panels.
● Curtain walling.
● Prefabricated steel/aluminium cladding panels.
The chosen cladding system must perform a number of different functions for each building type. For a car park it must
be robust and provide natural ventilation, whereas, in an office building, it must be water-tight and provide adequate
insulation and natural light without excessive solar gain. For tall buildings it must be able to be installed and
maintained without the need for scaffolding. In all cases, it must be capable of accommodating the movements of the
building frame and of satisfying the aesthetic requirements of the architecture.
Roofs may be flat or sloping, and clad with a variety of materials to provide insulation and waterproofing.
4. PERFORMANCE REQUIREMENTS
All elements of the structure should be designed by considering the ultimate and serviceability limit states at which they
would become unfit for their intended use. Limit states are considered in Lecture 14.9.
● This lecture has described the anatomy of typical multi-storey steel-framed buildings. The most suitable system for a
particular building is that which satisfies the performance requirements with the minimum adverse effects on:
⋅ Cost of construction
⋅ Speed of construction
⋅ Interference with services
⋅ Maintenance costs
⋅ Architecture.
6. REFERENCES
[1] Hart, F., Henn, W. and Sontag, H.: "Multi-Storey Building in Steel" (second edition), Collins, London, 1982.
1. Ballio, G. and Mazzolani, F.M.: "Theory and Design of Steel Structures", Chapman & Hall, London, 1983.
2. Iyengar, S. H., Baker, W. F. and Sinn, R.: "Multi-Storey Buildings", from Constructional Steel Design, Elsevier, London, 1992.

ESDEP WG 14
Lecture 14.8: Classification of Multi-Storey

Frames
OBJECTIVE/SCOPE:
To provide definitions that make it possible to point out the essential characteristics of a framed structure. Attention is given
to joint behaviour and to the problem of the choice of structural model depending on the loads acting on the structure.
PREREQUISITES
RELATED LECTURES

SUMMARY
The following subjects are discussed:
● Bracing systems
● Framed systems
● Braced and unbraced frames
● Sway and non-sway frames.
In particular the differences between braced and unbraced frames are analysed as well as the differences between sway and
non-sway frames. The different behaviour of connections of structural members (girders, columns and bracings) is
considered, in order to define the behaviour of rigid and semi-rigid frames.
1. INTRODUCTION
Before discussing rigid jointed frames, some definitions are introduced since the same meaning is not always associated
with the same words in different countries. It is necessary sometimes also to define the structure in a particular manner in
order to use conventional simplified analytical models in the analysis and design of the structure.
The evolution of computer methods and hardware in fact allows any type of analytical evaluation, e.g. elastic and
inelastic analysis including any type of inelastic model and of imperfection, to be undertaken. It might be said therefore that
it is not necessary to go through definition of systems and to simplify models of analysis. For a braced frame, for example, it
is not necessary to separate frame and bracing behaviour since both can be analysed with one computer model. On the
other hand, simple models are useful for preliminary design and for checking computer results in the design office.
The definitions below describe what is meant by a bracing system, what a framed system represents and when a framed
system can be considered to be braced by another system. Sway and non-sway frames are defined. An explanation of why
a braced frame is often considered equivalent to a non-sway frame is given.
In all these cases the following steps are followed:
● first the common practice and what is commonly intended with that definition is described.
● secondly an engineering definition which attempts to provide a quantitative measure for that definition is given
● finally the definition provided by Eurocode 3 [1] is explained.

2. BRACING SYSTEMS
2.1 Introduction
In common design practice and in design guides and manuals, bracing systems are very often identified with
triangulated trusses or with concrete cores or shear walls which are present in buildings to accommodate shafts and
staircases. It is very common to find bracing systems represented as shown in Figure 1.

This assumption is based on engineering common sense which tends to represent reality in an average sense without
referring to more general and mathematical definitions which would include all the possible cases.
The simplification of representing a bracing system by a triangulated truss also arises because in steel structures, in contrast
to concrete structures where all the joints are naturally continuous, the most immediate way of making connections
between members is to hinge one member to the other. As a result structures are created which need bracing systems in order
to prevent failure mechanisms forming. Based on this simplifying consideration, all the joints of Figure 1 can be assumed to
be hinged. Therefore bracing can only be obtained by use of triangulated trusses or concrete cores or, exceptionally, by a
very strong frame.
There are several reasons for having hinged connections in the steel system:
a. from the point of view of ease of fabrication and erection, it is more convenient simply to join the webs of the
members without connecting the flanges.
b. it is simpler to use bolted connections which do not need the deformations in the connections to be minimised.
c. from the design point of view there is a dramatic simplification in the calculations if the resisting systems can be
separated into systems resisting vertical actions and systems resisting horizontal actions. In addition, if all the girders
are hinged to the columns, the sizing of the simply supported girders and the columns is a simple task.
d. from the economic point of view, it is more convenient to reduce the horizontal drift by means of bracing systems added
to the hinged construction than to use framed systems with rigid jointed connections. This consideration is even more
important for steel structures with reinforced concrete cores where the core itself can act as the bracing system.
In conclusion, a topological definition of a bracing system equates a bracing system to a triangulated truss or to a shear
wall. This definition covers the majority of actual cases but is not sufficient to clarify the function of a bracing system. For
this purpose a definition based on the requirements of a bracing system is provided below.
A bracing system can be defined as a structural system capable of resisting horizontal actions and limiting
horizontal deformations. On the basis of this definition, all the systems shown in Figure 2 can be considered bracing
systems. Within one building more than one of these systems can be present. In that case some systems are more effective
than others in resisting horizontal loads, the others are neglected.
The definition allows a simple frame, and even a column, to be considered as a bracing system. The column or the frame
may not have enough strength or stiffness to resist the horizontal actions with reasonable sizing of its members (columns
and girders) and then to satisfy the strength and serviceability checks which require limited interstorey and global drifts. In
this case it is necessary to add other bracing systems to the frame itself.
When the words "bracing system" are used in the Eurocode, they refer to a system for preventing lateral instability of beams
or compression members and a triangulated truss is shown as an example, see Fig. 5.2.5 of Eurocode 3 [1].
According to 5.2.5.1 bracing systems may be triangulated frames, rigid-jointed frames or shear walls/cores, see Figure 2.
3. FRAMED SYSTEMS
3.1 Introduction
In common practice, (continuous) framed systems are considered to be assemblies of beams and columns in which all the
joints are completely continuous. In contrast truss or simple framed systems are those in which all the joints can be
considered hinged.
A purely rigid jointed frame system is characterised by joints between frame members and by no additional bracing
system. The frame itself has to resist all the actions, vertical as well as horizontal. At the same time, it has to provide
the required stiffness to the structure in order to limit deformations within the allowable values. Even though the detailing of
all the connections results in a less economic structure, framed systems have some benefits:
a. the connections are more ductile and therefore the structure performs better in earthquakes.
b. from the architectural and functional points of view, it can be advantageous not to have any triangulated truss in the structure.
Actual structures do not always fall into the two categories defined above. Connections themselves actually behave
semi-rigidly and therefore the hinged and framed conditions are only idealisations. An engineering definition is needed
to define when a semi-rigid connection can be assumed to be hinged and when it can be assumed to be rigid.
The practice in different countries in the design of connections and framed systems varies. The approaches used are different
in different parts of the world. In some countries, e.g. USA, the concept of semi-rigid connections dates back to the
1930's when the first studies on semi-rigid riveted connections were carried out by Johnston. In these countries also the
code allows the use of semi-rigid connections (type 3 connections) and introduces the concept of wind design (type
2 connections). In wind design the connection is assumed to be capable of transmitting only part of the bending
moments (those due to the wind and not those due to vertical loads).
The approach of semi-rigid connections, in use for several years, is also adopted, for example, in UK, Australia, Canada,
and Netherlands. In other countries, e.g. Italy, France, Spain, Greece, these concepts have not been introduced and
therefore semi-rigid connections are not widely adopted although they are included in Eurocode 3 [1].
To determine whether a system can be considered continuously framed or not, the effects of the connection on the
frame behaviour has to be considered, taking into account that the ideal condition of hinged or rigid connection does
not correspond to reality. These effects are not for immediate evaluation since the behaviour of the frame can be
different depending on what is being considered:

● vertical load-carrying resistance.

● horizontal load-carrying resistance.
● stability.
● performance in seismic situations.
In some cases the strength of the connection is the important consideration whilst in other cases the flexibility of the
connection plays a major role. Sometimes the elastic behaviour of the connection is sufficient to determine its effects on
the behaviour of the frame whilst in other cases the complete inelastic behaviour of the connection is needed for
evaluating frame effects.
These cases cannot be fully covered in this lecture. Study of the other Lectures 14 will give a more complete view of
the different aspects. In recent years this subject has been given much attention from research devoted either to the
analytical and to the experimental aspects. In the remainder of this lecture the effects on frame behaviour are described
and some indicative values for connection characteristics are suggested as a basis for assuming a system as a rigidly
jointed frame.
A connection between two or more different members has to transmit all the internal actions through the members, i.e.
axial load, shear load and bending moment in the case of a plane frame.
However, the term "semi-rigid connection" is only used to refer to the bending flexibility in the discussion below.
In Figure 3, taken from [4], connection behaviour is shown qualitatively by definition of the regions in which the
connection can be assumed as hinged flexible or semi-rigid. This qualitative representation suggests that fully
welded connections, extended end plate, and top and bottom flange splices could be considered as rigid restraints.

The results of computer analyses for portal and multi-storey frames with semi-rigid connections, with respect to the
elastic critical load of the frame, are given in [5].

For partial strength semi-rigid connections, some results [5] indicate that, for rigid jointed frames, within the ranges
indicated before, some degree of flexibility can be allowed, but no partial strength is advised. Partial strength connections
are considered to be within the semi-rigid or flexible range.
In Eurocode 3 [1] it is first stated, within the Design Assumptions (5.2.2), that:
"the assumptions made in the global analysis of the structure shall be consistent with the anticipated type of behaviour of
the connections".
Then, in 5.2.2.2, simple framing is defined for frames where the connections between the members may be assumed not
to develop moments. In the global analysis, members may be assumed to be effectively pin connected.
Further, in 5.2.2.3, when continuous framing is defined, it is stated that:
"Elastic analysis should be based on the assumption of full continuity, with rigid connections which satisfy the
requirements given in 6.4.2.2".
The same statement is given for the other methods suggested for the analysis, i.e rigid plastic and elasto-plastic. These
methods are discussed further in Lecture 14.14.
In 6.4.2.2, when rigid connections are defined, the following principle is given:
"A rigid connection shall be so designed that its deformation has no significant influence on the distribution of internal
forces and moments in the structure, nor on its overall deformation".
The application rules provided state:
"The deformation of rigid connections should be such that they do not reduce the resistance of the structure by more than 5%".
When beam-to-column connections are classified, in 6.9.6.2 first it is stated that:
"A beam-to-column connection may be classified as rigid or nominally pinned on the basis of particular or
general experimental evidence, or significant experience of previous satisfactory performance in similar cases or by
calculation based on test evidence".
Then, the following is suggested as an application rule:
"A beam-to-column connection in a braced frame, or in an unbraced frame which satisfies the condition specified in (5),
may be considered to be rigid compared to the connected beam, if the rising portion of its moment characteristics lies above
the solid line on the appropriate diagram of Fig. 6.9.8. of Eurocode 3" (Figure 4).

This rule suggests that, in order to have the moment-rotation curve of the connection lying above the solid line, it has to
result, for values of < 2/3 (which means for values of the moment M smaller than 67% of the plastic beam moment MplRd),
K has to be greater than 25. In fact (see definitions in Figure 4):
K= > 25
This value of 25 guarantees the stiffness characteristic of the connection. Some other requirements are also given in order
to ensure sufficient strength. The fact that the entire moment-rotation curve has to be above the solid line indicates that
the entire nonlinear curve of the connection is to be checked.
The further requirement for unbraced frames, given in Clause (5) of 6.9.6.2 of Eurocode 3, discussed below, is
somewhat cumbersome. The meaning of this requirement is that, for unbraced frames, the beams must have an
adequate stiffness otherwise the frame will be too flexible, even with rigid connections. This consideration is obvious for
an engineer who knows which typology to choose for each case. However, since all the serviceability and ultimate limit
states have to be satisfied, this requirement might be considered automatically fulfilled.
Clause (5) states:
"The line given in Figure 6.9.8(a) (Figure 4 of this lecture) for unbraced frames may be used only for frames in which
every storey satisfies:
Kb / Kc > 0,1
where Kb is the mean value of Ib/Lb for all the beams at the top of that storey
Kc is the mean value of Ic/Lc for all the columns in that storey

Ib is the second moment of area of a beam
Ic is the second moment of area of a column
Lb is the span of beam
Lc is the storey height of a column.
4. BRACED AND UNBRACED FRAMES
4.1 Introduction
In Section 2 the requirements of a bracing system are described and a common definition is given. Sometimes the
term "bracing system" is inappropriately identified with the term "braced frame". It is clear that the definitions of the two
terms are different. The word "braced" in the second case is used as an adjective to the word "frame" and therefore at least
two structures have to be identified: a bracing and a frame.
A braced frame is commonly intended as a frame to which a triangulated truss is attached. The fact that in reality there is
no clear cut distinction between hinged structures with bracing systems and purely rigid jointed framed structures calls for
a more exact definition which allows distinctions to be made between:
● purely hinged bracing systems.

● rigid jointed framed systems.
● semi-rigid frames.
● braced frames.
For the first three types reference should be made to Sections 2 and 3 above. The definition of braced frames is
discussed below.
The main function of a bracing system is: to resist horizontal actions, and is derived from the separation of the
resisting systems: vertical and horizontal. In some cases the vertical system also has some capability to resist horizontal

actions. It is necessary therefore, from an engineering point of view, to identify the two sources of resistance and to
compare their behaviour with respect to the horizontal actions. Sometimes this identification is not obvious since the bracing
is integral within the frame and therefore there is only one structure. However, even in this case, it is possible to make
some assumptions in order to define the two structures to be compared. The examples given below clarify these concepts.
Figures 5 and 6 represent structures in which it is easy to define, within one system, two sub-assemblies which identify
the bracing system and the system to be braced. In particular, a structure is shown in Figure 5 where there is a clear
separation of functions: the horizontal loads are carried by the first hinged sub-assembly (A) and the vertical loads are
carried out by the second one (B). In Figure 6, in contrast, since the second sub-assembly (B) is able to resist horizontal
actions as well as vertical actions, it is necessary to assume that practically all the horizontal actions are carried by the first
sub-assembly (A) in order to define this system as braced. In this case the first sub-assembly is defined as a bracing system
if its lateral stiffness expressed by the spring constant Ka is considerably higher than the one of the second sub-assembly Kb
(in this case a braced frame or system):

Ka » Kb (1)
This relation can be easily applied to the system of Figure 5 since the constant Kb is equal to zero and therefore the relation
is certainly satisfied. For the system in Figure 6, the stiffnesses of both sub-assemblies have to be calculated and compared.
The following definition is provided in 5.2.5.3 of Eurocode 3 [1]:
"the frame can be classified as braced if the bracing system reduces its horizontal displacement by at least 80%"
which means that the stiffness of the two systems have to be compared and the following relationship satisfied:
Ka > 0,8 (Ka + Kb)
or
Ka > 4 Kb

5. SWAY AND NON-SWAY FRAMES
5.1 Introduction
Before defining sway frames and non-sway frames, it is useful to note the common design practice for evaluating safety
of structures against stability. It is often convenient to isolate the columns from the frame and treat the stability of columns
and the stability of frames as independent problems. For this purpose it is assumed the columns are restricted at their ends
from horizontal displacements and therefore are only subjected to end moments and axial loads as transferred from the frame.
It is then assumed that the frame, possibly by means of a bracing system, satisfies global stability checks and that the
global stability of the frame does not affect the column behaviour. This gives the commonly assumed non-sway frame.
This approach has led to years of research spent in the field of behaviour of columns and beam-columns.
Design books, guidance documents, and even codes and recommendations, when speaking of stability of columns or
stability of frames, commonly use the terms: "sway frames", "non-sway frames", "sway restricted columns" and
"sway columns". To explain the concept of sway, as opposed to non-sway, figures such as Figures 7 and 8 are used. The
frame of Figure 7 is considered to be the non-sway type and the one of Figure 8 is considered to be the sway type. This form
of representation, which is based on common practice and common engineering sense, leads to the erroneous assumption
that non-sway frames and braced frames are perfectly equivalent and therefore that one definition can be used instead of
the other without causing any misunderstanding.


The equivalence between "braced" and "non-sway" frames cannot be established in general since the two terms refer
to different aspects of the behaviour of the structure. The fact that the definitions of "sway" and "non-sway" appears when
the problem of stability of columns and frames is evaluated suggests that these definitions are part of a simpler treatment of
this problem.
The concept of braced and unbraced frames can be defined in engineering terms by means of comparison of the stiffness of
the systems, as in previous sections, and has no straightforward implications for stability. The concept of sway frames is
not intrinsic to the structure: it is based only on its mechanical properties.
In fact the seismic meaning of the term "non-sway frame" has no real significance. It is only valid in an "engineering"
sense. There is no structure, braced or unbraced, in which there are no sway displacements. The displacements can only
be small enough, for particular design purposes, to be considered equal to zero in an engineering sense.
Another reason for defining "sway" and "non-sway frames" is the need to adopt conventional analysis in which all the
internal actions are computed on the basis of the undeformed shape of the structure. To make this assumption it is
necessary that second order effects are negligible, i.e. no significant moments arise due to the action of vertical loads on
the deformed shape of the structure. This definition can be shown to be equivalent to the previous one since the vertical
design loads cause no significant moments if their value is not close to the elastic critical load of the structure.
When there is interaction between global and column behaviour, it is not possible to isolate the column. The column or
the frame then has to be assumed to be the "sway" type. Unfortunately, research has been limited in this field and
therefore extrapolation of the same procedures already used for non-sway frames to sway frames has been used. As a
result inaccuracies occur also due to the fact that the actual behaviour is inelastic and is therefore affected by all types
of imperfections, i.e. cross-section, column and frame imperfections. In addition the inelasticity in the columns prevents the
use of the familiar concept of "effective length". The design of sway frames has to consider the structure as a whole.
On the basis of those considerations, the following definitions can be established for sway and non-sway frames:
A non-sway frame is a structure which, from the points of view of stability and the definition of the internal action, can
be considered to have small interstorey displacements. Therefore column buckling is independent by frame buckling, i.e.
the problems can be uncoupled. This definition will be true if the safety factor against overall buckling is sufficiently large
that global buckling can be neglected when carrying out the check against column buckling. On the basis of this definition, it
is clearly that to be a non-sway frame is not a characteristic intrinsic of the frame since the safety factor against critical
load depends on the magnitude of the design vertical loads acting on the structure.
Whilst it is possible to define whether a frame is braced or not by evaluating the stiffness of its members, in order to
evaluate whether a frame is the non-sway type, i.e. second order effects can be neglected, the design vertical loads have to
be known. This is understandable since even a very flexible structure has no second order effects if the vertical loads
are practically equal to zero.
The definition provided by 5.2.5.3 of Eurocode 3 [1] is:

"A frame can be classified as non-sway if its response to in-plane horizontal forces is sufficiently stiff for it to be
acceptably accurate to neglect any additional internal forces or moments arising from horizontal displacements of its nodes".
Examination of this definition does not immediately reveal the relation between sway and instability. However, the
Eurocode also provides the following application rule:
"A frame may be classified as non-sway for a given load case if the elastic critical load ratio Vsd/Vcr for that load case
where Vsd is the design value of the total vertical load
and Vcr is its elastic critical value for failure in a sway mode."
This application rule confirms that the definition of a frame as non-sway depends on the vertical loads. Furthermore
it establishes that a safety factor against overall buckling equal to 10 is enough for considering the problem uncoupled
from column buckling.
● Some definitions have been provided in order to clarify the meaning of words which sometimes are inappropriately used
or referred to different structures.
● The importance of introducing sway and non-sway frames and the implications on design and analysis have been given.
7. REFERENCES
[1] Eurocode No. 3: "Design of Steel Structures": ENV 1993-1-1: Part 1.1: General Rule and Rules for Buildings, CEN, 1992.
[2] Astaneh, A., Demand and supply of ductility in steel shear connections, Journal of Constructional Steel Research, vol.
14, 1989.

[3] Cosenza, E., DeLuca, A., Faella, C., Nonlinear behaviour of framed structures with semi-rigid joints,
Costruzioni Metalliche, 199-211. 1984.
[4] Cosenza, E., DeLuca, A., Faella, C., Inelastic buckling of semi-rigid sway frames, Structural connections: stability
and strength, London, Elsevier Applied Science, 1989.
[5] Cosenza, E., DeLuca, A., Faella, C., Elastic buckling of semi-rigid sway frames, Structural connections: stability
and strength, London, Elsevier Applied Science, 1989.
1. Ballio, G. and Mazzolani, F.M. Theory and Design of Steel Structures, Chapman & Hall, London, 1983.
2. Davison, J.B. and Nethercot, D.A. Overview of connection behaviour, Structural connections: stability and strength,
London, Elsevier Applied Science, 1989.
3. Dowling, P.J., Knowles, P.R., Owens, G.W., Structural Steel Design, Butterworths, London, 1988.
4. Galambos, T.V. Guide to Stability Design Criteria for Metal Structures, 4th Edition, John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1988.

L1409
ESDEP WG 14
Lecture 14.9: Methods of Analysis for

Multi-Storey Frames
OBJECTIVE/SCOPE
To present the factors which are taken into account in the analysis of multi-storey buildings, and the methods which can
be adopted.
PRE-REQUISITES
Lectures 5: Computer Aided Design and Manufacture
RELATED LECTURES
Lecture 14.7: Anatomy of Multi-Storey Buildings
Lecture 14.13: Design of Multi-Storey Frames with Partial Strength & Semi-Rigid Connections
Lecture 14.15: Tall Building Design

L1409
SUMMARY
Methods of analysing the elements of structure described in Lecture 14.7 are presented.
The following aspects are considered:
● Purpose of Analysis
● Performance Requirements
● Loading Effects
● Analysis Assumptions
● Hand Methods
● Computer Methods
● Future Systems
1. INTRODUCTION
Lecture 14.7 described the assembly of the structural elements forming the anatomy of multi-storey buildings. This
lecture examines the procedures which should be adopted to conduct an analysis of the structure. It should be noted
that specific methods of analysis for certain types of frames (e.g. rigid jointed, wind-moment, braced and partial strength)
are, for clarity, presented in the appropriate subsequent lectures. The objective of this particular lecture is therefore to
introduce the general philosophy of frame analysis and to identify those considerations which are common to all frame types.
2. OBJECTIVES AND PRELIMINARY CONSIDERATIONS

The objectives of analysis are:
● To gain a better understanding of the structural behaviour under the action of the applied loading.
● To obtain sets of applied actions which are in equilibrium with the reactions and which can be used for the design of
individual structural elements.
● To predict the static and dynamic movements of the structure and their effect on the building finishes and occupant comfort.
In order determine whether the structure is satisfactory, the structural response is compared with the appropriate codified
limits, e.g. member stresses, local and overall deflection response, stability criteria, etc.
Clearly it is important that the model assumed in the analysis is indeed representative of the way in which the
L1409
proposed structure would behave. As a result, it is important that prior to conducting an analysis, consideration is given to
the following:
● An appraisal of the building construction. For example, the type of floor construction and its ability to distribute lateral
forces, or the nature of the cladding and how it will distribute the applied wind loading.
● The overall building geometry and proposed foundation construction. For large structures, expansion joints may be
required thereby disrupting the overall integrity of the structure.
● For structures with top storeys at different levels, and hence significantly different load intensities over the 'footprint',
the potential for ground settlement due to soil-structure interaction or the eventual need for structural articulation should
be considered in the analysis (Figure 1).
● It is particularly important that the load path through the structure is identified, i.e. how the permanent and variable actions
are transferred to the primary structural frame and how these actions are subsequently transferred by the frame to
the foundations (Figure 2).
● The nature and magnitude of the permanent and variable actions and the co-existent combinations which are likely to have
the most detrimental effects on the structure.
● An understanding of building economy including fabrication and erection procedures. Specifically, the ideal arrangement of
the primary structural frame and whether the nature of the frame, e.g. simple or rigid beam to column connections,
is appropriate for the structure being considered.
● Overall frame stability and ability to resist lateral forces. Specifically, whether bracings are present within the structure
or whether lateral forces have to be resisted by frame action.

L1409

L1409
3. ACTIONS
The following categories of loading are considered for the analysis of multi-storey buildings:
3.1 Permanent Actions
These actions typically comprise the following:

L1409
● Self-weight of structural elements (slabs, beams, columns, bracing).

● Floor finishes.
● False ceiling.
● Services.
● Fixed partitions.
● Fire protection.
● Cladding.
Information on the characteristic load for proprietary products can be obtained from manufacturer's literature.
3.2 Variable Actions - Imposed Load
Minimum imposed loading is based on the usage of the building being considered, and specified in local regulations.
Buildings are often designed for imposed loads specified in excess of these minima, to increase the flexibility of future
usage. Items to consider are:
● People.
● Furniture.
● Moveable partitions.
● Plant.
● Storage.
● Snow/roof loading.
Usually only static analysis is required for imposed load, but dynamic analysis may be necessary to assess the effects of:
● Seismic actions.
● Vehicle impact.
● Transmission of noise and vibrations from plant within the building or from adjacent roads or railways.
● Floor vibrations due to walking, usually assessed by considering the effect of a standard 'heel drop'.
Figure 3 presents generally accepted limits (annoyance thresholds) for vibrations induced by walking.

L1409

L1409
3.3 Variable actions - Wind Loads
The magnitude of the design wind loading to be applied to a building depends on the location and local topography of the
site. The following terms are used to describe the different types of wind loading:
● Mean: Static effect due to steady wind flow around the building. Usually based on windspeed averaged over a period of
one hour. The magnitude decreases with increase in ground roughness upwind of the site.
● Gust: Dynamic effect of gusts on the building. The magnitude of this component reduces as building size increases since
an individual gust is not large enough to envelop the whole of a large building. Magnitude increases with ground roughness.
● Resonant: Dynamic effect due to the flexibility of the building interacting with the applied gusts. Magnitude increases
with building height, and reduces with mass and damping.
Cross-wind effects may also be present:
● List: Static and dynamic 'aerofoil' effect due to building shape.

● Buffeting: Dynamic effect due to fluctuations in wind direction.
● Vortexes: Dynamic effect of vortices being shed on alternate sides downwind of the building.
For low and medium rise multi-storey buildings, complex wind analysis is usually unnecessary, and equivalent static
loads defined in local regulations or Eurocode 1 (when available) may be used. Cross-wind effects are not normally
significant for ultimate limit state analysis, but can have an important influence on comfort. Figure 4 presents some
acceptance levels for wind induced vibrations.

L1409
3.4 Seismic Actions

L1409
Seismic action need normally not be considered in northern Europe, but is the dominating action in southern Europe. It is
a function of:
● Regional seismicity.
● Local ground conditions.
● Building period (a function of height, mass and lateral stiffness).
● Structural form and materials.
Buildings subjected to seismic forces should be designed not only for strength but also for ductility. Details for the
seismic resistant design are given in Lectures 17.
3.5 Temperature
Depending on the size and layout of the structure, thermal strains due to change in temperature can be significant. For
example, if a long building has stiff bracing frames at each end, differential thermal strains will be generated between
the superstructure and the foundations and large internal forces will be generated in beams and bracings (Figure 5a). To
avoid this inconvenience, the location of bracings in the middle of the structure allows for free expansion of members
without any restraint (Figure 5b), so no additional internal forces arise.

L1409

L1409
Thermal effects can be taken into account by adopting an appropriate temperature range (depending on the building
location and usage) and a thermal coefficient of expansion for steel.
4. LIMIT STATES
The structure should be analysed to ensure that the probability of reaching any of the limit states at which it would
become unfit for its intended use within the design life of the building is acceptably low.
The ultimate limit state considers the strength and stability requirements of the structure - essentially a collapse
criterion. Individual types of characteristic loadings are multiplied by the relevant factors to derive the design loads,
and applied in the most unfavourable realistic combination for the element or overall structural response being considered.
A simplified expression when considering only the most unfavourable variable action is of the following form:
Fd =
where
Fd is the design action
Gk is the characteristic permanent load
Qk is the characteristic variable load
γG is the permanent load factor
γQ is the variable load factor
The load factors proposed in Eurocode 3 [1] when designing for the ultimate limit state are given in Table 1. It should be
noted that permanent actions are effectively the self weight of the elements of the structure and of non-structural
L1409
elements, whilst variable actions are the applied loads, e.g. wind load, imposed floor load, settlement load, etc. Where
more than one variable actions are considered to act co-existently, the load factors are reduced to reflect the reduced
probability of this combination of loading actually occurring on the real structure, i.e.:
Fd =
Figure 6 shows how these load factors may be applied to determine the most critical design conditions for a range of
different frame types. The allowance for imperfections is explained in Section 6.

L1409
The serviceability limit state for steelwork addresses the following:
● deformations or deflections which adversely affect the appearance or the effective use of the structure (including the
proper functioning of machines or services).
● vibration, oscillation or sway which causes discomfort to the occupants of a building or damage to its contents.
● deformations, deflections, vibrations, oscillations or sway which causes damage to finishes or non-structural elements.
Eurocode 3 [1] presents guidelines to ensure that these limits are not exceeded.
When assessing the serviceability performance of the structure subject to a single variable load in addition to the
permanent (self weight) load, the load factors are unity. The structure is effectively analysed using the characteristic
actions. However, where the serviceability response of the structure is being assessed with more than one variable action,
L1409
or where the dynamic response is being considered, Eurocode 3 [1] introduces three types of combinations of loading:
● Rare combination
● Frequent combination
● Quasi-permanent combination
The factors in the above formula (ψo, ψ1 and ψ2 ) vary and are detailed in the individual National Application Documents
for Eurocode 3 of the various Member States. The rare combination, as the name suggests, considers a larger proportion of
the variable action compared to that assumed in the frequent combination. It is a requirement in Eurocode 3 that the
rare combination of loading is considered when conducting an appraisal of the member or overall frame deflections,
whereas the frequent combination of load is considered when the dynamic response of the structure is being assessed.
When analysing a principle structural frame, it is important to classify it as being either sway or non-sway, braced or
unbraced. The classification of the frame determines the method of global analysis which may be employed and the
influence of secondary effects on frame actions (see Lecture 14.8).
5.1 Classification as Braced or Unbraced
The frame is classified as braced or unbraced depending on the relative stiffness of the bracing system providing the
resistance to lateral forces.

L1409
The criterion for a braced frame is that the bracing system is at least five times stiffer than the lateral stiffness of the frame.
It should be noted that this requirement will automatically be satisfied for simple frames incorporating bracing systems. In
the absence of a bracing system a simple frame has zero lateral stiffness.
For a frame which is deemed to be braced, the bracing system must be designed to resist all lateral loads applied to the
structure including those arising due to frame imperfections, see Section 6.
A frame which is classified as braced is automatically designed as non-sway. A frame which is deemed to be unbraced must
be further classified as either sway or non-sway.
5.2 Classification as Sway or Non-Sway
A frame is classified as non-sway for a given load case if the following criterion is satisfied:
where
Vsd is the design value of the total vertical load
Vcr is the elastic critical load for failure of the frame in a sway mode.
For multi-storey beam-and-column plane frames, with beams connecting each column at each storey level, classification as
non-sway can be made for a given load combination, simply by determining whether the following condition is satisfied:
where
δ is the deflection over a storey height (interstorey drift)
h is the storey height

L1409
V is the vertical reaction at the bottom of a storey
H is the horizontal reaction at the bottom of a storey.
Frames classified as sway must subsequently be checked for overall sway stability using the procedures given in Eurocode
3 [1].
6. ALLOWANCE FOR IMPERFECTIONS

The effects of frame imperfections must be included in the global analysis of any frame. Effectively, the imperfections
are treated as a load case to be used in conjunction with all the critical load combinations acting on the frame.
In Eurocode 3 [1], imperfection effects are quantified in terms of an initial sway rotation at the base of the column (see
Figure 7), but may then be converted to an equivalent horizontal force (see Figure 8).

L1409

L1409
The initial sway imperfections φ may be determined directly from Table 3. The number of columns nc includes only the
main load bearing columns (i.e. only those which carry over 50% of the average load taken by all the columns in the
frame being considered) which extend through all the storeys considered when evaluating ns. Similarly, the number of
storeys ns only includes those floor and roof levels which are connected to all the columns included in evaluating nc. A
single value of φ is adopted for the whole frame. If the column arrangement is such that it is possible to calculate more than
one value, it is permissible to choose the value which has the most beneficial effect. Alternatively, any other choice will
be conservative. The values of φ range from an upper bound of 1/200 to a lower limit of about 1/630.
The equivalent horizontal force φF at each roof and floor level is calculated by multiplying the proportion of the vertical
load, F, applied at that level by the initial sway imperfection, φ (see Figure 8).
The equivalent horizontal forces may be applied in any horizontal direction, but only in one direction at a time.
At the supports, the equivalent horizontal forces obtained by multiplying the vertical reactions by φ are applied so that
the equivalent horizontal forces on the whole frame form a closed system, which results in a net horizontal reaction of zero
L1409
in the absence of actual horizontal loads.
It should be emphasised that the resulting equivalent horizontal forces should be applied in addition to any other
horizontal forces which may be acting.
7. ANALYSIS MODEL AND METHOD

The modelling of structural systems will be covered in Annex H in a future addendum to Eurocode 3 [2]. In the meantime
the following general principles apply.
It is conventional to assume that the members in a principle structural frame have centre lines intersecting at a point.
The manner in which the design actions are distributed around the frame is dependant on the nature of the connections and
the measures employed to resist lateral loading. Table 3, extracted from Eurocode 3, illustrates the different methods of
global analysis which are permitted depending on the type of framing and connection.
7.1 Simple Framing
The method for analysis and design of simple framing is dealt with at length in Lecture 14.10. The frame incorporates
a separate bracing system which is designed to resist lateral loading and provide lateral stability to the part of the
structure resisting gravity load (see Figure 9).

L1409
The model assumes the following:
● The members intersecting at a joint are pin connected.

● The necessary flexibility in connections may result in some non-elastic deformation of the connecting parts (other than
the fasteners).
● The supporting columns are not subjected to any direct moment transferred through the connection.
As a result, the structure is statically determinate. The internal forces and moments are therefore determined from
a consideration of statics.
Simple frames are invariably designed as non-sway (see Section 5) and, as a result, the effect of frame deformations on
the distribution of internal forces and moments can be ignored.
7.2 Continuous Frames
Such structures are statically indeterminate. A detailed appraisal of the analysis and design of partial-strength (or
L1409
partially continuous) frames is presented in Lecture 14.13, whilst those where full continuity is assumed at the connection
are addressed in Lecture 14.14.
For continuous frames, the internal forces can be determined using either:
a. elastic global analysis.
b. plastic global analysis.
Whilst elastic methods of global analysis can be used throughout, plastic global analysis is only applicable where the
frame members are of the appropriate classification to enable the development of plastic hinges.
7.2.1 Elastic first order analysis
In a first-order analysis, the additional secondary actions due to the deformation of the structure (see Figure 10) are ignored.

L1409
This assumption is only valid in the following cases:
a. Where the frame is classified as braced (see Section 5.1).
b. Where the frame is classified as non-sway (see Section 5.2).
c. Where a design method is used in which an indirect allowance (amplification) is made for the occurrence of second-
order effects.
In this latter case, the sway moments obtained from a first order linear elastic analysis are multiplied by the ratio:
(Formula 1) 1/[1 - Vsd/Vcr], for Vsd/Vcr ≤ 0,25

L1409
where
Vsd is the design value of the total vertical load.
Vcr is the elastic critical value in a sway mode.
For conventional framed structures, the ratio Vsd/Vcr can be determined as follows:
The first order elastic method of analysis is a convenient approach. Most design offices possess computer software capable
of performing this method of analysis on large highly indeterminate structures. Figures 11 - 13 show typical graphical
output from first order analysis made using computer software.

L1409

L1409

L1409
As an alternative, hand calculations can be performed on appropriate subframes within the structure (see Figure 14)
comprising a significantly reduced number of members. These simple calculations are also recommended to make
some physical check of the out-put of the computer.

L1409
When conducting the analysis of an isolated subframe it is important that:
a. The subframe is indeed representative of the structure as a whole.
b. The selected boundary conditions are appropriate.
c. Account is taken of the possible adverse effects between adjacent subframes.
7.2.2 Plastic global analysis
Plastic global analysis may be made by means of either:
● Rigid-plastic, methods (i.e. simple plastic) or

● Elastic-plastic methods.
L1409
Elastic-plastic methods require quite sophisticated computer programs, which enable second order effects to be taken
into account.
As a design tool, Eurocode 3 [1] does present a method of rigid plastic analysis which takes into account secondary effects
by amplifying the design internal forces and moments by means of the ratio given in Formula (1). The method is
only applicable where frames have fixed bases and the only hinge to form in the column is at the base (see Figure 15) and
the VSd/Vcr ratio does not exceed 0,2.

L1409
By means of this method the design is based on an incomplete mechanism in which the columns are designed to remain
elastic at the calculated plastic hinge moment.
For building structures in which the required rotations are not calculated, all members containing plastic hinges shall
have Class 1 cross-sections at the plastic hinge location.
● The main objectives of the analysis of multi-storey buildings have been identified.
● The various loadings have been given and the limit states for verification have been discussed.
● Analytical models and methods relevant to the frame characteristics have been presented.
9. REFERENCES
[2] Eurocode 3: "Design of Steel Structures": Annex H: Modelling of Building Structures for Analysis (in preparation).
Permanent Variable actions (γQ)

actions
Leading Accompanying
(γG) variable action variable
actions
Favourable 1,0*) 0,0 0,0
effect γF,inf
Unfavourable 1,35*) 1,5 1,5

effect γF,sup
Table 1: Load factors in Eurocode 3
Type of Method of Types of connections

framing global analysis
L1409
Simple Pin joints Nominally pinned
Nominally pinned
Continuous Elastic Rigid
Nominally pinned
(6.4.3.1)
Rigid-Plastic Full-strength
Nominally pinned
Elastic-Plastic Full-strength Rigid
Nominally pinned
Semi- Elastic Semi-rigid

continuous
Rigid
Nominally pinned
Rigid-Plastic Partial-strength
Full-strength
Nominally pinned

L1409
Elastic-Plastic Partial-strength Semi-

rigid
Partial-strength Rigid
Full-strength Semi-rigid
Full-strength Rigid
Nominally pinned
Table 2: Methods of global analysis given in Eurocode 3 for different types of frame and connection
nc 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
ns
1 1/200 1/220 1/230 1/240 1/245 1/250 1/255
2 1/240 1/260 1/275 1/285 1/290 1/295 1/300
3 1/275 1/300 1/315 1/325 1/335 1/345 1/375
4 1/300 1/325 1/345 1/355 1/365 1/375 1/400
5 1/315 1/350 1/365 1/375 1/385 1/400 1/400
6 1/325 1/360 1/375 1/390 1/400 1/400 1/400

L1409
ns is the number of storeys
nc is the number of columns per plane
φ = kc ks φ0
with φ0 = 1/200
kc = √{0,5 + 1/nc} ≤ 1
ks = √{0,2 + 1/nc} ≤ 1
Table 3: Sway imperfection f

ESDEP WG 14
Lecture 14.10: Simple Braced Non-Sway Multi-Storey

Buildings
OBJECTIVE/SCOPE
To identify design, construction, cost and fabrication considerations which are specific to non-sway multi-storey
steel frames.
PREREQUISITES
Lecture 1A.2: Introduction to Steel's Role in Construction in Europe
Lectures 4B: Protection: Fire
Lectures 5: Computer Aided Design and Manufacture
Lectures 7: Elements
RELATED LECTURES

Lectures 10: Composite Construction
Lectures 11: Connection Design: Static Loading
SUMMARY
The preliminary considerations and the sequence of design of simple frame construction are presented.
Bracing systems (type/location/construction), preferred structural grids, connections (appropriate types for simple
frames), the availability of diaphragm action and frame erection, are described.
In discussing the sequence of design, the treatment of loading (permanent, variable, imperfections), beam design
(design actions, ultimate and serviceability criteria), column design (design actions, effective length), bracing
systems (stiffness requirements, construction details), and connections (classification; category), are covered.
1. INTRODUCTION
Simple braced non-sway frames probably offer at present the most cost effective structural solution for multi-
storey steel buildings. These frames are composed of one or more bracing systems and a simple framing attached
to it. The beam-to-column joints are nominally pinned so that the frame is considered to be 'simple'. As a simple
frame is not able to resist any horizontal loads, the lateral stability of the entire structure is provided by the
bracing system(s), while vertical loads are resisted by both the frame and the bracing system. In most cases, the
bracing system's response to in-plane horizontal forces is sufficiently stiff such that the effects of horizontal
displacements on equilibrium (second order effects) may be neglected. The structure, therefore, may be classified
as non-sway. Figure 1 shows the principal components - simple frame and bracing system - of such a structure.

The fabrication of beam-to-column connections in braced, pin-jointed, multi-storey frames is relatively straight-
forward. The connections are fabricated using simple elements without the need for labour intensive welded
stiffeners such as are required moment resisting connections.
The current economic trend is such that the ratio of labour cost to that of the material is increasing at an
increasing rate (see Figure 2). In addition, direct and indirect labour costs for a typical steel frame constitute as
much as 50-70% of the cost of the erected steelwork. As a result, the cost of the increased total weight of a simple
steel frame, when compared to a moment resisting equivalent, is often offset by the reduced cost of the steelwork
fabrication. In many cases, therefore, simple braced steel frames offer the most cost effective structural solution.

This particular lecture examines the design and construction considerations which are specific to simple braced
non-sway frames and demonstrates the design approach which should be adopted in accordance with Eurocode 3
[1].
2. ELEMENTS OF THE STRUCTURE

The multi-storey structure under consideration is composed of two separate
sub-systems, usually a bracing system and a simple frame.
2.1 Bracing Systems
The main purpose of a bracing system is to provide the lateral stability of the entire structure. It has to resist,
therefore, all lateral loading due to external forces, e.g. wind, imposed deformation, e.g. temperature, earthquake
and the effects of imperfections on the simple bracing. For a non-sway frame, the bracing system must, in
addition, be stiff enough so that second order effects need not be taken into account in the analysis. In terms of
Eurocode 3 [1], this requirement means that either criterion (1):

Vsd/Vcr ≤ 0,1 (1)
where Vsd is the design value of the total vertical load on the structure
and Vcr is the elastic critical value of the bracing system for failure in a sway mode
or, for each storey, criterion (2)
(2)
where δ is the interstorey drift
H is the total horizontal reaction at the bottom of the storey
V is the total vertical reaction at the bottom of the storey (for both the bracing system and the simple frame)
should be satisfied for all load cases under consideration.
Possible configurations of bracing systems as shown in Figure 3 are:
● Braced-bay frames
● Reinforced concrete cores/walls
● Rigid jointed frames


The systems most appropriate for a particular structure depend very much on the structural layout, the availability
of service cores, and the effect on the construction programme.
(a) Braced-bay frames (Figure 3a)
Braced-bays are located such that they have minimum impact on the structural layout, but taking into account the
manner in which the frame is to be erected, the distribution of horizontal forces and the location of any movement
joints in the structure.
Braced-bay systems comprise diagonal, cross, 'K' and eccentric bracing arrangements. The advantage of
triangulated systems is that the bracing elements are subjected only to tension ('cross') or tension and
compression ('K' and 'diagonal') in the absence of bending moments. Consequently, the members are relatively
light providing a very stiff overall structural response. In the case of eccentric bracing, the system relies, in part,
on flexure of the horizontal beam elements. This particular arrangement provides a more flexible overall response
which is most effective under seismic loading conditions.
Where a single diagonal (as opposed to 'cross') brace is used, it must be capable of resisting both tensile and
compressive axial forces to allow for the alternating direction of wind load. Under these conditions, it is
recommended that the bracing member has a minimum slenderness ratio of 250 to prevent the self-weight
deflection of the brace limiting its compressive resistance.
Although many different section shapes can be used as compression braces, a circular hollow section is the most
efficient structurally. It should be noted that, in addition, hollow sections offer a greater resistance to corrosion
and can be more aesthetically pleasing than open sections.
In a cross-braced system, the brace members are required to resist tension only. Consequently, very light, solid
tie-bars or flats can be used. Figure 4 illustrates fixing details appropriate to cross braced systems whilst Figure 5
shows construction details appropriate for K-braced systems.


