Fundamentals of Basic Electricity: Electric Current Ohm's Law

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Fundamentals of
Basic Electricity
Electric Current Ohms Law
Charge
In practice, coulomb is used as the unit of charge. One coulomb of charge
is equal to the charge on 624 1016 electrons.
\ 1 coulomb = charge of 624 1016 electrons
Thus, a positive charge of 1C of a body means that it has a deficit of
624 1016 electrons.
Electric Current
The flow of free electrons is called electric current. The strength of electric
current I is the rate of flow of electrons i.e., charge flowing per second.
dQ
I=
dt
The unit of current is coulomb/sec or ampere.
One ampere of current is said to flow through a wire if at any section, one
coulomb of charge flows in one second.
Electric Potential
The capacity of a charged body to do work is called electric potential.
Work done
Electric potential =
Charge
The unit of electric potential is joule/coulomb or volt.
E:\2013 Final Backup\G505 Electrical Engineering\Electrical Engineering\Final\EE_01.vp

Thursday, October 24, 2013 4:53:07 AM 1
2 Fundamentals of Basic Electricity
Potential Difference
The difference in the potentials of two charged bodies is called potential
difference. The potential difference between two points is 1 V, if 1J of work
is done in transferring 1 C of charge from lower potential point to higher
potential point.
Resistance
It may be defined as the property of a substance due to which it opposes
the flow of current (i.e., electrons) through it. The unit of resistance is Ohm
and represented by W.
A wire is said to have a resistance of 1 W if a potential difference of 1 V
across its ends causes 1 A of current to flow through it.
l
R =r W
A
where, r = Resistivity or specific resistance
l = Length
A = Cross-sectional area
Specific Resistance or Resistivity
l
Q R =r
A
If l = 1m and A = 1m 2
Then, R =r
Key Points


Handbook Electrical Engineering 3
Conductance and Conductivity

Conductance is the reciprocal of resistance
1 1 A
G= =
R r l
A
\ G=s (mho)
l
where, s = Conductivity or specific conductance.
The unit of conductivity is siemens/metre.
Temperature Coefficient of Resistance

Let a conductor of resistance R0 at 0C is heated to tC. Its resistance Rt
after heating is given by
Rt = R0 (1 + a 0 t )
Rt - R0
where, a 0 = Temperature coefficient at 0C and a 0 =
R0 t
Hence, Temperature coefficient of a material is the increase in
resistance per ohm original resistance per C rise in temperature.
Effect of Temperature on Resistance

Electric Power
The rate at which work is done in an electric circuit is called electric power
i.e.,
Work done in electric circuit
Electric power =
Time
V2
P = VI = I 2R = watt
R

Electric Energy
Total work done in an electric circuit is called electric energy i.e.,
V2
Electric energy = VI t = I 2Rt = t kWh
R
Note One kilowatt-hour (kWh) of electric energy is expended in a circuit if

1 kW of power is supplied for 1 hour.
Kirchhoff s Law
Ist Law (KCL)
The algebraic sum of currents at the junction in an electric I1 I2
circuit is zero.
o
I4
I1 + I2 + I3 = I4 I3
IInd Law (KVL)

In any closed circuit or mesh, the algebraic sum of all the emfs and the
voltage drops is equal to zero.
Algebraic sum of emfs + algebraic sum of voltage drops = 0
Grouping of Cells
Series Grouping of Cells
Series grouping is useful when battery resistance
R
is negligible as compared to external resistance.
nE
I= ampere I
R + nr
n cells
Parallel Grouping of Cells E E
Parallel grouping is useful when external Battery
resistance is negligible as compared to battery Series grouping of cells
resistance.
E R
I= ampere
r
R+ I E
m
E
E
(m rows)
Parallel grouping of cells

Series- Parallel Grouping R

of Cells
I
n cells
mnE
I= ampere
mR + nr
(m rows)
Series- parallel grouping of cells
Electrostatics
Coulombs Law of Electrostatics

