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merical validation examples have been provided in 6,7,10,12, The spatial position vector r of any point in the undeformed
the present extensive and rigorous validation is required to dem- beam structure can be written as
onstrate conclusively its versatility and accuracy. This paper then
should increase the readers confidence in results obtained from r x 1 ,x 2 ,x 3 r x 1 x b (1)
VABS. where r is the position vector of the points of the reference line.
To accomplish the above, the present work specializes the Note for a prismatic beam, the beam axis in the undeformed state
VABS general formulation for the analysis of isotropic, prismatic is straight. Finally, r b1 and means the partial derivative
beams. Starting with the governing differential equations and as- with respect to x 1 .
sociated boundary conditions of elasticity theory, we set out to After deformation, the particle that had position vector r in the
prove a that the results from the classical model of VABS are the undeformed state now has the position vector R in the deformed
same as the superposition of elasticity solutions of extension, state. Another orthonormal triad Bi is introduced to express the
Saint-Venant torsion, and pure bending in two orthogonal direc- deformed configuration, and the Bi unit vectors are not necessarily
tions; and b that the results from the Timoshenko-like model of tangent to the deformed beam coordinates. However, for the con-
VABS are the same as the superposition of the elasticity solutions venience of applying VAM, we choose Bi to coincide with bi in
of extension, Saint-Venant torsion, and both bending and trans- the case of zero deformation, B1 to be tangent to the deformed
verse shear in two orthogonal directions. beam reference axis, and B determined by a rotation about B1 .
Then Bi can be related to bi by a rotation tensor which is called
Three-Dimensional Formulation the global rotation tensor, 13, such that
As sketched in Fig. 1, a beam can be represented by a reference CBb Bi bi . (2)
line r measured by x 1 , and a typical cross section s with h as its bB
characteristic dimension and described by cross-sectional Carte- C is the inverse rotation to bring Bi back to bi which means
sian coordinates x . Note that here and throughout the paper, CBb "CbB I (3)
Greek indices assume values 2 and 3 while Latin indices assume
1, 2, and 3. Repeated indices are summed over their range except where I is the identity tensor. Please note that we do not make any
where explicitly indicated. For the convenience of comparing with restrictive assumption here by choosing B1 to be tangent to x 1 .
elasticity solutions, the locus of all cross-sectional centroids along Instead, the transverse shear deformation will be included in the
the beam is chosen as the reference line. An orthonormal triad bi warping functions introduced below and will be explicitly brought
is chosen for the purpose of resolving tensorial quantities in com- into evidence when we fit the asymptotic model into an engineer-
ponent form for actual computation. For convenience, bi is chosen ing model that can account for this type of deformation, such as a
to be tangent to x i , respectively. Timoshenko-like model.
E
1 12 11x 3 2 x 2 3 w 2,2
11x 3 2 x 2 3 w 3,3
T 1
1
11x 3 2 x 2 3 w 2,2
11x 3 2 x 2 3 w 3,3 (13)
with
S 1 I 2 x 23 I 3 x 22 (14)
w 2 w 2 x 2 11x 2 x 3 2
2
3 2 2 I 2 I 3
x 2 x 3
S
where S is the cross-sectional area and I are the principal area
moments of inertia about x . The warping functions that mini-
w 3 w 3 x 3 11x 2 x 3 3
2
2 2 2 I 2 I 3
x 2 x 3
S
.
