Basic Physics

THE KEY
OF
SUCCESS
(Concept, fundamentals, logic, computer, research)

Dedicated to Ma Saraswati
Preface
This book is written for the 1st year students of computer application for MLSU. In this book
IT subject is intended for anyone interested in knowing about computers. IT subject also
useful for CA students for their ITSM subject. THE KEY OF SUCCESS specially wrote for
BCA 1st year students. More specifically, different classes of readers can benefit from this
book-
It can be used as a textbook for the first course in computers taught in diploma and
bachelors programming in computer science, computer application, and information
technology.
It can be used as a textbook for the first course in computer taught to B. Sc. (IT)
and B. Com. Students.
There are four subjects in this book that is Information Technology, Problem Solving
through C, Computer Organization and Physics.
It is hoped that students will find the book very helpful.

Although every care has been taken to avoid mistakes and misprint, yet it is very
difficult to claim perfection.
Authors.
Other Authors.
Special Thanks to Pratik Badala [PK]"
Website (Block) :- www.allnotesonbca.webs.com
www.bcanotes1styear.webs.co
BCA 104 Basic Physics
Unit I
Chapter 1 Basic Concepts 142
Chapter 2 Optical instruments 149
Unit II
Chapter 1 Electrostatics 162
Chapter 2 Current Electricity 168
Unit III
Chapter 1 Transducers 176
Unit IV
Chapter 1 Electromagnetic induction 181
Chapter 2 AC circuits 184
Chapter 3 Semiconductors 186
Unit V
Chapter 1 Transistors 191
Chapter 2 Lasers 198
BCA 104 Basic Physics
Unit I
UNIT-I
Basic Concepts :
Definition of Science- \Science (from Latin scientia, meaning "knowledge") is a
systematic enterprise that builds and organizes knowledge in the form of testable
explanations and predictions about the universe.[1] In an older and closely related meaning
(found, for example, in Aristotle), "science" refers to the body of reliable knowledge itself, of
the type that can be logically and rationally explained (see History and philosophy below).
Since classical antiquity science as a type of knowledge was closely linked to philosophy. In
the early modern era the words "science" and "philosophy" were sometimes used
interchangeably in the English language.[citation needed] By the 17th century, natural philosophy
(which is today called "natural science") was considered a separate branch of philosophy.[3]
However, "science" continued to be used in a broad sense denoting reliable knowledge
about a topic, in the same way it is still used in modern terms such as library science or
political science.
In modern use, "science" more often refers to a way of pursuing knowledge, not only the
knowledge itself. It is "often treated as synonymous with 'natural and physical science', and
thus restricted to those branches of study that relate to the phenomena of the material
universe and their laws, sometimes with implied exclusion of pure mathematics. This is now
the dominant sense in ordinary use."[4] This narrower sense of "science" developed as
scientists such as Johannes Kepler, Galileo Galilei and Isaac Newton began formulating laws
of nature such as Newton's laws of motion. In this period it became more common to refer
to natural philosophy as "natural science". Over the course of the 19th century, the word
"science" became increasingly associated with the scientific method, a disciplined way to
study the natural world, including physics, chemistry, geology and biology. It is in the 19th
century also that the term scientist was created by the naturalist-theologian William
Whewell to distinguish those who sought knowledge on nature from those who sought
knowledge on other disciplines. The Oxford English Dictionary dates the origin of the word
"scientist" to 1834. This sometimes left the study of human thought and society in a
linguistic limbo, which was resolved by classifying these areas of academic study as social
science. Similarly, several other major areas of disciplined study and knowledge exist today
under the general rubric of "science", such as formal science and applied science.
engineering and technology- Engineering & Technology (E&T) is a science,

engineering and technology magazine published by the Institution of Engineering and
Technology (IET) in the United Kingdom. The magazine is issued 12 times per year, and is
distributed to the 150,000 plus membership of the IET.
The magazine was launched in April 2008 as a result of the merger between the Institution
of Electrical Engineers and the Institution of Incorporated Engineers on 31 March 2006. Prior
to the merger, both organisations had their own membership magazine, the IEE's monthly
IEE Review and the IIE's Engineering Technology.[1] Engineering & Technology is an
amalgamation of the two, and was initially published twelve times per year. Alongside this,
members also received one of seven other monthly magazines published by the IET relating
to a field of the subject of their choice, with the option to purchase any of the other titles. In
January 2008, the IET merged these seven titles into E&T to make a nearly fortnightly
magazine with a larger pagination, providing all members with one magazine covering all
topics. In January 2011 the frequency was reduced to 12 times per year.
The Editor-in-Chief for E&T and the IET's other magazines that include the teenagers'
magazine Flipside, is Dickon Ross.
Importance of Mathematics and Physics in ICT- The School of Computer Science,

Physics and Mathematics at Linnaeus University has taken the initiative for a new regional
competence centre, aiming to stimulate the interest and education in mathematics, physics,
technology and ICT (information and communication technology) among teachers and
students. The objective is to establish a modern and successful science centre at Linnaeus
University within the next few years.
Recent reports about decreasing knowledge among Swedish pupils in subjects such as
mathematics, natural sciences and technology paint a dark picture. This is an alarming
development, not least for the many Swedish businesses and organizations which depend
upon a future work force with a sound knowledge of mathematics, physics, technology and
ICT. New initiatives are required to ensure that the innovative force prevalent in research
and business also benefits primary and secondary schools.
The School of Computer Science, Physics and Mathematics at Linnaeus University aims to
contribute to a more positive development in this area by starting a competence centre. The
objective is to create a place where teachers and pupils from regional schools can meet
university staff, businesses and other organizations to share experiences, hold courses and
stimulate skills development. The centre will look at the integration of mathematics and
physics education, ICT and learning, with special focus on school activities and teacher
education. If carried out in full, this establishment will be the only one of its kind in Sweden.
The initiative is based on the results from a range of national and international projects
which researchers from the School of Computer Science, Physics and Mathematics have
been involved in during the past years. The collaboration with schools in the region has
already come a long way. For example, teachers and researchers from media technology
and mathematics education have together with local teachers developed new concepts
to support the education and learning of mathematics, physics and other subjects where
mobile technology and social media are important factors.
The competence centre is financed by the School of Computer Science, Physics and
Mathematics, with part-funding from the Regional Council of Southern Smland and
external assignments.
The collaboration between the university's competence centre and the Regional Council of
Southern Smland will be crucial for our endeavours to increase the quality in Kronoberg's
municipalities, according to ke Sjberg, CEO for AV-Media Kronoberg. AV-Media Kronoberg
plays a significant role as a centre for skills development and technology support for ICT in
Kronoberg county's schools.
We see the establishment of this competence centre as a strategic contribution and part
of the subject-didactic development with ICT support which already takes place at our
department not least in relation to the regional demand for skills development, says
Associate Professor Staffan Carius, head of the School of Computer Science, Physics and
Mathematics.
Our long-term intention for the competence centre is that we eventually could establish a
science centre at Linnaeus University, which will be serve as an example for how schools,
businesses, organizations and the university together can increase the interest in
mathematics, physics, technology and ICT.
Units and Dimension- A dimension is a property that can be measured such as distance,
time, temperature, speed.
A unit is a basic division of a measured quantity and it enables to say how much of the
quantity we have - 10 miles, 2 hours etc.
Base units and derived units

Base units are units that are defined by reference to some external standard. This external
standard is arbitrary but is a matter of common agreement.
Derived units are units that are defined by reference to combinations of the base units.
The SI system of units.

The SI system is an internationally agreed system of units based on seven base units. These
are listed in table 1 below. Some of the more important derived units are listed in table 2.
Base units of the SI system of units

Quantity Unit Symbol
Mass kilogramme kg
Length metre m
Time second s
Mole mole mol
Temperature kelvin K
Electric current ampere A
Light intensity candela cd
Some derived units in the SI system

Quantity Unit Symbol
Volume cubic metre m3
Force Newton = kg m s-2 N
Pressure Pascal = N m-2 Pa
Work, Energy Joule = N m J
Power Watt = J s-1 W
Molar Molar = mol dm-3 or mol L-1 M
concentration
Multiples of the basic units are used to avoid having to write very large or very small
numbers. These are listed in table 3.
MKSA Units- The MKS system of units is a physical system of units that expresses any
given measurement using fundamental units of the metre, kilogram, and/or second (MKS).
Historically the MKS system of units succeeded the cgs system of units and laid the
blueprint for the International System of Units, which now serves as the international
standard. Therefore the exact composition of the MKS system is a historical issue. As a
matter of historical record the MKS system incorporated fundamental units other than the
metre, kilogram, and second in addition to derived units. An incomplete list of the
fundamental and derived units appears below. Since the MKS system of units never had a
governing body to rule on a standard definition, the list of units depended on different
conventions at different times.
Cycle. (This dimensionless quantity became synonymous with the term "cycle per
second" as an abbreviation. This circumstance confused the exact definition of the
term cycle. Therefore the phrase "cycle per metre" became ill-defined. The cycle did
not become an SI unit.)
Cycle per second.[1]
Cycle per metre. (This measure of wavenumber became ill-defined due to the
abbreviation of "cycle per second" as "cycle".)
time and length with examples- Length time bias is a form of selection bias, a
statistical distortion of results which can lead to incorrect conclusions about the data. Length
time bias can occur when the lengths of intervals are analysed by selecting intervals that
occupy randomly chosen points in time or space. This process favors longer intervals, thus
skewing the data.
Length time bias is often discussed in the context of the benefits of cancer screening, where
it can lead to the perception that screening leads to better outcomes when in reality it has
no effect. Fast-growing tumors generally have a shorter asymptomatic phase than slower-
growing tumors. This means that there is a shorter period of time when the cancer is
present in the body (and therefore might be detected by screening) but not yet large
enough to cause symptoms, which would cause the patient to seek medical care and be
diagnosed without screening. As a result, if the same number of slow-growing and fast-
growing tumors appear in a year, the screening test will detect more slow-growers than
fast-growers. If these slow growing tumors are less likely to be fatal than the fast growers
are, the people whose cancer is detected by screening will do better, on average, than the
people whose tumors are detected from symptoms (or at autopsy), even if there is no real
benefit to catching the cancer earlier. This can give the impression that detecting cancers
through screening causes cancers to be less dangerous, when the reality is that less
dangerous cancers are simply more likely to be detected by screening.
Measurement of length using vernier caliper and screw gauge:
vernier caliper-
Instructions on use
The Vernier caliper is an extremely precise measuring instrument; the reading error
is 1/20 mm = 0.05 mm.
Close the jaws lightly on the object to be measured.
If you are measuring something with a round cross section, make sure that the axis
of the object is perpendicular to the caliper. This is necessary to ensure that you are
measuring the full diameter and not merely a chord.
Ignore the top scale, which is calibrated in inches.
Use the bottom scale, which is in metric units.
Notice that there is a fixed scale and a sliding scale.
The boldface numbers on the fixed scale are centimeters.
The tick marks on the fixed scale between the boldface numbers are millimeters.
There are ten tick marks on the sliding scale. The left-most tick mark on the sliding
scale will let you read from the fixed scale the number of whole millimeters that the
jaws are opened.
In the example above, the leftmost tick mark on the sliding scale is between 21 mm
and 22 mm, so the number of whole millimeters is 21.
Next we find the tenths of millimeters. Notice that the ten tick marks on the sliding
scale are the same width as nine ticks marks on the fixed scale. This means that at
most one of the tick marks on the sliding scale will align with a tick mark on the fixed
scale; the others will miss.
The number of the aligned tick mark on the sliding scale tells you the number of
tenths of millimeters. In the example above, the 3rd tick mark on the sliding scale is
in coincidence with the one above it, so the caliper reading is (21.30 0.05) mm.
If two adjacent tick marks on the sliding scale look equally aligned with their
counterparts on the fixed scale, then the reading is half way between the two marks.
In the example above, if the 3rd and 4th tick marks on the sliding scale looked to be
equally aligned, then the reading would be (21.35 0.05) mm.
On those rare occasions when the reading just happens to be a "nice" number like 2
cm, don't forget to include the zero decimal places showing the precision of the
measurement and the reading error. So not 2 cm, but rather (2.000 0.005) cm or
(20.00 0.05) mm.
Screw gauge-
Description : Screw Gauge consists of U shaped metallic frame.To one side of this U frame
a long hallow cylindrical tube with a nut inside it, the inner side of cylindrical nut contains a
uniform thread cut in it.On the other side of U frame a fixed stud with a plane face is
attached.
A screw is fitted in the cylindrical nut.One side of the screw has a plane face similar to
that of stud . The faces of and are plane and parallel to one another. The other end
of the screw carries a milled head H attached to a cap C with a sloping edge. When the
head H is rotated, the screw moves to and fro in the nut.The milled head H is provided
with a safety device D to rotate the head H.When the object is held between the stud
and screw and the head H is rotated using the safety device (D), it produces crackling
sound when optimum pressure is applied on the object.
The screw gauge works on the principle of screw.
The outer surface of long cylindrical nut consists of a thick horizontal line P parallel to the
axis of cylindrical tube.This line P is called Index line. Along the index line a scale is
graduated in millimeters.This scale is called Pitch Scale.On the sloping edge of the cap C a
circular scale is graduated, which consists of 100 equal divisions, this scale is called Head
scale.
scalar and vector product of two vector-
Vectors can be multiplied in two different ways: the scalar and vector product. As the name
says, a scalar product of two vectors results in a scalar quantity, and a vector product in a
vector quantity.
1. Scalar Product (=> applet)
The result of this product is a scalar quantity. The scalar product between two vector is
denoted by a thick dot:
= | | | | cosqab
Please note: = .
If is perpendicular to , the scalar product vanishes.