Ist Law
Like charges repel each other while unlike charges attract each other.
IInd Law
The force between two point charges is directly proportional to the product
of their magnitudes and inversely proportional to the square of distance
between them.
Q Q Q Q
F 1 2 2; F = k 1 2 2
d d
1
where, k=
4pe 0e r
e 0 = Absolute permittivity of vacuum or air
e r = Relative permittivity of medium in which charges are placed.
e 0 = 8.854 10-12 F/m
1
\ = 9 109
4pe 0
Q Q
\ F = 9 109 1 2 2 in air
d
Electric Field
The space (or field) in which a charge experiences a force, is called an
electric field or electrostatic field.

Electric Flux
The total electric lines of force which flow outward from a positive charge, is
called electric flux.
Electric Field Intensity ( E)

Electric field intensity or field strength at a point in an electric field is the
force acting on a unit positive charge placed at that point. Its direction is
the direction along which the force acts. Electric field intensity at a point
F
E= newton / coulomb
+Q
Electric Flux Density

The electric flux density at any section in an electric field is the electric flux
crossing normally per unit area of that section i.e.,
f
Electric flux density D = coulomb / metre2
A
where f is the electric flux in coulomb passing normally through an area
A in m 2.
Q
D=
4p d 2
D = e 0e r E
Hence, electric flux density at any point in an electric field is e 0e r times
the electric intensity at that point.
Potential Gradient
The change of potential per unit distance is called potential gradient i.e.,
V1 - V2
Potential gradient =
S
where, S = Distance in metre
dV
In differential form, E=-
dS
Hence, electric intensity at a point is numerically equal to the potential
gradient at that point.

Breakdown Voltage or Dielectric Strength

The maximum voltage at which a unit thickness of a dielectric can
withstand without being punctured by a spark discharge is called dielectric
strength of the material.
Capacitance
The ability of a capacitor to store charge is known as its capacitance.
It also may be defined as the amount of charge required to create a unit
potential difference between its plates.
Charge (Q)
C=
Potential difference (V)
1 farad = 1coulomb/volt
Parallel Plates Capacitor with Uniform Medium
e e A
C = 0 r in a medium +Q Q
d +
+
e0 A +
C= in air +
d + d
+
where, A = Area of plate and +
+
d = Distance between plates.
V
Parallel Plates Capacitor with Parallel plates acquiring
charge Q,-Q
Composite Medium
e0 A
C= farad
d1 d2 d3
+ +
e r1 e r2 e r3
+Q V1 V2 V3 Q
r1 r2 r3
d1 d2 d3
Parallel plates separated by distance d 1,d 2 and

Medium Partially Air

e0 A
C= +Q t Q
d -t t
+
1 er
0 r
e0 A
C= farad air
t
d - t -
er d
Parallel plates having
medium partially air
Special Case in Capacitors

+Q d Q
e e e A1
= =
A2
e e e
= + = +
e
= +Q d Q
e
= A1
t
- -
e
e e A2
= + = +

- -
e
Spherical Capacitor
When outer sphere is earthed

+ + +
ab + +
C = 4pe 0e r farad r a +
b-a +
+ b +

+ + +

Determination of spherical
capacitor when outer sphere
is earthed

When inner sphere is earthed

One capacitor consists of the A
+ + +
inner surface of A and the outer + B
surface of B. +
+r
a
+

ab +
b +
C1 = 4pe 0e r +
b-a + +

The second capacitor consists of Determination of spherical capacitor
when inner sphere is earthed
outer surface of B and earth.
C2 = 4pe 0b
Total capacitance C = C1 + C2
Energy Stored in Capacitor
1 1 1 Q2
E= C V 2 = QV = joule
2 2 2 C
Charging of a Capacitor
At Switching Instant R C
V
Initial charging current Im =
R
S
Voltage across capacitor = 0 V
Circuit diagram for
Charge on capacitor = 0
charging of a capacitor
At Any Instant
I = Charging current
V = Potential difference across C
q = Charge on capacitor= CV
Voltage across capacitor v = V (1 - e -t / RC )
Charge on capacitor q = Q (1 - e -t / RC )
Charging current i = Im e -t / RC
Rate of rise of voltage across capacitor
dv V
= volt/sec
dt RC
Note The capacitor is almost fully charged in a time equal to 5 RC i.e., 5 times
constant.

