LABORATORY MANUAL

IN GENERAL ZOOLOGY
ANNABEL L. MEDALLA, Ph. D

JAZZLYN M. TANGO, MS Bio

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 PREFACE

General Zoology is a course in college that includes lecture and laboratory phases.
Laboratory work is an essential component of the course because the theories and
principles learned in the classroom are applied, verified and supplemented. It also provides
hands on experiences which enhance the learning of zoological concepts.

This laboratory manual includes activities that correspond to the topics discussed
in the lecture. In each activity, specific objectives are set to guide the students on the things
that need to be done or accomplished and what to consider while performing the activities.

To The Instructors

Learning becomes more meaningful when students are allowed to explore,

manipulate and discover things. As mentors, we always wanted our students to gain
optimum learning, improved scientific skills, and meaningful learning experiences for our
students. To achieve these, it is our task to mold and guide them in their endeavor.

Always see to it that the students are following instructions and they are following
the correct procedure while conducting and experiment or activity. All the needed
materials should be prepared ahead of time. A post lab discussion is necessary to verify
the results and better understanding of concepts.

To The Students

Always read the specific objectives and the procedure in each activity before you
start performing. Follow all safety measures in the laboratory to avoid any untoward
accident. All drawings should be based from the actual specimen observed using a pencil
and should be properly labeled. The activities will be performed by the group however,
the laboratory report should be done and to be submitted individually after the end of the
laboratory period. You should see to it that your work is neat and readable.

Several types of examinations will be given from time to time in order to assess
your performance both in the lecture and laboratory components. Exams can either be
practical, oral, or written, announced and unannounced. Therefore, it is necessary for you
to study and understand the concepts well. Familiarization of the morphology and anatomy
of the frog/toad will help a lot.

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

PREFACE i
LABORATORY SAFETY PROCEDURE ii
DESCRIPTIVE TERMS iii
ACTIVITIES

1 The Compound Microscope 1

2 The Animal Cell 6
3 Calculating Magnification 10
4 Specimen Preparation 12
5 Mitotic Cell Division 16
6 Cell Structures and Functions 19
7 Animal Tissues 22
8 The External Anatomy of the Frog/Toad 28
9 Dissection of a Frog/Toad 31
10 The Muscular System 34
11 The Skeletal System 38
12 The Digestive System 42
13 The Respiratory System 44
14 The Urogenital 46
15 The Circulatory System 49
16 The Nervous System and Sense Organs 51
17 Heredity and Variations 54
18 Animal Diversity 58
19 The Pond Ecosystem 66
20 The Endoparasites 70

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REFERENCES 73

LABORATORY SAFETY PROCEDURES

The risks incurred in the zoology laboratories are minimal and usually
associated with the occasional use of open flames, sharp objects, some noxious chemicals.
Safety precautions are listed below and must be adhered to in all laboratories.

A. GENERAL

1. Work carefully and cautiously in the laboratory, using common sense and good judgment
at all times.

2. EATING. DRINKING AND SMOKING ARE PROHIBITED in the laboratory and

in the laboratory space of a combined lecture/laboratory room.

3. Long hair must be tied back during laboratory sessions.

4. Open toed shoes are prohibited.

5. No sleeveless tops are permitted. Thighs and midriffs must be covered with protective
clothing while working in the laboratory. Lab coats must be worn when directed by the
instructor.

6. Identify the location of all exits from the laboratory and from the building.

7. Be familiar with the location and proper use of fire extinguishers, fire blankets, first aid
kits, spill response kits, and eye wash stations in each laboratory.

8. Report all injuries, spills, breakage of glass or other items, unsafe conditions, and
accidents of any kind, no matter how minor, to the instructor immediately.

10. Keep sinks free of paper or any debris that could interfere with drainage.

11. Lab tables must be clear of all items that are not necessary for the lab exercise.

12. Wash hands and the lab tables with the appropriate cleaning agents before and after
every laboratory session.

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B. OPEN FLAMES - FIRE HAZARD

1. Identify and be familiar with the use of dry chemical fire extinguishers that are located
in the hallways and laboratory rooms.

2. Flames are only to be used under the supervision of the instructor.

C. SHARP OBJECTS AND BROKEN GLASS

1. Pointed dissection probes, scalpels, razor blades, scissors, and microtome knives must
be used with great care, and placed in a safe position when not in use.

2. Containers designated for the disposal of sharps (scalpel blades, razor blades, needles;
dissection pins, etc.) and containers designated for broken glass are present in each
laboratory. Never dispose of any sharp object in the regular trash containers.

3. Report all cuts, no matter how minor, to the instructor. Students with moderate to
extensive bleeding will be referred to the clinic or nearby hospital.

4. There are first aid kits containing antiseptics, bandages, Band-Aids and gloves to care
for minor cuts.

5. Do not touch broken glass with bare hands. Put on gloves and use a broom and dustpan
to clean up glass. Dispose ALL broken glass in the specific container marked for glass. Do
not place broken glass in the regular trash.

6. When cutting with a scalpel or other sharp instrument, forceps may be used to help hold
the specimen. Never use fingers to hold a part of the specimen while cutting.

7. Scalpels and other sharp instruments are only to be used to make cuts in the specimen,
never as a probe or a pointer.

D. NOXIOUS CHEMICALS

1. Use the safety exhaust or fume hood for handling noxious chemicals or fumes.

2. Chemical spill should be cleaned up immediately.

E. INSTRUMENTS AND EQUIPMENT

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Care must be used when handling any equipment in the laboratory. Students are responsible
for being familiar with and following correct safety practices for all instruments and
equipment used in the laboratory.

Microscope Handling

1. Microscopes must be carried upright, with one hand supporting the arm of the
microscope and the other hand supporting the base. Nothing else should be carried at the
same time.

2. Microscope must be positioned safely on the table, NOT near the edge.

3. After plugging the microscope into the electrical outlet, the cord should be draped
carefully up onto the table and never allowed to dangle dangerously to the floor.

4. The coarse adjustment must NEVER be used to focus a specimen when the 40x or oil
immersion lens is in place.

5. When finished with the microscope, the cord should be carefully wrapped around the
microscope before returning it to the cabinet.

6. The microscope must be placed upright and in the appropriate numbered slot in the
cabinet.

7. All prepared microscope glass slides are to be returned to their appropriate slide trays;
wet mount preparations are to be disposed of properly.

8. Malfunctioning microscopes should be reported to the instructor.

Hot Plates and Water Baths

1. The instructor will regulate the temperature of hot plates and water baths with a
thermometer.

2. This equipment must be placed in a safe place.

3. Use insulated gloves or tongs to move beakers or test tubes in and out of the water baths.

4. Use care when working near hot plates and water baths, as they may still be hot even
after being turned off.

F. PRESERVED SPECIMENS

1. Use gloves (latex and non-latex) to handle preserved specimens.

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2. When larger specimens are being dissected, the part of the specimen that is not being
dissected should be kept enclosed in the plastic bag.

3. When dissecting smaller specimens, seal the bag after removing the specimen, so as to
confine the preservative in the specimen bag.

4. Notify the instructor if there is a spill of preservative.

5. Body parts or scraps of the specimen are NOT to be disposed of in the sink.

6. Dispose of dissecting pins or other sharp objects in separate containers, NOT in the
regular trash.

7. Specimens are to be clearly labeled and stored in designated containers or cabinets when
not in use.

8. Follow the directions of the instructor concerning the proper disposal of preserved
specimens after they are finished being used.

G. BODY FLUIDS

Special precautions are to be followed in all laboratories using any body fluids, such as
blood, saliva, and urine, because of the potential to transmit disease-causing organisms.

1. Follow all instructions carefully.

2. Use gloves and goggles in all laboratory experiments that involve the use of body fluids.

3. All contaminated material, such as slides, cover slips, toothpicks, lancets, alcohol swabs,
etc., must be placed in a biohazard bag for proper disposal and should never be reused.

4. No samples of body fluids are to be brought into the laboratory from outside sources.

Descriptive Terms

There are various descriptive terms used in the study of animal anatomy. These
terms indicate the different body surfaces, directions, locations or positions of body parts,
and structures in relation to other structures. The students should be familiar with these
terms especially before dissection.

Aspects of the Body and Cardinal Directions

The aspects of the body and anatomical directions always refer to the normal
horizontal position of the animal (erect position in man).

