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Annals of Mathematics

On a Stationary System With Spherical Symmetry Consisting of Many Gravitating Masses


Author(s): Albert Einstein
Reviewed work(s):
Source: The Annals of Mathematics, Second Series, Vol. 40, No. 4 (Oct., 1939), pp. 922-936
Published by: Annals of Mathematics
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ANNALS OF MATHEMATICS
Vol. 40, No. 4, October, 1939

ON A STATIONARY SYSTEM WITH SPHERICAL SYMMETRY


CONSISTING OF MANY GRAVITATING MASSES
BY ALBERT EINSTEIN
(Received May 10, 1939)
If one considersSchwarzschild'ssolutionof the static gravitationalfield of
sphericalsymmetry
2

(1) ~ 2X
ds2 =(1 )(d
X dX)+
)
2r dt
d2
+ + dx2 3d

it is noted that

g44=(~

vanishesforr = A42. This means that a clock kept at this place would go at
the rate zero. Furtherit is easy to show that both light rays and material
particlestake an infinitelylong time (measuredin "coordinatetime") in order
to reach the point r = 4/2 when originatingfroma point r > A42. In this
sense thespherer = 4/2 constitutesa place wherethe fieldis singular. (4 repre-
sents the gravitatingmass.)
There arises the question whetherit is possible to build up a fieldcontaining
such singularitieswith the help of actual gravitatingmasses, or whethersuch
regionswith vanishing944 do not exist in cases which have physical reality.
Schwarzschildhimselfinvestigatedthe gravitationalfieldwhichis produced by
an incompressibleliquid. He found that in this case, too, there appears a
regionwith vanishingg44if only,with given densityof the liquid, the radius of
the field-producing sphereis chosen large enough.
This argument,however,is not convincing;the concept of an incompressible
liquid is not compatiblewith relativitytheoryas elastic waves would have to
travel with infinitevelocity. It would be necessary,therefore,to introducea
compressibleliquid whose equation of state excludes the possibilityof sound
signalswitha speed in excess of the velocityof light. But the treatmentof any
such problemwould be quite involved; besides, the choice of such an equation
of state would be arbitrarywithinwide limits,and one could not be sure that
therebyno assumptionshave been made whichcontainphysicalimpossibilities.
One is thus led to ask whethermatter cannot be introducedin such a way
that questionable assumptionsare excluded fromthe very beginning. In fact
this can be done by choosing,as the field-producing mass, a great numberof
922
ON STATIONARY SYSTEM WITH SPHERICAL SYMMETRY 923

small gravitatingparticles which move freelyunder the influenceof the field


producedby all of themtogether. This is a systemresemblinga sphericalstar
cluster. Hereby we may proceed as if the field,in which the particles are
moving,were produced by a continuousmass distributionof spherical sym-
metry,correspondingto the whole of the particles.
We can furthersimplifyour considerationsby the special assumption that
all particlesmove along circularpaths around the centerof symmetryof the
cluster. Even in this case it is still possible to choose arbitrarilythe radial
distributionof mass density. The resultof the followingconsiderationwill be
that it is impossibleto make g44zero anywhere,and that the total gravitating
mass which may be produced by distributingparticleswithina given radius,
always remainsbelow a certainbound.
1. On the paths of the particlesand theirspacial distribution
By a suitable choice of the radial coordinate,it is possible to obtain the
gravitationalfieldof the clusterof sphericalsymmetryin the form
(2) ds2= -a(dx + dX + dx3)+ b dt2,
wherebya and b are functionsofr = (X2 + x2 + x2). Firstwe shall investigate
the circularmotion of one particle around the centerof symmetry. Suppose,
forinstance, this motion takes place withinthe plane x3 = 0. Through the
introductionof polar coordinates
X3 = r cos 6,
xi = r sin t cos sp,
x2 = r sin t sin jo,
(2) assumes the form
(2a) ds2= -a[dr2 + r2(d62+ sin2a d'p2)]+ b dt2.
The fieldis characterizedby
gil = -a, = -ar2 sin2 t

922= -ar, 944= b,


whereall the rest of the g, vanish. The particle under considerationsatisfies
the equation
(3) d2x,+ r dx-dxa _ ?
+ Pa ds ds-0
In addition its motionis determinedby the conditions
dx, dr 0 d2x3 d2o _

ds ds ds2 ds2 -
X= = dd2X4 d2t
X2 = =2 =s ds= 0.
924 ALBERT EINSTEIN

It turnsout that (3) is satisfiedwhen

1 X3 d33 I dx4 dX4 O.


+ =
dS ds dsds
or when

(4) -(ar')
dtp + b =0.
Because of (2a), we have

(5) (ds) = -ar2/d + b.


