ISDN

Introduction

ISDN stands for Integrated Service Digital Network, and as the name suggests
it allows digital communication. This is favorable as digital technology is a lot
faster, and more accurate than the old analogue lines as they no longer
require the process of modulation and demodulation. ISDN relies on already
existing copper cable systems, causing its integration into our existing
communications system to be smoother and less disruptive.

According to ITU-T (formerly CCITT) "an ISDN is a network, in general evolving

from a telephony IDN, that provides end-to-end digital connectivity to support
a wide range of services, including voice and non-voice services, to which
users have addressed by a limited set of standard multi-purpose user-network
interfaces." The key point of this definition is the ability to support voice
services adequately; this has not been achieved using any other concept. ISDN
has four major aspects; telephone network; integrated services; digital;
network.

Integrated Services

Voice, Video, Image, Data, Mixed media at a number of standard

data rates

Digital

Digital terminal equipment, local loops, trunks, switching, signaling

Network

Worldwide, interoperating communications fabric under distributed

control using common standards

ISDN standards have been defined by the ITU-T, a branch of the United
Nations' International Telecommunications Union (ITU), in the series I and Q
recommendations.

Integrated Services

The current telephone network uses a mixture of analog and digital

transmission methods and diverse access techniques and standards to provide
different services:

Switched voice telephony

Centrex
Dedicated point-to-point data carrier
Packet-switched data carrier
Dedicated point-to-point digital carrier
Future telephone networks will also provide full-motion video,
voice/video/graphics conferencing, high-speed facsimile, and electronic mail.

ISDN integrates all these services by providing a small set of standard

interfaces and access protocols that apply to all services. Because ISDN is an
international standard, the same interfaces and access protocols should be
available anywhere in the world, across international boundaries, and among
equipment from any set of vendors.

Digital

ISDN provides all of its services over an entirely digital transmission system. In
pre-ISDN telephony, only interoffice trunks and certain high-capacity dedicated
customer circuits use digital transmission.

ISDN employs digital transmission from the customer-premises equipment

(CPE; i.e., telephones, data terminals, fax machines, etc.), through the local
access loop , and across the carrier's trunk network. All central- and end-office
switching is performed by digital switches, and all signalling (call
establishment, "dial tone," ringing, on-hook/off-hook, service requests) occurs
through digital protocols.

Network

Finally, ISDN defines a NETWORK, not a loose collection of standards for

private-line services. Ultimately, ISDN defines a single worldwide fabric of
transmission and switching services operating under a common set of
standards, with control distributed among all the various operating companies
and national telecommunications authorities.

PRINCIPLES OF ISDN

Support of voice and non-voice applications in the same network Interfaces

and data transmission facilities standardized by ITU-T

Switched and non-switched connections Packet & circuit switching, leased

lines

64-kbps channel chosen because at the time was the standard rate for
digitized voice.

Layered protocol structure mapped into OSI model (advantages in utilizing

existing standards as well as in developing new ones)

Variety of configurations According to specific national situations & state of

technology

ISDN Services

ISDN provides three types of services:

 Bearer services
Teleservices
Supplementary services

Tele and supplementary services represent the type of features and

functions which are visible to end-users, while bearer services represent the
parts of the network which remain hidden from end-users.

Bearer services facilitate the real-time communication of digital information

between end-users. These services mainly relate to network functions and
account for OSI layers 1-3. An example of a bearer services is the 64 kbps, 8
kHz structured, speech service. This service uses a data rate of 64 kbps
together with 8 kHz timing information (which structures the data into octet
intervals) for transmitting a Pulse Code Modulated (PCM) speech signal. The
fact that the signal represents speech is known to the network, allowing it to
employ transformations which may not preserve bit integrity but will result in
good quality audio reproduction.

Teleservices provide a set of higher-level functions on top of bearer

services. These services account for OSI layers 4-7. Examples of teleservices
are:
Telephony services which provide speech communication over a B
channel with control signaling over the D channel.
Facsimile services which facilitate the communication of bitmap images
over a B channel with control signaling over the D channel.
Teletex services which facilitate the interchange and communication of
textual as well as formatted documents over a B channel with control
signaling over the D channel.

Supplementary services enhance bearer and teleservices in an

independent fashion. Examples of supplementary services are:
The Centrex service emulates a private network and provides specialized
features to a set of subscribers.
The Call Transfer service allows a user to transfer an active call to a
third-party.
The Call Waiting service allows a user already engaged in a call to be
informed of another incoming call.
The Calling Line ID service provides the calling party's address
information to the called party.

Although these services all appear geared toward circuit-switched telephone

calls, they are equally applicable to packet-switched data calls.

DEFINITION

ISDN stands for Integrated Services Digital Network. It was first introduced by
NEC in Japan. There basic purpose was integration of traditionally different
computer and communication (C&C) services into a single one. The integration
basically means incorporation of three types of services:

Voice (telephone)
 Data (internet)
Entertainment (TV)

The integration should be most comfortably and efficiently done in digital

domain, so the switching, multiplexing, signaling and transmission, everything
should be digital. It was first named integrated digital network (IDN), which
received lukewarm response as only the enterprises, not the general public,
realized the potential behind that acronym. Later on it was named ISDN which
more clearly states the idea (of integrating different services) behind it.

ISDN Channels

A CHANNEL is the basic unit of ISDN service. The ISDN Standards define three
basic types of channels:

Bearer channels (B channels)

Delta (or "Demand") channels (D channels)
High-capacity channels (H channels)

B Channel

A B channel is a 64-Kbps unit of clear digital bandwidth. Based on the data rate
required to carry one digital voice conversation, a B channel can carry any
type of digital information (voice, data, or video) with no restrictions on format
or protocol imposed by the ISDN carrier.