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 Cephalic/Cranial/Anterior (superior in human anatomy). This refers to the head
end of the animal; the direction towards or beyond the head.
Caudal or Posterior (inferior in human anatomy). This pertains to the tail end of
the animal; the direction towards or beyond the tail.
Dorsal (posterior in human anatomy). This is the back or upper side of the animal;
the direction towards or beyond the back.
Ventral (anterior in human anatomy). It refers to the underside of the animal; the
direction towards or beyond the underside.
Lateral (the same as in human anatomy). It pertains to the sides of the animal
(sinistral, the left side; dextral, the right side); the direction towards or beyond the
side.
Median or Mesal (the same as in human anatomy). It refers to the middle; the
direction towards the middle.

Oblique Directions

The oblique directions are expressed by hyphenated terms. These are used to
indicate directions between two or three of the cardinal directions that are combined. The
terminal letters of the word preceding the hyphen are substituted with the letter o.
Antero-dorsal would refer to the direction between the anterior and dorsal
directions.
Postero-dorso-lateral would mean the direction between the posterior, dorsal and
lateral directions.
Dorso-cephalic would refer to the direction between the dorsal and cephalic
directions.
Caudo-ventral would mean the direction between the caudal or posterior and the
ventral directions.
Cephalo-dorso-lateral refers to the direction between the cephalid, dorsal and
dorsal directions.
Meso-caudo-ventral refers to the direction between the mesal or median, caudal
and ventral directions.

Planes and Axes

The planes or sections and axes serve as references for structures of animal
anatomy.
Median plane is a vertical longitudinal plane extending from the imaginary mid-
dorsal line to the imaginary mid-ventral line passing through the longitudinal axis.
Sagittal plane refers to any vertical longitudinal plane through the body. If it
coincides with the median plane, it is called the median sagittal plane. Any plane
or section parallel with but lateral to the median sagittal plane is called parasagittal.
Horizontal plane (frontal in human anatomy) refers to any plane at right angles to
the median plane and parallel to the dorsal and ventral surfaces of the body.

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 Transverse or Cross plane refers to any plane that cuts vertically across the body
at right angles to the sagittal and horizontal planes.
Longitudinal or antero-posterior axis is an imaginary line along the middle of the
median sagittal plane extending from the anterior to posterior ends of the body.
Sagittal or dorso-ventral axis is an imaginary line along the middle of the median
sagittal plane extending from the dorsal to ventral surfaces of the body.
Transverse or medio-lateral axis is an imaginary line at right angles to the
longitudinal and sagittal axes extending from side to side of the body.

Other Descriptive Terms

Proximal means near the main mass of the body; near a major point of reference.
Distal means away from the main mass of the body; away from a major point of
reference.
Peripheral means near the surface of the body or organ.
Central means near or at the middle of the body or organ.
Superficial or Ectal means on the outer surface of the body or organ.
Deep or Ental means inner or below the surface of the body or organ.
Superior means above.
Inferior means below.
Preaxial means toward the inner or near the axis or median plane.
Postaxial means away or far from the axis or median plane of the body.

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Name ____________________________ Date _______________ Score ___________

Activity No. 1

THE COMPOUND MICROSCOPE

Objectives:

1. To familiarize yourself with the microscope.

2. To identify its parts and its functions.
3. To suggest ways of caring the microscope.

Material: Compound microscope

The microscope is a very valuable instrument. It enables us to get minute objects at

higher magnification. The parts of the microscope can be divided into three groups namely:
supporting system to hold the parts together, illuminating system to provide light and the
optical system to magnify the specimens. The microscope is a sensitive, delicate and
expensive instrument thus it must be handled with great care.

When handling the microscope please observe the following:

1. In carrying the microscope, hold the arm with one hand and support the base
with the other hand.
2. Use only soft lens paper to clean the lenses and the mirrors.
3. Never allow the liquid used in mounting the specimen to spill over the stage.
4. Do not remove lenses and objectives. They may accumulate dust and/or get
scratched.

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Parts of a Compound Microscope:

A. Supporting System
The base supports the whole microscope.
The arm is where the instrument is held when in transit.
The body tube holds the eyepiece.
The stage has an aperture where the specimen is placed and held by the
stage clips

B. Illuminating System

The mirror which is screwed to the base reflects light upwards. The light
may come from a lamp, or ordinary daylight. Usually, the concave mirror is
used for illumination. Some microscopes use a built-in light source instead of a
mirror.
Below the stage is the iris diaphragm that regulates the amount of light
passing upward from the mirror to the condenser, which focuses light on the
specimen to be studied.

C. Magnifying System or Optical System

At the upper end of the body tube is mounted the eyepiece or ocular, whose
lens magnifies ten times (10x), as labeled on its surface.

At the lower end of the tube, the revolving nosepiece is found with 2 or 3
objectives. The low power objective (LPO) magnifies 10x and is used to locate
the specimen. The high-power objective (HPO) magnifies 40x or 60x and is
used to focus on a specific part of the specimen.

The coarse adjustment knob is used to bring the specimen into focus under
low power while fine adjustment knob is for focusing under high power.

The total magnification of a specimen is equal to the product of the

magnifications of the eyepiece and objective being used. So with a 10x
eyepiece, under 10x low power objective the total magnification is 100x.

Care of the Eyes

Proper care of the eyes should be observed in microscopy to avoid fatigue or

damage to vision. The following ways are suggested:

1. Adjust the mirror and the opening of the diaphragm must be adjusted so that
the amount of light obtained is just enough for the object to be seen by the
eye without strain. Too much light can be glaring and this will cause eye
fatigue.

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 2. Keep both eyes open in when viewing under the microscope. Focusing with
only one eye will result in fatigue of eye muscles. Usually, the left eye is used
for microscope work while the right eye is for drawing. It would be wise to
alternate the eyes at work to avoid fatigue. In doing this, you must remember
that your eyes may not have the same grade of vision. So simply manipulate
the fine adjustment knob until the proper focus is obtained.

3. If you are wearing eyeglasses to correct near or farsightedness, the eyeglasses

need not be worn when using the microscope. Just manipulate the fine
adjustment knob to obtain a clear focus. However, if your eyeglasses are used
to correct astigmatism or for reading, it is necessary to wear them in order to
prevent headache.

Activities:

1. Identify the parts by labeling the microscope in the diagram and indicate the
function of each part.
2. Draw other types of microscope and describe each type. (Use a pencil).

Diagram:

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PARTS FUNCTIONS

Optical Parts

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_____________________________
_____________________________
_____________________________
_____________________________
Mechanical Parts
_____________________________
_____________________________
_____________________________
_____________________________
_____________________________
Illuminating Parts
_____________________________
_____________________________
_____________________________
_____________________________
Other Types of Microscope
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______________________________
______________________________
______________________________
______________________________
______________________________
______________________________
______________________________
______________________________
______________________________
______________________________
______________________________
______________________________
______________________________
Conclusions:

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Name ______________________________ Date _______________ Score __________

Activity No. 2

THE ANIMAL CELL

Objectives:

1. To prepare an animal cell from inner cheek lining.

2. To examine an animal cell and identify the different parts of the cell under light
microscopy.
3. To examine different shapes of cells and be able to correlate the shape of the cell
to its function.
4. To be able to construct a two dimensional model of a DNA.

Materials:

toothpick 250ml beaker

glass slide and cover slip distilled water
dropper tissue paper
methylene blue DNA kit

The cell is the fundamental unit of structure and function of living organisms. It is
composed of organelles which are necessary for its metabolism and self perpetuation. The
living material of the cell is called protoplasm which is subdivided into the nucleus and
cytoplasm. The two types of cells found in the multicellular animals are the somatic or
body cells and the germ or sex cells.

The parts of the cell are:

1. Plasma membrane. Serving as the security guard of the cell, it is the flexible outer
covering of the cell which regulates the entry and exit of materials into and from
the cell.

2. Cytoplasm. It is colloidal in nature with a liquid portion called the hyaloplasm; it is

where organelles and substances are dispersed. The organelles found in the
cytoplasm are:
a. Mitochondria. The powerhouse of the cell, it is a sausage-shaped pod with
an outer double membrane and folded inner wall. The folds are called cristae
where oxidative enzymes are found. These enzymes are responsible for the
synthesis of energy rich compound called adenosine triphosphate (ATP).
b. Golgi apparatus. The packaging center of the cell, it is made up of layers
of tubules and vesicles which show direct connection with the endoplasmic
reticulum. It functions in the storage and packaging of cellular products
(e.g., protein).