Thus, d<o/dtand ds/dtare determinedwhen the fieldis given.
Because ds2has to be positiveforthe worldline of a particlein motionwe have
(ds'2 b r2dP2=b-a 2 b___
0
-dt) (dt - (ar2)
or
b'
(6) 1-b > 0.
(ar2)'
ar2
By applyingthis conditionto Schwarzschild'sfield (1) we obtain

(6a) r > 2(2 + V/3).


2
It followsthat in the case of a Schwarzschildfielda particleis bound to follow
a path witha radiusgreaterthan (2 + \/3)timestheradiusofthe Schwarzschild
singularity. This fact has the greatestsignificanceforthe followinginvestiga-
tion: In the outermostlayer of our particlecluster(and beyond it) the gravita-
tional fieldis given by (1). It followsthat the total gravitatingmass of the
clusterdeterminesa lower limitforthe radius of the cluster;this radius is (in
coordinatemeasure) more than (2 + \/3) timesgreaterthan the radius of the
Schwarzschildsingularityas definedby the field in the empty space outside
the cluster.
The normal to the plane in which the particle considered moves has the
directionof X3. If it is assumed that the normalsto an infinitenumberof such
planes are distributedat randomand also that the phase angles of the paths are
subjectto a randomdistribution, thenwe obtain a clusterofparticlesofspherical
symmetrywhose paths have the radius r. The most general cluster to be
consideredby us consistsof an infinitenumberof clustersof this special type
whichbelong to all values of r. (More accuratelyspeaking,the whole cluster
consists,of course,of a finitenumberof particlesso that a fieldis createdwhich
only approximatessphericalsymmetry.)
ON STATIONARY SYSTEM WITH SPHERICAL SYMMETRY 925

In orderto formulatethe conditionsof dynamicalequilibriumof the cluster


under the influenceof its own gravitationalfield,we firsthave to computethe
energytensorbelongingto such a cluster. For this purposewe assume, forthe
sake of simplicitythat all particleshave the same mass m.
2. The Matter-EnergyTensor of the Cluster
We considerthe motionof particleswithina volume elementon the x3-axis.
The velocityvectorsall have the same amount, they are perpendicularon the
x3-direction,and they are evenly distributedwith respect to the directions
within the xI, x2- plane. We know furtherthat the matter-energytensor
depends also on the particle density and on the gravitationalpotentials,but
possible to determinethis
not on the derivativesof the latter. It is, therefore,
tensorby a straightforward calculation.
First we considerparticles,with the mass m and the particle densityno per
unit volume, at rest with respect to a coordinatesystem of the theoryof re-
strictedrelativity. In such a case of the energy tensor only the (44)-com-
ponent exists,
T44 = mn dx4_4
ds ds
With respect to coordinatesystemsin relative motion in the xi-directionwe
have the components
Tl = mnodxi dxi T44=
dx4dx4
ds ds = nn0 T8 -ds

T14 = mnOdx,dx4
d= ds
The particle density n with respect to such a system is determinedby the
equations:
noVo=nV, Vo ds = V dt,
whereVo and V denote the restvolume and the coordinatevolume respectively.
Thereforewe have
ds
no= n-
dX4'
We now considerthe case whenthevelocityvectorofthe particlemakes an angle
a withrespectto the xi-axis,and is perpendicularto the x3-axis. By using the
relationsderivedabove and by introducingd12 = dX2 + dx2 , we obtain
ds (dl\2 C.82 T'12m ds (diV
a, cos asinao,
dx4 ds dx4 ds
T" = mnsna T = mn d-Oa!
24 ds ldl"2 .2 14 ds dl dx4
i-I sin a, T'= mn-d-cosa
2
dx4\d dx4dl ds
T = mn (dX4,24\2n
nds = dldx sin a,
mn ds~~~4j
x d8
~d-, dxI ds
926 ALBERT EINSTEIN

all the othercomponentsof the energytensorbeing zero. In the case that the
velocityvectorsare evenlydistributedover all values of a the resultis