Magnetism Electromagnetism
Laws of Magnetic Force

(i) Like pole repel each other while unlike poles attract each other.
(ii) The force between two magnetic poles is directly proportional to the
product of their pole strengths and inversely proportional to the square
of distance between them.
m m m m 1
F 1 2 2 = k 1 2 2 ; where, k =
d d 4 p m 0 mr
m 0 = Absolute permeability of vacuum or air = 4p 10-7 H/m

m r = Relative permeability of surrounding medium.
m1 m2
\ F= newton in a medium.
4p m 0 m r d 2
m1 m2
F= newton in air
4p m 0 d 2
Note A pole of unit strength (i.e., 1 Wb) is that pole which when placed in air
1 m from an identical pole, repels it with a force of 62800 N.
Magnetic Field
The space (or field) in which a magnetic pole experiences a force is called
a magnetic field.
Magnetic Flux
The amount of magnetic field produced by a magnetic source is called
magnetic flux.
The unit of magnetic field is weber and represented by f.
1Wb = 108 lines
Magnetic Flux Density
f
Flux density B = Wb/m 2
A
Magnetic Field Intensity ( H )
m P
H = force on unit n-pole placed at P.
d
m
H= N/Wb (Qm r = 1for air) Magnetic field intensity at P
4pm 0 d 2

Relation between B and H

=m m
=m
Current Carrying Conductor in Magnetic Field

When a current carrying conductor is placed at right angles to a magnetic
field. It experiences a mechanical force F given by
F = BIl newton.
where, l = Length of conductor in metre
I = Current through conductor in ampere
B = Flux density in Wb/m 2
Force between Parallel Conductors

(i) Current in the same direction These are attracted towards each
other.
(ii) Current in opposite direction These conductors experience a
repulsive force.
Magnetic Circuit
The close path followed by magnetic flux is called a magnetic circuit.
mmf (magneto motive force) = NI ampere turns
N = Number of turns
I = Current
mmf
Flux f =
reluctance
Reluctance and Permeance in Magnetic Circuit
l
=
m m
m m
= =
l

Electromagnetic Induction
When the magnetic flux linking a conductor changes an emf is induced in
the conductor. If the conductor forms a complete loop or circuit, a current
will flow in it. This phenomenon is known as electromagnetic induction.
Faradays Law of Electromagnetic Induction

Ist Law
When the flux linking a conductor or coil changes an emf is induced in it.
IInd Law
The magnitude of induced emf in a coil is equal to the rate of change of flux
linkages.
- N df
\ e= volt
dt
Self Inductance
The property of a coil that opposes any change in the amount of current
flowing through it is called its self inductance or inductance
Nf N2 N2
L= = =
I Reluctance l
A m0 mr
Mutual Inductance
The two coil so arranged that a change of current in one coil causes an emf
to be induced in the other coil are said to have mutual inductance.
Mutually induced emf in coil B Rate of change of current in coil A
dI1
em
dt
dI
em = M 1
dt
M = Mutual inductance between the two coils.

