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Note, for example, that feel, believe, and think do not mean the same thing and
that they should not be used interchangeably. Feel refers to an emotion only;
believe refers to an acceptance based on faith (emotion) supported by an
element of reason, and think refers to a conclusion based on evidence. The
word you elect to use in a sentence serves as a signal to your audience for the
quality of the information you are providing, with the highest quality being
based on the logical consideration implied by the word think:
I feel that we should invest in new laptop computers.
I believe that we should invest in new laptop computers.
I think that we should invest in new laptop computers.
Parts of Speech
Words are used in sentences according to grammatical function. While some
words can perform more than one function, most cannot. The possible uses of
a word are governed by its part of speech. Nouns and pronouns, for example,
function as subjects, objects, and complements in sentences, while verbs serve
as predicates. Adjectives modify nouns and pronouns, and adverbs modify
verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs.
Conjunctions join elements, and prepositions indicate relationships.
Sentence Classifications
Sentences may be classified according to function or structure.
Function: A sentence may have one of the following functions or purposes:
Declarative sentences make statements. Interrogative sentences ask questions.
Imperative sentences give commands, and exclamatory sentences express
strong emotion.
Structure: Sentences may also be classified according to structure. Simple
sentences contain only one independent clause, with one subject (which may
be a compound subject) and one predicate (verb), which may be a
compound predicate. Compound sentences contain more than one
independent clause joined by a conjunction or a semicolon.
Complex sentences contain one independent clause and one dependent or
subordinate clause (a clause that cannot stand alone as a sentence).
Compound complex sentences consist of at least two independent clauses and
one or more dependent clauses.
Sentence Structure. Because sentences are the basic unit of verbal
communication (both oral and written), a good understanding of sentence
structure is essential. To be a sentence, for example, a group of words needs at
least one subject and verb and must express a complete thought.
Where words and word groups (phrases and clauses) are placed in a sentence,
how they are used, and their relationship to each other (as indicated by
placement; punctuation; and such relationship words as conjunctions,
prepositions, and subordinating adverbs and conjunctive adverbs) may
influence the meaning of the sentence.
Phrases (a word group without its own subject and predicate) and clauses (a
word group containing its own subject and predicate) in sentences may be
either restrictive (essential) or nonrestrictive (unessential) in a sentence.
Restrictive clauses define or limit the term being modified:
Restrictive phrase: The car with the flat tire is in the garage. [Defines
which car out of several is in the garage.]
Nonrestrictive phrase: The car, now with a flat tire, is in the garage.
[Refers to a specific car which now happens to have a flat tire.]
Restrictive clause: My secretary who smokes too much does sloppy
work. [The person has more than one secretary and the one who
smokes too much does sloppy work.]
Nonrestrictive clause: My secretary, who smokes too much, does
sloppy work. [The person has one secretary who smokes and does
sloppy work.]
Paragraphs
A paragraph is a group of sentences arranged in logical order and focused on a
specific topic. In general, a paragraph begins with a topic sentence that makes
a statement about the subject or topic of the paragraph. The topic sentence is
followed by support sentences that describe or explain the topic sentence.
In business writing, paragraphs are usually shorter than they are in academic
or scientific writing because short paragraphs are easier to read. As a general
rule, in single-spaced documents (such as letters, memos, and email), first and
last paragraphs should be kept to no more than about 4 or 5 lines of text (lines,
not sentences), and middle paragraphs should be kept to no more than about
10 lines. Information that is buried in the middle of a long paragraph may be
overlooked.
In most business documents, the first and last paragraphs contain the most
important information and should be easy to read. The paragraphs in the
middle usually contain information of less importance.
Communication As Cooperation
Knowing the fundamentals will help you understand language and provide
you with a set of tools for discussing it. The rules of grammar evolved to
facilitate communication. When everybody follows the same rules, fewer
problems occur as a result of simple misunderstandings. Knowing the
fundamentals alone, however, will not make you an effective communicator. It
is, of course, possible to speak and write with absolute correctness and still be
an ineffective communicator.
Nevertheless, knowing the fundamentals will not only give you confidence in
your ability to express yourself without having to worry about the correctness
of what you are saying, but also provide you with more choices in your use of
language. A number of what have been called advanced language patterns are
based on deliberate violations of the rules of standard English. If you do not
know those rules to begin with, you cant choose to break them deliberately to
achieve a specific communication objective.
In addition to using Standard English, you can improve your written
communication by being clear and easy to read. Further, your reader will
appreciate it if you save his or her time by being as concise as possible.
Although communication is always less than perfect, your reader will
appreciate it if you use common, well-known words when possible and use
them according to their dictionary definitions. When you dont know for sure
what a word means, look it up before using it. Be especially careful when
using words often confused, such as affect and effect, complement and
compliment, or principal and principle.
In general, short, familiar words are more readily understood than long,
seldom-used words (improve as compared to ameliorate). Also, avoid
technical terms and professional jargon unless you know for sure that your
readers will be familiar with the terminology.
Conciseness and brevity are not the same. Good written communication is
both concise and complete, and while shorter is often better, some messages
need to be long if they are to be fully understood. Conciseness is best achieved
by eliminating redundancies and deadwoodunnecessary words, expressions,
and sentences.
Advanced Language Patterns
Theres more to language, of course, than fundamentals. Language is the
principal bridge not only between external reality and subjective experience,
but also between one persons subjective experience and anothers. For this
reason, it can be used to facilitate the recovery of information that has been
deleted and to clarify that which has been distorted or generalized. It can also
be used to influence and persuade.
