Professional Documents
Culture Documents
by
Tanyi Eyong Mbuagbaw
[] phonetic data
// phonemicised data
V vowel
cons. consonant
cont. continuant
sg. singular
pl. plural
lat. lateral
cor. coronal
strid. strident
nas. nasal
ant. anterior
DS Downstep
H High
L Low
N. Syllabic Nasal
n. cl Noun class
T Tone
T Floating Tone
# Morpheme boundary
2
SP Soft Palate
Syllable node
R Rhyme
O Onset
C Coda
x Segment
NP Noun Phrase
VP Verb Phrase
DET Determiner
3
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The data used for the analysis was first collected during the Christmas week of
December 1993. More than 2000 words were collected from pastor Ncha Gabriel
Bessong and Lucas Ettamambui. The data was corrected and expanded in July 1995
by the above two persons and also by some members of the Denya language
committee. They are namely: Daniel Eta Akwo, and Mr. Robinson Tambi. All of
them were prepared to give any assistance to see this work completed. I am indeed
I am very grateful to my wife who was always patient with me during the long
I am also very grateful to Dr. Steven Bird and Dr. Jim Roberts for their input in
this Phonology. I am very greatful to Dr. Keith Snider whose insight in African
4
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
1. INTRODUCTION
1.3 Classification
1.4 Bilingualism
1.6 Occupation
1.9.1 Nouns
1.9. 3 Pronouns
1.9.4 Adjectives
1.9. 5 Verbs
5
2. VOWEL AND CONSONANT SYSTEMS
2.1 Vowels
2.2 Consonants
2.4.3 Underspecification
3. PHONOLOGICAL PROCESSES
3.1 Introduction
3.4 Desyllabification
3.5 Reduplication
6
4. THE SYLLABLE
4.2 Affricates
4.3 Semi-vowels
5. TONE
6. BIBLIOGRAPHY
7
1. INTRODUCTION
The purpose of this work is to describe and analyse Denya Phonology, its noun
class system and detail analysis on the tones and verbs.This data was collected in
December 1993 at Mukonyong (Small Nyang) in the Takamanda dialect area, during
which I spent a week working on the lexical items for Denya. The data was again
checked in June 1995 for further correction. However, this work cannot pretend to
deal with every signifant aspect of Denya Phonology. Nevertheless, it hoped that this
Nyang family in particular, a family for which much linguistic work needs to be done.
amount of analysis.
The study begins with both the vowel and consonant systems in section 2.
Constraints on the structure of the syllables and morphemes are treated in section 3.
Morphological processes are covered in section 4. Aspects of the tonal phonology are
Denya is a language spoken in the Manyu Divison of the South West Province in
the Republic of Cameroon. The speakers of the language are commonly referred to as
Anyang and number 16,000 (1994 estimate). They occupy the forest area of Akwaya
Sub-Divison and some parts of Upper Banyang Sub-Divison. The majority of the
speakers are settled on the banks of the Manyu river (Cross River) in Mamfe town
westward to the border with Nigeria. There are many speakers of the language living
8
in other areas of the country. Neighbouring languages include Kenyang, Ejagham,
and Kendem to the south-west, Boki to the west, Asumbo, Amasi and Menka to the
north.
Denya has four main dialects, Takamanda, Basho, Bitieku and Bajwa.
Takamanda and Basho and named after villages located in the centre of the dialect
areas. The other two, Bitieku and Bajwa received their names from their clans which
speak their dialect. People from the Takamanda and Bitieku dialects usually group
Basho and Bajwa as one and they refer to it as Basho or Bajwa. In my analysis, I used
the Takamanda dialect because it is widely recognised as the standard dialect. For
1.3 Classification
BANTOID
Southern Bantoid
9
In 1965, Crabb, working on Ekoid languages, claimed that these languages were
Bantu because they shared some Bantu features in the noun class prefixes. In Crabbs
because at this time, it was proved that both the noun prefixes and concord systems
are those of Bantu. She further argued that Guthries classification was based on
typological and not on genetic considerations. Watters (1989) and Watters and Leroy
(1989) classified Denya as Southern Bantoid, one of the members of which is the
1.4 Bilingualism
Denya people living in the neighbouring languages are mostly bilingual. A vast
majority of the people speak their language and Kenyang. This results from the close
contact between the two languages through trade and intermarriage. In some cases,
multi-lingualism is the appropriate term since many people speak Kenyang and
Ejagham. The growth of the Kenyang and Ejagham language among the Denya
trekking long distances to reach Akwaya, the Anyangs prefer to come to Mamfe for
business, medical services and administrative reasons, which has brought them into
should also consider the use of Pidgin English and English. The majority of the
people know Pidgin and those who use English are those who have undergone some
10
Pidgin is frequently used as a means of communication when a group gets
together with more than one language represented (at the market, in church or at the
bar). English is used in official circles; schools, offices etc. However, in situations
where only one language group is represented the people typically use their own
language (e.g neighbours talking, social gatherings in the village, village disputes
etc).
1.6 Occupation
The majority of the people are subsistence farmers. They grow cash crops such as
coffee and cocoa. They also grow other foodstuffs such as cocoyams, yams, rice,
beans, cassava, plantain, melon, and a variety of vegetables such as eru, (a type of
vegetable harvested in the forest) green vegetables, pumpkin leaves, water leaf, etc. A
lot of palm oil, vegetables, pineapple, garri, rice, water fufu, are exported to Nigeria
through the Manyu River and other bush tracks. Some are exported to other provinces
of Cameroon.
six languages, which include Denya (Anyang). In 1981, Abangma worked on the use
University of Yaounde. In his thesis, he worked on the consonant and vowel systems,
and I have borrowed some of his data. Little was done on the syllable structure or on
grammatical tone and nothing was done on the morphophonology. In 1983, Tyhurst
worked on the linguistic survey of the Nyang languages. In his analysis he discussed
briefly the vowel and consonant phonemes of Kenyang, Denya and Kendem and tone
contrast in the three languages. He also provided a wordlist of the three languages and
11
their various dialects. Tyhurst and Tyhurst (1983b) also undertook a sociolinguistic
survey of Kenyang and Denya. In 1994, the author proposed an orthography for
Denya, wrote a paper on Denya Tone Orthography and also published the alphabet.
