1 Introducing Argument

Aims
To explore the components of an argument.
To develop the participants knowledge and understanding of the language of
argument.

This session should develop participants understanding that argument is an essential

component of science. Participants are asked to identify salient evidence for many
common beliefs and then to construct an argument that relates that evidence to the
scientific idea. This exercise will illustrate that argument is a process of constructing
warrants (logical relationships) between data and a claim.

1 Timings

1.1 What is the evidence? 25 minutes

1.2 Argument in science 25 minutes
1.3 Constructing arguments 25 minutes

Resources
OHTs 1.1 1.3
Handouts 1.1 1.5
Blank paper
Pritt Stick
Scissors

IDEAS Project 1.1 Kings College London

1.1 What is the Evidence? 25 min

Aim
This session aims to show that much of the evidential base for belief in standard
scientific ideas is neither simple nor straightforward. This is done by asking participants
to explore what is the evidential basis of many of the standard beliefs in science. The
major cultural achievement of science has been to establish a body of hard-won
knowledge transforming our vision and understanding of the world around us. This has
been done by constructing arguments from a body of data and observations that
support innovative and creative theories about how the natural world behaves from
the idea that the period of a pendulum does not vary with amplitude to the idea that
we look like our parents because there is a chemically coded messenger in each of our
cells. Yet, the evidence and arguments for these beliefs are often under explored in
school science. This session provides an opportunity to demonstrate that this is so and
for exploring why the elaboration of the evidence is often an underplayed feature of
science.

Activity
Distribute Handout 1.1: What is the Evidence?

Explain that the purpose of this exercise is to examine how familiar we are with the
evidence for some common ideas that are taught in science education. In this exercise,
participants are asked to list for each statement, what is the scientific evidence and
argument(s) for believing in these ideas. For instance, a major piece of evidence for
believing in a spinning Earth is the time-lapse photograph that can be taken of the stars

IDEAS Project 1.2 Kings College London

by a camera pointed at the Pole Star. All of the stars appear to be going in circles
around the Pole Star. However, there is an argument that has to be made connecting
this data to the conclusion that this photograph shows that the Earth spins. This is that
there are two possible reasons why the stars appear to be going in circles, either the
camera fixed to the Earth is turning or all the stars are turning. This is the warrant that
links the data to the claim. Even then, the photograph by itself does not enable us to
decide unequivocally between the two.

In this exercise, other common ideas that are taught in KS3 will be examined for the
evidence and justification for such beliefs. Ask the participants to get into groups of 4
and first individually complete Handout 1.1. Then hold a plenary discussion about the
evidence that the group has generated.

This is the first of many exercises that will involve the participants in small group
discussion as a means of learning on the course. Each time such a technique is used,
draw attention to the importance of group work, and to the particular technique
that is being used.
Explain that some ideas might appeal to evidence that may not be in the realm of
everyday experience, and is not easy to access. Science often relies on evidence
obtained through use of technology.

Ask the participants if they can:

a) Provide any evidence to support the belief

b) Provide an argument which shows how the evidence is related to a claim.

The box on the right hand side should be used to provide summary answers/notes for
discussion later. A summary of the scientific evidence is:

Forces are pushes and There is no evidence for this as this is just a definition of
pulls what a force is.

Plants take in carbon The standard evidence that plants give off oxygen is to
dioxide and give out collect the gas given off by elodea in a jar when
oxygen during illuminated by light. The gas will then relight a glowing
photosynthesis splint showing it to be oxygen. The evidence that plants
take in carbon dioxide is hard to show in school science
and much more indirect. Normally, we conduct a starch
test on a leaf which has been exposed to light and one
that has not. By inference the absence of starch in the
covered leaf is used to argue that photosynthesis is a
process of taking in carbon dioxide to construct more
complex molecules.

Day and Night are The evidence for this is either a photograph taken with a
caused by a spinning long exposure of the pole star. This shows all the stars
Earth going round the pole star. Either all the stars are
rotating around the Pole Star or the ground on which
the camera sits is turning. The second argument is

IDEAS Project 1.3 Kings College London

 chosen as it is simpler. The classic evidence is the
Foucault Pendulum consisting of a massive bob on a
very long string supported by a frictionless pivot. During
the course of 24 hours, the plane of rotation moves
which can only be explained by the fact that the Earth
beneath it is turning.

