Professional Documents
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ZINN ER
Formerly Director of Research, Diesel Engine Department
M.A.N., Augsburg/Germany
Dr. GUSTAVWINKLER
Lecturer at the University ofBath/England
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ment wilh lhe publisher.
by Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 1978.
The use 01' registered names, trademarks. eie. in this publicalion does not imply. even in the absence 01' a speciflc
statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore ffee for
general use.
able number of such engines, around 60 000 for the Chevrolet Cor-
vair alone /12.1/, were built in the USA between 1962 and 1966,
they were not a breakthrough. Apparently, acceleration was un-
satisfactory, because instead of an improvement in torque backup,
an increase in peak output from 74 to 110 kW, later to 130 kW
was preferred. As compared to aero engines, the turbocharging of
car engines poses some additional problems, while at the same
time some factors favouring the supercharging of aero engines are
lost, as mentioned already in section 11.1.
,
\
\
\
I
mL
lorry ( i engine pass. (ar ( i englne pass. (ar s i. engme
Fig. 12.2 Rotor of a turbocharger of Khnle, Kopp & Kausch Ltd. (KKK)
with radial flow turbine and compressor impeller with backward
swept blades
2
Fig. 12.3 Corrparison of 3,0
compressor rnaps of impellers I
2,8
I
with radial (solid lines)
0 I
and backward swept blades I
2,6 '"e I
(dashed lines). KKK type 26 ~ /---
Pl
P, '"
VI
VI I
2,4 ~
c- I
I
E I
E
2,2 I
I /
I
2,0
r--;-./
I /
I /
I /
1,8 I /
I / N Vfo7T,
1,6
r+
I I
min- '
i /
1,4
I
4' I
I
1,2 I
I
Today, practically
all of the larger automobile manufacturers are developing turbo-
charged engines, even though commercial introduction is not rushed.
Some of the models presented at the International Automobile
Exhibition 1979 in Frankfurt were put on sale in 1980 only /12.3/.
3
tion chamber which are already highly thermally loaded. The ten-
dency to knock can be reduced by retarded ignition timing, but
this reduces power and increases fuel consumption and exhaust
temperature.
1,9 1,9
bar
1,8
1,8
1,7 1,7 -
PI
1,6
t 1,6
PI
1, 5
1,5 )(
1,4 1,4
',3 1,3
1,2
, I I I I I I 1,2
20 40 60 80 100 120 oe 140
6
I
7
I
E ___ 8
charge air temperature
Fig. 12.4 Boost pressure for border- Fig. 12.5 Effect of campression ratio
line knack at optimum ignition and charge air tenperature on the
timing as a function of charge air permissible boost pressure for border-
tenperature, with air-fuel equiva- line knack. From /12.4/ Fig. 3
lence ratio and actane number as
parameters. From /12.2/ Fig. 7
4
For example, at the low speed of 2500 rer/min and an absolute
boost pressure of 1,5 bar, a compression ratio of 6 is possible
at the knock limit; with charge air cooling to 60 0 C this could be
increased to 8. Charge air cooling is also advantageous with re-
gard to power output and fuel consumption at high speeds because
of the permissible advance of ignition timing as shown in Fig.12.6.
b.TDC
30
~ 'P'
t 26
'P 1.0.
~
~
~ kW
22 220
""~ Pe
~
~
9/KW.h
340
""~ 190
~
V
Fig. 12.6 Effect of charge air temper- 300 ~
ature on the permissible ignition .,-V
advance, the pow=r output and the 280
fuel consurnption. From /12.8/ Fig. 3
60 70 80 90 100 110C
charge air temperature
5
been confirmed by many experiments. In a fresh design, it may
under certain circumstances even be advantageous to increase the
charge air cooler at the expense of the engine radiator, provided
that the cooling effect is sufficient under all operating condi-
tions. This is possible for example by means of a temperature-con-
trolled electrically driven cooling fan. The heat energy already
transferred in the charge air cooler has a beneficial effect on
the knock limit and the thermal loading, and thereby on the power
output and the engine reliability.
