THE JOHN ZINK HAMWORTHY

COMBUSTION
HANDBOOK
SECOND EDITION

Volume 3
APPLICATIONS
THE JOHN ZINK HAMWORTHY

COMBUSTION
HANDBOOK
SECOND EDITION

Volume 3
APPLICATIONS

Edited by
Charles E. Baukal, Jr.

vC**' J Taylor & Francis Croup

Boca Raton London New York

CRC Press is an imprint of the

Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
Contents

List of Figures ix
List of Tables xxi
Foreword to the First Edition xxiii
Preface to the First Edition xxv
Preface to the Second Edition xxvii
Acknowledgments xxix
Editor : xxxi
Contributors xxxiii
Prologue xxxvii

1. Process Burners 1
Erwin Platvoet, I.-Ping Chung, Michael G. Claxton, and Tami Fischer

2. Oil Burners 35
I.-Ping Chung, Steve Londerville, Michael G. Claxton, and William Johnson

3. Burners and Combustion Systems for Industrial and Utility Boilers 57

Vladimir Lifshits

4. Duct Burners 93
Peter F. Barry, Stephen L. Somers, and Steve Londerville.

5. Marine and Offshore Applications 117

Richard Price

6. Process Heaters 129

Erwin Platvoet, David Brown, and Rasik Patel

7. Air Heaters 149

Carl A. Connally, Lothar Schulz, and Timothy Webster

8. Thermal Oxidizer Basics 159

Jay Karan, Bernd Reese, Klaus-Dieter Zschorsch, and Wolfgang Klaus

9. Thermal Oxidizer Control and Configurations 211

Bernd Reese, Wolfgang Klaus, Jay Karan, and Juergen Foelting

10. Selected Pollution Control Equipment 239

Klaus-Dieter Zschorsch

11. Flares 251

Robert E. Schwartz, Jeff White, and Wes Bussman

12. Pilot, Ignition, and Monitoring Systems 299

Adam Bader and John Bellovich

13. Biogas Flaring 307

Tim W. Locke, Brandy S. Johnson, and Jason P. Rolf
viii Contents

14. Flare Gas Recovery 331

Jeff Peterson, Nick Tuttle, Harley Cooper, and Charles E. Baukal, Jr.

15. Hydrocarbon Vapor Control Technology 339

Roger E. Blanton

Appendix A: Units and Conversions 365

Appendix B: Physical Properties of Materials 369
Appendix C: Properties of Gases and Liquids 377
Appendix D: Properties of Solids 397
Appendix E: Trademark Disclaimer 401
Index 405
 List of Figures

Figure 1.1 General burner construction 3

Figure 1.2 PVYD-M natural-draft, gas-only burner (with air inlet noise suppression) 4
Figure 1.3 PFFG gas-only flat-flame burner 4
Figure 1.4 PMA round flame combination gas and liquid burner 4
Figure 1.5 HEVD premix burner assembly. 4
Figure 1.6 Staged-air combustion 5
Figure 1.7 HAWAstar staged-air, gas-fired burner assembly. 5
Figure 1.8 LNC staged air combination gas/liquid burner assembly. 5
Figure 1.9 Hamworthy Enviromix 2000 staged-air burner assembly. 6
Figure 1.10 Hamworthy EEP flat-flame staged-air burner assembly. 7
Figure 1.11 Staged-fuel combustion 7
Figure 1.12 PSFG burner assembly. 8
Figure 1.13 PSFFG flat-flame staged-fuel burner assembly. 8
Figure 1.14 Ultralow-NOx stoichiometry. 9
Figure 1.15 Ultralow-NOx flame development 9
Figure 1.16 (a) PSMR ultralow-NOx burner assembly and (b) flame photo 10
Figure 1.17 Relative NOx emissions versus flame stoichiometry. 10
Figure 1.18 LPMF lean premix staged-fuel burner assembly. 11
Figure 1.19 The COOLstar folded flame (flower shape when looking down from the top of the tile) 12
Figure 1.20 COOLstar burner cutaway. 12
Figure 1.21 CFD simulation results for CO concentration contours on COOLstar burner 13
Figure 1.22 CFD simulation results for temperature contours of COOLstar burner. 13
Figure 1.23 COOLstar flame photo 13
Figure 1.24 Entrainment around a Coanda surface 14
Figure 1.25 Coanda tile surface 14
Figure 1.26 HALO flame photo 14
Figure 1.27 Freestanding burners 14
Figure 1.28 MDBP burner firing PSA off gas (view looking up at burner) 15
Figure 1.29 PDSMR MK-II tile and fuel tips 16
Figure 1.30 (a) PDSMR Mk-II burner assembly and (b) flame photo 16
Figure 1.31 (a) PXMR burner assembly and (b) flame photo 17
Figure 1.32 PSFFR burner assembly. 17

