from Learner-Centered Assessment on College

Campuses: Shifting the Focus from Teaching to

4 Chapter 1 Learning, by Mary E. Huba and Jann E. Freed.
Needham Heights, MA: Allyn & Bacon, 2000.

Students learn by becoming involved . .. Student involvement refers to the

amount of physical and psychological energy that the student devotes to the
academic experience (Astin, 1985, pp. 133-134).
The routine is always the same: Begin the unit, teach the unit, give the students a
test, correct the test, return the test, review the "right" an swers with the class,
collect the test, and record the grad es. Then move on to the next unit. If we
continue this practice, how will students learn to use experiences from past units
to improve the work they do on future units? (Bonstingl, 1996, p. 30)
Learning is not a spectator sport. Students do not learn much just by sitting in
class listening to teachers, memorizing prepackaged assignments, and spitting
out answers. They must talk about what they are learning, write about it, relate it
to past experiences, apply it to their daily lives. They must make what they learn
part of themselves (Chickering & Gamson, 1987, p. 3).
The ultimate criterion of good teaching is effective learning (Cross, 1993, p. 20).
We also know, from research on cognition, that students who reflect on their
learning are better learners than those who do not (Cross, 1996, p. 6).
Learning is, after all, the goal of all education, and it is through a lens tha t focuses
on learning that we must ultimately examine and judge our effectiveness as
educators (Cross, 1996, p. 9) .
Students learn what they care about and remember what they understand
(Erickson, 1984, p . 51).
Our entire educational system is designed to teach people to do things the one
right way as defined by the authority figure. We are taught to recite wha t we hear
or read without critically interacting with the information as it moves in and out
of short-term memory. In this exch ange, the information leaves no tracks, and
independent thinking skills are not developed (Lynch, 1991, p. 64).
Classes in which students are expected to receive information passively rather
than to participate actively will probably not be effective in encouraging students
to think reflectively. Similarly, tests and assignments that emphasize only others'
definitions of the issues or others' conclusions will not help students learn to
define and conclude for themselves (King & Kitchener, 1994, p. 239).

FIGURE 1-1 Importance of Learner-Centered Teaching from the

Viewpoint of Prominent Leaders in Higher Education

of possibilities. Those of us who shift our paradigm regarding teaching and

learning have new rules, new boundaries, and new ways of behaving.
To develop new conceptualizations, we must analyze our old ways of
thinking and make continuous changes. If our ways of thinking are not ana
lyzed, they remain unchanged, existing patterns continue, and "structures of
which we are unaware hold us prisoner" (Senge, 1990, p. 60). When people
challenge present paradigms, paradigm structures loosen their hold and in
dividuals begin to alter their behaviors to improve processes and systems. As
expressed by Covey (1989) in the quote at the beginning of this chapter, to
shift the paradigm, we must experience a personal change. To focus on stu
dent learning, we must shift from a traditional teaching paradigm to a
learner-centered paradigm.
 Experiencing a Paradigm Shift Through Assessment 5

. Changing the question from How will I teach this? to How will students
learn this? lays bare tacit assumptions about what should be learned and how
it should be taught. Specijt;ing what "this" is turns out to be a difficult prob
lem. All too often what is learned turns out not to be what was intended, which
often is different also from what was actually taught (Hakel, 1997, p. 19).

Figure 1- 2 is a comparison of the traditional teaching paradigm and the

emerging learner-centered paradigm. Similar comparisons can be found in

Teacher-Centered Paradigm Learner-Centered Paradigm

Knowledge is transmitted from

Students construct knowledge through

professor to students.
gathering and synthesizing information and

integrating it with the general skills of inquiry,

communication, critical thinking, problem

solving, and so on.

Students passively receive

Stu ents are actively involved.

information.

Emphasis is on acquisition of
Emphasis is on using and communicating

knowledge outside the context

knowledge effectively to address enduring

in which it will be used.

and emerging issues and problems in real-life

contexts.

Professor's role is to be
Professor's role is to coach and facilitate.

primary information giver

Professor and students evaluate learning

and primary evaluator.

together.