There are four different methods available for eooling the charge
air:
1. Charge air-water cooler in the cooling water eircuit of the
engine
2. Charge air-water cooler with aseparate eooling water circuit
3. Charge air-air cooler in front of or adjacent to the engine
radiator
4. Charge air-air cooler with separate fan powered by a boost-
driven air turbine (Fig. 12.7).
2 3 4 5
I- -
I
I
Fig. 12.7 Air-cooled charge air 8
cooler by Garret (method 4) . I
1 Exhaust manifold
2 Exhaust turbocharger
3 Compressed air duct
I
4 Cooling fan
5 Flow of charge air
~
6 Flow of cooling air I
7 Charge air cooler
8 Intake manifold
6
according to 1, is also the least effective, even if the cooling
water coming from the radiator first passes through the charge
air cooler and only then through the oil cooler, if fitted, and
the engine. Investigations on a turbocharged truck engine /12.5/
have shown that method 3, is the most advantageous with regard
to cost effectiveness, followed by 4, which may have advantage of
flexibility when fitted into an already available vehicle type.
140
0/0 I
130
t
fe
\
120
/
\
Fig. 12.8 Fuel consumption at full 110
load as a function of the trapped
/
/
air-fuel ratio for an ignition retar-
ded 50 from border line knock.
100
From /12.2/ Fig. 9
0,6 0,8 1.0 1.2 1,4
Atr ----
Emission control laws in the USA and in Europe differ from each
other (they are more stringent in the USA, in particular as far
as NO is concerned). Exhaust emissions and fuel consumption cannot
7
be optimized simultaneously (see Fig. 12.9), and cars for the
American market therefore have to be equipped differently from
those in Europe. Usually, engines for the USA are built with
a tripie catalyser after the exhaust turbine and an oxygen probe,
a so-called lambda indicator in the exhaust gas stream /12.7/.
This probe controls the air-fuel ratio, keeping it to within
very narrow limits of stoichiometric, which allows emissions to
be reduced below the legal limits by means of the catalyser.
The US-versions are usually sold with a somewhat lower peak
output.
18
I
100 km
16
t 12
8
a pre-programmed map that had been determined experimentally.
Part load operation with lean mixtures is thus possible, resulting
in redueed fuel eonsumption and exhaust emissions. Sehemes of
this kind are also possible for naturally aspirated engines, but
they are partieularly suitable for supereharged engines with a
wider range of eonditions from part to full load operation.
Further improvements going in the direetion of a elosed-Ioop eon-
trol to aehieve an optimization of the eomplex interaetions in
the spark ignition engine are investigated /12.11/.
9
valves for spark ignition engines, oil cooling of the piston by
a fixed jet and, if necessary, a larger cooling water pump to in-
crease the flow are used.
90000
80000
70000
t 60000
Ne
40000
30000
10
initial speed and accelerates better. With carburetor engines,
a throttle in front of the compressor has the following advan-
tages:
- The same system as with the naturally aspirated engine
can be used
The tuning of the carburetor is easier
- The turbulence in the crnpressor homogenizes the charge
- The evaporation of the fuel reduces the charge temperature.
11
24
Fig. 12. 11 Flow scherre of air and exhaust gas of the Porsche 924 turbo
eng ine wi th throttl ing after the turbocharger. 1 air filter; 2 mixture
control; 3 induction pipe; 4 turbocharger (compressor); 5 air recirculation
valve; 6 charge air duct; 7 throttle plate; 8 intake manifold; 9 fuel
injection lines; 10 exhaust manifold; 11 turbocharger (turbine);
12 exhaust pipe; 13 exhaust rnuffler; 14 exhaust silencer; 15 waste gate;
16 boost pressure control line (waste gate); 17 ventilation; 18 boost
pressure controlline (air recirculation valve); 19 bypass air valve;
20 vacuum limiter; 21 air line to bypass air valve and vacuum limiter;
22 interconnection; 23 vacuum controlline; 24 boost pressure control
switch /12.12/
12
7
Fig. 12.12 Exhaust turbocharger by KKK, type K 26, with air recirculation
valve integrated into the corrpressor casing. 1 air intake; 2 corrpressor
rotor; 3 shaft; 4 turbine casing; 5 turbine rotor; 6 journal hearings;
7 air mtiet; 8 air recirculation valve /12.12/
Fig. 12.13 also introduces one to the control of the exhaust tur-
bine, which is absolutely necessary for automotive engines. As
13
already mentioned, the motor car puts high demands on the torque
characteristic and the acceleration of the engine, as weil as on
the speed and mass flow range of the compressor. The fundamental
problems posed by the exhaust turbocharing with regard to accele-
ration and torque characteristic, and methods to meet these re-
quirements were already discussed in sections 8.2, 8.3 and 8.4.