I
Si
x List of Figures

Figure 1.33 (a) LPMF burner assembly and (b) flame photo 18
Figure 1.34 (a) RTW test burner and (b) CFD-calculated result 18
Figure 1.35 (a) Modified RTW burner and (b) CFD-calculated result 19
Figure 1.36 (a) PXMR-DS burner and (b) flame photo 19
Figure 1.37 Premix radiant wall burner array. 20
Figure 1.38 PMS premix gas burner assembly. 20
Figure 1.39 PMS flame (front view) 21
Figure 1.40 PMS flame (side view) 21
Figure 1.41 Hamworthy Walrad burner assembly. 21
Figure 1.42 LPMW radiant wall burner array. 22
Figure 1.43 LPMW with elbowed venturi 23
Figure 1.44 LPMW with in-line venturi and staged-fuel adaptor/tip 23
Figure 1.45 LPMW with in-line venturi for RFS integration 23
Figure 1.46 FPMR radiant wall burner cutaway. 24
Figure 1.47 (a) FPMR burner assembly and (b) cutaway. 24
Figure 1.48 Oil gun with concentric tube design 25
Figure 1.49 MEA oil gun with dual (parallel)-tube design 25
Figure 1.50 John Zink EA oil atomizer and tip 25
Figure 1.51 John Zink MEA oil atomizer and tip 25
Figure 1.52 Hamworthy SAR oil atomizer and tip 26
Figure 1.53 Hamworthy DS oil atomizer and tip ! 26
Figure 1.54 John Zink PM atomization system (port mix) 27
Figure 1.55 The HERO gun 27
Figure 1.56 Standard combination burner 28
Figure 1.57 PLNC staged-air combination burner 29
Figure 1.58 DEEPstar low-NOx gas/oil combination burner 29
Figure 1.59 (a) DEEPstar oil flame and (b) gas flame 30
Figure 1.60 ST-l-S manual pilot 31
Figure 1.61 ST-l-SE electric ignition pilot. 31
Figure 1.62 ST-1-SE-FR electric ignition pilot with an integral flame rod : 31
Figure 1.63 KE-l-ST electric ignition pilot 31
Figure 1.64 ST-2 manual pilot 32
Figure 1.65 KE-2-ST electric ignition pilot 32
Figure 2.1 Typical liquid fuel atomizer-spray tip configurations 37
Figure 2.2 Oil gun capacity curves for heavy oil and light oil for one specific oil gun 38
Figure 2.3 Oil gun capacity curves for steam atomizing and air atomizing for one specific oil gun 38
List of Figures xi