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 c. Endoplasmic reticulum. It is a fine interconnected network of channels
where substances are transported to the different parts of the cell. The two
types are: The Rough endoplasmic reticulum. This is the endoplasmic
reticulum with ribosomes on the surface; it is associated with protein
synthesis. The Smooth endoplasmic reticulum. This is the endoplasmic
reticulum without ribosomes associated with steroid synthesis.

d. Lysosomes also called the suicide bag. This organelle contains enzymes
necessary for digestion.

e. Vacuoles. These are spherical bodies with a defined outer membrane

containing non-living materials.

f. Nucleus. It is the control center of the cells activities including

reproduction.

g. Centrioles. These are cylindrical bodies located near the nucleus; they play
an important role in cell division.

Exercise 2-A

Animal Cells

Procedure:

Using a clean toothpick, gently rub the inside of your cheek. Place the sample on a
clean glass slide. Let it dry. When the preparation is fairly dry, add a drop of distilled water
and stain with a drop of methylene blue. Place a cover slip on the preparation and observe
under the low power objective (LPO) and the high power objective (HPO) of the
microscope.

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Activity:

Draw the cells of the inner cheek lining that you observed under HPO and label the
parts that you see. Compare your drawing with the illustration below.

Cells of the inner cheek lining

Drawing of the Inner Cheek Lining as seen from the Microscope

Observations

1. What organelles stain darkly in the animal cell?

2. What is the function or role of this organelle in the cell?

3. What organelles are readily seen under the light microscope?

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4. Why are these organelles readily seen in LM?

Conclusions:

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Name ______________________________ Date ________________Score __________

Activity No. 3

CALCULATING MAGNIFICATION
Objectives:

1. To calculate the linear magnification of the specimen by taking the product of the
magnification of the eyepiece and the objective.
2. To differentiate the image seen in the low power objective and high power
objective.
3. To compare the movement of the image in reference to the movement of the slide.

Materials:

Microscope
Slides and cover slips
Root of hair

Accurate magnification is obtained by the use of micrometer eye-piece. This is

usually a calibrated disk attached to the eyepiece of the microscope. For ordinary purposes
and in general laboratory use in an introductory course, linear magnification is most often
used. Linear magnification is obtained by taking the product of the magnification of the
eyepiece and the objective.

Procedure:

1. Pull out a hair from your head. Cut off one centimeter length from the base. Mount
this upright on a slide. Add a very little mount of water to keep the delicate hair
root from drying. Cover with a cover slip. If the specimen begins to dry add one
drop of water at the edge of the cover slip.

2. Put the specimen at the center of the stage. Focus under low power by following
the steps below:
a. Set the low power objective in direct line with the tube and the hole in the
stage.
b. Set the diaphragm at its maximum opening.

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 c. Looking through the eyepiece move the mirror around until you get the
brightest light possible.
d. Turn the coarse adjustment screw downward to its maximum distance.
e. Look through the eyepiece and slowly turn the course adjustment screw
towards you until you see the object clearly. Reminder: Always focus
upwards not downwards when you are looking through the eyepiece.
f. Move the specimen until you see the root of the hair. Note the size,
appearance and position of the image.
g. Get the linear magnification.

3. Without moving the adjustment knobs, turn the revolving nosepiece around and put
the high power objective in position. A slight click will be heard if the objective is in
position. Look through the eyepiece and check the clarity of the image. Use the fine
adjustment screw to get a clearer image. Move the specimen until you see the root of
the hair. Get the linear magnification. Note also the size, appearance and position of
the image under the high power objective. Reminder: Do not use the coarse adjustment
screw when using HPO.

Observations:

1. How does the image in the low power objective differ from that of the high power
magnification?
2. When you tried moving the specimen to put it at the center and/or to see the root of
the hair, what did you notice with the movement of the image in reference to the
movement of the slide?

Activities:

1. Draw the image as you saw it in the low power objective.

2. Practice using your microscope by mounting small animals or parts of animals (i.e.
scale antenna, skin, etc.). Record your observations.

Diagrams: Observations:

LPO

HPO

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Conclusions:

Name _____________________________ Date _______________ Score ___________

Activity No. 4

SPECIMEN PREPARATON

Objectives:

1. To gain knowledge in slide preparation.

2. To prepare fresh specimens for microscopic work.

Materials:

Microscope, slides and cover glasses, Petri dish

Biological stains, physiological salt solution
Sterile lancet or needle, toothpick, dissecting needle
Small piece of flesh/meat from frogs leg

Slides that are professionally prepared are ideal for microscopic work. However,
fresh specimens that are properly prepared can be very good substitutes. In this activity,
the students will actually prepare fresh specimens of their own for microscopic work. This
activity will likewise enable the students to gain some knowledge in slide preparation.

Procedure:

A. Preparation of Blood Smear

1. Prepare a clean pair of glass slides. Swab your finger with alcohol. Puncture
your fingertip with a sterile lancet/needle.
2. Let a drop of blood fall on one end of the slide. Cover or let the end of the
other slide come in contact with the blood droplet. Draw the second slide
across the first slide at an angle to make a thin smear of blood. Dry the smear
in air.

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 3. Observe the unstained smear under the high power objective. Make your
observations.
4. Stain this smear by following the method below. Then observe under the
high power also. Compare results.
Add a few drops of Wright stain to the smear. Be sure the whole
smear is covered with the stain. (2 minutes)
Add an equal amount of water. (2 minutes)
Wash by overflooding with water.
Dry in air.
5. Observe under HPO.

B. Squamous Cells from the Inner Lining of the Cheek

1. With a clean toothpick scrape the inner lining of your cheek. Wash the
scrapings on a drop of physiological salt solution on a slide. Add a little
amount of methylene blue. Cover. Let stand for 3-5 minutes. Observe under
HPO.
2. Make your observations as to the shape of the cells, the type of nucleus and
arrangement of the cells.

C. Maceration Technique

1. Place a small piece of flesh on a drop of saline on a slide. Tease gently with
a sharp pointed needle to separate the muscle fibers. (For smooth muscles
use a macerating fluid). Add one or two drops of methylene blue. Cover.
Let stand for 3-5 minutes.
2. Make your observations on the cells under high power.

Activity:

1. Draw the cells you saw in each specimen. Write your observation opposite your
drawing.

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Diagrams: Observations

Blood Cells (Unstained) Blood Cells (Stained)

Mag. ______________ Mag. ______________

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Squamous Cells (Unstained) Squamous Cells (Stained)
Mag. _________ Mag. _________

Muscle Cells (Unstained) Muscle Cells (Stained)

Mag. ________ Mag. _________

Conclusions:

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Name ______________________________ Date _______________ Score __________

Activity No. 5

MITOTIC CELL DIVISION

Objectives:

1. To describe the different phases in animal cell mitosis.

2. To determine the reasons why cells divide by mitosis.

Materials:

Demonstration slide on animal mitosis

The life cycle of a cell is composed of four phases namely: G1 (Growth Phase 1), S
(Synthesis Phase), G2 (Growth Phase 2) and M (Mitosis).

G1 is characterized by the increase in size of the newly formed cells due to the
addition of new cytoplasmic materials. S is the phase where the DNA is duplicated. G2 is
another period of growth. Mitosis follows. At the end of mitosis, two identical daughter
cells are produced from one parent cell. These newly formed cells enter another G1 Phase.
The G1, S, and G2 Phases comprise the so-called Interphase Stage.

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Activities:

1. Study the animal mitosis slide under HPO. Locate the different stages of mitosis
in the specimen. Use your textbook for reference.
2. Draw and label the different stages of mitosis. Describe each stage of mitosis
briefly.
3. Give the reasons why cells divide by mitosis.

Diagrams:

Description of the Stages of Mitosis:

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The Reasons why cells divide by mitosis?

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Conclusions:

Name ______________________________ Date _______________ Score __________

Activity No. 6

CELL SRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS

Objectives:

1. To distinguish between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cell.

2. To describe the characteristics of the different types of cells.

Materials:

Demonstration slides on: muscle cells, nerve cells, cuboidal cells, columnar cells,
sperm cells, egg cells, squamous cells.