2 2
dx4\dsl/ 22

T7" = mn d= T44 .
ds
We now proceedto the case that the componentsof the metrictensorare gii =
922 = 933 = -a and 944= b. The componentsof the energytensorare obtained
by applying the transformation law for tensors and by transformingthe co-
ordinates according to
dx. = adt.
dx4 = b'dX.
We obtain

Til = () Tl = aTn1,

T44= (d-4)2 T44= bT44.

dl and dx4,containedin Tl and T44, are to be replaceddl by a'dl and dx4by bld-t.
Furtherwe have to introducethe particledensitywith respect to the new co-
ordinates,fl, according to
ndxldx2dx3 = ndx1dx2dd3
or
n = ia1.
Afterhaving made all these transformations and substitutions,and omitting
the bars denotingthe new coordinatesystem,we obtain

IT11
= T22 = imna b_ ds (dil2
(7)
T44= m - b dX4
ds
In theseequations ds/dx4and duds have to be replacedby the expressionsgiven
by (4) and (5) which were derived fromthe equations of the geodesic lines.
Furtherwe writedtinsteadofdx4and rdepinsteadofdl. The finalresultis

FT7a = T22 = mna ' ( -a'af


(7a) t~ T T = __. .
ON STATIONARY SYSTEM WITH SPHERICAL SYMMETRY 927

wherea and #denote the expressions


a = In (r2a),
(7b)
B= In b.

3. The DifferentialEquations of the GravitationalField


equation of a gravitationalfieldwhich is due to a matter-
The differential
energytensorare
(8) Go, = Rpv.- 4gtR + KIT#,= 0.
These equations have to be specialized fora static fieldof the type (2). By a
straightforwardcalculationthe followingequations are obtained fora point on
the xraxis:

(9) - = a
ra -+
rb4a,
+ -2ab = 0,
'b

(10) Gil 2
!!O)
a 2 b
#la'
2 ra
lb'
2 rb
1(b'\
4kb)
+b 77l=0?
a /at\I i1a"1 a' 2 a
(11)
(11) ~~bG/44=(-) + 2 -+4( +gT44=0.
a/ ra 4\a/
For Ti, and T44we have to substitutethe expressionsgivenby (7a), (7b). As m
is to be considereda given constant,the only functionsof the coordinatesin
these equations are n, a, and b. It is to be expected in the firstplace that n,
i.e. radial distributionof matter, remains undeterminedby the equations.
This makes necessarythe existenceof an identitybetween the equations (9),
(10), (11). In factsuch an identityexists. Its formis

(12) ?0 G3 + (r+ G)33( +-) Gl + G44.

It may be obtainedin the followingway: We have constructedT, by consider-


ing particleswhichsatisfythe equations of motionin the field. Thereforethe
covariantdivergenceof thistensoris bound to vanishidentically. On the other
hand, the divergenceof R,, - lg,,R vanishes identicallyon account of the
Bianchi identities. Of thesefourequations havingthe formofdivergencesonly
the one with the index 3 yields anythingwhichdoes not already vanish identi-
cally withrespectto the G, , and that is (12). From the formof (12) it follows
that (10) is the consequenceof (9) and (11). The problemis thereforereduced
to (9) and (11), and the particle densityremainsundetermined,as was to be
expected.
This resultmakes possiblea furthersimplificationof the problem. If, in (9),
the quantitiesa = ln (r2a) and $ = ln b are introduced,we obtain the equation

(13) 2 + a'3' = O.
r2 + 21a'2
928 ALBERT EINSTEIN

By takingintoaccount (13) and (7a), we obtainfrom(11)

(14) a" + t+ -a + Kmnfa ( ) O.