Teaching and assessing are

Teaching and assessing are intertwined.

separate.

Assessment is used to
Assessment is used to promote and diagnose

monitor learning.
learning.

Emphasis is on right answers.

Emphasis is on generating better questions

and learning from errors.

Desired learning is assessed

Desired learning is assessed directly through

indirectly through the use of

papers, projects, performances, portfolios, and

objectively scored tests.

the like.

Focus is on a single discipline.

Approach is compatible with interdisciplinary

investigation.

Culture is competitive
Culture is cooperative, collaborative, and

and individualistic.
supportive.

Only students are viewed

Professor and students learn together.

as learners.

See also Barr and Tagg (1995); Bonstingl (1992); Boyatzis, Cowen, Kolb and Associates (1995);
Duffy and Jones (1995); and Kleinsasser (1995).

FIGURE 1-2 Comparison of Teacher-Centered and Learner-Centered

Paradigms
 Exhibit 2.1. Teaching Goals Inventory, Self-Scorable Version.

Purpose: The Teaching Goals Inventory (TGI) is a self-assessment of instructional

goals. Its purpose is threefold: ( 1) to help college teachers become more aware of what they
want to accomplish in individual courses; (2) to help faculty locate Classroom Assessment
Techniques they can adapt and use to assess how well they are achieving their teaching and
learning goals; and (3) to provide a starting point for discussions of teaching and learning
goals among colleagues .
Directions: Please select ONE course you are currently teaching . Respond to each item
on the inventory in relation to that particular course. (Your responses might be quite different
if you were asked about your overall teaching and learning goals, for example, or the
appropriate instructional goals for your discipline .)
Please print the tide of the specific course you are focusing on:

Please rate the importance of each of the fifty-two goals listed below to the specific
course you have selected . Assess each goal's importance to what you deliberately aim to have
your students accomplish, rather than the goal's general worthiness or overall importance to
your institution's mission. There are no "right" or "wrong" answers; only personally more or
less accurate ones.
For each goal, circle only one response on the l-to-5 rating scale. You may want to read
quickly through all fifty-two goals before rating their relative importance.
In relation to the course you are focusing on, indicate whether each goal you rate is:

(5) Essential a goal you always/nearly always try to achieve

(4) Very important a goal you often try to achieve
(3) Important a goal you sometimes try to achieve
(2) Unimportant a goal you rarely try to. achieve
(1) Not applicable a goal you never try to achieve

Rate the importance ofeach goal to what you aim

to have students accomplish in your course. ......
~
~
~
~
1. Develop ability to apply principles and generalizations already learned
to new problems and situations 5 4 3 2
2.~~~~~ 5 4 3 2
3. Develop problem-solving skills 5 4 3 2
4. Develop ability to draw reasonable inferences from observations 5 4 3 2
5. Develop ability to synthesize and integrate information and ideas 5 4 3 2
6. Develop ability to think holistically: to see the whole as well as the 5 4 3 2
parts
7. Develop ability to think creatively 5 4 3 2
8. Develop ability to distinguish between fact and opinion 5 4 3 2
9. Improve skill at paying attention 5 4 3 2
10. Develop ability to concentrate 5 4 3 2
11. Improve memory skills 5 4 3 2
12. Improve listening skills 5 4 3 2
13. Improve speaking skills 5 4 3 2
14. Improve reading skills 5 4 3 2
15. Improve writing skills 5 4 3 2 1
16. Develop appropriate study skills, strategies, and habits 5 4 3 2
17. Improve mathematical skills 5 4 3 2 1
18. Learn terms and facts of this subject 5 4 3 2 1
19. Learn concepts and theories in this subject 5 4 3 2
20. Develop skill in using materials, tools, and I or technology central 5 4 3 2
to this subject
21. Learn to understand perspectives and values of this subject 5 4 3 2

20 CLASSROOM ASSESSMENT TECHNIQUES

 Exhibit 2.1. Teaching Goals Inventory, Self-Scorable Version, Cont'd.

Rate the importance ofeach goal to what you aim

to have students accomplish in your course.