B-channel is the basic user channel

can carry digital data, PCM-encoded digital voice,or a mixture of lower-
rate traffic
with mixed traffic, all traffic must be destined for the same end-point
(carried over the
same circuit)
supports circuit-switched, packet-switched (exchange of data via X.25)
and
semipermanent connections
in the case of circuit-switched connections, common channel signaling
is used

D Channel

A D channel is a signaling channel. It carries the information needed to connect

or disconnect calls and to negotiate special calling parameters (i.e., automatic
number ID, call waiting, data protocol). The D channel can also carry packet-
switched data using the X.25 protocol.

The D channel is not a clear channel. It operates according to a well-defined

pair of layered protocols:

Q.921 (LAPD) at the Data Link Layer (Layer 2)

Q.931 at the upper layers (Layers 3 and above)
The data rate of a D channel varies according to the type of access it serves: a
Basic Rate Access D channel operates at 16 Kbps and a Primary Rate Access D
channel operates at 64 Kbps.

D-channel is dual-purpose
carries signaling information to control circuit switched calls on B-
channel
may be used to carry low-speed data applications (e.g., videotex,
telemetry)

Signalling on the D Channel

The ISDN D channel carries all signalling between the customer's terminal
device and the carrier's end switching office.

Signalling information with end-to-end significance (i.e., which must be

received by the terminal device at a call's destination, such as Automatic
Calling Number Identification information) travels between the carrier's
switching offices on the carrier's common-channel signalling network and on to
the destination terminal through the receiving user's D channel.

H Channel

An H channel is a special, high-speed clear channel. H channels, designed

primarily for full-motion color video, are not yet in common use. There are
currently three kinds of H channel:
H0 ("H-zero")
H11 ("H-one-one")
H12 ("H-one-two")

An H0 channel operates at 384 Kbps (roughly one fourth of a North American

Primary Rate Access or one fifth of a European Primary Rate Access). An H1
channel operates at 1.536 Mbps and occupies one whole North American
Primary Rate Access. An H12 channel occupies an entire European Primary
Rate Access.

H-channel is a high-speed channel

can be used as a single trunk or subdivided by the user
fast fax, video, high-speed data, high-quality audio and multiplexed
information
streams at lower data rates

Only D channels can be used for carrying signaling information. B and H

channels can only be used for carrying user data. In practice, channels are
offered to users in a packaged form. Two such packages have been defined:
basic access and primary access. The Basic Rate Access (BRA) package (also
called 2B+D) is primarily intended for residential subscribers and consists of
the following:

* Two B channels
* One 16 kbps D channel
* Overhead of 48 kbps for framing, synchronization, etc.
This produces a total bit rate of 192 kbps. The channels may be used for a
variety of purposes. For example, the two B channels can be used for two
independent voice services, or one of them can be used for voice and the other
for a data service such as fax, teletex, or remote LAN access. Modest data
communication requirements (e.g., remote banking transactions) may be met
by the D channel alone. Other permitted combinations for basic access are:
B+D or just D.

The Primary Rate Access (PRA) package is aimed at business users with
greater bandwidth requirements. Primary access comes in two configurations:

At a bit rate of 1.544 mbps (North America and Japan) and consisting of:
-23 B channels
-One 64 kbps D channel
-Overhead of 8 kbps

At a bit rate of 2.048 mbps (Europe) and consisting of:

-30 B channels
-One 64 kbps D channel
-Overhead of 64 kbps

As with the basic access, lower configurations are also possible, depending
on requirements. Primary access can also support H channels.

Standard bit rates:

B-channel : 64 kbps
D-channel : 16 or 64 kbps
H-channel : 384 (H0), 1536 (H11), 1920 (H12) kbps

ISDN Access Types

ISDN offers two general types of access:

BASIC RATE ACCESS (BRA)

PRIMARY RATE ACCESS (PRA)

These differ from one another by the amount of information they can carry.

Basic Rate Access

It should be viewed as a replacement for POTS (Plain Old Telephone Service).

Basic Rate Access provides two 64-Kbps B channels and one 16-Kbps D
channel (referred to as 2B+D). In other words, it provides transmission
facilities for one voice conversation (one B channel), one medium-speed
data session (the other B channel), and the signaling exchanges needed
to make them work (the D channel). The separate channel for signaling
results in a significantly faster setup time.

Two B channels at 64 Kbps plus one D channel at 16 Kbps equals 144K bps.
The ISDN Basic Rate transmission protocol uses an additional 48 Kbps of
 bandwidth for maintenance and synchronization, so an ISDN Basic Rate
Access actually uses 192 Kbps.

Fig. 2-42. (a) Basic rate digital pipe. (b) Primary rate digital pipe

Primary Rate Access

Primary Rate Access, which is based on pre-ISDN digital carrier technology, is

designed to provide high-capacity service to large customers for applications
such as PBX-to-PBX trunking. There are two kinds of Primary Rate Access:
23B+D and 30B+D. Each depends on the kind of digital carrier available in a
given country.

In North America and Japan, 23B+D Primary Rate Access operates at 1.544
Mbps and offers 23 B channels plus 1 64-Kbps D channel (usually located in
time-slot 23), or 4 H0 channels, or 1 H11 channel. In most of the rest of the
world, 30B+D Primary Rate Access operates at 2.048 Mbps and offers 30 B
channels plus 1 64-Kbps D channel (located in time-slot 16), or 5 H0 channels,
or 1 H12 channel.