r2

equation fora alone. When a is alreadyknownb is obtained


This is a differential
by a simple integrationfrom

(13a) a' r2 2

4. Localization of the Particles withina Thin SphericalShell


Outside the cluster,the gravitationalfieldis representedby Schwarzschild's
solutionwhich,withour choiceofthe coordinatesystem,is givenby (1). Inside
the cluster,the fieldis determinedby (14). Thereby,the functionn is to be
consideredas given. However,n is not completelyarbitrary,as the total radius
of the clusteris restrictedby the lowerlimitgiven by (6a).
Equation (14) representsa complicatedrelationbetweenthe particledensity
n and the functiona representingthe gravitationalfield. The limitingcase,
however,in whichthe gravitatingparticlesare concentratedwithinan infinitely
thin spherical shell, between r = ro- A and r = ro, is comparatively simple.
Of course, this case could only be realized if the individual particles had the
rest-volumezero,whichcannot be the case. This idealization,however,still is
ofinterestas a limitingcase forthe radial distributionof the particles.
We divide the whole space into threezones forseparate consideration,part 0
to be the part outside the shell, r _ ro, part I to be the part inside the shell,
r _ ro -A, and part S to be the part of the shell ro - A < r _ ro. In 0, the
gravitationalfield is representedby (1), in I, it is representedby (2) with
constantvalues of a and b. It followsthat a' (and a') have to changewithinS
the fasterthe smallerA is chosen. However, as a' remainsfinitein S, a itself
changesonlyinfinitely littlein S. It is, therefore,permissiblein S to neglecta'
comparedwitha". We therefore replace (14) withinS by

(14a) ai" + Kmna ( 2\ = ?'

where a and r are to be treated as constants for integrationpurposes. We


introducethe variable
2 3 2,t2
z =1ra -
and the "constant"

C =Kna* r
V2
ON STATIONARY SYSTEM WITH SPHERICAL SYMMETRY 929

and obtain the equation

(14b) (1 1 4 2)dz = Cndr.

z is herebydeterminedas a functionof r withinS if n is given as a functionof r.


Whentheintegrationis carriedout betweenro- A and rowe obtain

(15) z
Z-arctgz - = N = K V2 a-hmN
4irro 8r ro
whereN designatesthe numberof particlesin S. It followsfrom(1) that for
r = ro

(15a) zr0= -\V2(1 - 4cr + o2)* a = __

and from(2) that,because of a and b being constantin I, in I


(15b) Zr = \/2.
It followsfrom(6a) that
1
0< =2-\/3.
2 + x\/3
It turnsout that this is just the conditionforthe numeratorof the expression
forzroto be real. (15), foreach possible ro, gives the relationshipbetweenthe
sum of the masses of the particles,mN, and the total gravitatingmass g of the
cluster. For large values of ro, witha fixedvalue of g, one obtains in the limit
K
(16) 8K mN.

The factorK/8r is due to the fact that m is measuredin grams,4, however,in


gravitationalunits. (16) thereforesimplystates that in this limitingcase the
gravitatingmass of the clusteris equal to the sum of the particlemasses.
The most illuminatingway to expressthis resultis the following:
Outside the shell (r > ro),the gravitationalfieldis givenby

1+-
2r
Inside the shellit is givenby the same expression,with the difference,
however,
that r is to be replacedby the constantro, wherebythe inequality

ro > 2 (2 + v/3)
2
930 ALBERT EINSTEIN

mustbe satisfied. The numberN ofparticlesofthemass m whichtogetherform


theshellis givenby thefollowingconsideration:As an abbreviationwe introduce
K mN_ M -

82ro -- 2ro a2ro


Then we have
2 = [(V/2 - arctg V/2) - (zrO -arctg zro)](1 + a)2
V\8
where
Zro=-\/2 (1 -4a
+
a2).

a can assumevalues between0 and 2 - V-/3(-*27). The quantity

0*

fromzero in thiswhole region. A fewtypicalvalues


is onlyverylittledifferent
in
are given the followingtable:

.05 .042
.14 .06
.2 .055
.23 .013
.27 -0.022

This leads to a very interestingconsequence: First it is clear that (2 - cr)/cr


maybe replacedby (2 - c)/2 withgood approximationand thisby (M -,u)M.
This latter quantity is the relative decrease of energyof the cluster when it
contractsfroman infiniteradius to the radius ro. The table shows that this
contractionenergyhas a maximumnear a- = 0.15, and forgreatervalues of oa
i.e. smallervalues of ro, it decreasesagain. The physicalcause of this effectis
that, with decreasingro,the potentialenergyof the clusterdecreases,but the
kineticenergyincreases. For sufficiently small values of ro the latter effect
surpasses the former.
It is thereforeclear that the decrease of the radius with decreasingenergy
would come to an end for a value of about a = 0.15, i.e. a radius of about
6.7(,u/2ro),whilethe lowerlimitof the radius as givenby the velocityoflightis
(2 + V/3)(ji/2ro). The value of r corresponding to the minimumenergymeans
an upper limitforthe particlevelocityin the directionof the tangentof about
0.65 times the light velocity.
Radial Mass Distribution
5. QualitativeDiscussion of the Case of Arbitrary
We considerthe case of a given mass 1Aand a shell radius ro satisfyingthe
inequality (6a). When a numberN of particlesis broughtinto this shell zone,
ON STATIONARY SYSTEM WITH SPHERICAL SYMMETRY 931