mize the above energy are governed by the Euler-Lagrange equa- (22)
tions of this energy functional, given by Having obtained all the warping functions, the three-dimensional
strain field can be recovered by Eq. 11 up to the zeroth order as
w 1,22w 1,330 (15)
11 11x 3 2 x 2 3
2 1 w 2,22 12 w 2,33w 3,232 3 0 (16)
2 12w 1,2x 3 1
2 1 w 3,33 12 w 3,22w 2,232 2 0 (17)
2 13w 1,3x 2 1
and the associated boundary conditions
22 11x 3 2 x 2 3
n 3 x 2 1 w 1,3 n 2 w 1,2x 3 1 0 (18) 2 230
2n 2 33 11x 3 2 x 2 3 . (23)
n 3 w 2,3w 3,2 11x 3 2 x 2 3 w 3,3 1
12
If one takes the definition of torsional rigidity from elasticity
w 2,2 0 (19) texts, which is
u 2 x 2
F1
ES
x 2x 3
EI 2 2EI 3
M 2 M 3 2 2 I 2 I 3
x 2 x 3
S
M 3 x 21
EI 3 2 G
E2
C 33C 44C 234
C 33I 23
C 34I 2 I 3
C 34I 2 I 3
C 44I 22
F1 M 3 M 2 2 2 I 2 I 3 M 2 x 21
u 3 x 3 x 2x 3 x 2 x 3 B 41C 33B 31C 34 I 3 B 31C 44B 41C 34 I 2
ES EI 3 2EI 2 S EI 2 2
(27) E B 42C 33B 32C 34 I 3 B 32C 44B 42C 34 I 2
F
which is essentially the superposition of elasticity solutions for C 33C 44C 234 B 43C 33B 33C 34 I 3 B 33C 44B 43C 34 I 2
extension, pure bending in two directions and torsion. The only B 44C 33B 34C 34 I 3 B 34C 44B 44C 34 I 2
exception to this statement is that there is a difference of a con-
(32)
stant from the elasticity solutions for u due to differences in the
way the clamped boundary condition is handled. Published elas- where the subscripted terms involving B and C are specified ele-
ticity solutions enforce the clamped condition at the beam refer- ments in those matrices. Here, one can conclude that G is deter-
ence line. In our case, however, since the one-dimensional vari- mined by the coefficients associated with in the asymptotic
ables implied by the VAM solution are averages of the three-
energy, and F is determined by the coefficients associated with
dimensional displacement, the most straightforward solution in
our framework constrains the average displacement to be zero. and i . This observation is very important because it
11
Clearly, by enforcing a modified boundary condition in the one- leads to our finding a closed-form solution for the Timoshenko-
dimensional beam theory, so as to mimic the clamped condition like model for isotropic, prismatic beams. To obtain the second-
used in the elasticity solutions, the two solutions will become order energy, we perturb the warping functions as
identical; in particular, the constant terms in u 2 and u 3 will simply
drop out. w i w i V i (33)
From the above, it is clearly shown that the above classical
where V i is of the order h/l. Substituting the perturbed warping
model stores the complete three-dimensional energy of prismatic
functions back into Eq. 11, one obtains
beams due to uniform extension, uniform torsion, and pure bend-
ing in two directions obtained by elasticity theory. The linearized
11 11x 3 2 x 2 3 w 1 V
=1
three-dimensional displacement field recovered by VABS is the
same as that obtained from elasticity theory.
2 12w 1,2x 3 1 V 1,2w 2 V
=2
Timoshenko-Like Model
Elasticity theory has another set of equations to solve for the 2 13w 1,3x 2 1 V 1,3w 3 V
=3
so-called flexure problem, which involves both bending and trans-
verse shear. For this VABS provides a Timoshenko-like model. 22w 2,2V 2,2
Because a Timoshenko-like model can at most approximate the
original three-dimensional energy up to the order of 2 (h/l) 2 , a 2 23w 3,2w 2,3V 3,2V 2,3
strain energy that is asymptotically correct to the second order of
h/l is sought first 33w 3,3V 3,3 (34)
2U 1 T A 2 T B T C 2 T D (28)
where the underlined terms are of the order h/l, the double
where A, B, C, and D are matrices carrying the geometry and underlined terms are of the order h 2 /l 2 , and the rest of the terms
material information of the cross section, elements of are of the order . Substituting this perturbed strain field into the
b 11 1 2 3 c T are the generalized one-dimensional strain mea- energy functional Eq. 12 and neglecting all the terms of order
sures of Euler-Bernoulli beam theory. For isotropic prismatic higher than (h/l) 2 2 , one obtains
beams, in which the locus of cross-sectional centroids is taken as
the reference line and cross-sectional principal axes are along x , 22 0 2 1 2 2 (35)