Current is conserved in The normal means of arguing for this is to measure the
a simple circuit current before and after a bulb with an ammeter. Both
readings are identical.

Matter is conserved in The most common school science experiment here is

chemical reactions the burning of magnesium in air. Measuring the weight
after should produce a figure which is larger than the
original figure showing that magnesium oxide is a
combination of two elements whose matter has not
been destroyed by the chemical reactions in burning.

Living matters is made The crucial evidence here is direct observation with a
of cells microscope normally of onion cells.

Lithium, sodium, and The evidence here comes from the reactivity of these
potassium are similar metals with other substances. All three react with cold
elements water to produce hydrogen gas in a similar manner.

We live at the bottom The evidence here is that mercury is supported to a

of a sea of air height of 76 cm in a sealed tube and water to a height
of 10 metres. The only explanation is that there is a
column of air which is balancing the weight of
water/mercury.

Seasons are caused by The evidence here is a combination of factors. First we

the tilt of the Earths are not nearer to the Sun in summer as we are 150
axis million km away as opposed to 147 million km in winter.
Second, if the axis is tilted, it will change the angle of
incidence of the Suns rays from 66o in summer to 14o in
winter. This will increase the area over which the Suns
rays fall by a factor of 2.6 which will explain why it is so
much cooler in winter. This combination of observation
and model is the best explanation we have which is why
we believe it to be true.

Then hold a plenary discussion asking:

Was it easy or difficult to think of the evidence and argument?

What does this answer to whether it was difficult or not to think of the evidence
[normally that it is difficult] show about:

IDEAS Project 1.4 Kings College London

 Your knowledge?
The way in which science is taught?

What might be the value of using a more evidence-based approach?

Ask what any lack of familiarity with the evidence, or difficulty with the task, says about
the manner in which science is often taught. The answer is likely to be essentially that
much scientific knowledge is taught by assertion without presenting the evidence to
justify the beliefs. Given that the central defining feature of science is a commitment to
evidence as the basis of belief, it is to say the least that that evidence for belief forms
such a small part of school science.

IDEAS Project 1.5 Kings College London

1.2 Argument in Science 25 min

Aim
This activity is an opportunity to explore what is meant by the term argument in
science and why it is a significant feature of science. An important aim is to ensure that
the everyday meaning of the word argument is not the one that is being used in this
work.

Activity
Distribute Handout 1.2 which contains several different metaphors for peoples
perceptions of argument. This exercise is an opportunity for participants to reflect on
what they believe argument to be and to consider what the word might mean in the
context of science.

Explain that the purpose of this exercise is to explore how the participants think about
argument. All they have to do individually is put down in the Comments column,
whether they think each metaphor is appropriate.

Individual exercise (5 min): Ask participants to do the exercise by themselves. Tell

them to add any other ideas that they have in the last box.

Discussion in pairs (10 min): Then ask them to compare answers with one another
noting points of agreement and disagreement.

IDEAS Project 1.6 Kings College London

Then collect responses from group onto a copy of the handout (as an OHT or on the
whiteboard) OHT 1.1 an OHT of the handout.

Then ask the participants:

What is the common perception of argument? (argument as war).

What kind of problem does this pose for the introduction of the teaching of
argument in science?
Is the word argument a word that they associate with science?
Is it a word they use in their science teaching? If not, why not?

Explain that ideas and theories in science are based on interpreting data collected from
the real world and that the development of theories is not self-evident. Who for
instance would have ever believed that:

Plants get most of their food from the air.

We live at the bottom of a sea of air.
The Earth is a sphere.
The Earth goes round the Sun.
All matter is made of only 92 elements.
The period of swing of a pendulum is independent of amplitude.

In short, that all of these beliefs that we now hold were the product of producing
models of the world as it might be and arguing that these models not only fitted better
with our existing observations but also predicted the behaviour of the world more
accurately than other ideas. At the time, none of these arguments were self-evident.

IDEAS Project 1.7 Kings College London

A Model of Science
Start by explaining that most children emerge from school with a model of school
science that is represented by OHT 1.2

Ask participants if this is too simplistic and why?