as determinedby (15), then the exteriorgravitationalfieldis just completely


screenedofffromthe interiorI so that therethe fieldwill be Euclidean. This
means that the line elementin I is characterizedby constantvalues of a and b,
whereb cannot reach its lowerlimit 1/A/3.
If, however,the numberof particlesin S is chosensmallerthan accordingto
(15) thenthe fieldwill not be screenedoffentirely(,uis herebyregardedas being
keptfixed). We can thensatisfythe theoryformallyby replacingthe Euclidean
line elementin I by a Schwarzschildline elementof the form

A(1 + r) ' b B( 2r)

whereA, B, and jil are constants. iii will be smallerthan ji whichcharacterizes


the fieldoutside the shell. This interiorfieldhas a singularityof the Schwarz-
schildtype (b = 0) at r = jil/2.
This singularity,however,can be removedby introducinga second shell Si
insideS, whichhas to be constructedso that the gravitationalfieldin its interior
will be Euclidean. The whole clusterwill then consistof two shells S and Si
and will have no Schwarzschildsingularity.
Again this systemcan be modifiedby reducingthe numberof particlesin Si
so that it will not screenoffits exteriorfield(betweenS and SI) entirely;then a
thirdshell S2, of stillsmallerradius,may be constructedso that its exteriorfield
is just screenedoffentirelyfromits interior.
This method can be reiteratedup to the center of the cluster. Thus one
obtains clusterswith the most varied radial mass distributions. There will be
also various steady distributions. It is impossible, however, that b should
vanish anywhere. The radius of the clusterwill always be greaterthan the
limitingradius '.s(2 + \/3),and it willnot be possibleto concentratethe matter
ofthe clusterarbitrarily denselynearthe centerofthe cluster.
6. The Case of ContinuousParticle Density
The considerationgiven in part 5. leads toward the solution for continuous
of the particledensity. We divide the interval0 < r < ro into an
distributions
infinitenumberof equal parts dr. We imaginethat thereis constructedin the
centerof each partitiondr a shell of a two dimensionalcharacterof the type
discussedin part 4. The shells may be chosenso that theyare equivalent to a
continuousdistributionof mass. Between any two subsequent shells we shall
have a gravitationalfieldofthe Schwarzschildtype

(17) ds2 = -A(1 + (d + dx + dx) + B( dt22

whereA, B, and r are constantswhichdifferonly infinitesimally fortwo neigh-


boringregions. Then the sum total of all thesepartial solutionsconstitutesthe
932 ALBERT EINSTEIN

gravitationalfieldinside the cluster. Our task is to determineA, B, and r as


functionsof r.
We considertwo neighboringSchwarzschildsolutions which belong to the
radiusintervalsr - 2 dr to r + 2 dr and r + 2 drto r + 3dr. In the firstregion
the values ofA, B, and r belongto the value r of the radius,in the second to the
value r + dr. If we use the quantitiesintroducedby (2) then the two local
solutionsare given by
a(r; A, r), a(r; A + dA, r + dr),
and
b(r; B, r), b(r; B + dB, r + dr),
wherea, b are functionsofr in accordancewith(17). These two solutionsare to
assume the same values fora and b in the pointr + 2 drbecause thesequantities
mustnot changewhenwe pass througha shelloccupiedby particles. It follows,
up to quantitiesof the firstorder
El
dA + aadr
- = 0,
aA
ab
+ -r
dB+abdr 0
EldB
or,in accordancewith(17)

0 A +r 1+ ad
(18)
( dB 4 rda + adr =0
B r ( + a)(1 -a)
wherea is writtenforr/2r.
These equationsdetermineA, B as functionsofr when r or a is givenas func-
tion of r. It turnsout that a, i3,computedfromthe solutionsA, B of (18), are
the solutionsof (13), representedwith the help of the "parameter"functiona.
r is arbitrarywithincertainlimitsbecause it is closelyconnectedwiththe mass
distribution. On the otherhand, A, B, and r have to satisfythe conditionthat
(17) makes possiblecircularparticlepaths forall values of r, i.e. a and b have to
satisfythe inequality (6). In connectionwith (17) we obtain the inequality
B' -_4 a'
(19) 1- '1 2 _ >
- -
+ + 41+a
(18) and (19) togethercompletelydeterminethe problemwithinthe cluster;
that,togetherwiththe values ofA and
a is arbitrarysave forthe onlyrestriction
B, calculated from(18), it has to satisfy(19).
ON STATIONARY SYSTEM WITH SPHERICAL SYMMETRY 933

For r ? rowe have, of course,A = B = 1, with r = const. = .