Ongoing work includes the lexicon of the language (Mbuagbaw, forthcoming) and a
MALDEP came into existence in 1993 when it was felt that the three languages,
Kenyang, Denya and Ejagham, should work in close collaboration with each other. Its
goal is to oversee the development of literacy materials and the teaching of the three
languages. Furthermore, since Kenyang and Denya are closely related, it will be
description of those structures which one way or the other are referred to in this
document.
Syntactic Structures
structures are shown having a subject, verb and object. Simple sentences can be
12
S
NP VP
N DET V NP
The noun phrase may consist of a noun, as head, followed by modifiers such as
adjectives and/or determiners. True adjectives are few in number. There are other
adjectives that occur in semantic fields such as colours and numbers. Noun phrases
may also consist of NP-NP constructions in which the first NP possesses the second
NP. In Denya, when two nouns are put together, the associative marker occurs
between the two nouns in some situations. Typical noun phrases are displayed below:
NP NP
N A NP NP
N N
u$-pu@ u@-pE@a@
houses two ge$n$ ge@ $tSa@
two houses stick of Ncha
Nchas stick
1.9.1 Nouns
which it is adjoined any one of a number of noun class prefixes. There are also nouns
13
which are derived from verbs - nominalised verbs which function somewhat like
English gerunds.
Denya distinguishes 10 noun classes, 5 of which are used with s ingular nouns, 5 of
which are used with plural nouns. The numbering for classes is used as in Narrow
Bantu except for class 6a which corresopnds to Bantu classification. Each class
grouped in pairs representing the singular/plural contrasts. These pairs are termed
genders. Classes 1, 3, 5, 7 and 9 are the singular classes. Classes 2, 4, 6, 8 and 10 are
Major Genders:
The major genders found in Denya are as follows 1/2, 3/4, 5/6, 7/8, 9/10. In citing
a noun gender, the first number refers to the class of the singular form and the second
noun refers to the class of the plural form (e.g. 1/2 means class 1 in the singular and
Gender 1/2
N-, me- a- ma-
The one noun person has an irregular alternation involving the stem itself
14
Gender 3/4
E- de-
Gender 3/6
E- ma-
Gender 5/6
me- ma-
15
Class 6a
ma-
ma$na& v`sdq
ma$we& nhk
ma$tyE@ rohsskd
ma$no& aknnc
Gender 5/8
me- u-
Gender 7/8
ge- u-, o-
16
Gender 9/10
me-, N-
me$se$ lnmjdx
m$my$ rm`jd
N$Nme$ fn`s
m$p$ bnv
m$myo& onqbtohmd
$tSwE$ tSwE$ rtmahqc
me$gyE@ me$kw$ qnnrsdq
n$ku@m& bqnv
me$we$ snqsnhrd
Derivational processes are limited in Denya and tonally they are restricted to one
at the surface level. The formation of a gerund type of a noun from the verb (whether
transitive or intransitive) takes the suffix ge- or ne-. Thus we derive forms such as the
following. Through out the examples, that follow in this section the tones provided for
H
E@ to eat E@-ge@ eating
LH
tSyE& to give tSyE@-ge@ giving
HH
kE@le@ to find kE@le@-ge@ finding
17
1.9.3 Pronouns
possessive pronouns. Independent pronouns are those which may stand alone (e.g in
answer to a question such as what ? or who?). Possessive pronouns are those which
make reference to nouns that possess other (following) nouns. The following chart
SING. PLURAL
Indep. Poss. Indep. Poss.
1.9.4 Adjectives
exists between the adjective and the (preceding) noun it modifies, and this is indicated
by the copying of the noun class prefix from the noun onto the adjective.
constitutes two phonological word. This may be seen from the surface tonal melody
of the construction. The tone of the first prefix is not dependent upon the underlying
melody of the construction as a whole. The examples below demonstrates this and
18
1.9.5 Verbs
We now turn our attention to the constituent structure of the verb in Denya.
Simple verb stems consist only of a root which is either monosyllabic or disyllabic.
All monosyllabic verb roots have the following underlying tonal melodies of L, H,
and LH. All disyllabic verb roots have the tonal melody of HH.
The tense markers are made up of two non-past markers of ne- and ge- which
a$ kE$le$-ge$ He is wanting
a$ fE$-ne$ He is locking
a$ kE$-nE$ He is walking
a$ gyi$-ge$ He is asking
The future tense is made up of the morpheme E which occurs after the verb.