Figure 2.4 Oil flame cone-type stabilizer 39

Figure 2.5 Oil tile to stabilize the oil flame 39
Figure 2.6 Round burner tile provides round oil flame 40
Figure 2.7 Rectangular burner tile provides flat oil flame 40
Figure 2.8 Coen Co. elliptical cap with slots for low NOx 42
Figure 2.9 CFI versus CCR, RCR, and asphaltenes 44
Figure 2.10 Combination oil and gas LoNOx burner 46
Figure 2.11 Secondary (outside) and primary (inside) tiles 46
Figure 2.12 Regen tile and one section of secondary tile 47
Figure 2.13 Regen oil tile with an oil gun in the center (secondary tile not shown) 47
Figure 2.14 Swirler for oil firing on forced draft 48
Figure 2.15 Diffuser cones for light oil firing 48
Figure 2.16 Typical rotary-type air registers 49
Figure 2.17 Air register with rollers for easy operation 49
Figure 2.18 Vane-type air register 50
Figure 2.19 Integral plenum box with inlet air damper and muffler 50
Figure 2.20 Oil gun insert and oil body receiver (with red caps) 51
Figure 2.21 EA oil gun parts 51
Figure 2.22 EA oil tip 51
Figure 2.23 MEA oil tip 51
Figure 2.24 MEA oil gun parts 51
Figure 2.25 Atomizer with labyrinth seals and steam ports 51
Figure 2.26 Checking atomizer location in the sleeve 52
Figure 2.27 Flame impingement on tubes 52
Figure 2.28 Fouled oil guns 53
Figure 2.29 Oil-firing problems and possible causes 54
Figure 3.1 Approximate rate of thermal (Zeldovich) NO formation 61
Figure 3.2 Approximate relation of NOx reduction with FGR for fuels without FBN 62
Figure 3.3 NOx performance of a typical Coen premix burner firing natural gas in a package boiler 65
Figure 3.4 QLA burner performance at high fire 65
Figure 3.5 Coen DAZ burner 68
Figure 3.6 Coen Variflame burner 68
Figure 3.7 Hamworthy DFL burner 68
Figure 3.8 Coen DAF burner 69
Figure 3.9 Coen Delta-NOx burner 69
Figure 3.10 ECOjet gas-only burners 69
xii List of Figures

Figure 3.11 (a) Hamworthy ECOjei flame, (b) Natural gas firing at 30 MW (100 x 106 Btu/h)
at Hamworthy test facility. 70
Figure 3.12 Schematic of a QLN burner. 70
Figure 3.13 Coen QLN burner flame with 20 ppm NOx firing natural gas without FGR 71
Figure 3.14 Coen RMB burner equipped with an air isolation sliding barrel damper 72
Figure 3.15 Fuel risers of a Coen RMB burner 72
Figure 3.16 Enhanced images of the gas-fired RMB flame 73
Figure 3.17 Coen D-RMB burner mounted inside the wind box 73
Figure 3.18 Coen D-RMB burner performance in a large package boiler 74
Figure 3.19 Coen QLA burner schematic 74
Figure 3.20 Assembled Coen QLA burner (side) 75
Figure 3.21 Assembled Coen QLA burner (front) 75
Figure 3.22 Coen QLA burner flame with 7 ppm NOx (natural gas firing) 75
Figure 3.23 Peabody LVC burner for firing BFG 75
Figure 3.24 Modified Coen LCF burner for simultaneous low-NOx firing of multiple fuels of variable
composition 75
Figure 3.25 NOx reduction with FGR mixed with combustion air or fuel 76
Figure 3.26 Large Coen QLN burners mounted inside wind boxes 77
Figure 3.27 Coen QLN-II burner inside a furnace 78
Figure 3.28 Row of boilers equipped with Coen QLN-IPM burners rated to 63 and 90 x 106 Btu/h
(18.5-26 MWt) 78
Figure 3.29 Typical NOx performance of QLN-II burner with FGR 79
Figure 3.30 Large 350 x 106 Btu/h (103 MW) DAF burner for firing (a) syngas and (b) natural gas 79
Figure 3.31 Flames of DAF burner firing (a) natural gas and (b) syngas 80
Figure 3.32 Schematic of Coen Delta Power burner 80
Figure 3.33 Examples of NOx reduction with air staging and FGR in utility boilers when firing natural gas
(various boilers) 82
Figure 3.34 Effect of fuel biasing on the NOx 83
Figure 3.35 Effect of FGR on thermal portion of NOx in different utility boilers 84
Figure 3.36 NOx emissions firing #6 oil with 0.54% FBN 84
Figure 3.37 Low-NOx natural gas flame 85
Figure 3.38 Main components of a fixed geometry burner for a gas and oil T-fired boiler 86
Figure 3.39 Spinners for tilting burners 86
Figure 3.40 Flame stabilizers and buckets of tilting (a) gas-fired burner and (b) oil-fired burner 87
Figure 3.41 Corner of a T-fired boiler with tilting burners with some heat damage 87
Figure 3.42 Coen warm-up gas burners 88
Figure 3.43 Conceptual design of low-CO flue-gas reheat system for refinery gas firing 89
Figure 3.44 Coen ProLine burner flames at low- (left) and high-fire (right) operation 90
List of Figures xiii