A becomes a diagonal matrix with diagonal terms given by the
extensional stiffness ES, the torsional stiffness GJ, and bending where 0 is the energy obtained for the classical model, Eq. 25
stiffnesses EI 2 and EI 3 . A Timoshenko-like model is then created and
out of the energy, Eq. 28, as
2U tT X t 2 tT F T G (29) 1 E w 1
= 11x 3 2 x 2 3
where t are the classical strain measures but defined slightly G w 1,2x 3 1 V 1,2 w 1,3x 2 1 V 1,3
differently because of the framework of Timoshenko-like model,
and b 2 13 2 23c T transverse shear strains. The stiffness matri-
ces X, F, and G can be found by see 9 w 1,2x 3 1 w 2 w 1,3x 2 1 w 3 ]. (36)
(37)
T
0 0 0 1
Q . (31) Note these terms will not necessarily vanish unless the Saint-
0 0 1 0
Venant warping, for which we have already solved, possesses
t and are related by t Q . some kind of symmetry. Thus, the second-order energy becomes
2 S
E w 1 V 2,2 T 1
(48)
1 12 w 1 V 3,3 1
One can introduce a special function as
w 1 V 2,2
w 1 V 3,3 . (38) V 1,2 x 2 x 3 2
2
3 2 2 I 2 I 3
x 2 x 3
S
The underlined terms create difficulty to solve this problem in the ,3 1 x 22 3 f x 3
(49)
two-dimensional cross-sectional domain. However, our goal is to
find an interior solution without consideration of boundary effects 2 2 2 I 2 I 3
at the ends of the beam. Hence, integration by parts with respect V 1,3 x 2 x 3 3 x 2 x 3
2 S
to x 1 can be used, and the residual terms at the ends can be
considered as having no effect on the interior solution. This argu- ,2 1 x 23 2 g x 2
ment can be illustrated mathematically if one constrains the warp- to satisfy Eq. 47 automatically, where f (x 3 ) and g(x 2 ) are arbi-
ing V 1 in such a way that trary functions. The advantage of introducing is that Eq. 48
can be made much simpler based on the choice of f (x 3 ) and
V 1 11x 3 2 x 2 3 x 1 0 V 1 11x 3 2 x 2 3 x 1 L . g(x 2 ). Using Eq. 49, the boundary condition, Eq. 48 becomes
(39)
The effect of such a constraint will die out after a small distance f x 3 1 x 22 3 n 2 g x 2 1 x 23 2 n 3
s
from the ends according to the Saint-Venant principle. Then, the
(50)
Euler-Lagrange equations for the functional 2 are
where s is the contour coordinate along the cross-sectional bound-
x 3 2 x 2 3 0
V 1,22V 1,332 11 (40) ary. If the arbitrary functions are chosen such that on the boundary
G V 1,2 x 2 x 3 2
2
3 2 2 I 2 I 3
x 2 x 3
S
2 planation had not been formulated. However, for the present prob-
lem, the transverse shear energy is completely represented by the
last two sets of terms and the first set of terms is part of the energy
G V 1,3 x 2 x 3 3
2
2 2 2 I 2 I 3
x 2 x 3
S
2
.
due to extension. If one integrates this first set of terms by parts,
this energy represented by it will be transformed into transverse
shear energy according to Eq. 32, which is at least physically
(46) inappropriate; and, in the worst case, the total transverse shear
energy will turn out to be negative. Nevertheless, if one does the
Then the corresponding Euler-Lagrange equation, Eq. 40, and integration by parts and also keeps the residual terms at the ends,
boundary condition, Eq. 43, will be modified to the fictitious transverse shear energy caused by integration by
parts will be canceled by the residual terms at the boundaries,
V 1,22V 1,332 x 2 3 x 3 2 (47) which means the final three-dimensional results will not be af-
a 3b 3 3 3
Example Cross Sections S ab J I 2 ab I 3 a b (61)
a b2 2 4 4
In this section two typical examples listed in the elasticity text
of Timoshenko and Goodier 15 are studied here using the ana-
lytical procedures formulated in previous sections. and
b 2 a 2 x 2 x 3 3b 2 a 2 3b 2 1 2 GS
. (53)
S 3 . (62)
a b2 2
2 a 4 2 5b 4 1 2 2a 2 b 2 1 2
If one chooses the f (x 3 ) and g(x 2 ) according to Eq. 51
The results are the same as those in 10, but in that work the
x 23 results are obtained by using the Ritz method and assuming a
f x 3 1 x 22 3 1 1 a 3
2
third-order polynomial which is of the exact form as shown here.
b2
This result is the same as what is in 16 which has been obtained
g x 2 1 x 23 2 1 1 x 22
a2
b 2 2 (54)
through elasticity theory. However, the result provided in 17 is
an approximation of the exact solution.