(b) Reinforced concrete shear walls and cores (Figure 3b)
Shear walls are constructed from reinforced in-situ concrete and are positively connected to the steel structure to
resist horizontal forces. Such walls often serve a second important function of compartmenting the structure to
limit the spread of fire.
Concrete cores are provided in multi-storey structures to house lifts, stairwells and service ducts.
Both concrete shear walls and cores may be provided with or without openings depending on the functioning
requirements of the building.
(c) Rigid jointed frames
In cases where braces or concrete walls would disturb the functioning of the building, rigid jointed moment
resisting frames may provide the lateral stability of the building.
The design of such frames is described in Lecture 14.14.

The location of the bracing systems in plan within the structure will influence the efficiency with which the
lateral forces can be resisted. The most appropriate position for the bracing systems is in the periphery of the
building (Figure 6a) since this arrangement provides the largest overall torsional resistance. The minimum
number of bracing planes required for the provision of translational and torsional stability is 3. These planes
should not meet at one point since this could be a pole of rotation.
When stiff cores are used, they should preferably be located in the centre of the building (Figure 6b), since it can

expand freely in both directions. The torsional stability is then provided by the torsional rigidity of the core.
In some cases eccentrically placed service cores in conjunction with supplementary bracing systems are present
(Figure 6c). In that case the possibly different flexibilities of the bracing systems and the core must be taken into
account in the analysis, since the stiffer element will attract a larger share of the applied horizontal load.
2.2 Simple Frames
The simple frame consists of a series of beams and columns, forming a structural grid. The elements of the
simple frame are assumed to resist gravity loads only.
(a) The structural grid
Usually the layout of the structural grid is dictated by the intended use of the structure and architectural
requirements. Notwithstanding this, there are a number of factors to be borne in mind when choosing column
spacings in a simple frame.
In all structural framing, the greatest cost effectiveness can be achieved through a high repetition of similarly
fabricated components. Essentially, a regular column grid is significantly less expensive than a non-regular grid
for a given floor area, see Figure 7.
Not surprisingly, orthogonal arrangements of beams and column grids, as opposed to skewed, result in the most
cost effective layout. In addition, the greatest economies can be achieved when the column grids are rectangular -
not square. In this configuration, the secondary beams should span in the longer direction and the primary beams
in the shorter. This arrangement has the effect of reducing to a minimum, the number of beam-to-beam
connections and the number of individual members per unit area of supported floor.
By definition, the beams in a simple frame are assumed to be simply supported between columns. The most cost
effective maximum span will be dependent on the applied load, the type of beam system employed and the

restrictions on structural floor depth. This latter consideration will be influenced by restrictions on overall
building height and the requirements for services either above or below the structural floor zone.
Lecture 14.7 introduced the different types of floor and beam construction which are commonly in use. Figure 8
shows the practical span ranges for these different systems when used in office construction. Not surprisingly,
systems in which the structural steel members act compositely with an in-situ concrete slab achieve the longest
spans.
Columns are conventionally located at spacings in multiples of 2,5m or 3,0m (e.g. typical bay sizes 9m x 6m,
7,5m x 15m etc). This latter dimension conforms with the approximate maximum span of conventional steel
permanent formwork (as used in composite construction) when unpropped. Figure 9 shows typical arrangements
of primary and secondary beams supporting a composite floor using permanent decking.

(b) Connections
As discussed above, the beam-to-column and beam-to-beam connections are assumed to function as 'pins' and
should therefore be detailed accordingly. It should be noted that a 450mm deep steel 'I' section spanning 6m
experiences a 10mm shift between the upper and lower flange at the connection when subjected to the ultimate
uniformly distributed load (Figure 10). Consequently, connection details should be adopted which can
accommodate this magnitude of rotation without transferring significant moment.

Figure 11 shows three connection types which satisfy this criterion - namely web cleat, fin plate and partial-depth
end-plate connections.

The design moments in columns of simple frames tend to be rather small when compared to the axial
compression. Consequently, bearing and end-plate splice connections and nominal 'pin' base connections (see
Lecture 11.5) are used extensively.

Access restrictions permitting, column splices should be provided at 12-16m intervals along the column, with the
splice located at approximately 500mm above the nearest structural floor level. Columns splices are particularly
expensive to fabricate. There is invariably greater economic advantage in retaining a heavier column section
through a number of levels rather than introducing a splice to reduce the weight of the upper column segments.
Simple beam-to-concrete walls/cores connections should be able to carry loads as soon as the connection is made.
Some connection types that may be used for such cases are shown in Figure 12 as follows:
• Projecting cleats are embedded in the wall (Figure 12a).
• Steel components are embedded in the wall and connector elements are welded to them on site (Figure 12b).
• Pockets are made in the core wall in which the ends of the beams engage (Figure 12c).

2.3 Floors
Floors should be able to transmit the vertical loads to the supporting framing beams. However, in the multi-storey
simple, braced frames discussed here, lateral loads applied to the external envelope of the building should be
transferred to the vertical bracing systems. This transfer occurs via diaphragm action of the floors. Consequently,
the floors in these frames have, in addition, to transmit horizontal loads.
The adequacy of the floor to act as a diaphragm depends very much on the type of floor system employed. Pre-
cast concrete floor planks with a non-structural screed have limited resistance to the racking effects of diaphragm
action. In such cases, supplementary bracing systems in plan are required to distribute lateral forces adequately.
Supplementary bracing systems can result in a significant increase in fabrication costs and, as such, should be
avoided. Where precast concrete floor units are employed, sufficient diaphragm action can be achieved in most
cases by using a lightly reinforced structural concrete topping.
Composite concrete floors, incorporating permanent metal decking, provide excellent diaphragm action. In
addition, it should be noted that a correctly fixed decking, with the appropriate side lap stitching, provides an
adequate floor diaphragm during the construction stage.
3. DESIGN OF THE STRUCTURE
3.1 Loads and Their Combination
The loads to be considered for the analysis of multi-storey buildings are:
● Permanent loads (G) including the self weight of:
- structural elements
- secondary non-structural elements
- services
● Imposed floor loads (Q)

● Wind loads (W)
● Seismic loads (E)
● Snow loads (S) for the design of the roof.
The effects of imperfections should be allowed for in the analysis of the frame in the form of an initial sway
imperfection φ determined from:
φ = kc ks φo (3)

where φ = 1/200
kc, ks are factors depending on the number of storeys and columns per plane.
These imperfections are usually accounted for in the form of equivalent horizontal forces FH at floor levels
according to:
FH = φ Fs (4)
where Fv is the design vertical load at the floor level under consideration.
The design includes verifications in two different limit states, the serviceability limit state and the ultimate limit
state. The most usual combinations of actions for the type of buildings under discussion are:
● Serviceability limit state
Beam deflections
Frd = G + Q (5)
Frd = Q
(6)
It should be noted that the deflection limits are different for the combinations (5) and
(6)
● Vibrations
Frd = G + ψ1 Q (7)
● Inter-storey drift
VHd = W (+ FH from Equation (4)) (8)
● Ultimate limit state
For the simple frame -
FHd = 1,35 G + 1,5 Q (9)
For the bracing system -
Vr,H,d = 1,35 G + 1,5 Q + ψo 1,5 W (10)

= 1,35 G + 1,5 ψo Q + 1,5 W (11)
= G + Q + E (12)
Detailed information on the combination rules is provided by the relevant rules of Eurocodes 1 [2], 3 [1] and 8
[3].
3.2 Beam Design
Beams are designed as simple spans, neglecting any continuity at the supports. When the beam moments and
shears are known from the analysis, the beam dimensions may be determined according to the provisions of
Eurocode 3 [1] for steel beams or Eurocode 4 [4] for composite beams.
It should be noted that most conventional types of floor slab construction will provide adequate positional
restraint to the top (compression flange) of the beam. Consequently, the beams can be designed without taking
into account reductions in moment resistance due to lateral-torsional buckling effects.
Under the full characteristic loading (load factors equal unity), the total central deflection of the beam, δmax
(Equation (5)), and the deflection of the beam due solely to imposed load (Equation (6)), δ2, should satisfy the
limits in Table 4.1 in Eurocode 3 (reproduced here as Table 1). It should be noted that the deflection check is
performed using the 'rare combination' of loading (Equation (6)).
Depending on the use of the structure, it is necessary to check the dynamic sensitivity of the floor beams. Clause
4.3.2 of Eurocode 3 states that, where the total deflection of the beam is less than 28mm, the dynamic sensitivity
is satisfactory for foot traffic (walking), and when less than 10mm, the sensitivity is adequate for rhythmic
loading (dance floor). It should be noted that these limits are based on a 'frequent' combination of loading
(Equation (7)).
When assessing the deflection and dynamic sensitivity of secondary beams, it is important to include that
component due to the deflection of the supporting beams.
Whether it is the strength, deflection or dynamic sensitivity which controls the design will depend on the span-to-
depth ratio of the beam. Figure 13 gives typical span ranges for beams in office buildings for which these design
criteria (strength, deflection, vibration) may be dominant.

3.3 Column Design
The ultimate axial load in columns is derived from the cumulative total of the ultimate support reactions from
those beams which frame into the column.
Although there is assumed to be no direct transfer of bending moment from the beam to column, it is a
requirement in most European countries that a nominal moment is transferred. This moment is assumed to be
equal to the vertical beam reaction multiplied by the offset to the interface between the beam and the column. For
a beam connection to the major axis of the column, this offset is equal to half the depth of the column. In certain
countries, an increased eccentricity of beam reaction is considered, e.g. in the U.K. the eccentricity of a major
axis connection is assumed equal to Dc/2 + 100mm. In all cases, the applied nominal moment is divided between
the upper and lower column segments in proportion to their flexural stiffnesses.
The precise manner in which simple frames should be modelled and, in particular, the actions to be considered in
the column design, will be addressed in the forthcoming Annex H of Eurocode 3 [5].
As the column node points are positionally restrained, the maximum effective column length (Le) for buckling
considerations is 1,0L, where 'L' is the length of the column segment. In cases where the adjacent column
segments are under-utilised in terms of load resistance, the residual flexural stiffness of these members may result
in an effective length of < 1,0L for the segment under consideration.
Such a situation arises where the column section is continuous through a restraint point and the column segments
on each side of the restraint point are of different length. Table 2 summaries the reductions in effective length
which may be considered for different a/L ratios. However, the location of column splices and the degree of

stiffness continuity should be borne in mind when taking this enhancing effect into account.
The effects of patterned imposed loading are not usually considered in the design of the frames. Consideration of
patterned loading will depend on the specific requirements in individual countries. However, in cases where
nominal moments are applied to the column, it is a requirement that a value of βM.LT = 1,1 (Eurocode 3: clause
5.5.4) is adopted when considering the lateral-torsional buckling of the column. This is a conservative measure
which guards against particular patterns of load being applied in the real structure which would cause the column
to be subjected to a single curvature moment distribution which is a particularly onerous arrangement in lateral-
torsional buckling considerations.
3.4 Bracing System
As discussed in Lecture 14.8, the bracing system must satisfy certain criteria in order that the frame may be
correctly classified as braced and non-sway.
In Eurocode 3 (clause 5.2.5.3(2)), a frame is 'braced' if the bracing system reduces the lateral deflection of the
frame by 80%. Clearly, this criterion will always be satisfied in the case of simple frames which behave as
mechanisms in the absence of a bracing system.
Additionally, by satisfying criterion (2) the bracing system is classified as non-sway so that second order effects
can be neglected in the analysis.
The stiffness of the bracing system is not only governed by Equation (2) but also, and more often, in the
serviceability verification which requires that both the interstorey shifts and the lateral deflections of the structure
as a whole must be limited, the limits depending on the sensitivity of the structural elements to shear
deformations. The limits recommended by Eurocode 3 [1] are:
h/300 for the interstorey drifts
ho/500 for the structure as a whole
where h is the storey height
ho is the overall height of the building
When considering the ultimate limit state, the bracing system must be capable of safely transferring the factored
lateral loads safely down to the foundations. An all steel braced-bay system will, more often than not, comprise a
trussed lattice. The design of the internal bracing members is therefore similar to the procedure in Lecture 7.12
which is devoted to the design of lattice girders.
Quite often, a horizontal member in a latticed bracing system serves also as a floor beam. This particular member
will be subjected to primary bending (due to gravity loads) and axial compression (due to wind and imperfection
load). The resistance of the element should therefore be checked as a beam-column (in accordance with clause
5.5.4 of Eurocode 3) using the load factors appropriate for gravity plus lateral load, as discussed in Section 3.1
above.
Particular care should be taken in the modelling of concrete cores. Some points to take into account are:

(a) The use of the effective width rather than the full width for the flanges if they are very wide (Figure 14). The
effective width to be considered for the determination of the bending properties is a function of the b/t ratio of the
flange, the building height and the form of the bending moment diagram along the height. Relevant provisions
are given in Eurocode 3 [1].
(b) The inclusion of the torsional properties of the cores. The torsional resistance of hollow sections (Figure 14b)
is provided mainly rotational torsion, while that of channel or I sections (Figure 14a) mainly by non-uniform,
warping torsion, i.e. through opposite bending of the flanges. Depending on the software used, the modelling of
the core as a single vertical element should be examined to determine if it is adequate. It may be necessary to
introduce more elements to represent the properties of core.
(c) The inclusion in the analysis of the bending resistance which is provided by the staircases between the floors.
A staircase provides some resistance to relative floor displacement. Its inclusion leads to a reduction of
interstorey drifts but leads to additional reinforcement for the staircase. Models for determining the equivalent
static properties of a staircase may be taken from the literature.
3.5 Connections
The connections should be designed and detailed to prevent excessive transfer of moment between the beams and
columns. Such connections should comply with the classification for a 'nominally pinned connection' in terms of
both strength and rigidity, see clauses 6.4.3 and 6.4.2 respectively of Eurocode 3 [1].
The beam-to-column and beam-to-beam connections are designed principally to resist the shear due to the
vertical beam reaction. Depending on the connection detail adopted, it may also be necessary to consider an
additional bending moment resulting from the eccentricity of the bolt line from the supporting face. Invariably,
these connections will conform with the Category A: Bearing type designation in clause 6.5.3.1 of Eurocode 3.

This category is applicable to connections comprising non-preloaded bolts for which the principal design criteria
are the shear and bearing resistance, see Table 6.5.2 in Eurocode 3 [1].
In almost all cases, the connections in simple frames are made on-site using conventional bolts in clearance holes.
These bolts slip into bearing when subjected to load. Such connections are used also in those parts of the structure
which are subjected to reversible wind loads, e.g. braced-bay frames - see clause 6.3(3).
The design of bolted steelwork connections is presented in full in Lectures 11.
4. ERECTION
The connections between the various elements in a simple frame are relatively simple to fabricate and can be
easily made on site. Consequently, simple frames can be erected very quickly and efficiently.
However, due to the lack of moment transfer between the beams and columns, maintaining the stability of the
structure during erection can present a number of problems. Often, it is necessary to incorporate temporary
bracing into the structure to provide the necessary lateral resistance until such time as the permanent bracing
system is installed. Clearly the layout of the structure and in particular, the location of the permanent bracing
systems, will influence the sequence of fabrication, delivery of materials to site and erection. The implications on
the construction programme should, therefore, be considered when developing the conceptual design of the main
structural frame.
It should be noted that one of the main benefits of using slip formed concrete cores constructed in advance of the
steelwork, is that they can totally eliminate the need for temporary bracing.
One of the main issues affecting the efficiency and speed of erection is the number of individual elements. A
large number of elements will require extensive use of cranes, a major cost item in the erection process. A
structural grid and frame arrangement should, therefore, be selected which reduces to a minimum the number of
elements to be erected.
The erection of steel frames is discussed in detail in Lectures 3.2.
● Simple, braced, non-sway steel frames often offer the most cost effective structural solutions for multi-
storey buildings.
● The main elements of the structure are the simple frame and the bracing system.
● The simple frame is composed of simply supported beams and columns which resist vertical loads only.
● The bracing system may be a braced frame, a concrete core, wall or a moment resisting frame. It provides
the lateral stability of the structure.
● All elements of the structure should be determined such that they resist the applied actions in both
serviceability and in ultimate limit state conditions.
6. REFERENCES
[1] Eurocode 3: "Design of Steel Structures": ENV1993-1-1: Part 1.1: General rules and rules for buildings, CEN
1992.

[2] Eurocode 1: "Basis of Design and Actions on Structures"; ENV 1991-1, basis of design (in preparation).
[3] Eurocode 8: "Structures in Seismic Regions - Design" (in preparation).
[4] Eurocode 4: "Design of Composite Steel and Concrete Structures": ENV 1994-1-1: Part 1, General rules and
rules for buildings, CEN, 1992.
[5] Eurocode 3: "Design of Steel Structures": Annex H: Modelling of building structures for analysis (in
preparation).
1. Hart, F., Henn, W. and Sontag, H.: "Multi-Storey Buildings in Steel, Colins, London, 1982.
2. Dowling, P. J., Knowles, P. R. and Owens, G. W.: "Structural Steel Design", Butterworths, London, 1988.
3. Petersen, Ghr: Stahlbauten, Vieweg, 1990.
Recommended limiting values for vertical deflections
Condition Limits
δmax δ2
Roofs generally L/200 L/250
Roofs frequently carrying personnel other than for L/250 L/300

maintenance
Floors generally L/250 L/300
Floors and roofs supporting plaster or other brittle L/250 L/350

finish or non-flexible partitions
Floors supporting columns (unless the deflection has L/400 L/500

been included in the global analysis for the ultimate
limit state)
Where δmax can impair the appearance of the building L/250 -
Table 1: Deflection limits for beams in Eurocode 3
Column Frame 0 0,1 0,2 0,3 0,4 0,5 0,6 0,7 0,8 0,9 1,0 a/L

0,70 0,73 0,76 0,79 0,82 0,85 0,88 0,91 0,94 0,97 1,0 Lt/L
0,50 0,53 0,57 0,61 0,65 0,70 0,75 0,81 0,87 0,93 1,0 Lt/L
0,70 0,72 0,74 0,77 0,79 0,81 0,84 0,87 0,91 0,95 1,0 Lt/L
Table 2: Effective length of continuous braced columns

ESDEP WG 14

OBJECTIVE/SCOPE
To present and illustrate procedures for the design of multi-storey buildings relating to the behaviour of beams, columns
and connections. Special attention is paid to the influence of the design of partial-strength connections on the frame behaviour.
PREREQUISITES
RELATED LECTURES
SUMMARY
The influence of partial strength and semi-rigid connections on the design of building frames of structural steel is
considered. Plastically designed connections in elastically designed frames and elastically designed connections in
plastically designed frames are discussed.
1. INTRODUCTION
The main structural elements of steel framed multi-storey structures are the columns, the beams and their
connections. Conventionally the beam-to-column connections are considered to be either pinned or rigid.
In the case of pinned or 'simple' connections, the frames have to be stabilised by appropriate bracing systems. Such frames
are named braced frames by Eurocode 3. Their design is treated in detail in lecture 14.10.
The term 'rigid' in this context implies that the connection is capable of resisting moments with a high stiffness, i.e.,
the connection flexibility has a negligible influence on the distribution of movements in the frame connections. When
the connections are rigid, the overall stability may be provided by the frame itself without the inclusion of specific
bracing systems. These rigid-jointed or moment resisting frames are treated in lecture 14.14.
Although the idealisation of connection stiffness as pinned or rigid has been applied exclusively in the past it is
generally recognised that the real behaviour of the connections is never as ideal as assumed in the analysis (Figure1). The
two cases, pinned and fully rigid, actually represent extremes of connection behaviour. In reality, the connections
behave somewhere between those limits, that is they behave as semi-rigid [1, 2].

A further classification of moment resisting connections relates to their strength. A 'full-strength' connection is a
connection that can at least develop the bending strength of the elements it connects. A 'partial-strength' connection has a
lower design strength than that of the elements it connects.
The rotation capacity of a moment-resisting connection can also be important. For example a beam with partial-strength
end connections can be designed plastically if the connection rotation capacity is sufficient to ensure the development of
an effective hinge at midspan.
Figure 2 shows the moment/rotation diagram of a beam to column connection. For design purposes the real
connection behaviour can be represented by a bi-linear or tri-linear diagram in which the following properties can
be distinguished.
• The design resistance of the connection
• The stiffness of the connection when subjected to small moments
• The stiffness of the connection when subject to ultimate moments
• The rotation capacity
The influence of connections on frame behaviour is treated separately for partial-strength and semi-rigid connections.

Braced frames are in general designed based on strength conditions and unbraced frames are generally designed based
on stability and deformation conditions. Therefore partial strength connections are mainly applicable for braced frames
and semi-rigid connects for unbraced frames.
2.1 Influence of Connection Flexibility on Elastic Frame Stability
The end rotation of a simply supported beam under a uniform vertical load and external negative moments M (Figure 3)
is given by
φ= (1)

The (M-φ) response represented by equation 1 is a straight line which is called the beam line as show in Figure 2b). In
real frames the end moment restraint is provided by the rigidity of the connection S = M/φ as shown in Figure 2c and
therefore the actual end moment and the end rotation of the beam is given by the intersection of the beam line with
the connection characteristic as shown in Figure 2b.
For practical design situations the actual non-linear connection behaviour has to be approximated. Various
approximate connection characteristics are in Figure 4. The connection behaviour is characterised by its moment
resistance MRd, its rotational capacity φcd and its rigidity s = M/φ.
In order to determine if the connection flexibility S-1 needs to be included in the overall frame analysis it is important
to examine its influence on the behaviour of the frame [3]. This is studied subsequently for single storey braced and
unbraced frames as shown in Figure 5a.

Figure 5b presents the relationship between the relative connection-to-beam rigidity and the relative beam-to column
rigidity ρ in order that the flexibility of the connection reduces the Euler buckling load of the rigid frame by 5%.
An example of the evaluation of the curve for an unbraced frame is given by considering point x, where ρ = 1.4 and = 25.
Assume kb = 10
If ρ = 1.4; kc = 10/1,4= 7.14
If = 25; s = kb = 250
First examine case with fully rigid connection =∞
k1 = kb = 10
From EC3 Annex E
η1 = 1.0; η2 = = = 0.417

= 2.391
Examine case with semi-rigid connection
For symmetrical double curvature in beam, end rotational stiffness = , therefore effective stiffness of connection
in calculation of k1 is based on ratios of to .
Hence,
k1 = . kb =
From EC3 Annex E
η1 = 1.0 η2 =
Hence reduction of elastic critical load in the presence of such connection flexibility is given by:
= =
i.e. for a frame with ρ = 1.4, a 5% reduction in elastic critical load factor is caused by of 25.
2.2 Influence of Connection Flexibility on Frame Strength
In real frames the most important quantity is the ultimate limit load Fu of the frame rather than the Euler buckling load Fe.
This can be found by the Merchant-Rankine formula (lecture 7.7) for the unbraced frame. If Fpl is the plastic failure load of
the frame then according to the above formula the ultimate load is given by:
(2)
From equation 2 it is obvious that a 5% drop of the Euler buckling load Fe due to connection flexibility leads to a drop in
load carrying capacity of the frame Fu by not more than 5%.
The previous discussion leads to the observation that for a given frame configuration, depending on the parameter ρ ,
the minimum required connection stiffeness may be determined from Figure 5b that does not lead to a decrease of the
frame ultimate capacity by more than 5%. If the actual stiffeness of the connection is smaller than that one determined

from Figure 5b, the connection flexibility shall be taken into account in the frame analysis.
In Eurocode 3, a further simplification is made, see Figure 6. Constant boundary factors are chosen for the braced
and unbraced frames rather than values dependent on ρ.
For braced frames the boundary value of is equal to 8 as shown in Figure 6b. That means that if s ≥ 8kb a connection may
be treated as rigid, otherwise as semi-rigid. This is illustrated in Figure 6a.
For unbraced frames the relevant value of is 25, which means that if s ≥ 25kb a connection may be treated as rigid,
otherwise as semi-rigid. Figure 6b illustrates this case.
According to Figure 5b the boundary value = 25 for unbraced frames covers only the cases when ρ ≥ 1,4. For ρ < 1,4

this value is unsafe. This situation is investigated below.
Frames for which ρ < 0.1 are not realistic, so the value ρ = 0.1 can be used as a boundary.
Figure 7 shows the relationship between ρ and (FE( )/FE( = ). 100%. When ρ =0.1, the Euler buckling load based on =
∞
25 is 85% of the Euler buckling load for =∞.
The carrying resistance of the frame based on the Merchant-Rankine formula has reduced as follows:
1/Fu( = ∞) = 1/Fpl + 1/FE( = ∞)
where Fu( = ∞) is the carrying resistance of the frame with rigid connections
1/Fu( = ∞) = 1/Fpl + 1/XFpl
where:
X = FE( = ∞) / Fpl
1/Fu( = ∞) = (1+ 1/X) / Fpl
Fu( = ) = {X/(X + 1)}/Fpl

∞

The following relationship holds for connections where = 25
1/Fu( = 25) = (1+ 1/0,85X)Fpl
Fu( = 25) = {0,85X/(1 + 0,85X)}Fpl
The reduction of the carrying resistance is:
∆ = {Fu( = ) - Fu( = 25)}/Fu( = ∞ ) . 100%

∞
Even for a very slender frame, namely FE( = ) = Fpl, so X = 1, the reduction ∆ = 8% and for X = 2 the reduction ∆ = 5.6%.
∞
It can be concluded that = 25 is a sufficiently safe boundary value for practical frames for the rotation stiffness of beam-
to-column connection in unbraced frames in order to consider them as rigid.
In Figure 6 the boundaries for the distinction between rigid and semi-rigid behaviour of the connection follows a tri-
linear rather than a bi-linear characteristic. The reasons are:
a) experimental evidence shows that a beam-to column end-plate connection behaves elastically for up to at least 2/3 of
its moment resistance
b) The beam characteristic is also not linear up to the plastic moment. Plastification in the beam theoretically starts at about
Wel/Wpl = 0,9 for I sections.
Due to residual stresses a more practical figure is 70% of the beam plastic moment. It is therefore considered reasonable
to alleviate the bi-linear characteristic of the connection by a third branch.
2.3 Influence of Connection Strength on Frame Behaviour
As far as the moment resistance of beam-to-column connections is concerned, classification is simpler. If the
moment resistance of the beam-to-column connection is equal to the plastic resistance of the connected beam, the connection
is considered as full-strength. If not, the connection is considered as partial-strength. On the basis of the boundary for
the rotation stiffness and the boundary for the moment resistance a bi-linear moment-rotation characteristic is achieved.
If the moment-rotation characteristic of a beam-to-column connection lies on the left hand side and above the boundary
lines, this connection can be classified as rigid and full-strength.
3. MODELLING OF THE CONNECTION

Connections may be designed either by elastic or by plastic theory. Since they are modelled mostly by rotational springs
as shown in Figure 4a, it is important to determine the spring characteristic representing the behaviour of the connection.
From the lay-out of the connections, its moment-rotation characteristic may be determined on the basis of Annex JJ
of Eurocode 3. However, the initial estimate of the characteristic has to be modified with the type of global analysis (elastic
or plastic) and the method of connection verification (elastic or plastic) as shown in Figure 8 reproduced from Annex JJ.

If the global analysis is elastic the spring behaviour is considered to be linear since the same applies also to the behaviour of
the other structural elements (beams and columns). For this type of analysis the joint may be verified either on the basis
of elastic or on the basis of plastic theory. In the former case, only the linear part of the connections characteristic is taken
into account ie., the design moment of the connection is only 2/3 of its ultimate moment and its stiffness is equal to the
initial value (Figure 8a). In the latter case the design moment of the connection is equal to its plastic moment but its stiffness
is reduced by the factor χ as shown in Figure 8b to take into account the non-linearities.
In the case of plastic global analysis, with partial strength joints, the spring behaviour of the connection is considered as
bi-linear, since the same applies also to the behaviour of the beams and the columns of the frame. In that case the non-
linear part of the connections is taken into account as shown in Figure 8c.
Obviously such connections should possess sufficient rotation capacity in order to be able to undergo the resulting
plastic relations.
A last case is when plastic global analysis is applied with full strength joints. In this case no plastic hinge is formed in the
joint and the joint model is linear according to Figure 8a or 8b. In order to be sure that no plastic hinge will form in the

joint and bearing in mind the possible overstrength of the beam, the following conditions shall apply:
For Figure 7(a): 2/3 MRd ≥ 1,2 Mpl,b
For Figure 7(b): MRd ≥ 1,2 Mpl,b
The greatest problem in the practical design of frames with semi-rigid connection lies in the determination of the
connection flexibility since this is only possible once the connection is designed. This means that there must be an
iterative process between frame analysis and joint dimensions until a connection is found with the characteristics assumed
in the analysis ie., one that is able to transmit the forces and moment and undergo the required rotation determined by
the analysis.
Specifically in the case of unbraced frames an additional parameter shall be taken into account in the modelling of
connections. As illustrated in Figure 9, the deformation characteristic of the joint is different for the various loading
conditions (vertical loading, horizontal loading) due to the large flexibility of the column web when submitted to shear.
Since this case appears only for horizontal loading the joint behaviour is much softer in that case than in the case of
vertical loading. In the normal case of both vertical and horizontal loading, the actual spring stiffness lies between the
two values. This makes the practical design of unbraced frames with semi-rigid connections almost impossible.

● Connections are classified in Eurocode 3 according to their stiffness as pinned, semi-rigid or rigid and according to
their strength as full or partial strength.
● In conventional design of frames connections are considered as either pinned or rigid.
● If semi-rigid connections are introduced into the design, their flexibility should be taken into account in the global
analysis. Thus connections need to be designed prior to final verification of the frame.
● For braced frames the introduction of semi-rigid connections may lead to more economical results due to the optimisation
of the steel material for the beams.
● For unbraced frames the use of semi-rigid connections is associated with problems in the global analysis and leads to
larger horizontal displacements which may cause problems in the overall stability. Therefore these connections are
not recommended for such frames.
5. REFERENCES
[1] Chen, W F: Joint flexibility on steel frames, Elsevier Applied Science Publications Ltd, 1987
[2] Bjorhorde, R., Brozzetti, J., Colson, A.: Connections in Steel Structures, Elsevier Applied Science Publishers Ltd, 1988
[3] Background Document 6.09 to Eurocode 3, Beam to Column Connections, Commission of the European
Communities, 1989

ESDEP WG 14
Lecture 14.12: Simplified Method of Design

for Low-Rise Frames
OBJECTIVE/SCOPE
To describe the assumptions of the wind-moment method for the design of unbraced frames. To summarise the justifications
of the method. To show the method of analysis and appropriate design rules.
PREREQUISITES
RELATED LECTURES

Lecture 14.7: Anatomy of Multi-storey Buildings
SUMMARY
The wind-connection method for unbraced frames renders the structure statically determinate and thereby avoids
interaction between global analysis and member design. It assumes that the connections act as pins under gravity load,
whilst under horizontal load the connections behave as rigid joints.
Studies on frames designed by the method have given a suitable range of application. The typical behaviour of wind-
moment frames is described and those aspects that require particular attention to achieve a satisfactory design are
identified. The method of global analysis is explained and appropriate rules for member design are summarised.
1. INTRODUCTION
In some countries, e.g. UK, Australia and USA, a simplified method for the design of "low-rise frames" has been in use
for many years. This is known as the "wind-moment" or "wind-connection" method. It is recognised within relevant
national recommendations and the experience achieved in its application throughout these countries has been satisfactory. As
a result, it is widely used.
The method is not universally applied though. In the UK its use is now limited to simple frames, regular geometry, with
a maximum of 8 floors and 4 spans, maximum heights of 5m between floors, maximum span distances of 12m and
maximum relative lengths of 0,5 and 2,0 between spans.
In many other countries, this simplified method is not widely known and is not included in their standards, hence its
application is not possible. It is not specifically included in the current version of Eurocode 3 [1]. Despite this, it seemed
useful to dedicate one lecture to this method and to develop a practical application example. The method continues to be
widely used, at least in those countries mentioned previously, and the lecture is therefore an interesting piece of
background information for many lecturers.

Perhaps the inclusion of this Lecture may also widen the long-standing and inconclusive debate regarding the type
of simplification and level of rigour that should be adhered to in design methods laid down in structural codes.
2. THE METHOD
Where a steel frame is unbraced, an established design technique is to rely on the rotational stiffness of the connections
to provide resistance to wind, even though such restraint is ignored under the action of gravity loads. This approach is
termed the 'wind-moment' or 'wind-connection' method.
In its usual form the method assumes:
● under gravity load the connections act as pins (Figure 1a)

● under wind load the connections behave as rigid joints, with points of contraflexure at the mid-height of columns and
mid-length of beams (Figure 1b)

Members and connections are proportioned initially to withstand gravity load. The internal forces and moments due to
gravity load and wind (Figures 2a and 2b) are then combined in appropriate load cases. The design for strength is completed
by amending the initial section sizes and other details for the members and connections, to withstand the combined effects.

No calculation is made for second-order moments due to the 'P-∆' effect. It is assumed that these moments can be accounted
for by using effective column lengths greater than the true lengths, for axes about which sway can occur.
For serviceability, sway deflections are calculated assuming connections are rigid.
The advantage of the method is its simplicity. As the frame is rendered statically determinate, internal moments and forces
are not dependent on the relative stiffnesses of the members. The need to repeat the analysis to correspond to changed
section sizes is thereby avoided. Consequently, the method has been used extensively [2, 3], although it has not been verified

as a generally applicable approach.
The justification of the method has been partly in the fact that buildings designed on this basis have proved satisfactory in
use. In recent years, the method has been regarded as a form of semi-rigid design and analytical justification has been
carried out on this basis [4-7]. The conclusions are as follows:
● Beams
These members tend to be overdesigned for the following reason. Beam design is usually governed by the sagging
internal moment due to gravity load. The semi-rigid nature of the connections causes hogging support moments to arise
(Figure 3). As the usual form of the method assumes zero support moments (Figure 2a), no advantage is taken of the
reduction in sagging moment.

● Columns
These members tend to be underdesigned, due to the detrimental effect on such members of the hogging moments developed
in the beams. These moments particularly affect external columns and other members subject to unbalanced loading.
However, as columns are also designed to support axial load, the underdesign of the columns is not as significant as
the overdesign of the beams.
● Connections
The beam-to-column connections will generally be underdesigned. This is because the internal moment for at least one end of
a beam will be greater than that predicted by the method, due to the hogging moments due to gravity loads (see above).
As beams are usually governed by mid-span moment, whilst connections are sized only for end moment, the connections
will generally be only 'partial-strength' with respect to the beams.
● Sway deflections
These deflections are larger than those predicted assuming rigid joints. This is because of the semi-rigid and partial-
strength nature of the connections.
● Frame stability
The onset of frame instability will be above the design load level in low and medium-rise frames. For repeated variations
of loading expected during the lifetime of the structure, such as reversals of wind load, the frame will 'shake down'
with connections then behaving elastically.
Some justification for the method is also given by rigid-plastic theory [8]. According to this theory, the collapse condition
has the following characteristics:
⋅ a mechanism of plastic hinges has formed
⋅ the internal moments and forces are in equilibrium with the applied loads
⋅ nowhere does the internal moment exceed the plastic moment of resistance
Provided that the second and third conditions are satisfied, the Lower-Bound Theorem [8] states that the applied loads
are either less than or equal to the loads which collapse the frame. These conditions are met by the wind-moment
method, which will therefore provide safe designs, provided that the frame also satisfies the assumptions of rigid-plastic theory:
⋅ the effect of deflections on equilibrium can be neglected
⋅ collapse does not occur as a result of any form of buckling
These assumptions therefore indicate those aspects of design that require particular attention if the wind-moment method is
to provide frames of adequate strength.

An analytical study has been made of frames designed by the method using a limit states approach [7]. This lecture
describes how the method can be used in a manner consistent with Eurocode 3 [1]. The recommendations cover global
analysis and member design. From the results of the studies, these recommendations are expected to result in designs for
low- and medium-rise frames which possess adequate resistance.
3. SCOPE
Frame Layout
The method applies to steelwork which can be idealised as a series of unbraced plane frames.
The range of application is restricted to multi-storey plane frames in which:
● the frame consists principally of horizontal beams and vertical columns (Figure 4)
● the frame does not exceed eight storeys
● the number of bays does not exceed four
● the width of each bay is constant over the height of the frame
● the frames are effectively braced against out-of-plane sway at roof level and at each floor level
● the beam grids comprise only primary beams (Figure 5), or arrangements of primary and secondary beams as shown in
Figures 6a and 6b
● the flooring and roofing span in the directions shown in Figures 5 and 6




The limitations concerning the number of storeys and bays have been chosen on basis of References [6, 7]. The main
reasons for these limitations are:
● the comparative rarity of unbraced construction in taller structures

● lack of experimental evidence on the behaviour of joints connecting sections of large size
● unwillingness to accept an approximate method for taller structures
The arrangement of beams in Figure 6b reduces the gravity load carried by the beams forming part of the plane frame.
This leads to smaller beam sections in the plane frame, compared to the grids shown in Figures 5 and 6a. All
three arrangements have been considered in the study [7] which forms the basis of the recommendations. Grids which do
not conform to one of these arrangements are outside the scope. This limitation is required because their possible effect on
the stiffness and strength of beams relative to columns has not been studied.
Frame dimensions
Based on the dimensions of the frames studied, the range of application is limited according to the following:
● The maximum column height is 6,0m for bottom storeys and 5,0m in the others
● The maximum span is 12,0m and the minimum 4,50m
● The ratio between the greatest and the smallest bay width of the frame is not more than 2
The actual height of a column should be limited because sway stiffness is inversely proportional to the square of the length
of the member.
Other limitations are given in Table 1.
The limits are not unduly restrictive in practice.
Structural sections
Sections may be in S235, S275 or S355 steel, or in steel having similar structural properties. The same grade of steel should
be used for all sections in a frame. In addition:

● hot-rolled I or H sections should be used for horizontal members

● HE, universal column or similar sections should be used for vertical members
● sections should be orientated such that loads in the plane of the frame tend to cause bending about the major axis
● All cross-sections, both for columns and for beams must be Class 1
The reasons for these limitations are now given.
The method does not provide an exact calculation of column end moments. HE, UC or similar sections with
substantial buckling resistance moment should therefore be used for these members.
Column sections should be orientated as recommended because the study [7] did not examine structures in which the
beams frame into the column web. There is not yet an accepted method for predicting the behaviour of such connections.
The recommended orientation of the beam sections is usual practice. It is necessary to adhere to this to provide stiffness in
the plane of the frame.
Beam-to-column connections
Extended end-plate (Figure 7a) or flush end-plate (Figure 7b) connections should be used. Connections in wind-moment
frames form part of the subject matter of Lecture 11.5. It is important to note that since the method results in partial-
strength connections which are required to deform plastically, each connection should be designed to have sufficient
rotation capacity.

Column bases
Columns should be rigidly connected to foundations by bases designed in accordance with usual practice for this type
of construction.
Frames with pinned bases are excluded from the recommendations given here. This is because columns with pinned
bases require large effective lengths if they are to be safely designed. Such members also cause large sway deflection in
the bottom storey of the structure.
Loading
The range of application is restricted to the following values of loading:
● the total unfactored dead load plus unfactored imposed load should not exceed 12,5 kN/m2
● wind loads should be based on a wind speed corresponding to a 3-second gust speed of at least 37m/s, measured at 10m
above ground in an open situation for a return period of 50 years
● the wind load should not be such that it controls the design of any beam
The tendency to underdesign columns and connections, because of neglect of end moments due to gravity load (Figure 3),
is increased if the wind load is low. The restrictions on maximum gravity load and minimum wind speed restrict this tendency.
If the wind load is so high that it begins to govern the design of the beams, the frame is best designed as rigid-jointed. This
is because the serviceability limit on sway is likely to control the design.
4. GLOBAL ANALYSIS FOR ULTIMATE LIMIT STATES

Load combinations
The following load combinations should be used in design:
● 1,35 (Dead load) + 1,50 (Imposed load)

● 1,35 (Dead load + Imposed load + Wind load)
● 1,35 (Dead load) + 1,50 (Wind load).
Frame imperfections should be taken into account by applying equivalent horizontal forces according to the Eurocode 3
rules [1].
Unbalanced ("chequer-board") gravity loading may be critical in the design of internal columns, and should therefore
be considered in multi-bay frames.
The load combination 1,35 (Dead load) + 1.50 (Wind load) will usually govern the design of the connections as
moment-resisting components.
Internal moments and forces due to gravity load
Under gravity load, allowance should be made for the partial-fixity of the connections between a beam and a column by an
end restraint moment equal to 10% of the maximum sagging moment in the beam, assuming the beam to be simply
supported. In addition, the shear force at the end of the beam should be assumed to act on the column at a distance of 100
mm from the face of the column. Internal moments in beams though should be calculated for a span equal to the
distance between centre-lines of columns.
Each column has to be designed to resist the algebraic sum of the restraint moments from the beams at the same level on
each side of the column, in addition to moments due to eccentricity of connections. The net moment applied at any one
level should be divided between the column lengths above and below the level in proportion to the stiffness of each length.
The moments applied to the column due to partial-fixity and eccentricity should be assumed to have no effect at the
levels above and below the level at which they are applied.
The assumption above of an end moment equal to 10% of the free moment combined with moments due to eccentricity
of connections offsets to some extent the tendency of the method to underdesign columns and connections.
Internal moments and forces due to horizontal load.
Horizontal design loads arise due to:
● practical imperfections such as lack of verticality which are represented by notional horizontal forces
● wind load
The analysis for internal moments and forces due to horizontal load should be by the "portal method" [2]. The
following assumptions are made:
● horizontal loads are applied at floor levels

● there is a point of contraflexure at the mid-height of each column

● there is a point of contraflexure at the mid-length of the each beam
● each bay acts as a simple portal and the total horizontal load is divided between the bays in proportion to their spans
The assumed points of contraflexure for a single bay frame are shown in Figure 1b.
Analysis by "portal method"
Consider the upper part of a single bay frame shown in Figure 8a. The upper part of the diagram in Figure 8b shows the
forces on the portion of the frame above the points of contraflexure A and D, whilst the lower part shows the forces on
the portion ABCDEF of the frame. In the derivation which follows, compressive axial force is denoted by N.