23B + 1D (US and Japan) or 30B + 1D (Europe). It is intended for use at the T
reference point for businesses with a PBX.

Hybrid: 1A + 1C

Because ISDN is so focused on 64 kbps channels, it is referred to as N-ISDN

(Narrowband ISDN), in contrast to broadband ISDN (ATM).

Functional Groupings and Reference Points

User access to ISDN is provided at a number of different levels of abstraction.

These levels are defined by functional groupings, which encompass functions
equivalent to those denoted by one or more OSI layers. The interfaces between
the functional groupings are called reference points.
ISDN Devices

In the context of ISDN standards, STANDARD DEVICES refers not to actual

hardware, but to standard collections of functions that can usually be
performed by individual hardware units. The ISDN Standard Devices are:

Terminal Equipment (TE)

Terminal Adapter (TA)
Network Termination 1 (NT1)
Network Termination 2 (NT2)
Exchange Termination (ET)

Terminal Equipment (TE)

A TE is any piece of communicating equipment that complies with the ISDN

standards. Examples include: digital telephones, ISDN data terminals, Group IV
Fax machines, and ISDN-equipped computers. In most cases, a TE should be
able to provide a full Basic Rate Access (2B+D), although some TEs may use
only 1B+D or even only a D channel.

Terminal Equipment 1 (TE1) denotes ISDN terminals which use a 4-wire

physical link to the S or S/T interface. TE1 devices conform to ISDN standards
and protocols and are especially designed for use with ISDN. A digital ISDN
telephone and a PC with an ISDN card are examples.

Terminal Equipment 2 (TE2) denotes non-ISDN terminal equipment.

Ordinary terminals and personal computers are examples. These devices can
be connected to ISDN at the R (Rate) reference point. RS-232 and V.21 are
examples of the type of standards that may be employed for the R reference
point. The mapping between the R interface and the S or S/T interface is
performed by a Terminal Adapter (TA), which performs the necessary protocol
conversions and data rate adaptations between the two interfaces.

Terminal Adapter (TA)

A TA is a special interface-conversion device that allows communicating

devices that don't conform to ISDN standards to communicate over the ISDN.
The most common TAs provide Basic Rate Access and have one RJ-type
modular jack for voice and one RS-232 or V.35 connector for data (with each
port able to connect to either of the available B channels). Some TAs have a
separate data connector for the D channel.

Network Termination (NT1 and NT2)

The NT devices, NT1 and NT2, form the physical and logical boundary between
the customer's premises and the carrier's network. NT1 performs the logical
interface functions of switching and local-device control (local signalling). NT2
performs the physical interface conversion between the dissimilar customer
and network sides of the interface.

In most cases, a single device, such as a PBX or digital multiplexer, performs

both physical and logical interface functions. In ISDN terms, such a device is
called NT12 ("NT-one-two") or simply NT.

The Network Termination 1 (NT1) functional grouping provides OSI layer 1

capabilities and deals with signal transmission and physical connectors for
interfacing Customer Premises Equipment (CPE) to ISDN. The NT1 transforms
the U interface into a 4-wire subscriber S/T interface which supports 2B+D
channels (in case of basic access) or T interface which supports 23B+D or
30B+D (in case of primary access). NT1 multiplexes these channels using TDM
into a continuous bit stream for transmission over the U interface. NT1 also
supports up to eight CPEs connected in a multidrop line arrangement to basic
access. The NT1 device may be owned and operated by the service provider,
baring the customer from direct access to the U interface, or it may be a CPE.

The Network Termination 2 (NT2) functional grouping provides additional

OSI layer 2 and 3 capabilities on top of NT1. NT2 is a CPE which transforms the
T (Terminal) interface into an S (System) interface. The S interface supports
2B+D channels. NT2 may perform switching and concentration functions. A
typical NT2 device would be a digital PBX, serving a set of digital phones, or a
LAN, serving a set of personal computers.

Exchange Termination (ET)

The ET forms the physical and logical boundary between the digital local loop
and the carrier's switching office. It performs the same functions at the end
office that the NT performs at the customer's premises.

In addition, the ET:

1. Separates the B channels, placing them on the proper interoffice trunks

to their ultimate destinations
2. Terminates the signalling path of the customer's D channel, converting
any necessary end-to-end signalling from the ISDN D-channel signalling
protocol to the carrier's switch-to- switch trunk signalling protocol

ISDN Interfaces (Standard Reference Points)

The ISDN standards specify four distinct interfaces in the customer's
connection to the network: R, S, T, and U.

From the standards viewpoint, these are not "real" physical interfaces, but
simply STANDARD REFERENCE POINTS where physical interfaces may be
necessary. However, in common practice, the names of reference points are
used to refer to physical interfaces.

The R Interface

The interface at reference point R is the physical and logical interface between
a non-ISDN terminal device and a terminal adapter (TA). The R interface is not
really part of the ISDN; it can conform to any of the common telephone or data
interface standards.

The S Interface

The interface at reference point S is the physical and logical interface between
a TE (or TA) and an NT. The S interface uses four wires and employs a bipolar
transmission technique known as Alternate Mark Inversion (AMI).
A special feature of the S interface is the "Short Passive Bus" configuration,
which allows up to eight ISDN devices (TE or TA) to contend for packet access
to the D channel in a prioritized, round-robin fashion. Only one device at a time
can use a given B channel.