All motor car engines offered for sale at the moment use exhaust
bypass control; it appears that small turbochargers with variable
geometry are either unreliable or too expensive. With bypass con-
trol the turbocharger is designed for a flow rate corresponding
to an average engine speed; the compressor and in particular the
turbine are much smaller than would be sensible in order to achieve
maximum power at full engine speed. A small turbine flow area is
necessary not only with regard to the torque characteristic, but
also to obtain good acceleration. The effect of the turbine flow
area on the boost pressure is considerable /12.2/.
The exhaust bypass valve, also called waste gate, can be integra-
ted into the turbocharger or it can be attached to the exhaust
14
manifold. Garrett-AiResearch have developed two different rnethods
for the control of this valve (see Fig. 12.14), one for dry air
in the compressor (for diesel engines and petrol engines with
fuel injection into the intake man[old) and the other for layouts,
in which the carburetor is located in front of the compressor
/12.13/. In the first instance, the actuator of the waste gate is
integrated into the valve and located at the turbine casing; in
the second instance, the actuator is located on the compressor
casing and seperated from the valve.
15
Fig. 12.16 Exhaust waste gate can-
trolled by the engine back pressure P3
Fig. 12.15 Section of an exhaust and additionally by the static pres-
waste gate with cooling bores, sure P1st at the compressor inlet, for
by Garrett. the Audi 200.
of better cooling in the air flow of the fan. The valve can also
be controlled by the engine back pressure instead of the boost
pressure. In this case, a longer control line becomes necessary
to allow the exhaust gas to cool down. As the rate of flow only
caused by leakage is very small, the cooling of the exhaust gas
poses no particular problems. Fig. 12.16 gives an example of a
bypass valve controlled by the back pressure, in which the con-
trolling pressure acts in the same direction as the back pressure
against the spring force. In addition, in this design for the
5-cylinder engine of the Audi 200 /12.19/, the static pressure at the
compressor inlet acts on the upper side of the diaphragm. For a
given total pressure, i.e. the ambient pressure, the static
pressure decreases with the rate of air flow so that the boost
pressure drops again with increasing engine speed as shown in
Fig. 12.17. Maximum boost is thus generated only in the region of
16
Fig. 12.17 Boost pressure charac- bo r
teristic of the Audi 200. 0,8 I'~ f-
Kurbo - Europe
\
'-..
0,4
r-- ....... 1'. turbo - USA
"
1/ 1\,....
0,2
/
V
o 2000 4000
NE -
17
12.3 Advantages of supercharging motor car engines
18
reduced friction losses of a smaller engine, particularly in the
lower output range (see Fig. 12.18). At full load, fuel con-
sumption is not always lower because of the compromise between
fuel consumption and acceleration presently made. A small turbo-
charger or a narrow inlet scroll improve acceleration, but
30
l
100km
25
t 20 n.Q. engine
f
15
10
12. 18 Road fuel consurrption of a
naturally aspirated and a turbocharged
5
engine of about equal po1r.Br at constant ! I
19
Table 12.1 Road fuel consumption of naturally aspirated
and turbocharged engines of equal output.Fram /12.2/
20
Fig. 12.19 Road fuel consumption of a 14
t 8
o
40 60 80
v
21
not on the same engine in a naturally aspirated and a super-
charged version. The lagging of the boost pressure in the turbo-
charged engine cannot be avoided altogether. The pick-up of the
boost pressure depends mainly on the turbine design, i.e. its
flow area and the inertia of the rotor. According to Hiereth
/12.2/, the lag might be acceptable if the pressure pick-up was
not delayed by more than 0.5 seconds. A comparison between the
accelerations of a naturally aspirated and a turbocharged engine
is not unfavourable for the latter (see Fig. 12.20). According
20 0
kmj h
~ --
---
V/
/.",,/"