Generally, cells are classified as eukaryotic and prokaryotic. Eukaryotes contain

membrane-bound nuclei as well as membrane bound organelles. They reproduce by
mitosis. Because their nuclei are bound by membrane, eukaryotic cells are said to have true

29
nuclei. The cells of multicellular plants and animals belong to this group. Prokaryotes on
the other hand, do not have membrane bound nuclei nor membrane enclosed organelles.
Their mode of reproduction is simple by binary fission. Bacteria and blue-green algae
belong to this group.

Eukaryotic cells can be distinguished from one another because of variations in

their structure and function.

Activities:

1. Observe the specimens under HPO. Take note of their size and shape.
2. Make a diagram of each cell type observed. Label the parts.
3. Compare the different cell types studied. Use the following characteristics as your
bases of comparison:
a. Basic shape
b. Relative size
c. Location of the cell in the body
d. Function

Diagrams:

Muscle Cells Nerve Cells

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Cuboidal Cells Columnar Cells

Sperm Cells Egg Cells

Observations:

Cell Types Basic Shape Relative Size Location Function

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Conclusion:

Activity No. 7

ANIMAL TISSUES

Objectives:

1. To examine the different types of animals tissues.

2. To describe the characteristics and functions of these animal tissues.

Materials:

Demonstration slides and/or transparencies on the following:

skin of man and skin of frog (x-sec.)

stomach and intestines of frog (x-sec.)

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 testis and ovary of frog
liver, kidney and pancreas (x-sec.)
spinal cord (x-sec)
nerve (l.s.)
bones and cartilage
overhead projector/carousel projector/compound microscope

Tissues are group of cells that perform specific functions. This activity will show
you the different types of tissues in the body.

This activity is best performed with the use of projector and transparencies so that
specimens that are similar can be projected at one time to enable you to perceive differences
as well as similarities immediately. If projectors and transparencies are not immediately
available, the microscopic slides and microscope should be used.

This activity is divided into sections. You are not expected to finish this work in
one laboratory period. It is presumed however that at least one section can be finished in
one sitting. Submit this finished section to the teacher at the end of the period.

Activities:

A. Histology of the Skin

1. Study the cross section of the frog skin and the human skin side by side.
Note the layers of the skin and the parts found therein. What are these parts
for? Identify them.
2. Compare your skin with that of the frog skin. Tabulate the differences. Give
an explanation as to why such differences occur.
3. Draw the cross section of the frog skin and the human skin side by side.
Label common parts at the middle (between the two diagrams) and the other
parts on each side of the diagrams.
B. Histology of the Organs for Digestion

1. Study the cross section of the stomach and the intestines side by side. Note
the differences as well as the similarities between these two organs. Notice
that both are divided into four layers: mucosa, submucosa, muscularis and
serosa. Can you find any differences in the layers that make up the walls of
the two organs? Why?
2. Study the details of the mucosa of each organ under HPO. The mucosa of
the stomach is divided into larger folds called rugae. What are the functions
of the rugae? What are the cells that make up the inner lining of the
stomach? The inner lining of the intestine are divided into small finger-like
projections called villi. What are these structures for?
3. Look for goblet cells in the mucosa of the stomach. How could you
differentiate goblet cells from ordinary columnar cells? What are goblet
cells for?

33
 4. Study the details of the muscular walls of the two organs under HPO. What
kind of muscle cells do you find? How do you relate this with the function
of the stomach and intestines?
5. Draw the stomach and the intestine (x-sec.) side by side. Label the parts
properly.

C. Histology of Secretory Glands

1. Study the general outline of the cross section of the liver under LPO.
Describe what you see. Do the same with the kidney (x-sec.) and the
pancreas (x-sec.).
2. Study in detail the liver under HPO. It will show both the blood capillaries
and the bile capillaries. The former contain numerous blood cells while the
latter show clear spaces in the specimen. Pay more attention to the bile
capillaries. What kind of cells do you find around these spaces? Notice also
the secretory cells that make up the mass of the liver. Describe the cells that
make up the mass of the liver. Describe the cells. Scattered among these
cells are darkly pigmented substances. What are these?
3. The spaces in the kidney section are the kidney tubules. Look at the cells
that make up the wall of these tubules. Describe them. What are these
tubules for?
4. Examine the section from the pancreas closely under HPO. How does the
pancreas (x-sec.) compare with the other secretory glands?
5. Draw sections of the three glands. Label the parts.

D. Histology of the Reproductive Organs

1. Remove the testis of the freshly killed frog. Crush this in a few drops of
normal saline in a Petri dish. The solution will turn milky. Transfer a drop
of this solution to a slide. Cover. Observe under HPO. Look for the minute
rapidly wriggling cells. These are the sperm cells. Describe its movement.
How do the cells look like? How do they compare with the human sperm
cells?
2. Examine the stained section of a frogs testis under HPO. Look for a few
semineferous tubules. Look for the different types of cells inside the tubule.
These cells represent the different stages of development of the reproductive
cells. They represent the various stages of spermatogenesis. Sketch one
semineferous tubule. Give the name of the cells inside the tubule. Did you
find all the cell types spermatogonia, spermatocytes, spermatids,
spermatozoa in only one tubule? Use a suitable reference to help you
recognize these cell types.
3. Examine a section of the frogs ovary under the LPO. The smaller cells are
the oogonia/ovogonia. They contain a little amount of yolk material and are
not fully developed yet. The bigger cells are the oocytes/ovocytes. They
contain a large amount of yolk materials and are quiet matured. What is the

34
 function of the yolk material present in egg cells? Compare the egg cells
and the sperm cells.
4. Draw the frogs ovary showing the different stages of development of the
egg cells.

D. The Nervous Tissues

1. Examine a slide containing the cross section of the frogs spinal cord under
the LPO. Note the membrane that encloses the spinal cord. What is the name
of this membrane? Below this membrane is a space the subdural space.
What is this for?
2. The spinal cord proper which comes after the subdural space is enclosed by
still another membrane. Locate this membrane. How is it called? Note the
division of the spinal cord proper. The inner layer appears to be spongy and
made up of cells. What are these cells? Besides the cells what else can you
find in this inner layer? The outer layer of the spinal cord is more dense.
What make up the outer layer? Refer to your textbook to recognize the parts
found in each layer.
3. Look at the longitudinal section of a nerve fiber under HPO. Look for the
transparent portion at the center. This is the axis cylinder. What is it for?
The cylinder is covered by a membrane or sheath the Sheath of Schwann
also called the neurilemma. At intervals you may find nodes the Nodes of
Ranvier. What is the role of the sheath in the transmission of impulses along
a nerve fiber? Locate the myelin sheath. What is it for?
4. Draw the spinal cord (x-sec.) and the nerve (l. s.). label the parts of each.

E. Connective Tissues

1. Examine a prepared slide of the hyaline cartilage under the high power.
Notice the way the cells are arranged. Some of the cells are in groups of
twos or threes inside the spaces called the lacunae. Can you give a reason
why the cells are arranged this way? Where can you usually find the
cartilage in the frogs body? What functions do these structures serve?
2. Examine a prepared slide of bone ground thin under the low power first.
Locate the large cavities called the harvesian canals. These canals are for
the passage of food, oxygen and minerals to the bone cells. Focus on one of
these and shift to high poser. Notice that the matrix of the bone called the
lamellae are arranged in concentric layers around the haversian canal. Fine
lines the canaliculi are found here: what are these for? Locate the bone
cells. How are they arranged?
3. Draw and label the parts of the cartilage and the bone.

35
Name ______________________________ Date ________________ Score ________

Activity No. 7

ANIMAL TISSUES

36
Section A Histology of the Skin:

Frog Skin (x-sec.) Human Skin (x-sec)

Comparison of Frog Skin and Human Skin

Mode of Difference Frog Skin Human Skin

Section A (cont.)

Layers of the skin: Frog

Epidermis Parts Involved Function

37
 1. ______________________________________________
2. ______________________________________________
3. ______________________________________________
4. ______________________________________________

Dermis
1. ______________________________________________
2. ______________________________________________
3. ______________________________________________
4. ______________________________________________
5. ______________________________________________

Layers of the Skin: Human

Epidermis
1. ______________________________________________
2. ______________________________________________
3. ______________________________________________
4. ______________________________________________

Dermis
1. ______________________________________________
2. ______________________________________________
3. ______________________________________________
4. ______________________________________________
5. ______________________________________________

Activity No. 8

38
 THE EXTERNAL ANATOMY OF THE FROG/TOAD

Objectives:
1. To familiarize the external anatomy of the frog/toad.
2. To identify the body parts of the medial axial region and the peripheral
appendicular region.