The T Interface

The interface at reference point T is the physical and logical interface between
NT1 and NT2, whenever the two NTs are implemented as separate pieces of
hardware. The specification for the T interface is identical to the specification
for the S interface. In most implementations, NT1 and NT2 exist in the same
physical device, so there is no real T interface.

The U Interface

The interface at reference point U is the physical and logical interface between
NT (or NT2) and the ISDN carrier's local transmission loop. It is also the legal
demarcation between the carrier's loop and the customer's premises.
The U interface is implemented with two wires and uses a special quaternary
signal format (i.e., four possible electrical states, with one pulse encoding a
predefined combination of 2 bits) called 2B1Q. Quaternary encoding allows the
U interface to carry data with a logical bit rate of 192 Kbps over a signal with a
physical pulse rate of only 96 Kbps. The slower pulse rate is better suited to
the less-predictable environment of the outside-plant loop carrier system.

The User Interface

Figure A.l is a conceptual view of the lSDN from a user, or customer, point of
view. The user has access to the ISDN by means of a local interface to a
"digital pipe" of a certain bit rate. Pipes of various sizes are available to satisfy
differing needs. For example, a residential customer may require only
sufficient capacity to handle a telephone and a videotex terminal. An office will
undoubtedly wish to connect to the ISDN via an on-premise digital PBX, and
will require a much higher capacity pipe.
At any given point in time, the pipe to the user's premises has a fixed capacity,
but the traffic on the pipe may be a variable mix up to the capacity limit. Thus,
a user may access circuit-switched and packet-switched services, as well as
other services, in a dynamic mix of signal types and bit rates. To provide these
services, the ISDN requires rather complex control signals to instruct it how to
sort out the time multiplexed data and provide the required services. These
control signals are also multiplexed onto the same digital pipe.

An important aspect of the interface is that the user may, at any time, employ
less than the maximum capacity of the pipe, and will be charged according to
the capacity used rather than "connect time." This characteristic significantly
diminishes the value of current user design efforts that are geared to optimize
circuit utilization by use of concentrators, multiplexers, packet switches, and
other line sharing arrangements.

Architecture
Figure A.2 is a block diagram of ISDN. ISDN supports a new physical connecter
for users, a digital subscriber loop (link from end user to central or end office),
and modifications to all central office equipment.
The area to which most attention has been paid by standards organizations is
that of user access. A common physical interface has been defined to provide,
in essence, a DTE-DCE connection. The same interface should be usable for
telephone, computer terminal, and videotex terminal. Protocols are needed for
the exchange of control information between user device and the network.
Provision must be made for high-speed interfaces to, for example, a digital PBX
or a LAN.

The subscriber loop portion of today's telephone network consists of twisted

pair links between the subscriber and the central office, carrying 4-kHz analog
signals. Under the ISDN, one or two twisted pairs are used to provide a basic
fullduplex digital communications link.
The digital central office connects the numerous ISDN subscriber loop signals
to the IDN. In addition to providing access to the circuit-switched network, the
central office provides subscriber access to dedicated lines, packet-switched
networks, and time-shared, transaction-oriented computer services.
Multiplexed access via digital PBX and LAN must also be accommodated.

3.10.1 Physical Interfaces

An understanding of the format of interfaces and channel type is critical to any

analysis of ISDN because they provide the framework through which the
protocols and applications flow. ISDN defines a full network architecture as
shown Fig. 1. This architecture separates access functions from actual network
functions.
Network termination (NT) equipment handles the communications from the
network while the terminal equipment(TE) is responsible for the
communications from the user. NT1 includes functions equivalent to the OSI's
Physical layer. These functions include line termination, Layer 1 line
maintenance and performance monitoring, timing, and Layer multiplexing.
In contrast, NT2 devices are usually more intelligent than NT1 devices. NT2
devices perform the link layer functions and usually network functions as well.
an NT2 devices may be a switch, multiplexer, LAN, PBX, or a terminal
controller. NT12 is a single device that has the functionality of an NT1 and NT2.
NT12 will handle the physical, link, and network layer protocols.
TE includes functions equivalent to Layer 1 and higher. Examples of TE are
digital telephones, data terminal equipment, and integrated workstations. TE
functions include protocol handling, maintenance, and interfacing. TE1's
interface compiles with the ISDN user-network interface (UNI); TE2's does not.
TA includes functions equivalent to Layer 1 and higher. It enables a TE2 to be
served by an ISDN user network interface.
The S/T interface is intended for use on the two twisted-wire pairs(four-wire
twisted pairs)-one to transmit and one to receive- ,allowing full-duplex
communication, between the subscriber terminal equipment and the remote
PBX terminal. U interface is a full-duplex running over a single pair of twisted
wires between the subscriber terminal equipment and the central office switch,
or between a network termination 1(ISDN destination NT1) and the central
office switch. The conversion from four to two wires (NT1 to LT), needed to
maintain consistency with current telephone networks, is done by an echo-
canceling algorithm.
The range of S and T interface is 3300 feet (1000 m) in a point-to point
configuration or up to 500 feet (150 m) in a multi drop passive-bus
configuration. The U interface will have a maximum length of 2500 to 6500 m.
The T bus is a multipoint bus. It is sometimes called passive bus because there
are no repeaters on the line between the NT1 and the devices (TE1). It can be
implemented using the same cable and connectors as is 10 base T Ethernet.
There may be up to 8 devices on the S/T bus. The bus may be formed with
splitters and T connectors- it is bus, not a star. The D channel is used to control
the attachment of the one to eight devices to the two B channels. No two
devices attach to the same B channel at the same time.