Figure 4.1 Typical cogeneration plant schematic 95

Figure 4.2 Cogeneration plant at Teesside, England 96
Figure 4.3 Combination (oil and gas)-fired duct burners at Dahbol, India 97
Figure 4.4 Typical location of duct burners in an HRSG 97
Figure 4.5 Schematic of HRSG at Teesside, England 98
Figure 4.6 Fluidized bed startup duct burner 98
Figure 4.7 An inline burner 99
Figure 4.8 Linear burner elements 99
Figure 4.9 Gas flame from a grid burner 99
Figure 4.10 Oil flame from a side-fired oil gun 100
Figure 4.11 Approximate requirement for augmenting air 101
Figure 4.12 Drawing of a Duct burner arrangement 101
Figure 4.13 Comparison of flow variation with and without straightening device 102
Figure 4.14 Physical model of a duct burner array 103
Figure 4.15 Sample result of CFD modeling performed on an HRSG inlet duct 104
Figure 4.16 Drilled pipe duct burner 105
Figure 4.17 Low-emission duct burner 105
Figure 4.18 Flow patterns around flame stabilizer 105
Figure 4.19 Effect of conditions on CO formation 107
Figure 4.20 Typical main gas fuel train: single element or multiple elements firing simultaneously. 110
Figure 4.21 Typical main gas fuel train: multiple elements with individual firing capability. Ill
Figure 4.22 Typical pilot gas train: single element or multiple elements firing simultaneously. Ill
Figure 4.23 Typical pilot gas train: multiple elements with individual firing capability. 112
Figure 4.24 Typical main oil fuel train: single element 113
Figure 4.25 Typical main oil fuel train: multiple elements 114
Figure 4.26 Typical pilot oil train: single element 114
Figure 4.27 Typical pilot oil train: multiple elements 115
Figure 5.1 Hamworthy Combustion ElectroTec rotary-cup burner 119
Figure 5.2 Hamworthy Combustion DF register burner 120
Figure 5.3 Heavy fuel-oil sprayer and twin-fluid Y-jet atomizer 120
Figure 5.4 Hamworthy Combustion HXG dual fuel register burner 121
Figure 5.5 Chentronics high-energy igniter 121
Figure 5.6 Hamworthy Combustion AMOxsafe GCU. (a) GCU system arrangement of aft deck
and (b) GCU body 122
Figure 5.7 AMOxsafe GCU flow schematic 123
xiv List of Figures