Materials:

Alive frog/toad
Aquarium half filled with water
Stopwatch
Strings

Organs and organ systems are best studied with the use of dissected specimens. The
frog (Rana magna) and the toad (Bufo marinus) are the most commonly used animals in
the Zoology laboratory because of their relative size which makes it more convenient to
handle and there is an abundant supply for continuous laboratory study.

The body of the frog is divided into a medial axial region, composed of the head
and trunk, and a peripheral appendicular region, composed of the paired forelimbs and
hindlimbs.

Frogs can be recognized from toads very easily. The table below will help you.

Bases Frogs Toads

Texture and color of skin
Shape of the head
Shape of the body
Shape of the tongue
Habitat
Slimy, darkly colored Rough, warty, light colored
Pointed, elongated Blunt, wide
Elongated and slim Flat and wide
Notched at the base Oval and broad
Trees and grassy areas Rocky, stony places

It is advisable for you to catch your specimen yourself. This will give you a chance to
observe the animals at their natural habitat. Tie the leg of the animal with a string and keep
under a shrub for the night. In bringing the specimen to the class, put in a small glass jar or
bottle with your name. be sure the lid of the bottle is not tightly closed.

Activities:

1. Put the specimen on a pan. Secure the frog so that it cannot escape. Notice the
way it breaths.

2. Locate the eyes. Notice that it is protected by three eyelids. It has thick upper
and lower eyelids and a thick transparent membrane called nictitating
membrane. In man, this third eyelid is a vestigial structure called plica
semilunaris found as a triangular fold at the inner corner of the eye. Touch the

39
 eyeball. Give the action of each eyelid in closing the eye. What is the role of
the third membrane when the animal is on land?

3. Observe the two pairs of appendages. Push the animal from behind to induce it
to jump relax the strings so they can jump freely. Observe the action of each
pair of legs when the animal jumps; lands; hops; rests. What is the correlation
between the size of the legs and their functions?

4. Feel the skin on the dorsal and ventral sides. Note any difference? Why?
Examine the coloration. Any variation? Why? Locate the enlarged glands
below the tympanic membrane at both sides of the neck. These are the poison
glands. What are they for? The tympanic membrane is not necessarily an organ
for hearing. What is its special function?

5. Determine the sex of your specimen use a suitable reference. Upon dissection,
you will verify if you were right. Why?

6. Put the specimen in an aquarium half filled with water. Let it swim freely.
Notice the action of both legs. Look at the toes and note the webs. Do the
webs perform any special function?

7. Draw and label the dorsal view of a frog/toad showing all the external parts
mentioned.

40
Name ______________________________ Date _______________ Score ________

Activity No. 8

THE EXTERNAL ANATOMY OF THE FROG/TOAD

Diagram: ( Indicate the taxonomic classification of your specimen whether frog or toad).

Frog (Dorsal View)

Conclusion:

41
 Activity No. 9

DISSECTING OF FROG/TOAD

Objectives:
1. To familiarize the procedure in dissecting a frog/toad.
2. To be able to dissect a frog/toad following correct procedure.

Materials:

Dissecting pan
Dissecting Set
Live frog/toad
Chloroform and formalin
Preserving bottle

The specimen can be prepared for dissection by pithing. Others may prefer to
etherize their specimen. To do this, have a bottle with tight cover ready. Put your specimen
in the bottle und put a piece of cotton moistened with chloroform in the bottle. Cover. A
few minutes after, the specimen will be ready for dissection.

Lay the newly etherized/pithed specimen on a dissecting pan in a supine position.

Pin the legs to the dissecting pan. Follow the procedures below:

1. Cut the skin along the mid-ventral line to expose the muscles.
2. Locate the abdominal vein which lies along the mid-ventral line. Cut the
muscles along not across this vein to avoid excessive bleeding.
3. Cut the sternum or breastbone with a pair of scissors to expose the pulsating
heart. Pin the muscles away to expose all the other organs.

Activities:

1. Observe the beating of the heart. Count the number of beats per minute. Get the
average of three trials. Compare with your own heartbeats. Describe the heart
of the frog/toad as it beats.

2. Expose all the internal organs. Try to identify them. How do the organs of the
frog/toad compare with that of man? Describe the organs of the frog/toad.

3. Draw the specimen showing the correct placement of these organs.

42
 4. Put back the specimen in the bottle. Ask for formalin from the teacher to
preserve your specimen.

Name ____________________________ Date _______________ Score __________

Activity No. 9

DISSECTING OF FROG/ TOAD

Diagram:

43
Observations:

1. Frogs Heartbeat

1st trial
2nd trial
3rd trial
Average ..

2. Describe the beating of the heart.

3. How do the organs of the frog compare with that of man?

44
 Activity No. 10

THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM

Objectives:
1. To be able to identify the different muscles of the frog/toad.
2. To acquire knowledge on how these muscles are involved or
coordinated in locomotion.

Materials:

Preserved frog/toad
Dissecting set

Muscles are responsible for movement and locomotion. They are found attached to
the skeleton or in the walls of internal organs like blood vessels, stomach, intestine and
heart. Those attached to the skeleton are aptly called skeletal muscles, while those forming
the walls of the internal organs are the visceral muscles. Heart muscles are specifically
called the cardiac muscles. Know the different properties of each type of muscle tissues
including the cardiac muscle. Are there any similarities? Differences?

Skeletal muscles are covered by a connective tissue known as fascia. It continues

at the end of the muscles and serves as muscle attachment to bones. If this fascia at the
muscle end is thick and cord-like, it is called a tendon, if thin and flat, it is known as
aponeurosis.

The action of muscles varies as to their location and attachment. Muscles that bend
body parts are flexors while those that extend body parts are extensors. Some muscles
abduct body parts while others abduct these parts. There are muscle pairs that protract and
retract body parts while still others raise and lower these parts. The type of locomotion that
any body part performs therefore depends to a large degree on the antagonistic action of
the muscle pairs in these parts.

Activities:

45
A. Skin the toad to expose the superficial muscles. In this study, the toads have an
advantage over the frogs in that their muscles are much more defined and clear.

B. To study a typical skeletal muscle, examine the large muscle at the back of the
shank, the gastrocnemius or calf muscle. It is loosely bound to the adjoining
shank muscles by means of superficial fascia. Loosen the connection and notice
that the gastrocnemius is attached at two points, with the unattached middle part
known as its belly. When a muscle contracts, its point of attachment that mains
more or less fixed is known as its origin. When there are more than one origin,
these are called heads. In the case of gastrocnemius, it has 2 heads, found at the
knee. The point of attachment that becomes movable during contraction is
known as insertion. More than one point of insertion are called slips. The
gastrocnemius is inserted by a tough tendon, the tendon of Achilles.

C. Examine the muscles of the lower jaw. Identify these muscles. Do they serve
any special function? Name them.

D. Look at the muscles of the chest. Notice that these muscles are the most massive
in the trunk area. Why? Identify these muscles.

E. The abdominal cavity is enclosed by thin sheets of muscles. Identify these

muscles. Describe also the arrangement of the fibers here.

F. Draw the muscular system of frog. Label the parts.

46
Name _____________________________ Date ______________ Score __________

Activity No. 10

THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM

Diagrams:

47
List of Muscles:
Lower Jaw
________________________
________________________
Chest
________________________
________________________
________________________
Abdomen
________________________
________________________
Thigh
________________________
________________________
________________________
________________________
________________________
________________________
________________________
________________________
________________________
________________________
48
Action/Functions
______________________________
______________________________
______________________________
______________________________
______________________________
______________________________
______________________________
______________________________
______________________________
______________________________
______________________________
______________________________
______________________________
______________________________
______________________________
______________________________
______________________________
 ________________________ ______________________________

Shank
________________________
________________________
________________________
________________________
________________________
______________________________
______________________________
______________________________
______________________________
______________________________

Activity No. 11

THE SKELETAL SYSTEM

Objectives:
1. To identify the different bones of the frog/toad and their functions.
2. to be able to relate these bones to the human skeletal system.