ISDN System Architecture

The key idea behind ISDN is that of the digital bit pipe between the customer
and the carrier through which bits flow in both directions. Whether the bits
originate from a digital telephone, a digital terminal, a digital facsimile
machine, or some other device is irrelevant.

The digital bit pipe can support multiple independent channels by time division
multiplexing of the bit stream. Two principal standards for the bit pipe have
been developed:

a low bandwidth standard for home use, and

 a higher bandwidth standard for business use that supports multiple
channels identical to the home use channels.

Normal configuration for a home consists of a network terminating

device NT1 (Fig. 2-41(a)) placed on the customer's premises and
connected to the ISDN exchange in the carrier's office using the twisted
pair previously used to connect the telephone. The NT1 box has a
connector into which a bus cable can be inserted. Up to 8 ISDN
telephones, terminals, alarms, and other devices can be connected to
the cable. From the customer's point of view, the network boundary is
the connector on NT1.
 Fig. 2-41. (a) Example ISDN system for home use. (b) Example ISDN system
with a PBX for use in large businesses

For large businesses, the model of Fig. 2-41(b) is used. There is a device NT2
called PBX (Private Branch eXchange - conceptually the same as an ISDN
switch) there connected to NT1 and providing the interface for ISDN devices.

CCITT defined four reference points (Fig. 2-41):

U reference point = connection between the ISDN exchange and NT1,
T reference point = connector on NT1 to the customer,
S reference point = interface between the ISDN PBX and the ISDN
terminal,

R reference point = the connection between the terminal adapter and non-
ISDN terminal.

ISDN Protocol Architecture

Figure A.5 illustrates, in the context of the OSI model, the protocols defined or
referenced in the ISDN documents. As a network, ISDN is essentially
unconcerned with user layers 4-7. These are end-to-end layers employed by
the user for the exchange of information. Network access is concerned only
with layers 1-3.

Layer 1, specifies the physical interface for both basic and primary access.
Because B and D channels are multiplexed over the same physical interface,
these standards apply to both types of channels. Above this layer, the protocol
structure differs for the two channels.
For the D channel, a new data link layer standard, LAPD (Link Access Protocol,
D channel) has been defined. This standard is based on HDLC, modified to
meet ISDN requirements. All transmission on the D channel is in the form of
LAPD frames that are exchanged between the subscriber equipment and an
ISDN switching element. Three applications are supported: control signaling,
packet switching, and telemetry.

For control signaling, a call control protocol has been defined (1.451|Q.931).
This protocol is used to establish, maintain, and terminate connections on B
channels; thus, it is a protocol between the user and the network. Above layer
3, there is the possibility for higher-layer functions associated with user-to-user
control signaling. These functions are a subject for further study. The D
channel can also be used to provide packet-switching services to the
subscriber. In this case, the X.25 level-3 protocol is used, and X.25 packets are
transmitted in LAPD frames. The X.25 level-3 protocol is used to establish
virtual circuits on the D channel to other users and to exchange packetized
data. The final application area, telemetry, is a subject for further study.
The B channel can be used for circuit switching, semipermanent circuits, and
packet-switching. For circuit switching, a circuit is set up on a B channel, on
demand. The D-channel call control protocol is used for this purpose. Once the
circuit is set up, it may be used for data transfer between the users. A
semipermanent circuit is a B-channel circuit that is set up by prior agreement
between the connected users and the network. As with a circuit-switched
connection, it provides a transparent data path between end systems.

With either a circuit-switched connection or a semipermanent circuit, it

appears to the connected stations that they have a direct, full-duplex link with
each other. They are free to use their own formats, protocols, and frame
synchronization. Hence, from the point of view of ISDN, layers 2 through 7 are
not visible or specified.

In the case of packet-switching, a circuit-switched connection is set up on a B

channel between the user and a packet-switched node using the D-channel
control protocol. Once the circuit is set up on the B channel, the user may
employ X.25 layers 2 and 3 to establish a virtual circuit to another user over
that channel and to exchange packetized data. As an alternative, the frame
relay service may be used. Frame relay can also be used over H channels and
over the D channel.

Link Access Protocol - D Channel (LAPD)

Layer 2 protocol
Almost identical to LAP-B used w/ X.25 (based on HDLC)
Provides unacknowledged information-transfer service (unnumbered
frames, error detection to discard frame but no error control or flow
control) and acknowledged information transfer.

Layer-3 information is transferred in unnumbered frames. Error detection is

used to discard damaged frames, but there is no error control or flow control.

Layer-3 information is transferred in frames that include sequence numbers

and are acknowledged. Error-control and flow-control procedures are included
in the protocol. This type is also referred to in the standard as multiple-frame
operation.

Physical Layer Frame Format

Each frame 1.5 msec long

SYNC field (9 quaternaries) : +3 +3 -3 -3 -3 +3 -3 +3 -3
12 * (8 bits from each B channel + 2 bits from D)
Maintenance contains CRC, other operation info.
ISDN Connections

ISDN provides four types of service for end-to-end communication:

Circuit-switched calls over a B channel.
Semipermanent connections over a B channel.
Packet-switched calls over a B channel.
Packet-switched calls over the D channel.

Circuit-Switched Calls
The network configuration and protocols for circuit switching involve both the B
and D channels. The B channel is used for the transparent exchange of user
data. The communicating users may employ any protocols they wish for end-
to-end communication. The D channel is used to exchange control information
between the user and the network for call establishment and termination, as
well as to gain access to network facilities.