2. Vector Product (=> applet)
The result of this product is a vector quantity. The vector product between two vector is
denoted by a cross (the product is sometimes also called "cross-product"):
x =
Please note: x =- x
The vector is perpendicular to the plane of and , and its magnitude is given by: | | = |
|| | sin AB
The direction of is given by the right hand rule: put the thumb of your right hand along ,
and the index finger along , then point your middle finger perpendicular to thumb and
index finger - this is the direction of . If is parallel to , the vector product vanishes.
Optical instruments
Electromagnetic spectrum-
A diagram of the electromagnetic spectrum, showing various properties across the range of
frequencies and wavelengths
The electromagnetic spectrum is the range of all possible frequencies of electromagnetic
radiation.[1] The "electromagnetic spectrum" of an object has a different meaning, and is
instead the characteristic distribution of electromagnetic radiation emitted or absorbed by
that particular object.
The electromagnetic spectrum extends from below the low frequencies used for modern
radio communication to gamma radiation at the short-wavelength (high-frequency) end,
thereby covering wavelengths from thousands of kilometers down to a fraction of the size of
an atom. The limit for long wavelengths is the size of the universe itself, while it is thought
that the short wavelength limit is in the vicinity of the Planck length,[2] although in principle
the spectrum is infinite and continuous.
Most parts of the electromagnetic spectrum are used in science for spectroscopic and other
probing interactions, as ways to study and characterize matter.[3] In addition, radiation from
various parts of the spectrum has found many other uses for communications and
manufacturing (see electromagnetic radiation for more applications).
Frequency- The number of cycles per unit of time is called the frequency. For
convenience, frequency is most often measured in cycles per second (cps) or the
interchangeable Hertz (Hz) (60 cps = 60 Hz), named after the 19th C. physicist. 1000 Hz
is often referred to as 1 kHz (kilohertz) or simply '1k' in studio parlance.
The range of human hearing in the young is approximately 20 Hz to 20 kHzthe higher

number tends to decrease with age (as do many other things). It may be quite normal for a
60-year-old to hear a maximum of 16,000 Hz.
wavelength and energy-
Wavelength of a sine wave, , can be measured between any two points with the same
phase, such as between crests, or troughs, or corresponding zero crossings as shown.
In physics, the wavelength of a sinusoidal wave is the spatial period of the wavethe
distance over which the wave's shape repeats.[1] It is usually determined by considering the
distance between consecutive corresponding points of the same phase, such as crests,
troughs, or zero crossings, and is a characteristic of both traveling waves and standing
waves, as well as other spatial wave patterns. Wavelength is commonly designated by the
Greek letter lambda (). The concept can also be applied to periodic waves of non-sinusoidal
shape. The term wavelength is also sometimes applied to modulated waves, and to the
sinusoidal envelopes of modulated waves or waves formed by interference of several
sinusoids.[ The SI unit of wavelength is the meter.
Assuming a sinusoidal wave moving at a fixed wave speed, wavelength is inversely
proportional to frequency: waves with higher frequencies have shorter wavelengths, and
lower frequencies have longer wavelengths.[
Examples of wave-like phenomena are sound waves, light, and water waves. A sound wave
is a variation in air pressure, while in light and other electromagnetic radiation the strength
of the electric and the magnetic field vary. Water waves are variations in the height of a
body of water. In a crystal lattice vibration, atomic positions vary.
Wavelength is a measure of the distance between repetitions of a shape feature such as
peaks, valleys, or zero-crossings, not a measure of how far any given particle moves. For
example, in sinusoidal waves over deep water a particle in the water moves in a circle of the
same diameter as the wave height, unrelated to wavelength.
associated with electromagnetic radiation-
The electromagnetic waves that compose electromagnetic radiation can be imagined as a

self-propagating transverse oscillating wave of electric and magnetic fields. This diagram
shows a plane linearly polarized EMR wave propagating from left to right. The electric field is
in a vertical plane and the magnetic field in a horizontal plane. The two types of fields in
EMR waves are always in phase with each other, and no matter how powerful, have a ratio
of electric to magnetic intensity which is fixed and never varies
Electromagnetic radiation (EM radiation or EMR) is a form of energy emitted and
absorbed by charged particles which exhibits wave-like behavior as it travels through space.
EMR has both electric and magnetic field components, which stand in a fixed ratio of
intensity to each other, and which oscillate in phase perpendicular to each other and
perpendicular to the direction of energy and wave propagation. In a vacuum,
electromagnetic radiation propagates at a characteristic speed, the speed of light.
Electromagnetic radiation is a particular form of the more general electromagnetic field (EM
field), which is produced by moving charges. Electromagnetic radiation is associated with
EM fields that are far enough away from the moving charges that produced them that
absorption of the EM radiation no longer affects the behavior of these moving charges.
These two types or behaviors of EM field are sometimes referred to as the near and far field.
In this language, EMR is merely another name for the far-field. Charges and currents
directly produce the near-field. However, charges and currents produce EMR only
indirectlyrather, in EMR, both the magnetic and electric fields are associated with changes
in the other type of field, not directly by charges and currents. This close relationship
assures that the electric and magnetic fields in EMR exist in a constant ratio of strengths to
each other, and also to be found in phase, with maxima and nodes in each found at the
same places in space.
EMR carries energysometimes called radiant energythrough space continuously away
from the source (this is not true of the near-field part of the EM field). EMR also carries both
momentum and angular momentum. These properties may all be imparted to matter with
which it interacts. EMR is produced from other types of energy when created, and it is
converted to other types of energy when it is destroyed. The photon is the quantum of the
electromagnetic interaction, and is the basic "unit" or constituent of all forms of EMR. The
quantum nature of light becomes more apparent at high frequencies (or high photon
energy). Such photons behave more like particles than lower-frequency photons do.
In classical physics, EMR is considered to be produced when charged particles are
accelerated by forces acting on them. Electrons are responsible for emission of most EMR
because they have low mass, and therefore are easily accelerated by a variety of
mechanisms. Rapidly moving electrons are most sharply accelerated when they encounter a
region of force, so they are responsible for producing much of the highest frequency
electromagnetic radiation observed in nature. Quantum processes can also produce EMR,
such as when atomic nuclei undergo gamma decay, and processes such as neutral pion
decay.
EMR is classified according to the frequency of its wave. The electromagnetic spectrum, in
order of increasing frequency and decreasing wavelength, consists of radio waves,
microwaves, infrared radiation, visible light, ultraviolet radiation, X-rays and gamma rays.
The eyes of various organisms sense a small and somewhat variable but relatively small
range of frequencies of EMR called the visible spectrum or light.
formation of image by lens-

There are two alternative methods of locating the image formed by a thin lens. Just as for
spherical mirrors, the first method is graphical, and the second analytical.
The graphical method of locating the image formed by a thin lens involves drawing light-
rays emanating from key points on the object, and finding where these rays are brought to
a focus by the lens. This task can be accomplished using a small number of simple rules.
Consider a converging lens. It is helpful to define two focal points for such a lens. The first,
the so-called image focus, denoted , is defined as the point behind the lens to which all
incident light-rays parallel to the optic axis converge after passing through the lens. This is
the same as the focal point defined previously. The second, the so-called object focus,
denoted , is defined as the position in front of the lens for which rays emitted from a
point source of light placed at that position would be refracted parallel to the optic axis after
passing through the lens. It is easily demonstrated that the object focus is as far in front
of the optic centre of the lens as the image focus is behind . The distance from the
optic centre to either focus is, of course, equal to the focal length of the lens. The image
produced by a converging lens can be located using just three simple rules:
An incident ray which is parallel to the optic axis is refracted through the image focus
of the lens.
An incident ray which passes through the object focus of the lens is refracted
parallel to the optic axis.
An incident ray which passes through the optic centre of the lens is not refracted
at all.
The last rule is only an approximation. It turns out that although a light-ray which passes
through the optic centre of the lens does not change direction, it is displaced slightly to one
side. However, this displacement is negligible for a thin lens.
Figure 80 illustrates how the image of an object placed in front of a converging
lens is located using the above rules. In fact, the three rays, 1-3, emanating from the tip
of the object, are constructed using rules 1-3, respectively. Note that the image is real
(since light-rays actually cross), inverted, and diminished.
Image formation by a converging lens.

Consider a diverging lens. It is again helpful to define two focal points for such a lens. The
image focus is defined as the point in front of the lens from which all incident light-rays
parallel to the optic axis appear to diverge after passing through the lens. This is the same
as the focal point defined earlier. The object focus is defined as the point behind the
lens to which all incident light-rays which are refracted parallel to the optic axis after
passing through the lens appear to converge. Both foci are located a distance from the
optic centre, where is the focal length of the lens. The image produced by a diverging
lens can be located using the following three rules:
An incident ray which is parallel to the optic axis is refracted as if it came from the
image focus of the lens.
An incident ray which is directed towards the object focus of the lens is refracted
parallel to the optic axis.
An incident ray which passes through the optic centre of the lens is not refracted
at all.
Figure 81 illustrates how the image of an object placed in front of a diverging lens
is located using the above rules. In fact, the three rays, 1-3, emanating from the tip of
the object, are constructed using rules 1-3, respectively. Note that the image is virtual
(since light-rays do not actually cross), upright, and diminished.
Image formation by a diverging lens.

Let us now investigate the analytical method. Consider an object of height placed a
distance in front of a converging lens. Suppose that a real image of height is formed a
distance behind the lens. As is illustrated in Fig. 82, the image can be located using rules
1 and 3, discussed above.
Image formation by a converging lens.
Now, the right-angled triangles and are similar, so
(363)
Here, we have adopted the convention that the image height is negative if the image is
inverted. The magnification of a thin converging lens is given by
(364)
This is the same as the expression (352) for the magnification of a spherical mirror. Note
that we are again adopting the convention that the magnification is negative if the image is
inverted.
The right-angled triangles and are also similar, and so
(365)
or
(366)
The above expression can be rearranged to give
(367)
Note that this is exactly the same as the formula (358) relating the image and object
distances in a spherical mirror.
Although formulae (364) and (367) were derived for the case of a real image formed by a
converging lens, they also apply to virtual images, and to images formed by diverging
lenses, provided that the following sign conventions are adopted. First of all, as we have
already mentioned, the focal length of a converging lens is positive, and the focal length
of a diverging lens is negative. Secondly, the image distance is positive if the image is
real, and, therefore, located behind the lens, and negative if the image is virtual, and,
therefore, located in front of the lens. It immediately follows, from Eq. (364), that real
images are always inverted, and virtual images are always upright.
Table 7 shows how the location and character of the image formed by a converging lens
depend on the location of the object. Here, the point is located on the optic axis two
focal lengths in front of the optic centre, and the point is located on the optic axis two
focal lengths behind the optic centre. Note the almost exact analogy between the image
forming properties of a converging lens and those of a concave spherical mirror.
Rules for image formation by converging lenses.
Position of object Position of image Character of image
At Real, zero size

At
Real, inverted, diminished

Between and Between and
Real, inverted, same size

At At
Real, inverted, magnified

Between and Between and
At
At
Between and Virtual, upright, magnified

From to
At At Virtual, upright, same size
shows how the location and character of the image formed by a diverging lens depend on
the location of the object. Note the almost exact analogy between the image forming
properties of a diverging lens and those of a convex spherical mirror.
Position of object Position of image Character of image

At Virtual, zero size
At
Between and Virtual, upright, diminished

Between and
At At Virtual, upright, same size
Finally, let us reiterate the sign conventions used to determine the positions and characters
of the images formed by thin lenses:
The height of the image is positive if the image is upright, with respect to the
object, and negative if the image is inverted.
The magnification of the image is positive if the image is upright, with respect to
the object, and negative if the image is inverted.
The image distance is positive if the image is real, and, therefore, located behind
the lens, and negative if the image is virtual, and, therefore, located in front of the
lens.
The focal length of the lens is positive if the lens is converging, so that the image
focus is located behind the lens, and negative if the lens is diverging, so that the
image focus is located in front of the lens.
Eye- A lens is a transparent material, such a glass, that has either one curved surface and
one flat surface or two curved surfaces. As with mirrors, these two lenses are either convex
or concave. Convex lenses are thicker in the middle then the edges and concave are thicker
at the edges then the middle. When light travels through lenses, refraction occurs. The light
bends either outward or inward, it depends on the lens.
The lens of your eye is a

double convex lens. Its job is to focus the image on the retina of the eye. If one is
farsighted, the lens in the eye causes the focus to be behind the retina. These people see
far but have some difficultly seeing close-up. The lens focuses behind the retina because the
actual eyeball is too short from front to back. To correct this farsightedness, the person
would wear glasses or contacts with convex lenses. What would be the result and treatment
if a person's eyeball was too long from front to back?
its retina to detect the image whereas the camera uses film to detect the image.
Your eye and a camera are quite similar. Both use convex lenses to focus the image upside-
down. Your eye uses
if one is nearsighted, the lens in the eye
causes the focus to be behind the retina. These people see close-up but have some
difficultly seeing far away. The lens focuses infront of the retina because the actual eyeball
is too long from front to back. To correct this nearsightedness, the person would wear
glasses or contacts with concave lenses. Take a look at the two diagrams.
Sensitivity of eye to electromagnetic radiation-