The compressive axial forces at A and D are obtained by taking moments about either D or A and by considering
vertical equilibrium. Taking moments about A:
NDL = W1 H1 /2 (1)
Hence:
ND = W1 H1 /(2L) (2)

Since ND + NA = 0 it follows that:
NA = -W1 H1 /(2L) (3)
As these forces are now known, the axial forces at C and F can be calculated by taking moments about either F or C for
the region ABCDEF and by vertical equilibrium. Taking moments about C:
(NF - ND) L = W1 (H1 + H2)/2 + W2 H2 /2 (4)
Substituting for ND from Equation (2) and re-arranging:
NF = W1 H1 /L + (W1 + W2 ) H2 /(2L) (5)
By vertical equilibrium, NC + NF = 0 and NC can therefore be found.
The moments in the columns at roof level are clearly given by W1 H1 /4. For equilibrium, these moments are also the
moments at each end of the roof beams.
The moment in the upper column at B due to the force at A is also W1 H1 /4, whilst that in the lower column at B due to
the force at C is (W1 + W2) H2 /4. The same values apply in the leeward side of the frame. It follows that the moment at
each end of the beam BE, which resists the sum of column end moments at B or E, is given by:
MBE = MEB = (W1 H1 + (W1 + W2) H2)/4 (6)
A similar calculation procedure can be followed for other storeys in the frame, or for other bays of a multi-bay structure.
The resulting bending moment diagram for a complete single bay frame is shown in Figure 2b.
5. DESIGN OF BEAMS FOR ULTIMATE LIMIT STATES

As the wind-moment method can be justified in part as a method of plastic design, cross-sections must be able to form
plastic hinges and participate in collapse mechanisms. To prevent premature failure by local buckling, sections must
therefore be Class 1, Plastic.
The moment resistance though should be restricted to 90% of the plastic moment, to provide restraint to the columns.
6. DESIGN OF COLUMNS FOR ULTIMATE LIMIT STATES

Effective lengths
Effective lengths for compression resistance, Pc:
For in-plane behaviour (bending about major axis):
LE = 1,5 L (7)
For out-of-plane behaviour (bending about minor axis):
LE = 1,0 L (8)
These effective lengths are nominal values which, in conjunction with the other recommendations, were found in the studies
[7] to result in adequate column sections. The value for out-of-plane behaviour is based in the frame being effectively
held against out-of-plane sway.
Equivalent slenderness for buckling resistance moment, Mb:
The slenderness λLT should be calculated assuming that the effective length factors k and kw given in Eurocode 3 [1] are
both unity, i.e. no fixity. In addition, the factor C1 needed for the calculation of λLT for a rolled H-section should be taken
as unity.
These factors are consistent with simple design. As the end moments are not calculated by exact analysis, the factor C1
should be taken as the most pessimistic value, which corresponds to single curvature bending.
Design moments
Under each combination, the column end moment should be taken as the sum of:
● net (i.e. out-of-balance) moment due to gravity loads and eccentricity of connections
● net (i.e. out-of-balance) moment due to restraint moments from the beams arising under gravity loads
● moment due to horizontal load
As the horizontal load may reverse, the total moment should be calculated by addition of the numerical magnitudes of
the component moments.
Class of section
Sections should be Class 1, Plastic, for the same reason as for the design of beams.
Overall buckling check
The proposed sections should satisfy the checks for combined bending and axial compression given in Eurocode 3,
including that in which lateral-torsional buckling is the potential failure mode. The formulae include allowance for
the beneficial effects of moment gradient by means of equivalent uniform moment factor, β. As the end moments are
not calculated by exact analysis, the factor β should have the most pessimistic value, which corresponds to single
curvature bending.
7. DESIGN FOR SERVICEABILITY LIMIT STATE

General
The significance of sway deflections in the design of unbraced frames is influenced by the ratio of gravity load to wind
load. Even though the design of some frames will be governed by limitation of sway, for others a design made for the
ultimate limit state will be adequately stiff.
Design codes give recommended limits on deflections, but these limits are not performance criteria; rather, the limits
are intended for comparison with the results of calculations, usually on bare frames. The justification for these limits rests
on the satisfactory performance of structures in practice.
Analyses accounting for connection flexibility shows that sway deflections in wind-moment frames are significantly larger
than those predicted assuming rigid joints, and yet, as far as is known, structures incorporating such frames do not
exhibit distress in practice.
The increase in deflection given by such analyses is dependent on the moment-rotation (M - ψ) relationship of the
connections. The calculated increase in deflection is large if the M - ψ relationship is represented by an elastic-
plastic approximation (Figure 9). A lesser increase is calculated if M - ψ is represented by a non-linear curve without a
plateau (Figure 10). In shape the latter conforms more closely to the experimental behaviour of connections (Figure 11).



Even with an elastic-plastic approximation, studies [7] show that wind-moment frames subject to only light wind load will
not deflect more than the Eurocode 3 [1] limit of 1/500th of the total height.
For frames with high wind load, in which deflections are critical, the non-linear representation of connection behaviour
gives an increase in deflection of up to 60% [7].
Recommendations

In accordance with usual practice, the design made for the ultimate limit state should be analysed as an elastic rigid-
jointed frame to determine sway deflections.
If the deflections are unacceptable, then the design should be revised to provide additional stiffness:
● connection details should be changed to provide greater stiffness so that they may be taken as rigid
● member sections should be increased
If the rigid-frame deflections are acceptable, the values should be increased by 60%. If the increased values are
unacceptable, then the frame should be redesigned, following the recommendations in the previous paragraph. Otherwise,
the design of the members is complete.
● The assumptions of wind-moment method render the frame statically determinate. The need for repeated analysis to
correspond to changed section sizes is thereby avoided.
● The method tends to overdesign beams and underdesign columns and beam-to-column connections. This has to some
extent been accounted for by introducing a minimum end restraint moment under gravity load.
● Analytical studies have shown that low and medium-rise frames designed by the method have adequate overall strength.
● Design recommendations have been presented which are consistent with Eurocode 3. These recommendations aim to achieve
a more uniform safety level in all parts of the frame.
● The connections should be designed to have sufficient rotation capacity to deform plastically as part of a plastic-
hinge mechanism.
9. REFERENCES
[1] Eurocode 3: "Design of Steel Structures": ENV 1993-1-1: Part 1.1, General rule and rules for buildings, CEN, 1992.
[2] Construction Steel Research and Development Organisation, Steel Designers' Manual, Crosby Lockwood Staples, 1972.
[3] American Institute of Steel Construction, Manual of Steel Construction, AISC Chicago, 1980.
[4] Nethercot, D. A., "Joint Action and the Design of Steel Frames", The Structural Engineer Vol. 63A, No. 12,
December 1985, pp. 371-379.
[5] Gerstle, K. H., "Flexibly Connected Steel Frames, Steel Framed Structures", Stability and Strength (ed R.
Narayanan), Elsevier, 1985, pp205-239.
[6] Ackroyd, M., "Design of Flexibly Connected Unbraced Steel Building Frames", Journal of Constructional Steel
Research Vol 8, 1987, pp 281-286.
[7] Anderson, D., Reading, S. J., Najafi, A. and Kavianpour, K., "Wind-Moment Design of Unbraced Frames",
Steel Construction Today Vol 6, No. 4, July 1992, pp. 159-164.
[8] Neal, B. G., "The Plastic Methods of Structural Analysis", Chapman and Hall, 1977.
Table 1
Relative dimensions Minimum Maximum
Bay width: storey height 0,75 2,00
(bottom storey)
Bay width: storey height 0,90 2,50
(above bottom storey)
Greatest bay width: 1,00 2,00
smallest bay width
Table 2: Maximum column height

Bottom storeys 6,0 m
Other storeys 5,0 m

ESDEP WG 14
Lecture 14.13: Design of Multi-Storey

Frames with Partial Strength and
Semi-Rigid Connections
OBJECTIVE/SCOPE
To present and illustrate procedures for the design of multi-storey buildings relating to the behaviour of beams, columns
and connections. Special attention is paid to the influence of the design of partial-strength connections on the frame behaviour.
PREREQUISITES
Lectures of Group 6: Applied Stability
Lectures of Group 11: Connections: Static Loading
RELATED LECTURES
SUMMARY
The influence of partial strength and semi-rigid connections in the design of building frames of structural steel is
considered. Plastically designed connections in elastically designed frames and elastically designed connections in

plastically designed frames are discussed. The background to relevant parts of EC3 is also presented.
1. INTRODUCTION
Steel structures for multi-storey buildings consist mainly of columns and beams. A multi-storey structure is shown in Figure
1. Within the structure two directions can be distinguished: a direction in which beams and columns are arranged into
frames, and a direction in which the frames are connected to floors or beams in order to form a three-dimensional structure.

It is common practice to ensure the stability of the frames out-of-the-plane by triangulation or by shear walls, cores and
the like. The frames are in general connected to the bracing structure with pinned connections. In the plane, the frame can
be stabilized by a bracing system, or can be stable in itself (unbraced frame).
The mechanical behaviour of a connection is represented in Line I of Figure 2. The figure shows a moment rotation diagram
of a T-connection in a frame (beam-column connection). The real connection behaviour can be represented by a bi- or tri-
linear diagram in which a number of properties can be distinguished.

● The (design) resistance of a connection.

● The stiffness of the connection when subjected to small moments, Line III of Figure 2.
● The stiffness of the connection when subjected to ultimate moments, Line II of Figure 2.
● The rotation capacity.
A connection can have a lower design strength than the beam or column which it connects. In that case, a connection is
partial-strength. If the stiffness of the connection has a significant influence on the stability and deformations of a frame,
the connection should be regarded as semi-rigid or even nominally pinned.
The influence of the connections on the frame behaviour is treated separately for partial-strength connections and semi-
rigid connections.
Braced frames are in general designed based on strength conditions and unbraced frames are in general designed based
on stability and deformation conditions. Therefore, partial strength connections are mainly used in braced frames, and
semi-rigid connections in unbraced frames.

In Eurocode 3, criteria are given for nominally pinned, semi-rigid and rigid beam-to-column connections, when the
distribution of forces and moments in the structure is determined using elastic or plastic theory. The structural properties
of beam-to-column connections, such as stiffness, resistance and rotation capacity, should be in accordance with
the assumptions made in the design of the structure. The structural properties of a beam-to-column connection were
indicated qualitatively in Section 1 above.
The classification of beam-to-column connections provides the designer with a quick answer to the question how a
certain beam-to-column connection, given its the properties in a moment rotation diagram, will behave in the structure.
This behaviour can be rigid or semi-rigid with respect to stiffness, full-strength or partial-strength with respect to
moment resistance and ductile or brittle with respect to rotation capacity. These properties are illustrated in Figure 3. In
this figure Mplb.Rd represents the design plastic moment of the beam. The boundaries between the areas of behaviour of
beam-to-column connections are discussed below.
The distribution of forces and moments in a structure is influenced by the flexibility of the connections in that
structure. Stability, deformations, and displacements are also similarly influenced.
The flexibility of beam-to-column connections may be neglected in some cases, i.e. the connection may be assumed to be
rigid in some cases and a hinge in others. The assumption which can be made depends on the stiffness ratio between the
beam-to-column connection and the connected beams and columns.
The structural behaviour will be analyzed by showing the relationship between the parameters and ρ. The parameter is
the relative rotation stiffness = , in which s is the rotation stiffness of the beam-to-column connection and is
the flexural stiffness of the beam. The parameter ρ is the ratio between the flexural stiffness of the beam and the column, i.
e. , in which is the flexural stiffness of the beam and is the flexural stiffness of the column.
For one-bay single-storey frames, both braced and unbraced, the relationships between and ρ can be determined as shown
in Figure 4.

The relationship can be determined at a constant ratio between the Euler buckling load of the frame with semi-
rigid connections and the Euler buckling load of the same frame but now with rigid connections. For this ratio, and
according to Eurocode 3, the value 0.95 is chosen.
In Figure 4 the relationship between and ρ is shown for the unbraced as well as for the braced frame. The
mathematical background of these relationships is given in the background report to this subject of Eurocode 3 (9).
With the aid of the Merchant-Rankine formula (Lecture 7.7) for the unbraced frame, the influence of reduction of 5% in
the Euler buckling load on the carrying resistance of the frame can be shown. The reduction is a consequence of the
semi-rigidity of the beam-to-column connections.
Suppose Fpl is the load at plastic failure of the frame and FE( = ∞) is the Euler buckling load of the frame with perfectly
rigid connections. Then FE( ) = 0.95 FE ( = ∞) is the Euler bucking load of the frame with semi-rigid connections which
have flexibility such that the Euler buckling load is lower by 5% compared to the situation with perfectly rigid connections.
Suppose that FE ( = ∞) = k . Fpl.
Using connections with a semi-rigidity such that the Euler buckling load reduces by 5%, the following holds:
FE ( ) = 0.95 . k . Fpl.
On the basis of the Merchant-Rankine formula for the determination of the carrying resistance of the unbraced
frame, , it can be shown that the carrying resistance will drop by not more than 5%.
Figure 4 gives the relationship between the geometry of the frame and the ratio of flexural stiffnesses between the
connection and the beam for those rotation stiffnesses of the connection which can be assumed to be perfectly rigid,
because the flexibility of the connection causes a drop of the carrying resistance of the frame of not more than 5%.
To verify the design of the frame against the requirements, all the geometrical data are required. These data are the
sections used as columns and beams together with the lay-out of the beam-to-column connections. From the lay-out of
the connections the moment-rotation relationship can be determined on the basis of Annex J of Eurocode 3. With that data
the parameters and ρ can be determined and, via Figure 4, the influence the connection stiffness has on the distribution
of forces and moments, and on the stability of the frame can be shown.
The design may have to be made when not all the data are known and it is difficult to estimate before hand what influence
the connections will have on the behaviour of the frame. In Eurocode a further simplification is given for this case to enable
the connection influence to be estimated.

By choosing a constant boundary value for the factor , it becomes independent of the parameter ρ . For braced frames
the boundary value is = 8, and for unbraced frames the boundary value is = 25.
The lines of = 8 and = 25 are drawn in Figure 4. It can be seen that the boundary value = 8 covers the ρ -
relationship for braced frames completely. The boundary value = 25 for unbraced frames covers the ρ - relationship only
if ρ ≥ 1.4. For ρ < 1.4 the boundary value = 25 is, in principle, unsafe. This situation will now be investigated.
Frames for which ρ < 0.1 are not realistic, so the value ρ = 0.1 can be used as a boundary.
Figure 5 shows the relationship between ρ and (FE ( = 25)/FE ( = ∞)) . 100%. When ρ = 0.1 the Euler bucking load based on
= 25 would be not more than 85% of the Euler buckling load if the value for = ∞.

The carrying resistance of the frame based on the Merchant-Rankine formula has reduced as follows:
where Fcr ( = ∞) is the carrying resistance of the frame:

(2)
The following relationship holds:
(3)
The reduction of the carrying resistance is:
(4)
Even for a relatively slender frame, namely FE ( = 25) = Fpl, so X = 1 the reduction ∆ = 8% and for X = 2 the reduction ∆
= 5.6%.
It can be concluded that = 25 is a sufficiently safe boundary value for the rotation stiffness of beam-to-column
connections in unbraced frames in order to consider them as rigid, ensuring that FE/Fpl ≥ 1.

As far as the moment resistance of beam-to-column connections is concerned, classification is simpler. If the
moment resistance of the beam-to-column connection is equal to the plastic resistance of the connected beam, the connection
is considered as full-strength. If not, the connection is considered as partial-strength. On the basis of the boundary for
the rotation stiffness and the boundary for the moment resistance a bi-linear moment-rotation characteristic is achieved,
as shown by the dotted lines in Figure 6.

If the moment-rotation characteristic of a beam-to-column connection lies on the left hand side and above the boundary
lines, this connection can be classified as rigid and full-strength.
The bi-linear boundary is rather severe for classifying beam-to-column connections, when it is compared with the
moment-rotation characteristic of a beam section. If the moment acting on a beam section exceeds the elastic
moment resistance, Me = 0.85 Mpl for an I-section, then plastification will develop and the stiffness will decrease. If
residual stresses are taken into account plastification will commence at M = 0.7 Mpl. So it is reasonable to cut off the bi-
linear characteristic with a third branch.
Tests show that beam-to-column connections with end-plates have an elastic behaviour up to at least 2/3 of the
moment resistance of the connection. On this basis, full-strength connections are required to behave elastically up to at least
2/3 Mpl,beam.
Theoretically the plastic resistance of a beam section is reached at an infinitively large rotation of the plastic hinge. In
practice a large percentage of the plastic moment resistance is reached at a relative small rotation.

In Figure 6 the boundaries are shown for braced and unbraced frames as given in Eurocode 3. In Figure 6 both axes of
the moment-rotation characteristics are normalised by dividing the moment by the plastic moment resistance of the beam,
so = M/Mpl; beam and by dividing the rotation by a reference rotation, so:
(5)
If the portion of its moment rotation characteristic which is used lies below the appropriate line in Figure 6, a beam to
column connection should be classified as semi-rigid, according to Eurocode 3 (Clause 6.9.6.2), unless it also satisfies
the requirements for a nominally pinned connection.
The requirements for rotational capacity are different for unbraced frames and braced frames. For unbraced frames,
rotation capacity has to be calculated with help of global frame analyses. The calculation is as follows: Assume a beam has
a pinned connection at both ends and is loaded by an equivalent distributed load transverse to the axis as shown in Figure
7. The ends of the beam are loaded with external moments M. The rotation at the end support due to the load will be:
(6)

In Figure 8 the M-φ rotation characteristics of three connections with strengths MRd (I,II and III) are shown.

Line II represents a connection with a stiffness which fits the elastic model as shown in Figure 7. No plastification occurs in
the beam when reaching the equilibrium situation. The stiffness of this connection is:
(7)
Provided that:

(8)
where Mpl.b is the moment resistance of the beam at mid span, this stiffness can be used in three situations.
For S < Sb (Line III): Plastification will occur in the mid span of the beam and, the required rotational capacity equals
. As a matter of fact, this will always occur in plastically designed connections. It is important to check, whether
the beam at mid span has sufficient rotational capacity. In other words: Is the section at mid span an Eurocode 3 Class 1
section (see Lecture 7.8.1(i).
For S = Sb (Line II), no plastic hinges will occur in the structure.
For S > Sb (Line I) plastic hinges will occur in the connections. In that case, the rotational capacity of the connections has to
be equal or greater than:
(9)
This is the rotation at the intersection between the horizontal branch of Line I and Line (a) in Figure 8. If the moment
resistance of the connection is determined conservatively, a positive effect is produced in the required rotational capacity of
the connection. For very flexible connections (S < Sb), the same effects arises if stiffness is underestimated.
A classification with respect to rotation capacity is not yet possible for unbraced frames. The rotation capacity need not
be checked only in cases where the moment resistance of the beam-to-column connection is larger than 1.2 Mpl;beam.
The plastic hinge will always form on the beam section adjacent to the connection. In other cases the rotation capacity
should be checked if redistribution of moments is taken into account. For unbraced frames the required rotation capacity has
to be calculated and checked against the rotation capacity which is available in the connection. For braced frames the
required rotation capacity can be determined by looking at the beam mechanisms which will form.
It appears that the classification described above can be used safely also for multi-storey frames and multi-bay frames (9).
3. RELATION BETWEEN FRAME AND CONNECTION BEHAVIOUR

Table 1 gives a summary of the possible relationships which may be adopted in designing frames and connections. Frames
and connections can be designed either by elastic theory or by means of plastic theory. It is even possible to perform
the calculations for frames on the basis of elastic theory and for connections on the basis of plastic theory, or the other
way around.
There is, however, one limitation. A connection which remains elastic up to failure can only be used in frames designed
by plastic theory provided that the calculated moment resistance is higher than that of the connected beam, and the
beam sections have to be of the Class 1 type (see Lecture 7.8.1(i)). Therefore, a full-strength connection is required in order
to achieve sufficient plastic deformation adjacent to the connection.
The summary given in Table 1 only holds for partial-strength connections. When the force distribution in a connection is
based on elastic theory, the connection will in general be stiffer than a connection designed in accordance with plastic
theory. Clearly, this statement only holds when the connection in reality fulfils the assumptions used in the elastic or
plastic theory calculations. It can be illustrated as follows. In using elastic theory, the hypothesis of Bernoulli holds
(cross-sections remain plane). Such a hypothesis is employed to calculate the force distribution in the bolts connecting the
end plate to the column flange. In reality, the end plate and the column flange have to remain plane. If this is realised,
the connection is stiff because the only deformation is caused due to the elongation of the bolts.
Using plastic theory, it is necessary for the components in the connection to deform sufficiently in order to obtain
a redistribution of forces and the formation of a failure mechanism inside the connection. The consequence is that such
a connection is in general less stiff than a connection designed according to elastic theory.
Table 1 shows which relationships between the design methods for frames and connections need further explanation.
The behaviour of elastically designed frames with elastically designed fully-rigid connections is well known.
Connections calculated on the basis of elastic theory which remain elastic up to failure are not allowed in frames designed
by means of plastic theory, unless the moment resistance of the connections is higher than that of the connected beams. On
the other hand, connections designed in accordance to plastic theory can always be used in elastically designed frames.
In Table 1, references are given relating to the design of braced frames according to the elastic theory, taking second-
order effects into account. These references discuss the use of the stiffness of the connection together with the bending
stiffness of the beam in order to reduce the (elastic) effective length of the column. In (10) it is shown that this approach
leads to a strength requirement for both the connection and the beam.

4. PLASTICALLY DESIGNED CONNECTIONS IN ELASTICALLY

DESIGNED FRAMES
In calculating the force distribution in a frame using elastic theory, the ultimate carrying resistance is not calculated. Instead
the forces and moments due to the design load are computed. If the ratio n between the Euler buckling load and the design
load is small, say smaller than 10, (see Lecture 7.7) second-order effects have to be taken into account. This can be done
by multiplying the components of the moments due to side-sway (in the case of unbraced frames) by the amplification factor
n/(n-1). If the moments, calculated in this way, are smaller than the ultimate moment resistances of the various
connections, then the connections meet the design requirements.
In the connections, designed in accordance with plastic theory, plastic deformations will occur when the ultimate
moment resistance is reached. This effect is taken into account in calculating the Euler buckling load using the bi-
linear approximation of the connection behaviour, which leads to a safe result (8). In the case of braced frames, the moments
in the connections due to loading will perhaps be underestimated if a low rotational stiffness is used. Therefore, one should
take an upper bound for the connection stiffness when calculating safe values for the moments in the connections.
This approach is in contradiction to the advice given earlier, namely the use of the secant stiffness (bi-linear approximation).
It is shown in the literature that using the bi-linear approximation for the rotational stiffness of the connection in calculating
the moments in the connection is still safe provided that the connection possesses sufficient deformation capacity. In the case
of unbraced frames the use of a lower bound for the rotational stiffness of the connection will lead to higher values for
the moments in the connections due to the increased second-order effects. However, the first-order elastic moment in
the connection decreases when a lower rotational stiffness is used. A lower bound for the rotational stiffness of connections
in an elastic design of an unbraced frame does not necessarily lead to a safe elastic calculation of the moment in the
connection. It is therefore necessary to use connections with sufficient rotational capacity even in an elastically designed frame.
5. ELASTICALLY DESIGNED CONNECTIONS IN PLASTICALLY

DESIGNED FRAMES
In frames where more than one plastic hinge is necessary in order to reach the plastic failure mechanism, the first, second
and subsequent plastic hinges have to rotate until the last plastic hinge is formed. This requirement holds for braced as well
as for unbraced frames. Partial-strength connections which remain elastic up to failure are not to be used, because they
possess insufficient deformation capacity. A method is given above for the calculation of the required rotational capacity
of connections in braced frames. The required rotational capacity in unbraced frames is larger, and should in fact be
calculated for the actual geometry of the unbraced frame. In most cases, however, an upper bound for the required
rotational capacity is about 0.04 radians.
● Real connection behaviour is characterised by:
⋅ design resistance
⋅ stiffness
⋅ rotation capacity
● Connections that are partial strength and/or semi-rigid influence significantly frame behaviour.
● Partial strength connections may be used in braced frames.
● Semi-rigid connections may be used in unbraced frames.
● It is possible to define tri-linear boundaries between rigid and semi-rigid behaviour.
● Rotation capacity is an important criterion for the safe use of partial strength connections.
● It is possible to apply elastically designed connections in plastically designed frames and vice versa. The consequences of
this application are treated in the last paragraphs of the lecture.
7. REFERENCES
1. Zoetemeijer, P., "A design method for the tension side of statically loaded bolted beam-to-column connections",
Monogr. Heron 20 (No. 1), Stevin Lab Techn. Univ. Delft / TNO Building and Construction Research 1974.
2. Zoetemeijer, P., "Bolted connections with flush end-plates and haunched beams", Test and Limit State Design Methods, Rept
6-81-15, Dept. Civ. Eng. Tech. Univ. Delft, 1981.
3. Zoetemeijer, P., "Bolted beam to column connections with flush end-plates and haunched beams", Test and Limit State
Design Methods, Rept 6-81-23, Dept. Civ. Eng. Tech. Univ. Delft, 1981.
4. Eurocode 3, " Design of steel structures" -Edited draft issue 3, November 1990.
5. Tautchnig, A., Entwicklung eines neuen makromechanischen Knotenmodells and Erstellung eines darauf aufbauenden
EDV-Programmes zur berechnung van Stahlskeletellragwerken unter Berücksischtigung nichtlinearer Nachgiebigkeiten
der Verbindungselemente ins besondere bei steifenloser Bauweise. PhD Thesis, University of Innsbruck.
6. Sugimoto, H., Chen, W. F., "Small end restraint effects on strength of H-columns", J. Struct Div. ASCE 108 (1982) 661-81.
7. Jones, S. W., Kirby, P. A. and Nethercot, D. A., "Columns with semi-rigid joints", J. Struct Div. ASCE 108 (1982) 361-72.
8. Bijlaard, F. S. K., Zoetemeijer, P., "Joint characteristics and structural response of frames, Steel structures - Recent
research advances and their application to design", Elsevier (1986) 109-133.
9. Meijer, H. S., "Influence of the rotational stiffness of column-beam connections on the behaviour of braced and
unbraced frames" (in Dutch), Technical University Eindhoven, Netherlands, 1990.
10. Snijder, H. H., Bijlaard, F. S. K. and Stark, J. W. B, "Use of the elastic effective length theory for stability checks of
columns and consequences for checks on beams in braced frames, instability and plastic collapse of steel structures", edited
by L J Morris, London, Granada, 1983, 152-63.
Table 1 Summary of Possible Design Relationships between Frames and Connections
Partial-strength connection
Elastic Design Plastic Design
Rigid Semi-rigid Full-strength Partial-strength
Frame Elastic theory First-order Braced Common practice Moment-rotation No particular No particular problems
has to be known problems to be to be expected
expected
Unbraced See Ref 4 Moment-rotation
characteristic has to be
known
Second-order Braced See Ref 4 See Refs 6, 7 See Ref 4 No particular problems
effects included to be expected
Unbraced Moment-rotation See Ref 5
characteristic has
to be known
Plastic theory First-order Braced Not allowed See Ref 4 No particular problems
to be expected
Unbraced Moment-rotation
known
Second-order Braced See Ref 4 See Refs 1-3
effects included
Unbraced Moment-rotation
known

ESDEP WG 14
Lecture 14.14: Methods of Analysis of

Rigid Jointed Frames
OBJECTIVE/SCOPE:
To give the designer a deeper understanding of how to analyse a rigid jointed frame structure and to describe the checks to
be performed according to Eurocode 3 [1].
PREREQUISITES
RELATED LECTURES
Lecture 14.10: Simple Braced, Non-Sway Multi-Storey Buildings

SUMMARY
In this lecture the following subjects are treated:
● First order elastic global analysis

● Second order elastic global analysis
● Rigid plastic analysis
● Elastic-perfectly plastic analysis
● Elastic-plastic analysis
● Possibilities and limitations for the choice of method
● Calculation of internal forces and moments.
The discussion is closely related to the Eurocode 3 [1] approach to the analysis and design of framed structures.
1. INTRODUCTION
In this lecture the methods of structural analysis are discussed. Structural analysis provides the internal forces to be used
in safety checks.
In the choice of the structural analysis method, different levels characterized by different degrees of accuracy can be obtained.
A very refined degree of analysis, and hence very accurate methods of analysis, are useless in most of the actual cases in
which the common simplified assumptions still hold. It is for this reason that most codes do not refer explicitly to the
refined methods and instead only advise simple methods of elastic analysis.
Most recent codes, e.g. Eurocode 3 [1], allow the use of all the well established methods of analysis. They therefore allow
the analysis of practically all types of structures using different methods of analysis, depending on the available
calculation tools.
The approach adopted by the Eurocode 3 [1] is followed in this lecture.
2. EUROCODE 3 APPROACH TO ANALYSIS AND DESIGN

2.1 General Approach
The Eurocode 3 [1] approach to analysis and design requires the following steps:
1. Classification of the frame

2. Assessment of imperfections
3. Choice of the method of analysis
4. Computation of internal forces and moments
5. Global buckling check
6. Checks of the members.
The procedure is outlined in Figure 1.

For the classification of frames, see Lecture 14.8. This Lecture 14.14 deals with imperfections, the different methods
of analysis and the calculation of internal forces and moments.
The global buckling check can be performed by means of exact or approximate methods.
For member checks, see Lectures 7.
2.2 Second Order Effects
Eurocode 3 allows a first order analysis in the cases outlined in Figure 2, i.e. in non-sway structures as defined in Lecture
14.8 or in sway structures when an indirect amplification is made of the moments. In particular, the indirect amplification
can be made by means of the two methods known as the Sway Mode Buckling Length Method or Amplified Sway
Moment Method. The procedures for applying the latter method is summarized in Figure 3. See also Section 3.4.4.


2.3 Imperfections
2.3.1 Common practice
In common practice global frame imperfections are not included in the analysis of rigid jointed framed systems. In
particular the geometrical imperfections of the frame are not usually taken into account.
Other imperfections, i.e. cross-section and geometrical member imperfections and mechanical imperfections, can be
considered part of the knowledge of the steel designer following the extensive research carried out in the 1960's.
Therefore, whilst columns are immediately characterized by initial camber and out-of-straightness and cross-sections
are affected by residual stress patterns, it is not yet usually assumed that also the frame is affected by initial out-of-plumb,
there is misalignment of the columns and girders and so on, due to erection procedures and fabrication processes.
In common practice the effects of all these imperfections on the frame behaviour are assumed not to be significant and
the safety coefficient takes into account the approximations of the analysis which assumes an ideal frame.
2.3.2 Definitions and Eurocode 3 provisions
As already indicated, it is not common practice to assume global frame imperfections in the analysis. This approach is
due partly to the fact that no extensive research has been carried out in this field. Some indications of frame imperfections
can be found in the ECCS Recommendations [2], and in [3].
The concept of frame imperfections was introduced in Eurocode 3.
A distinction has to be made between the allowable tolerances which can be accepted for erection purposes and the
values which might be included in the analysis of the effects on internal forces and moments.
For frame imperfections, see Figure 4, the Eurocode [1] provides in 5.2.4.2 the method of application at (1) and (2):

"Imperfections shall be allowed for in the analysis by including appropriate additional quantities, comprising
frame imperfections, member imperfections and imperfections for analysis of bracing systems. The effects of the
frame imperfections given in 5.2.4.3 shall be included in the global analysis of the structure. The resulting forces and
moments shall be used for member design".
Clearly frame imperfections cannot be neglected. The engineer now needs to know their values and how to include them
into design. Eurocode 3, at 5.2.4.3: Frame imperfections, provides the following indications on the values to be used:
"The effects of imperfections shall be allowed for in frame analysis by means of an equivalent geometric imperfection in
the form of an initial sway imperfection φ determined from:

φ = k c k s φ0
where
φ0 = 1/200
kc = but kc ≤ 1,0
ks = but ks ≤ 1,0
nc is the number of columns per plane
ns is the number of storeys".
Figure 5 shows the initial sway imperfection φ for the case nc = 2, i.e. for a one-bay multi-storey frame, together with a
curve representing the erection tolerances [3] for the same frame.

As an alternative to an analysis in which initial sway imperfections are explicitly taken into account, it is allowed to
replace these imperfections by equivalent horizontal forces on each floor, see Figure 6.
For more information on imperfections, see Lecture 14.9.
3. METHODS OF GLOBAL ELASTIC ANALYSIS
3.1 Premise
When defining methods of analysis to be used for the calculation of internal forces, it is necessary to make some
assumptions for the models to be adopted for the cross-section behaviour and for the material behaviour.
The models can be extremely simple, e.g. elastic analysis which assumes the material, the cross-section and the structure
to behave indefinitely in an elastic manner. Alternatively they can be more complicated up to the level of complete
simulation of the real in-elastic behaviour of the structure, e.g. elasto-plastic analysis.
The definitions, given below are extracted from the Eurocode 3 [1].
The first important division between the methods of analysis is the one which separates elastic and plastic methods.
Whilst elastic methods can be used in all cases, the plastic methods may be used only in the case in which the material and
the cross-sections satisfy specific requirements. The different types of plastic analysis are used depending on the
assumptions made concerning the material and cross-section behaviour and the specific analytical procedure adopted
for simulating the structure behaviour. In particular the most used types of analysis are Rigid-Plastic, Elastic-Perfectly
Plastic and Elasto-Plastic methods.
Another important distinction in the methods is between those which make allowance for the effects of deformations and
those which neglect these effects. In common practice these methods are also referred to as first order and second
order methods (Figure 7). It is clear that second order methods can be adopted in all cases since they do not make
any simplification. Therefore they lead to a more accurate evaluation of the internal forces and moments than first
order methods. First order methods in comparison have to be used with simplifying assumptions which guarantee that
the actions in the structure as derived by the deformed configuration are negligible when compared to the ones computed on
the undeformed structure.

For a quantification of these requirements, see Section 3.4.3.
3.2 First Order Elastic Global Analysis
First order elastic global analysis of rigid jointed steel frames can be carried out with the usual methods of structural
analysis. The method commonly used is the displacement method which uses the equilibrium equations for the
different internal actions in each node. The result is a system of equations where the displacements in each joint are
the unknowns. In matrix form the problem is written:
F = kδ (1)

where
F are the external actions on the nodes expressed in the global coordinate system
δ are the unknown displacements of the nodes in the global coordinate system
K is the stiffness matrix of the structure obtained by assembling the stiffness matrices of the different bars in the
global coordinate system
The solution of the system of equations in the unknown delta gives the global displacements. They enable, through the
transfer matrix, the local displacements at each end of the elements to be derived. Hence the internal forces and moments
are obtained through the element stiffness matrix.
The stiffness matrix of the single element, written in the local coordinate system in the case of plane frames, is found
in standard text books, see Section 7, Reference 6.
For first order elastic global analysis of rigid jointed frames there are no coefficients to take account of relative rotations at
the joints and of the change of the flexural stiffness terms due to axial loads.
Since it is a first order elastic method, the solution is a one step process without any need for iteration of the external loads
or updating of the matrices.
3.3. Second Order Elastic Global Analysis
It is sometimes necessary to take into account that the deformations due to the external loads can considerably modify
the structural response and therefore the value of the internal actions.
Second order analysis is carried out by using the equilibrium equations for the deformed shape of the structure and
the structural elements. In particular, for rigid jointed rectangular frames, the internal actions which cause the
most modification of the response are the axial loads. With this assumption, the second order effects can be restricted to
local second order effects (first non linearity), commonly referred to as P-delta effects, see e.g. Figure 8, and global
second order effects (second non linearity), referred to as P-Delta effects, see e.g. Figure 9.


Local second order effects arise in each element subjected to axial load (columns) due to the midspan deflection, whilst
global second order effects arise in the frame due to relative displacements between the floors (drifts).
3.3.1 Local second order effects (P-delta)

To take into account the local deformation of each element, it is necessary to rewrite the terms of the stiffness matrix of
the single element. This is easily obtained if the flexibility coefficients of a simply supported beam under axial loads, where
the effects of deformations of the beam itself are taken into account, are known.
To derive the flexibility coefficients, the differential equation of the simply supported beam of Figure 8 is written (see
standard text books on applied mechanics:
-EIw" = (2)
This equation shows that the bending moment includes also the effects of the axial load.
By imposing the boundary conditions, the values of the flexibility coefficients are:
α= ;β= (3)
where:
φ and ψ are coefficients depending on the parameter
kL = L (4)
kL represents the ratio between the design axial loads in the column and the Euler buckling load obtained assuming
no interstorey drift. φ and ψ are found in standard text books.
By adopting these modified flexibility coefficients, usual procedures for constructing the new beam stiffness matrix Ko can
be followed.
It is worth noting that, for values of kL less than 0,5, all the coefficients are approximately equal to 1 and therefore there is
no need to modify the beam stiffness matrix. For kL = 0 the first order situation appears with the exact values φ = ψ = 1.
3.3.2 Global second order effects (P-Delta)
To determine how the global frame stiffness matrix is affected by the effects of interstorey drifts in the case of
rectangular frames, only some of the stiffness coefficients of the single element have to be reviewed.
From Figure 9 it appears that a relative displacement u1 = 1 between the ends of the beam element leads to a modification
of the end shears:
∆V1 = λ and ∆V2 = λ
and, thus, to a modification of the matrix of the single element:
ki = k0i (λ) - λk1i (5)
where
k0i is the stiffness matrix which takes into account the local deformation of the element, which is relevant also for non-
sway frames
k1i is the matrix which takes into account global displacements of nodes.
The global stiffness matrix of the frame, which can be derived by assembling the single stiffness matrices with the
usual procedure, has a form similar to matrix (5):
k = K0 (λ) - λK1 (6)
To compute the elastic critical load in the exact manner, the determinant of the matrix (6) where Ko is the stiffness matrix

of the structure including the P-delta effects and K1, takes into account the P-Delta effects has to be zero. The
eigenvalue problem to be solved is:
|K0 (λ ) - λ K1| = 0 (7)
The different solutions of this equation represent the eigenvalues λ and the smaller one represents the elastic critical load of
the structure. Several numerical procedures are available in existing computer packages for finding these zeros.
3.3.3 Approximate evaluation of second order effects
As mentioned earlier in Section 2.3, second order effects can be taken into account approximately by making use of
equivalent horizontal forces applied at each storey. The procedure of second order analysis is an iterative one and makes use,
in each step, of an elastic analysis.
Equivalent horizontal forces can be applied as suggested by the Eurocode 3 [1] in lieu of the initial sway imperfections,
see Figure 6.
This section indicates, by reference to Eurocode 3 [1], strictly related to how to choose the level of elastic analysis of
the structural behaviour in order to evaluate the internal forces and moments for the safety check of members.
3.4.1 Effects of deformation
The internal forces and moments may generally be determined using either first order theory or second order theory
in accordance with 5.2.6.2 of Eurocode 3, see Figure 2:
● First order theory may be used for the global analysis in the following cases:
a. non-sway frames
b. sway frames, when design methods which make indirect allowances for second order effects are used

● Second order theory may be used for the global analysis in all cases.
When a first order elastic analysis is used based on the above assumptions, the calculated elastic moments may be
redistributed by modifying the moments in any member by up to 15% of the peak moment in that member, provided that:
a. the internal forces and moments in the frame remain in equilibrium with the applied loads
b. all the members in which the moments are reduced have Class 1 or Class 2 sections
3.4.2 Braced frames
The problem of choosing a first or second order elastic analysis can be solved by considering the detailed definitions
and explanations given in Lecture 14.9.
3.4.3 Non-sway frames
The definitions of the different systems (bracing systems and braced frames, sway and non-sway, etc.) are given in
Lecture 14.9. Following the choice of a structural system, assumptions are made concerning the structural behaviour.
These assumptions have to be verified. At this stage it is important to verify if the structure is a sway or non-sway type. For
this purpose the following practical procedure, given in Eurocode 3, 5.2.5.2 [1] as an application rule, can be followed:
"A frame may be classified as non-sway for a given load case if the elastic critical load ratio VSd/Vcr for that load case
VSd/Vcr ≤ 0,1
where
VSd is the design value of the total vertical load
and

Vcr is the elastic critical value for failure in a sway mode".
The problem is therefore shifted to the evaluation of the elastic critical load. Several procedures can be followed for
this purpose:
● exact evaluation of the elastic critical load

● evaluation of the elastic critical load by means of a deformability check
● approximate evaluation of second order effects
● indirect evaluation of the elastic critical load by means of an application rule suggested in Eurocode 3 [1] for simple structures.
For simple structures, 5.2.5.2 of Eurocode 3 provides the following application rule for the indirect evaluation of the
critical load:
"Beam-and-column type plane frames in building structures with beams connecting each column at each story level may
be classified as non-sway for a given load case if the following criterion is satisfied. When first order theory is used,
the horizontal displacements in each storey due to the design loads (both horizontal and vertical), plus the initial
sway imperfection applied in the form of equivalent horizontal forces, should satisfy the criterion:
≤ 0,10
where
δ is the horizontal displacement at the top of the storey, relative to the bottom of the storey
H is the total horizontal reaction at the bottom of the storey
V is the total vertical reaction at the bottom the storey".
The simple interpretation of this criterion is that the second order moment equal to Vδ is at least ten times less than the
first order moment H h, see Figure 7.
3.4.4 Design methods for the elastic analysis of sway frames (direct or indirect allowances)
As already indicated, a rigid jointed frame can be considered as a non-sway frame when the ratio between the design
vertical load Vsd and the critical load Vcr is less than 0,10. When this relation is not satisfied, it is necessary to include
second order effects in the analysis. For this purpose Eurocode 3 [1] allows the adoption of the following procedures,
see Figure 2:
● Direct methods for second order elastic analysis
1a The first method, the most general, consists of checking the safety of elements in buckling and strength on the basis of
the internal forces and moments computed with a second order elastic analysis as described in Section 2.3.2. For this
purpose the safety check of single elements is carried out assuming values for effective length corresponding to the case of
non-sway frames.
1b Alternatively for building structures, the approximate method known as the Equivalent Lateral Force Procedure can be
used. This procedure assumes there are no axial deformations in the members and that the second order effects are due only
to horizontal displacements. The procedure, which is an iterative one, evaluates the global storey moment, as given by the
total axial load times the relative storey drift, and therefore the equivalent lateral forces which then enable a new
horizontal displacement to be compared to the previous one. The procedure is stopped when the difference between
two subsequent steps is small in terms of additional forces or displacements.
For the strength and buckling safety checks the same considerations hold, as given in paragraph 1a above.
● Design methods which make indirect allowances for second order effects (5.2.6.2 of Eurocode 3)
2a In the elastic analysis of sway frames it is possible, as an alternative to second order analysis carried out by following
the procedures above, to carry out a first order elastic analysis by means of two different procedures in the safety check
of members. The first one is defined as the Amplified Sway Moment Method which can be adopted when Vsd/Vcr is less
than 0,25. The approximate evaluation of the second order effects is then based on the amplification of the bending
moments associated with the loading conditions which produce lateral displacements of the frame, see Figure 3.
The amplification factor for the moments is given by:
C = 1/(1 - Vsd/Vcr )
or, approximately, by:
C = 1/(1 - δV/hH)
The Amplified Sway Moment Method requires the adoption of an effective length for the member buckling checks, equal to
the one computed in the case of non-sway frames.
2b A second procedure, which still allows a first order elastic analysis, makes use of the effective length for the columns
as computed for sway frames. This procedure is known as the Sway Mode Buckling Length Method. The well-
known alignment charts or the Wood diagrams can be used for this purpose, see e.g. [4].
The calculation of internal forces and moments, amplified to take into account sway effects in the different ways
described above, is followed by the strength and buckling safety checks on the different members as discussed in other lectures.
3.5 Cross-Section Requirements
There are practically no limitations in choice of the cross-sections. Any class may be used, taking into account the limit on
the resistance of cross-sections due to local buckling.
4. METHODS OF GLOBAL PLASTIC ANALYSIS
4.1 Rigid-Plastic Analysis
The elastic methods described above enable a solution in terms of displacements from which the strains and therefore
the stresses can then be derived.
The classic methods of plastic analysis follow a different logical procedure. They are not concerned with the
elastic deformations and the subsequent stresses. Plastic theory, in its first and classical derivation, in fact is only
concerned with the derivation of the ultimate resistance of the structure and does not provide any information on
the deformations of the structure itself.
The methods which are commonly referred to as rigid plastic methods, and are described in Eurocode 3 [1], are the ones

which adopt these assumptions. In fact, Eurocode 3 [1], when referring to "Rigid-Plastic" methods (Clause5.2.1.4(6)), states:
"In Rigid-Plastic analysis, elastic deformations of the members and the foundations are neglected and plastic deformations
are assumed to be concentrated at plastic hinge locations".
The main difference between elastic and plastic methods is that whilst elastic analysis is concerned at the same time
with equilibrium and compatibility, in plastic methods, only the equilibrium equations have to be satisfied since the
structure can overcome the compatibility at different joints by allowing the formation of plastic hinges. It is clear that in
some cases the application of the plastic concept is more simple and straightforward. If elastic analysis is used,
the compatibility and equilibrium equations at the joints lead to the elastic distribution of internal forces; for plastic
analysis, the plastic resistance of the cross-section of each member connected at the same joint immediately allows the
ultimate resistance of that joint to be defined as the summation of all the plastic moments. The plastic method is
sometimes simpler therefore and provides more information in terms of ultimate resistance which, in the limit state
design philosophy, represents an important limit state. The safety of the structure is derived by defining the factored load
and the factored resistance. Another advantage of the plastic method is that it is insensitive to geometrical and
mechanical imperfections of the cross-sections and the frame since they affect the elastic distribution of stresses but have
no effect on ultimate resistance. A disadvantage of the plastic method is however that it cannot provide any
information relating to serviceability limit states since it has no concern with elastic deformations and loss of compatibility.
It cannot be used alone therefore and has to be complemented with an elastic analysis of the structure for serviceability.
4.1.1 Assumptions, limitations and cross-section requirements
The classical rigid-plastic methods are derived within the following main assumptions and limitations:
● the material and the cross-section are rigid-plastic, see Figure 10b. This assumption means that the value of the
ultimate moment (plastic moment) for each cross-section is the only parameter which affects the analysis. There is no need
to make any assumptions on the deformation capacity of the cross-section since the analysis does not lead to any
information on the deformations of the structure.
● there is no modification of the plastic moment due to the effect of shear or of the axial loads.
● there is no allowance for any buckling phenomena either in the members or in the entire frame.
● the loads increase in proportion.