Then explain that the next exercise is an opportunity to construct a more elaborate
model of science. Give participants a sheet of paper. Ask them to take the words:

REAL WORLD
DATA
MODEL
PREDICTION

Write these words onto a piece of paper and then join the words using lines as links to
show what they think is the role of each of these in science. They can write additional
words on the lines as they think fit. Allow 5 minutes for this activity and another 5 min
to share with the other participants.

When they have completed this activity compare what they have produced with the
one on OHT 1.3. This comes from the contemporary philosopher Ron Giere1

1
Giere, R. (1991). Understanding Scientific Reasoning (3rd ed.). Fort Worth, TX: Holt, Rinehart and
Winston.

IDEAS Project 1.8 Kings College London

This OHT shows his model of science, and a set of interrelationships between models,
data, the real world and predictions.

Plenary Discussion

Ask:
Is this a satisfactory picture of science?
If not, what is missing?
Where might arguments occur?
What kinds of arguments might these be?
How does this differ from the model of science commonly developed by school
science?

The general view is that this model is a reasonable but inevitably incomplete model of
science. It does not, for instance, capture the major difference between those sciences
which are engaged with the reconstruction of the past such as geology, paleontology
and cosmology, and the hypothetical-deductive sciences of biochemistry, physics and
chemistry.

Essentially arguments in science are of several kinds:

There are arguments about what kind and the amount of data to collect. For
instance whether the data will be valid and how much is needed to make it reliable.

IDEAS Project 1.9 Kings College London

 There are arguments about whether a given model is a satisfactory interpretation of
the data. For instance, why the Bohr model of the atom is not a satisfactory model.
There are arguments about the interpretation of data. For instance, do the rising
levels of CO2 mean that the global temperatures will rise?

Finish by asking whether they now think that argument might be a central component of
science. Discuss what the implications are for teaching science.

Now explain that if argument is going to be explored further it is important to have

some sense of what the components of argument are the various bits that go to
make up the argument.

IDEAS Project 1.10 Kings College London

1.3 Constructing Arguments 25 min

Aim
In this exercise, participants are given an opportunity to construct arguments for
themselves.

Activity 1: Evaluating Evidence 15 min

The first exercise is an exercise to identify evidence that supports or refutes a claim. It
does not require the construction of any arguments. Rather its aim and function is to
provide individuals with an opportunity to see if they can make at least an implicit
association between data and the claim that it supports.

Distribute Handout 1.3

This sheet presents two competing theories for how we see. One of these, theory 1, is
a common misconception, and the other, theory 2, is the scientific world view. Beneath
are some pieces of evidence. These may support one of the theories, both of the
theories or neither.

Discussion in pairs (5 minutes): Ask participants to find a partner and to decide

for each piece of evidence whether it supports
Both theories
One theory
Neither Theory

IDEAS Project 1.11 Kings College London

Allow 5 minutes for the exercise. The scientific view of the evidence would be:

Light travels in straight lines Supports neither Theory

We can still see at night when there is Tends to support active vision (Theory
no sun 1) as ostensibly there is no light present.
The counter to this is that we cannot
see in a totally dark room.

Sunglasses are worn to protect our eyes Supports Theory 2 as why would we
wear glasses to stop something coming
out of our eyes if whatever was coming
out was necessary for vision.

If there is no light we cannot see a thing Supports Theory 2 because if there is

no light scattering off objects we would
not be able to see.

We stare at people, look daggers and All support the notion that vision is
catch peoples eye active i.e. Theory 1.

At the end, if time permits, ask what might be the difficulties of using such an exercise in
the classroom. The common concern that teachers have is that undertaking such an
exercise might reinforce childrens misconceptions. Point out the following:

The irony/implication that such a view suggests that the questioner does not have a
lot of confidence in the persuasive power of the scientific evidence as their worry
reflects a belief that their students might be more convinced by the evidence for the
common misconception.
That research shows that opportunities to consider common misconceptions as well
as the scientific conception lead to a better understanding the scientific conception2.
It would make sense at the end of such an activity to hold a class discussion and
evaluate the evidence critically to show that some pieces of evidence are more
significant than others and that the bulk of the evidence supports the scientific view.