What do light, X-rays, heat radiation, microwaves, radio waves, and gamma radiation
have in common? Despite their differences, they are all the same kind of stuff. They all
travel through space and have similar electrical and magnetic effects on matter. This stuff
is called electromagnetic radiation, because it travels (radiates) and has electrical and
magnetic effects.
Electromagnetic radiation is the means for many of our interactions with the world: light
allows us to see; radio waves give us TV and radio; microwaves are used in radar
communications;
X-rays allow glimpses of our internal organs; and gamma rays let us eavesdrop
on exploding stars thousands of light-years away. Electromagnetic radiation is the
messenger,
or the signal from sender to receiver. The sender could be a TV station, a star, or the
burner on a stove. The receiver could be a TV set, an eye, or an X-ray film. In each case,
the
sender gives off or reflects some kind of electromagnetic radiation.
All these different kinds of electromagnetic radiation actually differ only in a single
property their wavelength. When electromagnetic radiation is spread out according to its
wavelength, the result is a spectrum, as seen in Fig. 1. The visible spectrum, as seen in a
rainbow, is only a small part of the whole electromagnetic spectrum. The electromagnetic
spectrum is divided into five major types of radiation. As shown in Fig. 1, these include
radio waves (including microwaves), light (including ultraviolet, visible, and infrared), heat
radiation, X-rays, gamma rays, and cosmic rays. Your eye can detect only part of the light
defects of vision- There are four types of defect of the Eye: Myopia,
Hypermetropia,Presbyopia and Astigmatism. Below are given the nature of the defect, its
causes and corrective measures:-
Myopia:
Nearsightedness, also called myopia is common name for impaired vision in which a person
sees near objects clearly while distant objects appear blurred. In such a defective eye, the
image of a distant object is formed in front of the retina and not at the retina itself.
Consequently, a nearsighted person cannot focus clearly on an object farther away than the
far point for the defective eye.
Causes:
This defect arises because the power of the eye is too great due to the decrease in focal
length of the crystalline lens. This may arise due to either
(i) excessive curvature of the cornea, or
(ii) elongation of the eyeball.
Correction :-
This defect can be corrected by using a concave (diverging) lens. A concave lens of
appropriate power or focal length is able to bring the image of the object back on the retina
itself.
Method for calculating the power of the corrective lens: -
For calculating the required power of a corrective lens, we first find the power of the
eye at its far point. Then, we select a corrective lens of appropriate power to move the far
point to infinity. We then use the thin lens formula , written in terms of power P of the lens
as
The image distance v of the eye can be taken as 0.02 m approximately.
Hypermetropia:
Farsightedness, also called hypermetropia, common name for a defect in vision in
which a person sees near objects with blurred vision, while distant objects appear in sharp
focus. In this case, the image is formed behind the retina.
Causes:
This defect arises because either
(i) the focal length of the eyelens is too great, or
(ii) the eyeball becomes too short, so that light rays from the nearby object,
say at point N, cannot be brought to focus on the retina to give a distinct image.
Correction:-
This defect can be corrected by using a convex (converging) lens of appropriate focal
length. When the object is at N, the eye exerts its maximum power of accommodation.
Eyeglasses with converging lenses supply the additional focussing power required for
forming the image on the retina.
Presbyopia:
Presbyopia, progressive form of farsightedness that affects most people by their early
60s. The power of accommodation of the eye decreases with ageing. Most people find that
the near point gradually recedes.
Cause and cure:

It arises due to the gradual weakening of the ciliary muscles and diminishing flexibility of
the crystalline lens. Simple reading eyeglasses with convex lenses correct most cases of
presbyopia. Sometimes, a person may suffer from both myopia and hypermetropia. Such
people often require bi-focal lenses. In the bi-focal lens, the upper portion of the bi-focal
lens is a concave lens, used for distant vision. The lower part of the bi-focal lens is a convex
lens, used for reading purposes.
Astigmatism:
Astigmatism, a defect in the outer curvature on the surface of the eye that causes
distorted vision.In astigmatism, a person cannot simultaneously focus on both horizontal
and vertical lines.
Causes:
This defect is usually due to the cornea that is not perfectly spherical. Consequently,
it has different curvatures in different directions in vertical and horizontal planes. This
results in objects in one direction being well-focussed, while those in a perpendicular
direction not wellfocussed.
Correction:-
This defect can be corrected by using eyeglasses with cylindrical lenses oriented to
compensate for the irregularities in the cornea.
Brief understanding of telescope- The telescope continued to improve over the years
and remained one of the primary tools for astronomy. In the 17th century, Sir Isaac Newton
improved on the design of the reflector to create the telescope which bears his name.
During the 20th century, German astronomer Bernhard Schmidt placed his mark on the
design of the catadioptric telescope as did Russian astronomer, and D. Maksutov and Dutch
astronomer, A. Bouwers.
One of the most famous telescopes today is the Hubble Space Telescope. Named after
American astronomer Edwin P. Hubble (1889 HYPERLINK
"http://space.about.com/cs/astronomy101/a/astro101d.htm" HYPERLINK
"http://space.about.com/cs/astronomy101/a/astro101d.htm"HYPERLINK
"http://space.about.com/cs/astronomy101/a/astro101d.htm"HYPERLINK
"http://space.about.com/cs/astronomy101/a/astro101d.htm"1953), who confirmed an
"expanding" universe, which provided the foundation for the Big Bang theory, Hubble
launched April 24, 1990 from space shuttle Discovery (STS-31). While its future is currently
unclear, it has produced some incredible imagery.
Telescopes come in three basic designs; Refractor, Reflector, and Catadioptric. A refractor
uses two lenses, one to collect light and focus it as a sharp image, while the other magnifies
the image for the viewer. A reflector gathers the light at the bottom of the scope by a
concave mirror, called the Primary while the image is focused either by a photographic plate
or another mirror. The catadoptric combines elements of refractors and reflectors. Refractor
optics are more resistant to misalignment but are limited in size. Reflectors do not suffer
from chromatic aberration, but are easily misaligned and require frequent cleaning. More
details are available in our article, Telescopes.
Microscope- A microscope (from the Ancient Greek: , mikrs, "small" and ,
skopen, "to look" or "see") is an instrument used to see objects that are too small for the
naked eye. The science of investigating small objects using such an instrument is called
microscopy. Microscopic means invisible to the eye unless aided by a microscope.
There are many types of microscopes, the most common and first to be invented is the
optical microscope which uses light to image the sample. Other major types of microscopes
are the electron microscope (both the transmission electrlidon microscope and the scanning
electron microscope) and the various types of scanning probe microscope
Types
Types of microscopes
Microscopes can be separated into several different classes. One grouping is based on what
interacts with the sample to generate the image, i.e., light or photons(optical microscopes),
electrons (electron microscopes) or a probe (scanning probe microscopes). Alternatively,
microscopes can be classed on whether they analyse the sample via a scanning point
(confocal optical microscopes, scanning electron microscopes and scanning probe
microscopes) or analyse the sample all at once (wide field optical microscope and
transmission electron microscopes).
Wide field optical microscopes and transmission electron microscopes use the theory of
lenses (optics for light microscopes and electromagnet lenses for electron microscopes) in
order to magnify the image generated by the passage of a wave transmitted through the
sample, or reflected by the sample. The waves used are electromagnetic (in optical
microscopes) or electron beams (in electron microscopes). Resolution in these microscopes
is limited by the wavelength of the radiation used to image the sample, where shorter
wavelengths allow for a higher resolution.
Scanning optical and electron microscopes, like the confocal microscope and scanning
electron microscope, use lenses to focus a spot of light or electrons onto the sample then
analyze the reflected or transmitted waves. The point is then scanned over the sample to
analyze a rectangular region. Magnification of the image is achieved by displaying the data
from scanning a physically small sample area on a relatively large screen. These
microscopes have the same resolution limit as wide field optical, probe, and electron
microscopes.
Scanning probe microscopes also analyze a single point in the sample and then scan the
probe over a rectangular sample region to build up an image. As these microscopes do not
use electromagnetic or electron radiation for imaging they are not subject to the same
resolution limit as the optical and electron microscopes described above.]\
Optical
The most common type of microscope (and the first invented) is the optical microscope.
This is an optical instrument containing one or more lenses producing an enlarged image of
a sample placed in the focal plane. Optical microscopes have refractive glass and
occasionally of plastic or quartz, to focus light into the eye or another light detector. Mirror-
based optical microscopes operate in the same manner. Typical magnification of a light
microscope, assuming visible range light, is up to 1500x with a theoretical resolution limit of
around 0.2 micrometres or 200 nanometres. Specialized techniques (e.g., scanning confocal
microscopy, Vertico SMI) may exceed this magnification but the resolution is diffraction
limited. The use of shorter wavelengths of light, such as the ultraviolet, is one way to
improve the spatial resolution of the optical microscope, as are devices such as the near-
field scanning optical microscope.
Sarfus, a recent optical technique increases the sensitivity of standard optical microscope to
a point it becomes possible to directly visualize nanometric films (down to 0.3 nanometre)
and isolated nano-objects (down to 2 nm-diameter). The technique is based on the use of
non-reflecting substrates for cross-polarized reflected light microscopy.
CBP Office of Field Operations agent checking the authenticity of a travel document at an
international airport using a stereo microscope
Ultraviolet light enables the resolution of microscopic features, as well as to image samples
that are transparent to the eye. Near infrared light can be used to visualize circuitry
embedded in bonded silicon devices, since silicon is transparent in this region of
wavelengths.
In fluorescence microscopy, many wavelengths of light, ranging from the ultraviolet to the
visible can be used to cause samples to fluoresce to allow viewing by eye or with the use of
specifically sensitive cameras.
Phase contrast microscopy is an optical microscopy illumination technique in which small
phase shifts in the light passing through a transparent specimen are converted into
amplitude or contrast changes in the image. The use of phase contrast does not require
staining to view the slide. This microscope technique made it possible to study the cell cycle
in live cells.
The traditional optical microscope has more recently evolved into the digital microscope. In
addition to, or instead of, directly viewing the object through the eyepieces, a type of
sensor similar to those used in a digital camera is used to obtain an image, which is then
displayed on a computer monitor. These sensors may use CMOS or charge-coupled device
(CCD) technology, depending on the application.
Electron
Three major variants of electron microscopes exist:
Scanning electron microscope (SEM): looks at the surface of bulk objects by
scanning the surface with a fine electron beam. See also environmental scanning
electron microscope (ESEM).
Transmission electron microscope (TEM): passes electrons through the sample,
analogous to basic optical microscopy. This requires careful sample preparation,
since electrons are scattered so strongly by most materials.This is a scientific device
that allows people to see objects that could normally not be seen by the naked or
unaided eye.
eye pieces- An eyepiece, or ocular lens, is a type of lens that is attached to a variety of
optical devices such as telescopes and microscopes. It is so named because it is usually the
lens that is closest to the eye when someone looks through the device. The objective lens or
mirror collects light and brings it to focus creating an image. The eyepiece is placed near
the focal point of the objective to magnify this image. The amount of magnification depends
on the focal length of the eyepiece.\
An eyepiece consists of several "lens elements" in a housing, with a "barrel" on one end.
The barrel is shaped to fit in a special opening of the instrument to which it is attached. The
image can be focused by moving the eyepiece nearer and further from the objective. Most
instruments have a focusing mechanism to allow movement of the shaft in which the
eyepiece is mounted, without needing to manipulate the eyepiece directly.
The eyepieces of binoculars are usually permanently mounted in the binoculars, causing
them to have a pre-determined magnification and field of view. With telescopes and
microscopes, however, eyepieces are usually interchangeable. By switching the eyepiece,
the user can adjust what is viewed. For instance, eyepieces will often be interchanged to
increase or decrease the magnification of a telescope. Eyepieces also offer varying fields of
view, and differing degrees of eye relief for the person who looks through them.
Modern research-grade telescopes do not use eyepieces. Instead, they have high-quality
CCD sensors mounted at the focal point, and the images are viewed on a computer screen.
Some amateur astronomers use their telescopes the same way, but direct optical viewing
with eyepieces is still very common.
UNIT- 2
Electrostatics
What is charges?:
this is a measure problem in physicl science, no body know, what is charge , only we know
the propeties of charge .
Coulombs law: according to coulombs law if two charge q1&q2piact at point A,B . r of
the distance between point A&B .so according to coulombs law a face at attrection &
repulstion force between charge q1&q2.
k= constant of charge distribution
= distance
r2
q1 q2= charge
Three types of charge distribution:
1 Linear charge distribution: in this case , the charge is distributed along a line . if
charge is distribution along a line , then we use a term liner charge density, which is defined
as the charge per unit length.
++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
=q/L L
q
2 surface charge distribution: if the charge is distribution over a surface, then this
is know as surface charge distribution. This two dimensional distribution of charge.
=q/A
3 volume charge distribution: volume charge density p is defined as the charge

per unit volume, & it is used when charge is distributed uniformly along a volume .
=q/v
ELECTRIC FIELD:
a region around charge q0 first charge q1 in which another q0 q1 test charge q1 comes it
files force of attraction & repulsion because of the effective field called electric field.
ELECTRIC FIELD INTENSITY:
If a test charge q0 is placed in an electric field and it experience electrostatic force, then
electric field intensity or electric strength or simple electric field.
E=F/q0 or F=E.q0
Electric potential :
The charge always flow from higher potential to lower potential region untill two
charges reaches a common potential. Same as whether flow of upper level to lower level.
E.l
EQUIPOTENTIAL SURFACE : Equipotential means equal potential, so any surface has

some electrostatics potential at every point is called equipotential surface.
WAB/q0=0
ELECTRIC FLUX: electric flux defivne as the total no. of electris lines of force crossing
unit area normally. It is represents by .
=E.S
Unit of electric flux=m2(meter)2