1/
/
100 J.
- - t.c.-petrol engi ne
- - n.a. - petrol engi ne
Fig. 12.20 Acceleration of a natural-
/
50
ly aspirated and a turbocharged petrol
engine of about equal po\\er men going
through the gears. From/12.2/ Fig. 51
o 10 20 30 s 40
t
22
12.4 Examples of current design
23
Based on the air cooled flat-six engine model 911, so called
3
production racing cars model 935 with 2857 cm displacement and
441 kW output, and model 936 with 2142 cm 3 and 382 kW were deve-
loped /12.16/. Both engines have turbochargers for each bank as
shown in Fig. 12.22, with turbines triple-pulse operated under
full admission. The model 935 has air-water charge air cooling,
the model 936 an air-air cooler.
24
Fig. 12.23 Four-cy1 inder
Saab engine, rrodel
900 turbo.
the European marked without exhaust reactor; see Fig. 12.24 /12.18/.
Peak torque is 380 Nm at 2600 rev/min, falling to 340 Nm at full
speed. The exhaust manifold is shared by all six cylinders.
The KKK turbocharqer is not combined with the waste qate: for retter coolinq,
the latter is attachEd to the exhaust manifold and controlled by the
boost pressure picked up at the compressor spiral casing. The
charge air, leaving the compressor downward, passes through a
charge air cooler placed in the air flow, the throttle and the
air distributor into six resonater pipes of equal length. In order
to avoid compressor surge, an air recirculation valve is placed
in front of the throttle. Fig. 12.25 illustrates the flow scheme
of air and exhaust gas. The charge air is cooled by more than
40 0 C at the higher speeds. The operating point on the compressor
25
Fig. 12.25 Flow scheme of air and
exhaust gas of the BMW engine /12.18/:
air filter; 2 air flowrneter;
3 compressor; 4 charge air cooler;
5 throttle; 6 intake manifold;
7 exhaust manifold; 8 exhaust tur-
bine; 9 exhaust pipes; 10 waste gate;
11 controlline; 12 bypass pipe;
13 air recirculation valve;
14 air bypass
3'0 Ir===:C:::~L,
standard conditions
Po . 981 mbar
2,
T 293K
26
map is shown in Fig. 12.26 the boost pressure at 185 kW is only
0.5 bar gauge.
of the naturally aspirated engine: The crank case requires some ad-
ditional machining in order to attach the oil jets for piston
cooling, among other things. The bowl of the piston is enlarged
to reduce the compression ratio to 7:1, and the exhaust valves are
natrium-cooled. The exhaust manifold, shown in Fig. 12.28, is cast
in one piece of austenitic modular iron with an additional flange
for the waste gate, and contains separate channels for cylinders
1, 2 + 5 and 3 + 4. Thermal expansion had to be taken into ac count
27
Fig. 12.28 Exhaust manifold of the
Audi 200 /12.19/.
28
and a lower boost limit. A comparison of the two versions is given
in table 12.IV. The only passenger car engine with so-called
combined turbocharging to become known is the re-design of the
3-litre 6-cylinder BMW engine by ALPINA Burkhard Bovensiepen KG,
Buchloe. It produces the notable output of 221 kW, or nearly 100 hp
per litre /12.8, 12.20/. The arrangement of the resonator pipes and
the receiver volume can readily be seen in Fig. 12.29.