The B channel is serviced by an NT1 or NT2 using only layer-1 functions. On

the D channel, a three-layer network access protocol is used and is explained
below. Finally, the process of establishing a circuit through ISDN involves the
cooperation of switches internal to ISDN to set up the connection. These
switches interact by using an internal protocol: Signaling-System Number7.

Semipermanent Connections

A semipermanent connection between agreed points may be provided for an

indefinite period of time after subscription, for a fixed period, or for agreed-
upon periods during a day, a week, or some other interval. As with circuit-
switched connections, only Layer-1 functionality is provided by the network
interface. The call-control protocol is not needed because the connection
already exists.

Packet-Switched Calls over a B Channel

The ISDN must also permit user access to packet-switched services for data
traffic (e.g., interactive) that is best serviced by packet switching. There are
two possibilities for implementing this service: Either the packet-switching
capability is furnished by a separate network, referred to as a packet-switched
public data network (PSPDN), or the packet-switching capability is integrated
into ISDN. In the former case, the service is provided over a B channel. In the
latter case, the service may be provided over a B or D channel. We first
examine the use of a B channel for packetswitching.

When the packet-switching service is provided by a separate PSPDN, the

access to that service is via a B channel. Both the user and the PSPDN must
therefore be connected as subscribers to the ISDN. In the case of the PSPDN,
one or more of the packet-switching network nodes, referred to as packet
handlers, are connected to ISDN. We can think of each such node as a
traditional X.25 DCE supplemented by the logic needed to access ISDN. That is,
the ISDN subscriber assumes the role of an X.25 DTE, the node in the PSPDN
to which it is connected functions as an X.25 DCE, and the ISDN simply
provides the connection from DTE to DCE. Any ISDN subscriber can then
communicate, via X.25, with any user connected to the PSPDN, including

Users with a direct, permanent connection to the PSPDN.

Users of the ISDN that currently enjoy a connection, through the ISDN, to
the PSPDN.

The connection between the user (via a B channel) and the packet handler
with which it communicates may be either semipermanent or circuit-switched.
In the former case, the connection is always there and the user may freely
invoke X.25 to set up a virtual circuit to another user. In the latter case, the D
channel is involved, and the following sequence of steps occurs (Figure A.6):

1. The user requests, via the D-channel call-control protocol (1.451/Q.931),

a circuit-switched connection on a B channel to a packet handler.
2. The connection is set up by ISDN, and the user is notified via the D
channel call-control protocol.
3. The user sets up a virtual circuit to another user via the X.25 call
establishment procedure on the B channel (described in Section 3.2).
This step requires first that a data link connection, using LAPB, must be
set up between the user and the packet handler.
4. The user terminates the virtual circuit, using X.25 on the B channel.
5. After one or more virtual calls on the B channel, the user is done and
signals via the D channel to terminate the circuit-switched connection to
the packetswitching node.
6. The connection is terminated by ISDN.

Figure A.7 shows the configuration involved in providing this service. In the
figure, the user is shown to employ a DTE device that expects an interface to
an X.25 DCE. Hence, a terminal adapter is required. Alternatively, the X.25
capability can be an integrated function of an ISDN TE1 device, dispensing with
the need for a separate TA.
When the packet-switching service is provided by ISDN, the packet-handling
function is provided within the ISDN, either by separate equipment or as part
of the exchange equipment. The user may connect to a packet handler either
by a B channel or the D channel. On a B channel, the connection to the packet
handler may be either switched or semipermanent, and the same procedures
described above apply for switched connections. In this case, rather than
establish a B-channel connection to another ISDN subscriber that is a PSPDN
packet handler, the connection is to an internal element of ISDN that is a
packet handler.

Packet-Switched Calls over a D Channel

When the packet-switching service is provided internal to the ISDN, it can also
be accessed on the D channel. For this access, ISDN provides a semipermanent
connection to a packet-switching node within the ISDN. The user employs the
X.25 level-3 protocol, as is done in the case of a B-channel virtual call. Here,
the level-3 protocol is carried by LAPD frames. Because the D channel is also
used for control signaling, some means is needed to distinguish between X.25
packet traffic and ISDN control traffic; this is accomplished by means of the
link-layer addressing scheme, as explained below.

Figure A.8 shows the configuration for providing packet-switching within ISDN.
The packet-switching service provided internal to the ISDN over the B and D
channels is logically provided by a single packet-switching network. Thus,
virtual calls can be set up between two D-channel users, two B-channel users,
and between a B and D channel user. In addition, it will be typical to also
provide access to X.25 users on other ISDNs and PSPDNs by appropriate
interworking procedures.

ISDN Specifications

This section describes the various ISDN specifications for Layer 1, Layer 2, and
Layer 3.
Layer 1

ISDN physical layer (Layer 1) frame formats differ depending on whether

the frame is outbound (from terminal to network) or inbound (from network to
terminal). Both physical layer interfaces are shown in Figure 12-2.

The frames are 48 bits long, of which 36 bits represent data. The bits of an
ISDN physical layer frame are used as follows:

Figure 12-2 ISDN Physical Layer Frame Formats Differ Depending on Their
Direction

FProvides synchronization

LAdjusts the average bit value

EEnsures contention resolution when several terminals on a passive bus

contend for a channel

AActivates devices

SIs unassigned

B1, B2, and DHandle user data

Multiple ISDN user devices can be physically attached to one circuit. In this
configuration, collisions can result if two terminals transmit simultaneously.
Therefore, ISDN provides features to determine link contention. When an NT
receives a D bit from the TE, it echoes back the bit in the next E-bit position.
The TE expects the next E bit to be the same as its last transmitted D bit.