GAUSSS LAW: The total flux from closed surface is equal to 1/0.
E .ds = q/ 0
ELECTRICAL CAPACITANCE: electric capacity is defined as the ability of the conductor

to store electric charge.
q=CV or C=q/V
A CAPACITOR & ITS PRINCIPLE: A capacitor is a device for storing large quantity of
charge. The charge can be stored on an isolated conductor but its quantity is too small. To
increase the charge reposition on conductor, two or more conductor are placed in such a
manner that they do not cover a large space, for it we require a capacitor. An
arrangement of two metallic conductor, so that when one connected on the earth, other has
the ability to store a large amount of charge on it, is called a capacitor.
CAPACITOR ARE OF THREE TYPES
1.PARALLEL PLATE CAPACITOR:
It is most common type of capacitor. It consist of

two parallel plates P & Q which are placed at a distance of d from each other.
Let A be a area of cross section of each plate such that d<<A.
NOW, if +q charge is given to plate P, it will distributed uniformly on its surface due
induction -q charge is include on the inner face on plate Q & +q on its outer face. Since
plate Q is connected to the ground.
2. SPHERICAL CONDUCTOR:
A spherical conductor consist of two concentric
spherical shells, separated by a very small distance. The spacing between the spherical shell
may be filled by some dielectric medium increase the capacitance of the capacitor.
Spherical capacitor is shown, which consist of two spherical

shells. The inner shell has radius a & outer shell has b.
Let +q charge be given to A, it distributes uniformly along it

surface and due to induction q charge induces on the inner surface of B & +q on its outer
surface. B is connected to ground.
3. CYLLINDRICAL CAPACITOR:
A cylindrical consists of two co-axial cylinders, out of two

one is connected to earth and another is used to store charge on it. Both consists have a
very small separation.
Cylindrical capacitor is shown, which has two

cylindrical shells A&B, having radii a &b respectively and length l.
Charge is given to A, charge q induces on the inner

surface of B and +q on the outer surface.
GROUPING OF CAPACITORS OR COMBINATIONS OF CAPACITORS:
SERIES COMBINATION :
In this combination, first plate of the first capacitor is

connected to the source of charge, first plate of the second capacitor is connected to
the second plate of the first capacitor then first plate of the third capacitor is
connected to second of the second capacitor and finally the second plate of the last
capacitor is connected to earth or connected to the second terminal of the souce.
1/Cs = 1/C1 + 1/C2 + 1/C3 + . . . . + 1/Cn
Thus when a number of capacitors are connected in series,

then the reciprocal of the resultant or equivalent capacitance is equal to the sum of
reciprocals of the individual capacitors.
Obviously, cs is less than the smallest capacitance in the

combination.
PARALLEL COMBINATION:
The capacitors are said to be connected in
parallel, when the first of all the capacitors are joined together at one point A, which
is connected to one terminal of the source & the second plate of all the capacitors
are joined together at another point B, which is either connected to earth or
connected to the second terminal of the source.
In a parallel combination potential difference across each capacitor

remain & is equal to the potential difference produced by the source & charge is
distribute.
Cp = C1 + C2 + C3 + . . . . + Cn
Thus, when a no. of capacitors are connected in parallel, then

the resultant or equivalent capacitance is equal to the sum of capacitance of all e
capacitors use in combination. The resultant capacitors in a parallel combination is
always more than the capacitance of individual capacitor.
CURRENT ELECTRICITY
CURRENT ELECTRICITY: In unit time the charge given to conductor equal to electric
current.
I = q/t or I = ne/t
Or
Coulomb/sec = Ampere(unit)
Drift velocity is the velocity acquired by the electrons present in a

conductor on applying an electric field across the two ends of the conductor. This velocity is
in addition with random motion.
If v1 + v2 + v3 + . . . + vn are the random thermal

velocities of n electrons present in an conductor, then average thermal velocity of the
electrons
( V1 + V2 + V3 + . . . + Vn)/n = 0
OHMS LAW:
In normal condition of temperature & pressure if electric current is

given to any conductor then it directly proportional to electric potential also increase depend
of resistant conductor.
Unit of resistant is (ohm)
1 = V/A(ampere)
ELECRICAL RESISTIVITY: basically resistance is the obstacle created by the atoms or

moles of the the conductor in flow of current; it means the resistance obstructs the flow of
electrons.
The resistance of any conductor is
directly proportional to its length
R l
inversely proportional to the area of cross section of the conductor
R 1/A
Thus R l/A
R = (l/A)
Unit of = -m
ELECTRICAL CONDUCTANCE:
The reciprocal of the electrical resistance is known as

electric conductance or simply conductance of the conductor. Since the resistance obstructs
the flow of e-s in a conductor & hence the conductance allows to flow the e-s through the
conductor.
Thus, the conductance of a conductor is given by
C = 1/R
Unit of electrical conductance is mho or ohm-1.

ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY:
The relation between resistivity & conductivity is

inversely proportional to each other.
Thus = 1/
CLASSIFICATIN OF MATERIAL ON THE BASIS OF ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY:
CONDUCTOR:
conductor are those elements, which contains sufficient amount of

free electrons. In these valence band & conductance band overlap, so we dont
require energy for the flow of e-s
Examples: silver, copper, iron, aluminium .
INSULATOR:
insulators are those elements, which does not contain free electrons
in conduction band and the energy difference between valence band and conduction
band is sufficiently large. Thus, insulator have very high resistivity & very low
conductivity.
Example: glass, wood, rubber.
SEMICONDUCTOR:
They having conductivity less than the greater than the

insulator. At room temperature, so at room temperature semiconductor , conducts
electricity.
Example: ge & si are very commonly used to semiconductor.
COLOUR CODE FOR CARBON RESISTORS:

B B ROY of Grate Brition Hase A Very Good Wife
colour Number multiplier Tolerance

Black 0 10 0
-
Brown 1 10 1
-
Red 2 10 2
-
Orange 3 10 3
-
Yellow 4 10 4
-
Green 5 10 5
-
Blue 6 10 6
-
Violet 7 10 7
-
Grey 8 10 8
-
White 9 10 9
-
Gold - 10-1
5%
Silver - 10-2
10%
No colour - - 20%
COMBINATION OF RESISTORE
SERIES COMBINATION:
This combination is used to increase the value of

resistance. In this method two or more resistors are connected in such a way
that the second terminal of first resistors is connected to the first of, similarly
second terminal of second resistors is connected to the first terminal of third
resistors and so on. Finally first terminal of first resistor and second terminal of
the last resistor are connected to a battery.
In this type of combination the current passes through each resistor is the
same.
PARALLEL COMBINATION:
This is another combination of connecting

resistance. This combination is basically used to becrease the value of resistance.
In this type of combination first terminal of each resistors are connected
together, similarly second terminals of each resistors are also connected
together.
KIRCHHOFFS LAW
KIRCHHOFFS FIRST LAW :
It states that the algebric sum of electric currents

meeting at a point in an electrical circuit is always zero. It is also known as junction.
The current flowing towards the junction point is

taken as +ve, while the flowing always from the junction point is taken as ve.
This law is also known as kirchhoffs current law (KCL).
KIRCHHOFFS SECOND LAW :
This law is basically known as loop rule, since it is

valid for closed part only. According to this law the algebraic sum of the emf in any
part of the circuit is equal to the sum of the potential difference across the resistance
available in that part.
E = IR
This law is also known as kirchhoffs voltage law (KVL).
THEVENINS THEOREM:
According to this theorem any two terminal linear

network containing linear impedances and one or more generators can be replace d with
an equivalent circuit consisting of an equivalent in series with an emf.
NORTONS THEOREM:
This theorem states that the current in a load impedance ZL

connected to two output terminals of a network consisting of one or more generators
and impedances is the same as if the load impedance were connected to a constant
current source in shunt with an impedance Zeq.
MAXIMUM POWER THEOREM:
According to this theorem the power delivered to the

load or external circuit will be maximum only when the load resistance is equal to the
internal resistance of the network delivering the power.
Potentiometer:
A potentiometer (pron.: / HYPERLINK
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"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA_for_English"/), informally a pot, is a three-
terminal resistor with a sliding contact that forms an adjustable voltage divider.[1] If only
two terminals are used, one end and the wiper, it acts as a variable resistor or
rheostat.
A potentiometer measuring instrument is essentially a voltage divider used for measuring

electric potential (voltage); the component is an implementation of the same principle,
hence its name.
Potentiometers are commonly used to control electrical devices such as volume controls on
audio equipment. Potentiometers operated by a mechanism can be used as position
transducers, for example, in a joystick. Potentiometers are rarely used to directly control
significant power (more than a watt), since the power dissipated in the potentiometer would
be comparable to the power in the controlled load.
Potentiometer is a device mainly used to measure emf of a given cell and to compare emf's
of cells. It is also used to measure internal resistance of a given cell.
Circuit diagram: Potentiometer consists of a long resistive wire AB of length L (about 6 m to
10 m long) made up of mangnine or constantan and a battery of known voltage e and
internal resistance r called supplier battery or driver cell. Connection of these two forms
primary circuit.
One terminal of another cell (whose emf E is to be measured) is connected at one end of
the main circuit and the other terminal at any point on the resistive wire through a
galvanometer G. This forms the secondary circuit. Other details are as follows
J = Jockey
K = Key
R = Resistance of potentiometer wire,
r = Specific resistance of potentiometer wire.
Rh = Variable resistance which controls the current through the wire AB
(i) The specific resistance (r) of potentiometer wire must be high but its temperature
coefficient of resistance (a) must be low.
(ii) All higher potential points (terminals) of primary and secondary circuits must be
connected together at point A and all lower potential points must be connected to point B or
jockey.
(iii) The value of known potential difference must be greater than the value of unknown
potential difference to be measured.
(iv) The potential gradient must remain constant. For this the current in the primary circuit
must remain constant and the jockey must not be slided in contact with the wire.
(v) The diameter of potentiometer wire must be uniform everywhere.
Potential gradient (x): Potential difference (or fall in potential) per unit length of wire is
called potential gradient i.e. x = V/L volt/m where V = iR = (e/R+R n+r)R.
So x = V/L = iR/L = ip/A = e/(R+Rh+r) . R/L
(i) Potential gradient directly depends upon
(a) The resistance per unit length (R/L) of potentiometer wire.
(b) The radius of potentiometer wire (i.e. Area of cross-section)
(c) The specific resistance of the material of potentiometer wire (i.e. r)
(d) The current flowing through potentiometer wire (i)
(ii) Potential gradient indirectly depends upon
(a) The emf of battery in the primary circuit (i.e. e)
(b) The resistance of rheostat in the primary circuit (i.e. Rh)
Working: Suppose jockey is made to touch a point J on wire then potential difference
between A and J will be V = xl
At this length (l) two potential difference are obtained
(i) V due to battery e and
(ii) E due to unknown cell
If V > E then current will flow in galvanometer circuit in one direction
If V < E then current will flow in galvanometer circuit in opposite direction

If V = E then no current will flow in galvanometer circuit this condition to known as null
deflection position, length l is known as balancing length.
In balanced condition E = xl
or E = xl = V/L l = iR/L l = (e/R+Rh+r) R/L l
If V is constant then L l x1/x2 = L1L2 = l1/l2
Standardization of Potentiometer: The process of determining potential gradient
experimentally is known as standardization of potentiometer.
Let the balancing length for the standard emf E0 is l0 then by the principle of potentiometer
E0 = xl0 x = E0/l0
Sensitivity of potentiometer: A potentiometer is said to be more sensitive, if it measures a
small potential difference more accurately.
(i) The sensitivity of potentiometer is assessed by its potential gradient. The sensitivity is
inversely proportional to the potential gradient.
(ii) In order to increase the sensitivity of potentiometer
(a) The resistance in primary circuit will have to be decreased.
(b) The length of potentiometer wire will have to be increased so that the length may be
measured more accuracy.
Difference between voltmeter and potentiometer
Voltmeter Potentiometer
It's resistance is high but finite It's resistance is infinite
It draws some current from source of It does not draw any current from the
emf source of unknown emf
The potential difference measured by it The potential difference measured by it

is lesser than the actual potential is equal to actual potential difference
difference
Its sensitivity is low Its sensitivity is high
It is a versatile instrument It measures only emf or potential

difference
It is based on deflection method It is based on zero deflection method
UNIT-3
TRANSDUCERS
TRANSDUCERS-A device for converting a non-electrical signal such as sound, light,

heat, etc., into electrical signal or vice versa is called transducers.
THERMO-COUPLES:
Many materials exhibit the thermoelectric effect to some

degree. But only a small number of pairs, such as platinum-rhodium, chromel-alumal ,
copper-constantan and iron-constantan are in common use . each pair exhibits a
combination of properties that suit it to a particular class of Amplifications . the choice of
materials for the thermo-couple depends upon the desired temperature range, the kind
of which the thermo-couple will be exposed, output emf.
ELECTRO CHEMICAL EFFECT:
It was volta, who discovered electro-chemical effect in

the year 1800AD.if two dissimilar conductors are joined together, a potential difference is
developed between these two at the point of contact. This come into existence on account
of chemical reaction. Due to movement of the positive charge towards the copper plate, its
potential increases above of zinc plat.
ELECTROCHEMICAL CELL:
It is an arrangement in which chemical reaction takes place

at a steady rate, so as to chemical energy converted into electrical energy. There are two
types of electrochemical cell (i) primary and (ii) secondary or storage.
PRIMARY CELLS:
Primary, cell is that device in which chemical energy converted onto

electrical energy but electrical can not convert into chemical energy. There are many types
of primary cell some of them,
SIMPLE VOLTAIC CELL:
This cell was invented by allexandro de volta in