Materials:

Bones of the frog/toad dried and mounted

In studying the skeletal system, attention must be focused on the following:

appearance of bones, attachment of bones, number of each type of bone, function of a set
of bones, cavities formed by the bones and the cartilages that go with the set of bones.

Activities:

A. Look at a complete set of skeleton. Notice where the following are attached. Skull;
vertebral column; forelegs; hindlegs.

B. Look at the head region closely. Notice that there are a lot of cavities in this area,
the most notable of which are the following: orbits, foramen, magnum, nasal
sinuses. What are these cavities for? Using the suitable reference, identify the bones
of the skull both on the dorsal and the ventral vies. Which of these bones house and
protect the brain? Which of these bones protect the eyeballs? The inner ears? Nasal
passages? Where are the teeth of the frog attached?

49
 C. Look at the pectoral girdle where the forelegs are attached. Notice that the forelegs
are fitted into a cavity the glenoid fossa. Identify the bones of the pectorial girdle.
Do they serve any special function? Examine the forelegs. Notice the peculiar
characteristics of the bones that form the forelegs. Identify these bones.

D. Look at the pelvic girdle where the hindlegs are attached. The femur of the hindleg
articulates with the cavity at the side of the pelvic girdle the acetabulum. Identify
the bones of the pelvic girdle and the hindlegs.

E. Look at the bones of the vertebral column. What kind of joint make possible the
attachment of vertebrae? Note that the ten vertebrae are not the same. In what ways
are they different? Evidently these bones do not help much in locomotion. What
are they for?

F. Make a summary table of all the bones, their number, location.

G. Draw and label the complete skeletal system of frog/toad.

Name ____________________________ Date ________________ Score _________

Activity No. 11

THE SKELETAL SYSTEM

Diagrams:

50
 Complete Skeletal System of Frog/Toad
List of bones:

Skull Number Location

__________________ ____________________ _______________________
__________________ ____________________ _______________________
__________________ ____________________ _______________________
__________________ ____________________ _______________________
__________________ ____________________ _______________________
__________________ ____________________ _______________________
__________________ ____________________ _______________________
__________________ ____________________ _______________________
__________________ ____________________ _______________________
__________________ ____________________ _______________________
__________________ ____________________ _______________________
__________________ ____________________ _______________________
__________________ ____________________ _______________________
__________________ ____________________ _______________________

Hindlegs
__________________ ____________________ _______________________
__________________ ____________________ _______________________

51
__________________ ____________________ _______________________
__________________ ____________________ _______________________
__________________ ____________________ _______________________

Forelegs
__________________ ____________________ _______________________
__________________ ____________________ _______________________
__________________ ____________________ _______________________
__________________ ____________________ _______________________
__________________ ____________________ _______________________

Pectoral Girdles
__________________ ____________________ _______________________
__________________ ____________________ _______________________
__________________ ____________________ _______________________
__________________ ____________________ _______________________
__________________ ____________________ _______________________

Pelvic Girdle
__________________ ____________________ _______________________
__________________ ____________________ _______________________
__________________ ____________________ _______________________
__________________ ____________________ _______________________
__________________ ____________________ _______________________

Vertebral Column
__________________ ____________________ _______________________
__________________ ____________________ _______________________
__________________ ____________________ _______________________
__________________ ____________________ _______________________
__________________ ____________________ _______________________

Observations:

52
Conclusions:

Activity No. 12

THE DIGESTIVE YSTEM

Objectives:
1. To identify the organs of digestion.
2. To describe the function of each organ of digestion.

Materials:

Dissected frog/toad
Dissecting set and pan
Toothpick and pins

The digestive system is concerned with the breaking down of food into simpler
forms. The digestion of food is accomplished by the enzymes produced in mucosa of the
stomach and intestines as well as the juices coming from the pancreas and the liver. Since
the buccal cavity contains the organs for food getting it is also included in this system.

53
Activities:

1. Open the buccal cavity. Examine the tongue. How does it compare with your
tongue? Why the difference? Feel the upper and lower jaws for the presence of
teeth the maxilliary and vomerine teeth. Where do you find each? What are
they for? Locate the pharynx at the back of the tongue. Insert a toothpick. Where
does it lead you?

2. Look for the bag-like muscular structure partly covered by the liver. This is the
stomach. Cut this open longitudinally and sort out its contents. What constitute
the average diet of the frog/toad? Examine the mucosa of the stomach.
Describe. Do the rugae and the mucus perform any digestive function?

3. Look for the pancreas an elongated yellowish body just behind the stomach.
Notice that it is attached to the duodenum of the small intestines by means of a
duct the common bile duct. The common bile duct is also the same duct that
brings the secretion of the liver the bile to the duodenum. Give the digestive
functions of these two organs which pour their secretions to the small intestines.

4. Look at the small and large intestines. Compare its size as well as its length.
Give the functions of these organs.

5. Trace the fate of food in the frog/toad.

6. Draw the complete digestive system of frog/toad. Label.

Name _____________________________ Date _________________ Score ________

Activity No. 12

THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

Diagram:

54
Observations:

Conclusions:

Activity No. 13

THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

Objectives:
1. To identify the different organs of the respiratory system.
2. To describe the functions of these organs in the respiration process and how the
respiratory system works.

Materials:

Dissected frog/toad
Dissecting pan and set
Straw and pins
Handlens

55
 When on land, the frog/toad uses the lungs for respiration. Underwater however the
animal closes its nostrils making the entrance of the air through these openings virtually
impossible. When submerged, they use their skin for cutaneous respiration.

Activities:

1. Stick a pin through external nares. Where does it lead you? Open the buccal
cavity wider. From the internal nares where do you think will air go next?

2. Cut the angle of the upper and lower jaw to reach the throat region. Locate the
slit-like opening called the glottis. This is guarded by laryngeal prominence
which is cartilaginous. Insert the straw through the glottis. Where does it lead
you? Blow air into the tube. What happens?

3. Examine the inner walls of the lungs. Note that the lungs are made up of small
air sac. Blow through the straw. What happens? Puncture the whole lungs. What
happens?

4. Draw the whole respiratory system showing the glottis, the larynx and the lungs.
Label the parts.

Name ___________________________ Date _______________ Score ___________

Activity No. 13

THE RESPIRATOTY SYSTEM

Diagram: Observations:

56
Conclusions:

Activity No. 14

THE UROGENITAL SYSTEM

Objectives:
1. To identify the parts of the urogenital system and the functions of these
parts.
2. To compare/contrast the male urogenital system from the female urogenital
system.

Materials:

57
 Dissected male and female frog/toad
Dissecting set
Straw

The system is a combination of two systems the reproductive (genital)

system and the excretory (urinary) system. The excretory system serves the purpose
of eliminating waste in the form of urine while the reproductive system produces
sex cells and transport these outside the body to make possible external fertilization.

These two systems are homologous and are very similar. By close animation
however, it will be seen that the male urogenital system is different from the female
urogenital system.

Activities:

A. Locate the kidneys. These come in pairs and are located on both sides
of the vertebral column. You have to cut the peritoneum to see the
kidneys as they lie outside of the peritoneum that covers the dorsal body
walls. Look for elongated, flattened, dark red structures. Trace the ducts
mesonephric ducts from the kidney to the cloaca. What is this for?

B. Open the cloaca. What do you find inside? The cloaca is part of the
digestive, excretory and reproductive systems. Why? Blow through the
opening of the cloaca with a straw. What happens?

C. Locate the yellow, finger-like substances. These are the fatty bodies or
corpora adipose which are attached to the anterior portion of the ovaries
and the testes. Some specimens have big fat bodies while others have
very small or almost none. Why?

D. Ascertain whether your specimen is female or male. The female has a

pair of lobulated organs which during the breeding season attain
considerable size and almost fill the abdominal cavity. Within this
organ, you will find black and white granules the eggs or ova. The
male has a pair of yellowish ovoid or elongated bodies near the kidneys.
These are the testes.

E. The oviducts or Mullerian ducts are much coiled tubules which

resemble the small intestines. Look for them at the dorsal body walls.
Trace this duct and locate the expanded tip just under the lungs. This
expanded tip is the ostium. What is it for? Males also have vestigial
oviducts which serve no function in the frog/toad. These are less
developed than that of the female oviduct. Trace the oviduct and see
where it ends posteriorly.