In Eurocode 3 [1], to apply this method some requirements are made on the cross-section in order to guarantee that the
fully plastic moment can be developed and sufficient rotations are developed within the joints in which plastic hinge
locations are formed. Class 1 cross-sections have to be used.
4.1.2 Computation of collapse multiplier of loads
In order to compute the collapse multiplier of external actions, the classic theorems of plastic analysis are usually adopted.
The kinematic and static theorems which allow a set of unconservative (kinematic) and a set of conservative multipliers
(static) to be defined which includes the collapse multiplier. These well-known theorems are:
Static theorem: If a distribution of bending moments exists throughout a frame which is both safe and statically admissible
with a set of loads λ, the value of λ must be less than or equal to the collapse load factor λc.
Kinematic theorem: For a given frame subjected to a set of loads λ , the value of λ which corresponds to any
assumed mechanism must be either greater than or equal to the collapse load factor λc.
4.2 Elastic-Perfectly Plastic Analysis
The elastic-perfectly plastic methods are included in the category of plastic methods. They contain some improvements
with respect to classical plastic theory and therefore with respect to the rigid-plastic methods.
In particular, 5.2.1.5 of Eurocode 3 [1] states:

"In Elastic-Perfectly Plastic analysis it is assumed that the cross-section remains fully elastic until the plastic resistance
moment is reached and then becomes fully plastic. Plastic deformations are assumed to be concentrated at plastic
hinge locations", see Figure 10c.
The hypothesis and limitations are therefore practically the same as those already outlined for the rigid-plastic methods
except for the introduction of elastic deformations of the cross-sections which allow not only the global collapse load but
also the load-displacement history of the frame to be determined. To enable computation of the plastic rotations at all the
joints, a further hypothesis is made that the material and the cross-sections are perfectly plastic, i.e. they can undergo
indefinite deformations (rotations).
In practice an elastic-perfectly plastic analysis is carried out by means of a step by step procedure. This method, even though
it leads to the non-linear load-displacement curve of the frame, does not need any type of iteration. In fact it is simply made
by the contribution of several linear steps each one characterized at its end by the formation of one or more plastic
hinges which define the new structure to which further load is applied.
The collapse multiplier obtained using the hypothesis of elastic-perfectly plastic analysis is the same as that obtained under
the rigid-plastic hypothesis. This result arises, as indicated earlier, because the value of the multiplier is not affected by
elastic redistribution of forces but only by the equilibrium equations. The only reason for adopting a step-by-step analysis
to determine the collapse multiplier, is firstly to use a procedure which can easily be introduced in a computer program
having a linear package, and secondly that the required rotations in all the sections are given as part of the output.
To apply this method some requirements are given in Eurocode 3 [1] for cross-sections in order to guarantee that the
fully plastic moment can be developed and sufficient rotations are developed within the joints in which plastic hinge
locations are formed. Class 1 cross-sections are required if no computation is made of the required rotation while at least
Class 2 cross-sections have to be applied if they can provide the required rotation.
4.3 Elasto-Plastic Analysis
The elasto-plastic methods remove the hypothesis of elastic-perfectly plastic material. Therefore:
● the moment-rotation relationship defining the cross-section or the connection characteristic can be non-linear even if
the material is elasto-plastic due to the different shape factor of the cross-section itself, see Figure 10d. A generic non-
linear relation has to be introduced therefore instead of the elasto-plastic law for the definition of the plastic capacity of
the joints.
To introduce a generic non-linear moment-rotation relationship in the analysis an iterative procedure has to be followed. In
this case, some of the limitations of classic plastic analysis can be removed by making allowance for:
● making the plastic moment dependent upon the value of axial and shear load.
● local second order effects (beam-column buckling) and global second order effects (frame buckling).
● defining the ultimate value of the multiplier of external loads as the one which can be derived by excessive rotations of
the plastic rotations.
● the possibility of having loads which do not increase proportionally in each section.
These assumptions can be introduced in a complete non-linear program if an iterative procedure is introduced. In this case
the analysis is carried out by imposing small increments of loads or displacements and then by searching through
subsequent iterations to obtain the solution which satisfies equilibrium and compatibility in each step within
predetermined accuracy. In each step the plastic moment can be adjusted in order to take into account the axial and
shear effects. The stiffness matrices of the bar and the entire frame can be updated to take into account the local and
global second order effects by means of the procedures specified in Section 3.3.2.
Different well-known procedures can be used to obtain the best convergence of the iteration, i.e Newton, Newton-
Raphson, Riks, etc.
Eurocode 3 [1] refers to elasto-plastic analysis in Clause 5.2.1.4(8), as follows:
"In Elasto-Plastic analysis, the bi-linear stress-strain relationship may be used. Alternatively a more precise relationship may
be adopted. The cross-section remains fully elastic until the stress in the extreme fibres reaches the yield strength. As
the moment continues to increase the section yields gradually as plasticity spreads across the cross-section and
plastic deformations extend partially along the member" (see the dashed line in Figure 10d).
In elasto-plastic zones rather than plastic hinges developing, as shown in Figure 11, failure occurs if a mechanism of
fully plastified zones has developed. The number of fully plastified zones depends on the redundancy of the frame.

The elasto-plastic analysis is a method which is not likely to be used by engineers in practice but rather by researchers.
There are no practical limitations in elastic-plastic analysis since the complete non-linear analysis allows all possible effects
to be introduced into the simulation of the behaviour of the structure. To apply this method some requirements are given
in Eurocode 3 [1] for the cross-sections in order to guarantee that the fully plastic moment can be developed and
sufficient rotations are developed within the joints in which plastic hinge locations are formed. Class 1 sections are required

if no computation is made of the required rotation while Class 2 cross-sections have to be applied if they can provide
the required rotation.
Section 3.4 described the general definitions and procedures for calculating internal forces and moments, that are not only
valid for an elastic analysis but also for a global plastic analysis. Some additional requirements for global plastic analysis
are given by 5.2.1.4 of Eurocode 3 [1]:
a. when plastic global analysis is used, lateral restraint shall be provided at all plastic hinge locations at which plastic
hinge rotation may occur under any load case.
b. when rigid plastic methods are used, sway frames cannot be analyzed except as described in Section 4.4.1 below.
c. when elasto-plastic analysis is carried out, it may be assumed to be sufficient, in the case of building structures, to apply
the loads in a series of increments, stopping when the full design load is reached, and to use the resulting internal forces
and moments to perform resistance and buckling checks.
d. at the plastic hinge locations, the cross-sections of members containing plastic hinges shall have an axis of symmetry in
the plane of loading.
4.4.1 Plastic analysis of sway frames
When plastic analysis is used, Eurocode 3 (Clause 5.2.6.3) requires allowance to be made for the second order effects in
the sway mode:
"This should generally be done directly by using second order elastic-plastic analysis".
However, as an alternative, rigid-plastic analysis with indirect allowance for second order effects may also be adopted for:
a. frames one to two storeys high, provided that no plastic hinge locations occur in the columns, or else that columns
satisfy Clause 5.2.7 of Eurocode 3 [1], Column requirements for plastic analysis;
b. frames with fixed bases, in which the sway failure mode involves plastic hinge locations in the columns at the fixed
bases only (Figure 11), and the design is based on an incomplete mechanism in which the columns are designed to
remain elastic at the calculated plastic hinge moment.
● The methods of structural analysis have been reviewed in this lecture. Both the elastic and the plastic methods have
been discussed since all are explicitly referred to in Eurocode 3 [1].
● The design of rigid jointed steel frames, and in particular, how to use the internal forces derived within these frameworks
in safety checks, and how to adopt simplified rules, even when using a simple elastic analysis, have been also discussed.
6. REFERENCES
[1] Eurocode 3: "Design of Steel Structures": ENV 1993-1-1: Part1.1: General Rules and Rules for Buildings, CEN, 1992.
[2] European Convention for Constructional Steelwork, European Recommendations for Steel Construction, Bruxelles,
ECCS, (1978) 234.
[3] De Luca, A., Faella, C., Mele, E., Advanced In-elastic Analysis: Numerical Results and Design Guidelines for Rigid
and Semi-Rigid Sway Frames, SSRCW Shop in "Plastic Hinge Based Methods for Advanced Analysis and Design of
Steel Frames" Pittsburgh, April 1992.
[4] Ballio, G., Mazzolani, F. M., "Theory and Design of Steel Structures". Chapman and Hall, 1983.
1. Cosenza, E., DeLuca, A., Faella, C. In-elastic Buckling of Semi-rigid Sway Frames, Structural Connections: Stability
and Strength, London, Elsevier Applied Science, 1989.
2. Ballio, G. & Mazzolani, F.M. Theory and Design of Steel Structures, Chapman & Hall, London, 1983.
3. Dowling, P.J., Knowles, P.R., Owens, G.W., Structural Steel Design, Butterworths, London, 1988.
4. Galambos, T.V. Guide to Stability Design Criteria for Metal Structures, 4th Edition, John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1988.
5. Neal, B. G., The Plastic Methods of Structural Analysis, Wiley, J. & Sons, 1977.
6. Liverley, R. K., Matrix Methods of Structural Analysis, Oxford, Pergamon Press, 1975.
7. Capurso, M., Introduzione al Calcolo Automatico delle Strutture, Ed. Sciendtifiche Cremonese, Roma.
8. Massonnet, C., Save, M., Calcolo Plastico a Rottura delle Costruzioni, Milano, Clup, 1982.

ESDEP WG 14
Lecture 14.15: Tall Building Design

OBJECTIVE/SCOPE
To describe the various structural systems for steel multi-storey buildings together with their economies, relative
efficiencies and advantages. To discuss the primary design factors affecting the choice of system, and illustrate by examples
of actual application.
PREREQUISITES
Lecture 10.9: Composite Buildings
RELATED LECTURES
Lecture 14.12: Simplified Method of Design for Low-Rise Frames
Lecture 14.13 Design of Multi-Storey Frames with Partial Strength and Semi-Rigid Connections
Lectures 17: Seismic Design
SUMMARY
Numerous new structural systems for multi-storey buildings, especially in steel, have evolved since the mid-1960's. Many
new forms which are efficient and economical for different ranges of heights have been developed, including plane
frames, core truss systems, belt truss systems and varieties of tubular formations. Many of these systems have involved
both steel and reinforced concrete elements working compositely.
The evolution of the systems has also provided the impetus for many outstanding examples of structurally
expressive architecture. In some instances it has been possible, by exploiting recent advances in fire engineering, to leave
the steelwork exposed.

1. INTRODUCTION
Historically, the development of high-rise buildings in steel owes much to the rapid expansion which took place in Chicago
in the aftermath of the Great Fire of 1871. Determining factors were the scarcity of building land and the availability since
the mid Nineteenth Century, of elevator technology. A further prerequisite was a construction system which would
be sufficiently reliable, strong and stiff, to permit construction to great height and which would be fireproof.
Structural steel systems for multi-storey buildings evolved from the traditional cast iron column-beam systems of the
late Nineteenth Century. These systems involved massive floors of stone or brick masonry and structural members
were sheathed and encased in masonry. While the steel provided the basic resistance for carrying gravity loads, the
masonry encasements themselves provided considerable stiffening against wind forces in addition to fire protection.
These systems led to steel tiered construction, which generally maintained the rectilinear configuration of the frame,
but continuity of steel was now achieved through some form of semi-rigid, riveted or bolted, beam-column joints. The
frames were arranged with regular column spacings in both directions and were again encased in concrete or
masonry. Although the encasements contributed significantly to lateral stiffness, the frame itself was required to carry a
larger share of wind forces. The architectural expression was still dominated by masonry with terra-cotta or brick or
similar materials often providing adornments, bays and other decorations on the facades. The early Twentieth Century up to
the 1930's saw a proliferation of such systems which culminated in the Empire State Building in 1932[1]. The
massing involved variations in plan along rectilinear lines with setbacks often associated with zoning, with a pronounced
tower form and generally an articulated and decorated pyramidal top. On the interior, the column spans were generally in
the range of 6m to 7,5m.
As the demand grew for lighter, taller and more rapidly constructed structures, the same frame 'vocabulary' was continued
with bolted or welded rigid joints, often with diagonal wind bracing between some columns in the core. In time,
masonry cladding gave way to lighter forms of cladding, heavy masonry partitions were replaced by light drywall
construction and concrete fire protection was replaced by a light sprayed-on material. This trend is exemplified by the
25-storey Lever House Building in New York, built in 1952, which has a metal and glass facade and lighter non-
structural materials.
The trend in tall building design after the mid-1950's was to provide larger open spaces with longer spans and simpler
facades with a clearly perceptible column grid. The influence of Mies van der Rohe, with respect to modularity of facades
and structural frame expression, permeated tall building exterior architecture in the 1950's and 1960's. The frame
expression was often simply and clearly depicted on the facade or in some cases, by special emphasis if highly articulated,
as shown in Figure 1. The evolution of a modular metal and glass curtain wall not only gave rise to lighter enclosures, but
also to non-integral window wall systems which were simply supported on the structure. The floor plan was divided into a
grid pattern of regular bays in each direction and bay dimensions in the range of 7,5m to 10,5m were common. It should
be noted that such Vierendeel frames were basically very inefficient for resisting wind forces since they could not rely on
built-in encasements for some stiffening, and the structural premium for height was considerable. It was recognised that
the shear-frame concept was uneconomical for structures over 25 storeys in height.

The idea that steel components can be assembled in various forms to constitute an overall three-dimensional system which
can efficiently resist wind forces as a total system began to emerge in the 1960's. The main proponent of this design trend
was Fazlur Khan who systematically pursued a logical evolution of high-rise systems based on the premise that different
height ranges demand a new composition of steel framing to maintain a tolerable steel premium for height [2]. Many
systems were devised, such as Truss-Frame Interacting Systems, Tubular Systems, Bundled Tubular Systems, Mixed
Systems, etc. These structural developments, combined with the pervasive Miesian approach to the architecture of the
time, resulted in an explosion of structurally oriented architecture in the 1960's and 1970's, which can truly be identified as
the Structuralist phase. In terms of massing, simple rectilinear prismatic forms with flat tops were used for the most
part. Simple form modulations included transforming the plan into the shape of a cross or some other simple form.
A trend in the last decade has been to design buildings that are shaped both in plan and profile in a variety of ways to
respond to urban grid and subjective aesthetic criteria. Often the facade architecture has reference to historic buildings of
the turn of the Century with their masonry expressions and profile setbacks. Varieties of stone cladding and combinations
of stone and precast concrete and other materials have evolved. The facade architecture is often compositional in nature
(with the slides, consider including Philip Johnson's 'Chippendale' architecture - AT & T Building, New York (1978-83))
with respect to colour, texture and adornments. Geometric forms have involved not only overall shaping, but also
local undulations related to bays or projections. All these developments have suppressed the Structuralist form of
facade architecture in all but a few special cases. The structural systems approach has taken on an aspect of "mix and
match" where pieces or parts of structural systems are blended to create an overall system to fit the peculiarities of a
certain form [3].
A brief discussion of the generic high-rise steel systems is given below followed by some consideration of the design of
ultra high-rise systems. The system descriptions are conceptual in nature.
The height ranges (number of storeys) referred to in this Lecture for the various framing options relate to American
practice and American site dimensions. As slenderness is a significant parameter, the width of the building should be taken
into account in assessing the suitability of a particular bracing option for a building of a given height.
2. SYSTEMS EVOLUTION
The steel systems developed between 1960 to 1975, fit a logical evolutionary pattern with one development leading to
another, each new system being a link in the process[4]. Although the primary motivation for these developments
was structural efficiency, the systems offered great opportunities for Structuralist facade architecture.

2.1 Shear Frame Systems
Shear frames or Vierendeel frames, in which beams and columns are rigidly connected to provide moment resistance at
joints, are placed in two orthogonal directions to resist wind forces in each direction. Each frame is required to resist
its proportion of the wind shear, which is determined on the basis of its relative stiffness compared to the total. The
efficiency of development of lateral stiffness is dependent on bay span, number of bays in the frame, number of frames and
the available depth in the floors for the frame girders. Bay dimensions in the range of 6m to 9m are commonly used. In
these shear frames, the predominant contribution to sway deflection under wind load comes from the bending of beams
and columns due to the wind shear and to a smaller extent, from column shortening or the cantilever component (Figure 2).
The design of these frames is controlled therefore by the bending stiffnesses of individual members. The deeper the
member, the more efficiently the bending stiffness can be developed.
When the frames are regularly spaced in both directions, a rectilinear column grid is created which is suitable for
rectilinear plan forms. The architecture of these buildings has centred on bay or frame expressions. An outstanding example
of this expression is in the Business Mens Assurance Building, Kansas City - a 20-storey structure built in about 1960
(Figure 1). Frames can be placed at other angles or on an irregular basis to create various plan shapes to fill the area of
an irregular site. Shear frames can also be placed only on the exterior faces instead of using a grid arrangement of frames.
In current practice, buildings with pure shear frames are generally restricted to only a few storeys in height, since other
more efficient forms are available. However, the uncluttered rectilinear Vierendeel form may still be preferred in cases
where other forms involving diagonals or trusses may interfere with architecture and space planning. The basic inefficiency
in shear frame buildings arises from the need for moment-connected rigid joints which are expensive to fabricate, in addition
to the steel quantities involved. The optimization of frames in a practical sense has centred on minimizing the number of
such joints, replacement of field welding by field bolting, and similar criteria.
2.2 Shear Truss and Frame System
Shear trusses can be provided in the vertical direction, if the organisation of the core permits such an arrangement. In
general, building core elements including elevator banks are centralized and will permit core trusses connecting columns in
at least one direction. These trusses combined with perimeter shear frames produce a Shear Truss and Frame System
(Figure 3). There may be other interior frames which participate as well. This type of interacting system has a wide range

of application in structures from 10 to 40 storeys. In smaller buildings, the frame component may be eliminated, with the
result that all wind forces are resisted by the core trusses only. In some isolated instances, braces have been provided in
both directions. Particular coordination with respect to providing access into the core needs then to be considered.
The combination of the Shear Frame and vertical braces produces interaction of two modes of behaviour, that of a Shear
Frame and a Cantilever (Figure 3). This combination produces desirable results in the stiffness efficiency of the overall system.
Vertical trusses resist wind forces as a cantilever and therefore provide lateral stiffness more efficiently than shear
frames. However, the depth available to the truss, which is dependent on the planning of the core area, determines the
overall effectiveness of the system. For the truss bracing K-forms, X-forms or single brace forms can be used. The K-form
is commonest since the bracings do not participate extensively in carrying gravity load, and can thus be designed for
axial forces due to wind without gravity axial forces being a major consideration. In the X and single brace forms, gravity
axial forces may dominate in the design of braces.
In general, Shear Truss and Frame Systems produce the most economical steel structural system for buildings up to 30
storeys in height.
2.3 Frames, Vertical Trusses, Belt and Outrigger Trusses
The exterior fascia shear frames and the vertical trusses in the core can be tied together by a system of outrigger and
belt trusses which are provided at plant room levels, where the trusses will not interfere with the interior space planning.
Figure 4 shows the arrangement of trusses. The primary result of the outrigger trusses is the development of axial forces in
the exterior columns due to wind action. This behaviour significantly improves the lateral stiffness under wind forces. The
use of belt trusses on the facades, at the same level and perpendicular to the outrigger trusses, further enhances participation
of exterior frames in the cantilever behaviour. The belt trusses transform the two-dimensional frame system into a
three-dimensional frame system which resists wind action. The building sway under wind is significantly reduced by
the introduction of these trusses. A review of the deflection curve indicates two stiffening effects: one related to
the participation of the external columns in a total-building-width cantilever mode; the other related to the stiffening of
the facade frame by the belt trusses. Improvements in overall stiffness of up to 25% can result as compared to the Shear
Truss and Frame System without such outrigger-belt trusses (Figure 5). The effectiveness of the system depends on the
number of trussed levels and the depth of the truss at each level.


The accompanying slide set provides illustration of the first Wisconsin Centre, Milwaukee, a 42-storey building framed in
this fashion.
2.4 The Framed Tube
If the facade shear frame is made stronger by closer spacing of columns and larger member proportions and if such frames
are continuous at corners, the overall frame is transformed into a cantilever Framed Tube fixed at the ground. The
effectiveness of the cantilever depends on the minimization of the part of the sway deflection due to the shear frame. One
basic objective is to reduce this component to less than 25% of the total sway so that the predominant deformation is that of
a cantilever (Figure 6a). When such frames are provided on all four faces of a tower, one obtains a hollow
tubular configuration. This 'silo' form containing small window perforations is most efficient in resisting wind forces. Figure
6b shows the distribution of column axial forces due to cantilever action. The more the distribution is similar to that of a
fully rigid box with uniform axial stress on the flanges and triangular distribution on the webs, the more efficient the
system will be as a cantilever. The Framed Tube system was first introduced in the mid-1960's in reinforced concrete.
The dense grid exterior structure was readily formed, creating the appearance of a punched tube. This system was adopted
later for steel buildings.

The proportions of the Framed Tube require wide members for both beams and columns, and they need to be rigid at the
joints. In concrete, the rigid joint is achieved by the use of in-situ concrete, whereas in structural steel, the joints need to
be welded for rigidity and the members built-up for larger widths. The use of a prefabricated Framed Tube "Tree"
element (Figure 7) where all welding can be done in the shop in a horizontal position has made the steel Framed Tube
more practical and efficient. The "Trees" are then erected by bolting at mid-span of the beams. Considerable speed
of construction of the order of 3 to 4 storeys per week can result if "Trees" are used.

Steel Framed Tube buildings involve column spacings of 3m to 5m on the exterior which can be transferred or transitioned
into wider spacings, if required, at the lower storeys to integrate street level activities. Such tubular systems have been
used extensively for structures of 30 to 110 storeys in height. An outstanding example is the World Trade Centre in New
York. Tubular systems are generally adaptable to prismatic vertical profiles. For varying vertical profiles and
buildings involving significant fascia offsets, the discontinuity required in the tubular frame to achieve the shape
introduces serious disadvantages. The system can however, be readily adapted to a variety of non-rectilinear plan forms.
Figure 8 shows a particular plan configuration that has been used as a Framed Tube. Provided the proportionality of
the elements of the tubes is maintained, any closed overall form can be used as a Tubular system.

2.5 The Diagonalized Tube
The most efficient structure acting as a cantilever is the exterior Diagonalized system. This system was first introduced in
the John Hancock Centre in Chicago, a multi-use, 100-storey structure (Figure 9a).

The system is essentially a Trussed Tube with the fascia diagonals not only acting as a truss in the plane, but also
interacting with the trusses on the perpendicular facades to develop the tube action (Figure 9b). A principal advantage of
the Trussed Tube is that it eliminates the need for the closely spaced columns of a framed tube. In the John Hancock
Centre, the column spacing on the broad face is 12,2m and on the short face, 7,62m. Another advantage of this Tube is that
the interior is free from structure for resisting wind action. The Tube is therefore, most suitable for multi-function
buildings. Additional interior columns, as required, and simple floor framing complete the system [5]. The 100-storey,
337,5m high John Hancock structure required only 141,8 kg of steel per square meter of gross area of floor. The design of
most members was controlled by gravity forces rather than wind forces. Simpler fabrication and erection techniques
resulted from shop fabrication of joints and field bolting. The clear disciplined structure set the basis for the overall
exterior architecture of this building.
The system is most efficient in a single exterior closed form, especially when in a rectilinear shape. It is not readily
adaptable where interior tube frame lines are present, In some special cases, the interior diagonals can be organised to
suit specific office layouts. The principal of fascia diagonalization can be readily used for partial tubular concepts. For
instance, in long rectangular buildings, the end frames on the short face may be diagonalized, where the long face is a

Shear Frame. The end diagonalized frame may be in the form of a channel or "C" shape to provide wind resistance in
both directions. The diagonalization can also vary from a broad "X" form to smaller "X's", thus transforming each facade into
a diagrid braced system. Many variations are possible, each having its own impact on the exterior architecture.
2.6 Bundled Tube or Modular Tube System
The need for vertical modulation in a logical fashion has created a variation of the tubular structure based on clustering
or bundling of smaller sized tubes, each of which rises to a different height. This variation is typified by the bundled
tube system of the Sears Tower in Chicago, Figure 10. This building has brought about a new generic form of structure
called the "Bundled Tube" [6]. In the Sears Tower, the Bundled Tube is composed of 22,86m square modules, and
nine modules are lumped together to form the total system, as shown in Figure 10. These tubes rise to different heights and
are terminated when they are no longer needed architecturally and structurally. The walls of the tube are formed by columns
at 4,57m centres and deep frame beams at each floor. The introduction of Framed Tube lines on the interior greatly reduced
the influence of the "shear lag" effect that is present in exterior tubes of large side dimensions (Figure 10). The intent of
the system was not only to create a powerful structural system, but also to create vertical modulation in a logical fashion.
The development of a variety of floor sizes and shapes in the same building is considered a positive asset from the point
of view of marketing real estate.

The modularity and the conceptual basis of the Bundled Tube have a broad application. The cells or tubes can be arranged in
a variety of ways to create different massing. It can be applied to 30 storeys as well as to ultra-tall structures. Further, the
shape of each tube itself can be changed to any other closed clustered shape. Triangular and hexagonal units have been used
in some existing applications.
Two recent examples of the application of the Bundled Tube principle are worth noting. One is the Crocker Centre in
Los Angeles which involves two towers, 57 and 47 storeys in height. The site conditions together with considerations of
the sculptured form resulted in a shape which included a square tube and a triangular tube, as shown in Figure 11a. A
column spacing of 4,87m was selected for the Tubular system. A significant advantage of the Bundled Tube system is
the enormous torsional resistance which is helpful in absorbing torsional lateral forces due to asymmetry. In this case,
the torsional loads were generated both by wind and seismic forces.
The Framed-Tube buildings that have hitherto been adopted in wind controlled environments are now being adapted to
seismic designs, such as the Crocker Centre. Apart from meeting wind deflection and stress criteria, the detailing of
members and connections for ductility and an appropriate sequence of plastic hinge formation is required. Higher
tubular efficiencies result from deeper beam members. However, this advantage has to be balanced with the strong-
column, weak-beam principle to assure plastic hinges in the beam element. Other items include panel zone areas which need
to be reinforced with doubler plates.
The 75 storey, 296m high Allied Bank Tower in Houston is another example of the Bundled Frame Tube application.
The shape is formed by two quarter circles placed anti-symmetrically about the middle tubular line, see Figure 11b.
The column spacings are 4,57m with the usual "tree" type construction. The system also uses two vertical trusses in the
core which are connected to the exterior tube by outrigger and belt trusses. Significant improvement in tubular behaviour
is obtained because of the participation of the trusses. This system, therefore, embodies elements from the Framed
Tube, Bundled Tube and Truss systems with belt and outrigger trusses.
2.7 Mixed Steel-Concrete Systems
Mixed Steel-Concrete systems are now a well established new system that can be used as readily as either steel or
concrete systems for high-rise buildings [7]. Such mixed systems which involve reinforced concrete and structural
steel components in forms that are generally applicable, such as the Composite Tubular system, and Concrete Core
Braced systems, have been widely used. Composite structures in a true sense, they have liberated the traditionally
rigid discipline of either steel or concrete elements. The properties of concrete that are most attractive are its rigidity and
its ability to be cast into different types of structural elements. Therefore, most mixed systems rely on concrete for lateral
load resistance. Shear wall elements and/or punched wall or framed-tube elements with monolithically cast beam-column
joints are of higher strength concrete. Concrete has extended the application to structures of 50 to 80 storeys in height.
Concrete strengths of 40N/mm2 to 55N/mm2 are commonly used, but in some cases, strengths up to 95N/mm2 have been
used. The floor framing is of steel in mixed systems, which is advantageous because of the ability to span longer distances
with lighter members. Thus larger column-free spaces are possible.
2.7.1 Composite tube systems
The first Canadian Centre in Calgary, Canada consists of two towers and a 10-storey banking pavilion, located on an L-
shaped site. The two towers are 64 and 43 storeys in height. A sculpted form which provides diagonal vistas to mountains
and the city was highly desirable for this prominent corner site. Each tower is similarly shaped, basically involving
a parallelogram with truncated and re-entrant corners. The structural concept is based on a tube-in-tube concept involving
an exterior reinforced concrete framed-tube and an interior shear wall core tube. Structural steel floor framing and other
interior steel columns complete the system, as shown in Figure 12. The Tube system on the exterior is a combination of
Framed Tube of beams and columns with solid walls at the corners.

2.7.2 Core braced systems
In contrast to exterior Tubular systems, Core Braced Systems resist wind forces by shear walls in the core. Core walls for
wind resistance have been utilized quite extensively in concrete buildings. The closed tube shape is then in the interior
with access penetrations into the core. This type of core element can be used in a steel frame to form the Core Braced
Steel system. Since all wind forces are resisted by the concrete core, the steel components need only be connected non-
rigidly to resist gravity forces. In conventional buildings, the overall size of the core wall tube is limited by the
dimensional requirements of the core elements. However, it may be possible in some cases to evolve a larger wall system
that will be suitable for buildings in the range of 50 to 80 storeys as illustrated below.
Figures 13a and 13b show an arrangement of cores for a 75-storey structure which required considerable flexibility in
exterior shaping with offsets and setbacks. A lighter, non-rigid structure in steel on the exterior allowed this flexibility.
The Core Wall Tube system was planned with four inter-connected pods encasing an atrium in the lower part and an
octagonal shaped core in the upper parts. This simple arrangement of walls and cores allowed maximum efficiency of the
wall system for the structure and maximum flexibility for exterior architecture.

3. ULTRA HIGH-RISE STRUCTURES

As the height of a building increases, the ability to resist lateral forces becomes the predominant structural design criterion.
The major design criterion is the provision of enough lateral stiffness to limit wind sway and to limit occupant
motion perception to acceptable levels. The motion of the building is essentially dynamic and all factors that affect
this dynamic behaviour need to be considered. The structural parameters are stiffness, damping and mass. Among the
non-structural parameters is the aspect of aerodynamic shaping of the building which will have a significant effect,
especially in ultra-tall structures. Two wind effects are to be recognized. One is down wind behaviour, which is influenced
by the drag parameters of the shape, and the other is the cross wind behaviour influenced by the uniformity of the
vortex shedding inherent in the shape. While the basic design requirement of controlling lateral sway still predominates,
overall shaping of the form becomes equally significant. The architecture of the shape must then be suitably integrated with
its structural aspects to produce an optimum economic balance.
3.1 Superframe or Megaframe
Superframes or Megaframes assume the form of a portal which is provided on the exterior of a building. The frames resist
all wind forces as an exterior tubular structure. The portal frame of the Superframe is composed of vertical legs in each
corner of the building which are linked by horizontal elements at about every 12 to 14 floors. Since the vertical elements
are concentrated in the corner areas of the building, maximum efficiency is obtained for resisting wind forces. The vertical
legs and the horizontal links are themselves frames with large dimensions in the plane of the frame [3].
Inherent in the concept of a Superframe is the ability of the system to accommodate varieties of spaces suitable for
multiple functions. Historically, tall buildings which have multiple functions in a single building require flexibility of
spaces. Structures, such as the John Hancock Centre in Chicago, have successfully accomplished this flexibility. Ultra high-
rise Megastructures will need to further the idea of flexible space or modular spaces, where each space can be
planned efficiently for its own use and inserted into a Megaframe. Superframes allow this modularization of space to
occur with maximum freedom from structural encumbrance. Portal apertures on the exterior wall allow freedom of
expression for each unit and also provide access for daylight. Figure 14b indicates an arrangement of interior spaces with
an atrium in each space module.

The structural efficiency is obtained from the concentration of material close to the corners. Each of these vertical legs
is required to be stiff in its own plane. The legs then take the form of a diagonalized truss chord. The corner truss legs
need strong horizontal connections at frequent modular intervals to make them function together like an equivalent
cantilever. The horizontal members, therefore, will need to be equally stiff, and are diagonalized as well. The net effect of
this combination would be to produce an equivalent cantilever structure as effective as a Tubular system. An
appropriate diagonalization of structure is represented by an overall modularized diagrid frame, in which the
structural members within the portals are removed (Figure 14a). Figure 14a also shows the adoption of the Superframe
concept to an 80-storey structure in its simplest rectilinear form. The effect on the exterior architecture and the
potential possibilities can be clearly observed. While the example illustrates a rectilinear form, the concept can be used
for other forms where the principle of stiffnesses of horizontal and vertical elements and their inter-connections are met.

Figure 15 shows a study of a Superframe concept applied to a 170-storey, 655m tall tower involving 706.000 sq. metres
of floor space. The multiple functions involved are indicated in Figure 16a. The tower form, step-tapered from 88m x 88m
at the base to 44m x 44m at the top denotes the functional needs of space. The basic structure, Figure 15, involved
telescoping Superframes, not only to fit the overall geometry of the shape, but also to augment the structural stiffness.
The curtain wall was constructed over the general structural form and involved many more smaller offsets. A
significant innovation involved the provision of through-apertures in the building to reduce aerodynamic oscillations.
Their effectiveness was confirmed by wind tunnel testing. The equivalent dampening effect of this aerodynamic
shaping illustrates the need for such design coordination in supertall structures. The significant aspects of this structural
design were:

i. Telescoping of the Superframes allowed an orderly transition of the structure and the needed lateral stiffness.
ii. The aerodynamic behaviour was greatly assisted by the apertures which reduced the cross-wind accelerations and forces
due to vortex shedding by as much as 25%. The overall tapered form assisted as well in reducing the wind 'sail' area
gradually toward the top.
iii. The structural system efficiency was enhanced by the sequential load transfer from the interior to the exterior, as shown
in Figure 16, so that all gravity loads were carried by the Superframes.
3.2 Super-Trussed Tubes
The general concept of the exterior Trussed Tube can be extended to ultra high-rise structures involving multiple
functions. Figure 17 shows a 135-storey exterior Trussed Tube, which was submitted for a project competition in New
York. This slender form, having an aspect ratio of 10 to 1, involved approximately 185.908 sq. metres of floor space.

The arrangement of multiple functional spaces is indicated in the plans. The horizontal and vertical facets of the shape
were modulized so that a triangular shaped framing could be used without discontinuities. This framing resulted from
the concept of a tetrahedrally framed solid form where all the non-essential elements were eliminated to create the tube and
the external shaping of it. In order to express the purity of the structure, the window wall was placed a certain distance
behind the truss, creating an open truss trellis on the exterior. This open form has the effect of eliminating overall wind
vortex formation and would significantly reduce cross-wind oscillations. This is another form of aerodynamic shaping
to mitigate wind effects. The internal structure is supported on 3-storey tension truss elements which span across the
tube thereby eliminating the need for internal columns (Figure 17). This arrangement allowed the use of gravity steel in
the development of lateral stiffness and wind load resistance. It also made it possible to deal with the effects of
temperature contraction of the exposed, but clad exterior columns.

4. EXPOSED STEEL SYSTEMS

The beauty and essence of exposed steel can form the basis for exterior architecture as has been illustrated in the Hong
Kong-Shanghai Bank in Hong Kong and the Pompidou Centre in Paris. Exposure of steel on the exterior needs to address
the issues of fire and corrosion protection. Corrosion protection has been attained, in some cases, by the use of
weathering steels and, in others, by the use of durable, long-life, fluor-carbon paint systems. For fire resistance, liquid
filled members have been used on occasion. An outstanding example is the US Steel Building in Pittsburg. The analytical
fire engineering methods now available permit exposed steel system to be more readily designed. Such an approach was
used for Phase 11 of the Broadgate Project recently completed in London. The 10-storey office building spans 78m
over railroad tracks and its design was based on a tied arch solution (Figures 18a and 18b). This classic structure
clearly expresses the steel through its articulated members and joints. It stands as a symbol for what is possible in exposed
steel architecture.

● Numerous new structural systems for multi-storey buildings, especially in steel, have evolved since the mid-1960's.
● Efficient and economical forms suitable for different heights have been developed including:
⋅ Shear frame systems

⋅ Shear truss-frame interacting systems
⋅ Vertical trusses, and belt and outrigger trusses
⋅ Framed tubes
⋅ Diagonalised tubes
⋅ Bundled tubes
⋅ Modular tube systems
⋅ Mixed steel - concrete systems.
● For very high building structures, superframes and super-trussed tubes have been developed.
● Advances in corrosion protection and fire engineering have made it possible to use exposed steel systems giving impetus
to structurally expressive architecture.
6. REFERENCES
[1] Mujicha, Franciso, "History of the Skyscraper" Archaeology and Architectural Press, 1929, Copyright, 1930 by
Mujicha, Property of the American Institute of Steel Construction.
[2] Khan, Fazlur, R., "Structural Systems for Multi-Storey Steel Buildings".
[3] Iyengar, H., "Steel Systems for High-Rise Buildings", International Conference on Steel Structures, Singapore, March 1984.
[4] Iyengar, H., "preliminary Design and Optimization of Steel Building Systems", State of the Art Report No. 3,
Technical Committee No. 14: Elastic Design, American Society of Civil Engineers-International Association for Bridge
and Structural Engineering Joint Committee on Tall Buildings, August, 1972.
[5] Iyengar, H., "Structural Systems for Two Ultra High-Rise Structures", Australian and New Zealand Conference on
Planning and Design of Tall Buildings, Sydney, Australia, May, 1973.
[6] Iyengar, S. H. and Khan, F., "Structural Steel Design of Sears Tower", Conference on Steel Developments,
Australian Institute of Steel Construction, Newcastle, Australia, May, 1973.
[7] Iyengar, Hal, "Recent Development sin Composite High-Rise Systems", Council on Tall Buildings and Urban
Habitat, Monograph, Advances in Tall Buildings, 1986, Council on Tall Buildings and Urban Habitat, Meeting,
Chicago, Illinois, October, 1982.

ESDEP WG 15A
STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS: OFFSHORE
Lecture 15A.1: Offshore Structures:

General Introduction
OBJECTIVE/SCOPE
To identify the basic vocabulary, to introduce the major concepts for offshore platform structures, and to explain where
the basic structural requirements for design are generated.
PREREQUISITES
None.
SUMMARY
The lecture starts with a presentation of the importance of offshore hydro-carbon exploitation, the basic steps in
the development process (from seismic exploration to platform removal) and the introduction of the major structural
concepts (jacket-based, GBS-based, TLP, floating). The major codes are identified.
For the fixed platform concepts (jacket and GBS), the different execution phases are briefly explained: design, fabrication
and installation. Special attention is given to some principles of topside design.
A basic introduction to cost aspects is presented.
Finally terms are introduced through a glossary.
1. INTRODUCTION
Offshore platforms are constructed to produce the hydrocarbons oil and gas. The contribution of offshore oil production in
the year 1988 to the world energy consumption was 9% and is estimated to be 24% in 2000.
The investment (CAPEX) required at present to produce one barrel of oil per day ($/B/D) and the production costs (OPEX)
per barrel are depicted in the table below.
Condition CAPEX $/B/D OPEX $/B
Conventional
Average 4000 - 8000 5
Middle East 500 - 3000 1
Non-Opec 3000 - 12000 8
Offshore
North Sea 10000 - 25000 5 - 10
Deepwater 15000 - 35000 10 - 15
World oil production in 1988 was 63 million barrel/day. These figures clearly indicate the challenge for the offshore designer:
a growing contribution is required from offshore exploitation, a very capital intensive activity.
Figure 1 shows the distribution of the oil and gas fields in the North Sea, a major contribution to the world
offshore hydrocarbons. It also indicates the onshore fields in England, the Netherlands and Germany.


2. OFFSHORE PLATFORMS
2.1 Introduction of Basic Types
The overwhelming majority of platforms are piled-jacket with deck structures, all built in steel (see Slides 1 and 2).
Slide 1 : Jacket based platform - Southern sector North Sea

Slide 2 : Jacket based platform - Northern sector North Sea
A second major type is the gravity concrete structure (see Figure 2), which is employed in the North Sea in the Norwegian
and British sectors.