1800, so it is know as voltaic cell.
CONSTRUCTION:
In voltaic cell two electrodes i.e., anode and cathode are

made of copper and zinc are placed in a glass vessel in which dil. H2SO4 is filled.
When chemical reaction takes place inside the cell, the zinc rod acquire ve
charge & the copper rod gets +ve charge. So a potential difference is established
between the rods. Due to this charge acquiring copper rod is called +ve & zinc
rod is called ve pole of the cell.
DANIEL CELL:
In 1836, this cell was invented by Daniel.
CONSRUCTION:
It consist of a copper vessel, which act as a +ve pole of the

cell. This cell is filled with CuSO4 solution. Inside the CuSO4 solution, a porous pot
containing an amalgamated zinc rod dil. H2SO4 is placed. This rod acts as ve pole & use to
avoid the defect of local action. The porous pot prevents the CuSO4 solution & dil. H2SO4
solution & dil. H2SO4 from mixing with each other.
LECLANCHE CELL:
In 1865, this cell was invented by George leclanche.
CONSRUCTION:
It consist of a class vessel in which a strong solution of ammonium chloride

NH4Cl is used as electrolyte. An amalgamated zinc rod is depend into this
solution, which acts as ve pole & a porous pot containing the carbon rod is
placed inside the solution, acts a s +ve pole of the cell, the amalgamated zinc rod
is used to avoid the defect of local action it is clear from that the empty space in
the porous pot is filled with the mixture of powered MnO2 & charcoal. Here
manganese dioxide is used as depolarizer. The charcoal power is used to conduct
MnO2 & thus it decrease the internal resistance of the cell.
DRY CELL:
It is a portable form of a leclanche cell.
CONTRUCTION:
In a dry cell, a moist paste of ammonium chloride with zinc

chloride is used as an electrolyte. This paste contained in a cylindrical zinc vessel,
which acts as ve pole. In the middle of this vessel a carbon rod with a brass cap
is placed, which acts as the +ve pole of the cell. The carbon rod is surrounded by
the mixture of MnO2 & charcoal which are poured in a muslin bag. The MnO2 is
used as a depolarizer and charcoal reduced the internal resistance of the cell by
making MnO2 electrically conduction. The whole system is sealed at the top of
shellac, provided some holes at the top escape the ammonia gas, which formed
during the reaction.
SECONDARY CELL:
A secondary is one in which electrical energy is converted into

chemical energy & when they are charged by passing current through them by
connecting some source, then chemical energy is again converted into electrical
energy.
LEAD ACCUMULATER:
This cell was invented by gaston plant in 1859.
CONTRUCTION:
In this type of cell or battery dil. H2SO4 is filled in a rubber, glass

or celluloid container. It consists of a no. lead plates. The lead plates, which are
used as ve pole are partly filled with spongy lead & the plates which are used
as +ve pole are filed which a paste of PbO2. These plates kept separated in
insulated from each other separator, which are made of rubber, glass or plastic
fiber. The emf of each cell, when they are fully charged are 2.05v & the specific
gravity of dil. H2SO4, when the cell is fully charged is 1.28. During the working
with the cell. It starts to discharge & when it gets completely discharge then the
emf of the cell becomes 1.8v & the specific gravity electrolyte because 1.12.
These values cant falls below this.
EDISON ALKALI CELL:
This cell is also known as nickel-iron cell. Its +ve plates

consist of a no. of tubes of perforated steel ribbon, wound spirally & held
together by steel rings.
When the cell is fully charged then the emf is 1.75v & when
completely discharged then the emf becomes 1.2v.
This cell is portable does not need any spherical care. Its
internal resistance is greater then the lead accumulator & its efficiency is low.
This cell is more durable & robust.
MAGNETIC FLUX DENSITY AND MAGNETIC FLUX:
Magnetic flux density is a vector quantity & is

represented by, it is the total number of magnetic lines of force, which passes
from a unit area placed in a magnetic filed normally. This also know as magnetic
induction.
CONVERSION OF GALVANOMETER INTO AMETER:
Ammeter is a device used to measure electrical current into

circuit. galvanometer is a low resistance instrument, so it can not be used to measure
currents in the circuit as such because even when a small Current is passed through the
galvanometer , it gives a large or full scale deflection. Magnetic Effects of Current
Conversion of Galvanometer into Ammeter

An ammeter is a low resistance galvanometer and is connected in series in a circuit to read
current directly in a.
The resistance of an ammeter is to be made as low as possible so that it may read current
without any appreciable error. Therefore to convert a galvanometer into ammeter a shunt
resistance. (i.e., small resistance in parallel) is connected across the coil of galvanometer.
Let G be the resistance of galvanometer and the

current required for full scale deflection. Suppose this galvanometer is to converted into
ammeter of range I ampere. and the value of shunt required is S. If is current in shunt,
then from Fig.
CONVERSION OF GALVANOMETER INTO VOLTMETER:
Since Galvanometer is a very

sensitive instrument, therefore it can not measure high potential difference. In order to
convert a Galvanometer into voltmeter, a very high resistance known as
"series resistance" is connected in series with the galvanometer.
VALUE OF SERIES RESISTANCE: www.citycollegiate.com

Let resistance of galvanometer = Rg and resistance Rx (high) is connected in series to it.
Then combined resistance = (Rg + Rx).
If potential between the points to be measured = V and if galvanometer gives full-scale

deflection, when current "Ig" passes through it.
MULTIMETER:
A multimeter or a multitester, also known as a VOM (Volt-Ohm meter),

is an electronic measuring instrument that combines several measurement functions in one
unit. A typical multimeter would include basic features such as the ability to measure
voltage, current, and resistance. Multimeters may use analog or digital circuitsanalog
multimeters (AMM) and digital multimeters (often abbreviated DMM or DVOM.) Analog
instruments are usually based on a microammeter whose pointer moves over a scale
calibrated for all the different measurements that can be made. Digital instruments usually
display digits, but may display a bar of a length proportional to the quantity being
measured. Digital multimeters have all but replaced analog moving coil multimeters in most
situations. Analog multimeters are still manufactured but by few manufacturers.
A multimeter can be a hand-held device useful for basic fault finding and field service work,
or a bench instrument which can measure to a very high degree of accuracy. They can be
used to troubleshoot electrical problems in a wide array of industrial and household devices
such as electronic equipment, motor controls, domestic appliances, power supplies, and
wiring systems.
UNIT-4
ELECTROMAGNETIC INDCUTION
MAGNETIC FLUX:
This article is about magnetic flux. For the magnetic field "B" (magnetic
flux per area), see magnetic flux density. For the magnetic field "H", see H-field.
In physics, specifically electromagnetism, the magnetic flux (often denoted or B)

through a surface is the component of the magnetic B HYPERLINK
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetic_field" HYPERLINK
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetic_field"HYPERLINK
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetic_field"HYPERLINK
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetic_field" field passing through that surface. The SI unit
of magnetic flux is the weber (Wb) (in derived units: volt-seconds), and the CGS unit is the
maxwell. Magnetic flux is usually measured with a fluxmeter, which contains measuring coils
and electronics that evaluates the change of voltage in the measuring coils to calculate the
magnetic flux.
LENZS LAW:
The induced current will flow in such a direction so as to oppose the cause that
produces it.
Let us apply Lenz's law to figure given above. Here the N-pole of the magnet is
approaching a coil of several turns. As the N-pole of the magnet moves towards coil, the
magnetic flux linking the coil increases. Therefore, an e.m.f and hence current is
induced in the coil according to faraday's laws of electromagnetic induction. According to
Lenz's law, the direction of the induced current will be such so as to oppose the cause
that produces it. In the present case, the cause of the induced current is the increasing
magnetic flux linking the coil. Therefore, the induced current will set up magnetic flux
that opposes the increase in flux through the coil. Therefore, the induced current will set
up magnetic flux that opposes the increase in flux through the coil. This is possible only
if the left hand face of the coil becomes N-pole. Once we know the magnetic polarity of
the coil face, the direction of the induced current can be easily determined by applying
right hand rule for the coil.
SELF INDUCTANCE:
Consider a coil connected in series with a source of e.m.f. E and A tapping key K. when we
prees the key ,the current starts to increse in coil and hence the magnetic fild line also
starts in increse ,which proudce on induceds e.m.f. in the coil, the direction of this e.m.f. is
such that it opposes the growth of current in the cell.
MUTYAL INDUCTANCE:
The production of an electric potential in a circuit resulting from a change

of current in a neighboring circuit. Mutual induction lies behind the operation of
transformers.
The production of an electromotive force in a circuit by a current
change in a second circuit magnetically linked to the first See also mutual inductance
Compare self-induction.
The production of an electromotive force in a circuit resulting from
a change of current in a neighboring circuit.
TRANCFORMER:
A transformer is a static electrical device that transfers energy by
inductive coupling between its winding circuits. A varying current in the primary winding
creates a varying magnetic flux in the transformer's core and thus a varying magnetic flux
through the secondary winding. This varying magnetic flux induces a varying electromotive
force (EMF), or "voltage", in the secondary winding.
Transformers range in size from a

thumbnail-sized coupling transformer hidden in microphones to units weighing hundreds of
tons used in electrical substations at power generation stations and to interconnect the
power grid. Transformers are used in wide-ranging designs for varied electrical and
electronic circuits and devices and are essential for the transmission, distribution, and
utilization of electric power.
THE TRANCFORMER ARE OF TWO TYPES:
STEP-UP TRANCFORMER :
When Ns > Np i.e., when secondary of
the Transformers has grater number of turns then the primary, the
output emf. Es is grater then Ep & Is < Ip.
STEP-DOWN TRANCFORMER:
When Ns > Np i.e., when the
secondary coil has lesser number of turns than primary, the output
voltage Es is smaller than the input voltage i.e. Es < Ep and this
time Is > Ip.
ALTERNATING CURRENT CIRCUIT (AC)
In alternating current (AC, also ac), the flow of electric

charge periodically reverses direction. In direct current (DC, also dc), the flow of electric
charge is only in one direction.
The abbreviations AC and DC are often used to mean simply alternating and direct, as when
they modify current or voltage.[1] [2]
AC is the form in which electric power is delivered to businesses and residences. The usual
waveform of an AC power circuit is a sine wave. In certain applications, different waveforms
are used, such as triangular or square waves. Audio and radio signals carried on electrical
wires are also examples of alternating current. In these applications, an important goal is
often the recovery of information encoded (or modulated) onto the AC signal.
MEAN OR AVERGE VALUE OF A.C. :
Ti is that steady current, whish when passed through a circuit fro half the line period of the
alternating current sends the same amount of charge as is done by the alternating current
in same time through the same circuit. It is genrelly denoted by Im and Ia.
ROOT MEAN SQUARE (RMS) OR VIRTUL VALUE OF A.C.: it is that steady current,
which when passed through a resistance for a give time will produced the same amount
heat as the alternating current does in same resistance and in same time . it genrelly
denoted by Irms or Iv.
A.C THROUGH A RESISTORS: we used a resistance to connect with an alternative source
to analyse the flow of current from alternating circuit using resistance. \
A.C THROUGH AN INDUCTOUR: consider a inductor having zero resistance means a pure
inductance , which is connected to an alternating source of e.m.f.
A.C THROUGH AN CAPACITOR: consider a capacitor of capacitance C connecting to an
alternating source of e.m.f. due to source equal to the instantaneous potential difference
across the capacitor. l
THROUGH LR-SERIES CIRCUIT: consider a circuit in which an inductor of inductance L
and a resistor of resistance R are connected in series with an alternating source of e.m.f.
THROUGH CR-SERIES CIRCUIT: Consider a circuit in which a capacitor of capacitance C
and a resistor of resistance R are connected series with an alternating source of e.m.f.
THROUGH LCR-SERIES CIRCUIT: Consider that a circuit in which an inductor of
inductance L, a capacitor of capacitance C and a resistor of resistance R is connected in
series with an alternating source of e.m.f.
SERIES RESONANT CIRCUIT:
The resonance of a series RLC circuit occurs when the
inductive and capacitive reactances are equal in magnitude but cancel each other
because they are 180 degrees apart in phase. The sharp minimum in impedance which
occurs is useful in tuning applications. The sharpness of the minimum depends on the value
of R and is characterized by the "Q" of the circuit.
There are many applications for this circuit. They are used in
many different types of oscillator circuits. Another important application is for tuning, such
as in radio receivers or television sets, where they are used to select a narrow range of
frequencies from the ambient radio waves. In this role the circuit is often referred to as a
tuned circuit. An RLC circuit can be used as a band-pass filter, band-stop filter, low-pass
filter or high-pass filter. The tuning application, for instance, is an example of band-pass
filtering. The RLC filter is described as a second-order circuit, meaning that any voltage or
current in the circuit can be described by a second-order differential equation in circuit
analysis.
PARALLEL RESONANT CIRCUIT:.
In many ways a parallel resonance circuit is exactly the same as the series resonance
circuit we looked at in the previous tutorial. Both are 3-element networks that contain two
reactive components making them a second-order circuit, both are influenced by variations
in the supply frequency and both have a frequency point where their two reactive
components cancel each other out influencing the characteristics of the circuit. Both circuits
have a resonant frequency point.
The difference this time however, is that a parallel resonance circuit is influenced by the
currents flowing through each parallel branch within the parallel LC tank circuit. A tank
circuit is a parallel combination of L and C that is used in filter networks to either select or
reject AC frequencies. Consider the parallel RLC circuit below.
SEMICONDUCTORS
Insulator, semiconductor, conductor