Figure 5.8 AMOxsafe GCU temperature profile as predicted by CFD modeling 124
Figure 5.9 Hamworthy Combustion DF register burner 124
Figure 5.10 Fuel-gas valve enclosure for FPSO engine room boiler 125
Figure 5.11 Hamworthy Combustion's triple 120 metric-ton/h (132 U.S. ton/h) steam boiler module for FPSO 126
Figure 5.12 Hamworthy Combustion's high-pressure steam boiler module for power generation 126
Figure 5.13 Hamworthy Combustion's fuel-gas knockout pot on an FSO 127
Figure 5.14 Hamworthy Combustion's DFL low-NOx register burner 127
Figure 6.1 Typical heater types 132
Figure 6.2 Vertical cylindrical furnace arrangement 133
Figure 6.3 Two vertical cylindrical fireboxes with common convection section 133
Figure 6.4 Box-type heater with horizontal tubes 134
Figure 6.5 Box-type heater with horizontal tubes 134
Figure 6.6 Cabin heater 135
Figure 6.7 Typical coker furnace 136
Figure 6.8 Double wide coker furnace 136
Figure 6.9 Top-fired reformer 137
Figure 6.10 Side-fired reformer 138
Figure 6.11 Terrace wall-fired reformer 138
Figure 6.12 Bottom-fired reformer 139
Figure 6.13 Typical cracking furnace firebox layout 140
Figure 6.14 Variations of typical cracking furnace firebox layout 140
Figure 6.15 Radiant wall burners t 141
Figure 6.16 Large heat release floor burners 141
Figure 6.17 Example of flame rollover in a pilot-scale cracking furnace 141
Figure 6.18 Spectral absorptivity of C02 at 830 K and 10 atm for a path length of 38.8 cm 143
Figure 6.19 Radiation to a single row of tubes backed by a refractory wall 144
Figure 6.20 Incident radiation to a single-tube row, which is backed by a refractory wall 145
Figure 6.21 Effective emissivity of a single-tube row backed by a refractory wall, plotted for various
tube emissivities 145
Figure 6.22 Relationship of reduced firing density and reduced efficiency. 146
Figure 7.1 Direct-fired air heater 150
Figure 7.2 Horizontal direct-fired air heater with side outlet 150
Figure 7.3 Direct-fired air heater with separate combustion air inlet 150
Figure 7.4 Oil-fired air heater 151
Figure 7.5 All-metal air heater 151
Figure 7.6 AH 11/2 pilot with retractable igniter 153
Figure 7.7 Retractable high-energy igniter 153
List of Figures xv

Figure 7.8 Plume pilot 154

Figure 7.9 Splitter damper 154
Figure 7.10 Combustion chamber with tube bundle 155
Figure 7.11 GSX heater with housing 156
Figure 7.12 VTK heater with air inlet and outlet sockets 156
Figure 7.13 VTK heater in sectional view. 156
Figure 7.14 VTN heater, view to the cleaning door 156
Figure 7.15 VTN heater in sectional view. 156
Figure 7.16 HG-WT heater 157
Figure 7.17 HG-WT heater in sectional view 157
Figure 8.1 Example of a comprehensive thermal oxidizer system 161
Figure 8.2 Typical natural draft burner 166
Figure 8.3 Typical medium-pressure-drop burner 167
Figure 8.4 Typical high-pressure-drop burner 167
Figure 8.5 Schematic of a KEU combustor 168
Figure 8.6 KEU Combustor 168
Figure 8.7 Typical horizontal system with a preheat exchanger 173
Figure 8.8 Water-tube boiler 174
Figure 8.9 Fire-tube boiler 176
Figure 8.10 Typical all-welded shell-and-tube heat exchanger 176
Figure 8.11 Regenerative preheat exchanger 177
Figure 8.12 Organic fluid transfer system configuration 178
Figure 8.13 Vertical, downflow conditioning section 179
Figure 8.14 Direct spray contact quench 180
Figure 8.15 Submerged quench 182
Figure 8.16 Adjustable-plug venturi quench 183
Figure 8.17 Baghouse 185
Figure 8.18 Dry ESP. 186
Figure 8.19 Horizontal venturi scrubber 188
Figure 8.20 Wet ESP. 189
Figure 8.21 Simple packed column 190
Figure 8.22 Two-stage acid-gas removal system 192
Figure 8.23 Combination quench/two-stage acid removal system 193
Figure 8.24 Three-stage NOx reduction process 194
Figure 8.25 Two-stage NOx reduction process 196
Figure 8.26 Results of three different DENOX units 197
Figure 8.27 Scheme regarding catalytic reaction of NOx and NH3 on the catalyst 198
xvi List of Figures