A third type is the floating production unit.
2.2 Environment
The offshore environment can be characterized by:
● water depth at location

● soil, at seabottom and in-depth
● wind speed, air temperature
● waves, tide and storm surge, current
● ice (fixed, floes, icebergs)
● earthquakes (if necessary)
The topside structure also must be kept clear of the wave crest. The clearance (airgap) usually is taken at approximately 1,50
m, but should be increased if reservoir depletion will create significant subsidence.
2.3 Construction
The environment as well as financial aspects require that a high degree of prefabrication must be performed onshore. It
is necessary to design to limit offshore work to a minimum. The overall cost of a man-hour offshore is approximately
five times that of an onshore man-hour. The cost of construction equipment required to handle loads, and the cost for
logistics are also a magnitude higher offshore.
These factors combined with the size and weight of the items, require that a designer must carefully consider all
construction activities between shop fabrication and offshore installation.
2.4 Codes
Structural design has to comply with specific offshore structural codes. The worldwide leading structural code is the API-
RP2A [1]. The recently issued Lloyds rules [2] and the DnV rules [3] are also important.
Specific government requirements have to be complied with, e.g. in the rules of Department of Energy (DoE),
Norwegian Petroleum Direktorate (NPD). For the detail design of the topside structure the AISC-code [4] is frequently
used, and the AWS-code [5] is used for welding.
In the UK the Piper alpha diaster has led to a completely new approach to regulation offshore. The responsibility for
regulatory control has been moved to the Health and Safety Executive (HSE) and the operator has to produce a formal
safety assessment (TSA) himself instead of complying with detailed regulations.
2.5 Certification and Warranty Survey
Government authorities require that recognized bodies appraise the aspects of structural integrity and issue a certificate to
that purpose.
The major certification bodies are:
● Det norske Veritas (DnV)

● Lloyds Register of Shipping (LRS)
● American Bureau of Shipping (ABS)
● Bureau Veritas (BV)
● Germanischer Lloyd (GL)
Their requirements are available to the designer [2, 3, 6, 7, 8].
Insurance companies covering transport and installation require the structures to be reviewed by warranty surveyors
before acceptance. The warranty surveyors apply standards, if available, on a confidential basis.
3. OFFSHORE DEVELOPMENT OF AN OIL/GAS FIELD
3.1 Introduction
The different requirements of an offshore platform and the typical phases of an offshore development are summarized in
[9]. After several initial phases which include seismic field surveying, one or more exploration wells are drilled. Jack-
up drilling rigs are used for this purpose for water depths up to 100 - 120 m; for deeper water floating rigs are used. The
results are studied and the economics and risks of different development plans are evaluated. Factors involved in the
evaluation may include number of wells required, fixed or floated production facilities, number of such facilities, and
pipeline or tanker off-loading.
As soon as exploitation is decided and approved, there are four main technical activities, prior to production:
● engineering and design

● fabrication and installation of the production facility
● drilling of production wells, taking 2 - 3 months/well

● providing the off loading system (pipelines, tankers, etc.).
The drilling and construction interaction is described below for two typical fixed platform concepts.
3.2 Jacket Based Platform for Shallow Water
First the jacket is installed. The wells are then drilled by a jack-up drilling unit standing close by with a cantilever rig
extending over the jacket. Slide 3 shows a jack-up drilling unit with a cantilever rig. (In this instance it is engaged
in exploratory drilling and is therefore working in isolation.)
Slide 3 : Cantilevered drilling rig: Self-elevating (jack-up) exploration drilling platform.
Design and construction of the topside are progressed parallel to the drilling, allowing production to start soon after
deck installation. For further wells, the jack-up drilling unit will be called once again and will reach over the well area of
the production deck.
As an alternative to this concept the wells are often accommodated in a separate wellhead platform, linked by a bridge to
the production platform (see Slide 1).
3.3 Jacket and Gravity Based Platform for Deep Water

The wells are drilled from a drilling rig on the permanent platform (see Slide 2). Drilling starts after the platform is built
and completely installed. Consequently production starts between one and two years after platform installation.
In recent years pre-drilled wells have been used to allow an earlier start of the production. In this case the platform has to
be installed exactly above the pre-drilled wells.
4. JACKETS AND PILE FOUNDATION
4.1 Introduction
Jackets, the tower-like braced tubular structures, generally perform two functions:
● They provide the substructure for the production facility (topside), keeping it stable above the waves.
● They support laterally and protect the 26-30 inch well conductors and the pipeline riser.
The installation methods for the jacket and the piles have a profound impact on the design.
4.2 Pile Foundation
The jacket foundation is provided by open-ended tubular steel piles, with diameters up to 2m. The piles are
driven approximately 40 - 80 m, and in some cases 120 m deep into the seabed.
There are basically three types of pile/jacket arrangement (see Figure 3):

Pile-through-leg concept, where the pile is installed in the corner legs of the jacket.
Skirt piles through pile sleeves at the jacket-base, where the pile is installed in guides attached to the jacket leg. Skirt piles
can be grouped in clusters around each of the jacket legs.

Vertical skirt piles are directly installed in the pile sleeve at the jacket base; all other guides are deleted. This
arrangement results in reduced structural weight and easier pile driving. In contrast inclined piles enlarge the foundation at
the bottom, thus providing a stiffer structure.
4.3 Pile Bearing Resistance
Axial load resistance is required for bearing as well as for tension. The pile accumulates both skin friction as well as
end bearing resistance.
Lateral load resistance of the pile is required for restraint of the horizontal forces. These forces lead to significant bending
of the pile near to the seabed.
Number, arrangement, diameter and penetration of the piles depend on the environmental loads and the soil conditions at
the location.
The most usual form of corrosion protection of the bare underwater part of the jacket as well as the upper part of the piles
in soil is by cathodic protection using sacrificial anodes. A sacrificial anode (approximate 3 kN each) consists of a
zinc/aluminium bar cast about a steel tube and welded on to the structures. Typically approximately 5% of the jacket weight
is applied as anodes.
The steelwork in the splash zone is usually protected by a sacrificial wall thickness of 12 mm to the members.
5. TOPSIDES
5.1 Introduction
The major functions on the deck of an offshore platform are:
● well control
● support for well work-over equipment
● separation of gas, oil and non-transportable components in the raw product, e.g. water, parafines/waxes and sand
● support for pumps/compressors required to transport the product ashore
● power generation
● accommodation for operating and maintenance staff.

There are basically two structural types of topside, the integrated and modularized topside which are positioned either on
a jacket or on a concrete gravity substructure.
5.2 Jacket-based Topsides
5.2.1 Concepts
There are four structural concepts in practice. They result from the lifting capacity of crane vessels and the load-out capacity
at the yards:
● the single integrated deck (up to approx 100 MN)

● the split deck in two four-leg units
● the integrated deck with living quarter module
● the modularized topside consisting of module support frame (MSF) carrying a series of modules.
Slide 4 shows an integrated deck (though excluding the living quarters and helideck) being moved from its assembly building.
Slide 4 : Integrated topside during load out
5.2.2 Structural Design for Integrated Topsides

For the smaller decks, up to approximately 100 MN weight, the support structure consists of trusses or portal frames
with deletion of diagonals.
The moderate vertical load and shear per column allows the topside to be supported by vertical columns (deck legs) only,
down to the top of the piles (situated at approximately +4 m to +6 m L.A.T. (Low Astronomic Tide).
5.2.3 Structural Design for Modularized Jacket-based Topsides
A major modularized topside weighs 200 to 400 MN. In this case the MSF is a heavy tubular structure (Figure 4), with
lateral bracing down to the top of jacket.

5.3 Structural Design for Modularized Gravity-based Topsides
The topsides to be supported by a gravity-based substructure (see Figure 2) are in a weight range of 200 MN up to 500 MN.
The backbone of the structure is a system of heavy box-girders with a height of approximately 10 m and a width
of approximately 12 - 15 m (see Figure 5).

The substructure of the deck is rigidly connected to the concrete column and acts as a beam supporting the deck modules.
This connection introduces wave-induced fatigue in the deck structure. A recent development, foreseen for the Norwegian
Troll platform, is to provide a flexible connection between the deck and concrete column, thus eliminating fatigue in the
deck [10].

6. EQUIPMENT AND LIVING QUARTER MODULES

Equipment modules (20-75 MN) have the form of rectangular boxes with one or two intermediate floors.
The floors are steel plate (6, 8 or 10 mm thick) for roof and lower floor, and grating for intermediate floors.
In living quarter modules (5-25 MN) all sleeping rooms require windows and several doors must be provided in the outer
walls. This requirement can interfere seriously with truss arrangements. Floors are flat or stiffened plate.
Three types of structural concepts, all avoiding interior columns, can be distinguished:
● conventional trusses in the walls.

● stiffened plate walls (so called stressed skin or deck house type).
● heavy base frame (with wind bracings in the walls).
7. CONSTRUCTION
7.1 Introduction
The design of offshore structures has to consider various requirements of construction relating to:
1. fabrication.
2. weight.
3. load-out.
4. sea transport.
5. offshore installation.
6. module installation.
7. hook-up.
8. commissioning.
A documented construction strategy should be available during all phases of the design and the actual design
development should be monitored against the construction strategy.
Construction is illustrated below by four examples.
7.2 Construction of Jackets and Topsides

7.2.1 Lift Installed Jackets
The jacket is built in the vertical (smaller jackets) or horizontal position (bigger jackets) on a quay of a fabrication site.
The jacket is loaded-out and seafastened aboard a barge. At the offshore location the barge is moored alongside an
offshore crane vessel.
The jacket is lifted off the barge, upended from the horizontal, and carefully set down onto the seabed.
After setting down the jacket, the piles are installed into the sleeves and, driven into the seabed. Fixing the piles to the
jacket completes the installation.
7.2.2 Launch Installed Jackets
The jacket is built in horizontal position.
For load-out to the transport barge, the jacket is put on skids sliding on a straight track of steel beams, and pulled onto the
barge (Slide 5).

Slide 5 : Jacket being loaded onto barge by skidding
At the offshore location the jacket is slid off the barge. It immerses deeply into the water and assumes a floating
position afterwards (see Figure 6).

Two parallel heavy vertical trusses in the jacket structure are required, capable of taking the support reactions during
launching. To reduce forces and moments in the jacket, rocker arms are attached to the stern of the barge.
The next phase is to upright the jacket by means of controlled flooding of the buoyancy tanks and then set down onto
the seabed. Self-upending jackets obtain a vertical position after the launch on their own. Piling and pile/jacket
fixing completes the installation.
7.2.3 Topsides for a Gravity-Based Structure (GBS)
The topside is assembled above the sea on a temporary support near a yard. It is then taken by a barge of such dimensions as
to fit between the columns of the temporary support and between the columns of the GBS. The GBS is brought in a
deep floating condition in a sheltered site, e.g. a Norwegian fjord. The barge is positioned between the columns and the GBS
is then deballasted to mate with and to take over the deck from the barge. The floating GBS with deck is then towed to
the offshore site and set down onto the seabed.
7.2.4 Jacket Topsides
For topsides up to approximately 120 MN, the topside may be installed in one lift. Slide 6 shows a 60 MN topside
being installed by floating cranes.
Slide 6 : Installation of 60MN K12-BP topside by floating crane
For the modularized topside, first the MSF will be installed, immediately followed by the modules.
7.3 Offshore Lifting
Lifting of heavy loads from barges (Slide 6) is one of the very important and spectacular construction activities requiring
a focus on the problem when concepts are developed. Weather windows, i.e. periods of suitable weather conditions,
are required for these operations.
7.3.1 Crane Vessel
Lifting of heavy loads offshore requires use of specialized crane vessels. Figure 7 provides information on a typical big,
dual crane vessel. Table 1 (page 16) lists some of the major offshore crane vessels.

7.3.2 Sling-arrangement, Slings and Shackles
For lifting, steel wire ropes in a four-sling arrangement are used which directly rest in the four-point hook of the crane
vessel, (see Figure 8). The heaviest sling available now has a diameter of approximately 350 mm, a breaking load
of approximately 48 MN, and a safe working load (SWL) of 16 MN. Shackles are available up to 10 MN SWL to connect
the padeyes installed at the module's columns. Due to the space required, connecting more than one shackle to the same
column is not very attractive. So when the sling load exceeds 10 MN, padears become an option.

Table 1 Major Offshore Crane Vessels

Operator Name Mode Type Lifting capacity (Tonnes)

Heerema Thor Monohull Fix 2720
Rev 1820
Odin Monohull Fix 2720
Rev 2450
Hermod Semisub Fix 4536 + 3628 = 8164
Rev 3630 + 2720 = 6350
Balder Semisub Fix 3630 + 2720 = 6350
Rev 3000 + 2000 = 5000
McDermott DB50 Monohull Fix 4000
Rev 3800
DB100 Semisub Fix 1820
Rev 1450
DB101 Semisub Fix 3360
Rev 2450
DB102 Semisub Rev 6000 + 6000 = 12000
Micoperi M7000 Semisub Rev 7000 + 7000 = 14000
ETPM DLB1601 Monohull Rev. 1600
Notes:
1. Rated lifting capacity in metric tonnes.

2. When the crane vessels are provided with two cranes, these cranes are situated at the vessels stern or bow at approximately
60 m distance c.t.c.
1. 3. Rev = Load capability with fully revolving crane.

Fix = Load capability with crane fixed.
Transportation is performed aboard a flat-top barge or, if possible, on the deck of the crane vessel.
The module requires fixing to the barge (see Figure 9) to withstand barge motions in rough seas. The sea fastening concept
is determined by the positions of the framing in the module as well as of the "hard points" in the barge.

7.5 Load-out
7.5.1 Introduction
For load-out three basic methods are applied:
● skidding
● platform trailers
● shearlegs.
7.5.2 Skidding
Skidding is a method feasible for items of any weight. The system consists of a series of steel beams, acting as track, on
which a group of skids with each approximately 6 MN load capacity is arranged. Each skid is provided with a hydraulic jack
to control the reaction.
7.5.3 Platform Trailers
Specialized trailer units (see Figure 10) can be combined to act as one unit for loads up to 60 - 75 MN. The wheels
are individually suspended and integrated jacks allow adjustment up to 300 mm.


The load capacity over the projected ground area varies from approximately 55 to 85 kN/sq.m.
The units can drive in all directions and negotiate curves.
7.5.4 Shearlegs
Load-out by shearlegs is attractive for small jackets built on the quay. Smaller decks (up to 10 - 12 MN) can be loaded out
on the decklegs pre-positioned on the barge, thus allowing deck and deckleg to be installed in one lift offshore.
7.6 Platform Removal
In recent years platform removal has become common. The mode of removal depends strongly on the regulations of the
local authorities. Provision for removal should be considered in the design phase.
8. STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS
8.1 Introduction
The majority of structural analyses are based on the linear theory of elasticity for total system behaviour. Dynamic analysis
is performed for the system behaviour under wave-attack if the natural period exceeds 3 seconds. Many elements can
exhibit local dynamic behaviour, e.g. compressor foundations, flare-stacks, crane-pedestals, slender jacket
members, conductors.
8.2 In-place Phase
Three types of analysis are performed:
● Survival state, under wave/current/wind attack with 50 or 100 years recurrence period.
● Operational state, under wave/current/wind attack with 1 or 5 years recurrence period, under full operation.
● Fatigue assessment.
● Accidental.
All these analyses are performed on the complete and intact structure. Assessments at damaged structures, e.g. with
one member deleted, and assessments of collision situations are occasionally performed.
8.3 Construction Phase
The major phases of construction when structural integrity may be endangered are:
● Load-out
● Sea transport
● Upending of jackets
● Lifting.
9. COST ASPECTS
9.1 Introduction
The economic feasibility of an offshore project depends on many aspects: capital expenditure (CAPEX), tax,
royalties, operational expenditure (OPEX).
In a typical offshore field development, one third of the CAPEX is spent on the platform, one third on the drilling of wells
and one third on the pipelines.
Cost estimates are usually prepared in a deterministic approach. Recently cost-estimating using a probabilistic approach
has been developed and adopted in major offshore projects.
The CAPEX of an installed offshore platform topside amounts to approximately 20 ECU/kg.
9.2 Capital Expenditure (CAPEX)
The major elements in the CAPEX for an offshore platform are:
● project management and design

● material and equipment procurement
● fabrication
● transport and installation
● hook-up and commissioning.
9.3 Operational Expenditure (OPEX)
In the North Sea approximately 20 percent of OPEX are required for offshore inspection, maintenance and repair (IMR).
The amount to be spent on IMR over the project life can add up to approximately half the original investment.
IMR is the area in which the structural engineer makes a contribution by effort in design, selection of material,
improved corrosion protection, accessibility, basic provisions for scaffolding, avoiding jacket attachments dangerous to
divers, etc.
10. DEEP WATER DEVELOPMENTS

Deep water introduces a wide range of extra difficulties for the operator, the designer and constructor of offshore platforms.
Fixed platforms have recently been installed in water of 410 m. depth, i.e. "Bullwinkle" developed by Shell Oil for a Gulf
of Mexico location. The jacket weighed nearly 500 MN.
The maximum depth of water at platform sites in the North Sea is approximately 220 m at present. The development of
the Troll field situated in approximately 305 m deep water is planned for 1993.
In the Gulf of Mexico and offshore California several fixed platforms in water depths of 250 - 350 m are in operation
(Cerveza, Cognac). Exxon has a guyed tower platform (Lena) in operation in 300 m deep water.
An option for deeper locations is to use subsea wells with flowlines to a nearby (approximately maximum 10 km)
fixed platform at a smaller water depth. Alternatively subsea wells may be used with flexible risers to a floating
production unit. Subsea wells are now feasible for 300 - 900 m deep water. The deepest wells have been developed off Brasil
in moderate weather conditions.
The tension leg platform (TLP) seems to be the most promising deepwater production unit (Figure 11). It consists of a
semi-submersible pontoon, tied to the seabed by vertical prestressed tethers. The first TLP was Hutton in the North Sea
and recently TLP-Jolliet was installed at a 530 m deep location in the Gulf of Mexico. Norwegian Snorre and Heidrun
fields have been developed with TLPs as well.



● The lecture starts with the presentation of the importance of offshore hydro-carbon exploitation, the basic steps in
the development process (from seismic exploration to platform removal) and the introduction of the major structural
concepts (jacket-based, GBS-based, TLP, floating).
● The major codes are identified.
● For the fixed platform concepts (jacket and GBS), the different execution phases are briefly explained: design, fabrication
and installation. Special attention is given to the principles of topside design.
● A basic introduction to cost aspects is presented.
● Finally terms are introduced within a glossary.
12. GLOSSARY OF TERMS

AIR GAP Clearance between the top of maximum wave and underside of the topside.
CAISSONS See SUMPS
CONDUCTORS The tubular protecting and guiding the drill string from the topside down to 40 to 100m under the sea
bottom. After drilling it protects the well casing.
G.B.S. Gravity based structure, sitting flatly on the sea bottom, stable through its weight.
HOOK-UP Connecting components or systems, after installation offshore.
JACKET Tubular sub-structure under a topside, standing in the water and pile founded.
LOAD-OUT The operation of bringing the object (module, jacket, deck) from the quay onto the transportation barge.
PADEARS (TRUNNIONS) Thick-walled tubular stubs, directly receiving slings and transversely welded to the main structure.

PADEYES Thick-walled plate with hole, receiving the pin of the shackle, welded to the main structure.
PIPELINE RISER The piping section which rises from the sea bed to topside level.
SEA-FASTENING The structure to keep the object rigidly connected to the barge during transport.
SHACKLES Connecting element (bow + pin) between slings and padeyes.
SLINGS Cables with spliced eyed at both ends, for offshore lifting, the upper end resting in the crane hook.
SPREADER Tubular frame, used in lifting operation.
SUBSEA TEMPLATE Structure at seabottom, to guide conductors prior to jacket installation.
SUMPS Vertical pipes from topside down to 5-10 m below water level for intake or discharge.
TOPSIDE Topside, the compact offshore process plant, with all auxiliaries, positioned above the waves.
UP ENDING Bringing the jacket in vertical position, prior to set down on the sea bottom.
WEATHER WINDOW
A period of calm weather, defined on basis of operational limits for the offshore marine operation.
WELLHEAD AREA Area in topside where the wellheads are positioned including the valves mounted on its top.
13. REFERENCES
[1] API-RP2A: Recommended practice for planning, designing and constructing fixed offshore platforms.
American Petroleum Institute 18th ed. 1989.
The structural offshore code, governs the majority of platforms.
[2] LRS Code for offshore platforms.

Lloyds Register of Shipping.
London (UK) 1988.
Regulations of a major certifying authority.
[3] DnV: Rules for the classification of fixed offshore installations.
Det Norske Veritas 1989.
Important set of rules.
[4] AISC: Specification for the design, fabrication and erection of structural steel for buildings.
American Institute of Steel Construction 1989.
Widely used structural code for topsides.
[5] AWS D1.1-90: Structural Welding Code - Steel.
American Welding Society 1990.
The structural offshore welding code.
[6] DnV/Marine Operations: Standard for insurance warranty surveys in marine operations.
Det norske Veritas June 1985.
[7] ABS: Rules for building and classing offshore installations, Part 1 Structures.
American Bureau of Shipping 1983.

[8] BV: Rules and regulations for the construction and classification of offshore platforms.
Bureau Veritas, Paris 1975.
[9] ANON: A primer of offshore operations.
Petex Publ. Austin U.S.A 2nd ed. 1985.
Fundamental information about offshore oil and gas operations.
[10] AGJ Berkelder et al: Flexible deck joints.
ASME/OMAE-conference The Hague 1989 Vol.II pp. 753-760.
Presents interesting new concept in GBS design.

1. BS 6235: Code of practice for fixed offshore structures.
British Standards Institution 1982.
Important code, mainly for the British offshore sector.
2. DoE Offshore installations: Guidance on design and construction, U.K. Department of Energy 1990.
Governmental regulations for British offshore sector only.
3. UEG: Design of tubular joints (3 volumes).
UEG Offshore Research Publ. U.R.33 1985.
Important theoretical and practical book.

4. J. Wardenier: Hollow section joints.
Delft University Press 1981.
Theoretical publication on tubular design including practical design formulae.
5. ARSEM: Design guides for offshore structures welded tubular joints.
Edition Technip, Paris (France), 1987.
Important theoretical and practical book.
6. D. Johnston: Field development options.
Oil & Gas Journal, May 5 1986, pp 132 - 142.
Good presentation on development options.
7. G. I. Claum et al: Offshore Structures: Vol 1: Conceptual Design and Hydri-mechanics; Vol 2 - Strength and Safety
for Structural design.
Springer Verlag, London 1992.
Fundamental publication on structural behaviour.
8. W.J. Graff: Introduction to offshore structures.
Gulf Publishing Company, Houston 1981.
Good general introduction to offshore structures.
9. B.C. Gerwick: Construction of offshore structures.
John Wiley & Sons, New York 1986.
Up to date presentation of offshore design and construction.

10. T.A. Doody et al: Important considerations for successful fabrication of offshore structures.
OTC paper 5348, Houston 1986, pp 531-539.
Valuable paper on fabrication aspects.
11. D.I. Karsan et al: An economic study on parameters influencing the cost of fixed platforms.
OTC paper 5301, Houston 1986, pp 79-93.
Good presentation on offshore CAPEX assessment.

L15a02
ESDEP WG 15A
Lecture 15A.2: Loads (I) : Introduction

and Environmental Loads
OBJECTIVE/SCOPE
To introduce the types of loads for which a fixed steel offshore structure must be designed. To present briefly the
loads generated by environmental factors.
PREREQUISITES
A basic knowledge of structural analysis for static and dynamic loadings.
SUMMARY
The categories of load for which a pile supported steel offshore platform must be designed are introduced and then the
different types of environmental loads are presented. The loads include: wind, wave, current, earthquake, ice and
snow, temperature, sea bed movement, marine growth and tide generated loads. Loads due to wind, waves and earthquake
are discussed in more detail together with their idealizations for the various types of analyses. Frequent references are made
to the codes of practice recommended by the American Petroleum Institute, Det Norske Veritas, the British
Standards Institution and the British Department of Energy, as well as to the relevant regulations of the Norwegian
Petroleum Directorate.
1. INTRODUCTION
The loads for which an offshore structure must be designed can be classified into the following categories:
L15a02
1. Permanent (dead) loads.

2. Operating (live) loads.
3. Environmental loads including earthquakes.
4. Construction - installation loads.
5. Accidental loads.
Whilst the design of buildings onshore is usually influenced mainly by the permanent and operating loads, the design
of offshore structures is dominated by environmental loads, especially waves, and the loads arising in the various stages
of construction and installation. This lecture deals with environmental loads, whilst the other loadings are treated in
Lecture 15A.3.
In civil engineering, earthquakes are normally regarded as accidental loads (see Eurocode 8 [1]), but in offshore
engineering they are treated as environmental loads. This practice is followed in the two lectures dealing with loads,
Lectures 15A.2 and 15A.3.
2. ENVIRONMENTAL LOADS
Environmental loads are those caused by environmental phenomena such as wind, waves, current, tides,
earthquakes, temperature, ice, sea bed movement, and marine growth. Their characteristic parameters, defining design
load values, are determined in special studies on the basis of available data. According to US and Norwegian regulations
(or codes of practice), the mean recurrence interval for the corresponding design event must be 100 years, while according
to the British rules it should be 50 years or greater. Details of design criteria, simplifying assumptions, required data, etc.,
can be found in the regulations and codes of practice listed in [1] - [8].
2.1 Wind Loads
Wind loads act on the portion of a platform above the water level, as well as on any equipment, housing, derrick, etc.
located on the deck. An important parameter pertaining to wind data is the time interval over which wind speeds are
averaged. For averaging intervals less than one minute, wind speeds are classified as gusts. For averaging intervals of
one minute or longer they are classified as sustained wind speeds.
The wind velocity profile may be taken from API-RP2A [2]:

L15a02
Vh/VH = (h/H)1/n (1)
where:
Vh is the wind velocity at height h,
VH is the wind velocity at reference height H, typically 10m above mean water level,
1/n is 1/13 to 1/7, depending on the sea state, the distance from land and the averaging time interval. It is approximately
equal to 1/13 for gusts and 1/8 for sustained winds in the open ocean.
From the design wind velocity V(m/s), the static wind force Fw(N) acting perpendicular to an exposed area A(m2) can
be computed as follows:
Fw = (1/2) ρ V2 Cs A (2)
where:
ρ is the wind density (ρ ≈ 1.225 Kg/m3)
Cs is the shape coefficient (Cs = 1,5 for beams and sides of buildings, Cs = 0,5 for cylindrical sections and Cs = 1,0 for
total projected area of platform).
Shielding and solidity effects can be accounted for, in the judgement of the designer, using appropriate coefficients.
For combination with wave loads, the DNV [4] and DOE-OG [7] rules recommend the most unfavourable of the following
two loadings:
a. 1-minute sustained wind speeds combined with extreme waves.
b. 3-second gusts.

L15a02
API-RP2A [2] distinguishes between global and local wind load effects. For the first case it gives guideline values of mean
1-hour average wind speeds to be combined with extreme waves and current. For the second case it gives values of
extreme wind speeds to be used without regard to waves.
Wind loads are generally taken as static. When, however, the ratio of height to the least horizontal dimension of the
wind exposed object (or structure) is greater than 5, then this object (or structure) could be wind sensitive. API-RP2A
requires the dynamic effects of the wind to be taken into account in this case and the flow induced cyclic wind loads due
to vortex shedding must be investigated.
2.2 Wave Loads
The wave loading of an offshore structure is usually the most important of all environmental loadings for which the
structure must be designed. The forces on the structure are caused by the motion of the water due to the waves which
are generated by the action of the wind on the surface of the sea. Determination of these forces requires the solution of
two separate, though interrelated problems. The first is the sea state computed using an idealisation of the wave surface
profile and the wave kinematics given by an appropriate wave theory. The second is the computation of the wave forces
on individual members and on the total structure, from the fluid motion.
Two different analysis concepts are used:
● The design wave concept, where a regular wave of given height and period is defined and the forces due to this wave
are calculated using a high-order wave theory. Usually the 100-year wave, i.e. the maximum wave with a return period of
100 years, is chosen. No dynamic behaviour of the structure is considered. This static analysis is appropriate when
the dominant wave periods are well above the period of the structure. This is the case of extreme storm waves acting
on shallow water structures.
● Statistical analysis on the basis of a wave scatter diagram for the location of the structure. Appropriate wave spectra are
defined to perform the analysis in the frequency domain and to generate random waves, if dynamic analyses for extreme
wave loadings are required for deepwater structures. With statistical methods, the most probable maximum force during
the lifetime of the structure is calculated using linear wave theory. The statistical approach has to be chosen to analyze
the fatigue strength and the dynamic behaviour of the structure.
2.2.1 Wave theories
Wave theories describe the kinematics of waves of water on the basis of potential theory. In particular, they serve to
calculate the particle velocities and accelerations and the dynamic pressure as functions of the surface elevation of the

L15a02
waves. The waves are assumed to be long-crested, i.e. they can be described by a two-dimensional flow field, and
are characterized by the parameters: wave height (H), period (T) and water depth (d) as shown in Figure 1.
Different wave theories of varying complexity, developed on the basis of simplifying assumptions, are appropriate for
different ranges of the wave parameters. Among the most common theories are: the linear Airy theory, the Stokes fifth-
order theory, the solitary wave theory, the cnoidal theory, Dean's stream function theory and the numerical theory
by Chappelear. For the selection of the most appropriate theory, the graph shown in Figure 2 may be consulted. As an
example, Table 1 presents results of the linear wave theory for finite depth and deep water conditions. Corresponding
particle paths are illustrated in Figures 3 and 4. Note the strong influence of the water depth on the wave kinematics.
Results from high-order wave theories can be found in the literature, e.g. see [9].

L15a02

L15a02

L15a02
2.2.2 Wave Statistics

L15a02
In reality waves do not occur as regular waves, but as irregular sea states. The irregular appearance results from the
linear superposition of an infinite number of regular waves with varying frequency (Figure 5). The best means to describe
a random sea state is using the wave energy density spectrum S(f), usually called the wave spectrum for simplicity. It
is formulated as a function of the wave frequency f using the parameters: significant wave height Hs (i.e. the mean of
the highest third of all waves present in a wave train) and mean wave period (zero-upcrossing period) To. As an
additional parameter the spectral width can be taken into account.

L15a02
Wave directionality can be introduced by means of a directional spreading function D(f,σ), where σ is the angle of the
wave approach direction (Figure 6). A directional wave spectrum S (f,σ) can then be defined as:
S (f,σ ) = S(f).D (f,σ ) (3)

L15a02
The response of the structure, i.e. forces, motions, is calculated by multiplication of the wave energy spectrum with the
square of a linear transfer function. From the resulting response spectrum the significant and the maximum expected
response in a given time interval can be easily deduced.
For long-term statistics, a wave scatter diagram for the location of the structure is needed. It can be obtained
from measurements over a long period or be deduced from weather observations in the region (the so-called hindcast
method). The scatter diagram contains the joint probability of occurrence of pairs of significant wave height and mean
wave period. For every pair of parameters the wave spectrum is calculated by a standard formula, e.g. Pierson-
Moskowitz (Figure 6), yielding finally the desired response spectrum. For fatigue analysis the total number and amplitude
of load cycles during the life-time of the structure can be derived in this way. For structures with substantial dynamic
response to the wave excitation, the maximum forces and motions have to be calculated by statistical methods or a time-
domain analysis.
2.2.3 Wave forces on structural members
Structures exposed to waves experience substantial forces much higher than wind loadings. The forces result from the
L15a02
dynamic pressure and the water particle motions. Two different cases can be distinguished:
● Large volume bodies, termed hydrodynamic compact structures, influence the wave field by diffraction and reflection.
The forces on these bodies have to be determined by costly numerical calculations based on diffraction theory.
● Slender, hydrodynamically transparent structures have no significant influence on the wave field. The forces can be
calculated in a straight-forward manner with Morison's equation. As a rule, Morison's equation may be applied when D/L ≤
0.2, where D is the member diameter and L is the wave length.
The steel jackets of offshore structures can usually be regarded as hydrodynamically transparent. The wave forces on
the submerged members can therefore be calculated by Morison's equation, which expresses the wave force as the sum of
an inertia force proportional to the particle acceleration and a non-linear drag force proportional to the square of the
particle velocity: (4)
where
F is the wave force per unit length on a circular cylinder (N)
v, |v| are water particle velocity normal to the cylinder, calculated with the selected wave theory at the cylinder axis (m/s)
are water particle acceleration normal to the cylinder, calculated with the selected wave theory at the cylinder axis (m/s2)
ρ is the water density (kg/m3)
D is the member diameter, including marine growth (m)
CD, CM are drag and inertia coefficients, respectively.
In this form the equation is valid for fixed tubular cylinders. For the analysis of the motion response of a structure it has to
be modified to account for the motion of the cylinder [10]. The values of CD and CM depend on the wave theory used,
surface roughness and the flow parameters. According to API-RP2A, CD ≈ 0,6 to 1,2 and CM ≈ 1,3 to 2,0.
Additional information can be found in the DNV rules [4].

L15a02
The total wave force on each member is obtained by numerical integration over the length of the member. The fluid
velocities and accelerations at the integration points are found by direct application of the selected wave theory.
According to Morison's equation the drag force is non-linear. This non-linear formulation is used in the design wave
concept. However, for the determination of a transfer function needed for frequency domain calculations, the drag force has
to be linearized in a suitable way [9]. Thus, frequency domain solutions are appropriate for fatigue life calculations, for
which the forces due to the operational level waves are dominated by the linear inertia term. The nonlinear formulation
and hence time domain solutions are required for dynamic analyses of deepwater structures under extreme, storm waves,
for which the drag portion of the force is the dominant part [10].
In addition to the forces given by Morison's equation, the lift forces FD and the slamming forces FS, typically neglected
in global response computations, can be important for local member design. For a member section of unit length, these
forces can be estimated as follows:
FL = (1/2) ρ CL Dv2 (5)
FS = (1/2) ρ Cs Dv2 (6)
where CL, CS are the lift and slamming coefficients respectively, and the rest of the symbols are as defined in
Morison's equation. Lift forces are perpendicular to the member axis and the fluid velocity v and are related to the
vortex shedding frequency. Slamming forces acting on the underside of horizontal members near the mean water level
are impulsive and nearly vertical. Lift forces can be estimated by taking CL ≈ 1,3 CD. For tubular members Cs ≈ π.
2.3 Current Loads
There are tidal, circulation and storm generated currents. Figure 7 shows a wind and tidal current profile typical of the Gulf
of Mexico. When insufficient field measurements are available, current velocities may be obtained from various sources, e.
g. Appendix A of DNV [4]. In platform design, the effects of current superimposed on waves are taken into account by
adding the corresponding fluid velocities vectorially. Since the drag force varies with the square of the velocity, this
addition can greatly increase the forces on a platform. For slender members, cyclic loads induced by vortex shedding may
also be important and should be examined.

L15a02
2.4 Earthquake Loads
Offshore structures in seismic regions are typically designed for two levels of earthquake intensity: the strength level and
the ductility level earthquake. For the strength level earthquake, defined as having a "reasonable likelihood of not
being exceeded during the platform's life" (mean recurrence interval ~ 200 - 500 years), the structure is designed to
respond elastically. For the ductility level earthquake, defined as close to the "maximum credible earthquake" at the site,
the structure is designed for inelastic response and to have adequate reserve strength to avoid collapse.
For strength level design, the seismic loading may be specified either by sets of accelerograms (Figure 8) or by means of
design response spectra (Figure 9). Use of design spectra has a number of advantages over time history solutions
(base acceleration input). For this reason design response spectra are the preferable approach for strength level designs. If
the design spectral intensity, characteristic of the seismic hazard at the site, is denoted by amax, then API-RP2A
recommends using amax for the two principal horizontal directions and 0,5amax for the vertical direction. The DNV rules, on
the other hand, recommend amax and 0,7 amax for the two horizontal directions (two different combinations) and 0,5 amax
L15a02
for the vertical. The value of amax and often the spectral shapes are determined by site specific seismological studies.

L15a02

L15a02
Designs for ductility level earthquakes will normally require inelastic analyses for which the seismic input must be specified
by sets of 3-component accelerograms, real or artificial, representative of the extreme ground motions that could shake
the platform site. The characteristics of such motions, however, may still be prescribed by means of design spectra, which
are usually the result of a site specific seismotectonic study. More detail of the analysis of earthquakes is given in the
Lectures 17: Seismic Design.
2.5 Ice and Snow Loads
Ice is a primary problem for marine structures in the arctic and sub-arctic zones. Ice formation and expansion can
generate large pressures that give rise to horizontal as well as vertical forces. In addition, large blocks of ice driven by
current, winds and waves with speeds that can approach 0,5 to 1,0 m/s, may hit the structure and produce impact loads.
As a first approximation, statically applied, horizontal ice forces may be estimated as follows:
Fi = CifcA (7)
where:
A is the exposed area of structure,
fc is the compressive strength of ice,
Ci is the coefficient accounting for shape, rate of load application and other factors, with usual values between 0,3 and 0,7.
Generally, detailed studies based on field measurements, laboratory tests and analytical work are required to develop
reliable design ice forces for a given geographical location.
In addition to these forces, ice formation and snow accumulations increase gravity and wind loads, the latter by
increasing areas exposed to the action of wind. More detailed information on snow loads may be found in Eurocode 1 [8].
2.6 Loads due to Temperature Variations

L15a02
Offshore structures can be subjected to temperature gradients which produce thermal stresses. To take account of such
stresses, extreme values of sea and air temperatures which are likely to occur during the life of the structure must be
estimated. Relevant data for the North Sea are given in BS6235 [6]. In addition to the environmental sources, human
factors can also generate thermal loads, e.g. through accidental release of cryogenic material, which must be taken into
account in design as accidental loads. The temperature of the oil and gas produced must also be considered.
2.7 Marine Growth
Marine growth is accumulated on submerged members. Its main effect is to increase the wave forces on the members
by increasing not only exposed areas and volumes, but also the drag coefficient due to higher surface roughness. In addition,
it increases the unit mass of the member, resulting in higher gravity loads and in lower member frequencies. Depending
upon geographic location, the thickness of marine growth can reach 0,3m or more. It is accounted for in design
through appropriate increases in the diameters and masses of the submerged members.
2.8 Tides
Tides affect the wave and current loads indirectly, i.e. through the variation of the level of the sea surface. The tides
are classified as: (a) astronomical tides - caused essentially from the gravitational pull of the moon and the sun and (b)
storm surges - caused by the combined action of wind and barometric pressure differentials during a storm. The
combined effect of the two types of tide is called the storm tide. Tide dependent water levels and the associated definitions,
as used in platform design, are shown in Figure 10. The astronomical tide range depends on the geographic location and
the phase of the moon. Its maximum, the spring tide, occurs at new moon. The range varies from centimetres to several
metres and may be obtained from special maps. Storm surges depend upon the return period considered and their range is
on the order of 1,0 to 3,0m. When designing a platform, extreme storm waves are superimposed on the still water level
(see Figure 10), while for design considerations such as levels for boat landing places, barge fenders, upper limits of
marine growth, etc., the daily variations of the astronomical tide are used.

L15a02
2.9 Sea Floor Movements
Movement of the sea floor can occur as a result of active geologic processes, storm wave pressures, earthquakes,
pressure reduction in the producing reservoir, etc. The loads generated by such movements affect, not only the design of
the piles, but the jacket as well. Such forces are determined by special geotechnical studies and investigations.
● Environmental loads form a major category of loads which control many aspects of platform design.
● The main environmental loads are due to wind, waves, current, earthquakes, ice and snow, temperature variations,
marine growth, tides and seafloor movements.
● Widely accepted rules of practice, listed as [1] - [13], provide guideline values for most environmental loads.
● For major structures, specification of environmental design loads requires specific studies.
● Some environmental loads can be highly uncertain.
L15a02
● The definition of certain environmental loads depends upon the type of analysis used in the design.
4. REFERENCES
[1] Eurocode 8: "Structures in Seismic Regions - Design", CEN (in preparation).
[2] API-RP2A, "Recommended Practice for Planning, Designing and Constructing Fixed Offshore Platforms",
American Petroleum Institute, Washington, D.C., 18th ed., 1989.
[3] OCS, "Requirements for Verifying the Structural Integrity of OCS Platforms"., United States Geologic Survey,
National Centre, Reston, Virginia, 1980.
[4] DNV, "Rules for the Design, Construction and Inspection of Offshore Structures", Det Norske Veritas, Oslo, 1977
(with corrections 1982).
[5] NPD, "Regulation for Structural Design of Load-bearing Structures Intended for Exploitation of Petroleum
Resources", Norwegian Petroleum Directorate, 1985.
[6] BS6235, "Code of Practice for Fixed Offshore Structures", British Standards Institution, London, 1982.
[7] DOE-OG, "Offshore Installation: Guidance on Design and Construction", U.K., Dept. of Energy, London 1985.
[9] Clauss, G. T. et al: "Offshore Structures, Vol 1 - Conceptual Design and Hydromechanics", Springer, London 1992.
[10] Anagnostopoulos, S.A., "Dynamic Response of Offshore Structures to Extreme Waves including Fluid -
Structure Interaction", Engr. Structures, Vol. 4, pp.179-185, 1982.
[11] Hsu, H.T., "Applied Offshore Structural Engineering", Gulf Publishing Co., Houston, 1981.
[12] Graff, W.J., "Introduction to Offshore Structures", Gulf Publishing Co., Houston, 1981.
[13] Gerwick, B.C. Jr., "Construction of Offshore Structures", John Wiley, New York, 1986.
L15a02
Table 1 Results of Linear Airy Theory [11]
Phase θ = kx - ω t Deep water Finite water depth
Relative water depth d/L d/L ≥ 0,5 d/L < 0,5
Velocity potential θ
Surface elevation z ζa cos θ ζa cos θ
Dynamic pressure pdyn = ρ gζa ekz cos θ
Water particle velocities
ζa ω ekz cos θ
horizontal u =
ζa ω ekz sin θ
vertical w =

L15a02
Water particle accelerations
ζa ω2 ekz sin θ
horizontal u' =
-ζa ω2 ekz cos θ

vertical w' =
Wave celerity c = c=
co =
Group velocity cgr =

cgr = cgr =
Circular frequency ω =
ω= ω=
Lo = L=
Wave length L =
kd tanh kd =
Wave number k = ko =

L15a02
Water particle displacements
horizontal ξ -ζa ekz sin θ
vertical ζ
ζa ekz cos θ
Particle trajectories
Circular orbits Elliptical orbits
Where ζ a =

L15a03
ESDEP WG 15A
Lecture 15A.3: Loads (II) - Other Loads

OBJECTIVE/SCOPE
To present and briefly describe all loads, except environmental loads, and the load combinations for which a fixed
offshore structure must be designed.
PREREQUISITES
A basic knowledge of structural analysis for static and dynamic loadings.
SUMMARY
The various categories of loads, except environmental, for which a pile-supported steel offshore platform must be designed
are presented. These categories include permanent (dead) loads, operating (live) loads, loads generated during fabrication
and installation (due to lifts, loadout, transportation, launching and upending) and accidental loads. In addition, the
different load combinations for all types of loads, including environmental, as required (or suggested) by applicable
regulations (or codes of practice) are given.
The categories of loads described herein are the following:
1. Permanent (dead) loads

2. Operating (live) loads
3. Fabrication and installation loads
4. Accidental loads
The major categories of environmental loads are not included. They are dealt with in Lecture 15A.2.
1. PERMANENT (DEAD) LOADS

L15a03
Permanent loads include the following:
a. Weight of the structure in air, including the weight of grout and ballast, if necessary.
b. Weights of equipment, attachments or associated structures which are permanently mounted on the platform.
c. Hydrostatic forces on the various members below the waterline. These forces include buoyancy and hydrostatic pressures.
Sealed tubular members must be designed for the worst condition when flooded or non-flooded.
2. OPERATING (LIVE) LOADS

Operating loads arise from the operations on the platform and include the weight of all non-permanent equipment or
material, as well as forces generated during operation of equipment. More specifically, operating loads include the following:
a. The weight of all non-permanent equipment (e.g. drilling, production), facilities (e.g. living quarters, furniture, life
support systems, heliport, etc), consumable supplies, liquids, etc.
b. Forces generated during operations, e.g. drilling, vessel mooring, helicopter landing, crane operations, etc.
The necessary data for computation of all operating loads are provided by the operator and the equipment manufacturers.
The data need to be critically evaluated by the designer. An example of detailed live load specification is given in Table
1 where the values in the first and second columns are for design of the portions of the structure directly affected by the
loads and the reduced values in the last column are for the structure as a whole. In the absence of such data, the
following values are recommended in BS6235 [1]:
a. crew quarters and passageways: 3,2 KN/m2
b. working areas: 8,5 KN/m2
c. storage areas: γH KN/m2
where
γ is the specific weight of stored materials, not to be taken less than 6,87KN/m3,
H is the storage height (m).