Terminals cannot transmit into the D channel unless they first detect a specific
number of ones (indicating "no signal") corresponding to a pre-established
priority. If the TE detects a bit in the echo (E) channel that is different from its
D bits, it must stop transmitting immediately. This simple technique ensures
that only one terminal can transmit its D message at one time. After successful
D-message transmission, the terminal has its priority reduced by requiring it to
detect more continuous ones before transmitting. Terminals cannot raise their
priority until all other devices on the same line have had an opportunity to
send a D message. Telephone connections have higher priority than all other
services, and signaling information has a higher priority than nonsignaling
information.

Layer 2

Layer 2 of the ISDN signaling protocol is Link Access Procedure, D channel

(LAPD). LAPD is similar to High-Level Data Link Control (HDLC) and Link Access
Procedure, Balanced (LAPB) (see Chapter 16, "Synchronous Data Link Control
and Derivatives," and Chapter 17, "X.25," for more information on these
protocols). As the expansion of the LAPD acronym indicates, this layer is used
across the D channel to ensure that control and signaling information flows
and is received properly. The LAPD frame format (see Figure 12-3) is very
similar to that of HDLC; like HDLC, LAPD uses supervisory, information, and
unnumbered frames. The LAPD protocol is formally specified in ITU-T Q.920
and ITU-T Q.921.

Figure 12-3 LAPD Frame Format Is Similar to That of HDLC and LAPB

The LAPD Flag and Control fields are identical to those of HDLC. The LAPD
Address field can be either 1 or 2 bytes long. If the extended address bit of the
first byte is set, the address is 1 byte; if it is not set, the address is 2 bytes.
The first Address-field byte contains the service access point identifier (SAPI),
which identifies the portal at which LAPD services are provided to Layer 3. The
C/R bit indicates whether the frame contains a command or a response. The
Terminal Endpoint Identifier (TEI) field identifies either a single terminal or
multiple terminals. A TEI of all ones indicates a broadcast.
Layer 3

Two Layer 3 specifications are used for ISDN signaling: ITU-T (formerly CCITT)
I.450 (also known as ITU-T Q.930) and ITU-T I.451 (also known as ITU-T Q.931).
Together, these protocols support user-to-user, circuit-switched, and packet-
switched connections. A variety of call-establishment, call-termination,
information, and miscellaneous messages are specified, including SETUP,
CONNECT, RELEASE, USER INFORMATION, CANCEL, STATUS, and DISCONNECT.
These messages are functionally similar to those provided by the X.25
protocol. Figure 12-4, from ITU-T I.451, shows the typical stages of an ISDN
circuit-switched call.
ISDN Connection Establishment and Release

Benefits of ISDN

ISDN affords many benefits to service providers and customers. The increasing
popularity of ISDN allows pricing that continues to fall and compete with
standard analog service. Some of the many benefits are:

Simultaneous audio, video, and data services over a single pair of copper
wires reduces infrastructure and maintenance costs for service and
subscribers.
ISDN BRI service can use data compression which boosts the 128 Kbps
transmission rate to between 256 Kbps and 632 Kbps, depending upon
the compression ratio used.
Digital transmissions produce clearer and quieter voice telephone service
and more reliable and accurate connectivity than analog technology.
Remote computer users benefit from high performance ISDN connections
at home or on the road.
ISDNs dynamic bandwidth allocation feature accommodates the
bandwidth-intensive applications.
Up to eight different devices can be operated simultaneously over a
single ISDN line.
LAN protocols such as IP and IPX are better supported by ISDN
connections across WANs due to faster connect times (between 1 and 4
seconds) than analog service (between 10 and 40 seconds).
 ISDN is compatible with other WAN services like X.25, Frame Relay,
Switched Multi-megabit Data Services (SMDS) and higher speed services
like Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM).

Applications Of ISDN

ISDN in Business

For business users and even residential subscribers, videoconferencing is the

biggest communication advancement that ISDN has to offer. With the
simultaneous high speed transfer of voice and video, ISDN can provide real
time video communication on a PC that once was only capable on
sophisticated systems costing upwards of $100,000.

A shared electronic chalk board is another tool available through ISDN. Ideas
and illustrations can be distributed in real time to remote locations so people in
other cities or other countries can participate in meetings.

Telecommuting is becoming a rule more than an exception; more and more

people are working from home. ISDN provides the facilities for users to tap into
central network resources from the privacy of their own homes and do so with
the functionality of a network node. Node connections are possible with Serial
Line Interface Protocol (SLIP) and Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP).

ISDN in Education

Students will also reap the benefits of videoconferencing by relating with other
students worldwide. Using the video capabilities of ISDN allows students to see
the surroundings of other countries or speak with pen-pals. The value of
videoconferencing in educational settings is unlimited.

Computers have become important learning tools for students. Children are
introduced to computers and networking at an early age, and ISDN allows the
high speed connections to vast amounts of information and resources

BROADBAND ISDN

In the 1980s the telecommunications industry expected that digital services

would follow much the same pattern as voice services did on the public
switched telephone network, and conceived a grandiose vision of end-to-end
circuit switched services, known as the Broadband Integrated Services Digital
Network (B-ISDN). This was designed in the 1990s as a logical extension of the
end-to-end circuit switched data service, ISDN.