The Metamodel:
The Metamodel is based on the work of Alfred Korzybski(Science and Sanity:
An Introduction to Non-Aristotelian Systems and General Semantics, 1933).
Korzybski thought that we could eliminate many problems by making our
verbal representations of reality more accurate by recognizing when
information being presented is incomplete, distorted, or inappropriately
generalized. Korzybski thought that we would understand each other better
(and behave more sanely) if we were clear about who, what, when, and where.
As codified by Richard Bandler and John Grinder (see The Structure of
Magic, Vols. I and II), the Metamodel focuses on the most common deletions,
distortions, and inappropriate generalizations and provides questions that will
help recover or correct such problems.
Deletions, distortions, and unwarranted generalizations are known as
violations of the Metamodel. While it is impossible for either perception or
communication to be absolutely free from deletions, distortions, and
generalizations, communication is often (but not always) facilitated when they
are minimized. The following are the most common violations:
Unspecified nouns: Unspecified nouns are often nominalizations,
abstract nouns without external referents, such as freedom, justice,
love, trust, help, productivity, efficiency, and quality. The classic test
for a nominalization is can you put it in a wheelbarrow. If it is a noun
and you cannot put it in a wheelbarrow, its a nominalization.
Be aware of unspecified nouns. When an unspecified noun may cause
problems in the communication process, ask a question that will help
recover deleted information:
What do you mean by
We need to improve our
"efficiency"?
departmental efficiency.
How will we measure efficiency?
What kind of help do you need?
I could use a little help.
How specifically can I help you?
What do you mean by "quality"?
We are all concerned about quality. How do you know we all want
that?
All computers?
How exactly are they bad for
Computers are bad for society.
society?
Are they bad for all societies?
People are our most important All people?
resource. Which people specifically?
stated or implied by anothers sentences. Some unspecified pronouns,
such as everyone and no one constitute unwarranted generalizations.
Others, such as some, one, this, it, these, those, and you when it is used
to refer to people in general rather than the listener or reader may
indicate uncertainty about the referential index, the antecedent or
reference for the pronoun (the noun to which the pronoun refers).
What specifically is going to be a
This is going to be a problem
problem?
Someone will have to finish the
Who specifically will finish the report?
report.
What exactly will we have to do about
Well have to do something it?
about this. What exactly do we need to do
something about?
No one?
Who specifically doesnt understand
No one understands me.
you?
How do you know?
Wrong for whom?
Its wrong to try to persuade
How exactly is it wrong?
people.
How do you know that its wrong?
Unspecified verbs: Some verbs are more specific than others based
on the kind of action they denote. Telephone, for example, is more
specific than contact, because it specifies how the contact is to be
made. Verbs that provide a number of behavioral possibilities include
such words as change, finish, fix, know, learn, remember, solve, and
understand. In many contexts, the number of behavioral possibilities
may result in confusion and inappropriate action.
You need to finish What exactly still needs to be done?
this report. How exactly should I finish it?
How exactly am I confusing you?
You are confusing me.
What specifically do you find confusing?
Lets just enjoy How do you think we should enjoy ourselves?
ourselves. What would you like to do?
How exactly should I contact you?
Please contact me. What do you mean by contact? Would you
prefer me to call or send email?
Please take care of the How exactly should I take care of it?
problem. What would you like me to do?
Unwarranted generalizations (universal quantifiers): Most broad
generalizations are false, and using them may preclude exceptions and
alternatives. Such words as all, always, every, everyone, only, never,
and no one indicate such generalizations. Universal quantifiers may be
implied rather than actually included in the sentence: Men are pigs,
implies that all men are pigs. They dont promote women at XYZ,
implies that no one at XYZ promotes women or that women at XYZ
are never promoted.
Always?
You always criticize me.
I never do anything else?
Never?
You never want to do anything. Anything?
What do you mean?
All politicians?
Politicians are crooks.
How do you know?
Everyone?
Unwarranted rules (modal operators of necessity): For one reason
or another, most people internalize rules about the way the world
works that may or may not be true. Such words as cant, have to, must,
need to, should, and shouldnt signal an individuals rules at work.
If...then statements, such as If I study, (then) I will earn good grades,
also indicate a rule. Whether the rule is unwarranted depends on the
circumstances, and the only way to find out whether the rule applies is
to challenge it.
We must finish the report What would happen if we didnt?
before leaving. How do you know?
Why should we?
We should go now.
What would happen if we didnt?
How do you know?
We cant do that here.
What would happen if we did?
How do you know?
We need to exercise more.
What would happen if we didnt?
Does hard work guarantee a promotion?
Ive worked hard, so I deserve
Has anyone worked hard before and not
the promotion.
earned a promotion?
Because perception is less than complete and language is also less than
complete, most sentences you will hear on any given day will contain
violations of the metamodel. It isnt always useful to request others to supply
more information. If someone says, "We need to go have lunch now," you will
probably be better off spending your time going to lunch than asking what
would happen if you didnt, how exactly you were going to go, or what
specifically was meant by "lunch."
Nevertheless, you should be alert to violations of the metamodel because they
reveal limitations in ones model (mental map) of the world. When
understanding the limitation is important to your objectiveor when it would
be beneficial for the other personits worth asking a question to help fill in
the details or correct a misconception.
A person can still refuse to supply the information, but the embedded
question seems less threatening than the direct question does. This can
be useful for softening the effect of metamodel questions:
o Im wondering exactly how we should finish the report.
o Im curious to know how you know that.
o Id be interested in knowing more about what you mean by
that.
o Id like to know whether you really mean all men.