Solid-state materials can be classified into three groups: insulators, semiconductors and
conductors. Insulators are materials having an electrical conductivity (like
diamond: 10-14S/cm); semiconductors have a conductivity (for
silicon it can range from 10-5S/cm to 103S/cm); at last conductors are materials with high
conductivities : (like silver: 106S/cm.)
The electrical properties of a given material depend on the electronic populations of the
different allowed bands. Electrical conduction is the result of electron motion within each
band. When an electric field is applied to the material, electrons start to move in the
direction opposed to the direction of the electric field. An empty energy band (in which there
is no free electron) does not of course participate in the formation of an electric current. It
is also the case for a fully occupied band. Indeed, an electron can move provided that,
whenever it leaves its site, it can find some free space elsewhere (another available site
within its energy band, called a hole), where it can go. A material with fully occupied or
empty energy bands is then an insulator. This is the case when the gap energy exceeds
~9eV, because for such gaps, the thermal energy at 300K (~25 meV) is clearly insufficient
to allow electrons from the valence band to be promoted to the conduction band. In this
case the valence band (and all bands of lower energy) is fully occupied, and the conduction
band is empty.
Figure 2 : Representation of energy bands

A semiconductor is primarily an insulator at 0K. However, since the energy gap is lower
compared to insulators (~1eV), the valence band is slightly thermally populated at room
temperature, whereas the conduction band is slightly depopulated. Since electrical
conduction is directly connected to the number of electrons in the almost empty
conduction band and to the number of holes in the almost fully occupied valence band, it
can be expected that the electrical conductivity of such an intrinsic semiconductor will be
very small.
For a conductor, conduction bands and valence bands are not separated and there is
therefore no energy gap. The conduction band is then partially occupied (even at low
temperatures), resulting in a high electrical conductivity.
N Type Semiconductors:
To increase the number of conduction band electrons in intrinsic silicon,
N Type Semi Conductor
pentavalent impurity atoms are aded. These are atoms with five valence electrons such as
arsenic (As), Phosphorus (P) , Bismuth (B) , and Antimony (Sb).
Each pentavalent atom forms covalent bonds with four adjacent silicon atoms. Four of the
Phosphorus atomss valence electrons are used to form the covalent bonds with silicon
atoms, leaving one extra electron. This extra electron becomes a conduction electron
because ti is not attached to any atom. Because the pentavalent atom gives up an electron,
it is often called a donor atom. The number of conduction electrons can be carefully
controlled by the number of impurity atoms added to the silicon. A conduction electron
created by this doping process does not leave a hole in the valence band because it is in
excess of the number required to fill the valence band. While studying about semiconductors
a term which we should keep in mind is majority and minority carriers. So, before we start p
type materials, first look at a glance of Majority and Minority Carriers
P Type Semiconductor:
P Type Semiconductor
To get P type semiconductors we increase the number of holes in intrinsic silicon, trivalent
impurity atoms are added. These are those atoms with three valence electrons such as
Boron (B), indium (in), and gallium (Ga). Each trivalent atom forms covalent bonds with
four adjacent silicon atoms. All three of the boron atoms valence electrons are used in the
covalent bonds; and, since four electrons are required, a hole results when each trivalent
atom is added. Because the trivalent atom can taken an electron, it is often referred to as
an acceptor tom. The number of holes can be carefully controlled by the number of
trivalent impurity atoms added to the silicon. A hole created by this doping process in not
accompanied by a conduction free electron
pn junction
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search

A pn junction. The circuit symbol is shown: the triangle corresponds to the p side.
See also: p HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P%E2%80%93n_diode" HYPERLINK

"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P%E2%80%93n_diode" HYPERLINK
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P%E2%80%93n_diode"HYPERLINK
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P%E2%80%93n_diode"HYPERLINK
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P%E2%80%93n_diode"n diode and Diode#Semiconductor
diodes
A pn junction is a boundary or interface between two types of semiconductor material, p-

type and n-type, inside a single crystal of semiconductor. It is created by doping, for
example by ion implantation, diffusion of dopants, or by epitaxy (growing a layer of crystal
doped with one type of dopant on top of a layer of crystal doped with another type of
dopant). If two separate pieces of material were used, this would introduce a grain
boundary between the semiconductors that severely inhibits its utility by scattering the
electrons and holes.[citation needed]
pn junctions are elementary "building blocks" of most semiconductor electronic devices
such as diodes, transistors, solar cells, LEDs, and integrated circuits; they are the active
sites where the electronic action of the device takes place. For example, a common type of
transistor, the bipolar junction transistor, consists of two pn junctions in series, in the form
npn or pnp.
The discovery of the pn junction is usually attributed to American physicist Russell Ohl of
Bell Laboratories.[1]
A Schottky junction is a special case of a pn junction, where metal serves the role of the p-
type semiconductor.
Metalsemiconductor junction
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search

In solid-state physics, a metalsemiconductor (MS) junction is a type of junction in
which a metal comes in close contact with a semiconductor material. It is the oldest
practical semiconductor device. MS junctions can either be rectifying or non-rectifying. The
rectifying metalsemiconductor junction forms a Schottky barrier, making a device known
as a Schottky diode, while the non-rectifying junction is called an ohmic contact.[1] (In
contrast, a rectifying semiconductorsemiconductor junction, the most common
semiconductor device today, is known as a p HYPERLINK
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P%E2%80%93n_junction" HYPERLINK
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P%E2%80%93n_junction"HYPERLINK
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P%E2%80%93n_junction"HYPERLINK
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P%E2%80%93n_junction"n junction
Zener Diode as Voltage Regulators

The function of a regulator is to provide a constant output voltage to a load connected in
parallel with it in spite of the ripples in the supply voltage or the variation in the load
current and the zener diode will continue to regulate the voltage until the diodes current
falls below the minimum IZ(min) value in the reverse breakdown region. It permits current to
flow in the forward direction as normal, but will also allow it to flow in the reverse direction
when the voltage is above a certain value - the breakdown voltage known as the Zener
voltage. The Zener diode specially made to have a reverse voltage breakdown at a specific
voltage. Its characteristics are otherwise very similar to common diodes. In breakdown the
voltage across the Zener diode is close to constant over a wide range of currents thus
making it useful as a shunt voltage regulator.
The purpose of a voltage regulator is to maintain a constant voltage across a load

regardless of variations in the applied input voltage and variations in the load current. A
typical Zener diode shunt regulator is shown in Figure 3. The resistor is selected so that
when the input voltage is at VIN(min) and the load current is at IL(max) that the current through
the Zener diode is at least Iz(min). Then for all other combinations of input voltage and load
current the Zener diode conducts the excess current thus maintaining a constant voltage
across the load. The Zener conducts the least current when the load current is the highest
and it conducts the most current when the load current is the lowest.
Zener diode shunt regulator
Light-emitting diode-
Electronic symbol
Pin configuration anode and cathode
A light-emitting diode (LED) is a semiconductor light source.[4] LEDs are used as indicator
lamps in many devices and are increasingly used for other lighting. Appearing as practical
electronic components in 1962,[5] early LEDs emitted low-intensity red light, but modern
versions are available across the visible, ultraviolet, and infrared wavelengths, with very
high brightness.
When a light-emitting diode is forward-biased (switched on), electrons are able to
recombine with electron holes within the device, releasing energy in the form of photons.
This effect is called electroluminescence and the color of the light (corresponding to the
energy of the photon) is determined by the energy gap of the semiconductor. An LED is
often small in area (less than 1 mm2), and integrated optical components may be used to
shape its radiation pattern.[6] LEDs present many advantages over incandescent light
sources including lower energy consumption, longer lifetime, improved physical robustness,
smaller size, and faster switching. LEDs powerful enough for room lighting are relatively
expensive and require more precise current and heat management than compact
fluorescent lamp sources of comparable output.
Light-emitting diodes are used in applications as diverse as aviation lighting, automotive
lighting, advertising, general lighting, and traffic signals. LEDs have allowed new text, video
displays, and sensors to be developed, while their high switching rates are also useful in
advanced communications technology. Infrared LEDs are also used in the remote control
units of many commercial products including televisions, DVD players and other domestic
appliances
PHOTO DIDE:
Symbol for photodiode.
A photodiode is a type of photodetector capable of converting light into either current or

voltage, depending upon the mode of operation.[1] The common, traditional solar cell used
to generate electric solar power is a large area photodiode.
Photodiodes are similar to regular semiconductor diodes except that they may be either
exposed (to detect vacuum UV or X-rays) or packaged with a window or optical fiber
connection to allow light to reach the sensitive part of the device. Many diodes designed for
use specifically as a photodiode use a PIN junction rather than a p-n junction, to increase
the speed of response. A photodiode is designed to operate in reverse bias.[2]
SOLAR CELL:
A solar cell (also called a photovoltaic cell) is an electrical device that converts the
energy of light directly into electricity by the photovoltaic effect. It is a form of
photoelectric cell (in that its electrical characteristicse.g. current, voltage, or
resistancevary when light is incident upon it) which, when exposed to light, can generate
and support an electric current without being attached to any external voltage source.
Unit V
Transistors
Definition- A transistor is a semiconductor device used to amplify and switch electronic

signals and electrical power. It is composed of semiconductor material with at least three
terminals for connection to an external circuit. A voltage or current applied to one pair of
the transistor's terminals changes the current flowing through another pair of terminals.
Because the controlled (output) power can be higher than the controlling (input) power, a
transistor can amplify a signal. Today, some transistors are packaged individually, but many
more are found embedded in integrated circuits.
The transistor is the fundamental building block of modern electronic devices, and is
ubiquitous in modern electronic systems. Following its development in the early 1950s the
transistor revolutionized the field of electronics, and paved the way for smaller and cheaper
radios, calculators, and computers, among other things.
Current in bipolar junction transistor-

"Junction transistor" redirects here. For other uses, see Junction transistor
(disambiguation).
BJT redirects here. For the Japanese language proficiency test, see Business Japanese
Proficiency Test.
PNP
NPN
Schematic symbols for

PNP- and NPN-type
BJTs.
A bipolar junction transistor (BJT or bipolar transistor) is a type of transistor that
relies on the contact of two types of semiconductor for its operation. BJTs can be used as
amplifiers, switches, or in oscillators. BJTs can be found either as individual discrete
components, or in large numbers as parts of integrated circuits.
Bipolar transistors are so named because their operation involves both electrons and holes.
These two kinds of charge carriers are characteristic of the two kinds of doped
semiconductor material. In contrast, unipolar transistors such as the field-effect transistors
have only one kind of charge carrier.
Charge flow in a BJT is due to bidirectional diffusion of charge carriers across a junction
between two regions of different charge concentrations. The regions of a BJT are called
emitter, collector, and base. A discrete transistor has three leads for connection to these
regions. By design, most of the BJT collector current is due to the flow of charges injected
from a high-concentration emitter into the base where there are minority carriers that
diffuse toward the collector, and so BJTs are classified as minority-carrier devices
Amplifier:
gain indecibels,Frequency vs gain graph- In electronics, gain is a measure of the ability
of a circuit (often an amplifier) to increase the power or amplitude of a signal from the input
to the output, by adding energy to the signal converted from some power supply. It is
usually defined as the mean ratio of the signal output of a system to the signal input of the
same system. It may also be defined on a logarithmic scale, in terms of the decimal
logarithm of the same ratio ("dB gain"). A gain greater than one (zero dB), that is,
amplification, is the defining property of an active component or circuit, while a passive
circuit will have a gain of less than one.
Thus, the term gain on its own is ambiguous. For example, "a gain of five" may imply that
either the voltage, current or the power is increased by a factor of five, although most often
this will mean a voltage gain of five for audio and general purpose amplifiers, especially
operational amplifiers, but a power gain for radio frequency amplifiers. Furthermore, the
term gain is also applied in systems such as sensors where the input and output have
different units; in such cases the gain units must be specified, as in "5 microvolts per
photon" for the responsivity of a photosensor. The "gain" of a bipolar transistor normally
refers to forward current transfer ratio, either hFE ("Beta", the static ratio of Ic divided by Ib
at some operating point), or sometimes hfe (the small-signal current gain, the slope of the
graph of Ic against Ib at a point).
The term has slightly different meanings in two other fields. In antenna design, antenna
gain is the ratio of power received by a directional antenna to power received by an
isotropic antenna. In laser physics, gain may refer to the increment of power along the
beam propagation direction in a gain medium, and its dimension is m1 (inverse meter) or
1/meter
VOLTAGE GAIN:
The product of the stage gains will be the overall voltage gain of an amplifier with many
stages.Thus the overall gain is the sum of gain and phase shift by each of the stage.
CURRENT GAIN:
The current gain is not obtained as the product of stage gain because in case of current,the
output of one stage is not the input for the other stage.
cascading amplifiers- cascade amplifier is any amplifier constructed from a series of

amplifiers, where each amplifier sends its output to the input of the next amplifier in a daisy
chain. [1]
A cascade is basically a differential amplifier with one input grounded and the side with the
real input has no load. It can also be seen as a common collector (emitter follower) followed
by a common base. Since the input side has no load there is no gain on that side and the
Miller effect does not come into play. In addition, Vds or Vce stays fairly constant which
reduces distortion. Its advantage over the cascade is that it does not require as much
voltage headroom. Its disadvantage is since it has two legs it requires twice as much
current as a cascade for similar performance.
The complication in calculating the gain of cascaded stages is the non-ideal coupling
between stages due to loading. Two cascaded common emitter stages are shown below.
Because the input resistance of the second stage forms a voltage divider with the output
resistance of the first stage, the total gain is not the product of the individual (separated)
stages.
Cascaded amplifier,a simplified diagram