L15a03
Forces generated during operations are often dynamic or impulsive in nature and must be treated as such. For
example, according to the BS6235 rules, two types of helicopter landing should be considered, heavy and emergency
landing. The impact load in the first case is to be taken as 1,5 times the maximum take-off weight, while in the second case
this factor becomes 2,5. In addition, a horizontal load applied at the points of impact and taken equal to half the maximum
take-off weight must be considered. Loads from rotating machinery, drilling equipment, etc. may normally be treated
as harmonic forces. For vessel mooring, design forces are computed for the largest ship likely to approach at
operational speeds. According to BS6235, the minimum impact to be considered is of a vessel of 2500 tonnes at 0,5 m/s.
3. FABRICATION AND INSTALLATION LOADS

These loads are temporary and arise during fabrication and installation of the platform or its components. During
fabrication, erection lifts of various structural components generate lifting forces, while in the installation phase forces
are generated during platform loadout, transportation to the site, launching and upending, as well as during lifts related
to installation.
According to the DNV rules [2], the return period for computing design environmental conditions for installation as well
as fabrication should normally be three times the duration of the corresponding phase. API-RP2A, on the other hand [3],
leaves this design return period up to the owner, while the BS6235 rules [1] recommend a minimum recurrence interval of
10 years for the design environmental loads associated with transportation of the structure to the offshore site.
3.1 Lifting Forces
Lifting forces are functions of the weight of the structural component being lifted, the number and location of lifting eyes
used for the lift, the angle between each sling and the vertical axis and the conditions under which the lift is performed
(Figure 1). All members and connections of a lifted component must be designed for the forces resulting from
static equilibrium of the lifted weight and the sling tensions. Moreover, API-RP2A recommends that in order to compensate
for any side movements, lifting eyes and the connections to the supporting structural members should be designed for
the combined action of the static sling load and a horizontal force equal to 5% this load, applied perpendicular to the padeye
at the centre of the pin hole. All these design forces are applied as static loads if the lifts are performed in the fabrication
yard. If, however, the lifting derrick or the structure to be lifted is on a floating vessel, then dynamic load factors should
be applied to the static lifting forces. In particular, for lifts made offshore API-RP2A recommends two minimum values
of dynamic load factors: 2,0 and 1,35. The first is for designing the padeyes as well as all members and their end
connections framing the joint where the padeye is attached, while the second is for all other members transmitting
lifting forces. For loadout at sheltered locations, the corresponding minimum load factors for the two groups of
structural components become, according to API-RP2A, 1,5 and 1,15, respectively.

L15a03

L15a03
3.2 Loadout Forces
These are forces generated when the jacket is loaded from the fabrication yard onto the barge. If the loadout is carried out
by direct lift, then, unless the lifting arrangement is different from that to be used for installation, lifting forces need not
be computed, because lifting in the open sea creates a more severe loading condition which requires higher dynamic
load factors. If loadout is done by skidding the structure onto the barge, a number of static loading conditions must
be considered, with the jacket supported on its side. Such loading conditions arise from the different positions of the
jacket during the loadout phases, (as shown in Figure 2), from movement of the barge due to tidal fluctuations, marine traffic
or change of draft, and from possible support settlements. Since movement of the jacket is slow, all loading conditions can
be taken as static. Typical values of friction coefficients for calculation of skidding forces are the following:
● steel on steel without lubrication............................................ 0,25

● steel on steel with lubrication............................................... 0,15
● steel on teflon.................................................................. 0,10
● teflon on teflon................................................................. 0,08

L15a03
3.3 Transportation Forces
These forces are generated when platform components (jacket, deck) are transported offshore on barges or self-floating.
They depend upon the weight, geometry and support conditions of the structure (by barge or by buoyancy) and also on
the environmental conditions (waves, winds and currents) that are encountered during transportation. The types of motion
that a floating structure may experience are shown schematically in Figure 3.

L15a03

L15a03
In order to minimize the associated risks and secure safe transport from the fabrication yard to the platform site, it is
important to plan the operation carefully by considering, according to API-RP2A [3], the following:
1. Previous experience along the tow route

2. Exposure time and reliability of predicted "weather windows"
3. Accessibility of safe havens
4. Seasonal weather system
5. Appropriate return period for determining design wind, wave and current conditions, taking into account characteristics of
the tow such as size, structure, sensitivity and cost.
Transportation forces are generated by the motion of the tow, i.e. the structure and supporting barge. They are determined
from the design winds, waves and currents. If the structure is self-floating, the loads can be calculated directly. According
to API-RP2A [3], towing analyses must be based on the results of model basin tests or appropriate analytical methods and
must consider wind and wave directions parallel, perpendicular and at 45° to the tow axis. Inertial loads may be computed
from a rigid body analysis of the tow by combining roll and pitch with heave motions, when the size of the tow, magnitude
of the sea state and experience make such assumptions reasonable. For open sea conditions, the following may be considered
as typical design values:
Single - amplitude roll: 20°
Single - amplitude pitch: 10°
Period of roll or pitch: 10 second
Heave acceleration: 0,2 g
When transporting a large jacket by barge, stability against capsizing is a primary design consideration because of the
high centre of gravity of the jacket. Moreover, the relative stiffness of jacket and barge may need to be taken into
account together with the wave slamming forces that could result during a heavy roll motion of the tow (Figure 4)
when structural analyses are carried out for designing the tie-down braces and the jacket members affected by the
induced loads. Special computer programs are available to compute the transportation loads in the structure-barge system
and the resulting stresses for any specified environmental condition.

L15a03
3.4 Launching and Upending Forces
These forces are generated during the launch of a jacket from the barge into the sea and during the subsequent upending into
its proper vertical position to rest on the seabed. A schematic view of these operations can be seen in Figure 5.

L15a03
There are five stages in a launch-upending operation:
a. Jacket slides along the skid beams
b. Jacket rotates on the rocker arms
c. Jacket rotates and slides simultaneously
d. Jacket detaches completely and comes to its floating equilibrium position
e. Jacket is upended by a combination of controlled flooding and simultaneous lifting by a derrick barge.
The loads, static as well as dynamic, induced during each of these stages and the force required to set the jacket into motion
can be evaluated by appropriate analyses, which also consider the action of wind, waves and currents expected during
L15a03
the operation.
To start the launch, the barge must be ballasted to an appropriate draft and trim angle and subsequently the jacket must
be pulled towards the stern by a winch. Sliding of the jacket starts as soon as the downward force (gravity component
and winch pull) exceeds the friction force. As the jacket slides, its weight is supported on the two legs that are part of
the launch trusses. The support length keeps decreasing and reaches a minimum, equal to the length of the rocker beams,
when rotation starts. It is generally at this instant that the most severe launching forces develop as reactions to the weight of
the jacket. During stages (d) and (e), variable hydrostatic forces arise which have to be considered at all members
affected. Buoyancy calculations are required for every stage of the operation to ensure fully controlled, stable
motion. Computer programs are available to perform the stress analyses required for launching and upending and also
to portray the whole operation graphically.
4. ACCIDENTAL LOADS
According to the DNV rules [2], accidental loads are loads, ill-defined with respect to intensity and frequency, which
may occur as a result of accident or exceptional circumstances. Accidental loads are also specified as a separate category in
the NPD regulations [4], but not in API-RP2A [3], BS6235 [1] or the DOE-OG rules [5]. Examples of accidental loads
are loads due to collision with vessels, fire or explosion, dropped objects, and unintended flooding of bouyancy tanks.
Special measures are normally taken to reduce the risk from accidental loads. For example, protection of wellheads or
other critical equipment from a dropped object can be provided by specially designed, impact resistant covers. According to
the NPD regulations [4], an accidental load can be disregarded if its annual probability of occurrence is less than 10-4.
This number is meant as an order of magnitude estimate and is extremely difficult to compute. Earthquakes are treated as
an environmental load in offshore structure design.
5. LOAD COMBINATIONS
The load combinations used for designing fixed offshore structures depend upon the design method used, i.e. whether
limit state or allowable stress design is employed. The load combinations recommended for use with allowable
stress procedures are:
a. Dead loads plus operating environmental loads plus maximum live loads, appropriate to normal operations of the platform.
b. Dead loads plus operating environmental loads plus minimum live loads, appropriate to normal operations of the platform.
c. Dead loads plus extreme (design) environmental loads plus maximum live loads, appropriate for combining with
extreme conditions.
d. Dead loads plus extreme (design) environmental loads plus minimum live loads, appropriate for combining with

L15a03
extreme conditions.
Moreover, environmental loads, with the exception of earthquake loads, should be combined in a manner consistent with
their joint probability of occurrence during the loading condition considered. Earthquake loads, if applicable, are to be
imposed as a separate environmental load, i.e., not to be combined with waves, wind, etc. Operating environmental
conditions are defined as representative of severe but not necessarily limiting conditions that, if exceeded, would
require cessation of platform operations.
The DNV rules [2] permit allowable stress design but recommend the semi-probabilistic limit state design method, which
the NPD rules also require [4]. BS6235 permits both methods but the design equations it gives are for the allowable
stress method [1]. API-RP2A is very specific in recommending not to apply limit state methods. According to the DNV and
the NPD rules for limit state design, four limit states must be checked:
1. Ultimate limit state
For this limit state the following two loading combinations must be used:
Ordinary: 1,3 P + 1,3 L + 1,0 D + 0,7 E, and
Extreme : 1,0 P + 1,0 L + 1,0 D + 1,3 E
where P, L, D and E stand for Permanent (dead), Operating (live), Deformation (e.g., temperature, differential settlement)
and Environmental loads respectively. For well controlled dead and live loads during fabrication and installation, the
load factor 1,3 may be reduced to 1,2. Furthermore, for structures that are unmanned during storm conditions and which are
not used for storage of oil and gas, the 1,3 load factor for environmental loads - except earthquakes - may be reduced to 1,15.
2. Fatigue limit state
All load factors are to be taken as 1,0.
3. Progressive Collapse limit state
4. Serviceability limit state
The so-called characteristic values of the loads used in the above combinations and limit states are summarized in Table
L15a03
2, taken from the NPD rules.
● In addition to environmental loads, an offshore structure must be designed for dead and live loads, fabrication and
installation loads as well as accidental loads.
● Widely accepted rules of practice, listed in the references, are usually followed for specifying such loads.
● The type and magnitude of fabrication, transportation and installation loads depend upon the methods and sequences used
for the corresponding phases.
● Dynamic and impact effects are normally taken into account by means of appropriate dynamic load factors.
● Accidental loads are not well defined with respect to intensity and probability of occurrence. They will typically require
special protective measures.
● Load combinations and load factors depend upon the design method to be used. API-RP2A is based on allowable stress
design and recommends against limit state design, BSI favours allowable stress design, while DNV and NPD recommend
limit state design.
7. REFERENCES
[1] BS6235, "Code of Practice for Fixed Offshore Structures", British Standards Institution, London, 1982.
[2] "Rules for the Design, Construction and Inspection of Offshore Structures", Det Norske Veritas (DNV), Oslo, 1977
(with corrections 1982).
[4] "Regulation for Structural Design of Load-bearing Structures Intended for Exploitation of Petroleum
Resources", Norwegian Petroleum Directorate (NPD), 1985.
[5] DOE-OG, "Offshore Installation: Guidance on Design and Construction", U.K. Department of Energy, London 1985.
1. OCS, "Requirements for Verifying the Structural Integrity of OCS Platforms"., United States Geologic Survey,
National Centre, Reston, Virginia, 1980.
2. Hsu, H.T., "Applied Offshore Structural Engineering", Gulf Publishing Co., Houston, 1981.
3. Graff, W.G., "Introduction to Offshore Structures", Gulf Publishing Co., Houston, 1981.
4. Gerwick, B.C. Jr., "Construction of Offshore Structures", John Wiley, New York, 1986.
L15a03
Table 1 Minimum design live load specification
Loads to be taken into account (kN/ For portions of the structure For the structure as a
m 2) whole
Zone considered Flooring and Other components (3)

joists
Process zone (around wells and 5 (1) 5 (1) 2.5

large-scale machines)
Drilling zone 5 (1) 5 (1) 2.5
Catwalks and walking platforms 3 2.5 1

(except emergency exits)
Stairways (except emergency exits) 4 3 0
Module roofing 2 1.5 1
Emergency exits 5 5 0
STORAGE
Storage floors - heavy 18 12 8 (2)
Storage floors - light 9 6 4 (2)
Delivery zone 10 10 5
Non-attributed area 6 4 3
(1) Accumulated with a point load equal to the weight of the heaviest part likely to be removed, with a minimum value of 5
kN. Point loads are assumed as being applied to a 0,3m × 0,3m surface.

L15a03
(2) Applied on the entirety of the flooring surface (including traffic).
(3) This column gives the loads to be taken into account for the structure's overall calculation. These values are the input for
the computer runs.
Table 2 Characteristic Loads according to NPD [4]
LOAD TYPE LIMIT STATES FOR TEMPORARY PHASES LIMIT STATES FOR NORMAL OPERATIONS
Progressive Collapse Progressive Collapse
Abnormal Damage Abnormal Damage
Serviceability Fatigue Ultimate Serviceability Fatigue Ultimate
effects condition effects condition
DEAD EXPECTED VALUE
LIVE SPECIFIED VALUE
DEFORMATION EXPECTED EXTREME VALUE
ENVIRONMENTAL Dependent Expected Value dependent on measures Dependent Expected Annual Annual Annual
on load taken on load exceedance exceedance exceedance
operational history operational history probability probability probability
requirements requirements 10-2 10-4 10-2
ACCIDENTAL NOT APPLICABLE Dependent NOT APPLICABLE Annual NOT
on exceedance APPLICABLE
operational probability
requirements 10-4

ESDEP WG 15A
Lecture 15A.4 - Analysis I

OBJECTIVE/SCOPE
To present the main analysis procedures for offshore structures.
PREREQUISITES
Lecture 15A.1: Offshore Structures: General Introduction
Lecture 15A.2: Loads I: Introduction and Environmental Loads
Lecture 15A.3: Loads II: Other Loads
RELATED LECTURES
Lecture 15A.5: Analysis II
SUMMARY
Analytical models used in offshore engineering are briefly described. Acceptance criteria for the verification of
offshore structures are presented.
Simple rules for preliminary member sizing are given and procedures for static in-place and dynamic analysis
are described.
1. ANALYTICAL MODEL
The analysis of an offshore structure is an extensive task, embracing consideration of the different stages, i.e.
execution, installation, and in-service stages, during its life. Many disciplines, e.g. structural, geotechnical,
naval architecture, metallurgy are involved.
This lecture and Lecture 15A.5 are purposely limited to presenting an overview of available analysis procedures
and providing benchmarks for the reader to appreciate the validity of his assumptions and results. They
primarily address jackets, which are more unusual structures compared to decks and modules, and which more
closely resemble onshore petro-chemical plants.
2. ANALYTICAL MODEL

The analytical models used in offshore engineering are in some respects similar to those adopted for other types
of steel structures. Only the salient features of offshore models are presented here.
The same model is used throughout the analysis process with only minor adjustments being made to suit the
specific conditions, e.g. at supports in particular, relating to each analysis.
2.1 Stick Models
Stick models (beam elements assembled in frames) are used extensively for tubular structures (jackets, bridges,
flare booms) and lattice trusses (modules, decks).
2.1.1 Joints
Each member is normally rigidly fixed at its ends to other elements in the model.
If more accuracy is required, particularly for the assessment of natural vibration modes, local flexibility of the
connections may be represented by a joint stiffness matrix.
2.1.2 Members
In addition to its geometrical and material properties, each member is characterised by hydrodynamic
coefficients, e.g. relating to drag, inertia, and marine growth, to allow wave forces to be automatically
generated.
2.2 Plate Models
Integrated decks and hulls of floating platforms involving large bulkheads are described by plate elements. The
characteristics assumed for the plate elements depend on the principal state of stress which they are subjected
to. Membrane stresses are taken when the element is subjected merely to axial load and shear. Plate stresses are
adopted when bending and lateral pressure are to be taken into account.
3. ACCEPTANCE CRITERIA
3.1 Code Checks
The verification of an element consists of comparing its characteristic resistance(s) to a design force or stress. It
includes:
● a strength check, where the characteristic resistance is related to the yield strength of the element,
● a stability check for elements in compression where the characteristic resistance relates to the buckling
limit of the element.
An element (member or plate) is checked at typical sections (at least both ends and midspan) against resistance
and buckling. This verification also includes the effect of water pressure for deepwater structures.
Tubular joints are checked against punching under various load patterns. These checks may indicate the need
for local reinforcement of the chord using overthickness or internal ring-stiffeners.

Elements should also be verified against fatigue, corrosion, temperature or durability wherever relevant.
3.2 Allowable Stress Method
This method is presently specified by American codes (API, AISC).
The loads remain unfactored and a unique coefficient is applied to the characteristic resistance to obtain an
allowable stress as follows:
Condition Axial Strong Weak

axis axis
bending bending
Normal 0,60 0,66 0,75
Extreme 0,80 0,88 1,00
"Normal" and "Extreme" respectively represent the most severe conditions:
● under which the plant is to operate without shut-down.

● the platform is to endure over its lifetime.
3.3 Limit State Method
This method is enforced by European and Norwegian Authorities and has now been adopted by API as it offers
a more uniform reliability.
Partial factors are applied to the loads and to the characteristic resistance of the element, reflecting the amount
of confidence placed in the design value of each parameter and the degree of risk accepted under a limit state, i.
e:
● Ultimate Limit State (ULS):
corresponds to an ultimate event considering the structural resistance with appropriate reserve.
● Fatigue Limit State (FLS):
relates to the possibility of failure under cyclic loading.
● Progressive Collapse Limit State (PLS):
reflects the ability of the structure to resist collapse under accidental or abnormal conditions.
● Service Limit State (SLS):
corresponds to criteria for normal use or durability (often specified by the plant operator).

3.3.1 Load factors
Norwegian Authorities (2, 4) specify the following sets of load factors:
Limit State Load Categories
P L D E A
ULS (normal) 1,3 1,3 1,0 0,7 0,0
ULS (extreme) 1,0 1,0 1,0 1,3 0,0
FLS 0,0 0,0 0,0 1,0 0,0
PLS (accidental) 1,0 1,0 1,0 1,0 1,0
PLS (post-damage) 1,0 1,0 1,0 1,0 0,0
SLS 1,0 1,0 1,0 1,0 0,0
where the respective load categories are:
P are permanent loads (structural weight, dry equipments, ballast, hydrostatic pressure).
L are live loads (storage, personnel, liquids).
D are deformations (out-of-level supports, subsidence).
E are environmental loads (wave, current, wind, earthquake).
A are accidental loads (dropped object, ship impact, blast, fire).
3.3.2 Material factors
The material partial factors for steel is normally taken equal to 1,15 for ULS and 1,00 for PLS and SLS design.
3.3.3 Classification of Design Conditions
Guidance for classifying typical conditions into typical limit states is given in the following table:
Condition Loadings Design
P/L E D A Criterion

Construction P ULS,SLS
Load-Out P reduced wind support ULS

disp
Transport P transport ULS

wind and
wave
Tow-out P flooded PLS

(accidental) compart
Launch P ULS
Lifting P ULS
In-Place P+L wind, wave actual ULS,SLS

(normal) & snow
In-Place P+L wind & 100 actual ULS

(extreme) year wave
SLS
In-Place P+L wind & actual PLS

(exceptional) 10000 year
wave
Earthquake P+L 10-2 quake ULS
Rare P+L 10-4 quake PLS

Earthquake
Explosion P+L blast PLS
Fire P+L fire PLS
Dropped P+L drill PLS

Object collar
Boat P+L boat PLS

Collision impact

Damaged P+ reduced wave PLS

Structure reduced & wind
L
4. PRELIMINARY MEMBER SIZING

The analysis of a structure is an iterative process which requires progressive adjustment of the member sizes
with respect to the forces they transmit, until a safe and economical design is achieved.
It is therefore of the utmost importance to start the main analysis from a model which is close to the final
optimized one.
The simple rules given below provide an easy way of selecting realistic sizes for the main elements of offshore
structures in moderate water depth (up to 80m) where dynamic effects are negligible.
4.1 Jacket Pile Sizes
● calculate the vertical resultant (dead weight, live loads, buoyancy), the overall shear and the overturning
moment (environmental forces) at the mudline.
● assuming that the jacket behaves as a rigid body, derive the maximum axial and shear force at the top of
the pile.
● select a pile diameter in accordance with the expected leg diameter and the capacity of pile driving
equipment.
● derive the penetration from the shaft friction and tip bearing diagrams.
● assuming an equivalent soil subgrade modulus and full fixity at the base of the jacket, calculate the
maximum moment in the pile and derive its wall thickness.
4.2 Deck Leg Sizes
● adapt the diameter of the leg to that of the pile.

● determine the effective length from the degree of fixity of the leg into the deck (depending upon the
height of the cellar deck).
● calculate the moment caused by wind loads on topsides and derive the appropriate thickness.
4.3 Jacket Bracings
● select the diameter in order to obtain a span/diameter ratio between 30 and 40.
● calculate the axial force in the brace from the overall shear and the local bending caused by the wave
assuming partial or total end restraint.
● derive the thickness such that the diameter/thickness ratio lies between 20 and 70 and eliminate any
hydrostatic buckle tendency by imposing D/t<170/3√H (H is the depth of member below the free
surface).
4.4 Deck Framing
● select a spacing between stiffeners (typically 500 to 800mm).

● derive the plate thickness from formulae accounting for local plastification under the wheel footprint of
the design forklift truck.
● determine by straight beam formulae the sizes of the main girders under "blanket" live loads and/or the
respective weight of the heaviest equipments.
5. STATIC IN-PLACE ANALYSIS

The static in-place analysis is the basic and generally the simplest of all analyses. The structure is modelled as it
stands during its operational life, and subjected to pseudo-static loads.
This analysis is always carried at the very early stage of the project, often from a simplified model, to size the
main elements of the structure.
5.1 Structural Model
5.1.1 Main Model
The main model should account for eccentricities and local reinforcements at the joints.
Typical models for North Sea jackets may feature over 800 nodes and 4000 members.
5.1.2 Appurtenances
The contribution of appurtenances (risers, J-tubes, caissons, conductors, boat-fenders, etc.) to the overall
stiffness of the structure is normally neglected.
They are therefore analysed separately and their reactions applied as loads at the interfaces with the main
structure.
5.1.3 Foundation Model
Since their behaviour is non-linear, foundations are often analysed separately from the structural model.
They are represented by an equivalent load-dependent secant stiffness matrix; coefficients are determined by an
iterative process where the forces and displacements at the common boundaries of structural and foundation
models are equated.
This matrix may need to be adjusted to the mean reaction corresponding to each loading condition.
5.2 Loadings
This Section is a reminder of the main types of loads, which are described in more detail in Lectures 15A.2 and
15A.3.
5.2.1 Gravity Loads
Gravity loads consist of:

● dead weight of structure and equipments.

● live loads (equipments, fluids, personnel).
Depending on the area of structure under scrutiny, live loads must be positioned to produce the most severe
configuration (compression or tension); this may occur for instance when positioning the drilling rig.
5.2.2 Environmental Loads
Environmental loads consist of wave, current and wind loads assumed to act simultaneously in the same
direction.
In general eight wave incidences are selected; for each the position of the crest relative to the platform must be
established such that the maximum overturning moment and/or shear are produced at the mudline.
5.3 Loading Combinations
The static in-place analysis is performed under different conditions where the loads are approximated by their
pseudo-static equivalent.
The basic loads relevant to a given condition are multiplied by the appropriate load factors and combined to
produce the most severe effect in each individual element of the structure.
6. DYNAMIC ANALYSIS
A dynamic analysis is normally mandatory for every offshore structure, but can be restricted to the main modes
in the case of stiff structures.
6.1 Dynamic Model
The dynamic model of the structure is derived from the main static model.
Some simplifications may however take place:
● local joint reinforcements and eccentricities may be disregarded.

● masses are lumped at the member ends.
● the foundation model may be derived from cyclic soil behaviour.
6.2 Equations of Motion
The governing dynamic equations of multi-degrees-of-freedom systems can be expressed in the matrix form:
MX'' + CX' + KX = P(t)
where
M is the mass matrix

C is the damping matrix
K is the stiffness matrix
X, X', X'' are the displacement, velocity and acceleration vectors (function
of time).
P(t) is the time dependent force vector; in the most general case it may depend on the displacements of the
structure also (i.e. relative motion of the structure with respect to the wave velocity in Morison equation).
6.2.1 Mass
The mass matrix represents the distribution of masses over the structure.
Masses include that of the structure itself, the appurtenances, liquids trapped in legs or tanks, the added mass of
water (mass of water displaced by the member and determined from potential flow theory) and the mass of
marine growth.
Masses are generally lumped at discrete points of the model. The mass matrix consequently becomes diagonal
but local modes of vibration of single members are ignored (these modes may be important for certain members
subjected to an earthquake). The selection of lumping points may significantly affect the ensuing solution.
As a further simplification to larger models involving considerable degrees-of-freedom, the system can be
condensed to a few freedoms while still retaining its basic energy distribution.
6.2.2 Damping
Damping is the most difficult to estimate among all parameters governing the dynamic response of a structure.
It may consist of structural and hydrodynamic damping.
Structural Damping
Structural damping is associated with the loss of energy by internal friction in the material.
It increases with the order of the mode, being roughly proportional to the strain energy involved in each.
Hydrodynamic Damping
Damping provided by the water surrounding the structure is commonly added to the former, but may
alternatively be accounted as part of the forcing function when vibrations are close to resonance (vortex-
shedding in particular).
Representation of Damping
Viscous damping represents the most common and simple form of damping. It may have one of the following
representations:

● modal damping: a specific damping ratio ζ expressing the percentage to critical associated with each
mode (typically ζ = 0,5% structural; ζ = 1,5% hydrodynamic)
● proportional damping: defined as a linear combination of stiffness and mass matrices.
All other types of non-viscous damping should preferably be expressed as an equivalent viscous damping
matrix.
6.2.3 Stiffness
The stiffness matrix is in all aspects similar to the one used in static analyses.
6.3 Free Vibration Mode Shapes and Frequencies
The first step in a dynamic analysis consists of determining the principal natural vibration mode shapes and
frequencies of the undamped, multi-degree-of-freedom structure up to a given order (30th to 50th).
This consists in solving the eigenvalue problem:
KX = l MX
For rigid structures having a fundamental vibration period well below the range of wave periods (typically less
than 3 s), the dynamic behaviour is simply accounted for by multiplying the time-dependent loads by a dynamic
amplification factor (DAF):
DAF =
where β = TN/T is the ratio of the period of the structure to the wave period.
6.4 Modal Superposition Method
A convenient technique consists of uncoupling the equations through the normal modes of the system.
This method is only applicable if:
● each mass, stiffness and damping matrix is time-independent.

● non-linear forces are linearized beforehand (drag).
The total response is obtained by summing the responses of the individual single-degree-of-freedom oscillators
associated to each normal mode of the structure.
This method offers the advantage that the eigen modes provide substantial insight into the problem, and can be
re-used for as many subsequent response calculations as needed at later stages.
It may however prove time-consuming when a large number of modes is required to represent the response
accurately. Therefore:

● the simple superposition method (mode-displacement) is applied to a truncated number of lowest modes
for predicting earthquake response.
● it must be corrected by the static contribution of the higher modes (mode-acceleration method) for wave
loadings.
6.4.1 Frequency Domain Analysis
Such analysis is most appropriate for evaluating the steady-state response of a system subjected to cyclic
loadings, as the transient part of the response vanishes rapidly under the effect of damping.
The loading function is developed in Fourier series up to an order η:
p(t) =
The plot of the amplitudes pj versus the circular frequencies ωj is called the amplitude power spectra of the
loading. Usually, significant values of pj only occur within a narrow range of frequencies and the analysis can
be restricted to it.
The relationship between response and force vectors is expressed by the transfer matrix H, such as:
H = [-M ω2 + i x C ω + K]
the elements of which represent:
Hj,k =
The spectral density of response in freedom j versus force is then:
The fast Fourier transform (FFT) is the most efficient algorithm associated with this kind of analysis.
6.4.2 Time Domain Analysis
The response of the i-th mode may alternatively be determined by resorting to Duhamel's integral:
Xj(t) =
The overall response is then obtained by summing at each time step the individual responses over all significant

modes.
6.5 Direct Integration Methods
Direct step-by-step integration of the equations of motion is the most general method and is applicable to:
● non-linear problems involving special forms of damping and response-dependent loadings.

● responses involving many vibration modes to be determined over a short time interval.
The dynamic equilibrium at an instant τ is governed by the same type of equations, where all matrices (mass,
damping, stiffness, load) are simultaneously dependent on the time and structural response as well.
All available integration techniques are characterised by their stability (i.e. the tendency for uncontrolled
divergence of amplitude to occur with increasing time steps). Unconditionally stable methods are always to be
preferred (for instance Newmark-beta with β = 1/4 or Wilson-theta with θ = 1,4).
● The analysis of offshore structures is an extensive task.
● The analytical models used in offshore engineering are in some respects similar to those used for other
types of steel structures. The same model is used throughout the analysis process.
● The verification of an element consists of comparing its characteristic resistance(s) to a design force or
stress. Several methods are available.
● Simple rules are available for preliminary member sizing.
● Static in-plane analysis is always carried out at the early stage of a project to size the main elements of
the structure. A dynamic analysis is normally mandatory for every offshore structure.

ESDEP WG 15A
Lecture 15A.5 - Analysis II

OBJECTIVE/SCOPE
To present the analysis procedures for offshore structures relating to fatigue, abnormal and accident
conditions, load-out and transportation, installation and local design.
PREREQUISITES
Lecture 15A.2: Loads I: Introduction and Environmental Loads
Lecture 15A.3: Loads II: Other Loads
RELATED LECTURES
Lecture 15A.4: Analysis I
SUMMARY
Methods of fatigue analysis are described including the fatigue model (structural, hydrodynamic
loading, and joint stress models) and the methods of fatigue damage assessment.
Abnormal and accidental conditions are considered relating to earthquake, impact and progressive
collapse.
Analyses required for load-out and transportation and for installation are outlined. Local analysis for
specific parts of the structure which are better treated by dedicated models outside of the global
analysis are identified.
1. FATIGUE ANALYSIS
A fatigue analysis is performed for those structures sensitive to the action of cyclic loadings such as:

● wave (jackets, floating structures).

● wind (flare booms, stair towers).
● structures under rotating equipments.
1.1 Fatigue Model
The in-place model is used for the fatigue analysis.
Quasi-static analysis is often chosen; it permits all local stresses to be comprehensively represented.
The dynamic effects are accounted for by factoring the loads by the relevant DAF.
Modal analysis may be used instead; it offers computational efficiency, but may also overlook
important local response modes, particularly near the waterline where direct wave action causes high
out-of-plane bending (see Section 5.2). The mode - acceleration method may overcome this problem.
1.1.2 Hydrodynamic Loading Model
A very large number of computer runs may be necessary to evaluate the stress range at the joints. The
wave is repeatedly generated for:
● different blocks of wave heights (typically from 2 to 28m in steps of 2m), each associated with
a characteristic wave and zero-upcrossing period.
● different incidences (typically eight).
● different phases to determine the stress range for a given wave at each joint.
1.1.3 Joint Stress Model
Nominal joint stresses are calculated for eight points around the circumference of the brace. The
maximum local (hot spot) stress is obtained by multiplying the former by a stress concentration factor
(SCF) given by parametric formulae which are functions of the joint geometry and the load pattern
(balanced/unbalanced).
1.1.4 Fatigue Damage Model
The fatigue failure of joints in offshore structures primarily depends on the stress ranges and their
number of occurrences, formulated by S-N curves:
log Ni = log α + mlog ∆σi
The number of cycles to failure Ni corresponds to a stress range. The effect of the constant stresses,
mainly welding residual stresses, is implicitly accounted for in this formulation.

The cumulative damage caused by ni cycles of stress ∆σi, over the operational life of the platform (30
to 50 years) is obtained by the Palmgren-Miner rule:
D=
The limit of this ratio depends on the position of the joint with respect to the splash zone (typically +/-
4m on either side of the mean sea level). The ratio should normally not exceed:
● 1,0 above,
● 0,1 within,
● 0,3 below the splash zone.
1.1.5 Closed Form Expression
The damage may alternatively be expressed in closed form:
D=
where
α, m are coefficients of the selected S-N curve.
∆σ is the stress range exceeded once in N cycles.
k is a long-term distribution parameter, depending on the position of the joint in the structure.
N is the total number of cycles.
1.2 Deterministic Analysis
This analysis consists of time-domain analysis of the structure. The main advantage of this
representation is that non-linear effects (drag, high order wave theories) are handled explicitly.
A minimum of four regular waves described in terms of height and associated period are considered
for each heading angle.
1.3 Spectral Analysis
Waves of a given height are not characterised by a unique frequency, but rather by a range of

frequencies. If this range corresponds to a peak in the structural response, the fatigue life predicted by
the deterministic method can be seriously distorted.
This problem is overcome by using a scatter diagram, in which the joint occurrence of wave height
and period is quantified. Wave directionality may also be accounted for. Eventually the most
thorough representation of a sea state consists of:
● the frequency spectrum constructed from the significant wave heights and mean zero-crossing
periods.
● the directionality function derived from the mean direction and associated spreading function.
This approach requires that the physical process be approximately linear (or properly linearised) and
stationary. Transfer functions TF are determined from time-domain analyses involving various wave
heights, each with different period and incidence:
The response has normally a narrow-banded spectrum and can be described by a Rayleigh
distribution.
The zero-upcrossing frequency of stress cycles is then approximated by:
Tz =
where mn is the nth order moment of the response.
The significant stress range is readily obtained for each sea state as:
σsig =
where S(ω,θ) is the directional wave energy spectrum.
1.4 Wind Fatigue
1.4.1 Wind Gusts
The fatigue damage caused by the fluctuating part of wind (gusts) on slender structures like flare
booms and bridges is usually predicted by spectral methods.

The main feature of such analysis is the introduction of coherence functions accounting for the
spanwise correlation of forces.
1.4.2 Vortex Shedding
Vortex induced failure occurs for tubes subjected to a uniform or oscillating flow of fluid.
Within a specific range of fluid velocities, eddies are shed at a frequency close to the resonant
frequency of the member.
This phenomenon involves forced displacements, which can be determined by models such as those
suggested in [1].
2. ABNORMAL AND ACCIDENTAL CONDITIONS

This type of analysis addresses conditions which may considerably affect the integrity of the
structure, but only have a limited risk of occurrence.
Typically all events with a probability level less than the 10-4 threshold are disregarded.
2.1 Earthquake Analysis
2.1.1 Model
Particular attention shall be paid to:
● foundations: the near field (i.e. the soil mass in the direct vicinity of the structure) shall
accurately represent load-deflection behaviour. As a general rule the lateral foundation
behaviour is essentially controlled by horizontal ground motions of shallow soil layers.
● modal damping (in general taken as 5% and 7% of critical for ULS and PLS analyses
respectively).
2.1.2 Ductility Requirements
The seismic forces in a structure are highly dependent on its dynamic characteristics. Design
recommendations are given by API to determine an efficient geometry. The recommendations call for:
● providing sufficient redundancy and symmetry in the structure.

● favouring X-bracings instead of K-bracings.
● avoiding abrupt changes in stiffness.
● improving the post-buckling behaviour of bracings.

2.1.3 Analysis Method
Earthquake analyses can be carried out according to the general methods presented in Lecture 15A.4.
However their distinctive feature is that they represent essentially a base motion problem and that the
seismic loads are therefore dependent on the dynamic characteristics of the structure.
Modal spectral response analysis is normally used. It consists of a superposition of maximum mode
response and forms a response spectrum curve characteristic of the input motion. This spectrum is the
result of time-histories of a SDOF system for different natural periods of vibration and damping.
Direct time integration can be used instead for specific accelerograms adapted to the site.
2.2 Impact
The analysis of impact loads on structures is carried out locally using simple plastic models [2].
Should a more sophisticated analysis be required, it can be accomplished using time-domain

techniques presented in Section 6 of Lecture 15A.4.
The whole energy must be absorbed within acceptable deformations.
2.2.1 Dropped Object/Boat Impact
When a wellhead protection cover is hit by a drill collar, or a tube (jacket leg, fender) is crushed by a
supply boat, two load/deformation mechanisms occur simultaneously:
● local punch-through (cover) or denting (tube).

● global deformation along plastic hinges with possible appearance of membrane forces.
2.2.2 Blast and Fire
Owing to the current lack of definitive guidance regarding explosions and fire, the behaviour of
structures in such events has so far been only predicted by simple models based on:
● equivalent static overpressure and plastic deformation of plates for blast analysis.
● the reduction of material strength and elastic modulus under temperature increase.
In the aftermath of recent mishaps however, more accurate analyses may become mandatory, based
on a better understanding of the pressure-time histories and the effective resistance and response of
structures to explosions and fire.
2.3 Progressive Collapse

Some elements of the structure (legs, bracings, bulkheads) may partially or completely loose their
strength as a result of accidental damage.
The purpose of such analysis is to ensure that the spare resistance of the remaining structure is
sufficient to allow the loads to redistribute.
Since such a configuration is only temporary (mobilisation period prior to repairs) and that operations
will also be restricted around the damaged area, reduced live and environmental loads are generally
accepted.
In this analysis, the damaged elements are removed from the model. Their residual strength may be
represented by forces applied at the boundary nodes with the intact structure.
3. LOAD OUT & TRANSPORTATION
3.1 Load-Out
The load-out procedure consists in moving the jacket or module from its construction site to the
transportation barge by skidding, or by using trailers underneath it.
The barge may be floating and is continuously deballasted as the package progresses onto it, or
grounded on the bottom of the harbour.
3.1.1 Skidding
The most severe configuration during skidding occurs when the part of the structure is cantilevering
out:
● from the quayside before it touches the barge.

● from the barge just after it has left the quay.
The analysis should also investigate the possibility of high local reactions being the result of
settlement of the skidway or errors in the ballasting procedure.
3.1.2 Load-Out by Trailers
As the reaction on each trailer can be kept constant, analysis of load-out by trailers only requires a
single step to determine the optimal distribution of trailers.
3.2 Transportation

The model consists of the rigid-body assembly of the barge and the structure.
Barges are in general characterised by a low length/beam ratio and a high beam/draught ratio, as well
as sharp corners which introduce heavy viscous damping.
For jacket transport, particular care shall be taken in the representation of overhanging parts (legs,
buoyancy tanks) which contribute significantly to the righting moment.
Dry-transported decks and modules may be simply represented by their mass and moments of inertia.
This analysis shall provide the linear and angular accelerations and displacements of the structure to
be entered in the structural model as inertia forces, and also the partition and intensity of buoyancy
and slamming forces.
The jacket model is a simplified version of the in-place model, from which eccentricities and local
reinforcements may be omitted.
The barge is modelled as a plane grid, with members having the equivalent properties of the
longitudinal and transversal bulkheads.
As the barge passes over a wave trough or a crest, a portion only of the barge is supported by
buoyancy (long barges may be spanning over a whole trough or be half-cantilevered).
The model therefore represents the jacket and the barge as two structures coupled together by the
seafastening members.
4. INSTALLATION
4.1 Launching
A three dimensional analysis is carried out to evaluate the global forces acting on the jacket at various
time steps during the launch sequence.
At each time step, the jacket/barge rigid body system is repositioned to equilibrate the internal and
external forces produced by:
● jacket weight, inertia, buoyancy and drag forces.

● barge weight, buoyancy and ballast forces.
● vertical reactions and friction forces between jacket and barge.

The maximum reaction on the rocker arm is normally obtained when the jacket just starts rotating
about the rocker hinge.
The structural model is in all aspects identical to the one used for the transportation analysis, with
possibly a finer representation of the launch legs.
The rocker arm is also represented as a vertical beam hinged approximately at midspan. Interface
loads obtained by the rigid body analysis are input at boundary conditions on the launch legs. All
interface members must remain in compression, otherwise they are inactivated and the analysis
restarted for that step.
Once the tilting phase has begun, the jacket is analysed at least for each main leg node being at the
vertical of the rocker arm pivot.
4.2 Upending
No dedicated structural analysis is required for this phase, which is essentially a naval architecture
problem.
A local analysis of the lugs is performed for crane-assisted upendings.
4.3 Docking
Docking of a jacket onto a pre-installed template requires guides to be analysed for local impact. The
same requirement applied for bumpers to aid the installation of modules.
4.4 Unpiled Stability
The condition where the jacket may for a while stand unpiled on the seafloor is analysed for the
design installation wave.
The stability of the jacket as a whole (overturning tendency) is investigated, together with the
resistance of the mudmats against soil pressure.
4.5 Piling
The piles are checked during driving for the dynamic stresses caused by the impact wave of the
hammer blow. The maximum cantilevered (stick-up) length of pile must be established for the self-
weight of the pile and hammer combined, accounting for first and second order moments arising from
the pile batter. Hydrodynamic actions are added for underwater driving.

Elements in the vicinity of the piles (guides, sleeves) shall also be checked, see Section 5.1.
4.6 Lifting
4.6.1 Model
The model used for the lift analysis of a structure consists of the in-place model plus the
representation of the rigging arrangement (slings, spreader frames).
For single lifts the slings converge towards the hook joint, which is the sole vertical support in the
model and shall be located exactly on the vertical through the centre of gracity (CoG) of the model.
For heavier dual-crane lifts, the CoG shall be contained in the vertical plane defined by the two hook
joints.
The mathematical instability of the model with respect to horizontal forces is avoided by using soft
horizontal springs at the padeyes. The force and elongation in these springs should always remain
small.
4.6.2 Design Factors
Different factors are applied to the basic sling forces to account for specific effects during lifting
operations.
4.6.2.1 Skew Load Factor (SKL)
This factor represents the effect of fabrication tolerances and lack-of-fit of the slings on the load
repartition in a statically undetermined rigging arrangement (4 slings or more). Skew factors may
either be directly computed by applying to a pair of opposite slings a temperature difference such that
their elongation/shortening corresponds to the mismatch, or determined arbitrarily (typically 1/3 - 2/3
repartition).
4.6.2.2 Dynamic Amplification Factor (DAF)
This factor accounts for global dynamic effects normally experienced during lifting operations. DnV
[24] recommends minimum values as follows:
Lifted up to 100 t 1000 more

Weight 100 t to t to than
W 1000t 2500t 2500 t
(tonnes)

DAF 1,30 1,20 1,15 1,10

offshore
DAF 1,15 1,10 1,05 1,05

inshore
4.6.2.3 Tilt Effect Factor (TEF)
This factor accounts for additional sling loading caused by the rotation of the lifted object about a
horizontal axis and by the longitudinal deviation of the hooks from their theoretical position in the
case of a multi-hook lift. It shall normally be based on 5° and 3° tilt respectively depending on
whether cranes are on different vessels or not.
4.6.2.4 Yaw Effect Factor (YEF)
This factor accounts for the rotation of the lifted object about a vertical axis (equal to 1,05 typically).
4.6.3 Consequence Factors
Forces in elements checked under lift conditions are multiplied by a factor reflecting the consequence
a failure of that specific element would have on the integrity of the overall structure:
● 1,30 for spreader frames, lifting points (padeyes) and their attachment to the structure.
● 1,15 for all members transferring the load to the lifting points.
● 1,00 for other elements.
5. LOCAL ANALYSES AND DESIGN

Local analyses address specific parts of the structure which are better treated by dedicated models
outside the global analysis.
The list of analyses below is not exhaustive and more information can be found in [1-24] which
provide a complete design procedure in each particular case.
5.1 Pile/Sleeve Connections
Underwater pile/sleeve connection is usually achieved by grouting the annulus between the outside of
the pile and the inner sleeve.
The main verifications address:
● the shear stresses in the concrete.