22 Prepare for transfer or graduate study

2 3. Learn techniques and methods used to gain new knowledge in
this subject
24. Learn to evaluate methods and materials in this subject 5 4 3 2

25. Learn to appreciate important contributions to this subject 5 4 3 2

26. Develop an appreciation of the liberal arrs and sciences 5 4 3 2

27. Develop an openness to new ideas 5 4 3 2

28. Develop an informed concern about contemporary social issues 5 4 3 2

29. Develop a commitment to exercise the rights and responsibilities of 5 4 3 2

citizenship

30. Develop a lifelong love of learning 5 4 3 2

31 . Develop aesth~tic appreciations 5 4 3 2

32. Develop an informed historical perspective 5 4 3 2

33. Develop an informed understanding of the role of science and 5 4 3 2

technology

34. Develop an informed appreciation of other cultures 5 4 3 2

35. Develop capacity to make informed ethical choices 5 4 3 2

36. Develop ability to work productively with others 5 4 3 2

37. Develop management skills 5 4 3 2

38. Develop leadership skills 5 4 3 2

39. Develop a commitment to accurate work 5 4 3 2

40. Improve ability to fo llow directions, insuuctions, and plans 5 4 3 2

41. Improve ability to organize and use time effectively 5 4 3 2

42. Develop a commitment to personal achievement 5 4 3 2

43. Develop ability to perform skillfully 5 4 3 2

44. Cultivate a sense of responsibility for one's own behavior 5 4 3 2

45. Im prove self-esteem I self-confidence 5 4 3 2

46. Develop a commitment to one's own values 5 4 3 2

4 7. Develop respect for others 5 4 3 2

48. Cultivate emotional health and well-being 5 4 3 2

49 . Cultivate an active commitment to honesty 5 4 3 2

50. Develop capacity to think for one's self 5 4 3 2

51. Develop capacity to make wise decisions 5 4 3 2

52. In general, how do you see your primary role as a teacher?

(Although more than one statement may apply, please circle only one .)
Teaching students facts and principles of the subject matter
2 Providing a role model for students
3 Helping students develop higher-order thinking skills
4 Preparing students for jobs/ careers
5 Fostering student development and personal growth

6 Helping students develop basic learning skills

Source: Classroom Assessment Techniques, by Thomas A. Angelo and K. Patricia

Cross. Copyright 1993. Permission to reproduce is hereby granted.

The Teaching Goals Inventory 21

 Exhibit 2.2. Teaching Goals Inventory, Self-Scoring Worksheet.

1. In all, how many of rhe fifry-rwo goals.did you rare as "essemial"? _ _ __

2. How many "essemial" goals did you have in each of the six clusters listed below?

Total Number Clusters Ranked-

Goals of "Essential" from 1st to 6th
Cluster Number Included Goals in
by Number of
and Name in Cluster Each Cluster
"Essential" Goals

Higher-Order
Thinking Skills 1- 8
II Basic Academic
Success Skills 9- 17
Ill Discipline-Specific
Knowledge and
Skills 18-25
IV Liberal Ans and
Academic Values 26 35
v Work and Career
Preparation 36 43
VI Perso nal
Development 44-52

3. Compute your cluster scores (average item ratings by cluster) using the following
worksheet.

A B c D E

Sum of
Ratings Given Divide C
Cluster Number Goals to Goals in by This Your Cluster
and Name Included That Cluster Number Scores

Higher-Order
Thinking Skills 1-8 8
II Basic Academic
Success Skills 9- 17 9
Ill Discipline-
Specific
Knowledge and
Skills 18- 25 8
IV Liberal Ans and
Academic Values 26 35 10
v Work and Career
Preparation 36-43 8
VI Personal
Development 44-52 9
Source: Classroom Assessment Techniques, by Thomas A. Angelo and K. Patricia
Cross. Copyright 1993. Perm1ss10n to reproduce is hereby granted.

If you are just beginning to experiment with Classroom Assessment, it

is not necessary, or productive, to worry too much about linking goals to
assessment tools . Many faculty start out by trying a few simple Classroom

22 CLASSROOM ASSESSMENT TECHNIQUES