The total voltage gain can be calculated in either of two ways. First way: the gain of the first
stage is calculated including the loading of Ri2. Then the second-stage gain is calculated
from the output of the first stage. Because the loading (output divider) was accounted for in
the first-stage gain, the second-stage gain input quantity is the Q2 base voltage, VB2 = Vo1.
Second way: the first-stage gain is found by disconnecting the input of the second stage,
thereby eliminating output loading. Then the Thevenin-equivalent output of the first stage is
connected to the input of the second stage and its gain is calculated, including the input
divider formed by the first-stage output resistance and second-stage input resistance. In
this case, the first-stage gain output quantity is the Thevenin-equivalent voltage, not the
actual collector voltage of the stage-connected amplifier. The second way includes
interstage loading as an input divider in the gain of the second stage while the first way
includes it as an output divider in the gain of the first stage.
By cascading a CE stage followed by an emitter-follower (CC) stage, a good voltage
amplifier results. The CE input resistance is high and CC output resistance is low. The CC
contributes no increase in voltage gain but provides a near voltage-source (low resistance)
output so that the gain is nearly independent of load resistance. The high input resistance of
the CE stage makes the input voltage nearly independent of input-source resistance.
Multiple CE stages can be cascaded and CC stages inserted between them to reduce
attenuation due to inter-stage loading.
Because of the Friis formulas for noise, most designers put the amplifier with the biggest
gain first in the series.
CASCADING OF CE STAGES[2]
CASCADING AMPLIFIERS are used to cascade CE,CB,CC stages.cascading of stages are
mainly used to build up a signal's input voltage and current to a usable level.
Among all the configurations CE has the highest power gain and thus it is more popularly
used for cascading.for matching purpose,mixture of the three common types are mostly
preferred.
for example: common collector has a high input impedance so it can be used as the first
stage.also it has a low output impedance,due to its low output impedance it can be used for
last stage so that it can drive a low resistance load.
Oscillator:
Brief idea about oscillators of different frequency range-
A miniature 16 MHz quartz crystal enclosed in a hermetically sealed HC-49/S package, used
as the resonator in a crystal oscillator.
Quartz crystal resonator (left) and quartz crystal oscillator (right)
A crystal oscillator is an electronic oscillator circuit that uses the mechanical resonance of
a vibrating crystal of piezoelectric material to create an electrical signal with a very precise
frequency.[1] HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crystal_oscillator" HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crystal_oscillator"
HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crystal_oscillator"HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crystal_oscillator" HYPERLINK
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crystal_oscillator" HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crystal_oscillator" HYPERLINK
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"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crystal_oscillator" HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crystal_oscillator"
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crystal_oscillator" HYPERLINK
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crystal_oscillator"HYPERLINK
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crystal_oscillator"[2] HYPERLINK
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crystal_oscillator"[3] This frequency is commonly used to
keep track of time (as in quartz wristwatches), to provide a stable clock signal for digital
integrated circuits, and to stabilize frequencies for radio transmitters and receivers. The
most common type of piezoelectric resonator used is the quartz crystal, so oscillator circuits
incorporating them became known as crystal oscillators,[1] but other piezoelectric materials
including polycrystalline ceramics are used in similar circuits.
Quartz crystals are manufactured for frequencies from a few tens of kilohertz to tens of
megahertz. More than two billion crystals are manufactured annually. Most are used for
consumer devices such as wristwatches, clocks, radios, computers, and cellphones. Quartz
crystals are also found inside test and measurement equipment, such as counters, signal
generators, and oscilloscopes.
Different types of wave forms-

Sine, square, triangle, and sawtooth waveforms
A sine, square, and sawtooth wave at 440 Hz

A waveform is the shape and form of a signal such as a wave moving in a physical medium
or an abstract representation.
In many cases the medium in which the wave is being propagated does not permit a direct
visual image of the form. In these cases, the term 'waveform' refers to the shape of a graph
of thay device|screen]]. By extension, the term 'waveform' also describes the shape of the
graph of any varying quantity against time.
Brief introduction to Integrated circuits with scale of integration-

This article may be too technical for most readers to
understand. Please help improve this article to make it
understandable to non-experts, without removing the technical
details. The talk page may contain suggestions.
Wide angle shot of the memory microchip shown in detail below. The microchips have a
transparent window, showing the integrated circuit inside. The window allows the memory
contents of the chip to be erased, by exposure to strong ultraviolet light in an eraser device.
Integrated circuit from an EPROM memory microchip showing the memory blocks, the
supporting circuitry and the fine silver wires which connect the integrated circuit die to the
legs of the packaging.
An integrated circuit or monolithic integrated circuit (also referred to as an IC, a chip,
or a microchip) is a set of electronic circuits on one small plate ("chip") of semiconductor
material, normally silicon. This can be made much smaller than a discrete circuit made from
independent components.
Integrated circuits are used in virtually all electronic equipment today and have
revolutionized the world of electronics. Computers, mobile phones, and other digital home
HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Home_appliances" HYPERLINK
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"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Home_appliances"appliances are now inextricable parts of the
structure of modern societies, made possible by the low cost of producing integrated
circuits.
ICs can be made very compact, having up to several billion transistors and other electronic
components in an area the size of a fingernail. The width of each conducting line in a circuit
(the line width) can be made smaller and smaller as the technology advances, in 2008 it
dropped below 100 nanometers and in 2013 it is expected to be in the teens of nanometers.
Use of MOS and CMOS Transistors-

MOS Transistors-
We now turn our attention to logic functions constructed from MOS transistors, the
dominant technology of today.
Voltage-Controlled Switches-
The operation of an MOS transistor is considerably easier to explain than that of a bipolar
transistor. The voltage-controlled switches introduced in Section 1.3.1 correspond directly to
MOS transistors. In this section, we describe the operation of MOS transistors and how they
can be used to implement logic gates.
An MOS transistor is nothing more than a voltage-controlled switch. It has three connection
points: a source, a drain, and a gate (a transistor gate bears no resemblance to a logic
gate, an unfortunately ambiguous use of the term).
A cross section of the metal-oxide-silicon sandwich that forms the transistor is shown in
Figure B.12.
The bottommost material layer is made of silicon, an insulating oxide layer sits on top of it,
and the topmost layer is the metal gate. (More modern integrated circuit processes have
replaced the metal layer with a material called polycrystalline silicon, but the older "metal
gate" terminology still holds.) The source and drain regions contain silicon material with a
large excess of electrons separated by the slightly positively charged bulk silicon. The
source and drain are called diffusion regions because of the chemical process used to create
them. Negatively charged ions (atoms with extra valence electrons) are placed onto the
silicon surface and are diffused into the surface by heating the silicon material. The
materials of the source and drain are identical. By convention, the source is the electrical
node with the lower of the two voltage potentials at either end of the channel.
The electrical behavior of the transistor is generally as follows. When a positive voltage is
placed on the gate, electrons from the silicon bulk are attracted to the transistor channel,
an initially nonconducting region between the source and drain very close to the silicon
surface. When the gate voltage becomes sufficiently positively charged, enough electrons
are pulled into the channel from the bulk to establish a charged path between the source
and the drain. Electrons flow across the transistor channel, and the voltage-controlled
switch is conducting. If a 0 or very small voltage is placed on the gate, no electrons (or at
least very few) are attracted to the channel. The source and drain are disconnected, no
current flows across the channel, and the switch is not conducting.
CMOS Transmission Gate

Any gate logic function can be implemented as a pull-up network of pMOS transistors and a
pull-down network of nMOS transistors. In fact, this is the standard way to construct digital
logic from CMOS transistors. Yet there is an even richer set of things you can do with
switching networks. The key to constructing these networks is a special circuit structure
called the transmission gate. We examine it next.
For electrical reasons that are beyond the scope of this discussion, it turns out that pMOS
transistors are great at transmitting a logic 1 voltage without signal loss, but the same
cannot be said about logic 0 voltages. Having 0 V at one side of a conducting pMOS
transistor yields a voltage at the other side somewhat higher than 0 V. NMOS transistors
have a -comp-lementary problem: they are great at passing logic 0 but awful at passing
logic 1. In the circuits we have looked at so far, pMOS transistors in the pull-up network
passed only ones while the nMOS transistors in the pull-down network passed only zeros.
So everything works out fine.
As you may guess, the best possible transmission behavior can be -obtained by combining
both kinds of transistors. This yields the CMOS transmission gate, which is shown in Figure
B.18.
The pMOS and nMOS transistors are connected in parallel and are controlled by
complementary control signals in the figure. When signal A is asserted, the transmission
gate conducts a logic 0 or 1 equally well. Signal A at a logic 1 makes the nMOS transistor
conduct, while at a logic 0 makes the parallel pMOS transistor conduct as well. When A is
unasserted, the gate no longer conducts. A at logic 0 breaks the connection through the
nMOS transistor, while at 1 has the same effect on the pMOS transistor. In circuit
diagrams, the transmission gate is often denoted by a "butterfly" or "bow tie" symbol, as
shown in the figure.
Section 4.2 covers how to use CMOS transmission gates to implement digital subsystems
with many fewer transistors than would be the case if traditional gates were used.
Lasers
Basic principle-
United States Air Force laser experiment
Red (635 nm), green (532 nm), and blue-violet (445 nm) lasers
A laser is a device that emits light (electromagnetic radiation) through a process of optical
amplification based on the stimulated emission of photons. The term "laser" originated as an
acronym for Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation.[1] HYPERLINK
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laser" HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laser" HYPERLINK
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laser"HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laser" HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laser"
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"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laser"
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laser" HYPERLINK
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laser"HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laser"
HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laser" HYPERLINK
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laser" HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laser"[2] The
emitted laser light is notable for its high degree of spatial and temporal coherence.
Spatial coherence is typically expressed through the output being a narrow beam which is
diffraction-limited, often a so-called "pencil beam." Laser beams can be focused to very tiny
spots, achieving a very high irradiance, or they can be launched into beams of very low
divergence in order to concentrate their power at a large distance.
Temporal (or longitudinal) coherence implies a polarized wave at a single frequency whose
phase is correlated over a relatively large distance (the coherence length) along the
beam.[3] A beam produced by a thermal or other incoherent light source has an
instantaneous amplitude and phase which vary randomly with respect to time and position,
and thus a very short coherence length.
Most so-called "single wavelength" lasers actually produce radiation in several modes having
slightly different frequencies (wavelengths), often not in a single polarization. And although
temporal coherence implies monochromaticity, there are even lasers that emit a broad
spectrum of light, or emit different wavelengths of light simultaneously. There are some
lasers which are not single spatial mode and consequently their light beams diverge more
than required by the diffraction limit. However all such devices are classified as "lasers"
based on their method of producing that light: stimulated emission. Lasers are employed in
applications where light of the required spatial or temporal coherence could not be produced
using simpler technologies
He-Ne and semiconductor lasers- A heliumneon laser or HeNe laser, is a type of
gas laser whose gain medium consists of a mixture of helium and neon inside of a small
bore capillary tube, usually excited by a DC electrical discharge.
Contents
1 HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helium%E2%80%93neon_laser"
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of HeNe laser development
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es
History of HeNe laser development