● the fatigue damage in the shear plates and the attachment welds to the main jacket

accumulated during pile driving and throughout the life of the platform.
5.2 Members within the Splash Zone
Horizontal members (conductor guide frames in particular) located within the splash zone (+/-5m on
either side of the mean-sea-level approximately) shall be analysed for fatigue caused by repeated
wave slamming.
A slamming coefficient Cs=3,5 is often selected.
5.3 Straightened Nodes
Typical straightened nodes (ring-stiffened nodes, bottle legs nodes with diaphragms) are analysed by
finite-elements models, from which parametric envelope formulae are drawn and applied to all nodes
representative of the same class.
5.4 Appurtenances
5.4.1 Risers, Caissons & J-Tubes
Static In-Place and Fatigue
Risers, caissons and J-tubes are verified either by structural or piping programs for the action of
environmental forces, internal pressure and temperature. Particular attention is paid to the bends not
always satisfactorily represented by structural programs and the location of the touch-down point
now known a-priori.
A fatigue analysis is also performed to assess the fatigue damage to the clamps and the attachments to
the jacket.
Pull-In
J-tubes are empty ducts continuously guiding a post-installed riser pulled inside. They are verified by
empirical plastic models against the forces generated during pull-in by the friction of the cable and
the deformation of the pull head, see [22].
5.4.2 Conductors
Conductors are analysed in-place as beam columns on discrete simple supports, these being provided
by the horizontal framing of the jacket (typically 20 to 25 m span).
The installation sequence of the different casings must be considered to assess the distribution of
stresses in the different tubes forming the overall composite section.

Also the portion of compression force in the conductor caused by the hanging casings is regarded as
an internal force (similar to prestressing) which therefore does not induce any buckling tendency, see
[23].
5.5 Helidecks
The helideck is normally designed to resist an impact load equal to 2,5 times the take-off weight of
the heaviest helicopter factored by a DAF of 1,30.
Plastic theories are applicable for designing the plate and stiffeners, while the main framing is
analysed elastically.
5.6 Flare Booms
Analyses of flare booms particularly consider:
● variable positions during installation (horizontal pick-up from the barge, lift upright).
● reduced material characteristics due to high temperature in the vicinity of the tip during
operation.
● dynamic response under gusty winds.
● local excitation of diagonals by wind vortex-shedding.
● With the trend to ever deeper and more slender offshore structures in yet harsher
environments, more elaborate theories are necessary to analyse complex situations. There is a
risk for the Engineer having increasingly to rely on the sole results of computer analyses at the
expense of sound design practice.
● To retain enough control of the process of analysis, the following recommendations are given:
⋅ check the interfaces between the different analyses and ensure the consistency of the input/output.
⋅ verify the validity of the data resulting from a complex analysis against a simplified model, which
can also be used to assess the influence of a particular parameter.
⋅ make full use of "good engineering judgement" to criticise the unexpected results of an analysis.
7. REFERENCES
[1] Skop R.A. & Griffin O.M., An Heuristic Model for Determining Flow-Induced Vibrations of
Offshore Structures/OTC paper 1843, May 1973.

[2] De Oliveira J.G., The Behaviour of Steel Offshore Structures under Accidental Collisions/OTC
paper 4136, May 1981.
[3] API-RP2A, Recommended Practice for Planning, Designing and Constructing Fixed Offshore
Platforms/18th edition, September1989.
[4] DnV, Rules for the Classification of Fixed Offshore Structures, September 1989.
[5] DnV, Standard for Insurance Warranty Surveys in Marine Operations, June 1985.
[6] NPD, Regulation for Structural Design of Loadbearing Structures Intended for Exploitation of
Petroleum Resources, October1984 and Veiledning om Utforming, Beregning og Dimensjonering av
Stalkonstruksjoner i Petroleumsvirksomheten, December1989.
[7] DoE, Offshore Installations: Guidance on Design and Construction/London, April 1984.
[8] McClelland B. & Reifel M.D., Planning and Design of Fixed Offshore Platforms/Van Nostrand
Reinhold, 1986.
[9] UEG, Node Flexibility and its Effect on Jacket Structures/CIRIA Report UR22, 1984.
[10] Hallam M.G., Heaf N.J. & Wootton L.R., Dynamics of Marine Structures/ CIRIA Report UR8
(2nd edition), October 1978.
[11] Wilson J.F., Dynamics of Offshore Structures/Wiley Interscience, 1984.
[12] Clough R.W. & Penzien J., Dynamics of Structures/McGraw-Hill, New York, 1975.
[13] Newland D.E., Random Vibrations and Spectral Analysis/Longman Scientific (2nd edition),
1984.
[14] Zienkiewicz O.C., Lewis R.W. & Stagg K.G., Numerical Methods in Offshore Engineering/
Wiley Interscience, 1978.
[15] Davenport A.G., The Response of Slender Line-Like Structures to a Gusty Wind/ICE Vol.23,
1962.
[16] Williams A.K. & Rhinne J.E., Fatigue Analysis of Steel Offshore Structures/ICE Vol.60,
November 1976.
[17] Anagnostopoulos S.A., Wave and Earthquake Response of Offshore Structures: Evaluation of
Modal Solutions/ASCE J. of the Structural Div., vol. 108, No ST10, October 1982.
[18] Chianis J.W. & Mangiavacchi A., A Critical Review of Transportation Analysis Procedures/

OTC paper 4617, May1983.
[19] Kaplan P. Jiang C.W. & Bentson J, Hydrodynamic Analysis of Barge-Platform Systems in
Waves/Royal Inst. of Naval Architects, London, April 1982.
[20] Hambro L., Jacket Launching Simulation by Differentiation of Constraints/ Applied Ocean
Research, Vol.4 No.3, 1982.
[21] Bunce J.W. & Wyatt T.A., Development of Unified Design Criteria for Heavy Lift Operations
Offshore/OTC paper 4192, May 1982.
[22] Walker A.C. & Davies P., A Design Basis for the J-Tube Method of Riser Installation/J. of
Energy Resources Technology, pp. 263-270, September 1983.
[23] Stahl B. & Baur M.P., Design Methodology for Offshore Platform Conductors/J. of Petroleum
Technology, November 1983.
[24] DnV - Rules for the Classification of Steel Ships, January 1989.

L15a06
ESDEP WG 15A
Lecture 15A.6: Foundations

OBJECTIVE\SCOPE
● to classify different types of piles

● to understand main design methods
● to cover various methods of installation
PREREQUISITES
Lecture 1B.2.2: Limit State Design Philosophy and Partial Safety Factors
Lecture 15A.12: Connections in Offshore Deck Structures
Lecture 17.5: Requirements and Verifications of Seismic Resistant Structures
A general knowledge of design in offshore structures and an understanding of offshore installation are also required.
SUMMARY
In this lecture piled foundations for offshore structures are presented. The lecture starts with the classification of soil. The
main steps in the design of piles are then explained. The different kinds of piles and hammers are described. The three
main execution phases are briefly discussed: fabrication, transport and installation.

L15a06
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 Classification of Soils
The stratigraphy of the sea bed results from a complex geological process during which various materials were
deposited, remoulded and pressed together.
Soil texture consists of small mineral or organic particles basically characterized by their grain size and mutual
interaction (friction, cohesion).
The properties of a specific soil depend mainly on the following factors:
● density.
● water content.
● over consolidation ratio.
For design purposes the influence of these factors on soil behaviour is expressed in terms of two fundamental parameters:
● friction angle.
● undrained shear strength Cu.
Since the least significant of either of these parameters is often neglected, soils can be classified within "ideal" categories:
● granular soils.
● cohesive soils.
1.2 Granular Soils
Granular soils are non-plastic soils with negligible cohesion between particles. They include:
● sands : characterized by large to medium particle sizes (1mm to 0,05mm) offering a high permeability,
● silts : characterized by particle sizes between 0,05 and 0,02mm; they are generally over-consolidated; they may exhibit
some cohesion.
1.3 Cohesive Soils

L15a06
Clays are plastic soils with particle sizes less than 0,002mm which tend to stick together; their permeability is low.
1.4 Multi-Layered Strata
The nature and characteristics of the soil surrounding a pile generally vary with the depth. For analysis purposes, the soil
is divided into several layers, each having constant properties throughout. The number of layers depends on the
precision required of the analysis.
2. DESIGN
Steel offshore platforms are usually founded on piles, driven deep into the soil (Figure 1). The piles have to transfer the
loads acting on the jacket into the sea bed. In this section theoretical aspects of the design of piles are presented. Checking
of the pile itself is described in detail in the Worked Example.

L15a06
2.1 Design Loads
These loads are those transferred from the jacket to the foundation. They are calculated at the mudline.
2.1.1 Gravity loads
Gravity loads (platform dead load and live loads) are distributed as axial compression forces on the piles depending upon
their respective eccentricity.
2.1.2 Environmental loads
Environmental loads due to waves, current, wind, earthquake, etc. are basically horizontal. Their resultant at mudline
consists of:
L15a06
● shear distributed as horizontal forces on the piles.

● overturning moment on the jacket, equilibrated by axial tension/ compression in symmetrically disposed piles
(upstream/downstream).
2.1.3 Load combinations
The basic gravity and environmental loads multiplied by relevant load factors are combined in order to produce the most
severe effect(s) at mudline, resulting in:
● vertical compression or pullout force, and

● lateral shear force plus bending.
2.2 Static Axial Pile Resistance
The overall resistance of the pile against axial force is the sum of shaft friction and end bearing.
2.2.1 Lateral friction along the shaft (shaft friction)
Skin friction is mobilized along the shaft of the tubular pile (and possibly also along the inner wall when the soil plug is
not removed).
The unit shaft friction:
● for sands: is proportional to the overburden pressure,

● for clays: is calculated by the "alpha" or "lambda" method and is a constant equal to the shear strength Cu at great depth.
Lateral friction is integrated along the whole penetration of the pile.
2.2.2 End bearing
End bearing is the resultant of bearing pressure over the gross end area of the pile, i.e. with or without the area of plug
if relevant.
The bearing pressure:

L15a06
● for clays: is equal to 9 × Cu.

● for sands: is proportional to the overburden pressure as explained in Section 6.4.2 of API-RP2A [1].
2.2.3 Pile penetration
The pile penetration shall be sufficient to generate enough friction and bearing resistance against the maximum
design compression multiplied by the appropriate factor of safety. No bearing resistance can be mobilized against pull-out:
the friction available must be equated to the pull out force multiplied by the appropriate factor of safety.
2.3 Lateral Pile Resistance
The shear at the mudline caused by environmental loads is resisted by lateral bearing of the pile on the soil. This action
may generate large deformations and high bending moments in the part of the pile directly below the mudline, particularly
in soft soils.
2.3.1 P-y curves
P-y curves represent the lateral soil resistance versus deflection. The shape of these curves varies with the depth and the type
of soil at the considered elevation. The general shape of the curves for increasing displacement features:
● elastic (linear) behaviour for small deflections,

● elastic/plastic behaviour for medium deflections,
● constant resistance for large deflections or loss of resistance when the soil skeleton deteriorates (clay under cyclic load
in particular).
2.3.2 Lateral pile analysis
For analysis purposes, the soil is modelled as lumped non-linear springs distributed along the pile. The fourth order
differential equation which expresses the pile deformation is integrated by successive iterations, the secant stiffness of the
soil springs being updated at each step.
For large deformations, the second order contribution of the axial compression to the bending moment (P-Delta effect) shall
be taken into account.
2.4 Pile Driving
Piles installed by driving are forced into the soil by a ram hitting the top. The impact is transmitted along the pile in the form
L15a06
of a wave, which reflects on the pile tip. The energy is progressively lost by plastic friction on the sides and bearing at the tip
of the pile.
2.4.1 Empirical formulae
A considerable number of empirical formulae exist to predict pile driveability. Each formula is generally limited to a
particular type of soil and hammer.
2.4.2 Wave equation
This method of analysing the driving process consists of representing the ensemble of pile/soil/hammer as a one-
dimensional assembly of masses, springs and dashpots:
● the pile is modelled as a discrete assembly of masses and elastic springs.

● the soil is idealized as a massless medium characterized by elastic-perfectly-plastic springs and linear dashpots.
● the hammer is modelled as a mass falling with an initial velocity.
● the cushion is represented by a weightless spring (see Figure 3).
● the pile cap is represented by a mass of infinite rigidity.

L15a06
The energy of the ram hitting the top of the pile generates a stress wave in the pile, which dissipates progressively by
L15a06
friction between the pile and the soil and by reflection at the extremities of the pile.
The plastic displacement of the tip relative to the soil is the set achieved by the blow. Curves can be drawn to represent
the number of blows per unit length required to drive the pile at different penetrations.
The wave equation, though representing the most rigorous assessment to date of the driving process, still suffers a lack
of accuracy, mostly caused by the inaccuracies in the soil model.
3. DIFFERENT KINDS OF PILES

Driven piles are the most popular and cost-efficient type of foundation for offshore structures.
As shown in Figure 2, the following alternatives may be chosen when driving proves impractical:
● insert piles.
● drilled and grouted piles.
● belled piles.

L15a06
3.1 Driven Piles
Piles are usually made up in segments. After placing and driving the first long segment, extension segments called add-ons
are set on piece by piece as driving proceeds until the overall design length is achieved.
In recent years one-piece piles have been widely used in the North Sea since the offshore work is considerably reduced.
Wall thickness may vary. A thicker wall is sometimes required:
● in sections from mudline down to a specified depth within which bending stresses are especially high,
● at the pile tip (driving shoe) to resist local bearing stresses while driving.
Uniform wall thickness is however preferable thus avoiding construction and installation problems.
L15a06
3.2 Insert Piles
Insert piles are smaller diameter piles driven through the main pile from which the soil plug has been previously drilled
out. They are therefore not subjected to skin friction over the length of the main pile and can reach substantial
additional penetration.
The insert pile is welded to the main pile at the top of the jacket and the annular space between the tubes is grouted.
This type of pile is used:
● in a preplanned situation: performance is good although material and installation costs are higher than for normal driven piles.
● as an emergency procedure: when scheduled piles cannot be driven to the required penetration, resulting therefore in one of
the following drawbacks.
⋅ a thicker wall section of the main pile will be within the jacket height instead of below the mudline.
⋅ reduced friction area and end bearing pressure,
⋅ difficulties often noted for the setting-in of all the required volume of grouting, i.e. the concern is the leakage of grout or
the impossibility to fill with the calculated volume of grout.
3.3 Drilled and Grouted Piles
This procedure is the only means of installing piles with tension resistance in hard soils or soft rocks; it resembles that
for drilling a conductor well.
An oversized hole is initially drilled to the proposed pile penetration depth. The pile is then lowered down, sometimes
centred in the hole by spacers and the annular space between the pile shaft and the surrounding soil is grouted.
Design uncertainty results because:
● hard soil formation softens when exposed to the water or mud used during drilling and exhibits lower skin friction resistance.
● in case of calcareous sand, external grouting just crushes the sand, slightly extending the effective pile diameter but
not increasing the friction significantly.
3.4 Belled Piles

L15a06
While belled piles, on land, are used to decrease the bearing stress under a pile, offshore belled piles provide a large
bearing area to increase tip uplift resistance.
The main pile, normally driven, serves here as a casing through which a rig drills a slightly oversized hole ahead. A belling
tool (underreamer) then enlarges the socket to a conical bell with a base diameter a few times that of the main pile. A
heavy reinforcement cage is lowered inside the bell which is subsequently filled with concrete made using fine
aggregate (maximum size 10mm).
4. FABRICATION AND INSTALLATION
4.1 Fabrication
The piles are usually made up of "cans" - cylinders of rolled plate with a longitudinal seam. Single cans are typically 1,5m
long or more. Longitudinal seams of two adjacent segments are rotated 90° apart at least.
Bevelling is mandatory should the wall thickness difference exceed 3mm between adjacent cans. Maximum deviation
from straightness is specified (0.1% in length).
Commonly used steel grade is X52 or X60.
The outside surface of grouted piles should be free of mill scale and varnished.
In certain instances, steel piles are protected underwater by sacrificial anodes or by impressed current. In the splash
zone additional thickness to allow for corrosion (3mm for example) and epoxy or rubberized coating, monel or copper-
nickel sheeting are provided.
4.2 Transportation
4.2.1 Barge transportation
Pile segments are choked and fastened to the barge to prevent them from falling overboard under severe seastates. Pile
plate should be thick enough to prevent any deformation caused by stacking.
4.2.2 Self floating mode

L15a06
This method is attractive where long segments of pile are to be lifted and set in guides far below the sea surface (skirt piles
for example).
The ends of the piles are sealed by steel closure plates or rubber diaphragms which should be able to resist wave
slamming during the tow.
4.2.3 Transport within the jacket
The piles are pre-set inside the main legs or in the guides/sleeves, generating additional weight and possibly buoyancy
(if closed). They are held in place by shims which prevent them from escaping from their guides during launch and
uprighting of the jacket.
Several piles are driven immediately after the jacket has touched down, providing initial stability against the action of
waves and current.
4.3 Hammers
Piles are positioned:
● either inside the jacket legs, extending the full height of the jacket,
● or encased in sleeves protruding at the bottom of the jacket, running vertical or parallel to the legs (typical batter 1/12 to 1/6).
Piles can then be driven using any type of hammer (or a combination of types). Hammers are illustrated in Figure 3.
4.3.1 Steam hammers
Steam hammers are widely used for offshore installation of jackets. They are generally single acting with rates of up to
40 blows/minute. Energies of current hammers range from 60 000 to 1 250 000 ft lb/blow. (82KNm to 1725KNm per blow).
During driving, the hammer with attached driving head rides the pile rather than being supported by leads. The hammer
line from the crane boom is slackened so as to prevent transmission of impact and vibration into the boom.
4.3.2 Diesel hammers
Diesel hammers are much used at offshore terminals. They are lighter to handle and less energy consuming than
steam hammers, but their effective energy is limited.

L15a06
4.3.3 Hydraulic hammers
Hydraulic hammers are dedicated to underwater driving (skirt piles terminating far below the sea surface).
Menck hydraulic hammers are widely used. They utilize a solid steel ram and a flexible steel pile cap to limit impact
forces. They are double acting. Hydraulic fluid under high pressure is used to force a piston or set of pistons, and in turn,
the ram up and down.
Properties of some hammers used offshore are shown in Table 1. A selection of large offshore pile driving hammers driving
on heavy piles is also shown in Table 2.
4.3.4 Selection of hammer size
Selection of hammer size is based on:
● experience of similar situations (see Quality Control: Section 4.6),

● numerical modelling of driving for each particular site (see Pile Driving: Section 2.4)
Typical values of pile sizes, wall thicknesses, and hammer energies for steam hammers are shown in Table 3.
4.4 Installation
4.4.1 Pile handling and positioning
Figure 4 shows the different ways of providing lifting points for positioning pile sections. Padeyes are generally used
(welded in the fabrication yard; their design should take into account the changes in load direction during lifting). Padeyes
are then carefully cut before lowering the next pile section.

L15a06

L15a06
Sketch E shows the different steps for the positioning of pile sections:
● pile or add-on lifted from the barge deck.

● rotation of the crane to position add-on.
● installing and lowering of the pile add-on.
4.4.2 Pile connections
Different solutions for connecting pile segments back-to-back are used:
● either by welding, Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW) or flux-cored, segments held temporarily by internal or
external stabbing guides as shown in Figure 4. Welding time depends upon:
- pile wall thickness: 3 hours for 1in. thick (25,4mm); 16 hours for 3in. thick, (76,2mm) (typical).
- number and qualification of the welders.
- environmental conditions.
● or by mechanical connectors (as shown in Figure 4):
- breech block (twisting method).

- lug type (hydraulic method).
4.4.3 Hammer placement
Figure 5 shows the different steps of this routine operation:

L15a06
● lifting from the barge deck.

● positioning over pile by booming out or in (the bell of the hammer acts as a stabling guide... very helpful in rough weather).
L15a06
● alignment of the pile cap.

● lowering leads after hammer positionment.
Each add-on should be designed to prevent bending or buckling failure during installation and in-place conditions.
4.4.4 Driving
Some penetration under the self weight of the pile is normal. For soft soil conditions, particular measures are taken to avoid
an uncontrolled run.
Piles are then driven or drilled until pile refusal.
Pile refusal is defined as the minimum rate of penetration beyond which further advancement of the pile is no longer
achievable because of the time required and the possible damage to the pile or to the hammer. A widely accepted rate
for defining refusal is 300 blows/foot (980 blows/metre).
4.5 Pile-to-Jacket Connections
4.5.1 Welded shims
The shims are inserted at the top of the pile within the annulus between the pile and jacket leg (see Figure 6) and
welded afterwards.

L15a06
4.5.2 Mechanical locking system

L15a06
This metal-to-metal connection is achieved by a hydraulic swaging tool lowered inside the pile and expanding it into
machined grooves provided in the sleeves at two or three elevations as shown on Figure 7.

L15a06
This type of connection is most popular for subsea templates. It offers immediate strength and the possibility to re-enter
the connection should swaging prove incomplete.
4.5.3 Grouting
This hybrid connection is the most commonly used for connecting piles to the main structure (in the mudline area). Forces
are transmitted by shear through the grout.
Figure 8 shows the two types of packers commonly used. The expansive, non-shrinking grout must fill completely the
annulus between the pile and leg (or sleeve).

L15a06
Bonding should be excellent; it is improved by shear connectors (shear keys, strips or weld beads disposed on the surface of
the sleeve and pile in contact with the grout).

L15a06
The width of the annulus between pile and sleeve should be maintained constant by use of centralizers and be limited to:
● 1,5in. minimum, (38,1mm)

● about 4in. (101,6mm) maximum (to avoid destruction of the tensile strength of the grout by internal microcracking).
Packers are used to confine the grout and prevent it from escaping at the base of the sleeve. Packers are often damaged
during piling and are therefore:
● installed in a double set.

● attached to the base of the sleeve to protect them during pile entry and driving.
Thorough filling should be checked by suitable devices, e.g. electrical resistance gauges, radioactive tracers, well-
logging devices or overflow pipes checked by divers.
4.6 Quality Control
Quality control shall:
● confirm the adequacy of the foundation with respect to the design.

● provide a record of pile installation for reference to subsequent driving of nearby piles and future modifications to the platform.
The installation report shall mention:
● pile identification (diameter and thickness).

● measured lengths of add-ons and cut-offs.
● self penetration of pile (under its own weight and under static weight of the hammer).
● blowcount throughout driving with identification of hammer used and energy, as shown in Figure 9.
● record of incidents and abnormalities:
- unexpected behaviour of the pile and/or hammer.

- interruptions of driving (with set-up time and blowcount subsequently required to break the pile loose).
- pile damage if any.
● elevations of soil plug and internal water surface after driving.

● information about the pile/structure connection:
- equipment and procedure employed.

L15a06
- overall volume of grout and quality.

- record of interruptions and delays.

L15a06
4.7 Contingency Plan
Contingency documents should provide back-up solutions in case "unforeseen" events occur such as:
● impossibility to get the required pile penetration.

● mechanical breakdown of the hammer.
● grout pipe blockage.
This lecture has described:
● the difficult aspects of foundations in a variety of soils.

● the multiplicity of solutions and the different kind of piles and hammers.
● the complexity of the process from design to installation.
6. REFERENCES
1. McClelland, B. and Reifel, M. D., Planning and design of fixed offshore platforms, Von Mostrand Reinhold Company (1982).
2. Bowles, J. E., Foundation analysis and design, MacGraw Hill Book Company (4th edition 1988).
3. Bowles, J. E., Analytical and computer methods in Foundation Engineering, MacGraw Hill Book Company (1983).

L15a06
4. Poulos, H. G. and Davis, E. H., Pile foundation analysis and design, John Wiley and Sons (1980).
5. Graff, W. J., Introduction to offshore structures, Gulf Publishing Company (1981).
6. Le Tirant, P., Reconnaissance des sols en mer pour l'implantation des ouvrages Pétroliens, Technip (1976)
7. Pieux dans les formatines carbonates - Technip ARGEMA (1988).
8. Capacité patante des pieux - Technip ARGEMA (1988).
9. Dawson, T. H., Offshore Structural Engineering, Prentice Hall Inc (1983).
10. Gerwick, Ben C., Construction of Offshore Structures, John Wiley and Sons (1986).
A. Air/Steam Hammers
Make Model Rated Ram Max. Std. Typical Rated Steam Air Hose Rated
Pilecap Operating
Energy Weight Stroke Hammer Consumption Consumption ST/F BPM
Weight Weight Pressure
(ft-lbs) (kips) (m) (lbs ht) (lbs ht) .....
(kips) (w/leads) (psi)
(kips)
Conmaco 6850 510.000 85 72 57,5 312 180 31.500 7.500 2@4 40
5650 325.000 65 60 59,0 262 160 3@4 45
5300 150.000 30 60 12,7 92 160 8.064 1.711 4 46
300 90.000 30 36 12,7 86 150 6.944 1.471 3 54
200 60.000 20 36 12,7 74 120 5.563 1.195 3 59
Menck 12500 1.582.220 275,58 69 154,32 853 171 53.910 26.500 2@6 36
(MRBS) 8800 954.750 194,01 59 103,62 600 150 32.400 16.700 8 36
8000 867.960 176,37 59 85,98 564 142 30.860 15.900 8 38
7000 632.885 154 49 92,4 583 156 30.800 14.830 4@4 35
5000 542.470 110,23 59 66,14 335 150 20.940 10.400 6 40
4600 499.070 101,41 59 52,91 313 142 19.840 9.900 6 42

L15a06
3000 325.480 66,14 59 33,07 205 142 12.130 6.000 5 42
1800 189.850 38,58 59 22,05 125 142 7.060 3.700 4 44
850 93.340 18,96 50 11,5 64 142 3.530 1.950 3 45
MKT OS-60 18.000 60 36
OS-40 120.000 40 36
OS-20 60.000 20 36 38,65 150 3 60
C. Hydraulic Hammers
Make Model Rated Energy Ram Standard Hammer Typical Operating Rated Rated
Weight Weight
Pilecap Pressure Oil Flow BPM
Weight
(ft-lb) (psi) (gal. min)
(kips) (kips) (kips)
HMB 4000 1.200.000 205 490 40-70
3000A 800.000 152 414
3000 725.000 139 33
1500 290.000 55 17,6 172
900 170.000 30,8 88
500 72.000 9,5 1,1 27,5

L15a06
Menck MRBU 760.000 132 84 415 3400 845 50-80
MHU 1700 1.230.000 207 77 617 3400 845 32-65
MHU 900 650.000 110 386 3100 580 48-65
MH 195 141.000 22,0 6,0 59 3550 98 38
MH 165 119.000 19,0 6,0 51 3190 103 42
MH 145 105.000 16,5 6,0 46 2755 102 42
MH 120 87.000 13,9 6,0 40 2320 103 44
MH 96 69.000 11,0 1,9 27 2830 75 48
MH 80 58.000 9,3 1,9 24 2465 75 48
TABLE 1 Properties of some hammers used offshore
Hammer Rated Striking Energy Expected Net Energy (ft-

lb x 1000)
Type Blows per Weight including
Minute Offshore Cage, if
any (metric tons) (ft-lb x KNm On Anvil On Pile
1000)
Vulcan 3250 Single-acting steam 60 300 750 1040 673 600
HBM 3000 Hydraulic underwater 50-60 175 1034 1430 542 542
HBM 3000 A Hydraulic underwater 40-70 190 1100 1520 796 796
HBM 3000 P Slender hydraulic underwater 40-70 170 1120 1550 800 800
Menck MHU 900 Slender hydraulic underwater 48-65 135 - - 651 618
Menck MRBS 8000 Single-acting steam 38 280 868 1200 715 629

L15a06
HBM 4000 Hydraulic underwater 40-70 222 1700 2350 1157 1157
Menck MRBS 12500 Single-acting steam 38 385 1582 2190 1384 1147
Menck MHU 1700 Slender hydraulic underwater 32-65 235 - - 1230 1169
IHC S-300 Slender hydraulic underwater 40 30 220 300 - -
IHC S-2000 Slender hydraulic underwater - 260 1449 2000 - -
IHC S-2300 Slender hydraulic underwater - - 1566 2300 - -
TABLE 2 Large pile driving hammers
Pile Outer Diameter Wall Thickness Hammer Energy
(in.) (mm) (in.) (mm) (ft-lb) (kN-m)
24 600 5/8 - 7/8 15-21 50.000 - 120.000 70 - 168
30 750 ¾ 19 50.000 - 120.000 70 - 168
36 900 7/8 - 1 21-25 50.000 - 180.000 70 - 252
42 1.050 1 - 1¼ 25-32 60.000 - 300.000 84 - 120
48 1.200 17- 1¾ 28-44 90.000 - 500.000 126 - 700
60 1.500 17 - 1¾ 28-44 90.000 - 500.000 126 - 700
72 1.800 1¼ - 2 32-50 120.000 - 700.000 168 - 980

L15a06
84 2.100 1¼ - 2 32-50 180.000 - 1.000.000 252 - 1.400
96 2.400 1¼ - 2 32-50 180.000 - 1.000.000 252 - 1.400
108 2.700 1½ - 2½ 37-62 300.000 - 1.000.000 420 - 1.400
120 3.000 1½ - 2½ 37-62 300.000 - 1.000.000 420 - 1.400
Note 1: With the heavier hammers in the range given, the wall thicknesses must be near the upper range of those listed in
order to prevent overstress (yielding) in the pile under hard driving.
Note 2: With diesel hammers, the effective hammer energy is from one-half to two-thirds the values generally listed by
the manufacturers and the above table must be adjusted accordingly. Diesel hammers would normally only be used on 36-in.
or less diameter piles.
Note 3: Hydraulic hammers have a more sustained blow, and hence the above table can be modified to fit the stress
wave pattern.
TABLE 3 Typical values of pile sizes, wall thickness and hammer energies

ESDEP WG 15A
Lecture 15A.7: Tubular Joints in Offshore

Structures
OBJECTIVE/SCOPE
To present methods for the design of large tubular joints typically found on offshore structures.
PREREQUISITES
RELATED LECTURES
Lecture 15A.12: Connections in Offshore Deck Structures
SUMMARY
The lecture defines the principle terms and ratios used in tubular joint design. It presents the classifications for T,
Y, X, N, K and KT joints and discusses the significance of gaps, overlaps, multiplanar joints and the details of
joint arrangements. It describes design methods for static and fatigue strength, presenting some detailed
information on stress concentration factors.
1. INTRODUCTION
The main structure of a topside consists of either an integrated deck or a module support frame and modules.
Commonly tubular lattice frames are present, however a significant amount of rolled and built up sections are
also used.
This lecture refers to the design of tubular joints. These are used extensively offshore, particularly for jacket
structures. Connection of I-shape sections or boxed beams whether rolled or built up, are basically similar to
those used for onshore structures. Refer to the corresponding lectures for appropriate design guidance.
Two main calculations need to be performed in order to adequately design a tubular joint. These are:
1. Static strength considerations

2. Fatigue behaviour considerations

The question of fatigue behaviour always has to be addressed, even where simple assessment of fatigue
behaviour shows this will not be a problem. The joint designer must therefore always be "fatigue minded".
2. DEFINITIONS
The following definitions are universally acknowledged [1]: (refer to Figure 1 for clarification):

The CHORD is the main member, receiving the other components. It is necessarily a through member. The other
tubulars are welded to it, without piercing through the chord at the intersection.
Other tubulars belonging to the joint assembly may be as large as the chord, but they can never be larger.
The CAN is the section of the chord reinforced with an increased wall thickness, or stiffeners.
The BRACES are the structural members which are welded to the chord. They physically terminate on the chord
skin.
The STUB is the extremity of the brace, locally reinforced with an increased wall thickness.
Different positions have to be identified along the brace - chord intersection line:
● CROWN position is located where the brace to chord intersection crosses the plane containing the brace
and chord.
● SADDLE position is located where the brace to chord intersection crosses the plane perpendicular to the
plane containing the brace and chord, which also contains the brace axis.
2.1 Geometrical definitions
Refer to Figure 1
L is the length of the chord can
D is the chord outside diameter
T is the chord wall thickness
d is the brace outside diameter
t is the brace wall thickness (where there are several braces, a subscript identifies the brace)
g is the theoretical gap between weld toes
e is the eccentricity ⋅ Positive when opposite to the brace side, Negative when on the brace side
θ is the angle between brace and chord axis.

2.2 Geometrical ratios
α= Can slenderness ratio
β= Brace to chord diameter ratio (always ≤ 1)
γ= Chord slenderness ratio
τ= Brace to chord thickness ratio
ζ= Relative gap
These are non-dimensional variables for use in parametrical equations.
3. CLASSIFICATION
Load paths within a joint are very different, according to the joint geometry. The following classification is used,
see Figure 2.

3.1 T and Y Joints
These are joints made up of a single brace, perpendicular to the chord (T joint) or inclined to it (Y joints).
In a T joint, the axial force acting in the brace is reacted by bending in the chord.
In a Y joint, the axial force is reacted by bending and axial force in the chord.
3.2 X Joints
X joints include two coaxial braces on either side of the chord.
Axial forces are balanced in the braces, which in an ideal X joint have the same diameter and thickness. In fact,
other considerations such as brace length, which can be very different on each side of the chord, may lead to two
slightly different braces. Angles may be slightly different as well.
The important point to note is the balance of forces in the braces. If the axial force in one brace is far higher than
the one in the other brace, the joint may be classified as a Y (or a T) joint rather than an X joint.

3.3 N and K Joints
These joints include two braces. One of them may be perpendicular to the chord (N joint) or both inclined (K
joint).
The ideal load pattern of these joints is reached when axial forces are balanced in the braces, i.e. net force into
chord member is low.
3.4 KT Joints
These joints include three braces.
The load pattern for these joints is more complex. Ideally axial forces should be balanced within the braces, i.e.
net force into chord member is low.
3.5 Limitations
For a joint to be able to be fabricated and to be effective, the geometrical ratios given in Section 2.2 have
limitations. Table 3.1 shows these limits and their typical ranges.
Parameter Typical range Limitations
min max
0,4 - 0,8 0,2 1
12 - 20 10 30
0,3 - 0,7 0,2 1 (2)
θ 40° - 90° 30° (3) 90° (1)
(1) Physical limitation
(2) Brace shall be less or equal to chord thickness (see punching shear)
(3) Angle limitation to get a correct workmanship of welds.
Table 3.1 Geometrical Limits and Typical Ranges
3.6 How to classify a joint

This classification deals only with braces located in one plane.
It must always be remembered that this classification is based on load pattern as well as the geometry.
Engineering judgement must therefore be used to classify a joint. For example a geometrical K joint may be
classified as.
● a K joint when forces are balanced within braces.

● a Y joint when the force in one brace is reacted predominantly by the chord, rather than by the second
brace.
4. GAP AND OVERLAP
4.1 Definitions
The GAP is the distance along the chord between the weld toes of the braces (Figure 3).

The theoretical gap is the shortest distance between the outer surfaces of two braces, measured on the line where
they cross the chord outer surface. The real gap is the one measured at the corresponding location, between actual
weld toes.
A brace OVERLAPS another brace when one brace is welded to the other brace.
The overlapping brace is always the thinner brace.
The overlapped brace is always completely welded to the chord.
4.2 Limitations
The minimum gap allowed is 50mm. This limitation is set to avoid two welds clashing. This is important because
the gap is a highly stressed zone.
4.3 Multiplanar Joints
The same definitions and limitations apply to multiplanar joints.
5. JOINT ARRANGEMENT
As a rule, welds in a joint have to be kept away from zones of high stress concentration.
The following practice, see Figure 4, should be followed:
1. The chord circumferential welds are to be located at either 300mm or a quarter of the chord diameter,
whichever is the greater, from the nearest point of a brace-chord connection.
2. The brace circumferential welds are to be located at either 600mm or a brace diameter, whichever is the
greatest, from the nearest point of the brace-chord connection.
3. The actual gap shall not be less than 50mm. To achieve this, most designers use a 70 or 75mm theoretical
gap.
4. Eccentricity and offset are to be kept within a quarter of the chord diameter. When higher values can not
be avoided, secondary moments have to be introduced in the structural analysis by introducing extra nodes.
5. Thickness transitions are smoothed to a 1 in 4 slope, by tapering the thicker wall.


6. STATIC STRENGTH
6.1 Loads taken into account
The loads considered in a joint static strength design are the axial force, the in-plane bending moment and the out-
of-plane bending moment for each brace.
The other components (transverse shear and brace torsion moment) are usually neglected since unlike the
preceding loads, these loads do not induce bending in the chord wall. Nevertheless, their presence must never be
forgotten and in some specific cases, their effects must be assessed. The axial load, in-plane and out-of-plane
bending moments are normally the dimensioning criterion for tubular joints.
6.2 Punching shear
6.2.1 Acting punching shear
The acting punching shear is the shear stress developed in the chord by the brace load.
The acting punching stress vp is written as:
vp = τ f sin θ
where f is the nominal axial, in-plane bending or out-of-plane bending stress in the brace (punching shear for
each kept separate), see Figure 5.

6.2.2 Allowable punching shear
Allowable punching shear values in the chord wall are determined from test results carried out on full scale or on
reduced scale models.
Tests are performed on experimental rigs such as the one shown in Figure 6. They are performed for a single load-
case (axial force, in-plane bending, or out-of-plane bending).

The ultimate static strength obtained through these tests can then be expressed in terms of punching shear, as
defined above.
Statistical treatment of results allow formulae to be defined for the allowable punching shear stress.
6.2.3 The API method
Several offshore design regulations are based on the punching shear concept [1,2]. The following method is
presented in API RP2A [2]:
A. Principle
● This method applies to a single brace without overlap, for a non-stiffened joint. When the joint includes
several braces, each brace connection is checked independently.
● Punching shear for each load component (axial force, in-plane bending, and out of plane bending) is
calculated and compared to the allowable punching shear stress for the appropriate load and geometry.
● Interaction formulae are given for combined loading, combining the three punching shear ratio calculated
for each component.
B. Allowable punching shear stress

The allowable punching shear stress for each load component is:
Vpa = Qq Qf
where: Fyc is the yield strength of the chord member
Qq is to account for the effects of type of loading and geometry, see Table 6.1.
Qf is a factor to account for the nominal longitudinal stress in the chord
Qf = 1 - λ γ
fAX, fIPB, fOPB are the nominal axial, in-plane bending and out of plane bending stresses in the chord
Value for λ and Qq are given in Table 6.1
Load component Axial load In-plane bending Out of plane bending
Stress in brace fax fby fbz
Acting punching shear Vpx = τ fax sin θ Vp = τ fby sin θ Vp = τ fbz sin θ
Qq K joints
T & Y Joints
w/o diaphragm Tension Compression
w diaphragm
λ 0,030 0,045 0,021

Table 6.1 Values of Qq for allowable punching shear stress from APIRP2A
Qg = 1,8 - 0,1 for γ ≤ 20
Qg = 1,4 - 4 g/D for γ > 20
but Qg must be ≥ 1,0
Qβ = for β > 0,6
QB = 1,0 for β ≤ 0,6
C. Loading Combination
For combined loadings involving more than one load component, the following equations shall be satisfied:
where: IPB refers to in-plane bending component
OPB refers to out-of-plane bending component
AX refers to axial force component
and
ax
where: arc sin term is in radians.
6.3 Overlapping joints
The parametric formulae discussed in Section 6.2 were specifically established for non-overlapping joints with no
internal reinforcement. These formulae cannot be used for overlapping joints.
In an overlapping joint, part of the load is transferred directly from one brace to the other through the overlapping
section, without that part of the load transferring through the chord. The static strength of an overlapping joint is
higher than a similar joint without an overlap.

API RP2A, [2] allows the static shear strength of the overlapping weld section to be added to the punching shear
capacity of the brace-chord connection, see Figure 7.
The allowable axial load component perpendicular to the chord, P⊥ (in Newtons) should be taken to be:
P⊥ = (vpa T l1) + (2vwa tw l2)
where:
vpa is the allowable punching shear stress (MPa) for axial stress.
l1 is the circumference for that portion of the brace which contacts the chord (mm), see Figure 7.
vwa is the allowable shear stress for weld between braces (MPa).
tw is the lesser of the weld throat thickness or the thickness t of the inner brace (mm).
l2 is the projected chord length (one side) of the overlapping weld, measured perpendicular to the chord (mm),
see Figure 7.
6.4 Reinforced joints
6.4.1 Definition
Large chord wall thickness may be reduced by stiffening the chord. The most usual reinforcement consists of ring

stiffening inside the chord.
Some joints may require more complex stiffening. This is the case for large diameter chords which would
otherwise require an un-economic chord wall thickness.
There are very many different stiffening solutions for a large diameter chord. Therefore there are no parametric
formulae available for these designs. Specific analyses must therefore be carried out for an accurate solution. This
may involve finite element analysis.
6.4.2 Ring Stiffening
Ring stiffening consists of ring plates welded in the chord can prior to welding the braces to it.
The punching shear capacity of the chord still may be taken into account when calculating the forces acting on
the stiffeners.
Ring stiffeners can be justified through parametric formulae available in various publications, the best known
being published by Roark [3].
7. STRESS CONCENTRATION
As in any mechanical body presenting discontinuities, stresses are not uniform along the connecting surface of a
brace and chord. Figure 8 shows an example of the stress distribution in a joint with local discontinuities at and in
the vicinity of the brace chord intersection.