29
220 40
kW -
200
- -
bo ost pressure 0.90 bar
boost pressure 0.55 bar / -- t uned intake manifold
- - resonator
180 / --- / 30 /
-{/
/ I t 4th gear~
'/
-
ts
Y
/ V//
I V
20 -
/ /
/
V /
/
100
//
1/
I
10 ~
//
3r~~
...;.-
~
80
I Nm
500
) ~ ~
,Ir o W
.....
~
~ t
-- r----.
60
400
r- r--_ 1:
2000 3000 N 4000 min- 1 5000
40 -, E
1I
300
20 200
J ,
30
85 kW at 4200 rev/min by means of turbocharging without charge air
cooling. The small size of the turbocharger stands out in compa-
rison to the air filter.
The same engine, but with charge air cooling as a "record engine",
was used in the experimental vehicle C 111 111 in order to prove
the reliability of the engine through aseries of endurance world
records /12.22, 12.23/.
'-
Pe
60
1--
40 .,/ ~ 1--
/ ,fo' 1.00
N,m
20 L'~
/ / r-.
350
/
o
T-'
V
-. -'-
'" 300
250
t
t
V
/ ' .-/
V -- -- r- _ '- ..........,
200
V
L- i--
-.r- .......... 150
100
I J
31
mits the boost pressure ratio to 1.75, but in the record engine it
can reach a value of 3.3. Without wastegating, this pressure ratio
is obtained at a back pressure ratio P3/ P 4 = 2.7 (Fig. 12.34).
The fuel consumption of the turbocharged version is in all tests
lower than that of the naturally aspirated engine, and the same
applies to CO and HC emissions /12.21/. The slightly increased
emission of NO x could possibly be reduced below that of the natu-
rally aspirated engine, if charge air cooling were used (see section
8.6.1 and Fig. 8.27). The engine type OM 617 A-Turbo was initially
available only in the USA, but is sold everywhere from 1980 on-
wards.
3, 5
p,/p,
.".- ~
3, 0
2,5 - / ,....-- P / P l 4
V/ V
2,0
1,5 ~V
1,0 e:; ? ~ t J ; tL
900
oe
..... t)
700
,ti !-- t4
/""" t, - 500
--
V V
~ V 300
V ,
t'
--
Fig. 12.34 Pressure ratios and /
100
ternperatures at the turbocharger of ./ ,./'V
50 L .........
the OM 617A Rekord engine. -::::: t,
P2/P 1= compressor pressure ratio; o
P3/P4 = turbine: t 2 = charge air 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000min-'
temperature behind cooler /12.22/ E
32
Department of Trade (DOT) or the German Federal Ministry of Re-
search and Technology (BMFT) in order to demonstrate the technical
feasability. In addition to the publications /12.14, 12.15/ al-
ready mentioned, areport is also available by the DOT /12.24/
describing the results of tests regarding fuel consumption,
exhaust emissions, noise level, top speed, acceleration and so on,
of several prototype VW diesel engines with and without turbo-
charging that have been installed in vehicles of various sizes and
weights.
33
Table 12.V Specifications of the VW-Golf experimental car
with turbocharged diesel engine, fully enclosed,
with exhaust gas recirculation. Frorn /12.14/, Fig. 11.7
Emissions HC CO NO particles
x
US g/mile 0.11 0.8 0.9 0.25
ECE g/test 0.6 2.33 2.95 0.6
Noise level lSO-R 362 71dB(A) SAE J 958A 66dB(A) idling 59dB(A)
boost pressure
control system
34
torque of 180 Nm at 2000 rev/min is 50 % higher than that at full
speed /12.25/.
35
List of references
36
/12.15/ Kuck, H.A. et al. Emissions- und verbrauchsgnstiger
Dieselmotor fr Kompaktfahrzeuge - Zusammenfassende
Darstellung der erzielten Ergebnisse. BMFT-Vorhaben
TV 7545: Entwicklung verbrauchs- und emissionsgnsti-
ger Dieselmotoren fr Kleinwagen
/12.25/ Kunberger, K.: Two New Auto Diesels. Diesel and Gas
Turbine Progress Worldwide, June 1979, p 64/65;
see also MTZ 40 (1979) p 608
37