TOPIC 1- LIFESTYLE, HEALTH & RISK

WATER
H-Bonds creates adhesive affect- high mp/bp relative to similar sized molecules
Excellent solvent- dipole allows ionic substances to be dissolved- polar substances also dissolve
Carries non-polar substances as COLLOIDS (solute particles bigger than solvent)
Insoluble particles form EMULSIONS (droplets of one liquid held in another) or
SUSPENSIONS (solid + liquid particles separate out if constantly moved)
High surface tension- like covered by skin- no interact between air and water itself-h bonds
pull down and together.
Amphoteric- acts as Ph buffer as is proton donor H+ or acceptor OH-
High latent heat of evaporation- evaporation takes a lot of energy so cools as evaporates
Thermally stable due to high specific heat capacity
Creates cohesion (important in plants section T4)

CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
- higher metabolic rate of many mammals etc means that diffusion is too slow to meet needs,
as SA/V ratio is small- thus mass transport systems are used to maximise efficiency. In some
animals their needs are met by simple diffusion such as amoeba with a large SA/V ratio
diffusion is efficient and effective.

BLOOD
Plasma- main component largely water and dissolved substances
Erythrocytes- red blood cells- biconcave discs no nucleus more room for haemoglobin and O2
Leukocytes- white blood cells- can squeeze and change shape, have nucleus + colourless
cytoplasm
Platelets- fragments of other cells, involved in clot formation.

BLOOD VESSELS
Arteries- blood away from heart- to lungs = pulmonary artery to be oxygenated- to body via
aorta or head/neck via aorta and carotid arteries. Small lumen, large amount collagen and
elastic fibres to allow to return to shape when expands. No valves, smooth endothelial lining-
prevent friction.
Arteries most at risk from damage due to high blood pressure and recoil.
Veins- blood back towards heart- pulmonary vein from lungs (oxygenated)- inferior vena cava
and superior vena cava from body. Have valves to prevent back flow as is at lower pressure
than arteries. Large lumen to act as blood reservoir and some but less elastic and collagen
fibres.
Capillaries- network that links arteries and veins, 1 cell thick and very thin, RBC pass
through, nutrients out into network and waste (CO2 etc) returned to red blood cell. Blood
pressure low through network- blood flows from arteries- arterioles to capillary network to
venules and veins.
 THE HEART
Superior Vena Cava vein-carries deoxygenated blood from the upper body to right atrium.
Pulmonary Veins carries blood from the lungs to the left atrium of the heart
Right Atrium blood collection chamber of the heart, it has a thin walled structure
Left Atrium this receives oxygenated blood from the left and right pulmonary veins.
Right Ventricle this receives blood from the
right atrium and pumps it in to the pulmonary
artery.
Inferior Vena Cava - carries de-oxygenated blood
from the lower body into the right atrium of the
heart.
Aorta largest artery in the body -brings
oxygenated blood to all parts of the body in the
systemic circulation.
Cardiac Muscle these muscle cells push blood
from the atria to the ventricles to the blood
vessels of the circulatory system.
Pulmonary Arteries this carries blood from the heart the lungs.
When the muscles of the atria walls contract it forces the remaining blood in to the ventricles.
The walls of the ventricles contract as they fill with blood, the increased blood pressure closes
the atrioventricular valves preventing backflow of blood in to the atria. As the atrioventricular
valves are closed the pressure increases opening the semi lunar valves and pushing the blood in
to the pulmonary artery and aorta.
Atrioventricular Valves these are located between the
atrium and the ventricle on both sides. They prevent backflow of
blood in to the atria as the closure of these valves ensures that the
blood will flow in to the pulmonary artery or aorta.
Semi-Lunar Valves these are in the aorta and pulmonary
artery , they prevent backflow of blood in to the ventricles.
The sinoatrial top of the right atrium-create regular waves
of electrical activity to atria allowing contraction- prevent spreading
by insulating fibrous tissue

CARDIAC CYCLE
Diastole + systole.
Diastole- atria / ventricles relax- blood into atrium- atrioventricular
valves open- blood into ventricles- semi lunar is closed.
Systole- ventricles contract- atrioventricular closes, semi lunar opens blood to aorta or
pulmonary artery

INTRINSIC RHYTHM
early embryo cells begin to rhythmically contract long before muscle forms- via electrical
excitation at 60bpm.

CARDIOVASCULAR CENTER IN BRAIN

Controls heart- as nerves speed the heart or slow down- dependant on CO2 levels in blood-
nerve control provides quick reactions- hormones also affect heart rate but generally slower.
CORONARY ARTERIES
Feed myocardial (heart muscle) above aortic valve from aorta so received straight away and
quickly.