For instance, it is difficult to see why we would need to wear sunglasses if vision
occurred by rays emanating from the eye. Looking at the sun is painful and wearing
sunglasses reduces the pain suggesting that it is blocking rays from the sun entering the
eye.

2
Hynd, C., & Alvermann, D. E. (1986). The Role of Refutation Text in Overcoming Difficulty with
Science Concepts. Journal of Reading, 29(5), 440-446.

IDEAS Project 1.12 Kings College London

Activity 2: Constructing an argument
This exercise is one which requires participants to assemble a sequence of data and
warrants to construct scientific argument.

Distribute Handouts 1.4 and 1.5.

Handout 1.4 shows two possible results of the change in temperature from an
experiment to heat ice to water and then to steam. Handout 1.5 presents a set of
arguments and data. It can be used to as a resource to help construct an argument for
ideas that are more likely to be true.

Discussion in pairs (5 minutes): Ask the participants to have a discussion in pairs.

Handout 1.5 should be cut into strips. Distribute a sheet of blank paper, Pritt stick and
scissors. Participants should then attempt to assemble the points into a coherent
argument that explains why either graph (A) or graph (B) is likely to be the graph
observed when the experiment is undertaken. Additional points may be added if
required and hand written.

Ask each pair to stick down the points into a coherent argument for their graph.

Allow 10 minutes for the exercise.

Finish by asking the group whether they feel that this is the sort of exercise that it
would be possible for KS3 pupils to do. If the response is negative, explore why. If
the response is positive, ask why it is seen relatively infrequently.

IDEAS Project 1.13 Kings College London

What is the Evidence? Handout 1.1

For each of the following beliefs that we commonly teach in science,

a. Provide any evidence to support the belief

b. Provide an argument which shows how the data is related to a
claim.

Idea Evidence

Forces are pushes and pulls

Plants take in carbon dioxide and give

out oxygen during photosynthesis

Day and night are caused by a spinning

Earth

Current is conserved in a simple circuit

Matter is conserved in a chemical

reaction

Living matter is made of cells

Lithium, sodium, and potassium are

similar elements

We live at the bottom of a sea of air

Seasons are caused by the tilt of the

earths axis

IDEAS Project 1.14 Kings College London

What is Argument? Handout 1.2

There are many different perceptions of argument. Which of the ones

beneath is:
a. most similar to the way in which you think about argument;
b. most similar to the way in which the average person thinks about
argument.
For each one, use the comments column to list your reasons why you
do/do not like the metaphor.

Metaphor: Argument is Comments

like..

Brainstorming

War

Diplomatic negotiation

Confrontation

A roundabout on the road to truth

An explanation

A dead end

(Other suggestions/thoughts)

IDEAS Project 1.15 Kings College London

Evidence and Theories Handout 1.3

Theory 1: Light rays travel from our eyes onto the

objects and enable us to see them.

Theory 2: Light rays are produced by a source of

light and reflect off objects into our eyes
so we can see them.

The following evidence is available. Discuss each

piece of evidence and decide which theory each piece
of evidence supports.

a. Light travels in straight lines

b. We can still see at night when there is no

sun

c. Sunglasses are worn to protect our eyes

d. If there is no light we cannot see a thing

e. We stare at people, look daggers and

catch peoples eye.

IDEAS Project 1.16 Kings College London

Heating Ice to Steam Handout 1.4

Some Year 8 students have been studying how water heats up.

They had to predict the shape of the graph to show how the
temperature would change as they heated ice to steam.

Below are two different graphs that they came up with.

a)
100
Temperatur
e

5
0

0
Time in Minutes

b)
100
re
Temperatu

5
0

0
Time in Minutes

In your groups discuss which graph is most likely to show how the
temperature of water changes as it heats up. Your group must
have at least ONE reason to support your argument.

IDEAS Project 1.17 Kings College London

Components of the Handout 1.5

Argument

Ice will melt when it is heated and turns into

water.

In solids there are bonds between the

particles that hold them together in a fixed
shape.

When you heat a substance the supply of

heat energy is usually constant.

Energy is needed to break bonds between

particles.

Ice melts at 0o C and water boils at 100o C.

Whilst energy is being used to break bonds

between particles then there will be no
temperature change.

When substances are heated the particles in

them absorb heat energy and move about
more quickly.