$ E$ E^ I will eat
19
2. VOWEL AND CONSONANT SYSTEMS
2.1 Vowels
The vowels of Denya can best be described by the three parameters of height of
i i0 u u0
e e0 o o0
E E0 0
a a0
The evidence for this system will now be presented as shown below:
The allophonic variation of the various vowels are displayed below. Their various
[ni0@] to fold
[$i0$] stream
[ t=i$] to wipe
[dZi$] to twist
[ne0$gbo$] death
[me0$] swallow
[be@] to dance
20
[ke$] to sink
[E0@] to eat
[N$NmE$0] year
[a0@] to stretch
[Na0@] to chew
[a] open-back oral unrounded vowel
[sa@] to write
[kpa$] to carry
[u0@] to drink
[mu0] to demolish
[u] [bu@] to chase
[ku@le@] to move
[m$f$a]$ chief
[b$a]$ mushroom
[o@0] to jump
[E@no0@ge@] respect
[o] half-close back oral rounded vowel
21
[ke@to$] hut
[u$to$] power
[n0@] to bite
[m&0] wine
[] half-open oral rounded vowel
[m$p$] cow
[dZ$] easy
All vowels in Denya are phonetically nasalised. The schwa is an allophone of /E/
i e E a o u
High + - - - - - +
Low - - - + - - -
Back - - - + + + +
Round - - - - + + +
2.2. CONSONANTS
The consonants of Denya are represented at two levels; the phonetic and the
phonemic. They are displayed and classified according to the place and manner of
articulation, the state of the vocal cords, whether vibrating or not. All consonants in
The consonant phones are displayed below in vertical columns according to their
Before we look at the chart, a few comments should be put in order pertaining to
22
c5 indicates an interdental/dental consonant phone
bi bilabial
ld labiodental
da dental alvoelar
al alveolar
ap alveo-palatal
pa
fv front velar
bv back velar
/ glottal stop
23
24
2.2.1 Denya Phonetic Consonant Chart
bi ld da al ap pa fv bv lv gl
Vl plosive p t5 t k5 k7 kp /
Vl unreleased
plosive t5
Vd plosive b d g7 g7 gb
nasal m M n5 n N5 N7 Nm
Vl fricative f s S h
Vd fricative B
Vl affricate tS
Vd affricate dZ
lateral l5 l
flap R
approx. y w
[m$-p$] cow
25
[bu@] to drive
26
[g5yi@] to ask
[] voiced velar fricative occurs
intervocalically in fast speech
[sa@a@re@] to whip
[ge$o&] bone
27
initially
[ho$vya$] leaves
[h$N$0n0@] hollow
28
[dZo$] to weave
[ge$dZu$] to whisper
29
2.2.3 Distinctive Feature Matrix for Sonorants.
m n N Nm l r j w
cons. + + + + + + + - -
cont. - - - - - - + + +
nas. + + + + + - - - -
lat. - - - - - + - - -
lab. + - - - + - - - +
ant. + + - - - + + - -
cor - + + - - + + + -
high - - + + + - - + +
back - - - + + - - - +
p b t d tS dZ k g kp gb f v s h
voice - + - + - + - + - + - + - -
cont. - - - - - - - - - - + + + +
strident - - - - - - - - - - + + + -
ant. + + + + + + - - - - + + + -
lab. + + - - - - - - + + + + - -
high - - - - + + + + + + - - - -
low - - - - - - - - - - - - - +
back - - - - - - + + + + - - - -
del. rel. - - - - + + - - - - - - - -
Below is chart showing the various ways in which vowels and consonants do
contrast. The vowels are represented horizontally while the consonants are
30
represented vertically. Any slot that appears empty shows that the combination does
i e E a o u
31
f fe@ fE& fa$ f@ fu@
to drive to praise to share to seize to boil
away
v da@vE@ a$va$ E@v@Nma$ E$vo$
personal personal charm musical
name name instrume
nt
s o$se$ sE$ sa@ s@ me$so$ su$
greed to receive to write to cancell back to drag
h h$N$n@ ho$vya$
hollow leaves
l li$ pE@le@ lE@re@ u$la$ l$ lo$ ge$lu$
to cry to push to train to reason to start to mark to force
r ri$nte$ fe@re@ fE@re@ ramb$
remem- to reject to think floor mat
brance
w we@ wE@ wa@ w$ wu@
to yell to fasten to kill to vomit feelings
y yi$ gya@ y$
this to split a
response
In the above data, the underlying tones represented are H and L. A detailed study will
be discussed in chapter 6.
The theory stems from the fact that, a language is not made up of atomic
indivisible units, but should be rather decomposed into sets of phonological features.
In Chomsky and Halle (1968), each segment is represented as a simple set of co-
Clements (1985) and subsequent work, it has been argued that the set of phonological
features should be internally structured. For instance, place features must be assumed
32
I will here assume the feature geometry for Denya based on the proposals by
[round] Labial
[lateral]
[anter] [strid]
[distrib] Coronal Oral [contin]
[back]
[high] Dorsal [cons]
[low] [sonor]
[spread gl]
Glottal Pharyngeal
[voiced]
In this model, several hierarchical distinctions are introduced among the features. The
root node represents the phonological unity of the features that form together a
phonlogical segment. The root node is annotated with the binary features [consonant]
and [sonorant]. These are the major class features that divide the segment of a
The terminal features ([round], [anter], [distrib], [back], [high], [low], etc) are
related to the SPE major class features [consonatal] and [sonorant], which form the
root of the tree through two intermediate levels of stricture: the six articulators and
three cavity nodes to which they are assigned. Off to the side are a set of features
characterising the degree and type of stricture made by the articulator in its cavity.
33
For instance, the feature [consonantal] specifies the difference in the degree of
stricture.
Laryngeal is a class node which unites features with respect to the ways in which
the larynx is used in articulation. The basic larnyngeal distinction for Denya is the
distinction between voiced and voiceless segments. The feature [voice] in Denya, is
only distinctive with respect to obstruents: sonorant consonants and vowels are
always voiced. In this paper, I will take the conservative position that the terminal
nodes in feature geometry are binary features, and therefore voiced segments are
The feature [aspirated] can be used to characterise the /h/, a voiced glottal
fricative which is marginal in Denya. Aspirated sounds are produced with the vocal
cords drawn apart. The /h/ does not have supralaryngeal properties of its own. The
shape of the vocal tract is determined by the shape of the two vowels /, o/ .The
glottal stop is a phonetic feature and not a phonological one. It occurs only at the end
follows:
Place
Pharyngeal
[Pharyngeal]
[h, /] laryngeals
34
This feature shows the internal structure of place node. The term Pharyngeal
appears at two different lwvels in the tree. It stands for a whole class of gutturals and
also appears as a terminal feature since no articulator is designated for the laryngeals.
Supralaryngeal features are traditionally divided into manner features and place
features. Although supralaryngeal is a convenient term, this does not mean that it is
a class node: suffient evidence for the supralaryngeal features behaving as a unit is
On the other hand Place is clearly a class node because the cluster of place may
behave as a unit in phonological processes, for instance in the place assimilation for
In Denya, three articulators play a role with respect to the place of articulation,
the lips (bilabial), the tongue blade (coronal) and the tongue body (dorsum).