Figure 8.28 Schematic process diagram for SCR of NOx 199

Figure 8.29 Control parameter/control of reducing agent (NH3) 200
Figure 8.30 Ammonia maldistribution 201
Figure 8.31 Example of ammonium bisulfate formation and reversible plugging of the pores at low
operation temperature 202
Figure 8.32 Corrugated catalyst and elements 204
Figure 8.33 (a) Fan wheel designs, (b) outlet damper flow control, (c) radial inlet damper flow/inlet box
damper flow control, and (d) blower speed control 206
Figure 9.1 Typical control schematic of a combined fuel/air controller suitable for set points coming from
an external calculation 213
Figure 9.2 Example of a two-stage combustion unit (PFD) 214
Figure 9.3 Example process and instrumentation diagram for a typical multipurpose TO application 216
Figure 9.4 Example for the difference between conventional combustion air supply and energy-
optimized operation in a TO unit with one combustible waste liquid 217
Figure 9.5 Typical automation concept with separated BMS and DCS 217
Figure 9.6 Example for a combined automation concept 218
Figure 9.7 Simple vertical TO 219
Figure 9.8 TO system generating steam 219
Figure 9.9 Heat recovery thermal oxidation system 220
Figure 9.10 Bypass recuperative system 221
Figure 9.11 Horizontal TO with fire-tube boiler and HC1 removal system 226
Figure 9.12 Vertical TO with 180 turn quench section 227
Figure 9.13 CI reaction equilibrium versus operating temperature 227
Figure 9.14 Computer model of a Combustor-based TO system for explosive waste gases with boiler
and scrubber 229
Figure 9.15 Combustor with a waste gas organ for explosive waste gas 230
Figure 9.16 Computer model of a TO system with GPR technology. 230
Figure 9.17 Schematic of explosion protection for Zone 0 232
Figure 9.18 Cutaway photo of a static detonation arrestor 233
Figure 9.19 Sectional drawing of a static detonation arrestor 233
Figure 9.20 Arrangement drawing of a liquid seal vessel 234
Figure 9.21 Molten salt system 235
Figure 9.22 On-line cleaning with soot blowers 236
Figure 9.23 Three-stage NOx system with packed column scrubber 237
Figure 10.1 Combination of an SCR and a catalytic oxidizer for two streams containing high load of VOCs
and NH3/ and stream containing low NOx load 240
Figure 10.2 Combination of an SCR and a catalytic oxidizer for a flue gas stream containing a high load
of NOx and CO and a low load of NOx and ammonia 241
List of Figures xvii