7.1 Stress concentration factor
The stress concentration factor (SCF) is defined as the ratio of the highest stress in the connection (or hot spot
stress fHS) to the nominal brace stress fNOM:
SCF = fHS/fNOM
7.2 Kellog equation
This approximate formula can be used for rapidly assessing SCF, for preliminary analyses.
fHS/vp = 1,8 √γ
vp being the punching shear.
7.3 Parametric formulae
SCF parametric formulae have been determined based on a large number of finite element analyses and cross-
checked with either full scale or model tests. They are based on many man years of work by numerous research

teams.
A large number of parametric formulae have been published [4]. Sections 7.3.1 to 7.3.3 give, as an example, the
most commonly used and acknowledged formulae.
In using any set of formulae, care should be taken in classifying the situation and ascertaining any limitations that
apply.
The only alternatives to these formulae are to perform model tests (full size or at reduced scale) or finite element
analyses.
No parametric formulae are presently available for stiffened joints. The only ones published to date concern non-
stiffened, non overlapping joints.
7.3.1 Kuang equations for T/Y joints [4]
Axial load
SCFCHORD = 1,981 γ0,808 τ1,333 exp(-1,2β3 α0,057 sin1,694 θ
SCFBRACE = 3,751 γ0,55 τexp(-1,35β 3) α0,12 sin1,94 θ
Out-of-plane bending
SCFCHORD = 1,024 γ1,014 τ0,889 β0,787 sin1,557 θ 0,3 ≤ β ≤ 0,55
SCFCHORD = 0,462 γ1,014 τ0,889 β(-0,619) sin1,557 θ 0,55 ≤ β ≤ 0,75
SCFBRACE = 1,522 γ0,852 τ0,543 β0,801 sin2,033 θ 0,3 ≤ β ≤ 0,55
SCFBRACE = 0,796 γ0,852 τ0,543 β(-0,281) sin2,033 θ 0,55 ≤ β ≤ 0,75
In-plane bending
SCFCHORD = 0,702 γ0,60 τ0,86 β(-0,04) sin0,57 θ
SCFBRACE = 1,301 γ0,23 τ0,38 β(-0,38) sin0,21 θ
7.3.2 Kuang equations for K joints [4]
Balanced axial load
SCFCHORD = 1,506 γ0,666 τ1,104 β(-0,059) (g/D)0,067 sin1,521 θ

SCFBRACE = 0,92 γ0,157 τ0,56 β(-0,441) (g/D)0,058 Exp(1,448 sin θ )
In-plane bending (bending moment applied to one brace only)
SCFCHORD = 1,822 γ0,38 τ0,94 β0,06 sin0,9 θ
SCFBRACE = 2,827 τ0,35 β-0,35 sin0,5 θ
7.3.3 Kuang equations for KT joints [4]
Balanced axial load Outer braces only loaded
SCFCHORD = 1,83 γ0,54 τ1,068 β0,12 sin θ 0° < θ ≤ 90°
SCFBRACE = 6,06 γ0,1 τ0,68 β-0,36 {(g1+g2)/D}0,126 sin0,5 θ 0° < θ ≥ 45°
SCFBRACE = 13,8 γ0,1 τ0,68 β-0,36 {(g1+g2)/D}0,126 sin2,88 θ 45° ≤ θ ≥ 90°
SCFBRACE = 4,89 γ0,123 τ0,672 β-0,396 {(g1+g2)/D}0,159 sin2,267 θ
In-plane bending - as for K joint
Validity range
The above equation for T/Y, K and KT joints are generally valid for joint parameters within the following limits:
8,333 ≤ γ ≤ 33,3
0,20 ≤ τ ≤ 0,8
0,3 ≤ β ≤ 0,8 unless stated otherwise
6,667 ≤ α ≤ 40 unless stated otherwise
0° ≤ σ ≤ 90° unless stated otherwise.
8. FATIGUE ANALYSIS
A fatigue analysis of a joint consists of the following steps:
1. Calculation of nominal stress ranges in the brace and the chords

2. Calculation of hot-spot stress range
3. Calculation of joint fatigue lives using S-N curves for tubular members at joints.
8.1 Nominal stress range

Nominal stress ranges in braces and chords are calculated by a global stress analyses.
8.1.1 Wave histogram
A wave histogram has to be obtained for each direction around the platform. A simple form of a wave histogram
is as follows:
Wave height (metres) Average number per

year
0-1,5 3 100 000
1,5-3 410 000
3-4,5 730 000
4,5-6 5 000
6-8 800
8-10 20
8.2.2 Nominal stress ranges
Nominal stress ranges can be calculated by following the steps below:
1. Wave heights are grouped in "blocks", for which just one stress range will be calculated. Different wave
directions need to be considered with a minimum of three "blocks" per wave direction.
2. For each block one representative wave is chosen, whose action is supposed to represent the action of the
whole block. The highest wave of the block is normally chosen.
3. Nominal stresses for each joint component are then calculated for different phase angles of the chosen
wave, for one complete cycle (360°). The nominal stress range for the joint component is defined as the
difference between the highest and the lowest stress obtained for a full wave cycle. Four to twelve phase
angles per wave are usually considered.
8.2 Hot spot stress ranges
Hot spot stress ranges are then evaluated for each chosen joint location by applying parametric formulae [4] (or
by applying the SCF calculated from a detailed analysis).
When using parametric formulae, stress components (axial, in plane bending and out of plane bending) have to be
distinct throughout the calculations, as the SCF formulae apply individually for each load component.
Where a chord and brace intersect, four to eight locations are usually chosen around the intersection line. For
each of these locations the stress response for each sea state should be computed, giving adequate consideration
to both global and local stress effects.

8.3 S-N Curves
S-N curves to be used for offshore structures are given by statutory regulations [1,2]. APIRP2A uses the curves
shown in Figure 9.
The X and X1 curves should be used with hot spot stress ranges based on suitable stress concentration factors.
The permissible number of cycles is obtained from the S-N curve by taking the hot spot stress range, and entering
the graph.
It should be noted that Curve X presumes welds which merge smoothly with the adjoining base metal. For weld
without such profile control, the X′ curve is applicable.
8.4 Cumulative Fatigue Damage Ratio

The stress responses should be combined into the long term stress distribution, which should then be used to
calculate the cumulative fatigue damage ratio, D, given by:
D=
where
n is the number of cycles applied at a given stress range
N is the number of cycles to cause failure for the given stress range (obtained from appropriate S-N curve).
In general the design fatigue life of each joint and member should be at least twice the intended service life of the
structure, i.e. a safety factor of 2,0.
For critical elements whose sole failure would be catastrophic, use of a larger safety factor should be considered.
● Terminology, geometric ratios and joint classifications are now standardised for tubular joints.
● The presence of gaps and overlaps significantly influence joint behaviour.
● Determination of static strength is generally based on the concept of punching shear, with the allowance of
overlapping joints.
● Special analysis are required for reinforced joints.
● Stress concentration factors (SCF) are defined for most commonly occurring joints.
● Determination of fatigue strength is based on nominal stress range multiplied by appropriate SCF.
10. REFERENCES
[1] Offshore Installations: Guidance on Design, Construction and Certification. Fourth Edition, HMSO, 1990.
[2] Recommended Practice for Planning, Designing and Constructing Fixed Offshore Platforms, API RP2A
Nineteenth Edition.
[3] Young, Warren C, Roark's Formulae for Stress and Strain. Sixth Edition, McGraw-Hill.
[4] Stress Concentration Factors for Simple Tubular Joints, 1989, Volumes 1 to 5, Lloyds Register of Shipping-
Offshore Division.

ESDEP WG 15A
Lecture 15A.8: Fabrication

OBJECTIVE
To describe the general methods of jacket fabrication. To discuss the various stages of operation from material
selection, through erection, including construction practices and equipment. To indicate the calculations normally involved.
PREREQUISITES
Lectures 3.3: Principles of Welding
Lectures 3.4: Welding Processes
RELATED LECTURES
Lectures 15: Structural Systems: Offshore
SUMMARY
The construction philosophy and definition of the construction phases of the fabrication of offshore structures are
described. The overall execution plan and the contractor's organisation for its implementation are introduced
and constructability i.e. the more general aspects of design - the size and transportability of components, welding
access considerations, construction tolerance, is discussed.
The fabrication of nodes and reinforced tubulars, including the fabrication procedure for a typical node is described
together with jacket assembly and erection and the procedures for "big lift".
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 Construction Phases
Jacket construction involves the following work phases:
Procurement
The technical and commercial activities required to supply material and specialised products to enable the execution
of construction activities.
Fabrication
The processes normally carried out in a fabrication shop to produce relatively small units. Thus fabrication includes
processes such as cutting, rolling, pressing, fitting, welding, stress relieving on such items as welded tubulars, beams,
nodes, girders, cones, supports, clamps, etc.
Assembly
The processes normally performed outside the fabrication shop but at ground level in order to assemble groups of

shop fabricated items into an (assembled) unit for subsequent erection in accordance with a construction sequence.
Erection
The processes required to install assembled and shop fabricated items together in their final configuration. These
processes include fitting and welding. However the emphasis is on the transportation and lifting of heavy assemblies.
The design of a jacket, i.e. a lifted, launched or self-floating jacket, is determined primarily by the offshore
installation equipment available and the intended water depth. In general the preference is to lift the jacket in place. The size
of such jackets has being increasing as offshore lifting capacity has grown. With modern lifting capacity now up to
14,000 tonnes, jackets approaching this order of magnitude are now candidates for lifting into position.
For jackets destined for shallow water, where the height is of the same order as the plan dimensions, erection is usually
carried out vertically, i.e. in the same attitude as the final installation. Such jackets may be lifted or skidded onto the barge.
Jackets destined for deeper water are usually erected on their side. Such jackets are loaded by skidding out onto a
barge. Historically most large jackets have been barge launched. This method of construction usually involves
additional flotation tanks and extensive pipework and valving to enable the legs to be flooded for ballasting the jacket into
the vertical position on site. This method of construction is currently applicable for jackets up to 25,000 tonnes. Very
large jackets, in excess of this, have been constructed as self-floaters in a graving dock and towed offshore subsequent
to flooding the dock.
In considering the construction philosophy and contract strategy, the objectives of achieving quality requirements
and efficiency are of fundamental importance. An offshore jacket goes through a series of very distinct stages as it moves
from fabrication to load-out. These stages range from operations which are almost totally automatic under very
controlled conditions, e.g. steel production, automatic welding, to operations which are almost totally manual in very
variable conditions, e.g. yard erection, offshore activities. Thus decreasing efficiency occurs as progress through
these operations advances. In addition, the stable conditions in repetitive processes of the early operations are more
conducive to the maintenance of high quality. A third basic consideration is that risk increases with each progressive
stage. These general trends during construction are shown in Table 1.
It is clear therefore that, as a general principle, as much work as possible should be undertaken in the earlier more
productive, higher quality, less risky phases of the project.
Some of the principles which reduce the time and cost of construction are:
● Subdivision into as large components and modules as it is possible to fabricate and assemble.
● Concurrent fabrication of major components in the most favourable location and under the most favourable
conditions applicable to each component.
● Planning the flow of components to their assembly site. Providing adequate facilities and equipment for assembly,
including such items as synchrolifts, and heavy-lift cranes.
● Simplification of configurations and standardisation of details, grades and sizes. Avoidance of excessively tight tolerances.
● Selection of structural systems that utilise skills and trades on a relatively continuous and uniform basis. Avoidance
of procedures that are overly sensitive to weather conditions; ensuring that processes which are weather sensitive are
completed during shop fabrication, e.g. protective coating.
Quality management is a vital and integral component of all aspects of offshore fabrication. Essentially it involves
ensuring that what is produced is what is needed. The requirements for documentation, hold point, audits, reviews
and corrective actions are part of the quality assurance process. They are crucial tools for controlling the project execution
and providing verifiable evidence of the fabricator's competence.
Quality control, inspection and testing should be performed during all phases of construction to ensure that
specified requirements are being met. The most effective quality scheme is one which prevents the introduction of
defective materials and workmanship into a structure, rather than finding problems after they occur.
A general note on Quality Assurance for Offshore Construction is included in Appendix 1. It is applicable to this lecture
and also to Lecture 15A.9: Installation.
2. ENGINEERING OF EXECUTION
Engineering of execution, 'construction engineering', entails the work required during each phase of execution to ensure that

the design requirements are fulfilled. A general method of execution is envisaged at the jacket design stage. Since the shape
of the jacket, its form and properties require quite specific methods of load-out, offshore transportation and installation
(which are construction activities executed under contractor responsibility), there is considerable interfacing of
engineering requirements in these phases. In the earlier phases, i.e. procurement through assembly and erection, the
contractor, while being limited by design specification requirements, has freedom of choice with regard to the exact method
of execution adopted. However, in all phases the contractor is required to demonstrate that the methods which he adopts
are compatible with the specification requirements and do not affect the integrity of the structure.
Each phase of execution has its own specific engineering requirements which are determined by the processes executed
during that phase. These processes range from those which are largely repetitive early in execution to one-off activities in
the latter phases. Accordingly the engineering which supports procurement and shop fabrication is voluminous but repetitive,
e.g. material take-offs, shop drawings, cutting plans, etc. The assembly and erection phases are supported by a mix of
repetitive engineering, e.g. scaffolding, and specific studies for limited series of activities.
The volume of contractor construction engineering on a large jacket is typically 130,000/150,000 hours. The
typical organisation of a contractor's technical documents is shown in Table 2.
When designing larger components consideration must be given to their subdivision into elements which will not distort
when fabricated and which can be relatively easily assembled without welding/dimensional problems. For instance, nodes
are categorised as either complex or simple from the execution viewpoint based on the number of separate fitting-
welding-NDT (non-destructive testing) cycles required during fabrication and the possibility of automatic welding between
the node can and the tubular during sub-assembly. The number of fitting-welding-NDT cycles depends on the existence of
ring stiffeners and the number and disposition of stubs. For reasons relating to weld distortion and to allow automatic
welding, it is almost essential that ring stiffeners be installed prior to fitting/welding of stubs. This adds an extra cycle to
the fabrication of the node. Thus ring stiffeners are best avoided. Where this is not possible, care should be taken to
define them at an early stage on critical nodes.
Node stubs can be classified as simple or overlapping. Overlapping stubs add at least one complete cycle to node
fabrication and should therefore be avoided where possible. The minimum separation between the weld toes of adjacent
simple stubs is typically specified as 50mm, see API RP2A, Fig. 4.3.1-2 [1]. However this distance is too small to
allow simultaneous welding of adjacent stubs - 150mm is a more practical distance.
3. FABRICATION
3.1 Fabrication Processes
The specifications for fabrication of offshore jackets are determined by the designer. They are usually based on one or more
of the well known codes, with additional requirements dictated by the specific design, client standards, statutory rules, etc.
Two recognised codes which are used extensively for establishing general requirements are the API RP2A
Recommended Practice for Planning, Designing and Constructing Fixed Offshore Platforms, [1] and AISC Specification
for the Design, Fabrication and Erection of Structural Steel for Buildings [2].
For larger jackets, the nodes tend to be fabricated separately under highly controlled shop conditions. Alternatively cast
steel nodes may be used in order to eliminate critical welding details.
Recent experience, both in the laboratory and as a result of in-service inspection, has prompted increasingly greater attention
to the welding aspects of fabrication. In particular greater attention has been focused on the importance of complete
joint penetration groove welds, elimination of "notch effects" at the root and especially the cap of node welds, and
achieving the required weld profile. Welds which are critical for fatigue endurance may be required to be ground to a
smooth curve. This process reduces the probability of brittle failure. However it also implies increasingly sophisticated
and stringent fabrication and quality assurance/quality control (QA/QC) requirements. Typical welding details from API
RP2A [1], showing tubular members framing into or overlapping another member with access from one side only, are shown
in Figure 1. However, a lot of emphasis is placed on designing stubs which can be welded from both sides. For instance, in
the weld details for the Bouri jacket, Figure 2, most stubs are accessible from both sides.


Welding procedures are required, detailing steel grades, joint design, welding consumables, etc. Welds are typically subject
to 100% visual, magnetic particle inspection (MPI) and ultrasonic test (UT) inspection. The weld acceptance criteria, e.
g. maximum weld undercut length (t/2 or 10mm), and maximum depth (t/20 or 0,25mm), imply an exceptionally high
quality of welding. In addition all welders should be qualified for the type of work assigned to them and certified accordingly.
The location and orientation of circumferential and longitudinal welds during construction is based on minimising
interferences and ensuring the minimum distance between circumferential welds. Special attention is required on items such
as pile sleeve shear plates, launch runners, mudmats, etc. where planned avoidance of weld interference is critical.
All temporary plates and fittings should be subjected to the same requirements for weld testing as the member to which
they are being affixed. There is also an overriding necessity to ensure that such attachments are located at a safe distance
from main structural welds in order to minimise the risk of defect propagation. This is not unduly conservative - the
"Alexander Kielland" capsized due to a fatigue crack initiated at the attachment of a sonar device to a principal
structural member. Temporary cut-outs should be of sufficient size to allow sound replacement. Corners should be rounded
to minimise stress concentrations.

Where welds are found to be defective, they should be rectified by grinding, machining or welding as required. Welds
of insufficient strength, ductility or notch toughness should be completely removed prior to repair.
In general, sub-assemblies are executed so that at least one of the two edges which will mate during subsequent
assembly/erection has a cut-off allowance. This procedure provides flexibility in that the sub-assemblies can be sent to the
field with the cut-off allowance in place and cut to fit on location. Alternatively they can be cut to exact dimensions during
sub-assembly where the as-built dimension has already been determined.
3.2 Node Fabrication
The primary structure nodes are frequently geometrically complex. Accordingly their fabrication presents particular
problems, especially from the points of view of welding and dimensional control.
On a complex jacket the designer may specify the node cans, or the whole node including stubs and ring stiffeners, in
material with specified through-thickness properties. This requirement is introduced because of tearing or punching
effects likely to be sustained by these elements during their design life and indeed during fabrication. The designer may
also "thicken" or reinforce the cans to withstand local stresses. Finally, in an effort to ensure that node welds contain
minimal levels of residual stress due to fabrication, thermal stress relieving or post-weld heat treatment (PWHT) of the
heavier more restrained welds may be prescribed. This is frequently a requirement for thicker walled North Sea jackets.
API RP2A [1] provides specific tolerances for final fabrication. The contractor must work within tolerances which
preserve dimensional compatibility and observe weight control requirements at each phase of construction. Bearing
these requirements in mind, node fabrication tolerances are tight, e.g. typical working points within 6mm of theoretical,
stub angle within 1 minute, all braces within 12mm of the design dimension.
The typical fabrication process for a conventional node, assuming that the can (with or without ring stiffeners) has already
been fabricated, commences with profiling of stubs and terminates with UT inspection of the finished node after PWHT.
The intermediate stages can be performed in several different ways, some of which depend on the specific geometry of
the node and many of which depend on fabricator preference. Some fabricators prefer to orient the can upright,
maintaining that it enables more stubs to be fitted simultaneously. However the majority of fabricators tend to fit the stubs to
a can placed on horizontal rollers. The sequential steps in the fabrication of a typical node are as follows:
● Trace generators, working points, etc. onto the can. Cut and profile the stubs. Touch up bevels and trace generators onto
the stubs. Trace node locations onto the can surface and grind or blast areas. UT the cleaned areas to ensure that the steel is
free from laminations. Particular care is required where shrinkage strains in the through-thickness direction may lead
to lamellar tearing in highly restrained joints.
● Assemble one or two adjacent stubs in the same plane on the can. Tack-weld in position. Verify dimensional control and
weld preparations around stub.
● Weld according to predetermined sequence to limit deformation. The welding processes used are usually shielded metal
arc welding (SMAW) or flux cored arc welding (FCAW), see Lecture 3.4 Welding Processes. If the weld is double-sided,
after 3 or 4 passes, back-grind and clean weld roots from opposite side. Perform MPI test on ground roots. Complete
weld body. Deposit weld bead for cap profiling. Toe-grind profiles if required. Grind weld beads at base metal to
remove undercut. Allow welds to cool. Visually inspect finished welds. MPI and UT finished welds.
● Repeat previous steps for successive stubs.
● When all stubs have been fitted and welded out perform post weld heat treatment (PWHT) as required, blast or grind welds
and perform NDT re-test on all welds.
● Cut any required off-cuts on cans or stubs. Perform final dimensional control of node.
3.3 Jacket Sub-assemblies
Sub-assembly can be considered as an intermediate stage between standard shop fabrication, i.e. nodes, tubulars, beams
etc. and assembly or erection. The emphasis is on performing the maximum number of welds in the shop. This ensures
the highest weld quality since many node and tubular welds can be double-sided and/or automatic when performed in
the fabrication shop.
When defining sub-assemblies, the principal factors to be borne in mind are the following:
● Size/Weight/Dimensions: these are largely governed by considerations of transportability.

● Welding Sequence: sub-assemblies should not imply a difficult welding sequence causing distortion or induced stresses
during sub-assembly welding or the subsequent assembly or erection.
● Constructability: certain sub-assemblies may have specific construction difficulties associated with them, e.g. short,
large diameter infillings are difficult to erect vertically and are best included in sub-assemblies, if possible.

3.4 Dimensional Control
Of all the areas of quality control (QC) which require attention, that of dimensional control, as emphasised in the code
and specifications, tends to be exaggerated. However, it is clear that attention must be paid to the dimensions which
have structural significance, e.g. the straightness of elements, ovality of tubulars, eccentricities at node joints, etc. It is
also clear that on a jacket the global alignment/verticality of items such as pile sleeves, conductor guides, launch runners,
etc. are also important. Finally dimensional control of items which are intended for "mating" or "removal" offshore,
for example piles/pile sleeves, jacket top/MSF base, buoyancy tank/supports, etc. is vital to the efficiency of
offshore installation. There are therefore, many aspects where the attention to dimensional control is justified even if the
overall design might occasionally benefit if the designer did not always require that everything fitted so tightly.
The principal reason for requiring such accurate dimensional control of nodes and tubulars during fabrication is not because
of the structural consequences of out-of-tolerance but rather because the parts may not fit together in the yard. It is one of
the most vexing incongruities of the tubular steel jacket concept that the theoretical tolerances on node stub eccentricity
are generous from the structural viewpoint while the actual tolerances are very tight because of considerations regarding
the fitting together of components during subsequent phases of construction.
The dimensional control of node fabrication, in particular, involves potentially intricate calculations in the shop. However,
the most successful systems simply involve the inclusion on the shop drawings of several additional "checking"
measurements and the correct marking of the node can and stub generators and offsets.
4. JACKET ASSEMBLY AND ERECTION
4.1 Jacket Assembly
Shop fabricated sub-assemblies and loose items are incorporated into assemblies which constitute the major lifts of the
erection sequence. Thus for a large jacket, the assemblies are typically of four types:
● Jacket levels incorporating conductor guide frames

● Top frames
● Jacket rows i.e. bents or partial bents
● Pile sleeve clusters.
The assembly and erection phases are based on the following objectives:
● Maximise on-the-ground assembly (as opposed to erection) and maximise access around the jacket during execution.
● Minimise erection joints in principal structural elements, such as jacket legs, launch runners, rows, levels. Align critical
areas such as conductor guides, pile sleeves, launch runners.
● Sub-assemble principal structural elements of jacket such as jacket legs, rows, levels. Sub-assemble, and where possible
pre-test, systems such as grouting, ballasting. Include maximum quantity of secondary items such as anodes, risers, J-
tubes, caissons. Coat or paint required areas (top of jacket, risers) prior to erection.
● Minimise the use of temporary items which require subsequent removal, such as scaffolding, walkways, lifting aids, etc.
and pre-install such aids where they are necessary.
The assembly of a jacket frame, often having a spread at the base of 50m or more, places severe demands on field layout
and survey and on temporary support and adjustment bracing. Such large dimensions mean that the thermal changes can
be significant. Temperature differences may be as great as 30°C between dawn and afternoon and as much as 15°C
between various parts of the structure, resulting in several centimetres distortion. However, the practice of 'using the sun' to
fit elements which are not dimensionally in-tolerance is common in the field. This procedure in itself tends to induce
residual stresses in the structure. Because of the difficulty associated with thermal distortion, it is normal to "correct"
all measurements to a standard temperature, e.g. 20° C.
Elastic deflections are also a source of difficulty in maintaining tolerances in the location of nodes. Foundation
displacements under the skid beams and temporary erection skids must be carefully calculated and monitored.
The overall assembly sequence and programme requires that each assembly be completed prior to lifting. It is normal
to determine the exact location, orientation and attitude, i.e. face-up or face-down, of each assembly in the field in
anticipation of its lifting procedure.
Assembly layout drawings are usually prepared showing central co-ordinates for each assembly. The central co-ordinates
are then used as local bench marks with the object of defining the assembly, the sub-assemblies, loose items, appurtenances
and temporary attachments which comprise, field welds, overall dimensions, weight, reference drawings, etc.

Dimensional control of the assembly both prior to and after welding, can be by means of a series of self-
checking measurements on the structure itself. Provided cross checks are adequate, the time consuming exercise of
referring measurements to an external bench mark can be avoided.
Normally the assembly is tacked in position to theoretical dimensions using allowable positive tolerances to compensate
for weld shrinkage. Perhaps the most fundamental rule in fitting is the avoidance of "force-fitting" of members prior to
welding or to force stresses into unwelded members through the welding sequence since such conditions cannot have
been foreseen by the designer.
An outline sequence of events which apply to all types of assembly is as follows:
● Preparation of assembly support and staging

● Rough setting of assembly main structure and position tacking. Dimensional control of assembly main structure.
● Infilling of secondary structure and position tacking. Dimensional control of assembly and secondary structure.
● Preweld inspection. Weldout of structure subject to continuous inspection and according to approved sequence.
● Installation of appurtenances (e.g. anodes, supports, walkways, risers, J-tubes, caissons, grouting and ballasting)
and scaffolding, lifting, aids, erection guides, temporary attachments.
● Test (e.g. hydrotest) if required. Overall NDT, dimensional control.
● Blasting and painting or touch up. Removal of temporary assembly supports and staging.
● Preparation for transport/lift/erection.
4.4 Jacket Erection
In this phase assembled, sub-assembled and fabricated structures, together with loose items, are incorporated into the
final structure according to the sequence outlined in Figure 3a - 3e.



Jacket frames are typically laid out flat and then rolled using multiple crawler cranes. Co-ordinating such a rigging and
lifting operation requires thoroughly developed three-dimensional layouts, firm and level foundations for the cranes
and experienced, well rehearsed operators.
Twenty four cranes were involved in the two major side frame lifts during the erection of platform Cerveza, which was
300m long.
For the Magnus platform and Bouri DP3, a different procedure known as "toast rack" was used. Here the jacket
horizontal levels were fabricated, erected in place and tied in to complete the jacket.
For the Bullwinkle jacket, one of the world's largest, sections of the jacket were fabricated in Japan, transported by barge
to Texas and assembled using jacking towers which rolled up the sections to heights as great as 140m.
For jackets destined for shallow water erection is usually carried out vertically, i.e. in the same attitude as the final
installation. Such jackets may be lifted onto the barge or skidded out. In this latter case, adequate temporary pads and
braces must be provided under the columns to distribute the loads for skidding.
The structural analysis associated with the erection procedure for a given assembly usually involves a computer model with
all relevant structural characteristics. The assembly is analysed for a number of load cases which correspond (approximately)
to the support conditions of the assembly at its presumed critical attitudes, i.e. the locations of the cranes, bogies, saddles,
etc. when the panel is being transported and when it is in horizontal and vertical attitudes. The structural analysis for
lift/transport identifies the worst cases from the point of view of structural response. These cases are then analysed to
determine the maximum stresses and displacements. The calculations should show that global and local stresses are
within allowable limits according to API/AISC codes.
Frequently, a structural analysis computer programme is used for this purpose. The analysis will indicate where
bending stresses are high and/or crane, bogie or support loads inadmissible. Thus modifications can be made to

redistribute structural stresses and loads at "supports" to optimise both and ensure that neither the cranes nor the structure
can be overloaded during erection.
An outline sequence for the erection of all major components would be:
● Technical appraisal of lift methods. Calculations for crane configuration, rigging accessories, etc.
● Preparation of cranes for lift. Preparation for rigging. Transport assembly to lift location. Roll-up into position with
scaffolding and staging in position, if possible.
● Preparation of fixing system and wind bracing (usually done by means of guy wires and turnbuckles). Weldout at
least sufficient to allow crane release.
● Crane release. Removal of rigging and temporary attachments.
Jacket structural completion is followed by a short phase during which all the jacket systems, both permanent and
those required during installation, are completed and rendered functional. The load-out operations are covered in
Lecture 15A.9: Installation.
● The design of a jacket is determined primarily by the offshore installation equipment available and the intended water depth.
● In general, the preference is to lift the jacket in place. Jackets destined for deeper water are usually erected on their side.
● As a general principle, as much of the execution as possible should be undertaken in the early phases of fabrication.
● Each phase of execution has its own engineering requirements which are determined by the processes executed during
that phase.
● The specifications for fabrication of offshore jackets are determined by the designer and are usually based on one or more
of the well known codes.
● Shop fabricated sub-assemblies and hose items are incorporated into assemblies which constitute the major lifts of the
erection sequence.
● Assembled, sub-assembled and fabricated structures, together with loose items, are incorporated into the final structure in
a sequence which takes account of structural analyses of bending stresses, and crane, bogie and support loads.
6. REFERENCES
[1] API RP2A, Recommended Practice for Planning, Designing and Construction of Fixed Offshore Installations, latest edition.
Engineering design principles and practices that have evolved during the development of offshore oil resources.
[2] AISC Specification for the Design, Fabrication and Erection of Structural Steel for Buildings, latest edition.
API code refers to this specification for calculations of basic allowable stresses of all jacket members.
[1] Det Norkse Veritas Marine Operations Recommended Practice RP5 - Lifting (June 1985).
Principles and good practice for offshore heavy lifts.
[2] AWS Structural Welding Code AWS D1.1-88.
All jacket welding and weld procedure qualifications are required by the API code to be undertaken in accordance with
this code.
[3] Det Norske Veritas, Rules for the Design, Construction and Inspection of Offshore Structures, 1977.
Rules for construction and installation of steel jackets as required by DNV.
[4] Lloyd's Register of Shipping, Rules and Regulations for the Classification of Fixed Offshore Installations, 1989.
Based on Lloyd's experience from certification of over 500 platforms world-wide.
APPENDIX 1

Quality Assurance and Quality Control
It is becoming increasingly common for operators to specify that the quality of construction for offshore structures
be controlled by a recognised quality system management standard.
ISO 9000/EN 29000, Standard for Quality Systems Management, is recognised as the accepted standard in such
situations. These standards set down the requirements that a soundly based quality management system must fulfil if it is
to assist in properly defining and controlling product quality. Because the standards deal with the quality system, and are
not product standards, they are applicable to many sectors of industry including offshore construction. They apply in
any situation where management wish to adopt a clearly defined policy and an orderly approach to providing a quality product.
All aspects of a company's activities are covered in the standards including:-
Design
Product Traceability
Contract Review
Process Control
Documentation Control
Inspection/Testing
Management Responsibility
Calibration of Equipment
Purchasing
Control of Non-Conformances
Corrective Action Handling/Storage/Delivery
Quality Records
Training
Management Review/Audits
Etc.
QA Management Complexity
The overall programme for a jacket construction, shows that there are a very considerable number of offshore activities
in many different locations within a very short period of time. The evaluation of the performance of such a range of
activities and at a number of centres is a major QA/QC undertaking.
It is difficult to fully appreciate the scope of documentation on a jacket construction project. Consider the documentation
which is expected to flow from one location to another in respect to a single node. From the time the plate is manufactured
until it is located in the final structure, a dossier must be compiled. This documentation could commence with copies
of certificates from the steel plate manufacturer and progress through several welding, NDT, dimensional control phases at
a number of successive locations, culminating in the issue of a Release Note at the node fabrication shop.
Clearly this is necessary on some items, e.g. steel, welds, NDT Certificates for the jacket primary structure, risers, etc.
These documents may be useful during maintenance of the platform enabling many in-service problems to be traced
to abnormalities which occurred during construction. Construction of a large jacket typically involves thousands of steel
plates. Each plate inevitably becomes an individual as it is allocated a unique number corresponding to a Material
Utilisation Schedule or Cutting Plan. The individual number of pieces of plate could be in excess of 20,000 items. The
primary object of material control is to ensure that, at any stage of construction, the origin of each and every item can be
traced back to a material certificate which in turn corresponds to a set of test/chemical composition etc. as contained in the
Data Dossier. However, voluminous as this documentation may be, it constitutes less than half of the total
documentation produced for a complete jacket. Consider for instance the number of welds in a complex buoyancy tank,
the walkways on top of the jacket, the anodes, launch runners, grout lines, etc. Each of these must be welded, several must
be individually inspected. However the requirement to produce sophisticated documentation in respect of each is
questionable. For this reason it is important that agreement is reached at an early stage as to the individual items which
require identification, that these be kept to a minimum and that the identification system be simple. In actual practice it
has proven to be very difficult to make all materials really traceable. Much more could be done to structure such
documentation in such a way that it would really be of help throughout the platform life.
Procedures and Specifications

Within the Contractor's organisation QA/QC procedures must be developed for the project, many of which will be
specifically for jacket construction. These are divided into Management Procedures (e.g. Management of Non
Conformities, Management of Jacket Completion Onshore, etc.) and Control Procedures (e.g. Procedure for Ultrasonic
Testing of welds at Jacket Yard, Dimensional Control Procedure for Node Fabrication at factory etc.). Construction
Procedures/Specifications are also required (e.g. Jacket Assembly and Erection Procedure, Pile Installation Procedure, etc.)
in addition to a vast number of weld procedure specifications and qualifications, welder qualifications and inspection plans.
Even if the number of specific procedures required from each subcontractor is minimised, a fabrication subcontractor will
still be required to develop procedure and specifications for the following typical functions/activities: subcontract
organisation, material control, fabrication method/sequence, procedures for cutting, forming, pre-heating, post-weld
heat treatment along with the more obvious welding and NDT procedures and Inspection Plans. Typically hundreds
of procedures/specifications must be developed by jacket subcontractors.
Certification
On most offshore projects, the underwriters normally agree to insure the plant during its operating life provided it is
designed, constructed and maintained to predetermined standards and certified as such. This certification is also
almost invariably required by the state authorities in whose waters the plant is installed. It is normally performed by one of
the traditional ship classification societies known as the Certifying Authority (CA). In the widest sense, certification
requires that the CA carry out independent surveillance to ensure that the standards chosen for the project are satisfactory
and that the project is performed in accordance with them. Formerly this meant that the CA inspected every activity likely
to influence the adequacy of the final product - an enormous task. More recently with the advent of QA, the
certification function can mean audits of the construction so that, rather than inspect everything, the CA satisfies himself
that the manner in which the construction is being managed and performed (based on incomplete but
comprehensive inspection) is likely to lead to a satisfactory product.
Phase Work Centre Efficiency Quality Risk

Variability
Engineering Office Decreasing Increasing Increasing
Procurement Factory Decreasing Increasing Increasing
Fabrication Fabrication Shop Decreasing Increasing Increasing
Assembly Yard Site Decreasing Increasing Increasing

and Erection
Loadout and Transition Decreasing Increasing Increasing

Seafastening
Transport Offshore Site Decreasing Increasing Increasing

and
Installation
Table 1 Jacket Construction Phases and Characteristics
No. Document Series Group or Individual Subject Title
1 Shop Drawings, Cutting Plan Welding standards, nodes, tubulars, piles, pile sleeves,
clusters, conductor guide frames, launch runners,
buoyancy tanks, cathodic protection system, protective
coating systems, risers, j-tubes, caissons, boat landings,
boat bumpers, walkways, grouting systems, ballasting
system, installation aids, as-built drawings.

2 Method and Temporary Subassemblies, assemblies, supports, access,

Works Drawings scaffolding, lifting and transportation onshore, test and
commission, identification.
Onshore construction accessories.
Offshore installation (preparation, transportation,

lifting, launching, anchor patterns etc.).
Offshore installation accessories (tools, guides, access,

handling etc.).
3 Quality Assurance Documentation identification, distribution and

Procedures approval, witness and hold points, technical
modifications and non-conformance management,
material control, material identification and
traceability, procurement and subcontracting, weld
parameter control, management of specific problem
areas.
4 Quality Control Procedures NDT methods (visual, UT, x-ray, dye penetrant, MPI),
dimensional control, destructive testing methods, NDT
operator training and qualification, calibration of
inspection equipment, pressure testing, miscellaneous
testing.
5 Manuals Testing, commissioning and preparation of jacket for

tow. Load-out manuals - jacket piles, topsides.
Installation manuals - jacket, piles, topsides.
6 Weld Procedures For each location - weld procedures
- repair procedures.
7 Design Reports, Reviews Quay design, skidway design, mooring system design,
and Specifications soil improvement spec., skidding system spec.,
dredging spec., transportation of jacket and piles,
buoyancy tanks, jacket launching and emplacement, on-
bottom stability, pile driveability, jacket levelling
study.
8 Engineering Meetings Normally held at critical phases of construction at the

various construction locations.
9 Fabrication, Assembly and Fabrication/welding sequence (for principal items),

Erection forming, bending, stress relieving, coating, assembly
and erection, temporary and secondary attachments,
lifting and transporting, jackdown, weight control,
settlement control, jacket weighing.
10 Inspection plan Steel supply (at each supplier).
Fabrication of typical jacket and pile components (at

relevant centres).
Assembly and erection.
11 Technical Proposals and Technical Clarification Requests )

Non-Conformance
Resolutions
Technical Relaxation Requests ) Possible at every
Major Non-Conformance Reports ) Phase of location
Minor Non-Conformance Reports ) of the Project.
Table 2 Jacket Construction Engineering:
Typical Organisation of Contractor's Technical Documents

ESDEP WG 15A
Lecture 15A.9: Installation

OBJECTIVE
To describe the general methods of jacket installation. To discuss the various stages of operation from loadout through
offshore positioning and installation, including construction practices and equipment. To indicate the calculations
normally involved.
PREREQUISITES
Lectures 15A.1: Offshore Structures : General Introduction
RELATED LECTURES
Lectures 15A: Structural Systems: Offshore
SUMMARY
The phases of installation of a steel jacket - loadout, seafastening, offshore transportation and installation - are described
and the associated analyses are indicated.

1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 Project Phases
A steel jacket installation usually consists of the following project phases:
Loadout - Comprises the movement of the completed structure onto the barge which will transport it offshore.
Seafastening - Comprises fitting and welding sufficient structure between the structure and the barge to prevent the
jacket shifting during transit to the offshore site.
Offshore Transportation - Comprises the tow to the location offshore and arrival of the barge at the offshore site with
the seafastened structure.
Installation - Comprises the series of activities required to place the structure in the final offshore location. These
activities include jacket lift and upending, positioning, pile installation, jacket levelling and grouting, together with
support services for these activities.
In deciding how best to fabricate (i.e. vertical or on its side) and install (i.e. lifted, launched or self-floating) a given jacket,
the options are principally determined by the installation equipment available and the jacket's intended water depth. In
general, the preference is to lift the jacket into location. The motivation for this installation method, rather than the
more traditional barge-launching, is a reluctance to spend money on jacket steelwork which will only be used during
the temporary installation phase. The size of such lifted jackets has been increasing as offshore lifting capacity has grown.
With modern lifting capacity now up to 14000 tonnes (see Table 1), jackets approaching this order of magnitude are
now candidates for lifting into position.
Figure 1 shows how the 6000 tonne jacket for the Kittiwake field in the North Sea was lifted from the barge into the water
and up-ended in a continuous operation, ending with the jacket on the seabed ready for piling. The advantage of this
approach is that the jacket, being lowered into the water, does not require the launch frames necessary for launching from
a barge. Also, since the weight of the jacket is taken by the cranes throughout, there is no need for special buoyancy tanks
and deballasting systems.




Jackets destined for deeper water are heavier and are usually erected on their side and launched from a barge (Figure 2).
This method of construction is currently applicable for jackets up to 25000 tonnes. A launched jacket usually

requires additional buoyancy tanks with extensive pipework and valving to enable the legs and tanks to be flooded in order
to ballast the jacket into the vertical position on site. For instance, in the case of the Brae 'B' jacket (a large 19000 tonne
jacket installed in 100m water depth in the North Sea) it was necessary to provide 11000 tonnes of additional buoyancy.
This buoyancy was primarily to limit the jacket trajectory through launch (i.e. to stop it hitting the sea bed) but was
also essential for maintaining bottom clearance during up-ending. The additional buoyancy took the form of two 'saddle'
tanks, two pairs of twin 'piggy-bank tan

Master Steel

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Master Steel

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

ESDEP Course

WG 1A : STEEL CONSTRUCTION: ECONOMIC & COMMERCIAL FACTORS

WG 1B : STEEL CONSTRUCTION: INTRODUCTION TO DESIGN

WG 3 : FABRICATION AND ERECTION

WG 5 : COMPUTER AIDED DESIGN AND MANUFACTURE

WG 8 : PLATES AND SHELLS

WG 11 : CONNECTION DESIGN: STATIC LOADING

WG 14 : STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS: BUILDINGS

WG 15A : STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS: OFFSHORE

WG 15B : STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS: BRIDGES

http://www.fgg.uni-lj.si/kmk/esdep/master/toc.htm (1 of 2) [17.07.2010 09:52:11]

WG 15C : STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS: MISCELLANEOUS

WG 16 : STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS: REFURBISHMENT

http://www.fgg.uni-lj.si/kmk/esdep/master/toc.htm (2 of 2) [17.07.2010 09:52:11]

STEEL CONSTRUCTION: ECONOMIC &

Lecture 1A.1 : Introduction to Steel's Role in Construction in Europe

Lecture 1A.2 : Steelmaking and Steel Products

Lecture 1A.3 : Introduction to Structural Steel Costs

Lecture 1A.4 : The European Building Market

http://www.fgg.uni-lj.si/kmk/esdep/master/wg01a/toc.htm [17.07.2010 09:52:11]

STEEL CONSTRUCTION: INTRODUCTION TO

Lecture 1B.1 : Process of Design

Lecture 1B.2.1 : Design Philosophies

Lecture 1B.3 : Background to Loadings

Lecture 1B.4.1 : Historical Development of Iron and Steel in Structures

Lecture 1B.4.2 : Historical Development of Steelwork Design

Lecture 1B.4.3 : Historical Development of Iron and Steel in Buildings

Lecture 1B.4.4 : Historical Development of Iron and Steel in Bridges

Lecture 1B.5.1 : Introduction to the Design of Simple Industrial Buildings

Lecture 1B.5.2 : Introduction to the Design of Special Industrial Buildings

Lecture 1B.7.1 : Introduction to the Design of Multi-Storey Buildings: Part 1

Lecture 1B.7.2 : Introduction to the Design of Multi-Storey Buildings: Part 2

Lecture 1B.8 : Learning from Failures

http://www.fgg.uni-lj.si/kmk/esdep/master/wg01b/toc.htm [17.07.2010 09:52:12]

Lecture 2.1 : Characteristics of Iron-Carbon Alloys

Lecture 2.2 : Manufacturing and Forming Processes

Lecture 2.3.1 : Introduction to the Engineering Properties of Steels

Lecture 2.3.2 : Advanced Engineering Properties of Steels

Lecture 2.4 : Steel Grades and Qualities

Lecture 2.5 : Selection of Steel Quality

Lecture 2.6 : Weldability of Structural Steels

http://www.fgg.uni-lj.si/kmk/esdep/master/wg02/toc.htm [17.07.2010 09:52:13]

FABRICATION AND ERECTION

Lecture 3.1.1 : General Fabrication of Steel Structures I

Lecture 3.1.2 : General Fabrication of Steel Structures II

Lecture 3.2.1 : Erection I

Lecture 3.2.2 : Erection II

Lecture 3.2.3 : Erection III

Lecture 3.3 : Principles of Welding

Lecture 3.4 : Welding Processes

Lecture 3.5 : Fabrication/Erection of Buildings

Lecture 3.6 : Inspection/Quality Assurance

http://www.fgg.uni-lj.si/kmk/esdep/master/wg03/toc.htm [17.07.2010 09:52:13]

Lecture 4A.1 : General Corrosion

Lecture 4A.2 : Factors Governing Protection of Steelwork

Lecture 4A.3 : Practical Corrosion Protection for Buildings

Lecture 4A.4 : Corrosion Protection of Bridges

Lecture 4A.5 : Corrosion in Offshore and Sheet Piling

http://www.fgg.uni-lj.si/kmk/esdep/master/wg04a/toc.htm [17.07.2010 09:52:14]

Lecture 4B.1 : Introduction to Fire Safety

Lecture 4B.2 : Background to Thermal Analysis

Lecture 4B.3 : Background to Structural (Mechanical Fire) Analysis

Lecture 4B.4 : Practical Ways of Achieving Fire Resistance of Steel Structures