CCITT modestly defines B-ISDN as "a service requiring transmission channels

cable of supporting rates greater than the primary rate." Behind this innocuous
statement lie plans for a network and a set of services that will have far more
impact on business and residential customers than ISDN. With B-ISDN,
services, especially video services, requiring data rates in excess of those that
can be delivered by ISDN will become available. To contrast this new network
and these new services to the original concept of ISDN, that original concept is
now being referred to as narrowband ISDN.

The technology for B-ISDN was going to be Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM),
which was intended to carry both synchronous voice and asynchronous data
services on the same transport. The B-ISDN vision has been overtaken by the
disruptive technology of the Internet. The ATM technology survives as a low-
level layer in most DSL technologies, and as a payload type in some wireless
technologies such as WiMAX.

Broandband Integrated Services Digital Network (BISDN or Broadband ISDN) is

designed to handle high-bandwidth applications. BISDN currently uses ATM
technology over SONET-based transmission circuits to provide data rates from
155 to 622Mbps and beyond, contrast with the traditional narrowband ISDN (or
N-ISDN), which is only 64 Kbps basically and up to 2 Mbps.

The designed Broadband ISDN (BISDN) services can be categorized as follows:

Conversational services such as telephone-like services, which was also
supported by N-ISDN. Also the additional bandwidth offered will allow
such services as video telephony, video conferencing and high volume,
high speed data transfer.
Messaging services, which is mainly a store-and-forward type of service.
Applications could include voice and video mail, as well as multi-media
mail and traditional electronic mail.
Retrieval services which provides access to (public) information stores,
and information is sent to the user on demand only.
No user control of presentation. This would be for instance, a TV
broadcast, where the user can choose simply either to view or not.
User controlled presentation. This would apply to broadcast information
that the user can partially control.
The B-ISDN is designed to offer both connection oriented and connectionless
services. The broadband information transfer is provided by the use of
asynchronous transfer mode (ATM), in both cases, using end-to-end logical
connections or virtual circuits. Broadband ISDN uses out-of-band signaling (as
does N-ISDN). Instead of using a D Channel as in N-ISDN, a special virtual
circuit channel can be used for signaling. However, B-ISDN was not widely
deployed so far.

Broadband ISDN Architecture

B-ISDN differs from a narrowband ISDN in a number of ways. To meet the
requirement for high-resolution video, an upper channel rate of approximately
150 Mbps is needed. To simultaneously support one or more interactive and
distributive services, a total subscriber line rate of about 600 Mbps is needed.
In terms of today's installed telephone plant, this is a stupendous data rate to
sustain. The only appropriate technology for widespread support of such data
rates is optical fiber. Hence, the introduction of B-ISDN depends on the pace of
introduction of fiber subscriber loops.
Internal to the network, there is the issue of the switching technique to be
used. The switching facility has to be capable of handling a wide range of
different bit rates and traffic parameters (e.g., burstiness). Despite the
increasing power of digital circuit-switching hardware and the increasing use of
optical fiber trunking, it is difficult to handle the large and diverse
requirements of B-ISDN with circuitswitching technology. For this reason, there
is increasing interest in some type of fast packet-switching as the basic
switching technique for B-ISDN. This form of switching readily supports ATM at
the user-network interface.

Functional Architecture
Figure A.12 depicts the functional architecture of B-ISDN. As with narrowband
ISDN, control of B-ISDN is based on common-channel signaling. Within the
network, an SS7, enhanced to support the expanded capabilities of a higher-
speed network, is used. Similarly, the user-network control-signaling protocol is
an enhanced version of I.451lQ.931.
B-ISDN must, of course, support all of the 64-kbps transmission services, both
circuit-switching and packet-switching, that are supported by narrowband
ISDN; this protects the user's investment and facilitates migration from
narrowband to broadband ISDN. In addition, broadband capabilities are
provided for higher datarate transmission services. At the user-network
interface, these capabilities will be provided with the connection-oriented
asynchronous transfer mode (ATM) facility.

User-Network Interface
The reference configuration defined for narrowband ISDN is considered general
enough to be used for B-ISDN. Figure A.13, which is almost identical to Figure
A.4, shows the reference configuration for B-ISDN. In order to clearly illustrate
the broadband aspects, the notations for reference points and functional
groupings are appended with the letter B (e.g., B-NT1, TB). The broadband
functional groups are equivalent to the functional groups defined for
narrowband ISDN, and are discussed below. Interfaces at the R reference point
may or may not have broadband capabilities.
Transmission Structure
In terms of data rates available to B-ISDN subscribers, three new transmission
services are defined. The first of these consists of a full-duplex 155.52-Mbps
service. The second service defined is asymmetrical; providing transmission
from the subscriber to the network at 155.52 Mbps, and in the other direction
at 622.08 Mbps; and the highest-capacity service yet defined is a full-duplex,
622.08-Mbps service.
A data rate of 155.52 Mbps can certainly support all of the narrowband ISDN
services. That is, such a rate readily supports one or more basic- or primary-
rate interfaces; in addition, it can support most of the B-ISDN services. At that
rate, one or several video channels can be supported, depending on the video
resolution and the coding technique used. Thus, the full-duplex 155.52-Mbps
service will probably be the most common B-ISDN service.
The higher data rate of 622.08 Mbps is needed to handle multiple video
distribution, such as might be required when a business conducts multiple
simultaneous videoconferences. This data rate makes sense in the network-to-
subscriber direction. The typical subscriber will not initiate distribution services
and thus would still be able to use the lower, 155.52-Mbps service. The full-
duplex, 622.08 Mbps service would be appropriate for a video-distribution
provider.