The lips play an essential role in the production of bilabial consonants /p, b, m/ ,
/gb, kp, Nm, and w/. The features are displayed geometrically as seen below:
35
Root/stricture V
features and showing how the high vowels have assimilated to the voiceless alveolar
fricative /s/.
+syll
Vowel Nasalisation
consonant. This nasalisation is generally more salient when the nasal consonant
In Denya, all vowels become phonetically nasalised when they are following a
nasal consonant. Under feature geometry, the nasal node is dependent on the soft
articulator because it is one of the independently movable elements of the vocal tract.
(Kenstowicz 1994). Below are some examples of words that are phonetically
nasalised.
36
[ma$0na0&] water [u0@] to drink
[ge$n0&] stick [ma0$kE$] news
[me$a0$] meat [ne$0nt@] pimple
[Na@0ne0@] to peel [ne0$g$] navel cord
[me0$sa$ ] hunger [ge$mE$0] neck
V > [+nas] / N-
geometry:
E@n@ku$ E@n@ku$
SP > SP
[nasal] [nasal]
Stricture Features
The process of consonant weakening is also taking place in Denya where voiced
fast speech.
below:
37
V C V
Nasal Assimilation
The first of these prefixes which will be symbolised as /N-/, denotes singular for noun
classes 1 and 6. This nasal prefix is easily distinguished by the speaker because it is
attached to nouns.
The second of these prefixes (also symbolised as /N-/) is very common in current
speech. It marks the first person singular subject pronoun and is usually attached to
verbs. It has the same tonal pattern as the verb. Though nasal prefixes may resemble
nasal consonants in their point of articulation, they carry contrastive tone and
38
/N-kE$/ [N$kE$] I walked
In the configuration below, nasals need to be specified for place and the place
feature will be spread from the following consonant. This is represented by the oral
node.
. [+consonant]
[+nasal] Oral
Contour Segments
In Denya, double articulated stops and affricates are common segments for which
similar internal structure can be proposed. The motivation for these are much the
same as the tonal case. The combination of [g] + [b] will form a double articulated
stop [gb], a common feature in Bantoid languages while [n] + [d] will form a
prenasalised stop [nd]. [t]+ [S] will form [tS] while [d] and [Z] will form
Root Root
Coronal Coronal
[nd] [tS]
39
/m$p$/ cow /tS@/ to condemn
Vowel Height
Chomsky and Halle (1968) used the binary features [high] and [low] for vowel
height. Thus they can distinguish between three degrees of vowel height (which group
with [back] but not round under the Dorsal articulator). Like the other dorsal features,
[high] and [low] are defined phonetically as tongue body displacement from a neutral
position. Wang (1968) pointed out that there are languages for which four vowel
registers form a hierarchical family of features housed under the aperture node. Denya
clearly requires four degrees of height. In the analysis, we will be using the feature
-back +back
+high, -mid i u
+high, +mid e o
-high, +mid E
-high, -mid a
Both models define essentially the same natural classes; high, mid, and low
above three examples, high and low cannot be grouped together to the exclusion of
mid. In the traditional model employing [high] and [low], [i, u] and [a] can be singled
40
out with one feature specification while [e o E ] needs two. In the hierarchical model
bases on [openi], three feature specifications are needed to distiguish between the high
2.4.3 Underspersification
represented since certain properties are predictable. A good example is when the nasal
certain segments on the basis of other feature specifications of that segment, so called
segment structure rules (Booij 1995). The following redundancy rules hold for the
segments of Denya:
fast speech. They become fricatives through the process of consonant weakening. See
41
The table below shows consonants which fill the onset position of the CV and CVC
syllables. A position in the table is marked if there are examples of consonants being
The chart shows that the following consonants have the widest distribution /p, b,
t, k, m and l/. This is followed next by the following consonants /kp, g, gb and w/.
The least widely distributed consonants are /N and h/. The consonant and vowel
i e a o u
p x x w x w x x
t x x w x w x x
sS x x w x w x x
j x x w x w x x
jo x w x w x
a x x w x w x x
c x w x w x
cZ x x x w x x
f x w w x
fa x w x w x
e x w x w x
u w x w x
r x w x w x x
l x x w x w x x
m x x w x w x
x x w x x x
N x x
Nm x w x
h w x
l x x w x w x x
r x x w x
w x w x w x
y x x w
From the chart we can see that the vowel /a/ has the widest distribution.
/, o and u/ never follow the following consonants, /r, and N/. The high close front
42
vowel /i/ never follows the the velar nasal /N/. The high close front vowel [i ] never
3. PHONOLOGICAL PROCESSES
3. 1 Introduction
43
This section discusses the major phonological processes which apply to vowels
when they are in sequence within or across a morpheme boundary in Denya. The
pattern of this operation is for typological and theoretical reasons such as the interplay
(V1 + V2), they are realised as a single short vowel (V1) in Denya. The phonological
postulates that contraction is not a single process but is rather a number of discrete
processes which include assimilation and elision. He proposes that when two vowels
are in an environment favourable for contraction, the first vowel assimilates certain
features of the second vowel before it (i.e the first vowel) is elided. Donwa-Ifode
(1985), working in Isoko proved that elision operates in quite a different way from
assimilation and contraction. According to her data, elision only takes place when a
word. The close vowel occuring as a second or third in a sequence of two or three
vowels before a boundary is elided and the situation created by this elision is ideal for
the application of assimilation. Thus, the process of elison first takes place then the
process of assimilation and contraction. I will represent some of her data from Isoko.
uzou + @m@
head child
V. El uzo + @m@
V. ass. uz@m
@ @
V. Ct. uz@m@
head of a child
44
fou + IRaI
blow fire
V. El fo + IRaI
V. ass. fIIRaI
V. Ct. fIRaI
In the examples above, we assume that the two items in each construction is
deleted before the optional contraction of the two identical vowels on either side of it.