Figure 10.3 Combination of an SCR and a catalytic oxidizer for a greenhouse application 242
Figure 10.4 FRIGOSOLVER unit 243
Figure 10.5 Cooling coil 244
Figure 10.6 Direct condensation in a liquid bath of deep cooled solvents, here called the FRIGOSOLVER
unit 246
Figure 10.7 Combination of condensation unit and catalytic waste combustion 247
Figure 10.8 Saturated concentration in accordance with saturation temperature 248
Figure 11.1 Typical early 1950s flare performance 252
Figure 11.2 An early model smokeless flare 253
Figure 11.3 Major flaring event 253
Figure 11.4 Typical elevated single-point flare 254
Figure 11.5 Typical pit flare installation 254
Figure 11.6 A grade-mounted, multipoint LRGO flare system 254
Figure 11.7 Elevated multipoint LRGO flare system 254
Figure 11.8 Multiple ZTOF installation in an ethylene plant 255
Figure 11.9 Combination elevated flare system (left) and ZTOF (right) 255
Figure 11.10 Combination elevated LRGO and utility flare system 255
Figure 11.11 Comparison of the flame produced by burning (a) 25 MW wellhead natural gas, (b) propane,
and (c) propylene 258
Figure 11.12 General arrangement of a staged flare system, including a ZTOF and an elevated flare 260
Figure 11.13 Flare test at the John Zink Co. test facility in Tulsa, Oklahoma 261
Figure 11.14 Liquid carryover from an elevated flare 263
Figure 11.15 Thermogram of a flare flame 266
Figure 11.16 API radiation geometry. 266
Figure 11.17 Comparison of stack height and relative cost for various radiation calculation methods 267
Figure 11.18 Effectiveness of steam in smoke suppression 268
Figure 11.19 Effectiveness of air in smoke suppression 268
Figure 11.20 Steamizer steam-assisted smokeless flare 269
Figure 11.21 Typical nonassisted flare 270
Figure 11.22 ZDR severe service flare tip 270
Figure 11.23 Simple steam-assisted flare 271
Figure 11.24 Perimeter/area ratio as a function of tip size for a simple steam-assisted flare 271
Figure 11.25 Schematic of an advanced steam-assisted flare 272
Figure 11.26 A comparison of the perimeter/area ratio for simple and advanced steam-assisted flares 273
Figure 11.27 Steamizer flare burner and muffler 273
Figure 11.28 State-of-the-art Steamizer XP 273
Figure 11.29 Air-assisted smokeless flare with two blowers in a refinery. 274
xviii List of Figures

Figure 11.30 Annular air flare 274

Figure 11.31 Hydra flare burner in an offshore location 275
Figure 11.32 LRGO staging sequence during a flaring event from inception (a) to full load (g) 276
Figure 11.33 Multipoint LRGO system with a radiation fence 279
Figure 11.34 A RIMFIRE endothermic flare 280
Figure 11.35 OWB liquid flare test firing 150 gpm (570 L/min) 280
Figure 11.36 Forced-draft Dragon liquid flare 281
Figure 11.37 Poseidon flare: water-assisted Hydra 282
Figure 11.38 Horizontal settling drum at the base of an air-assisted flare 283
Figure 11.39 Cyclone separator 283
Figure 11.40 Schematic of a vertical liquid seal 284
Figure 11.41 "Smoke signals" from a surging liquid seal 285
Figure 11.42 Various liquid seal head types 285
Figure 11.43 AIRRESTOR velocity-type purge reduction seal 286
Figure 11.44 Molecular seal density-type purge reduction seal 286
Figure 11.45 Schematic of a ZTOF. 287
Figure 11.46 Self-supported flare 288
Figure 11.47 Guy wire-supported flare 289
Figure 11.48 Derrick-supported flare 289
Figure 11.49 Demountable derrick 290
Figure 11.50 Flare support structure selection guide 290
Figure 11.51 Steam control valve station 291
Figure 11.52 Staging control valve assembly. 292
Figure 11.53 Loop seal 292
Figure 11.54 Purge control station 293
Figure 11.55 Geometry for plume dispersion calculations 296
Figure 12.1 Pilot schematic 300
Figure 12.2 Pilot operating in high wind and rain conditions 301
Figure 12.3 Slipstream-type ignition 302
Figure 12.4 Flame ionization 303
Figure 12.5 John Zink infrared grade-mounted camera 304
Figure 12.6 Pilot operating at night 304
Figure 12.7 Acoustic pilot monitoring 305
Figure 13.1 Solar powered passive flare 310
Figure 13.2 Elevated flare 311
Figure 13.3 Unconfined flame extending beyond the windshield 312
Figure 13.4 Enclosed flare 312
Figure 13.5 Elevated flare inlet and riser 313
-MS*