By using (18) we may write(19) thus:
4 a
1_(1 + a) ( - a) > 0
1- l+ )(l)>
2-4+O 1+a
or,withsome transformations:

(19a) -2 + /3)( -2- V/3) > 0.


(1 -

This inequalityhas to hold withinas well as outside the cluster. For infinite
values of r, a vanishes. Furthera has to be positive,as negative masses are
excluded. Because of the denominator,uf can nowhere be greater than 1.
Thereforethe numeratorof the lefthand side has to be positive. As the second
factorofthe numeratoris always negativethefirstfactorhas to be negative,too.
We thereforeobtain
(19b) o-< 2-\/3.
This is a generalizationof (6a) as (6a) was only proven to hold forthe outside
boundaryofthe cluster.
r representsthe mass enclosed by the sphericalsurfaceof the radius r. In
orderthat negativemasses should be ruled out it is necessarythat everywhere

(20) dr > 0.
dr=
It is furthernecessarythat r vanishes for r = 0. Save for this condition r
may be chosen arbitrarilyif only u-satisfies(19b). When r and thereforeu-is
given then the problemof determiningthe gravitationalfieldof the form(17)
is reducedto the carryingout of two integrations,accordingto (18).
The equations (18) give us the integrationof (13) witharbitrarymass density
distribution,wherethe latteris expressedby r or u. (14) gives the correspond-
ign particledensityn. We shall expressn in termsof u. We have

(21) 0 Qr1 + a) r2(1 + 0)2 a+ KmnaV , 0-2

togetherwith the relations

(22) a = A(t + a)4 A' 44ru' +o

Therefore,when u-is given as a functionof r we obtain n by carryingout one


integration only.
a is positive and stays below the limit 2 - \/3. The square root of the
denominatorof the thirdtermin (21) thereforeis always positive. We further
934 ALBERT EINSTEIN

have r/2rwhere r is the gravitatingmass containedin a sphereof the radius r.


r thereforeincreases monotonicallywith increasingr. If the mass densityis
to be finitein the regionaround r = 0 then r has to decrease in that regionat
least as fast as r3 and a at least as fast as r2. Under these conditionsthe two
firsttermsin (21) will be finiteeverywhere,and also A'IA, A, and a. (21)
thereforegives us a finitevalue forn. It is furtherpossible to prove fromthe
propertiesof r that the sum of the two firsttermsin (21) is negativeeverywhere.
From all theseconsiderationsit can be followedthat a and b are finiteand not
zero in the whole space.
By combining(2), (4), (17), and (18) one can show that the ratio V between
the particle velocity and between the light velocity pointinginto the same
direction,is givenby

(23) V2 = :3- 2= )
a' (1 _ o-)2

When u staysbelow a givenlimitV willstay below a certainlimit,too.

7. A Special Case of ContinuousMass Distribution


It is of some interestto investigatethe case where u inside the clusteris a
constant 00. Strictlyspeaking this case falls outside of our conditionsas a
oughtto decrease towardthe point r = 0 at least as fast as r2in orderthat the
densityin the neighborhoodof the centershould stay finite. We can satisfy
thisconditionby choosingu forinstance
(24) 0_= _o(1- ecT2)

wherec is to be an arbitraryconstant. We then considerfromthe start the


limitingcase of c = oc. This special case is discussed here in orderto supple-
ment the discussionsof part 4. There the whole mass was distributedas far
outside (withinthe total radius ro) as possible,whileherewe have a strongcon-
centrationof mass towardthe centerof the cluster.
As r is the gravitatingmass enclosed by a sphericalsurfaceof the radius r,
dr/(47rr2dr) is the mean density of the gravitatingmass in the point r. As
2.
r = 2uo-r we obtain forthismean densitymo/27rr , i.e. a radial decreaseofthe den-
sity like 1/r2up to the clusterboundaryr = ro.
From (18), in accordance with (24) (in the limitingcase of vanishingexpo

t
nential term), we obtain

dA 4ao dr
|A 1 + ao r'
(18a)
dB_ 4o-o dr
B 1 -_ r
ON STATIONARY SYSTEM WITH SPHERICAL SYMMETRY 935

and sinceforr = ro, A and B have to assume the value 1

A 0
(18b) B
(=\-4Il+)