Coefficient of Coupling
Inductances in Series
Series Adding
+m +m
L1 L2 L1 L2
L eq = L1 + L2 + 2 M
Series Opposing
-m -m
L1 L2 L1 L2
L eq = L1 + L2 - 2 M
Inductances in Parallel
L1L2 - m 2

When mutual field assists the separate field L eq =
L1 + L2 - 2 m
L1L2 - m 2

When the two fields oppose each other L eq =
L1 + L2 + 2 m
Rise of Current in an Inductive Circuit

(i.e., R-L Series Circuit)
I = I (1 - e -t / l )
V
I=
R
L
l (time constant) =
R

Decay of Current in an Inductive Circuit

L
I = I (e -t / l ), l =
R
Energy Stored in Magnetic Field
1 2
E= L I joule
2
Magnetic Energy Stored Per Unit Volume
B2
Energy stored/ m 3 = joule (in a medium)
2m 0 m r
B2
= joule (in air)
2m 0
AC Fundamentals
Equation of Sinusoidal Voltage and Current

e = Em sin wt Em
I = Im sin wt
2
0 t
where Em and Im are the maximum
values of voltage and current.
Sinusoidal waveform
Root Mean Square (RMS) Value

The rms value of an alternating current is given by that steady (DC) current
which when flowing through a given circuit for a given time produces the
same heat as produced by the alternating current when flowing through the
same circuit for the same time. It is also known as the effective or virtual
value of the alternating signal.
1 T
T 0
Irms = [ I(t )]2 dt

Key Points
w w
RMS Value of a Complex Wave

The rms value of a complex current wave is equal to the square root of the
sum of the squares of the rms values of its individual components.
If x(t ) = a0 + ( a1 cos wt + a2 cos 2 wt + )
+ ( b1 sin wt + b2 sin 2 wt + )
1 2 1
Xrms = a02 + ( a1 + a22 + ) + ( b12 + b22 + )
2 2
p p
e.g., Let i = 12 sin wt + 6 sin 3 wt - + 4 sin 5 wt +
6 3
2 2 2
12 6 4
Irms = + +
2 2 2
Average Value
1 T
T 0
Yav = Y (t ) dt
where T is time period of periodic functrion Y (t ).

2I
Iav = m = 0.637 Im
p
\ Average value of current = 0.637 maximum current
Note RMS value is always greater than average value except in case of
rectangular wave when both are equal.
Form Factor
rms value
kf =
Average value
For sinusoidal alternating currents,
.
0707 lm
kf = = 1. 11
.
0637 lm

Peak or Crest or Amplitude Factor

Maximum value
kp =
rms value
Im
= = 1414
. (for sinusoidal AC only)
Im 2
Power Factor
It may be defined as
Cosine of the angle of lead or lag
The ratio of resistance and impedance.
The ratio of true power and apparent power
Active, Reactive and Apparent Power

Active power is actually dissipated in the circuit resistance
P = I 2R = VI cos f watt
Reactive power developed in inductive reactance of the circuit
Q = I 2 X L = VI sin f watt
Apparent power is the product of voltage and current
S = VI volt-ampere
S = P2 + Q 2
(Apparent
power) Q =I 2XL
(Reactive
power)
Z
2
=I
S

P =I 2 R
(Active power)
Relation between active, reactive and apparent power
Three Phase Connection

(a) Star or wye ( Y ) connection
(b) Mesh or delta ( D ) connection

Star (Y ) Connection
IR
R
RA
VRB VRB
RC RB
N
IY
BY
VRB
IB B
Star connection of resistances R A , R B and RC
IR + IY + IB = 0
Phase current = Line current Iph = IL
Line voltage
Phase voltage =
3
or VL = 3 Vph
Power = 3 phase power
P = 3 Vph Iph cos f
or P = 3 VL IL cos f
Delta or Mesh Connection

(IR IB)
R
IB IR
VRY VRB
RAC
RAB
RCB
B
C Y
IY (IY -IR)
VYB
B
(IB-IY)
Delta connection of resistances R AC , R AB and R BC