IDEAS Project 1.18 Kings College London

Views on Argument OHT 1.1

Metaphor:
Argument is like. Comments

Brainstorming

War

Diplomatic negotiation

Confrontation

A Roundabout on the
Road to Truth
Explanations

A Dead End

IDEAS Project 1.19 Kings College London

The Idea of Science OHT 1.2

Generated by School
Science?

REAL WORLD

Observation/Experiment

THEORY

IDEAS Project 1.20 Kings College London

 The Nature of Science? OHT 1.3

Step 1 Step 2
Model fits/Doesnt Fit
REAL WORLD MODEL

Negative Positive
Evidence Evidence
Observation/ Reasoning/
Experiment Calculation

Step 3 Step 4
Agree/Disagree
DATA PREDICTION

IDEAS Project 1.21 Kings College London

What is the Evidence? Handout 1.1

For each of the following beliefs that we commonly teach in science,

a. Provide any evidence to support the belief

b. Provide an argument which shows how the data is related to a claim.

Idea Evidence

Forces are pushes and pulls

Plants take in carbon dioxide and give

out oxygen during photosynthesis

Day and night are caused by a spinning

Earth

Current is conserved in a simple circuit

Matter is conserved in a chemical

reaction

Living matter is made of cells

Lithium, sodium, and potassium are

similar elements

We live at the bottom of a sea of air

Seasons are caused by the tilt of the

earths axis

IDEAS Project Kings College London

What is Argument? Handout 1.2

There are many different perceptions of argument. Which of the ones

beneath is:
a. most similar to the way in which you think about argument;
b. most similar to the way in which the average person thinks about
argument.
For each one, use the comments column to list your reasons why you do/do
not like the metaphor.

Metaphor: Argument is Comments

like..

Brainstorming

War

Diplomatic negotiation

Confrontation

A roundabout on the road to truth

An explanation

A dead end

(Other suggestions/thoughts)

IDEAS Project Kings College London

Evidence and Theories Handout 1.3

Theory 1: Light rays travel from our eyes onto the

objects and enable us to see them.

Theory 2: Light rays are produced by a source of light

and reflect off objects into our eyes so we can
see them.

The following evidence is available. Discuss each piece of

evidence and decide which theory each piece of evidence
supports.

a. Light travels in straight lines

b. We can still see at night when there is no sun

c. Sunglasses are worn to protect our eyes

d. If there is no light we cannot see a thing

e. We stare at people, look daggers and catch

peoples eye.
Heating Ice to Steam Handout 1.4

Some Year 8 students have been studying how water heats up.

They had to predict the shape of the graph to show how the temperature
would change as they heated ice to steam.

Below are two different graphs that they came up with.

a)
100
e
Tem peratur

5
0

0
Time in Mi nu tes

b)
100
re
Tem peratu

5
0

0
Time in Mi nu tes

In your groups discuss which graph is most likely to show how the
temperature of water changes as it heats up. Your group must have at
least ONE reason to support your argument.

IDEAS Project Kings College London

Components of the Handout 1.5

Argument

Ice will melt when it is heated and turns into

water.

In solids there are bonds between the particles

that hold them together in a fixed shape.

When you heat a substance the supply of heat

energy is usually constant.

Energy is needed to break bonds between

particles.

Ice melts at 0o C and water boils at 100o C.

Whilst energy is being used to break bonds

between particles then there will be no
temperature change.

When substances are heated the particles in

them absorb heat energy and move about more
quickly.

IDEAS Project Kings College London

Views on Argument OHT 1.1

Metaphor:
Argument is like. Comments

Brainstorming

War

Diplomatic negotiation

Confrontation

A Roundabout on the
Road to Truth
Explanations

A Dead End

IDEAS Project Kings College London

The Idea of Science OHT 1.2

Generated by School
Science?

REAL WORLD

Observation/Experiment

THEORY

IDEAS Project Kings College London

The Nature of Science? OHT 1.3

Step 1 Step 2
Model fits/Doesnt Fit
REAL WORLD MODEL

Negative Positive
Evidence Evidence
Observation/ Reasoning/
Experiment Calculation

Step 3 Step 4
Agree/Disagree
DATA PREDICTION

IDEAS Project Kings College London