The presence of the boundary is vital for the operation of elision and assimilation.
In Denya, when there are two vowels on either side of a boundary, there is either
a complete assimilation of the vowel at V2 to the one at V1 and in some cases, there is
no assimilation at all. Following the assimilation of V2 to V1, the sequence V1V2 may
45
V Ct. mawemi makdZi
5) to + Ebw 6) s + oto
The assimlation under discussion is progressive and the condition under which it
When words are uttered in isolation, the close vowels in the opening sequences
undergo a glide formation process. The structural condition under which a glide
formation will apply for a close vowel is that it occurs between a consonant and an
open vowel.
Glide formation process exists not only within morphemes but also across
46
m$mi$ + a$Nwa^ ----> m$mya$Nwa^ palmnuts of the cat
palmnut cat
3.4 Desyllabification
below:
N [V]
> / N #-C
+syll -syll
3.5 Consonant Weakening
The process of consonant weakening takes place when oral plosives occur at word
boundary. It does not matter whether they occur at syllable final position or as
prefixes of nouns.
47
Here are some examples below:
3.6 Reduplication.
cases where the root is fully copied to show intensification such as:
There are non-productive fixed forms where the total root is reduplicated. The
48
There are cases where only the root is reduplicated. They are shown below:
49
50
3. THE SYLLABLE .
Most phonologists attempt to deal with the syllable as a phonological unit. Each
syllabic consonant. Thus, we may regard the syllable as the minimum unit.of the
1) the onset,
3)the coda.
1)the onset,
2) the rhyme consisting of the phonetic peak or nucleus and the coda. The
Onset Rhyme
Nucleus Coda
obligatory nucleus (R) filled by a vowel or an optional consonant in the coda position
(C).
51
The syllable in Denya is made up of segments (consonants, vowels, syllabic
nasals) semi-vowels /y/ and /w/, and tone. The segmental forms of lexical
morphemes are presented below under syllable types. There is a listing of the various
syllable types and their skeletal tier and an indepth analysis of the various syllables
and tones completes this section. X represents the various segments which may be
1) CV
O R
x x
b u
This is the most common syllable structure and it is mostly common in verbs.
mu$ to demolish
n$ to bite
me$ to swallow
sa@ to write
fE$ to seal
2) CSV is the next syllable structure that is quite common. CSV is not treated as
52
b) the phonetic duration of semi-vowels in this position is not as long as regular
consonants,
x x x
Z*ghfg\
O R
x x x
p w _sn anqqnv&
gya@ to split
fwi@ to drive
lya@ to lean on
kwe@ to fail
kwa@ to sing
tSw@ to come
bwE@ to raise
bw@le@ to trick
53
There are a few other consonant clusters with the syllable structure CCV which
occurs in the language. The consonant clusters are found in borrowed words. The
/m$-frE@ka@N/ rust
/gli@ta$/ grater
/gri$di$di$$/ to glide
O R O R O R
x x x x x x x x x
g l i t a gb r a m
grater falling of a coconut
3) V. A single vowel occurs only as a pronoun. They can also occur as prefixes of
R R O R
x x x x
a$ he E$ t u ear
54
a@ they (non-emphatic pronoun)
E$-bE@ law
u@ -ba$ bags
4) V.CCV. This syllable structure is not common. It is found in the plural prefix
of some nouns.
a$ntE$ fathers
u@Nk$ ravines
R O R
x x x x
a$ n t E$ fathers
5) CVC. The CVC syllable types are not common in Denya. I will here represent
ma&N to
N$-ga@d scorpion
n@-d@N jigger
55
O R R O R
x x x x x x x
m a& N to N g a@ d scorpion
/ge$ssa$/ basket
4.2 Affricates
The affricates /tS/ and /dZ/ should be treated as a single phoneme for the various
reasons:
1)These consonants never occur in the reverse form. That is /St/ and /Zd/ never
occur.
2) The affricates may be followed by the semi-vowels /y/ and /w/ in a syllable. In
below:
[+coron]
[+anter]
[-cont] [+cont]
This representation is supported by syllables that treat the consonant as a stop and
56
O R O R
x x x x x
tS w @ dZ I@
to come to stir
R O R
x x x
n$ t E$
father
m$-pi$ nail
N$-ga$ knife
n$-da$ rubber
$-tSu$ thatch
4.3 Semi-Vowels
The two semi-vowels /y/ and /w/ occur syllable initially in Denya. In this
position, they are analysed as consonant phonemes and are treated at the phoneme
When the above two semi-vowels occur between a consonant and a vowel, they
57
/kwe@/ to fail /tya@/ scatter
There are also sequences of vowels that occur in the language. The syllable
syllable, the reason being that Denya does not allow a CVV syllable structure.
/E@-pE@a@/ two
/u$-bE$a@/ yaws
/kpE@a@/ to urge
/l@ea@ @/ to allow
R O R R O R R
x x x x x x x
E p E a l e a
5. TONE
58
[ ^ ] and rising [ & ]. In addition there is the
In a tone language, the speaker uses the pitch of his voice to distinguish lexically
between morphemes or words that would have been otherwise identical. For example,
/ti@/ to pierce
/ti$/ to wipe
/be@/ to dance
/be$/ war
/ge$ba$/ area
/ge@ba$/ bag
/m$bu@/ dumb
/m$bu$/ hole
shown above.