List of Figures xix

Figure 13.6 Elevated flare pilot and main flame thermocouples 314
Figure 13.7 Radiation isoplot (Btu/h-ft2) 314
Figure 13.8 Enclosed flare gas manifold 314
Figure 13.9 Enclosed flare gas manifold with flanged flare tips 315
Figure 13.10 Enclosed flare air damper louvers 315
Figure 13.11 Enclosed flare interior insulation and thermocouples 315
Figure 13.12 Landfill gas flame 316
Figure 13.13 Flame lengths 316
Figure 13.14 Sample ports 317
Figure 13.15 Zink Ultra Low Emission (ZULE) enclosed flare 318
Figure 13.16 ZULE static mixing chamber. 318
Figure 13.17 View inside ZULE enclosed flare 319
Figure 13.18 Single-stage fans in a landfill application 324
Figure 13.19 Multistage blowers 324
Figure 13.20 A cutaway of a multistage blower showing eight impellers 325
Figure 13.21 As the gas travels through each impeller, it increases temperature 325
Figure 13.22 1-2-3 Fan law. 326
Figure 13.23 Siloxane removal system 327
Figure 13.24 P&ID of gas utilization and a single flare 328
Figure 13.25 P&ID of gas utilization and dual flares 329
Figure 14.1 Example of an air-assisted flare during testing 332
Figure 14.2 Example of a flare being oversteamed during testing 333
Figure 14.3 Example of waste-gas flows to a flare in a typical refinery over approximately an 8-month
period 333
j Figure 14.4 Generalized flare-gas recovery process schematic 335
Figure 14.5 FGRS at FHR West Plant in Corpus Christi, Texas : 337
Figure 15.1 Splash loading method 342
Figure 15.2 Submerged fill pipe 342
Figure 15.3 Bottom loading 343
Figure 15.4 Vapor control stage 1 343
Figure 15.5 Summary of U.S. VOC emissions 345
Figure 15.6 Adsorption versus absorption 346
Figure 15.7 Single particle of granular activated carbon 347
Figure 15.8 Pore structure with adsorbate molecules in the pores of the activated carbon 347
Figure 15.9 Carbon adsorption-absorption (ADAB) process 351
Figure 15.10 Three carbon bed zones 352
Figure 15.11 John Zink DVP VRU 353
xx List of Figures

Figure 15.12 Process schematic for an S3-AAD VRU 354

Figure 15.13 John Zink LRVP VRU 355
Figure 15.14 Diagram of a vapor combustor 356
Figure 15.15 Photos of vapor combustors 357
Figure 15.16 Stratification of vapors in a tank truck 358
Figure 15.17 Truck rack vapor control system block diagram 358
Figure 15.18 Vapor stratification in a vessel 359
Figure 15.19 Marine vapor control block diagram 359
Figure 15.20 Internal floating roof tank vent control system block diagram 360
Figure 15.21 Cross section of a detonation arrestor 361
Figure 15.22 Pressure waves generated by a flame front in a pipe 361
List of Tables

Table 1.1 Burner Classifications 3

Table 4.1 Typical NOx and CO Emissions from Duct Burners 109
Table 6.1 Typical Firing Splits 139
Table 6.2 Favored Flame Shape for Various Reformer Types 139
Table 8.1 Typical TO Operating Conditions 169
Table 8.2 Types of Mixing Elements and Related NH3/NOx Maldistribution 200
Table 8.3 Advantages and Disadvantages of Various Types of Fan Wheel Designs 208
Table 10.1 Plant Attribute 245
Table 12.1 Recommendation for Minimum Number of Pilots from API SP 537 Document 301
Table 12.2 Comparison of Flare Pilot Detection Systems 305
Table 14.1 Example of Waste-Gas Compositions at a Typical Plant 334
Table 15.1 Vacuum Conversion Chart 341
Table 15.2 Typical Chemical Composition of Gasoline Vapors 342
Table 15.3 Comparison of Allowable Vapor Emissions at 90% Control Efficiency 344
Table 15.4 Comparison of U.S. Emission Regulations versus Recovery Efficiency 344
Table 15.5 Current European VOC Emission Limits 345
Table 15.6 Groups of Various Hydrocarbons 361

xxi