The first HeNe laser emitted at 1.15 m in the infrared and was the first gas laser. However
a laser that operated at visible wavelengths was much more in demand, and a number of
other neon transitions were investigated to identify ones in which a population inversion can
be achieved. The 633 nm line was found to have the highest gain in the visible spectrum,
making this the wavelength of choice for most HeNe lasers. However other visible as well as
infrared lasing wavelengths are possible, and by using mirror coatings with their peak
reflectance at these other wavelengths, HeNe lasers could be engineered to employ those
transitions; this includes visible lasers appearing red, orange, yellow, and green. [1] Lasing
transitions are known from over 100 m in the far infrared to 540 nm in the visible. Since
visible transitions at wavelengths other than 633 nm have somewhat lower gain, these
lasers generally have lower output powers and are more costly. The 3.39 m transition has
a very high gain but is prevented from lasing in an ordinary HeNe laser (of a different
intended wavelength) since the cavity and mirrors are lossy at that wavelength. However in
high power HeNe lasers having a particularly long cavity, superluminescence at 3.39 m can
become a nuisance, robbing power from the lasing medium, often requiring additional
suppression. The best known and most widely used HeNe laser operates at a wavelength of
632.8 nm in the red part of the visible spectrum. It was developed at Bell Telephone
Laboratories in 1962,[2] HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helium%E2%80%93neon_laser" HYPERLINK
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helium%E2%80%93neon_laser"HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helium%E2%80%93neon_laser"
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"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helium%E2%80%93neon_laser"[3] 18 months after the
pioneering demonstration at the same laboratory of the first continuous infrared HeNe gas
laser in December 1960.[4]
Construction and operation

The gain medium of the laser, as suggested by its name, is a mixture of helium and neon
gases, in approximately a 10:1 ratio, contained at low pressure in a glass envelope. The gas
mixture is mostly helium, so that helium atoms can be excited. The excited helium atoms
collide with neon atoms, exciting some of them to the state that radiates 632.8 nm. Without
helium, the neon atoms would be excited mostly to lower excited states responsible for non-
laser lines. A neon laser with no helium can be constructed but it is much more difficult
without this means of energy coupling. Therefore, a HeNe laser that has lost enough of its
helium (e.g., due to diffusion through the seals or glass) will most likely not lase at all since
the pumping efficiency will be too low.[5] The energy or pump source of the laser is provided
by a high voltage electrical discharge passed through the gas between electrodes (anode
and cathode) within the tube. A DC current of 3 to 20 mA is typically required for CW
operation. The optical cavity of the laser usually consists of two concave mirrors or one
plane and one concave mirror, one having very high (typically 99.9%) reflectance and the
output coupler mirror allowing approximately 1% transmission.
Schematic diagram of a heliumneon laser
Commercial HeNe lasers are relatively small devices, among gas lasers, having cavity
lengths usually ranging from 15 cm to 50 cm (but sometimes up to about 1 meter to
achieve the highest powers), and optical output power levels ranging from 0.5 to 50 mW.
The red HeNe laser wavelength of 633 nm has an actual vacuum wavelength of
632.991 nm, or about 632.816 nm in air. The wavelength of the lasing modes lie within
about 0.001 nm above or below this value, and the wavelengths of those modes shift within
this range due to thermal expansion and contraction of the cavity. Frequency-stabilized
versions enable the wavelength of a single mode to be specified to within 1 part in 10 8 by
the technique of comparing the powers of two longitudinal modes in opposite
polarizations.[6] Absolute stabilization of the laser's frequency (or wavelength) as fine as 2.5
parts in 1011 can be obtained through use of an iodine absorption cell.[7]
Energy level diagram of a HeNe laser
The mechanism producing population inversion and light amplification in a HeNe laser
plasma [8] originates with inelastic collision of energetic electrons with ground state helium
atoms in the gas mixture. As shown in the accompanying energy level diagram, these
collisions excite helium atoms from the ground state to higher energy excited states, among
them the 23S1 and 21S0 long-lived metastable states. Because of a fortuitous near
coincidence between the energy levels of the two He metastable states, and the 3s 2 and 2s2
(Paschen notation[9]) levels of neon, collisions between these helium metastable atoms and
ground state neon atoms results in a selective and efficient transfer of excitation energy
from the helium to neon. This excitation energy transfer process is given by the reaction
equations:
He*(23S1) + Ne1S0 He(1S0) + Ne*2s2 + E
and
He*(21S) + Ne1S0 + E He(1S0) + Ne*3s2
where (*) represents an excited state, and E is the small energy difference between the
energy states of the two atoms, of the order of 0.05 eV or 387 cm1, which is supplied by
kinetic energy. Excitation energy transfer increases the population of the neon 2s 2 and 3s2
levels manyfold. When the population of these two upper levels exceeds that of the
corresponding lower level neon state, 2p 4 to which they are optically connected, population
inversion is present. The medium becomes capable of amplifying light in a narrow band at
1.15 m (corresponding to the 2s2 to 2p4 transition) and in a narrow band at 632.8 nm
(corresponding to the 3s2 to 2p4 transition at 632.8 nm). The 2p4 level is efficiently emptied
by fast radiative decay to the 1s state, eventually reaching the ground state.
The remaining step in utilizing optical amplification to create an optical oscillator is to place
highly reflecting mirrors at each end of the amplifying medium so that a wave in a particular
spatial mode will reflect back upon itself, gaining more power in each pass than is lost due
to transmission through the mirrors and diffraction. When these conditions are met for one
or more longitudinal modes then radiation in those modes will rapidly build up until gain
saturation occurs, resulting in a stable continuous laser beam output through the front
(typically 99% reflecting) mirror.
Spectrum of a helium neon laser illustrating its very high spectral purity (limited by the
measuring apparatus). The .002 nm bandwidth of the lasing medium is well over 10,000
times narrower than the spectral width of a light-emitting diode (whose spectrum is shown
here for comparison), with the bandwidth of a single longitudinal mode being much
narrower still.
The gain bandwidth of the HeNe laser is dominated by Doppler broadening rather than
pressure broadening due to the low gas pressure, and is thus quite narrow: only about
1.5 GHz full width for the 633 nm transition.[6] HYPERLINK
HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helium%E2%80%93neon_laser"HYPERLINK

"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helium%E2%80%93neon_laser"[10] With cavities having
typical lengths of 15 cm to 50 cm, this allows about 2 to 8 longitudinal modes to oscillate
simultaneously (however single longitudinal mode units are available for special
applications). The visible output of the red HeNe laser, long coherence length, and its
excellent spatial quality, makes this laser a useful source for holography and as a
wavelength reference for spectroscopy. A stabilized HeNe laser is also one of the benchmark
systems for the definition of the meter.[7]
Prior to the invention of cheap, abundant diode lasers, red HeNe lasers were widely used in
barcode scanners at supermarket checkout counters. Laser gyroscopes have employed
HeNe lasers operating at 0.633 m in a ring laser configuration. HeNe lasers are generally
present in educational and research optical laboratories.
basic concepts of communication using optical fibers-

An optical fiber junction box. The yellow cables are single mode fibers; the orange and blue
cables are multi-mode fibers: 62.5/125 m OM2 and 50/125 m OM3 fibers respectively.
Fiber-optic communication is a method of transmitting information from one place to
another by sending pulses of light through an optical fiber. The light forms an
electromagnetic carrier wave that is modulated to carry information. First developed in the
1970s, fiber-optic communication systems have revolutionized the telecommunications
industry and have played a major role in the advent of the Information Age. Because of its
advantages over electrical transmission, optical fibers have largely replaced copper wire
communications in core networks in the developed world.
The process of communicating using fiber-optics involves the following basic steps: Creating
the optical signal involving the use of a transmitter, relaying the signal along the fiber,
ensuring that the signal does not become too distorted or weak, receiving the optical signal,
and converting it into an electrical signal.
Brief idea of working and uses of Cathode ray Oscilloscope-

INTRODUCTION: The cathode-ray oscilloscope (CRO) is a common laboratory instrument
that provides accurate time and aplitude measurements of voltage signals over a wide
range of frequencies. Its reliability, stability, and ease of operation make it suitable as a
general purpose laboratory instrument. The heart of the CRO is a cathode-ray tube shown
schematically in Fig. 1.
The cathode ray is a beam of electrons which are emitted by the heated cathode
(negative electrode) and accelerated toward the fluorescent screen. The assembly of the
cathode, intensity grid, focus grid, and accelerating anode (positive electrode) is called an
electron gun. Its purpose is to generate the electron beam and control its intensity and
focus. Between the electron gun and the fluorescent screen are two pair of metal plates -
one oriented to provide horizontal deflection of the beam and one pair oriented ot give
vertical deflection to the beam. These plates are thus referred to as the horizontal and
vertical deflection plates. The combination of these two deflections allows the beam to reach
any portion of the fluorescent screen. Wherever the electron beam hits the screen, the
phosphor is excited and light is emitted from that point. This coversion of electron energy
into light allows us to write with points or lines of light on an otherwise darkened screen.
In the most common use of the oscilloscope the signal to be studied is first amplified
and then applied to the vertical (deflection) plates to deflect the beam vertically and at the
same time a voltage that increases linearly with time is applied to the horizontal (deflection)
plates thus causing the beam to be deflected horizontally at a uniform (constant> rate. The
signal applied to the verical plates is thus displayed on the screen as a function of time. The
horizontal axis serves as a uniform time scale.
The linear deflection or sweep of the beam horizontally is accomplished by use of a
sweep generator that is incorporated in the oscilloscope circuitry. The voltage output of such
a generator is that of a sawtooth wave as shown in Fig. 2. Application of one cycle of this
voltage difference, which increases linearly with time, to the horizontal plates causes the
beam to be deflected linearly with time across the tube face. When the voltage suddenly
falls to zero, as at points (a) (b) (c), etc...., the end of each sweep - the beam flies back to
its initial position. The horizontal deflection of the beam is repeated periodically, the
frequency of this periodicity is adjustable by external controls.
To obtain steady traces on the tube face, an internal number of cycles of the
unknown signal that is applied to the vertical plates must be associated with each cycle of
the sweep generator. Thus, with such a matching of synchronization of the two deflections,
the pattern on the tube face repeats itself and hence appears to remain stationary. The
persistance of vision in the human eye and of the glow of the fluorescent screen aids in
producing a stationary pattern. In addition, the electron beam is cut off (blanked) during
flyback so that the retrace sweep is not observed.
CRO Operation: A simplified block diagram of a typical oscilloscope is shown in Fig. 3. In
general, the instrument is operated in the following manner. The signal to be displayed is
amplified by the vertical amplifier and applied to the verical deflection plates of the CRT. A
portion of the signal in the vertical amplifier is applied to the sweep trigger as a triggering
signal. The sweep trigger then generates a pulse coincident with a selected point in the
cycle of the triggering signal. This pulse turns on the sweep generator, initiating the
sawtooth wave form.

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THE KEY

(Concept, fundamentals, logic, computer, research)

It is hoped that students will find the book very helpful.

Special Thanks to Pratik Badala [PK]"

Website (Block) :- www.allnotesonbca.webs.com

BCA 104 Basic Physics

BCA 104 Basic Physics

engineering and technology- Engineering & Technology (E&T) is a science,

Importance of Mathematics and Physics in ICT- The School of Computer Science,

Base units and derived units

The SI system of units.

Base units of the SI system of units

Some derived units in the SI system

Measurement of length using vernier caliper and screw gauge:

scalar and vector product of two vector-

If is perpendicular to , the scalar product vanishes.

The range of human hearing in the young is approximately 20 Hz to 20 kHzthe higher

wavelength and energy-

associated with electromagnetic radiation-

The electromagnetic waves that compose electromagnetic radiation can be imagined as a

formation of image by lens-

Image formation by a converging lens.

image focus of the lens.

Image formation by a diverging lens.

At Real, zero size

Real, inverted, diminished

Real, inverted, same size

Real, inverted, magnified

Between and Virtual, upright, magnified

Position of object Position of image Character of image

Between and Virtual, upright, diminished

image focus is located in front of the lens.

The lens of your eye is a

Sensitivity of eye to electromagnetic radiation-

This defect arises because either

(i) the focal length of the eyelens is too great, or

Cause and cure:

k= constant of charge distribution

Three types of charge distribution:

3 volume charge distribution: volume charge density p is defined as the charge

ELECTRIC FIELD INTENSITY:

EQUIPOTENTIAL SURFACE : Equipotential means equal potential, so any surface has

Unit of electric flux=m2(meter)2

ELECTRICAL CAPACITANCE: electric capacity is defined as the ability of the conductor

CAPACITOR ARE OF THREE TYPES

1.PARALLEL PLATE CAPACITOR:

It is most common type of capacitor. It consist of

Let A be a area of cross section of each plate such that d<<A.

Spherical capacitor is shown, which consist of two spherical

Let +q charge be given to A, it distributes uniformly along it

A cylindrical consists of two co-axial cylinders, out of two

Cylindrical capacitor is shown, which has two

Charge is given to A, charge q induces on the inner

In this combination, first plate of the first capacitor is

1/Cs = 1/C1 + 1/C2 + 1/C3 + . . . . + 1/Cn

Thus when a number of capacitors are connected in series,

Obviously, cs is less than the smallest capacitance in the

In a parallel combination potential difference across each capacitor

Thus, when a no. of capacitors are connected in parallel, then

Drift velocity is the velocity acquired by the electrons present in a

If v1 + v2 + v3 + . . . + vn are the random thermal

In normal condition of temperature & pressure if electric current is

Unit of resistant is (ohm)

ELECRICAL RESISTIVITY: basically resistance is the obstacle created by the atoms or