BLOOD PRESSURE
Measured by SPHYGMOMANOMETER (automatic one or cuff + mercury manometer and
stethoscope)
BP = systolic bp / diastolic bp e.g. 120/80
Hypertension- high blood pressure (140/90) (can be caused by narrowed arteries)
Hypotension- low blood pressure (90/60) (can be caused by weak heart)

DRUGS FOR LOWERING BLOOD PRESSURE- ANTIHYPERTENSIVES

Diuretics- increased volume of urine- lower blood volume- lower blood pressure (SE nausea)
Beta blockers- block hearts response to hormones such as adrenaline that speed heart up (SE
diabetes link)
Sympathetic Nerve Inhibitors- block sympathetic nerves- these get arteries to constrict, by
blocking keeps arteries dilated so blood pressure is kept low (SE cough)
ACE Inhibitors- hormone angiotensin causes blood vessels to constrict so inhibitors prevent
these being made thus vessels are not constricted. (SE impaired kidney function)

Treatment of CVD involved antihypertensives (lower bp), reducing of cholesterol (statins),

anticoagulants- (less likely atheroma to form), and platelet inhibitors

Statins-block enzyme in liver that makes cholesterol (SE nausea, constipation or rare
inflammation reactions- can encourage a not healthy diet, create attitude that no need to eat
well as statins prevent cholesterol build up)
Anticoagulants- e.g. Warfarin, prevent risk of clot formation by thinning blood- (SE
uncontrolled bleeding)
Platelet inhibitors e.g. Aspirin- makes platelets less sticky (SE irritation to stomach
lining cause stomach bleeding)

CVD- CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE

Results from coronary arteries narrowed with fatty deposits- narrowing reduces flow and can
starve heart muscle of oxygen- also one blood clot (thrombosis) increases likelihood of another

Blood clotting as a process is important- prevents bleeding to death and entrance of pathogens.
But clot in vessels is the problem-
Damage to vessel- exposes collagen fibres- platelets from blood stick- the platelets release
thromboplastin- in presence of calcium ions and vitamin K thromboplastin converts
prothrombin to thrombin- this converts soluble fibrinogen to insoluble fibrin that creates a
mesh-like network of fibres trapping cells + debris to = a clot.
 Cascade =
Damage to lining- increased likelihood of clot- if clot occurs, inflammatory response-
cholesterol builds up = atheroma- build up of calcium, salts and platelets = plaque formation-
narrows artery- raises blood pressure- increased likelihood of damage.

Clot can lead to aneurysm, plaque causes blood build up behind- artery bulges, can rupture
artery
Artherosclerosis- process as above but calcium plaque causes loss of elasticity in artery walls-
less able to cope with recoil damage more likely.

What increases likelihood of artery damage and why-

Smoking- nicotine intake results in adrenaline production- heart rate faster, BP increases
- toxins in smoke irritate endothelial lining, greater risk of damage
Obesity- greater strain on heart, also association between obesity and raised blood pressure/
had diet
Inactivity- exercise makes heart stronger so can pump more blood with each beat.
High cholesterol/ fatty died- large amounts cholesterol in blood stream increases risk of clot
Family history- suggested genetic links
High Blood Pressure.
Age- with ageing elasticity and width of arteries deteriorates
Gender- oestrogen in women offers some protection from CVD

Treatments- anticoagulants, antihypertensives, statins (see above)

Risk can be reduced by changing lifestyle choices such as smoking or bad diet

Risk - can be actual, as suggested by studies, or perceived-that is altered by an individuals

personal experiences and perceptions.
Risk is the probability of the occurrence of a unwanted event or outcome- but correlation does
not imply causation. Epidemiologists conduct research to access risk factors;
Types of study =
Cohort- many people, long time period, categorised according to who has/ doesnt have
condition- risk factors accessed e.g. Munster Heart Study (see below) in cholesterol.
Case-control studies- group with condition and control group- past history researched-
important to match case/control groups in terms of age/ gender- independent variables are
controlled

Good study- valid/ reliable data, representative of whole population- lack bias- variables
controlled as much as possible- standardised measurement/ other techniques- sample size-
while large sample size is generally best- if only tiny % have disease small group individuals
suffering best representative than large sample with one or two sufferers.

CARBOHYDRATES
All composed of Carbon, Hydrogen and Oxygen.
Three main groups- monosaccharides, disaccharides and polysaccharides

Monosaccharides- single sugar molecules containing 1 Oxygen atom and 2 Hydrogen atoms for each
Carbon.
(C H2 O)n (n= number of sugars) e.g. Triose (n=3) C3H6O3
Disaccharides are two joined monosacs.
Joined in a condensation reaction-H2O released
Link between two monosacs is covalent bond called glycosidic bond
(C6 H10 O5)n
Glucose+ Fructose = Sucrose (stored in plants e.g. sugar beet/cane)
Glucose+ Galactose= Lactose (main carbohydrate of milk)
Glucose+ Glucose= Maltose (found in germinating seeds e.g. barley)
Made of many monosacs joined with glycosidic bonds- many condensation reactions- lots H2O
released.
3-10 monosacs = oligosaccharides
11+ monosacs= polysaccharides
No sweet taste
Can form compact molecules, ideal for storage in cells.
Glycosidic bonds broken in hydrolysis reaction.
Not very water soluble- dont interfere cellular functions/ disrupt osmotic balance.