Below, there is a discussion on the distribution of tones on nouns, and the various
The discussion about tones on verbs includes the distribution of tones, the
description of tone in the verb phrase, the verb classes and the various verb tone
59
5.2 The Distribution of Tones.
Monosyllabic noun roots have the following tones: L, H, LH, and HL. The
khfgs rgdkk
ge$Ngb@ ge$ko@Nko@
LH
60
HL
Monosyllabic Disyllabic Trisyllabic
LLH
LHL
complex because the rules needed to explain them are often restrictive in their
changes. It is hoped that these rules will be helpful in explaining the entire Denya
function on different tiers, or levels, and must be associated to produce the final
61
phonetic form of an utterance. The tones are represented autosegmentally because
The associative marker (AM) can be a segment with a H tone or a zero depending
on the class of the first noun in the associative construction. These rules are posited to
explain tone perturbations that occur when two nouns are put together in such a
construction. Some of these rules govern tone spreading depending on the final
The first tone rules discussed are in regard to mapping. Some examples are
shown below. This is followed by a discussion of rules that govern tone changes when
nouns are put in the associative construction. As will be seen in the discussion below,
consonant ,
The examples are taken from charts in the section 5.3.3. In this discussion, the
62
5.3.2 Mapping Rules
Syllabic nasals and vowels are marked with tones within morphemes before any
tone rules are applied. Tones are mapped onto segments beginning with the first
syllable on the left in each morpheme mapping out one tone to one syllable and
moving to the right until all the tones are connected to at least one syllable. An
mese
in downstep.
below.
63
(3) Leftward spreading H of the AM unto the stem of
the first noun.
X +
L + H
lexical L.
----->
L H L L H L
me$kpo$ +
@ m$p$ ---> me$kpo@mp$ head of cow
noun.
delinking the L of the noun stem but does not delink the
----->
L H L H L L H L H
L
64
Falling Simplification:
6) CV
H L
----->
H H L H H L H H H L
the L tone prefix of the second noun and its vowel. The
----->
H H L L H L
Rising Simplification:
The underlying tone is LLH. Here a rising tone occurs
65
tone is simplified to a H because of the presence of a H
concord marker.
9)
CV
L H
noun is unaffected.
---->
L L H H L L H L
stick of head
Falling Creation:
formalized below:
12)
+ X + X + + X + X
+
----->
+ H + L + + H + L
+
66
13) geba - ukw geba kw
----->
L H L H L H L H
scar of bridge
Downstep Rule:
show that the H tone is one step lower than the normal H.
14) X + X
+ 1 pitch
H L + H
downstepped.
>
L L H L H L H L H
L H L H
water of bridge
Downdrift
67
This causes a downdrift . Below, + 1 pitch lower means
17) X X
+ 1 pitch
L H
H L H L H L H L
bag of cow
noun is elided.
------>
H L H L H L H L
CONCLUSION
68
From the discussion above, it is apparent that rules
boundary.
Below is a chart showing all the tones, their associative markers and concord. The
various concords are represented in slanted lines to differentiate one word from the
ma$na& water
E$bw$ hand
ne$ba@ marriage
ge@bwi^ time
ge$n& stick
me$kpo$ head
m$p$ cow
ge$pu@ cow
ma&myE$ dog
ge@ba$ bag
ne@NE@ne@ tooth
69
ma$na& E$bw$ ne$ba@ ge@bwi^ gE$n& me$kpo$ m$p$ ge$pu@ ma&myE$ ge@ba$ ne@NE@ne@
ma$na& LH/LLH LLH/L LLH/LH LLH/HHL LLH/LLH LLH/LL LLH/L LLH/LH LLH/LHL LLH/HL LLH/HHH
E$bw$ LH/LLH LL/LL LH/LH LH/LLH LH/LLH LH/LL LH/L LH/LH LH/LHL LH/HL LH/HHH
ne$ba@ LH/H/LLH LH/H/L LH/H/LH LH/H/HHL LH/H/LLH LH/H/LL LH/H/L LH/H/LH LH/H/LHL HH/H/HL HH/H/HHH
ge@bwi^ HH/H/LLH HH/H/L HH/H/LH HH/H/HHL HH/H/LLH HH/H/LL HH/H/L HH/H/LH HH/H/LHL LL/H/HL LL/H/HHH
ge$n& LL/H/LLH LL/H/.L LL/H/LH LL/H/HHL LLH/LL LL/H/LL LL/H/L LL/H/LH LL/H/LHL LH/HL LH/HHH
me$kpo$ LH/LLH LH/L LH/LH LH/HHL LH/LLH LL/LL LH/L LH/LH LH/LHL LL/HL LL/HHH
m$p$ LL/LLH LL/L LL/LH LL/HHL LL/LLH LL/LL LL/L LL/LH LL/LHL LH/H/HL LH/H/HHH
ge$pu@ LH/.LLH LH/H/L LH/H/LH LH/H/HHL LH/H/LLH LH/H/LL LH/H/L LH/LH LH/H/LHL LHL/HL LHL/HHH
ma$myE$ LHL/LLH LHL/L LHL/LH LHL/HHL LHL/LLH LHL/LL LHL/L LHL/LH LHL/LHL HL/H/HL HL/H/HHH
ge@ba$ HL/H/LLH HL/H/L HL/H/LH HL/H/HHL HL/H/LLH HL/H/LL HL/H/L HL/H/LH HL/H/LHL HH/H/HL HH/H/HHH
ne@NE@ne@ HHH/LLH HHH/L HHH/LH HHH/HHL HHH/LLH HHH/LL HHH/L HHH/LH HHH/LHL HHH/HL HHH/HHH
70
5.4 Tones on Verbs
Verbs in Denya have four tone patterns, H, L, HL, and LH. Verbs exist in
monosyllabic and disyllabic types. Trisyllabic verbs have not yet been discovered.