Rectangular Section. For a rectangular section of width 2a
then both Eqs. 50 and 52 will be satisfied by in x 2 -direction and height 2b in x 3 -direction see Fig. 3, the
Saint-Venant warping can be expressed in a form of infinite series
x 22 x 23 x 22 x 23 such as
m 2
2
1 x 3 n 2
1 x 2 (55)
a b a b2
x 2 x 3
with
2n1 x 2
2 1 2 sinh
b 3 32b 2
1 n
2 b 2n1 x 3
2
m
13 2 sin .
3 n0 2n1 3 2n1 a 2 b
cosh
2 1 2 b
n b 2 2 . (56)
3 2 (63)
Then one can obtain V 1 by Eq. 49 as To solve for , we should choose the arbitrary functions f (x 3 ) and
g(x 2 ) first. Along x 2 a, n 2 0, so we can choose f (x 3 )
x 3 2 x 2 3
V 1 p q (57) (1 )a 2 3 and g(x 2 ) can be arbitrary. Along x 3 b, n 3
24 3 2
24 13 2 0, we can choose g(x 2 )(1 )b 2 2 and f (x 3 ) can be arbi-
with trary. Solving Eq. 52, one finds
(58)
q4x 22 4 2 2 12x 23 2 2 3b 2 16 4 nx3 nx2
1 n cosh sin
4 a 2
3
a a
8 2 13 4 2 2 ]. x 23
3 n1 n b 3
2
Then the energy of the order (h/l) excluding the terms that do n 3 cosh
a
not affect the final Timoshenko-like model can be computed as
mx2 mx3
2 2 4 2 2 2 1 2 5 1 2 2 2 1 m cosh sin
4 b 3 3 b b
EAb 4 12 3 2 1 b 2 x 3 3 .
3 m1 m a
m 3 cosh
2 2 2 2 1 2 5 4 1 2 3 2 b
. (59) (64)
12 13 2 1
The final Timoshenko-like model can be expressed as Then one can derive V 1 to be
4a 3 2
1 n sinh
nx3
a
cos
nx2
a The final Timoshenko-like model can be expressed as Eq. 60
with
V 1
3 n b 4 4 GS
n1
n 3 cosh S4ab J ab 3 I 2 ab 3 I 3 a 3b S
a 3 3 k
(67)
mx2 mx3
1 sinh
m
cos where can be found in elasticity textbooks such as 15 and k
4 b 3 3 b b
are the so-called shear correction factors, given by
3 m1 m a
m 3 cosh 6 2
1 18 tanh m
b k 2
5 1
4
5 m1
5
m5
1 3
x 2 a 2
6 3
5a b
6
6
x 2
x 2 x 23
2
2
3 2
6
k 3
2
4
1 18
5
tanh n 1
. (68)
1
5 5 n1 n5
1 3 5b 2 a 2 x 22 x 3
x 3 b 2 x 3 2 . Although the form of the shear correction factors are different
6 3 6 6 2
from those of Renton 16, the numerical values for different as-
(65) pect ratios are the same. The reason the two results are of different
2
Then the energy of the order (h/l) excluding the terms that do form is because in 16 the flexure problem is solved by using a
not affect the final Timoshenko-like model can be computed as double trigonometric series while here hyperbolic series are used
along with the trigonometric series which converge to a fixed
value more rapidly. Please note that although 17 is also based on
2 2 16 2 ba 5 96b 5 a 1 2 32 2 a 6 the VAM, the shear correction factors presented therein for the
rectangular section are approximations of the elasticity solution.
G 45 5
Conclusions
bn
tanh The variational asymptotic method, on which the finite-
a
n5
2 2 element-based cross-sectional analysis VABS variational
asymptotic beam sectional analysis is based, has been used to
n1
analytically solve the isotropic prismatic beam problem. The same
governing equations for Saint-Venant warping and the general
16 2 b 5 a96a 5 b 1 2 flexure problem have been shown to correspond with those of the
theory of elasticity. Identical results have been found between
45
elasticity and VAM solutions for beams with elliptical and rectan-
32 2 b 6
tanh
am
b
gular cross sections. It has been proven mathematically that for an
isotropic prismatic bar with an arbitrary cross section the classical
5
m1 m5
3 2 . (66) model of VABS is the same as the superposition of elasticity
solutions for extension, pure bending in two directions and tor-