58
 F. Draw the male and female urogenital system using a prescribed
reference. Label all the parts mentioned.

Name ____________________________ Date _________________ Score _________

Activity No. 14

THE UROGENITAL SYSTEM

Diagrams:

59
Urogenital System Female Urogenital System

Observations:

Conclusions:

Activity No. 15

THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

Objectives:

60
 1. To differentiate the arterial system and the venous system.
2. To familiarize the organs of the circulatory system.
3. To be able to trace the flow of the blood in and out of the heart to the different parts
of the body.

Materials:

Dissecting set
Preserved frog/toad

The circulatory system is responsible for the transport of essential materials like
oxygen, food, hormones and water to all parts of the body. It is also responsible for the
removal of metabolic wastes of the cells by bringing these wastes to the organs where they
are continually eliminated. The pumping action of the heart makes possible the circulation
of blood.

Activities:

A. Cut off the thin sac pericardium that encloses the heart to fully
expose the heart. The ventral view of the heart comes into focus. Note
the two thin walled auricles and the single conical ventricle. Give the
function of these chambers of the heart. Arising from the right auricle is
a major artery. This is the conus arteriosus which is analogous to the
aorta of man. Pull this blood vessel a little to expose the two trunks
the truncus arteriosus. Trace a short distance further to find the three
branches collectively called the aortic arches. Give the name and
function of each branch of the truncus arteriosus.

B. Turn the heart to see the dorsal side. You will find the sinus venousus
where the two vena cavae empty their contents. Where will the sinus
pour its load of blood?

C. Remove the ventral walls of the ventricle, auricles, and the conus and
truncus arteriosus with a sharp blade to expose the internal parts of the
heart. Locate the valves the auriculo ventricular valve which
separate the auricles from the ventricle. What is it for? Compare the two
auricles. Note that the right is bigger. Why? Note also that the two are
separated by a wall. What is this for?

D. Draw the complete circulatory system. Color the arteries red and the
veins blue. Indicate with arrows the direction of blood flow.

Name ____________________________ Date _______________ Score ___________

Activity No. 15

61
 THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

Diagrams:

Observations:

Conclusions:

Activity No. 16

62
 THE NERVOUS SYSTEM AND SENSE ORGANS

Objectives:
1. To be familiar with the organs of the nervous system and their functions.
2. To describe how the different sense organs work.

Materials:

Dissecting set
Preserved frog/toad; human brain model or chart
Model or chart of the sense organs
40% alcohol solution

The sense organs are the windows of the brain. They receive the stimuli coming
from the outside. They work with the nervous system in seeing to it that these stimuli are
sent to the brain. This is made possibly by the presence of sensory nerves which connect
these organs to specific centers in the brain.

The nervous system consists of the brain, the spinal cord and the nerves cranial
and spinal nerves. They serve to transmit, coordinate, correlate and interpret messages
picked up by the sense organs.

Activities:

A. Detach all the organs of the viscera so as to expose the vertebral column. Emerging
from the lateral portion of the vertebrae are the spinal nerves. Where do these nerves
originate? Where do they go?

B. With a sharp knife or scalpel, cut the bone at the mid-dorsal line of the head to
expose the brain. Take care you might injure the brain just below. Notice that the
brain is divided into five regions. Name these divisions and give their function. At
this stage, cut off the eyes and reserve for the next part of the experiment.

C. Turn the frog into its ventral side once more. To expose the spinal cord, remove the
neural arches of the vertebrae with a pair of scissors or pincers. If you are careful
enough you will be able to remove the whole spinal cord and brain intact. Preserve
in 40% alcohol in a small vial. Label and store.

D. Take the model or chart of the human brain, (whichever is available). Study the
surface structures as well as the lobes. How does the frog brain compare with that
of human brain?

E. Draw the dorsal view of the frog brain and spinal cord. Label.

63
F. Examine the eyeball of the frog you remove previously. Note the muscles attached
to the eyeball. What are these muscles for?

G. Note the shape of the eyeball. Note that the eyeball is covered by a transparent
cornea in front and an opaque sclera behind. Why? Behind the eyeball notice the
nerve that penetrates the eyeball. This is the optic nerve. What is it for?

H. Cut the eyeball longitudinally into two equal parts. Note the outer chamber in front
of the lens and the inner chamber behind it. Examine the contents of these
chambers. What did you find? What are these for? Locate the retina behind the
inner chamber. What is the retina made of? Get a slice of the retina and look at it
under the dissecting microscope. Describe what you see.

I. Draw an undissected eyeball. Label the parts. Draw also a dissected eyeball. Label.

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Name ___________________________ Date _________________ Score __________

Activity No. 16

THE NERVOUS SYSTEM AND SENSE ORGANS

Diagrams:

Brain and Spinal Cord of Frog/Toad

Eyeball (Dissected) Eyeball (whole)

Observations:

Conclusions:

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 Activity No. 17

HEREDITY AND VARIATIONS

Objectives:
1. To study heredity and variations using fruit flies.
2. Describe the differences between the male and the female fruit flies and their life
cycle.

Materials:

Food Medium (ripe banana and yeast)

Culture bottles (any wide mouthed bottles)
Etherizing bottle (same kind as culture bottle used)
Etherizing plate (Petri dish with a piece of cotton pasted inside)
Filter paper
Camels hair brush
Ether

Drosophila melanogaster, a commonly known fruit fly is a very suitable laboratory

material for the study of genetics. Its life cycle is very short and will produce a large number
of offspring. The animals are relatively easy to handle and disposed of after the study.

Activities:

1. Mash the ripe banana and add about 3-5 grains of yeast. Put the mixture in a clean
culture bottle and place a clean piece of filter paper on one side of the bottle. What
is the purpose of the filter paper? (the food medium should be about 1/3 of the
bottle)

2. Get three male flies and three female flies. Put them in your culture bottle with the
food. Cover the bottle with a piece of paper secured with a rubber band. Label the
bottle. The following information should be included: name, section, date, number
of male and female parent flies.

For two weeks observe the fly everyday. Record all observations. Note the date of
the appearance of the following: eggs, larvae; pupae; first adult offspring; last adult
offspring.
The parent flies should not be mixed with the resulting offspring. When the larvae
appear, remove the parent flies from the bottle.

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 3. When the pupae become adult flies, examine their characteristics. To do this,
anesthesize the flies first. Moisten a cotton pad with ether and attach this inside a
Petri dish or etherizing plate. (The flies must not touch liquid ether or they will die.)
Remove the cover of your culture bottle and quickly replace it with the mouth of
the etherizing bottle placed on top of the culture bottle. When all the flies have
entered the etherizing bottle, quickly replace the covers of both bottles.

Cover the etherizing bottle with the etherizing plate for not more than two minutes.
Why? When the flies have stopped moving, remove the etherizing plate from the bottle and
empty them on a piece of white paper for examination. (when the flies begin to move before
you are through with the examination, cover them in place with the etherizing plate.)

4. Determine the sex of the flies. Refer to Genetics books for the morphological
differences between male and female flies. It is best to work under the dissecting
microscope to better see the differences. Sort out the male from female with a
camels hair brush. Tabulate your results.

5. After the examination, place the flies in a newly prepared culture bottles. Maintain
the flies for future use. How do you do this?

6. Sketch the life cycle of a fruit fly.

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Name ____________________________ Date ________________ Score __________

Activity No. 17

HEREDITY AND VARIATIONS

Answer to the Questions:

1. __________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________

2. STAGES DESCRIPTION DATE OF APPEARANCE

Eggs _________________________ _______________________

Larvae _________________________ _______________________
Pupae _________________________ _______________________
1st Adult _________________________ _______________________
Last Adult _________________________ _______________________

3. __________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________

4. NUMBER

Male Fruit Flies

Female Fruit Flies

Morphological Differences Male Female

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5. __________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________

Diagram: Life Cycle

Conclusion:

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 Activity No. 18

ANIMAL DIVERSITY

Objectives:

1. To study the characteristics of some protozoans and protists.

2. To be familiar with the invertebrates along the shore as well as the vertebrates in
the zoo.

The living world is inhabited by diverse forms of living things. Living things can
either be unicellular or multicellular. Some animals are solitary while others are colonial.
A lot of them are very simple in structure and responses while others are characterized by
complex structures and responses. While we can see a number of them with our naked eyes,
others inhabit another world which can only be seen with microscopic aids.