Monosyllabic Disyllabic
Monosyllabic Disyllabic
kpE$ sn dmsdq
LH
Monosyllabic
HL
Monosyllabic
71
5.5 Description of Tone in the Verb Phrase
subject marker, the verb root, tense marker and mood. The
tone verbs take the suffix -ne, the H-tone verbs take the
0r n 0ok de$
1r 1ok E$u@
2r a 2ok E$bw@
While the SMs occur before the verb, the OMs occur
72
The tones discussed are in regard to mapping. When the subject marker is
attached to the verb, there will be various tone rules that govern tone changes
The various vowels are marked with tones within morphemes before any tone
rules are applied. Tones are mapped onto segments beginning with the first syllable
on the left in each morpheme, spreading to the right until all the tones are connected
V V
An example of this is the word ku@le@ to rise. When mapping rules are applied,
the H tone on the root is mapped unto the first syllable and spreads unto the second
ku@le@
A study of the main tone rules begins with a presentation of tone spreading rules,
In this rule, when the the subject marker is a H tone , the floating L is seen
X + X
H L + L
73
This can represented below:
a@ E@
H L H they ate
The H spread rule states that when there is a H-L-L sequence, the H tone spreads
X + X + X
H + L + L
In the example above, the High tone of the subject marker spreads to the right
H L L H H L
they are locking
The tone spreads from the the suffix and delink the the H tone of the second
syllable thereby making it a L. The verb root is now HL instead of HH. This can be
demonstrated below:
5) X + X X + X
H + H + L
74
H H L H H L
Two additional rules must be posited to explain the lowering of pitch in certain
7) X X
>+ 1 pitch
L H
8) a@ kE$ mE@
- + 1 pitch
Downdrift is being created by the addition of the past tense marker mE@ which carries a
H tone.
final floating L, which is preceded by an associated H. Any following H, has the same
pitch as the downstepped H. and any following L has a pitch value of two lower than
75
the pitch value of the preceding H. Thus the difference in pitch value between further
H and L tones remains the same. The downstepped rule is formalised as seen below:
Downstep Rule
9) X X
> + 1 pitch
H L H
downstepped.
10) a@ E@
HL H they ate
Falling Creation: The H tone spreads to the right anchoring on the verb root to
11) X + X
H + L
12) a@ kE^
Conclusion
The most common tone changes in Denya can be accounted for by the spread of
H and L tones. Unlike some Bantu languages, segmental markers for tenses are still
present, so that there are few tones that are not lexically associated to segments. Most
tone changes are fairly regular and predictable. Floating tones are also present which
76
6.6 Denya Verb Tone Paradigms
kE$ walk
a$ kE$ gd v`kjdc
77
a$ kE$ mE@ gd g`r v`kjdc
78
E@ d`s
ma& E@ sn d`s
a$ E^ gd hr d`shmf
a$ E^ dZE& n$de@ge@be@ gd trt`kkx d`sr
a$ E^ E^ gd vhkk d`s
a@ E@ gd rgntkc d`s
a$ ka$ge$ E@ gd lhfgs d`s
a$ E@ mE@ gd `sd
kE@le@ v`ms
ma&N kE$le@ sn v`ms
a$ kE$le$ ge$ gd hr v`mshmf
a$ kE$le$ ge$ dZE& n$de@ge@be@ gd trt`kkx v`msr
a$ kE$le$ ge$ E^ gd vhkk v`ms
a@ kE@le@ gd rgntkc v`ms
a$ ka$ge$ kE@le$ gd lhfgs v`ms
a$ kE$le@ gd v`msdc
a$ kE$le@ mE@ gd g`r v`msdc
79
a@ kE@le$ ge$ sgdx `qd v`mshmf
a@ kE@le$ ge$ dZE& n$de@ge@be@ sgdx trt`kkx v`ms
a@ kE@le$ ge$ E^ sgdx vhkk v`ms
a@ kE@le@ sgdx rgntkc v`ms
a@ ka@ge$ kE@le$ Sgdx lhfgs v`ms
a@ kE$le@ sgdx v`msdc
a@ kE$le@ mE@ sgdx g`ud v`msdc
fE$ knbj
ma&m fE$ sn knbj
a$ fE$ ne$ gd hr knbjhmf
a$ fE$ ne$ dZE& n$de@ge@be@ gd trt`kkx knbjr
a$ fE$ ne$ E^ gd vhkk knbj
a@ fe^ gd rgntkc knbj
a$ ka$ge$ fE^ gd lhfgs knbj
a$ fE$ gd knbjdc
a$ fE$ mE@ gd g`r knbjdc
80
a@ fE$ ne$ sgdx `qd knbjhmf
a@ fE$ ne$ dZE& n$de@ge@be@ sgdx trt`kkx knbj
a@ fE@ ne$ E^ sgdx vhkk knbj
a@ fE^ sgdx rgntkc knbj
a@ ka@ge$ fE^ sgdx lhfgs knbj
a@ fE$ sgdx knbjdc
a@ fE$ mE@ sgdx g`ud knbjdc
ku@ b`kk
ma&N ku@ sn b`kk
a$ ku$ gd hr b`kkhmf
a$ ku$ dZE& n$de@ge@be@ gd trt`kkx b`kkr
a$ ku$ E^ gd vhkk b`kk
a@ ku@ gd rgntkc b`kk
a$ ka$ge$ ku@ gd lhfgs b`kk
a$ ku$ mE@ gd g`r b`kkdc
5.6.1 NEGATION
81
tenses and auxilliary mood are displayed with the various
language.