Starch important energy store in plants- sugar from photosyn. are converted to starch- insoluble &
compact- but can be rapidly broken down
Starch= long chains glucose- but is mixture of AMYLOSE and AMYLOPECTIN

AMYLOSE- unbranched polymer- spirals- more compact with length. Comprised 200-5000 glucose
molecules. Only released by enzymes working from each end of amylase molecule.

AMYLOPECTIN- Polymer of glucose molecules- but branched. Lots of terminal ends- break quickly
when energy is required.

The combination of both in starch explains why starchy foods e.g. pasta are good for exercise.
AMYLOPEC releases glucose for cellular respiration rapidly. AMYLOSE provides longer term energy to
keep going.
TYPICAL STARCH GRAIN IN PLANT CELL IS 75% AMYLOPEC- rest AMYLOSE.

Glycogen- like starch but + branches- quick breakdown.

AMYLOSE, AMYLOPECTIN AND GLYCOGEN ALL MADE GLUCOSE MOLECULES IN CHAINS

Carbon in glycosidic bond determines which is involved.
Amylose- only glycosidic bonds carbon 1 and 4 *1,4-glycosidic bonds* = straight
Amylopectin- Some 1,4 but few 1,6-glycosidic bonds = branching
Starch = combination of straight chain amylose and branched Amylopectin.
Glycogen= More 1,6 bonds than 1,4 bonds.

To be good store, bonds in carbohydrates need to be broken to release single sugars for cells to use.
Glycosidic bond between monosaccharides split by hydrolysis- opposite condensation- water required/
added to bond. Hydrolysis takes place in digestion/ in muscle and liver cells.

LIPIDS
Fatty acids + glycerol (3 fatty acids : glycerol= triglyceride)
Act as energy source but also have functions such as protective around organs, also
waterproofing fur/ feathers, insulating properties- the fatty sheath around nerves.
Lipids dissolve in organic solvents- insoluble in water so dont affect cellular osmotic balance.
Fats are solid at room t, oils are liquid (if unsaturated double bonds= kinks in chain- weaker IM
bonds)
Fatty acid(s) + glycerol join by condensation reaction between carboxyl group on fatty acids
and hydroxyl group on glycerol= ester bond so reaction = esterification.
Lipid + protein = lipoprotein lipid + phosphate group= phospholipids (phosphate attaches to
glycerol= hydrophilic head, lipid tails of fatty acids= hydrophobic)

CHOLESTEROL
Using to form cell membranes- cant dissolve in blood- found in all body cells and among
lipids- they have be transported via lipoprotein carriers;
LDL (low-density lipoprotein) major cholesterol carrier, excess LDL increases risk plaque/
atheroma- reduces the cholesterol absorption from blood.
HDL- (high-density lipoprotein) transports lipids/ unsaturated fats to liver to be broken down /
removed. HDL acts to reduce cholesterol- thus is considered good cholesterol
High cholesterol- increase risk of CHD as clots ability to form increases due to large amount
cholesterol in blood- treatment for high cholesterol = Statins (block enzyme in liver
responsible for making the cholesterol)
Munster Heart Study- around 11,000 tested for between 4-14 years, aged between 36-65.

BMI
Body mass index= mass (kg) / height(m) 2
Under 21= UW 21-25=Good 26-30= OW 31+ Obese
Basic energy requirement = weight (kg) X 4 (4 is human basic energy requirement per kg)
BMR- basal metabolic rate = basic energy requirement x24
Total energy need = BMR + daily activity uses

CORE PRACTICALS FOR UNIT

Daphnia- affect of caffeine on heartbeat
Immobilise daphnia via cotton wool strands on cavity slide-
Set up microscope- include beaker of water as heat sink from light for microscope
Put daphnia slide under- control- dash on piece of paper for each heart beat for 30 seconds- x2
for bpm. Add caffeine sample- repeat

Vitamin C- content of fruit juices

Filter fruit juice sample- add to burette, add to 1cm3 of DCPIP until DCPIP is colourless-
greater volume of liquid less vitamin C-repeat with other juices ensure thorough cleaning
Problems can occur with judging when DCPIP has decolourised and potential to read burette
wrong- vitamin C containing juice added 1 drop at time- so only to 1 drop accuracy.