To study microscopic animal-like organisms, man must sometimes create their

environment. This is easily accomplished by preparing hay infusion which protozoans and
protists inhabit in no time at all.

Some animals, invertebrates especially are best studied in their natural habitat. This
is very true for marine animals. Studies and observations among these animals can be made
by going on a trip to the beach when the tide ebbs.

Other animals are studied in their simulated habitat since observing them in their
natural habitat is quite impractical. These are the animals from the jungles and the wild-
species usually found in specific areas in the world.

Section A The Microscopic World

Materials:

Dried leaves, grass stalks

Water samples from ponds, canals, rivers

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 Bottles, pipettes
Microscope, glass slides and cover slips
Cotton

Activities:

A. Prepare hay infusion from the different materials present. Boil dried leaves (or other
plant materials) in water. Cool. Add 10 or more drops of pond water (or other
sources). Let stand for a few days. Examine for number and types of protozoans
and protists present. Sketch the types you see. It might be necessary to place some
strands of cotton fibers on the specimen before placing the cover slip to trap highly
motile organisms. Try to identify the types you see by using a suitable reference.

B. Examine other sample taken from other types of infusion. Make the same
observations as in letter-A. Compare your results in all samples used. Formulate
your own conclusions.

C. Take a sample from the infusion where you got the greatest yield of organisms.
Observe a trapped animal in detail. How does the animal react to obstruction?
Observe an animal feeding on a scum. Describe its feeding activities. Study several
forms of animals. Describe the movement of each type.

D. What conclusions can you make from this study?

Section B The Invertebrates along the Shore

Materials:

Wide-mouthed bottles with 10% Formalin

Handlens
Rope 10 meters long

Activities:

A. You have to work in group of threes. Do not go farther than ten meters from the
edge of the water during a low tide. Two members will walk along the rope the
other one will hold the end of the rope in the water. Fasten one end of the rope with
a peg at the waters edge. Study all the animals found in the area near the extended
rope.

B. Count the number of the same kind of animals you see in your area. Note the depth
of water in the area where you found them. Take one animal of each kind. Preserve
in formalin. You will study the details of the animals in the laboratory.

71
 C. Go to the most shallow area. Dig a few inches under the sand. What kinds of
animals do you expect to find in this environment? Always put back the animals
where you got them.

D. Organize your data on the animals into a table form.

Section C The Vertebrates in the Zoo

Materials:

Camera (optional)
Notebook and pen
Activities:

A. Go to a nearby zoo. Study the animals there. Note their general appearance, food
habits, mode of locomotion, body cover, outstanding feature and peculiar behavior.
Organize these data into a table form.

B. Examine the animals in your list. Note down their common characteristic. Group
the animals with at least three common characteristics together. How many groups
do you finally have?

C. Vertebrates are usually divided into five groups: mammals, birds, reptiles,
amphibians and fishes. How do you recognize one group from the others? How
many animals do you have in your list for each of these five groups?

D. The animals are collectively called vertebrates. What are their characteristics which
make them different from the invertebrates which you have studied previously?

72
Name ____________________________ Date ______________ Score ____________

Activity No. 18

ANIMAL DIVERSITY

Section A The Microscopic World

Name of Animal Sketch of Animal Basic Description & Movement

Observations:

73
Conclusion:

Section B The Invertebrates along the Shore

Name of Animal Sketch of Animal Depth gathered Description

and number

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Section C The Vertebrates in the Zoo

List of Animals and Description

1. Name ________________________ 2. Name ___________________________

A. General appearance A.

B. Food habits B.

C. Mode of locomotion C.

D. Body cover D.

E. Outstanding feature E.

F. Peculiar behavior F.

3. _____________________________ 4. ________________________________

A. A.

75
B. B.

C. C.

D. D.

E. E.

F. F.

5. _____________________________ 6. _______________________________

A. A.

B. B.

C. C.

D. D.

E. E.

F. F.

7. _____________________________ 8. _______________________________

A. A.

B. B.

C. C.

D. D.

E. E.

F. F.

9. _____________________________ 10. _______________________________

A. A.

B. B.

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C. C.

D. D.

E. E.

F. F.

Name of Animals Similarities

77
Observations:

Conclusions:

Activity No. 19

THE POND ECOSYSTEM

Objectives:

1. To study the various organisms inhabiting the pond.

2. To show the interrelationship between the living things in a pond through food
chain and food web.

Materials:

Thermometer, pH paper
Plastic bags and nets
Tape measure and rope

Animals found in the pond are similar to those found in the lake. The large number
of plants in the pond affords an excellent habitat for them. There are bottom dwellers in

78
the likes of snails, crustaceans and frogs. Swimming forms like the fishes, bugs and larvae
may also be found. The abundance of food likewise attracts birds to prey. Although not
readily visible, the pondwater also supports planktonic forms of life like the protozoans,
algae and larvae.

These living react to both physical and biotic factors in the given community. Most
are able to adjust physiologically and establish their ecological niche because they are
provided with adaptive structures. The interrelationship between the living things in a pond
is shown by the type of food chain or food web that exists.

Activities:

A. Determine the physical factors that may affect the living things in the pond. These
factors include the following: temperature (air, water surface, bottom of the water
(; water type (color, depth, source); nature of pond bottom; weather condition; pH
(water and bottom soil). How will each of these factors affect the living things?

B. Collect samples of pond organisms by sweeping through with nets, from plants
materials and from rocks at the pond bottom. Place collected materials in plastic
bags with water. Be sure you replace plants and rocks at the bottom to normal
position after collection. Examine the specimens in the laboratory and try to identify
them. Make a list of these organisms separate the plants and invertebrate and
vertebrate animals.

C. Determine relationships among living forms in the pond.

1. List animals that feed upon others (predatory types)

2. List the plant feeders (herbivorous types)
3. List the plant sources (producers)
4. Give other examples of relationship that you observed other than those listed
above.
5. Construct a food chain diagram representative of the food relationships that
possibly exist in the pond.

D. What is the value of this pond? Suggest any improvement in the management of
the pond that seems appropriate and practical.

79
Name _____________________________ Date _______________ Score __________

Activity No. 19

THE POND ECOSYSTEM

A. Physical Factors Reading Data Effects

temperatures
air
water
bottom .

pH
water
bottom soil ..

80
 water type
color
depth
source ..

soil type
bottom
edge/bank

weather condition ..

B. Biotic Factors
Plants Invertebrates Vertebrates
__________________ _______________________ __________________
__________________ _______________________ __________________
__________________ _______________________ __________________
__________________ _______________________ __________________
__________________ _______________________ __________________

C. Predators Herbivores Producers

__________________ _______________________ __________________
__________________ _______________________ __________________
__________________ _______________________ __________________
__________________ _______________________ __________________
__________________ _______________________ __________________

Diagram: A Food Chain and a Food Web

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 Activity No. 20

THE ENDOPARASITES

Objective:

1. To study the different endoparasites and their mode of transmission.

Materials:

Preserved specimens and demonstration slides of different kinds of parasites.

82
 Parasites are of great interest to us because a large number of our population is
infected by them. They live inside the body of the host, thus they are called endo-parasities.
These endoparasites vary in their mode of transmission as well as the site of their infection
in the host. Some parasites require only direct contact. Others must pass through
intermediate hosts before becoming infective. Transmission can also be through food,
water, soil and other vectors. Lack of proper sanitation and hygiene increases the chances
of infection.

Activities:

1. Study the available specimen. Observe their external features and take note of their
distinguishing characteristics.
2. List in a tabulated form at least 10 parasites that are common in the Philippines.
Give their scientific and common names. Include the site in host, part of hosts body
where parasite enters, source of infection, intermediate host or vector if any.
3. In a routine form, trace the complete life cycle of the following parasites:
a) Ascaris lumbricoides (roundworm)
b) Tapeworm
c) Liver fluke
d) Plasmodium vivax (malarial parasite)

Name ______________________________ Date _______________ Score ________

Activity No. 20

THE ENDOPARASITES

Diagrams: (Life Cycles)

83
Observation:

Common Parasites

Scientific Common Site in Point of Source of infection;

Name Name Host Entry intermediate
host/vector

84
Conclusions:

85