Line voltage = Phase voltage VL = Vph

Line current = 3 phase current IL = 3 Iph

Power = 3 phase power

P = 3 Vph Iph cos f
or P = 3 VL IL cos f
Power Measurement in 3- f Circuit

Two Wattmeter Method
W1 + W2 = 3 VL IL cos f
W1 - W2 = VL IL sin f
W + W2
tan f = 3 1
W1 - W2
where, f = power factor angle.
Wattmeter Readings and Power Factor Relation
f= f=
= =
f= f = 0.5
= + =
\
> f>
> PF > 0
f=
= - =
= + =-
\
+ =
f
cos f 1 0.5 0
W1 + ve +ve + ve
W2 + ve 0 ve
W1 = W2 W1 = W2


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E:\2013 Final Backup\G505 Electrical Engineering\Electrical Engineering\Final\EE_01.vp

2 Fundamentals of Basic Electricity

E:\2013 Final Backup\G505 Electrical Engineering\Electrical Engineering\Final\EE_01.vp

Handbook Electrical Engineering 3

Conductance and Conductivity

Temperature Coefficient of Resistance

Effect of Temperature on Resistance

E:\2013 Final Backup\G505 Electrical Engineering\Electrical Engineering\Final\EE_01.vp

4 Fundamentals of Basic Electricity

Note One kilowatt-hour (kWh) of electric energy is expended in a circuit if

IInd Law (KVL)

E:\2013 Final Backup\G505 Electrical Engineering\Electrical Engineering\Final\EE_01.vp

Handbook Electrical Engineering 5

Series- Parallel Grouping R

Coulombs Law of Electrostatics

E:\2013 Final Backup\G505 Electrical Engineering\Electrical Engineering\Final\EE_01.vp

6 Fundamentals of Basic Electricity

Electric Field Intensity ( E)

Electric Flux Density

E:\2013 Final Backup\G505 Electrical Engineering\Electrical Engineering\Final\EE_01.vp

Handbook Electrical Engineering 7

Breakdown Voltage or Dielectric Strength

E:\2013 Final Backup\G505 Electrical Engineering\Electrical Engineering\Final\EE_01.vp

8 Fundamentals of Basic Electricity

Medium Partially Air

Special Case in Capacitors

E:\2013 Final Backup\G505 Electrical Engineering\Electrical Engineering\Final\EE_01.vp

Handbook Electrical Engineering 9

When inner sphere is earthed

E:\2013 Final Backup\G505 Electrical Engineering\Electrical Engineering\Final\EE_01.vp

Laws of Magnetic Force

m 0 = Absolute permeability of vacuum or air = 4p 10-7 H/m

E:\2013 Final Backup\G505 Electrical Engineering\Electrical Engineering\Final\EE_01.vp

Handbook Electrical Engineering 11

Relation between B and H

Current Carrying Conductor in Magnetic Field

Force between Parallel Conductors

Reluctance and Permeance in Magnetic Circuit

E:\2013 Final Backup\G505 Electrical Engineering\Electrical Engineering\Final\EE_01.vp

12 Fundamentals of Basic Electricity

Faradays Law of Electromagnetic Induction

E:\2013 Final Backup\G505 Electrical Engineering\Electrical Engineering\Final\EE_01.vp

Handbook Electrical Engineering 13

Rise of Current in an Inductive Circuit

E:\2013 Final Backup\G505 Electrical Engineering\Electrical Engineering\Final\EE_01.vp

14 Fundamentals of Basic Electricity

Decay of Current in an Inductive Circuit

Equation of Sinusoidal Voltage and Current

Root Mean Square (RMS) Value

E:\2013 Final Backup\G505 Electrical Engineering\Electrical Engineering\Final\EE_01.vp

Handbook Electrical Engineering 15

RMS Value of a Complex Wave

where T is time period of periodic functrion Y (t ).

E:\2013 Final Backup\G505 Electrical Engineering\Electrical Engineering\Final\EE_01.vp

16 Fundamentals of Basic Electricity

Peak or Crest or Amplitude Factor

Active, Reactive and Apparent Power

Three Phase Connection

E:\2013 Final Backup\G505 Electrical Engineering\Electrical Engineering\Final\EE_01.vp

Handbook Electrical Engineering 17

Delta or Mesh Connection