Perfective Aspect
Imperfective Aspect
82
a& tyE@ ge^ f@ gd hr mns bnnjhmf
a& kE@le@ ge^ f@ gd hr mns v`mshmf
a& ku@le@ ge& f@ gd hr mns qhrhmf
Perfect Tense
83
a@ ku$ mE^ f@ w@ sgdx g`c mns b`kkdc
a@ gyi$ mE^ f@ w@ sgdx g`c mns `rjdc
a@ tyE$ mE^ f@ w@ sgdx g`c mns bnnjdc
a@ kE$le@ mE^ f@ w@ sgdx g`c mns v`msdc
a@ ku$le@ mE^ f@ w@ sgdx g`c mns qhrdm
Future Tense
Habitual
84
a& kE@ ne^ f@ dZE& n$de@ge@be@ gd cndr mns trt`kkx v`kj
a& E^ f@ dZE& n$de@ge@be@ gd cndr mns trt`kkx d`s
a& ku^ f@ dZE& n$de@ge@be@ gd cndr mns trt`kkx b`kk
a& gyi@ ge^ f@ dZE& n$de@ge@be@ gd cndr mns trt`kkx `rj
a& tyE@ ge^ f@ dZE& n$de@ge@be@ gd cndr mns trt`kkx bnnj
a& kE@le@ ge@ f@ dZE& n$de@ge@be@ gd cndr mns trt`kkx v`ms
a& ku@le@ ge@ f@ dZE& n$de@ge@be@ gd cndr mns trt`kkx qhrd
Uncertainty
85
n$d$f$ a@ kE@ ne^ f@ sgdx lhfgs mns v`kj
n$d$f$ a@ E^ f$ sgdx lhfgs mns d`s
n$d$f$ a@ ku^ f@ sgdx lhfgs mns b`kk
n$d$f$ a@ gyi@ ge^ f@ sgdx lhfgs mns `rj
n$d$f$ a@ tyE@ ge^ f@ sgdx lhfgs mns bnnj
n$d$f$ a@ kE@le@ ge^ f@ sgdx lhfgs mns v`ms
n$d$f$ a@ ku@le@ ge^ f@ sgdx lhfgs mns qhrd
Concessive Mood
86
their tone from the morphology. All words in bracket are
NmE@re@ to press
present tense
past tense
future
87
kw@ _sn `rbdmc&
present tense
past tense
future
tSyE& sn fhud
Present Tense
88
a$ tSyE$ ge$ ge$n& gd hr fhuhmf ` rshbj
a& tSyE@ ge@ f@ ge$n& gd hr mns fhuhmf ` rshbj-
a$ tSyE$ ge gEn@@ hr gd fhuhmf ` rshbj
E@bE$ge@ a$ tSyE$ ge$ ge$n& he gd hr fhuhmf ` rshbj-
E@bE$ge@ a& tSyE@ ge@ f@ ge$n& he gd hr mns fhuhmf ` rshbj-
Past Tense
Future Tense
kpE$ sn dmsdq
Present Tense
89
E@bE$ge@ n@no@ a& kpE@ ne^ f@ m$mu$ ge$p he gd hr mns dmsdqhmf ` gntrd-
u@u@
Past Tense
gntrd-
n@no@ a$ kpE$ mE@ m$mu$ ge$pu@u@ g`r gd dmsdqdc sgd gntrd>
n@no@ a& kpE& f@ m$mu$ ge$pu@ w@@ g`r gd mns dmsdqdc ` gntrd
E@bE$ge@ n@no@ a$ kpE$ mE@ m$mu$ ge$pu@ he gd g`r dmsdqdc ` gntrd-
E@bE$ge@ n@no@ a& kpE@ f@ m$mu$ ge$pu@ w@ he gd g`r mns dmsdqdc `
gntrd-
Future
gntrd-
90
Downstep occurs in situations which are not automatically triggered off by the
presence of a L-tone immediately before a H-tone at the surface level. The absence of
a surface L-tone in a downstep can often be attributed to a L-tone that has become
dissociated from its tone bearing segment(s) due usually to the application of a rule
such as high tone spread (HTS), the presence of a floating L tone or to the historical
deletion of the crucial tone bearing segment(s).
Downdrift and downstep should be given the same formal representations.
However, it is clear that the distinction between the two needs to be maintained in
order to show their different derivations. Downdrift is clearly demonstrated with the
sequence H-L-H-L-H-L. Consider the examples below:
1)
-
-
-
- -
-
ge@to$ ge@ ge$nto@me@ various kinds of huts
2)
-
-
- -
-
-
ge@to$ ge@ ma$Nku^ a kind of hut
level.
91
DS occur as a result of a floating L-tone which triggers
H L H L H
ge@mfwi@ni@ foam
H L H L H
n@d@N jigger
HLH
Rising Tones
They occur on the noun class prefixes and never on verb roots:
ma&-myE$ cnf
ba&-mi$a$ hmrdbsr
qhudq E$-bE&
q`s me$-a$tu&
odnokd b&
v`sdq ma$-na&
92
rpthqqdk e$-gi&
mi$a&-ma$g$ fqta
E$bE&-me$ga$ rd`
m$ma&-u$tu@ `ooqdmshbd
Falling Tones
ge$-pi^ btbjnn
u^Nku$ b`rshmf ne knsr
a$-tSo^to$ ghqd 'm(
a$ Nwa^ b`s
ge$-la^ o`k`sd
ge@-be^ rv`lo
6. BIBLIOGRAPHY
Abangma, S. N .1981. The use of modes in Denya Discourse. Doctorat de 3e
cycle dissertation. Unversity of Yaounde.
93
Clements, george. N. 1991. Vowel Height Assimilation in Bantu languages.
Working papers of the Cornell Phonetics Laboratory. 5, 37-76.
Ithaca N. Y. Cornell University.
94
Mbuagbaw Tanyi Eyong. 1994. Kenyang Phonology. 50pp. Cameroon Bible
Translation Association. (CABTA).
Patman, Frankie, 1991. Tone in the Nugunu Verb Phrase.In Tone in five
languages of Cameroon by Stephen C. Anderson 73-90
Talbot, P.A. 1926. The Peoples of Southern Nigeria. Vol. 4, Linguistics and
Statistics. Oxford University Press. Oxford.
Wang, W. 1968. Vowel Features, Paired Variables and the English Vowel Shift.
Lg. 44: 694-708.
Watters, J.R. 1983. Bantoid Overview. In Bendor Samuel, The Niger-Congo
Languages. University Press of America. 402-429.
95
Williamson, Kay. 1971. The Benue Congo and Ijo. In Current Trends in
Linguistics. Vol. 7. Linguistics in Sub-Saharan Africa. (ed.) Thomas
Sebeok et al. pp 244-306. Mouton Hague.
96