For r = 0 we obtain a = oo and b = 0. This type of singularity,however,is


not to be taken seriouslybecause it would be avoided if we had taken into con-
siderationtheexponentialtermin (24). It is to be notedthat througha suitable
choice of the mass distributionthis singularitycan be approximated,but not
reached.
We make use of (21) in orderto determinethe relationexistingbetweenthe
sum of the restmasses of the particlesM

M= nm47rfr2dr,
Kml

and the total gravitatingmass of the cluster4u. It can be shown that the first
termof (21) gives only a vanishingcontributionforinfinitely great values of c.
This followsfromthefactthat 1+ wheretheinfluence
) vanisheseverywhere
of the exponentialterm of (24) has become unnoticeable. We compute the
contributionof the second termin (21) by omittingthe exponentialtermfrom
thestartand obtain,aftera shortcalculation,as thefinalresult,withy = 2rooo

(25) M = ,A(1-4co- + 1+U


(l O 2.

This equation whencomparedwiththe relation


(26) j = 2ioro

allows an easy discussionof the essentialpropertiesof clustersof thistype.


Firstit is easy to see that we have extremelysimplerelationswhenwe change
M but keep fixeduo (O < uo < 2 - \/3) and therebythe tangentialvelocityof
the particlesas measuredin lightvelocityunits. When M is multipliedby z
the gravitatingmass will be zu and the diameterof the cluster will be z*2r.
The mean densitywill be multipliedby 1/z2.
to keep
In orderto obtain a surveyof all possibilitiesit is thereforesufficient
fixedthe numberof constituting particlesand therebyM and to vary so together
withthe diameter2roand the gravitatingmass A. We obtain forM = 1
2
(1 - o) + ao
1+ aO
936 ALBERT EINSTEIN

The followingtable gives, and 2roforM = 1 as functionsof 0o (approximately):


0o' 2ro
0. 1. 00
.05 .988 19.76
.1 .948 9.48
.15 .97 6.56
.2 1.13 5.65
.23 1.32 5.63
.25 1.82 7.40
.26 2.63 10.1
.268 00 0c
When the clusteris contractedfroman infinitediameterits mass decreases at
the most about 5%. This minimalmass will be reachedwhen the diameter2ro
is about 9. The diametercan be further reduceddown to about 5.6, but onlyby
adding enormousamountsof energy. It is not possible to compressthe cluster
any more while preservingthe chosen mass distribution. A furtheraddition
of energyenlargesthe diameteragain. In this way the energycontent,i.e. the
gravitatingmass of the cluster,can be increasedarbitrarilywithoutdestroying
the cluster. To each possible diameterthere belong two clusters (when the
numberof particlesis given) whichdiffer withrespectto the particlevelocity.
Of course,theseparadoxicalresultsare not representedby anythingin physi-
cal nature. Only that branchbelongingto smallerco values containsthe cases
bearingsome resemblanceto real stars,and thisbranchonlyfordiametervalues
between cc and 9M.
The case ofthe clusterofthe shelltype,discussedearlierin thispaper,behaves
quite similarlyto this one, despite the differentmass distribution. The shell
type cluster,however,does not contain a case with infinite1,ugiven a finiteM.

The essentialresultof thisinvestigationis a clear understandingas to whythe


"Schwarzschildsingularities"do not exist in physical reality. Although the
theorygivenheretreatsonly clusterswhose particlesmove along circularpaths
it does not seem to be subject to reasonabledoubt that mote generalcases will
have analogous results. The "Schwarzschildsingularity"does not appear for
the reason that mattercannot be concentratedarbitrarily. And this is due to
the fact that otherwisethe constitutingparticles would reach the velocity of
light.
This investigationarose out ofdiscussionsthe authorconductedwithProfessor
H. P. Robertsonand with Drs. V. Bargmannand P. Bergmannon the mathe-
maticaland physicalsignificance ofthe Schwarzschildsingularity. The problem
quite naturallyleads to the question,answeredby this paper in the negative,
as to whetherphysicalmodelsare capable ofexhibitingsuch a singularity.
THE INSTITUTE FOR ADVANCED STUDY

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